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Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum; Correspondent of the Institute of France WitH 218 ILLusTRATIONS LONDON ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO LTD nges "ea i . ‘ o iv _ a a . = A va ' r ia ‘| ’ sania - ra i > we ~ el = 4 e - . aes A yee : : © @ 7 a. ~ # ‘ ¢ ‘ i 7 BUTLER & TANNER, P. THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS, FROME, AND LONDON. qinsonlan Inethtug, ; ey ae ¥ - %, y PREFACE HIS volume is a corrected shorthand report of the course of lectures adapted to a juvenile audience given by me during the Christ- mas holidays 1903-4 at the Royal Institution, London. The lantern slides which I used in the lectures have been converted into process blocks. Many of these were photographs specially prepared under my direction for the lectures, and are from specimens in the Natural History Museum. My desire was, as far as possible, to illustrate what I said by photo- graphs taken from actual specimens. Some of these have come out fairly well as process- blocks. For several of the slides and figures I have to thank my friend and colleague Dr. Arthur Smith Woodward, Keeper of the Geological Department of the Museum, to whom I am greatly indebted for kind help in many ways in regard to these lectures. Ihave AV PREFACE also to thank other friends for the loan of lantern-slides and consequent process-blocks, viz.. Mr. R. lLydekker, Dr. SBather, Dr. Andrews and Mr. Pyecraft of the British Museum, and Professor Sollas of Oxford. I am also indebted to the Trustees of the British Museum for permission to use several figures of extinct animals taken from the guide-books to the Natural History Museum, published by their order, to Messrs. Macmillan & Co., and to Mr. John Murray. I trust that this volume will not be regarded as anything more ambitious than an attempt to excite in young people an interest in a most fascinating study, and that it will be understood that it does not profess to give more than a peep at the strange and won- derful history of extinct animals. EK. RAY LANKESTER. 1905. CONTENTS CHAPTER I ANIMALS WHICH HAVE LATELY BECOME EXTINCT— THE STRATA OF THE EARTH’S CRUST CHAPTER II Strata AND LAND SURFACES—TEETH AND BONES— Extinct Men—F unt ImpLEMENTS—THE Mam- MOTH ELEPHANTS AND MaAstToDON—CLASSIFI- CATION OF ANIMALS CHAPTER III Tue ANCESTRAL HisToRY OF ELEPHANTS—EXTINCT PAGE 59 HorsSES AND RHINOCEROSES—THE ARSINOITHE- © RIUM . CHAPTER IV Extinct GIRAFFES AND THE OKaAPI—THE GIANT SLOTHS oF SouTH AMERICA AND THE GIANT Kan- GAROOS OF AUSTRALIA vl 103 CONTENTS CHAPTER V PAGE THE GREAT Extinct REPTILES—DINOSAURS FROM THE OOLITES—THE PARIASAURUS AND INOSTRAN- SEVIA FROM THE TRIAS OF NortH RUSSIA AND SoutnH AFRICA—MARINE REPTILES . 190 CHAPTER VI Extinet FisHEsS—BELEMNITES — LINGULA — TRILO- BITES—SCORPIONS AND STONE LILIES : . 245 Vil! Mist OF TkLLUSTRATIONS Portrait of the Author 3 ; 5 . Frontispiece Fic. PAGE 1. A number of bones of extinct animals embedded in rock, from Pikermi near Athens ; p : B 2. Head of an Ichthyosaurus, from the Liassic rocks of Lyme Regis : : ‘ : ; 6 3. The skeleton of the Megatherium found in the alluvial sands of the Argentine Republic . : ff 4, The skeleton of a gigantic extinct rat-like animal— the Toxodon—from the Argentine Republic : 8 5. Photographs of two skulls of Rhinoceroses in the Natural History Museum ‘ : : , 10 6. Photograph of the thigh-bone of the great extinct reptile, Atlantosaurus, from the Jurassic rocks of the United States of America . : : 11 7. The Common Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) of Europe, once common in England : 6 : ; 14 8. Photograph of a mounted specimen of the Beaver 15 9. Skull of the great extinct Bull, the Bos Primigenius or the Urus, or Aurochs . : ; : 17 1X sy. 16. aie 18. 19. 20. 22. bo 1 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . Photograph of the living Quagga (Hquus quagga), . Photograph of the living Zebra (Equus birchelli) . . Photograph of two Giraffes from life . . Steller’s drawing of the Sea-cow discovered by him and called Rhytina stelleri . Photograph of a skull of Steller’s Sea-cow . The Great Auk, or Gure-fowl (Alca impennis). Photographed with its egg Egg of the Great Auk, of the natural size Reproduction of a picture of the Dodo, Pa By Roland Savery from life, in 1626 ; A nearly complete skeleton of the Dodo, put to- gether from bones collected by Mr. George Clark in a marshy pool in Mauritius The living Giant Tortoise of the Court House, Mauritius The ruins of the ancient Roman public buildings at Puzzuoli (Puteoli) near Naples : One of the three columns of the “temple” at Puzzuoli . . : . : : : . . Puzzuoli or Puteoli in the time of the Roman Empire (third century) . Puzzuoli in the ninth century . ° . Puzzuoli at the present day . - . . . Imaginary view of Spanish sailors carving an inscription on rocks at sea-level in 1600 4.D., on the Chilian coast . The same rocks as they would appear in 1900, raised 150 feet above the sea-level by an imperceptible movement of six inches a year . 3 : 4 x PAGE 26 27 29 32 39 40 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fic. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 40. Map to show the effect of elevation of the earth’s surface on the distribution of land and water in Western Europe The real test of Geology : an attempt to determine the distribution of land and water in past ages. Photograph of a slab of Bognor Rock (Lower Eocene) showing embedded marine shells Skeleton of a tapir-like animal (Paleotherium) as found embedded in calcareous rock at Montmartre, Paris Wings of a Dragon-fly preserved in the ancient limestone of the Carboniferous period or Coal- bearing rocks . Pterodactyle skeleton preserved in Lithographic limestone, showing the impression of the mem- brane of the wings A jelly-fish (similar to the recent Aurelia aurita) preserved in Lithographic limestone . Alternate layers of hard and soft rock (‘‘ strata ’’) forming the sea-cliff at Lyme Regis . Tilted strata of the Chalk at Seaford, Sussex. . Strata of the cliff at Lyme Regis . Diagram to show the effect of the bending or un- dulation of the earth’s crust . Ripple-marks preserved in ancient Triassic strata . . Bird-like footprints on a slab of Triassic rock from Connecticut, U.S.A. . Three-toed footprint (probably of Iguanodon) from the Wealden Sandstone of the Isle of Wight Slab of Triassic rock from Cheshire, showing hand- like five-fingered footprints . 2 . xl PAGE 4] 43 45 46 47 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 54 05 Fie. 41. 43. 44, 48. 49. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS A tabular view of the strata of the earth’s crust, showing the relative thickness of each ‘‘ system ”’ or group of strata, and the position in which important animal remains have been discovered. . Map of the World, showing its division into great provinces and regions characterised by the presence of different kinds of animals Photograph of the original piece (seven inches long) of a thigh bone of a gigantic bird, from the examination of which Sir Richard Owen inferred the former existence of a gigantic flightless bird in New Zealand . Photograph of Sir Richard Owen standing beside the restored skeleton of the New Zealand Moa (Dinornis maximus) . Photograph of the skeleton of Manand Horse from a group, prepared under the direction of Sir William Flower for the Natural History Museum . Photograph of the back of a skull of an Ox . ; . Photograph of the back of a Crocodile’s skull Drawing of the auditory organ or internal ear of man Photograph from a section through the bone in which the soft internal ear is lodged . Photograph from preparations of the upper and lower jaw of a Pig, to show the teeth in position. Photograph of a preparation of the teeth of the upper and lower jaw of a Pig . 2. Photograph of a preparation of the upper and lower jawbone of man Skull of the Clouded Tiger . Photograph of the skull of the Coypu Rat X11 PAGE 60 63 68 69 Tie | 73 74 75 75 78 79 80 81 82 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 55. Jaws of the Gharial, an Indian crocodile 56. Photograph of the skull and lower i of a true Crocodile ; : : 57. Enlarged representation of the lower jaw of a small mammal (Amphitherium prevostii) from the Stonesfield slate of Jurassic (Oolite) age near Oxford . ; 58. Photographs of two flint Tea of the Palzo- lithic age : ; 59. Photograph of the top of the skull or “ calvaria ”’ of the so-called Monkey-man, Pithecanthropus, discovered in Java . : 594. Photograph of a human skull of modern European race 60. Engravings on ivory and bone made by ancient men, who lived in caves in the South of France at the time when the mammoth, reindeer, bear and hyzna inhabited Europe 61. Engraving on ivory found in a cave in the South of France 62. The skeleton of the Mammoth found frozen in Siberia . 63. Skeleton of a male of the giant Irish deer (Cervus giganteus) dug up from peat in Ireland 64. An imaginary picture of the Mammoth (Elephas primigenius) as it appeared in life : : 65. Photograph from life of the Indian Elephant (Elephus maximus), incompletely grown 66. Photograph of a young specimen of \the African Elephant (Elephas africanus) from life : 67. Two tusks of Elephants photographed from speci- mens in the Natural History Museum X1il 86 88 89 91 92 93 94 96 97 98 99 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fic. 68. Skeleton of the American Mastodon (Mastodon americanus), from a drawing by the late Professor Marsh : ‘ : : 69. Skeleton of Indian Elephant (Hlephas maximus) 70. Skull of an adult Indian Elephant 71. Photographs of skulls of a Bull-dog on the left and of a Greyhound on the right to show the shortening of the bones of the face in the first . -I bo . Photograph of the skull of the American Mastodon (Mastodon americanus), from the specimen in the Natural History Museum 73. Skull of a new-born Indian Elephant 74. Section of the skull of a young Indian Elephant 75. Section of a half-grown Indian Elephant’s skull 76. Lower jaw of an Indian Elephant 76a. The last molar of the lower jaw of a Mammoth 77. Lower jaw of an adult African Elephant 78. Lower jaw of the American Mastodon 78a. Molar teeth of Mastodon arvernensis, photographed from specimens found in the Red Crag of Suffolk. 79. Photograph of the complete skeleton of Mastodon (Tetrabelodon) angustidens, from the Miocene strata of the South of France 80. Restored representation of the skull and lower jaw of Mastodon (Tetrabelodon) angustidens, from a drawing prepared by Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S. 81. The skull of Dinotherium giganteum, Kemp, from the Miocene of Eppelsheim, near, Worms, on the Rhine : : ‘ : XiV PAGE 112 113 115 116 17, 118 Fic. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. Lee LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Drawing representing the probable appearance in life of the Tetrabelodon angustidens ; A drawing of the head of Tetrabelodon angustidens with open mouth and uplifted “ trunk.’’. Drawing of the head of the African aa with uplifted trunk : A scene in the Fayum Desert, showing the remains of silicified trees, embedded in the sands Profile views of a series of Elephant ancestors, from drawings by Dr. Andrews Lower jaws of extinct Elephants, from drawings by Dr. Andrews Profile and palatine views of the skull of Meri- theritum Lyonsi, as restored by Dr. Andrews The Meritherium, discovered by Dr. Andrews . Photograph of a model of a thoroughbred English horse, by Vashtag . Hind- and fore-foot of an English cart-horse Hind-foot and fore-foot of the horse-ancestor, Hyracotherium ; The hind- and the fore-foot of Hipparion, one of the three-toed ancestors of the horse The skeleton of Hyracotherium, an ancestor of the modern horse, found in Eocene strata. Restoration of the probable appearance of the Hyracotherium : : Skeleton of the Phenacodus, a five-toed Eocene ani- mal, related to the ancestor of the Horse Cheek-teeth or molars of the upper and lower jaw, left side, of Mesohippus Bairdii, from the Middle Oligocene of South Dakota XV PAGE ie) 137 138 139 140 141 141 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fie. 98. 99. 100. 107 108. 109. 110. ot. 112. » 113. 114. Upper molar tooth of a recent Horse . The skeleton of Rhinoceros antiquitatis, the Woolly Rhinoceros of the late Pleistocene period in Europe and Siberia Photograph of a stuffed specimen of the Square- mouthed African Rhinoceros (R. simus . Skeleton of Ttanotherium (Brontops) robustum, from the Lower Miocene of Dakota . Photograph of a skull of Titanotherium . Side-view of the skull of Titanotherium . Skeleton of Dinoceras mirabile . Probable appearance in life of the Dzéinoceras mirabile of North America . Photographs of plaster casts of the brain-cavity of (4A) Dinoceras, (B) Hippopotamus, (C) Horse, and (D) Rhinoceros : : : : : Drawing of the skull of Arsinditherium Tittelli (Beadnell) c : ; : : sora A drawing showing the probable appearance in life of Arsinéditherium = : ; Drawing of the head of the Five-horned Giraffe Photograph of the skull of the Five-horned Giraffe Front teeth of the lower jaw of the Giraffe and allied animals Photograph of a restored skull of the Sivatherium Photograph of the skull of the Samotherium . Restored skeleton of the giraffe-like animal Hella- dotherium Xvi PAGE 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 152 153 156 157 159 160 161 162 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fic. “115. 116. 7. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. Photograph of the specimen of the Okapi (Okapia erichsont) obtained by Sir Harry Johnston near the Semliki river in Central Africa. Photograph of a skull of a male Okapi . Photograph of the two “ bandoliers ” cut from the striped part of the skin of an Okapi . . Photograph of a stuffed specimen of the two-toed Sloth (Cholepus ee: hanging from a branch of a tree j : . Photograph of a stuffed specimen of the Hairy Armadillo or Peludo (Dasypus villosus) . Drawing of the skeleton of the great extinct armadillo-like animal called Glyptodon . Probable appearance in life of the Giant Ground Sloth, the Megatherium giganteum . The skeleton of Mylodon robustus, one of the giant Ground Sloths of the Argentine. . View, looking outwards, from the mouth of the cavern on the fiord of the Ultima Speranza in Southern Patagonia, in which have been found the skin and hair and the bones with cartilage, blood and tendon and the dung of the Mylodon and other animals . Photograph of a piece of the skin of the Mylodon The under side of the same piece of skin as that shown in Fig. 124 Photograph of various specimens found with the remains of the Mylodon in the Ultima Speranza cave Photograph of remains of Mylodon from the cave of the Ultima Speranza . Photograph of a “ barrel-full of bones ”’ obtained by prospectors from the cave of Ultima Speranza XVil b PAGE. 163 164 165 168 169 170 gilt 173 174 175 178 179 Fic. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Photograph having the same history as that shown in Fig. 128 Photograph of three pellets of the dung of the Mylodon from the cave of Ultima Speranza Photographs of the leg-bone (tibia) of Mylodon, from the cave of Ultima Speranza Drawing of the skull of the Giant Australian Marsupial, Diprotodon The restoration of the skeleton of Diprotodon, as drawn by the late Sir Richard Owen Photograph of the morass or lake in South Australia in which the remains of several specimens of Diprotodon have been recently discovered View of the upper surface of the right hind-foot of Diprotodon, as discovered by Professor Stirling of Adelaide, South Australia Lower jaws of the ancient Mammals, Dromatherium (upper—Triassic), and Dryolestes (lower—Juras- sic) Photograph of a cast taken from life of the New Zealand lizard Tua-tara, known as Sphenodon punctatus Phrynosoma orbiculare (Mexican Horned Lizard, or Horned Toad) Chlamydosaurus kengi, from Queensland, Australia Zonurus giganteus (Great Girdled Lizard) Drawing of the skeleton of Iguanodon bernissar- tensis Probable appearance of the Iguanodon in its living condition Two teeth of Iguanodon mantelli . XvVill PAGE 180 181 182 185 186 188 189 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 Fie. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 156. 157. 158. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS A portion of the upper jaw of the recent lizard Iguana . ; ‘ . Photograph of the skull of an Iguanodon . Drawing of the skeleton of a carnivorous Dinosaur, the Megalosaurus Drawing of a completely restored skeleton of the Brontosaurus Probable appearance of the Ceteosaurus (and of the closely similar Diplodochus and Brontosaurus) in life Drawing of the appearance in life of the three- horned Dinosaur, Triceratops . . Probable appearance in life of the Jurassic Dinosaur, Stegosaurus . Photograph of the skeleton of Parisaurus . . Probable appearance in life of the Theromorph Reptile, Dimetrodon . View of one of the dark patches in the cliffs of the river Dwina . One of the nodules showing the form of the em- bedded skeleton . Peasants working on the face of the cliff near Archangel and removing nodules containing the skeletons of great reptiles . Professor Amalitzki’s workshop in Warsaw . A series of skeletons of Parisaurus removed bit. by bit from Archangel nodules and mounted as de- tached specimens by Professor Amalitzki Photograph of a skeleton of Pariasaurus, removed from an enveloping nodule and mounted by Professor Amalitzki : : X1X PAGE 200 202 203 174. LIST: OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAG! . Photograph by Professor Amalitzki on a larger scale of a skull of a Pariasaurus from an Archangel nodule . Skeleton of a huge carnivorous beast of prey, the reptile named Inostransevia . Skull of the gigantic Theromorph Carnivorous Reptile, Inostransevia . Photograph of another skull of Inostransevia . Photograph of a skeleton of a Plesiosaurus . . Plesiosaurus as it probably appeared when alive . Photograph of a skeleton of the rere: nee Ichthyosaurus . Drawing to show the probable appearance of an Ichthyosaurus swimming heneath the surface of the sea . . Photograph of the upper surface of the skull of an Ichthyosaurus . Side view of the skeleton of an Ichthyosaurus . Photograph of a restoration of the skeleton of the great Pterodactyle (Pteranodon longiceps) . The great Pterodactyle Pteranodon as it appeared - in flight . . Photographs of three wings for comparison of their structure . Probable appearance in life of two kinds of Jurassic Pterodactyles (Dimorphodon and Rhampho- rhynchus) ‘ : : : ; : . Restored skeleton of the toothed Bird Ichthyornis The Berlin specimen of the Archeopteryx litho- graphica XxX 219 Fre. rhe 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Photographs to one scale of the South American Cariama and the skull of the gigantic extinct Phororachus Photographs to one scale of the Apteryx, the Ostrich and the giant Moa of New Zealand, each with its ess The hard bony scales of a Ganoid Fish Photograph of a dried skin of the Polypterus of the Nile A fossil Ganoid Fish, as discovered embedded in rock Outline drawing of the extinct Ganoid Fish Osteo- leps The Australian Lung-fish Ceratodus The extinct Devonian Fish Dipterus . Outline drawings of the extinct fish Pterichthys Photograph of a cardboard model of Pterichthys The upper figure is a restored outline of the curious Devonian fish Coccosteus ‘ Photograph from the original specimen of Cephalas- pis lyeli, preserved in the Natural History Museum Drawings of the head-shield of the fossil fish Pteraspis Photograph (of the natural size) of a specimen showing parts of the upper and lower head-shields of Pteraspis crouchii, with ten rows of lozenge- shaped scales attached Photographs of models of the Devonian Fish Drepanaspis, in the Natural History Museum Outline drawing of the Silurian fish Birkenia XXl1 PAGE 261 262 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fic. PAGE 191. Outline drawing of Lasanius F : : - 26 192. Photograph of the jaws of a large recent Shark (Carcharodonrondeletii) . ; ; : . . 264 1924. Photograph of the natural size of a tooth of the great Shark, Carcharodon megalodon 3 . 265 193. Ammonites (Aegoceras) capricornus . ‘ >. ZF 1934. Shell of the Pearly Nautilus. ; . 267 194. Divided shell of the Pearly Nautilus. : . 268 195. The shell of Ancyloceras matheronianum . . 269 196. Belemnites hastatus, from the Oxford Clay (Jurassic) 270 ~ 197. Restored drawing of the animal in which the ‘““ Belemnite ”’ is formed . ' z : . 2k 198. Loligo media, a cuttle-fish or squid now living in British seas . ‘ : : ‘ : 2Te, 199. Lingula (Lingulella) davisit, of the natural size, embedded in the slaty rock of Port Madoc, North Wales. ; ; : : : : . 2d 200. One of the most ancient Trilobites known (Cono- coryphe lyelli) : : ; : : Pare fi3. 201. Drawing of Triarthrus becki : : . 275 202. The Desert Scorpion (Buthus australis). . Bie 203. Drawing of the remains of a Scorpion (Palewophonus hunter?) : : F : : ; A at 204. Completed drawing of the Scotch Silurian Scorpion (Palwophonus huntert) , , : : sae 205. Completed drawing of the Silurian Scorpion of Gothland (Paleophonus nuncius) . : . 278 6-41 Ge ‘ bist On TLLUSTRATIONS 206. View of the anterior part of a recent Scorpion from 207. 208. 209. below View from below of the anterior part of the great Silurian Scorpion-like creature Pterygotus osilien- sis , Photograph of a restored model of Stylonurus lacoanus) Eurypterus fischeri, a marine Scorpion-like animal from the Silurian rocks of Rootzikul . Dorsal view of the King-Crab (Limulus polyphemus, Linneus), one-fourth the size of nature . . Diagram of the dorsal surface of a King-Crab . Diagram of the ventral surface of the same King- Crab 3. Dorsal view of the eighteen segments and post-anal spine or sting . Slab containing Pentacrinus hemeri . Photograph of a block of Limestone of the Car- boniferous, showing several kinds of stone-lilies or Encrinites . . Encrinus fossilis, of Blumenbach, the original “ Stone-lily.” . . The living British Encrinite, the minute young of the Feather Star-fish (Comatula or Antedon), . Drawing by Mr. Berjeau from an actual specimen of the Feather Star-fish (Comatula or Antedon TOSACEQ) . XXill PAGE CHAPTER I ANIMALS WHICH HAVE LATELY BECOME EX- TEN CTS TEE STRATA OF THE EARTH'S CRUST XTINCT animals are animals which no longer exist in a living state. Of course a vast number of individual animals, and men too, become extinguished, or extinct, in the course of every year, every month and every day. But the extinct animals of which I wish to speak in these lectures are extinct kinds of animals, kinds of animals which no longer exist on the surface of the globe in a living state, although once they flourished and held their own. We know of some of them by tradition. The records of men of past ages who have seen some animals, now extinct, and have written about them, and even drawn them, have by human care been passed on to the present day. We I B EXTINCT ANIMALS know of other extinct animals by finding their bones buried in the ground, some quite near the surface, others deeper in the rocks, far down in the depths of the earth. Such bones may be dug out. There is a sample of such bones Fic. 1.—A number of bones of extinct animals embedded in rock, from Pikermi near Athens. Photographed from a specimen in the Natural History Museum. found buried in the earth, photographed as our first illustration (Fig. 1). Many of these bones have been so big, so huge, that they have led to the notion of the existence of giants in former days, it not having occurred, apparently, to those who 2 GREAT AGE OF THEIR REMAINS found them, that they were the bones of extinct animals and not of a great race of men. The indications given by buried remains of a condition of the world which has passed away, as, for instance, in the great buried town of Pompeii, and some of the buried cities of Egypt, excite, when they are dug up, the greatest interest. From the records still preserved to us, we try to find out what was the meaning of the particular objects found, what were the nature and the life of the men to whom they belonged. The same kind of interest belongs to the remains of extinct animals that we dig up, only that many of them are far older than. any remains of man ever found. We speak of the remains of an ancient Egyptian city as being: some thousands of years old; but the remains: of many animals to which I shall have to refer in these lectures have to be estimated, not by thousands of years, but by millions of years ; so many years in fact that no numbers with which we are familiar will suffice to bring the facts to the minds of my readers. Far down in the depths of the earth we find the remains, in a well-preserved condition, of the bones and teeth of such animals; we are 3) EXTINCT ANIMALS able to tell what kind of animals they were, where they lived, what they fed upon, how they moved, and, in fact, their whole general appear- ance. It is urged by some educationists—I myself do not agree with them—that we should present knowledge to young people in a logical order ; and that before talking to young or uninstructed people about extinct animals you ought to ad- minister to them a complete course of instruc- tion concerning living animals; that beginners must learn the nature of the structure of living animals, and must study the geography and history of the crust of the ground in which the remains of extinct animals are found, before they can look with any intelligence on extinct animals. That is an opinion which exists. But I do not believe in such a method. The logical method of instruction or study is in my judg- ment a mistaken one. The whole art of educa- tion consists in exciting the desire to know. By showing something wonderful, mysterious, as- tonishing and marvellous, dug from the earth beneath our feet we may awaken the desire to understand and learn more about that thing. The strangeness of the bones and teeth of 4 A FASCINATING SKULL extinct animals will lead a boy or girl on to learn- ing about the bones and teeth of living animals in order to make a comparison, and thus to learn- ing more concerning the strange remains dug up. I believe that is usually the case. It certainly was the case with myself. When [I was very young, younger than, or as young as any of my readers, I used to be taken by avery kind lady, my governess, to the Natural History Museum of the day, which was then in a remote part of London called Bloomsbury, whence it has been removed to Cromwell Road, Kensington. I was absolutely fascinated as a child with the remains I saw of strange extinct animals. And it is my hope that the boys and girls who read these pages may share some of this interest and fascination, and that they will pass from these lectures to see the actual specimens which are placed on view at the Natural History Museum. These lectures are indeed little more than a sort of invitation to you all to go and see the real things at Cromwell Road, of which I can only show you photographs in this book. I will now show you a portrait of a creature which has always fascinated me with its stony stare. It is the head of an Ichthyosaurus dug 5 EXTINCT ANIMALS out of the rock in the South of England, at Lyme Regis, many years ago (Fig. 2). The eye is peculiarly well preserved. The circle of bony plates, similar to those found in the eyes of birds, give an expression of interest which few fossils can boast of. It was dug out of the rocks by a wonderful lady, Miss Anning, who at the beginning of the last century secured a Fic. 2.—Head of an Ichthyosaurus, from the Liassic rocks of Lyme Regis. Photographed from the original specimen in the Natural History Museum. The head is three feet six inches long. great number of such remains in the cliffs on the sea-shore. For many years the front part of this specimen was missing, but eventually it was found and dug out of the rocks. I shall have more to say later about creatures of this kind. Another creature which fascinated me is shown here as it is exhibited in the East court 6 THE GIANT SLOTH Fic. 3.—The skeleton of the Megatherium found in the alluvial sands of the Argentine Republic, South America. Photo- graphed from the cast in the Natural History Museum. The skeleton stands fourteen feet high. Z (umoesny, Ysytig ey} Jo sooysnay, 943 Aq Judy, st ornsy SI.) "}90F OUI ‘[rez oY} OF NOUS oY} WOIy YSUET ‘Bolo YYNOY ‘ouryUIdIy oy} WOIJ—UOpoOxoy, oy}—]VUIIUB O¥I[-JBI JOUTPXO OTUBSIS B JO UOJI[OYs 9Y[—'*f “OL OI —— ts... A LONDON RHINOCEROS of the Museum (Fig. 3). It is similar in structure and nature to the sloth. But instead of living on a tree it stood on the ground, and pulled the tree down to it, in order to feed on the young branches. The skeletons of a great many of these huge sloths have been found in the gravel of South America. Another strange great creature is revealed to us by this skeleton (Fig. 4), like a huge guinea pig with tremendous chisel-like teeth in front. It also is found in South America. This is the Toxodon. The next picture (Fig. 5) I have here shows the skulls of two rhinoceroses. The lower one is the skull of an African rhinoceros, a living beast known as the square-mouthed or white rhinoceros—called white apparently, not because he is black, but in spite of the fact that he is black. As a matter of fact he sometimes has,a number of white patches. But it suffices to know him as the square-mouthed rhinoceros. The upper specimen is the skull and lower _jaw of a rhinoceros, dug up last year in the City of London in Whitefriars, under the office of the well-known newspaper the Daily Chronicle. Digging in the mud and ‘clay there, 9 EXTINCT ANIMALS the workmen came upon this rhinoceros skull. Many such have been found in English river Fic. 5.—Photographs of two skulls of Rhinoceroses in the Natural History Museum. The upper one was dug out of the Thames clay in Whitefriars, London, and is that of the species known as Rhinoceros antiquitatis. The lower one is that of the living African square-mouthed Rhinoceros (R. stmus), which is more like the fossil one than is any other living rhinoceros. gravels, and we know accordingly that such animals used to exist on the banks of the 10 Fic. 6.—From a cast in the Natural History Museum. Photo- graph of the thigh-bone of the great extinct reptile, Atlantosaurus, from the Jurassic rocks of the United States of America. The thigh-bone is six feet in length : that of a very big elephant is barely four feet. Id EXTINCT ANIMALS Thames many thousands of years ago. That specimen also is in the Natural History Museum. Here (Fig. 6) you have a thigh bone; you can see how enormous it is from the figure of the full-grown man beside it. That is_ the thigh bone of a huge kind of reptile, bigger than the ordinary elephant, or the biggest African elephant, without counting the rep- tile’s tail. Such remains have been found in England; but the largest have been found in the United States. These are just a few samples of the remains of extinct animals, and indicate the kind of creatures I want to tell you about. Of course I cannot in these pages refer to all the many thousands of kinds of extinct animals which are known; I can only hope to show you pictures of a few samples of these things, which, how- ever, I hope will suffice to induce you to look further into the matter, to look at the real specimens, and to read more elaborate books, and thus come to feel the same interest and pleasure in examining them that I do myself. The world upon the surface of which we live has been for millions of years always changing. Nothing is to-day as it was even one hundred 12 INCESSANT CHANGES years ago. A thousand years brings about enormous changes, quite a different state of things in fact. There are now cities where forests were growing. Animals which existed a thousand years ago have altogether gone. And this history of change has been going on, not merely for a thousand years, but for hundreds and thousands and millions of years. The changes have been incessant, and have been very great. The difficulty in this study of extinct animals and in the geology connected with it is to think of long enough lapses of time. If you look at that clock you cannot see the hand moving, and yet it is moving. And thus even in a human lifetime you will hardly notice any difference in the rivers and the sea-shore and the cliffs. But if you range over a long enough time, say a thousand years or several thousands of years, and compare the condition which existed a thousand years ago with what exists to-day you will be able to observe great change. The difficulty is to realize this change, for it comes about too slowly for our short lives to give us any real definite experience of it, just as we fail to see the hands of the clock moving when 13 EXTINCT ANIMALS we glance at them for a second. Throughout these lectures I want you always to bear that in mind, We know of animals even now which are becoming extinct. In this country we have Fic. 7.—The Common Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) of Europe, once common in England, but now extinct there. historical records of animals that have become extinct. I will show you one which used to exist in this country. This creature, the grey wolf (Fig. 7), existed 14 THE BEAVER ‘umosnyy, A1OjstF] [BANZEN 9Y} ULOIF “IOABOG_ 9Y} JO UNWTID0ds poyuNnoUL vB jo YdeasojoYyg—'s “DIT EXTINCT ANIMALS in England till the time of Henry VIII., at the end of the fifteenth century, and 150 years later in Scotland and Ireland. But it was entirely exterminated by human _ beings, on account of its rapacious and dangerous habits. Though it is extinct in England, it still exists in France, Spain, Germany and Russia. Here is another animal (Fig. 8), the beaver, which used to exist in England, and was found as late as the sixteenth century in Wales. It still exists in France, on the banks of the streams at the mouth of the river Rhone ; also in Russia and Scandinavia. In America, in Canada, beavers are still more abundant. Another creature which, records tell us, existed all over Europe, and which has ceased to exist, is the great bull or Urus of Julius Caesar (Fig. 9). He mentions it as existing wild in different parts of Europe, and says it was nearly as big as an elephant. Well, no such great wild ox now exists in Europe. The last was killed near Warsaw in 1627. All we have now are the breeds derived partly from this, partly from other kinds of bulls, which, are quite changed in their general appear- ance. Some of the more or less wild cattle 16 THE GREAT BULL OF CASAR in different parts of England, for instance those on Lord Tanqueray’s and the Duke of Hamil- ton’s estates, are supposed by some persons to be the remains of this race of wild oxen. But this is probably a mistake. They are really Fic. 9.—Skull of the great extinct Bull, the Bos primigenius, or the Urus, or Aurochs. The measurement from one horn- tip to the other taken round the curves, was in some cases eight feet. The Urus stood in rare instances as much as seven feet at the shoulder; a fair-sized Elephant stands nine feet. the remains of cattle introduced by the Romans, and have run wild. They are not the Urus of Julius Caesar, which was a good deal bigger than the largest domesticated cattle, even bigger than the white oxen of Umbria. This (Fig. 10) is another animal which has Wy) C EXTINCT ANIMALS become extinct. But it is not a zebra, as no doubt some of you thought it must be. This is the quagga, which differs from the zebra in being striped in front only. The quagga lived } a 4 Fic. 10.—Photograph of the living Quagga (Equus quagga) in the gardens of the Zoological Society in 1875, now extinct. in South Africa, and was quite common there until forty years ago. This photograph was taken from a specimen which lived in the 18 THE ZEBRA Zoological Gardens some twenty-five years ago. Fic. 11.—Photograph of a living Zebra (Equus burchelli). Its stuffed skin is preserved in the Natural History Museum. This creature has now en- 19 EXTINCT ANIMALS tirely ceased to exist, owing to the fact that the country over which it ranged has been taken up and cultivated by white men. There are no more living quaggas anywhere. This animal has become extinguished in our own lifetime. Zebras (Fig. 11), however, are still common enough in Africa, with their beautiful stripings on the head, and on the fore as well as on the hind regions of the body and legs. Here is an animal which, it is feared, is becoming extinct—the giraffe (Fig. 12). In South Africa it has become extinct already. But sportsmen now seek it in Equatorial Africa. It is still existing in great numbers in that region, and we hope now will be properly protected by Government. Two new and well-mounted specimens have recently been put in the Natural History Museum. The neck of the giraffe is often represented as growing up from the body with a graceful curve, as is seen in the neck of the swan. But the true position of the neck is as you see here (Fig. 12). The specimens in the Natural History Museum shows this properly. This is a picture (Fig. 13) of a curious creature, an animal known as the sea-cow, found in the Aleutian Islands, between North America and — 20 a THE GIRAFFE Asia. It was discovered by the _ traveller- Fic. 12.—Photograph of two giraffes from life, showing the natural carriage of the head and neck. naturalist Steller in the eighteenth century. It was no sooner found than sailors went to the 20 EXTINCT ANIMALS islands where it existed, knocked it on the head and ate it, and in about ten years it ceased to Fic. 13.—Steller’s drawing of the Sea-cow discovered by him, and called Rhytina Stelleri. The animal was twenty feet long. exist. This picture is from Steller’s drawing. It is an enormous creature, some twenty feet At Fic. 14.—Photograph of a skull of Steller’s Sea-cow, from a specimen in the Natural History Museum. long, and in shape something like a seal. But it is not in reality a seal or a whale, but belongs 22 THE GREAT AUK to a peculiar group of vegetable-feeding marine animals, the Sirenians. It has a small head, flipper-like fins, no hind limbs, and a fish-like tail. Fic. 15.—The Great Auk or Gare-fowl (Alca wmpennis). Photo- graphed with its egg, from the specimens in the Natural History Museum. The skull of the same animal is shown in Fig. 14. It has no teeth, but instead bony plates. This is the picture of a celebrated animal (Fig. 15)—for you must understand that birds are animals. You will have been handed a list of the groups of animals (see the end of this chapter). 2 ise) EXTINCT ANIMALS T shall not have space to explain it at any length, but it gives the division of animals into groups and their relation one to another. It shows how they are classified, so that I need not refer to the classification again. This picture (Fig. 15) is the portrait of an interesting bird, the Great Auk. It is only about 23 feet high. It is like the penguin in appearance, but it is really related to the puffin and albatross. Fig. 154 shews the egg, which from time to time in the newspapers, we read of as being sold to enthusiastic egg- collectors for as much as £300. Nearly a hundred specimens of the egg of this bird are known, for it only became absolutely extinct some sixty years ago. It used to be found on the rocky islands off the North of Scotland, Shetland, Iceland and Greenland. But it has now absolutely ceased to exist. It is. very difficult to say why it died out, for it had not been hunted down. Since it has become extinct we have been able to get to know about it by finding its skeleton buried in sand and guano in certain places on the coast of Newfoundland. Here (Fig. 16) is another creature, the dodo, a bird which, like Steller’s sea-cow, became 24 AUK OF THE GREAT EGG ‘uinesnyy AroqstfT yengen ey} Ul usuttoads ev uroay poydeasoyoy, a ‘OZIS [BINZRU OY JO “YNV 4eaIH 9} JO SSyY—'veT “OTT ite) Q EXTINCT ANIMALS extinct almost as soon as it became known. It was found in the island of Mauritius by the earlier explorers, first the Portuguese and then the Dutch. The bird was incapable of flying, Fic. 16.—Reproduction of a picture of the Dodo, painted by Roland Savery from life, in 1626. The bird was about three feet long from beak to tail. as it was too fat for its little wings to lift it from the ground. It was knocked on the head by the sailors and worried by the pigs they intro- duced, and was soon exterminated. About the beginning of the seventeenth century, between 26 THE DODO 1610 and 1620, specimens were brought alive to Europe and were exhibited as a show. We once possessed at Oxford a stuffed specimen, secured by that ingenious and worthy gentleman Fie. 17.—A nearly complete skeleton of the Dodo, put together from bones collected by Mr. George Clark in a marshy pool in Mauritius. In front is seen the dried foot of a specimen which was brought alive to Europe about the year 1600. The foot and the skeleton are in the Natural History Museum. Mr. Elias Ashmole, who gave his collections to the university 250 years ago. But as it became mouldy and eaten by insects, it was ordered, a hundred years ago, by the Vice-Chancellor and 27 EXTINCT ANIMALS Proctors of the University of Oxford, that the specimen of the dodo should be destroyed. They do not like mouldy things at Oxford. But the curator cut off the head and one foot, and kept them. This head and foot, together with another foot in London, anda skull in Copenhagen, are about all we have left of dodos seen in the living state by Europeans. But since the dodo be-— came extinct, by digging in the mud of a lake in Mauritius skeletons and bones of it have been found (Fig. 17). This (Fig. 18) is another interesting creature, whose kind is on the way to extinction. It is probably the oldest living terrestrial animal. It was brought from the Seychelles, where its kind is rapidly becoming extinct. In different oceanic islands such tortoises have been found of large size. This specimen was brought in 1764 to the island of Mauritius, and is still alive there. Thus it has been 140 years in captivity in the Court House Garden, in the Mauritius; and how old it was when brought there it is impossible to say. A question of great interest is—‘‘ What makes animals become extinct ?”’ It is obvious in many cases that another animal, Man, inter- 28 WHY DO ANIMALS BECOME EXTINCT ? feres. He either kills and eats animals, or takes their food from them, or occupies their ground, or cuts down the forests in which they live, and so on. But before man appeared on the scene there were changes going on, and different SE bth: ; “xe ee e ee = : : Bek pi 2 SSNs pela Semen es Fie. 18.—The living Giant Tortoise of the Court House, Mauritius, more than 150 years old. kinds of animals succeeded one another. We know this by finding the remains of different animals at different depths in the crust of the earth, in the different strata which have suc- ceeded one another. The cause of these changes, the cause of the extinction of animals, 29 EXTINCT ANIMALS is a very elaborate and difficult question, and one which I do not propose to deal with at any length. It is connected, of course, with the whole doctrine of the origin of the different kinds of animals. We all recognize now that there has been a gradual development of the different forms of animals by natural birth, from ancestral forms more or less like themselves. But the more remote we get from the present day, in the line of descent, the less like are the ancestors to the present form. The original parental forms have given rise to very different branches of descent. The descendants of one ancestral form have branched out in different directions: just in the same way as some person named Smith at the time of the Con- queror has given rise to all sorts of Smiths. Some of them perhaps are still actually metal- workers, others have become Ministers of State and Right Honourable judges; others have ereat possessions ; but they can all be traced back to the one original Smith. So many living animals of various appearance and form can be traced back to one ancient ancestral form, and these again to other more primitive ancestral forms. 30 CHANGES OF LAND AND WATER The reason why the ancestral forms died out is really connected with the general change in the surface of the earth. New forms have gradually taken the place of the old forms—for no piece of land remains the same for many years. A thousand years, as I have said, in this matter is merely nothing, but even in a thousand years we get great changes in the surface of the land. Land may rise far above the sea, and what was an island become part of a continent. And what was part of a continent may partly sink, and become an island—that is, the connexion between it and the continent may become covered with water; and then the conditions of life for the animals are very much changed. Such currents as the Gulf Stream are affected by this alteration in land and water. Were certain changes to take place, the warm water of the Gulf Stream would no longer warm certain land; the climate would become colder than the animals have been accustomed to. The animals that could not stand the cold would die out, whilst those that could stand the cold would flourish.t All I * A fish—the Tile-fish—living in the Atlantic, near the North American coast, was destroyed in this way a few 31 EXTINCT ANIMALS would say is that changes in the disposition of land and water have been a great cause in changing the forms of animals and in bringing about the extinction of one set and the flourish- ing of another set. That this rising and sink- the ancient Roman public buildings at Puzzuoli (Puteoli) near Naples. The three celebrated columns are seen on the left. ing of the surface of the land really takes place I will try now to give you evidence. Here (Fig. 19) is the photograph of the Temple at Puzzuoli, near Naples, on the shore years ago by millions. It was feared it might have become extinct, but the cold current having again changed, its numbers have increased once more. QS o- THE ROMAN REMAINS AT PUZZUOLI Fic. 20.—One of the three columns of the “temple” at Puzzuoli showing (a) the portion eaten into by boring marine clam-shells, (6) the upper part, which was not submerged, and (c) part which was probably covered up by sea-sand and mud during submersion. ioe) ise) EXTINCT ANIMALS of the Gulf of Naples. This has been celebrated for something like eighty years, ever since Mr. Babbage carefully examined and described it, and thus caused it to be largely visited by geologists. In common with most geologists, I have had the pleasure of visiting it. The three standing columns have marks of dis- coloration up to a certain height. The lower part, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 20), is full of little holes in which tiny sea creatures have burrowed holes in which there are small shells. This is so defined that it is certain these columns have stood in sea water up to that line. The evidence of that is quite complete. These columns formed part of a Temple or public palace in the great Roman town of Puteoli, which had in front of it a Roman road along by the sea-shore. Between the temple and the sea was the road. Now in Roman times that temple stood complete and very much in the same position relatively to the sea- level that it does to-day, but rather higher up. Mr. Giinther, of Oxford, examining the shore- line carefully, has found covered over by the sea the remains of the Roman road, and the remains of great blocks to which ships were 34 THE ROMAN TOWN PUTEOLI moored when they brought their wares to the town of Puteoli. JI have here made a drawing of the town and the great public palace as it must have appeared in Roman times (Fig. 21). In the distance is the island of Nicida; in the foreground we have the palace and the town, the Fic. 21.—Puzzuoli or Puteoli in the time of the Roman Empire (third century). The dock and public buildings are repre- sented. quay and harbour. Things existed thus in the days of the Roman empire, in the third century of our era. Then earthquakes occurred, the columns were broken, the city sank beneath the sea. Wehave no written history of this town. But it is known that in the Middle Ages, in the D) o di EXTINCT ANIMALS eighth or ninth century, the whole of the coast of this part of Italy had sunk many feet, and the columns were broken and standing in the sea. This is the appearance then presented by Puteoli (Fig. 22). The coast had sunk; the remains of the road were covered by sea, and also the mergence of the land and the columns of the ruined temple or palace standing up in the sea. remains of the columns up to the height marked a on the diagram (Fig. 20). The whole land must have sunk as much as torty feet, since the temple or palace stood on high ground originally. Then it was that, while they were under water in the ninth century, the columns 36 THE MODERN PUZZUOLI were bored into by sea-shells. Now some more centuries have elapsed ; the ground has risen again until we have the condition shown in the photograph (Fig. 23), which gives a general view of the same region as that drawn by the use of the imagination in Figs. 21 and 22. The Fie. 23.—Photograph of Puzzuoli at the present day showing the three columns of the so-called temple of Serapis, as now seen after the retreat of the sea due to the re-elevation of the land. land rose again from the water. But the sea left its mark on the columns, showing exactly how deeply they were merged in the intervening centuries. This is considered one of the clearest and most direct proofs of the changes which take e) a7 iS EXTINCT ANIMALS place in the level of the ground. The change need not be a continuous or a rapid one. It took some two or three centuries for that temple to sink into the water, and a few more centuries for it to come out again. Such movement is always going on. It does not occur very obviously on our own coast. It can be seen to some extent on the Devonshire coast at Plymouth. You get evidence of it in what are called raised beaches above the level of the ocean. In Norway this kind of thing is very obvious. In South America it is going on, and has been going on at an enormous rate for the last thousand years. Probably a great part of the height of the Andes has been acquired within the last few thousand years by rapid rising. When the original sailors landed on the coast of Chili in the sixteenth century or thereabouts they are said in one spot to have chiselled on the rocks an inscription. Here you see an imaginary sketch of them doing so (Fig. 24). It is said, but I cannot find any accurate record of it, that such inscriptions have been discovered now, raised high up on the cliff (see Fig. 25). We know that many kinds of sea- shells are found 200 and 300 feet up the cliffs 28 THE COAST OF CHILI in this part of the world. According to the observations that have been made, the original inscription which we see the sailors cutting in Fig. 24 would, after 300 years, be found high and dry some 150 feet up the face of the cliffs. On the coast of South America there is good Fic. 24.—Imaginary view of Spanish sailors carving an inscription on rocks at sea-level in 1600 a.p., on the Chilian coast. reason for believing that a movement upwards goes on at the rate of half a foot to a foot a year. If such a rising continued for a thousand years we should find that the original shore-line had risen 500 feet above the sea-level. Be) EXTINCT ANIMALS What, then, is the general result of such move- ment? I will show you what would be the result of elevating the shore of England (the ~ whole of this part of the world) 600 feet. From this map (Fig. 26) you will see that if the Fic. 25.—The same rocks as they would appear in 1900, raised 150 feet above the sea-level by an imperceptible movement of six inches a year. floor of the ocean were raised 600 feet, the cross-shaded area would become dry land, and we should be brought by land into contact with the neighbouring continent and islands. And if the land were raised 3,000 feet we should have a still greater extension of dry 40 Bites eas Jerbishire ’ Stanforg, iw The Jaierd waog wrseituls Fic. 26.—Map to show the effect of elevation of the earth’s surface on the distribution of land and water in Western Europe. The doubly-cross-shaded area shows what would become dry land if the sea-bottom were raised 600 feet. The Channel, the German Ocean, the Baltic and the Irish Sea, cease to exist. The smaller dotted area would become dry land if the sea-bottom rose another 2,400 feet. Men could then walk from Scotland to Iceland by way of the Shetlands and Faroe Islands. Most noticeable is the great change which would be brought about by the comparative- ly small rise of 600 feet, and the much greater elevation required to change any further the contour of the land. AI EXTINCT ANIMALS land. Even the smaller change would make Eng- land part of the Continent of Europe. The study of extinct animals found in the various strata of the earth enables one to arrive at a notion of the distribution of land and water in past time. Here is an arrange- ment of land and water which we are able to conclude must have existed in Europe in what is called the Middle Tertiary period (Fig. 27). All this darker part is the sea, and the pale part land: in fact, the distribution is quite different from what it is at the present time. The whole surface of the earth has been shifting and changing all through time. During the millions and millions of years of past ages, different seas have arisen, different continents, different dry land and different animals,—changed by the various influences of the land and climate. And all this movement is accomplished by the slow cracking and ‘‘ curl- ing” of the earth’s crust, by the continual wash- ing of the surface of the land by rain and rivers, by the eating away of the edge of the land by the waves of the sea. This “ eating away ” of the land by the sea—quite apart from any sinking of the land-level—has caused and is yearly 42 ANCIENT LANDS AND SEAS causing great loss of land on the east coast of England, especially in Suffolk, where the great city of Dunwich has been swallowed up by the sea. In other parts the sea throws up sand and Fic. 27.—The real test of Geology: anattempt to determine the distribution of land and water in past ages. The period here shown is the Oligocene or Middle Tertiary, the area is that of our present Europe. The sea is shaded, the land areas are left white. Central and Southern Europe was a sea, with a few large isiands in it. North Europe formed a continent including the British Islands and Iceland. (After Lapparent.) adds miles of new land to the coast. The immense quantity of stuff which is carried off the surface by rains and rivers is difficult at first to imagine. Taking the river Thames at Kingston, it is found that something like 500,000 43 EXTINCT ANIMALS tons of solid salts of lime in solution is carried every year past that spot. Now a cubic block of limestone measuring a yard in each dimension weighs about two tons. Accord- ingly, 250 thousand solid cubic yards of rock are carried past Kingston every year by this little river! Enough to build a new St. Paul’s Cathedral every year! Think, then, what must be the enormous quantities of solid matter dissolved and carried away by such rivers as the Mississippi and the Amazon. And remember that in addition to this dissolved lime- stone there is almost as large a bulk of fine sand and mud carried along by most rivers! What becomes of it? It is deposited in layers, and forms what we call stratified rock. You see it, some of it,on the seashore when the tide goes back, in the form of layers of sand, but most of it is deposited far out in the deep bottom of the sea—the lime being taken out of solution by shell-making plants and animals. But where the land is rising, the sand or ground which is ex- posed when the tide goes back, would after afew years have been raised away from the sea and become hard rock. Layer after layer is imposed and raised from the sea bottom. Without 44 STRATIFIED DEPOSITS going into detail we may accept as a fact that this formation of layers by _ stuff brought down from the land by rivers and washed from the coast-line by the sea waves gives rise to what are called “ stratified de- posits.” I will now show you some pictures of this stratification. Here (Fig. 28) are shells “ 36%. a 5 2 rs = os ec ae 3 ‘ < : Fie, 28.—Photograph of a slab of Bognor rock (Lower Eocene) showing embedded marine shells. embedded in the Bognor rocks deposited some thousand million years ago; there are many sorts of shells, whelk-like shells and volute shells embedded here. Whole skeletons of animals are sometimes 45 EXTINCT ANIMALS found in the stratified deposits. This one (Fig. 29) is from stratified rock which forms the hills round Paris, the calcareous rocks of Mont- martre. Next let us see what fine mud will do in Fre. 29.—Skeleton of a tapir-like animal (Paleotherium) as found embedded in calcareous rock at Montmartre, Paris, preserving the impression of delicate structures, such as the wings of insects. Here are the wings of a dragon fly (Fig. 30), preserved in very ancient stratified rock, the Carboniferous. Here (Fig. 31) are the wings of the Pterodactyle 46 FOSSILIZED WINGS Fie. 30.—Wings of a Dragon-fly preserved in the ancient lime stone of the Carboniferous period or Coal-bearing rocks. preserved in fine sandy limestone of Oolitic age. Here (Fig. 32) we have a jelly-fish preserved ; Fic. 31.—Pterodactyle skeleton preserved in Lithographic limestone, showing the impression of the membrane of the wings. 47 EXTINCT ANIMALS you see its seal stamped as it were on the sand. It is many millions of years old, from Oolitic rock. Now let us look at the layers or the strati- fication of rocks. This picture (Fig. 33) shows part of the cliff at Lyme Regis, where the Ichthyosaurus-head, which I showed you just Fie. 32.—A Jelly-fish (similar to the recent Aurelia aurita) preserved in Lithographic limestone. now, was found. We see the layers of harder and softer material lying one over the other. The next figure (Fig. 34) shows how the layers of the surface of the earth may be bent. With- out digging far into the earth you may reach a deep layer of stratification or “ stratum ” brought near the surface by the general tilting. 48 TILTING OF STRATA This (Fig. 34) is part of the chalk cliff at Sea- ford, showing the strata tilted, so that the deeper layers come to the surface. Here (Fig. 35) is part of the shore of Lyme Regis, showing the strata exposed by the action Fic. 33.—Alternate layers of hard and soft rock (“‘ strata ’’) forming the sea-cliff at Lyme Regis. Photographed by Messrs. Dollman Bros. of the sea. A long series of superimposed layers one on top of the otherisseen. They are slightly tilted, so that the deeper strata come to the surface near the observer. The tilting of the strata of the earth’s crust 49 E EXTINCT ANIMALS is the rule and not the exception. It is rare for the strata to lie in a strictly horizontal position. The crust of the earth is continually being slowly pushed up or down, and as it were “crumpled” or thrown into wave-like folds. The cause of this crumpling is to be found in Fic. 34.—Tilted strata of the chalk at Seaford, Sussex. Photo- graphed by Messrs. Dollman Bros. the shrinking of the earth and the movements of subterranean steam—causing earthquakes and other earth movements. The “crust” of the earth is a mere skin. If we bored twenty miles into it we should come to immensely hot 50 FOLDING AND CRUMPLING OF STRATA molten material, and on this the crust is sup- ported. It cannot be said to “rest” on the deeper matter, for it is always, though very, very slowly, shifting and crumpling. Con- sequently, according to the height and depth of —~ Fie. 35.—Strata of the cliff at Lyme Regis. Photographed by Messrs. Dollman Bros. the folds of the crust, we find that deeper, even very deep-lying strata may be brought to the surface, and as the upraised folds get worn away by sea and rain and rivers, the deepest layers may be exposed on the surface. Thus it is that we are able to examine the oldest rocks - 51 T ANIMALS 1 ) EXTINC and to search for the remains of the immensely- ‘sdoAB] [BJUOZLIOY OOUO oYY JO UOTZBTNpun a0 Surpusq oyy Aq oovjans oY} OF FYSNoAG ‘staXe, todoop UoAo pue ‘Gg puR g BRIS puy ATqeqoad pfhoys oM ‘uredseIp oy Jo 4runp eyy puoAoG ouUT, oULeS OYy Suole uoTRIo;dxe ano ponulyuod OM Ff “MOTA 0} 1 ‘ON UoAG Sutsodxe ,, syuoutdaeose ,, tO ., spo ,, JO uo -BULLOF at} Aq pUB ddR]INS 944 UO G ‘ON sv Coop sv ByRAYS SUISOdxo snyy ‘ABMB poysRa Uso SBY YI ByBYs poAvoydn oy} JO UOTZBNUIQUOD JOULLO, OY YeUL SoUT, pazyop A, te tet eG) ge i He ee SpuBMUMOP DAOGB ULlOAUF PoytVUL VIB BJBIFZS BATSSVD “ONS OY, “ooBfINS SYFLBI oY} UO Ao[[VA B JO UL0}J0q AO POAT OY Syawvut (fF) OUT, W 4sto S$. j1B9 oY} JO UOTZR[NpuN LO SuIpueq vy} JO Joos oY} MOYS 07 UTBISRIC]T—"9E “DIY /; | | A f raneanys 1 / The In. t creatures which they conta ancien N Ke) RIPPLE-MARKS AND RAIN-DROPS diagram (Fig. 36) will help to make it clear how the pushing and crushing of the earth’s crust into wave-like folds such as you may see when a tablecloth or carpet is not spread flat, results in bringing the deep-lying strata to the surface, so that we can walk along a cutting or cliff and come to deeper and older rocks as we walk along. Here (Fig. 37) is a specimen which shows Se at. ae = at Ae Oe ye. > ia Bo. “Sy aw ~ - ce Pa . a ae a % Shae” fe . y fea iat Fic. 37.—Ripple-marks preserved in ancient Triassic strata. ripple-marks still preserved as we see them nowadays on the shore at low tide. The marks of raindrops are also often preserved on such slabs of rock, which once were soft wet sand. On such surfaces we often find footprints, the footprints of birds and of reptiles. In some cases we do not know the animal itself (Fig. 38), 53 EXTINCT ANIMALS but we see its footprints in the ancient rocks now far removed from the sea and covered over by thousands of feet of later rocks. Here (Fig. 39) are the footprints of a great creature Fie. 38.—Bird-like footprints on a slab of Triassic rock from Connecticut, U.S.A. from the Isle of Wight which has left its impress in the sandstone. In Fig. 40 we have drawn a slab of Triassic Fic. 39.—Three-toed footprint (probably of Iguanodon) from the Wealden Sandstone of the Isle of Wight. 54 Se ee FOOTPRINTS ON ANCIENT SANDS rock, showing the five-fingered hand-like foot- prints of the Cheirotherium (as it was once called), a huge salamander-like animal. Fie. 40.—Slab of Triassic rock from Saxony, showing hand- like five-fingered footprints, each seven inches long, probably due to a Labyrinthodon which walked over this substance when it was soft wet sand. These footprints occur also in rocks of the same age in Cheshire. TABULAR LIST OF THE GREAT GROUPS OR BRANCHES OF THE PEDIGREE OF II. HT, XI. ANIMALS VERTEBRATA. (Back-boned Animals.) Class 1. MAMMALS. 2. BIRDS. 3. REPTILES. 4. AMPHIBIANS. 5. FISHES. 6, 7 and 8. Lancelets, Ascidians and Acorn-Worms. MOLLUSCS. (Mussels, Oysters, Clams, Snails, Slugs, Whelks and Cuttle-fish. ) APPENDICULATES. (Insects, Crabs, Shrimps, Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Annulate Worms and Wheel-animalcules. ) ECHINODERMS. (Starfishes, Sea Urchins and Sea-Cucumbers. ) FLAT WORMS. (Flukes, Tape-Worms, Water- flukes, etc.) NEMERTINES. (Cord-like Sea-Worms.) NEMATODS. (Parasitic Thread-Worms. ) CORAL-POLYPS and SEA-ANEMONES. HYDRA-POLYPS and JELLY FISH. SPONGES. PROTOZOA. (Microscopic Unicellular Animalcules, Amcebx, Gregarines, Flagellates, etc.) N.B.—The list does not contain the less important great groups, and is purposely made more simple than are the tables of classification used in scientific text-books. 56 OF THE 2? o> nr 14 15 16 TABULAR LIST CHIEF ORDERS OF THE VERTEBRATE CLASS Primates Insectivors Chiroptera Carnivors Pinnipedes Ungulates Elephants Amblypods Toxodonts Rodents Hyracoids Sirenians Edentates Cetaceans Marsupials Cloacals MAMMALS. Man, Apes and Monkeys. Hedgehogs, Shrews and Moles. Bats. Dogs, Bears, Cats and the extinct Creodonts. Seals. Hoofed Animals: even-toed and odd-toed. Elephants and their extinct ances- tors. Dinoceras and Arsinditherium. Toxodon. Rats, Rabbits, Beavers and Porcu- pines. The Syrian and African ‘“ Coney.” The Manatee, Dugong and Steller’s Sea-Cow. Sloths, Armadilloes, Ant-eaters. Whales and Porpoises. Kangaroos, Opossums, Tasmanian Wolf. The Egg-laying Platypus and Kchidna of Australia. N.B.—The list is not complete o7 ~I TABULAR LIST OF THE CHIEF ORDERS OF THE VERTEBRATE CLASS Dinosaurs Crocodiles Chelonians Lizards | Snakes | Pterodactyls Theromorphs Plesiosaurs Ichthyosaurs REPTILES: Huge extinct creatures, often as big as elephants. Crocodiles and Alligators. Turtles and Tortoises. Closely allied to one another, and having the epiderm moulded to form “ scales.”’ Extinct : they had great flying wings supported by one finger. Extinct : often with teeth resem- bling those of Mammals. Extinct: swan-necked aquatic forms, with four paddles. Extinct: short-necked marine forms, closely representing among Reptiles, the Whales and Porpoises of the Mamma- lian series. N.B.—This does not profess to bea complete enumeration. 58 CHAPTER II STRATA AND LAND SURFACES — TEETH AND BONES — EXTINCT MEN — FLINT IMPLE- MENTS—THE MAMMOTH, ELEPHANTS AND MASTODON—CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS EFORE giving you further accounts of extinct animals, I wish to point out to you that what I have to say is true, and not mere imagination. Some people talk about the “fairy tales of science.” There never was a more inappropriate phrase: it is altogether wrong to speak of fairy tales having anything to do with science. The wonderful things which science reveals to us are altogether remote from fairy tales, for in regard to the tales of science you can test what you are told, you can see the things of which I speak, you can ascertain the truth of what is asserted. That is the great pleasure of this study; one knows that the things one examines, however astounding and 59 TABLE OF STRATIFIED ROCKS SHOWING APPROXIMATE THICKN ESS TOTAL DEPTHS. QUATERNARY RECENT & 4 “PLEISTOCENE 200 ft MAN, MAMMOTH, MASTOOON 2.850 oR CENE e or 7 = -CRETACEOUS ne ~—_ 2 a 5350 Sie « SS a 2 0S a as) 2275) || |ORORER CICA IO On Cy CO Oey | SEs alll |G) ORANGE IG £2 OO Olea (re @N(lo © © © 0 0 6 © © © © Oo JuR We aso © 0 © 0 5,000ft 0 0 0 © [er lasso at Su OL fe fo folEe. oF OO Nol omavolint = | Gee mag o= | = Ww 7 o fem LipriassicZ HT 13.350 VA 3.000 #7 mae < 450 NA PER MIAN AY 2 OR SE Vie oe = Pas WQ < w i LK c SY ¢ b<7 2 LONE ENTS mn 26.850 - [ESTE ENN w ] x / j ti} ua /DEVONIAN = / // 5,000 ft e / / Ww 31,850 «= L a < = a z a 38.850 » o < b =) e =) 7) S) a b>) = a ) = 7) u K < « 53.850 " . Ww & « Ww > z 65 650 Fic. 41.—A tabular view of the strata of the earth’s crust, showing the relative thickness of each ‘‘ system ”’ or group of strata, and the position in which impor- tant animal re- 15.659 eee GZ v LAST ICHTHYOSAURS THREE TOED HORSE TETRABELODON ARSINOITHERIUM DINOC' GREAT DINOSAURS THEROMORPHS PARIASAURUS LAST TRILOBITES SCORPIONS FIRST FISHES MARINE SCORPION WORMS FIRST TRILOBITES mains have beet discovered. rocks are neve pled, but we ¢ make out ttl thickness and order in whicht! lie one over other. THE SUCCESSION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS incredible they seem, really exist, and are not mere imagination or fancy. I want now to refer to these large diagrams (Figs. 41 and 42). Fig. 41 should be carefully examined. It represents what has been dis- covered with regard to the succession of de- posits, those stratified deposits of which I spoke in my last lecture. On the left-hand side is stated the thickness of each deposit, so far as it has been ascertained. Most of the extinct animals, all the great extinct animals I have to speak about, come within the upper part. We have an enormous thickness of stratified rock beneath, which contains only marine things, fishes, a few crustaceans, and things of that kind. But all the more interesting great animals have left their bones in the higher strata. The upper- most layer (the recent and Pleistocene) is only some 200 feet in thickness, yet it indicates a period of something like 500,000 years. This being so, you can judge by the thickness of subjacent deposits what an immense lapse of time is represented. Before we get to the chalk we get down nearly 3,000 feet. The thickness of the chalk itself is another 2,500 feet. 61 EXTINCT ANIMALS The estimate thus given probably does not fully represent the time which has elapsed. If you take a thousand years for each foot, you only get an approximate measure of the time represented, because a great deal more time has passed than is actually shown by the permanent deposits or strata. Strata have been broken up by the sea and water, and have been deposited again and again; and it is probable that a much longer time has elapsed than one thousand years for each foot of the deposits which form the stratified crust of the earth. An important general fact, which I cannot dwell on further, is that whilst it is true that the great animals occur in the later stage of the world’s history, there is a gradual succession from simpler to more complex forms of life. We get fishes at the top of the Silurian; and we get in the Carboniferous great amphibians ; and the first reptiles in the Permian ; and then we get birds and crocodiles in the Triassic ; and the first hairy warm-blooded quadrupeds in the Jurassic. Thus the different kinds of animals succeed one another in the order of increasing complexity of structure so that the highest animals are the latest to appear. 62 Sada THE ZOO-GEOGRAPHICAL MAP This map of the world (Fig. 42) has special ‘TeUSIIG, oy} (F) pue ‘uerdoryyy ay (g) ‘feordoay-oanN, 9y} (Z) ‘otoaefoFT OY (T) *ZIA ‘suOTsea MOF oY} OFUT POprtATp Sl Bllay, UMTTeyUsDR[q 9} A[JseyT “Bay, UMIT[eyUooR,q oY} PUB BITRISNY OJUL PaplAIp st BRSoWoyy, Usyy, “Besos, (q) pue puPlRoZ MON (” ) oqut st UOISTAIP 4Say oy, ‘“Ss[BUTUe JO spuLy yUetoyTp Jo oouesoad oy} Aq posttozoRrBTo suoIsoa pue soouTAodd 4yvoads OUT UOISIAIp szt Surmoys ‘ppIoM OY} JO Aey—'sF 'a2n714SU; 80a pyojxO PY) ; Ov 2 oe | we Inguay OTH "PAT PIOZUETS Pasiyss q/Eg eve A x SF - b roa $2 y ‘ oR (es 1S Ki ye) e N Neath Patel = is S € ‘ m aM 0 = Z . é . sf iy . cS : xe Daas? ale ‘@ : ‘ SS. . AS c =e ar’ “es a. \ ee + $8 f i o9! interest, for it shows the present position of different kinds of animals. It is meant to show (a9) EXTINCT ANIMALS something of the history of the migrations or movements over the surface of the earth of the large animals which have lived upon it. The line which separates New Zealand from the rest of the world, which we call Theriogzea—the land of big animals—shows that the large islands of New Zealand have no such animals upon them. Till man went there some thousand years ago there were no large animals. The largest animals were great birds. There were no cattle, or cats and dogs—not even mice. Thus this piece of land seems to be separated from the history of the movement of animals in the rest of the world. It is an old and detached land-surface. Then you will see a second line between Australia and the rest of the world. Australia is distinguished by its marsupials (kangaroos, wombats, phalangers, etc.). The young of the marsupials are very small when born and are placed by their mother in a pouch of skin overlying her teats. Those animals which are nourished inside the mother before they are born are of a much larger size at birth. They are the Placentals, and there are no aboriginal Placentals in Australia. The greater part of the world (the rest when | 64 THE ZOOLOGICAL PROVINCES Australia is cut off) may be divided into the great Holarctic surface, the northern strip which comprises North America, Europe and the Northern part of Asia, while projecting downwards are three other regions, South America or the Neo-tropical, the great African or Ethiopian region, and the Oriental or Indian region. The animals of which fossil remains are found in the Holarctic region have migrated into these projections of the land which sub- sequently became of their present shape, at different times in the world’s history. The Neo-tropical region of South America was at one time a separate mass of land, and upon it lived very peculiar animals, such as the great sloths and armadilloes, and strange birds. In the Holarctic region we find, either still living or buried in recent strata, the great hairy mammals, elephants and cattle, antelopes, deer, camels, horses, rhinoceroses, tapirs, pigs, _hippopotami, tigers and lions, and such forms. When we dig down only to the depth of a few feet, in river gravels and comparatively modern deposits, we find all the big creatures in this region as shown by their fossilized bones. But, owing to some change of climate and other con- 65 F EXTINCT ANIMALS ditions not very clear, most of them left this region and migrated to the southern projecting regions. One of the most curious results of this emigra- tion is that at the present day the tapir is found alive in the island of Sumatra and that it is found alive also in Central America. At one time naturalists were much surprised to find a tapir in the new world like the tapir in the old world, and nowhere else but in these limited spots, remote from each other. But now we know that tapirs existed all over the Holarctic region, for we find there their fossil remains ; we recognize them by the shape of their teeth and bones which we dig up. Even in England, in Suffolk, we find the tapir in the deposit known as the Red Crag, and again in different parts of Germany, France and Greece, and even in China and in North America, tapirs are found buried in the sands of Pliocene and Miocene age. — The present race of tapirs existing in the East | Indies and in Central America are as it were the outlying survivors of those which existed. formerly all over the great Holarctic region. Such facts as these about the tapir indicate: the importance of knowing where particular 66 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BONES fossil animals are found; for thus we are enabled to come to some conclusion as to the former connexion of different land surfaces of the world with one another. The question must have occurred to many of you,—How do we recognize fragments of bones found in the earth ? How do I know that a fragment I may find is the lower jaw of a creature like the horse? or that bones I may dig up are the bones of a tapir? How do I know that a given skull is that of areptile ? and that a given shell was inhabited by a creature like the nautilus ? We are able to know these and like matters because the shape of different parts of each kind of animal is very constant. The kinds which are like one another in other respects are like one another in the details of their bones and teeth, even in such minute points as the microscopic texture of the bones. An immense mass of facts about such things is known, and When set out in orderly fashion is termed the Science of comparative anatomy or animal morphography. The first photograph I have to show in this chapter is of a piece of bone which was sent 07 EXTINCT ANIMALS fifty years ago to Professor Owen by a gentle- man in New Zealand who had lately arrived there, and who had found it in his garden. Professor Owen, on examination, was able to say from the general make and structure of the bone that it was the bone of a bird. It was about seven or eight inches long (Fig. 43). On examining the ridges and various Fic. 43.—Photograph of the original piece (seven inches long) of a thigh bone of a gigantic bird, from the examination of which Sir Richard Owen inferred the former existence of a gigantic flightless bird in New Zealand. The specimen is preserved in the Natural History Museum. (Original.) marks on the bones, Owen was able, from his knowledge of the character of bones, to say that it was identical with the middle part—the ends | were broken off—of the thigh bone of an 68 Sem. ee a Fic. 44.—Photograph of Sir Richard Owen standing beside the restored skeleton of the New Zealand Moa (Dinornis maximus). From a memoir by Owen. 69 EXTINCT ANIMALS ostrich. He ventured then to publish that this bone was a proof that there existed formerly in New Zealand a huge terrestrial bird like the os- trich, only bigger. After a few years, more bones were sent to Owen from New Zealand, which entirely confirmed what he had said: and in the course of a few years he was able to put to- gether from the bones sent a skeleton with enormous legs and neck, the skeleton of the ostrich-like bird the Moa of New Zealand. In Fig. 44 you see Professor Owen himself at the side of the restored skeleton. Since that time a great number of these birds have been found buried in the morasses and comparatively recent deposits of New Zealand, showing that many of them existed alive some five or six hundred years ago, and that they were then probably hunted out of existence by the an- cestors of the present Maoris. I shall have a few more words to say about the giant birds of New Zealand in a later chapter. In Fig. 45 we have the photograph of a very — fine preparation in the Natural History Museum, ' showing the skeleton of a man and a horse side by side. The main object of this com- parison is to show that, though so different in 70 MAN AND HORSE } ‘ 45.—Photograph of the skeletons of Man and Horse from a group, pre pared under the direction of Sir William Flower for the Natural History Museum. Sh. Shoulder-bone. W. Wrist-bones (so-called knee of horse’s fore- leg). E. Elbow process (olecranon). K. Knee joint (Stifle of horse). P. Hip-bones. 1’. Tail-bones. H. Heel-bone (caleaneum of man), the jock of the horse. general bearing and form, all the bones of a man _ correspond in detail with those of the horse. _ The thigh bone of the horse and the thigh bone _ of the man, the knee (called the * stifle’’) of the 71 EXTINCT ANIMALS horse and the knee of the man, correspond. The man has a short foot, the horse a long one. The upstanding bit at the back of the horse’s leg called the “ hock” is really the heel, and cor- responds to the heel bone which you can dis- tinguish in the man’s skeleton. So also the fore-arm and shoulder-blade correspond in the two skeletons. Accordingly, as animals are alike or unlike in the details of their structure, so we can group them into divisions and sub-divisions (see the list of classes at the end of Chapter I). There are certain marks by which it is easy to recognize fragments of bone, dug it may be out of a quarry or railway cutting, and to know at once the division or kind of animals to which the owner of the fragments belonged. I have already alluded to the fact that the strata of the earth are revealed to us by cliffs on the sea-shore, by exposed rocks and by river banks; and I would add by such activities of man as the digging of quarries and railway cuttings. Suppose that you find a skull in such a digging—there are marks by which you can tell whether it belongs to a mammal or reptile. “I i) THE OCCIPITAL CONDYLES In Fig. 46 I have photographed the whole back part of a skull which contained the brain, and you see where the spinal cord entered the skull to join the brain. In this creature (an ox) there are two bony surfaces (marked Ex, Ex) 603 aa 99.3124 Fic, 46.—Photograph of the back of a skull of an Ox, to show the two occipital condyles, Ex, Ex. forming the joints or condyles of the skull by which the first neck-bone or vertebra was fastened to it whilst allowing a rotating move- ment. All mammals’ skulls are provided with this pair of knobs or “condyles.”’ But in the erocodile’s skull (Fig. 47) you will see below 73 EXTINCT ANIMALS the aperture for the spinal cord only one large condyle (marked Bas). From such a fragment of the skull then you can at once tell whether to place the creature to which it belonged among the hairy warm-blooded quadrupeds called mammals, or with the reptiles. A bird Fic. 47.—Photograph of the back of a Crocodile’s skull to show the single occipital condyle Bas, lying below the hole or foramen by which the spinal cord enters the skull to join the brain. is like a reptile in having a single joint or knob at the back of the skull. As an example of the definite marks by which bones can be referred to their proper classes, the following is a curious point. Fig. 48 is a drawing of the internal ear of man—the soft 74 THE SNAIL-LIKE COCHLEA part of the ear inside, bedded in bone. three loop-like canals and a snail-like coil. It consists of All hairy mam- /3>> mals have that snail-like con- eo) struction of the internal ear. em- { ae 4, B In Fig. 49 is photographed the fre. ‘Oe ae ear-bone of a mammal’s skull cut through, and you can see the place for the snail-like soft ear—the cochlea or spiral of the ear, as it is called. No other animals except the Fic. 49.— Photograph from a section through the bone in which the soft inter- nal ear is_ lodged, showing the coils of the snail-shaped space in which the spiral cochlea lies. the auditory organ or internal ear of man. A the coiled tube known as the helix or cochlea. B the three tubu- lar arches or semi- circular canals. internal mammals are known to possess a_ spiral internal ear, and all known ibe therefore, you discovered a mammals do possess it. fragment of bone showing this spiral-like space you would know that the bit of bone must in all probability belong to a mammal. At the beginning of the nineteenth century a portion skull was brought from America 75 of a great elongated EXTINCT ANIMALS to Europe, dug out of the sands of Florida. It was thought to belong to a reptile like the crocodile, and was called Basilosaurus. But the naturalist in whose care it was, on showing the specimen to a friend (Herman von Meyer) dropped it on the stone floor of his museum and cracked the back of the skull. The crack exposed the spiral cavity or cochlea of the ear, and thus it was shown that the specimen was the skull of a mammal. Sure enough, it turned out later to be the skull of a kind of whale (Zeuglodon). Teeth are of great help and importance in determining the sort of animal to which a fragment belongs. Fig. 50 is a photograph from a specimen prepared in the Natural History Museum. The wild boar or pig occupies in regard to teeth a sort of central position among mammals (hairy warm-blooded quadrupeds). Its teeth are such that to them you can refer, as to a standard pattern, the teeth of all other mammals. There are three middle teeth in front in the upper and lower jaw, chisel-like teeth, the incisors. Be- yond these are the great canine teeth: then the cheek teeth follow. These are seven in 76 Fie. EE On? WEE PG Sein ie stain 50.—Photograph from preparations of the upper and lower jaw of a Pig, to show the teeth in position. The bone has been cut away so as to show the roots or fangs of the teeth. (1, 2, 3) the three upper incisor teeth of the left side ; (4) the upper canine tooth of the left side ; (5, 6, 7, 8) the four front molars or cheek teeth, called the premolars, of the left side of the upper jaw ; (9, 10, 11) the three back molars (not preceded by “first? teeth) of the left side of the upper jaw; (12, 13, 14) the three lower incisor teeth of the left side; (15) the canine of the lower jaw, left side: note its enormous root; (16, 17, 18, 19) the four front molars (premolars) of the left side of the lower jaw ; (20, 21, 22) the three back molars (not preceded by first ’’ teeth) of the left side of the lower jaw. Ti. EXTINCT ANIMALS number, four in front which are replaced —that means that second teeth come to take the place of the first—and three hinder ones, which are never replaced. If you look at the surface of these cheek teeth you will find they are broad, with many tubercles, fitted for grind- ing great varieties of food. There are seven of these cheek teeth on each side in each jaw, upper and lower, one canine, and _ three incisors, so that eleven on each side in upper and in lower jaw or forty-four teeth in all is the complete number, the typical number—the most characteristic number in the group of hairy mammals. Many have less, but among the immediate ancestors of those mammals with “reduced dentition’ we find a larger number of teeth, and in their remote ancestors the com- plete typical number is discovered. It is important to notice that whereas the front teeth have a single fang by which they are implanted in the jaw the cheek teeth have two fangs, as shown in Fig. 51. Teeth with two fangs appear to be peculiar to mammals. Other animals have only single fangs to all their teeth, as mammals have for their incisors and canines (as a rule). 78 TEETH The human teeth (Fig. 52) are reduced in number. There are only two incisors above and below on each side; then the small canine Fie. 51.—Photograph ot a preparation ot the teeth of the upper and lower jaw of a Pig. The small teeth between the upper and lower row of large teeth are the milk teeth or “first ’? teeth which are shed. Note how small the predecessors (15 and 23) of the great tusks are, and also that the foremost molar (7 and 33) in both upper and lower jaw has no successor or predecessor, as is also true of the three back molars. or dog-teeth, one on each side ; then five cheek teeth or ‘molars,’ two smaller and three bigger. From a single tooth we could tell whether a piece of jaw-bone belonged to a man 79 EXTINCT ANIMALS or not. Though like a monkey’s, a man’s tooth can be distinguished from it and from all other Ft > ee C) Ss) Fic. 52.— Photograph of a preparation (in the Natural History Museum) of the upper and lower jaw-bone of man, the bone cut away so as to show the fangs of the teeth. The pattern of the crowns of the molars is well seen in the upper and lower figures. teeth. In the next figures we have photographs showing certain modifications in the teeth of So THETH OF TIGERS AND OF RATS mammals. You see in the Clouded Tiger (Fig. 53) that the teeth are few in number, and are sharp, for cutting or tearing flesh, whilst the canine teeth are very large. In Fig. 54 the skull of a great rat, as big asa beaver or fair-sized dog, is photographed. The Fic. 53.—Skull of the Clouded Tiger, to show the large canine teeth and the few but pointed and cutting molars, two above and three below. front teeth (only one on each side above and below) are chisel-like, and very large, to enable the rat to gnaw wood. In reptiles you no longer get complex cheek teeth. All the teeth are peg-like. They have SI G EXTINCT ANIMALS no grinding teeth with big surfaces, and all the teeth have a single fang (Figs. 55 and 56). Fia. 54.—Photograph of the skull of the Coypu Rat, to show the greatly enlarged incisor teeth or “ rodent ” chisel-like teeth in front, the absence of canines, and the flat grinding molars behind. The large gap in the row of teeth between the incisors and the molars is very characteristic. The fossil jaw shown in Fig. 57 came from Fic. 55.—Jaws of the Gharial, an Indian Crocodile, to show the peg-like teeth. The bone is removed, showing that the teeth have only a single fang each. Stonesfield in Oxfordshire. It is embedded in 82 A FOSSIL JAW FROM STONESFIELD hard Jurassic slate, and is one of the most ancient evidences of the existence of a mammal. The sight of its double fangs at once rendered it almost certain that the teeth must be those of a mammal: the whole shape of the jaw is Fic. 56.—Photograph of the skull and lower jaw of a true Crocodile. The numerous peg-like teeth of different sizes, firmly implanted in the jaw-bones, are shown. like that of a small mammal, such as the hedge- hog. We must now take up again the general story of extinct animals; and to do so we will first of all go back, so to speak, a little way into the strata deposited on the earth’s surface—just far 8o Sb) * iy = Ce i ‘YySuey, ur your euo yuo Ayye -ngoew st mel oy, ‘ouoq-ael oyg yo Ave Suryvoaq oy bq posodxe y}90} Yooyo oy} JO [etoAes JO sSuvy o[qnop oy} SMoys oanSy oy, ‘paojxQ avou Fe (o}1]OQ) olsseane? Jo oxR[S pyoysouojg yy woly (2sovaid wniwoynydup) yeuuueut [peuis B yo Mel seMOT oYY JO UOTVRIUOSeAdoa posaelpUnf—'LE “DIT PREHISTORIC REMAINS OF MAN enough to take us beyond the range of written history or record, which barely reaches further than four thousand years. Recent explorations in ancient cities, Egypt and other parts of the East have brought out from layer after layer of rubbish and mud the different remains of man, different instru- ments, utensils and works of art. As one gets deeper one finds remains showing different habits and ways of life. But all are practically within the historic period. Beyond that we come to a period of which there is no tradition or written record, but of which we have evi- dence only by the remains we find; flint instruments, carvings, and even occasionally some human bones. The most important of the prehistoric remains of man take us back, to judge from the position in which they are found, some 150,000 years. These are the remains, found in river gravels in England and France and other countries, proving that man lived here in a savage state with the Mammoth, 'the Rhinoceros, Hyena, Cave Lion and Cave Bear. Fig. 58 shows two flint implements which these men manufactured and used. A flint instru- 85 EXTINCT ANIMALS ment of this kind was found more than a hundred years ago in the gravel in Gray’s Inn Lane, in Fic. 58.—Photographs of two flint implements of the Palzo- lithic age, obtained from the gravel-pit at St. Acheuil near Amiens, by the author, in 1870. London, and was figured and described ; but its great antiquity was not recognized at that time. In the middle of the last century, attention SO PREHISTORIC MAN was drawn to these flint instruments found in the gravel of the river Somme by a French antiquarian, M. Boucher de Perthes. He got immense quantities of these worked flints from the neighbourhood of Abbeville and Amiens, and he maintained they were the work of men. They were clearly, from the depth of gravel under which they were found, of enormous antiquity. The matter was gone into carefully at the time; geologists and naturalists took keen interest in it, and the great antiquity of man in Europe was established. And besides these implements in the gravel others have been found in caves associated, as in the gravel, with the remains of animals which have long ceased to exist in this part of the world. These are such mammals as the reindeer, the hairy rhinoceros, the great Irish stag, the cave bear, the cave hyena and the lion. Huge wild cattle, such as the Aurochs or Urus of Caesar, and the Bison, existed then in quantity. In some places the actual bones and skulls of these primitive men have been found with the bones of extinct animals. The skulls of primitive men and of modern men show a certain difference in shape. If we QD li EXTINCT ANIMALS take two skulls, that of a man and a monkey (Fig. 59), and draw a line from the region just over the nose, between the ridges of the brow, and run it back to the occipital ridge at the back of the skull, there is left above the line a . Fic. 59.—Photograph of the top of the skull or “ calvaria ” of the so-called Monkey-man, Pithecanthropus, discovered in Java. On the left is the skull of a Chimpanzee and on the right that of a modern man, for comparison. A line is drawn from the point between the eyebrows to the occipital ridge at the back of the skull, showing how much shallower the dome of the skull (the part above the line) is in the ape than in the man, and that the Javanese skull is nearly as shallow as that of the ape. (Original.) great hemispherical dome in the human skull, whereas in the monkey the space left above is much flatter, much shallower. In ariver gravel in Java the imperfect skull of the so-called Pithecanthropus, or monkey- 88 HUMAN SKULLS man, was lately discovered. It is really, in its main features, a human skull. | a) gers Fie. 107.—Drawing of the skull of Arsinoitherium Zittelt (Beadnell), from the specimen preserved in the Natural History Museum. The skull was found in the Fayum Desert, and is nearly three feet in length. Beadnell of the Egyptian Geological Survey, and the name Arsinditherium was given to it 152 QUEEN ARSINOES GREAT BEAST byghim because the Egyptian queens of Greek race—named Arsin6e—had a palace near where (Original ) Fig. 108.—A drawing, showing the probable appearance in life of Arsinoitherium. the bones were dug up. Two thousand years ago many parts which are now sandy desert 153 EXTINCT ANIMALS were well-watered and under cultivation. The drawing given in Fig. 107 is prepared from a skull in the Natural History Museum, where we have brought together portions of several other skulls and the complete set of bones of the skeleton dug up, some by Dr. Andrews and some by the energetic officers of the Egyptian Survey. The huge pair of horns are entirely bony out- growths of the nasal bones, and are hollow. A small second pair of horns lies behind them. Probably in life the big horns were clothed with a horny case like the horn of a bull or antelope. The teeth are most remarkable, since they form a complete series, without a break, and are present to the full number—seven cheek-teeth, a canine and three incisors on each side in both upper and lower jaw—wondertully graduated in form and size. A complete account and illustrations of the remains of this most remarkable beast, the skull of which alone is nearly three feet in length, will soon be given by Dr. Andrews in a large volume on the extinct animals obtained from the sands of the Egyptian Fayum which is now in prepara- tion and will be published by the Trustees of the British Museum. 154 CHARTEE, IV metiINCr GIRARFEES AND THE OKAPI— THE GIANT SLOTHS OF SOUTH AMERICA AND THE GIANT KANGAROOS OF AUSTRALIA. HERE are a vast number of mammalian extinct animals, related to the cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes, deer, lions, bears and hyenas of to-day, and other less-known warm- blooded hairy quadrupeds, besides many, such as the Dinoceras and Arsinditherium, which have left no successors like themselves to represent them in our days. Of both kinds, those which have quite died out and disappeared and those which have representatives alive to-day, you may see the bones and skulls in the Natural History Museum. I have not space here to speak of more than a few extinct crea- tures, and will at once ask you to look at some members of the group which to-day is D5 EXTINCT ANIMALS familiar to us through the beautiful giraffe of Africa—the camel-leopard, the spotted, long- necked creature which will very soon be killed out by the intrusion of civilized man into the African wilds. Fic. 109.—Drawing of the head of the five-horned Giraffe ; the single middle horn is seen in front and the two of the left side farther back. From a specimen shot at Mount Elgon by Sir Harry Johnston. We have already seen a photograph of the giraffe in the first lecture, with its long neck reaching forward and forming a continuous line with the back. To-day I show you a sketch (Fig. 109) of what Sir Harry Johnston | 156 THE FIVE-HORNED GIRAFFE calls the five-horned giraffe. The ordinary giraffe has a pair of short bony outgrowths or so-called horns on the parietal region of the skull and a single horn of similar character between the eyes. But the five-horned giraffe has an additional short pair of outgrowths at Fig. 110.—Photograph of the skull of the five-horned Giraffe. the back of the head. All these “‘ horns” in the giraffe are covered in life with living skin. There is no horny covering to them, nor do they grow through the skin and proj ect as naked bone, as do the antlers of deer. The skull of the five-horned giraffe is seen in Fig. 110. Whilst the two hinder knobs, or horns, are real 157 EXTINCT ANIMALS “outgrowths” of the skull, the chief horns (the median and the large pair, of which only the left-hand one is visible in the photograph) originate as separate bony pieces, which, after growing for a time as distinct bones, join tightly to the skull. Sir Harry Johnston shot the five- b) ‘reserve ’’ or pro- ‘ horned girafte in the great tected area formed by the crater of the extinct volcano Mount Elgon—some five miles across— in the British Central African Protectorate of Uganda. In less than three weeks from the day on which he shot these specimens he was in London, and brought the skins and skulls of the specimens to the Natural History Museum ! Central Africa, under the equator, can now be reached in that short space of time. In Miocene times there were other large ani- mals allied to the giraffe, but without so great a length of neck. The giraffe family have double hoofs, like the cattle, sheep, antelopes and deer, to which they are allied—not single or triple hoofs, like the horse family. Besides their peculiar and very primitive horns they have another small but definite peculiarity. The outer- most of the group of eight front teeth in the lower jaw corresponds in position to the canine 159 THE CANINE TOOTH OF GIRAFFES of the pig and other typi-dentate animals (animals with “typical” dentition, that is to say, little altered from the form and arrangement in early mammalian ancestors). In the cattle, sheep, antelopes and deer, this tooth has a quite simple chisel-like crown, like that of the incisors. But in the giraffe it is very peculiar: the crown GIRAFFE (mite Gents rony SamoTHERILUM OKARP). CANINE TEETH OF GIRAFFIDA SWATHERIUM Fic. 111.—Front teeth of the lower jaw of the Giraffe and allied animals, namely, the Samotherium, the Sivatherium, and the Okapi, to show the bilobed or bifoliate broad canine tooth with its split crown—only known in animals of the giraffe family. is divided by a slit into two halves, each ot which is large and broad. It is described as bi-foliate (see Fig. 111). No other mammalian animal was known with this peculiar shape of this particular tooth among living animals until the other day. But a great extinct animal from India, the Sivatherium (Fig. 112), with much 159 EXTINCT ANIMALS larger horns than a giraffe, has this same bi- foliate canine on each side in the lower jaw (Fig. 111), and is shown, by this and other facts in its structure, to be clearly related to the living giraffe. Another creature from the Miocene strata Fic. 112.—Photograph of a restored skull of the Sivatherium from the Miocene strata of the Sewalik Hills, India. The antler-like branching horns contrast with the corresponding simple horns of the giraffe. of the isle of Samos—the Samotherium (Fig. 113)—has also the bifid lower canines, and is closely allied to giraffes. The entire skeleton of a giraffe-like animal with a moderate length 160 iH DISCOVERY OF THE OKAPI of neck has been found in Miocene beds in Greece, and is called the Helladotherium (Fig. 114). Naturalists were, therefore, deeply in- terested when Sir Harry Johnston obtained, some four years ago, from the borders of the Congo State where the great Congo forest approaches the river Semliki, which separates Congo-land Fic. 113.—Photograph of the skull of the Samotherium, a giraffe-like animal from the Miocene strata of the Greek Island of Samos. from Uganda, a skin and two skulls of a new animal—the Okapi—which he rightly surmised to be a second living genus, or kind, allied to the giraffe. I gave the name Okapia to Sir Harry Johnston’s new animal; it is stuffed and exhibited in the Natural History Museum. Like the giraffe, it has paired hoofs and a rather long 161 M EXTINCT ANIMALS neck, but it is striped on the legs and haunches, instead of being spotted. The most decisive point about its relationship is found in the canines of the lower jaw which, although small in size, are bifid or bi-foliate, as are those of the giraffe ye 1 Fic. 114.—Restored skeleton of the giraffe-like animal Hella- dotherium, discovered in Miocene strata at Pikermi, near Athens, by M. Gaudry. (see Fig. 111). Our specimen (Fig. 115) is about as bigas a large stag; it has no horns, and is not adult. It is probably a female; the male, we now know, has a pair of horns (Fig. 116), and is- extremely close, in the details of its skull, to the Samotherium (Fig. 113). Some fifteen speci- 162 : THE OKAPI mens of this new and rare animal have been received in Europe since Sir Harry Johnston discovered it; it is probable that there are two species, a:smaller and a larger, living both in the forests of the Congo in the centre of & Lowa 3 Aor A gs ae ee Fic. 115.—Photograph of the specimen of the Okapi (Okapia erichsont) obtained by Sir Harry Johnston near the Semliki river in Central Africa. The specimen is a female, not fully grown, and is of the size of a very large donkey. Africa. As they live in these immense dark gloomy and damp forests they are very difficult to shoot or to catch, and moreover they are not abundant. The natives cut the striped skin into girdles and bands for ornament. Two of these were sent home by Sir Harry Johnston 163 EXTINCT ANIMALS before the animal was known, and were described as coming from a new species of zebra which was named Hquus Johnstoni by Dr. Sclater (see Fig. 117). Fic. 116.—Photograph of a skull of a male Okapi, showing the simple pointed bony horns like those of the Samotherium. The horns were not enclosed in a horny case as are those of cattle, sheep and antelopes. Some people, on account of the Okapi being striped somewhat like a zebra, whilst it has the double hoofs of giraffes and also paired horns, have supposed that it might be a hybrid or “mule” between a zebra and a giraffe. This 164 NO HYBRIDS IN NATURE is, however, a supposition which every naturalist knows to be quite out of the bounds of remotest probability. It is a fact that “mules” or hybrids never are produced by animals living in their natural conditions, except in a few rare cases among aquatic animals whose eggs are fertilized in the water after they have been laid. Fic. 117.—Photograph of the two “‘ bandoliers ”’ cut from the striped part of the skin of an Okapi,which, when sent home by Sir Harry Johnston, were at first thought to have been cut from the skin of a new kind of zebra. And no one has ever produced, even in cap- tivity, a hybrid between any creatures so unlike each other as a double-hoofed and a single-hoofed mammal. There are a good many instances in which small living animals were represented in the past by gigantic forms very close in structure to the little living beasts, but of much greater 165 EXTINCT ANIMALS size. Hence itis concluded that these particular living animals are the reduced and dwindled representatives of a race of primeval monsters. There is some truth in this, as you will see from the history of the living sloths and armadilloes of South America, as compared with the giant extinct sloths and armadilloes dug up in that country. ‘The same relation is true as to the kangaroos and wombats now living in Australia as compared with gigantic extinct creatures of the same kind (Fig. 182) which are dug up in Australia in sands and morasses of late geological date. Butitis a great mistake to conclude from this that it is a law of Nature that recent animals are all small and insignificant as compared with their representatives in the past. That is simply not true. Recent horses are bigger than extinct ones,and much bigger than the three- toed and four-toed ancestors of horses. Recent elephants are as big as any that have existed, and much bigger than the earlier elephantine ancestors. There never has been any creature of any kind—mammal, reptile, bird, or fish— in any geological period we know of, so big as some of the existing whales, the Sperm Whale, the Great Rorqual, and the Whale-bone whales. 166 ag SS ee a BEASTS OF MONSTROUS SIZE It is true that there were enormous reptiles in the past, far larger than any living crocodiles, stand- ing fourteen feet at the loins and measuring eighty feet from the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail; but their bodies did not weigh much more than that of a big African elephant and were small compared with whales. So let us be under no illusions as to extinct monsters, and proceed to look at those of South America with simple courage and confidence in our own day. South America (see the map, Fig. 42) .was not so long ago a vast island and connected at an earlier period with Australia. Later it has joined on to North America. Its own peculiar productions in the way of animals appear to be the members of the group of mammals called Edentata—very peculiar forms, with strange teeth, and none at all in the front of the jaws. From North America, when it joined on there, it received the mastodons, horses, tigers, tapirs, and other kinds produced in the Holarctic area. This seems to have led to the dying out of the big kinds of Edentata, and now there are only the small tree-sloths (Fig. 118), the small arma- dilloes (Fig. 119) and the strange-looking ant- eaters. But in quite late geological deposits in 167 e EXTINCT ANIMALS South America we find the bones of gigantic armadilloes and of gigantic ground sloths, which Photograph of a stuffed specimen of the Two-toed Sloth (Chola- pus didactylus) hanging from a branch of a tree. Fria. 118. lasted on till the time when man appeared on the scene, though nowextinct. A great variety of large creatures of the kinds known as Edentata 168 THE ARMADILLO 169 Fia. 119.—Photograph of a stuffed specimen of the Hairy Armadillo or Peludo (Dasypus villosus). v The unjointed bone armour of is lent by the Trustees of the British 1ca. eat extinct armadillo-like animal called Glyptodon e This figure _ from the Pleistocene of the Argentine State in South Amer ‘the body, tail, and top of the head, is shown. Museum. Fic. 120.—Drawing of the skeleton of the gr ARMADILLOES EXTINCT GIANT preceded these in earlier geological times in South America. ~The Glyptodons (Fig. 120), of which there are *, ‘d uo ydeasojyoyd oy} oes ‘teuttue ouIBVs 94} JO UOJO[PYS 9} JOY “BolIoUIW YINOG jo speABas oud -OJSI9[q 94} UI punos ‘Queydeje uv se siq se “wnagunbhrbh wnrsayynba py ayy ‘YI0TS ee) SJuBE) Ouy 50 OFT UE souvrvodde ME er IZ@l ‘DIA several different kinds, were enormous arma- dilloes, as big as an ox. Like the recent little armadilloes they carried a hard case formed by 17 I EXTINCT ANIMALS bones in the skin, but this was not jointed so that they could roll up into a ball, as can the living armadilloes. The Megatherium (Fig. 121) was nearly as big as anelephant, and was very closely similar in its skeleton and teeth to the little living sloths of to-day. But it stood on the ground and pulled the trees down in order to eat the tender young branches instead of climbing up into the trees and living there as the present sloths do. Not quite so big as the Megatherium was the Mylodon, which lived at the same time. The remains of both are found in the comparatively recent (Pleistocene) gravels of the Argentine Republic. The skeletons of these animals may be seen side by side in the Natural History Museum. In Fig. 122 is represented the skeleton of the Mylodon, and just above it, for comparison, is placed the photograph of the skeleton of the two-toed sloth. The relative sizes of the two are shown and the sloth’s skeleton is placed in the same position as that of the extinct Mylodon, although in life it is always hanging from the branches of trees and never goes on all fours on the ground. 172 THE MYLODON The Mylodon had, we know, a number of little bony pieces scattered in its skin in the i Fic. 122.—The skeleton of Mylodon robustus, one of the giant Ground Sloths of the Argentine, about as big as a large bull. Above it is placed the skeleton of a recent Tree- Sloth for comparison. Both skeletons are reduced to the same scale. EXTINCT ANIMALS region of the back, like the pieces forming the bony case of the armadilloes and Glyptodons, but not fitted closely together. It was sup- posed that the Mylodon, like all the gigantic Edentata of South America, had long ceased to exist and was extinct as long ago as the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros of our Fic. 123.—View, looking outwards, from the mouth of the cavern on the fiord of the Ultima Speranza in Southern Patagonia, in which have been found the skin and hair and the bones with cartilage, blood and tendon and the dung of the Mylodon and other animals, proving its co-existence with man and its survival until a period estimated variously at fifty or a thousand years ago. own country. But about seven years ago a traveller (Dr. Nordenskjold) found in Patagonia, at the end of a fiord near the Chilian coast, a vast cavern (Fig. 123), and from this cavern the white settlers living in a farm close by had re- moved an enormous piece of skin (Fig. 124) covered with greenish-brown hair and studded on 174 FRESH REMAINS OF MYLODON its inner side with little knobs of bone (Fig. 125) ! The skin was dry, but undecomposed, and when soaked in water gave out the smell of decom- posing animal matter. It was evidently a piece of the skin of a Mylodon which had survived in Fic. 124.—Photograph of a piece of the skin of the Mylodon (also called Grypotherium darwini) showing the coarse greenish-coloured hair. From a specimen found in the cave of the Ultima Speranza in South-west Patagonia. this region until modern times! Further ex- plorations were made in the cavern by Dr. Moreno, of the Museum of La Plata, and by other persons, and as a result an immense quantity of bones were obtained and more portions of 175 EXTINCT ANIMALS the skin of Mylodon with the hair on. The cavern had been inhabited probably several centuries ago by Indians, and human bones as 99 well as “ forks” made out of dogs’ bones (Fig. 126) were obtained. The remains of as many as Fic. 125.—The under side of the same piece of skin as that shown in Fig. 124. It shows the small oval ossicles scattered in the deep substance of the skin. twenty Mylodons have been obtained from the cavern, and many of the bones have been cut or broken by human agency, the inhabitants of the cave having fed upon the Mylodons and split the bones to obtain the marrow! Some of the Mylodon bones, skulls, jaw-bones, leg- 176 THE FRESH REMAINS .OF MYLODON FIa. 126.—Photograph of various specimens found with the remains of the Mylodon in the Ultima Speranza cave. 1. The lower end of the humerus (upper arm bone) of a very large jaguar (Felis onca). 2. Molar tooth of an extinct horse (Onohippidium). 3. End of femur of a huge rat (Megamys). 4. Upper jaw of guanacho (Auchenia). 5. Molar tooth of same. 6. Lower end of lowest leg-bone of the rhea. 7. Foot-bone of the jaguar. 8. Hoof-bone of the fossil horse. 9, 10, 11. Dung of the Mylodon. 12, 13. Two bones of a Dog, with ends sharpened by human agency. 14. Distorted human shoulder-blade, probably of a woman. bones, etc., are smeared with blood and the soft tendon and membrane are still attached. The cartilage at the end of the long bones is still 177 N EXTINCT ANIMALS in place, dried and cracked in the drying. Not only that, but great balls of dung were found made up of the remains of masticated grass, Fre. 127.—Photograph of remains of Mylodon from the cave | of the Ultima Speranza. 1. Shaft of tibia. 2. Bone of a claw. 3, 4, 5, 6. Claws (horny). 7, 8. Rudimentary toe bones. 9, 10. Cervical vertebrae. 11. Lower end of scapula. 12, 13. Broken bones. indicating that the Mylodons lived in the cave. Moreover, a very large quantity of cut grass | was found in the cave, and it has been surmised 178 MYLODONS LIVING IN. THE CAVE that the Indians kept the Mylodons alive in the cavern and fed them with hay brought in from the outside. Specimens of these objects and of others to be mentioned below are now in the Fic. 128.—Photograph of a “ barrel-full of bones ’’ obtained by prospectors from the cave of Ultima Speranza, three years after the first finds, and offered for sale to the Natural History Museum. Unfortunately it was not possible to send a reply to the owners in time, and the collection was dispersed. Skulls, jaws, and other bones of Mylodon are to be seen as well as a large skull of a jaguar, and bones and teeth of horses. Natural History Museum, and some idea of their number and variety may be formed from the photographs reproduced in Figs. 126 to 131. Besides the remains of the Mylodons and of 179 EXTINCT ANIMALS man—all lying loosely covered by a greater or less depth of blown sand, and in some parts by chopped hay—the cavern has yielded bones and teeth and many horny hoofs cf horses, appar- ently belonging to the extinct and very peculiar Fic. 129.—Photograph having the same history as that shown in Fig. 128. South American genus Onohippidium, the skull and bones of a very large kind of jaguar, the skull of a young lama, and bones of other kinds. We have not yet a full account of all that has been found in the cave, nor have the contents, 180 THE CAVE OF THE MYLODONS unfortunately, been removed with sufficient care to enable us to say which were lying more deeply in the sand and which were at a higher level and therefore more recently living. The cavern is in a very remote spot and seems to Fic. 130.—Photograph of three pellets of the dung of the Mylodon from the cave of Ultima Speranza. offer some peculiar difficulties to explorers, for neither Sir Thomas Holditch nor Mr. Hesketh Pritchard, the latter of whom started for the purpose, succeeded in reaching it. It is stated that there are other caverns of a similar nature 181 EXTINCT ANIMALS in the neighbourhood. A great peculiarity about the occurrence of the remains of animals in this cavern is due to the fact that it hasa dry sandy bottom. The bones are not embedded in Fic. 131.—Photographs of the leg-bone (tibia) of Mylodon, from the cave of Ultima Speranza, to show the dried and cracked cartilage on the ends (articular surfaces) of the bones. > ** stalagmite ’’ as is the case in the bone-caves of England and France, and whilst they are quite unaltered and full of animal matter, the horny and tendinous parts of many of the animals, such as skin, hair, claws and hoofs, and 182 oa WHEN WERE THE MYLODONS ALIVE? the soft dung of the Mylodon, are preserved un- changed. It is quite certain that in any known cavern in Europe such remains would be destroyed in the course of fifty years by putre- factive bacteria, and were the conditions too dry for that process to continue, the remains would have been consumed by scavenger beetles and other insects within the like period. The climate of South Patagonia, where the cavern exists, is similar to that of Devonshire. It isa moist climate, although the cavern itself is not damp nor subject to inundation by streams. There is nothing in the sandy soil of a preser- vative nature, and it seems at first sight impos- sible to suppose that the soft dried remains, skin, claws, blood, etc., can be more than fifty years old. Yet the horses’ hoofs and bones seem to belong to the extinct Onohippidium, and there is no record or tradition among the present race of Indians (in spite of some statements to the contrary) of any huge beast corresponding to the Mylodon. Altogether the case is a very puzzling one, and excites a very eager desire for further exploration. A noticeable fact bearing on the matter is that the whole of the southern part of South America has been submerged 183 EXTINCT ANIMALS rapidly and has rapidly risen again and is still rising at the rate of two feet a year in some parts, within the late Pleistocene period. Possibly the rocks and high lands where the Mylodon cavern occurs formed an island during the submergence where a number of individuals of the earlier fauna took refuge and survived until the re-elevation of the land, and so lived on in the present condition of the land surface until fifty or a hundred years ago. Possibly, though by no means probably, the Mylodon is still living in similar caverns in this region, as yet unvisited by man. In Australia, the land of the marsupials or pouched mammals, the bones of gigantic crea- tures have been found belonging to that peculiar tribe. Giant kangaroos, twice as tall as any living kangaroos, are thus known. But there are also remains of some extraordinary animals, like wombats and koalas, only as big as the largest rhinoceros or a small elephant. One of these is the Diprotodon of Owen, known to him by its skull and the rest of the skeleton, excepting the feet. The skullis drawn in Fig. 132 with a human skull beside it to give ascale. In Fig. 133 is given Owen’s restoration 184 GIANT BEASTS FROM AUSTRALIA of the complete skeleton with the exception of the feet. These have now been found by Dr. Stirling, of South Australia. A number of com- plete skeletons of this huge beast were found embedded in the mud of a great lake or morass. Fie. 132.—Drawing of the skull of the Giant Australian Marsupial, Diprotodon, preserved in the Natural History Museum. By its side is placed a drawing, to the same scale, of a human skull. In the photograph (Fig. 134) the lake is shown, and one of the great skeletons is seen in the foreground. The bones were in a very friable state, but Dr. Stirling has succeeded in pre- serving them and has secured the complete feet. In Fig. 135 the right hind-foot is shown. It 185 EXTINCT ANIMALS is expected that the complete skeleton will be put together and exhibited in the Natural History Museum before very long. Fie. 133.—The restoration of the skeleton of Diprotodon, as drawn by the late Sir Richard Owen. It will be observed that the feet were not known when this drawing was made. The oldest remains of mammals, which we know of, are found in the Oolitic and Triassic strata and consist of very small lower jawbones with their teeth, embedded in very fine-textured 186 AUSTRALIAN MONSTERS rock. It is usually held, on account of the form of the angle of the jawbones, that they belonged to small marsupial mammals. They are very small, few of them as much as an inch in length, and one of them we have already seen in Fig. fae: : See Rea ee TS ge Be i Ue ES gg : Fie. 134.—Photograph of the morass or lake in South Australia in which the remains of several specimens} of Diprotodon have been recently discovered. One of the skeletons is seen lying in the mud in the foreground. 57 enlarged to ten times its natural length. It is probably due to their density and hardness that the little jaw-bones have been embedded and preserved in these ancient rocks, whilst the rest of the skeleton is lost to us. The first 187 EXTINCT ANIMALS specimens of jaw-bones of this age were obtained seventy years ago in the Stonesfield Slate near Oxford by two undergraduates of the University, and it was at first supposed, on account of their occurring in such ancient rock as the Oolite Fig. 135.—View of the upper surface of the right hind-foot of Diprotodon, as discovered by Professor Stirling of Ade- laide, South Australia. The left-hand figure has the astragalus (ankle-bone) removed, whilst it is in place in the right-hand figure. (see list of strata on page 60) that they must be jawbones of lizards. Soon, however, the fact was noticed that the teeth had double fangs, and it became clear from this, as well as the shape of the jaws and teeth, that they had 188 MAMMALS OF THE MESOZOIC PERIOD belonged to small mammals. In Fig. 136 two of these very ancient mammalian jaws are figured. Fic. 136.—Lower jaws of the ancient Mammals, Dromatherium (upper—Trias), and Dryolestes (lower—Jurassic), mag- nified about 23 times linear. CHAPTER V THE GREAT EXTINCT REPTILES—DINOSAURS FROM THE OOLITES—THE PARIASAURUS AND INOSTRANSEVIA FROM THE TRIAS OF NORTH RUSSIA AND SOUTH AFRICA—MARINE REPTILES. N the next two chapters I propose briefly to bring before you a few examples of extinct reptiles, birds and fishes, and to take the very shortest glance at the host of invertebrate shell-fish, insects, star-fishes and such like extinct animals whose name is legion. We will proceed at once to the reptiles. You will see from the list of groups of reptiles which I gave to you in a former chapter (p. 58) that there are four big orders or groups of living reptiles: (1) the Crocodiles; (2) the Tortoises (Chelonians); (3) the Lizards; and (4) the Snakes. The lizards and snakes are in their real structure so much alike that they are con- 190 EXTINCT REPTILES sidered as one double order. Extinct repre- sentatives of all these orders are found right away down through the Mesozoic strata to the Trias (see table of strata, p. 60). But there is nothing very astonishing about them excepting the large size of some of the extinct tortoises and snakes, and the fact that the older extinct crocodiles had the opening of the nose-passages into the mouth-openings, which we and all air- breathing vertebrates also possess, placed far forward as they are in the more primitive air- breathers, whereas living crocodiles have them pushed ever so far back to the very furthest recess of the long ferocious mouth, from which arrangement it results that the modern crocodile can have its mouth full holding the body of a victim under water whilst the air passes from the tip of its nose through the long nasal passage to the very back of its mouth and so to its lungs. This convenience was not enjoyed by primitive crocodiles. The great interest in regard to extinct reptiles centres in those which were so entirely different from the reptiles of to-day that naturalists have to make separate orders for them. Many of them were of huge size. They flourished in the 191 EXTINCT ANIMALS Mesozoic period and abruptly died out; at any rate their remains disappear from the rocks at the close of the Chalk or Cretaceous period (see the table of strata, p. 60). These extinct orders of reptiles are the Dinosaurs, the Thero- morphs, the Ichthyosaurs, the Plesiosaurs and the Pterodactyles. They are a prominent example of that kind of extinct animal which is not the forefather, so to speak, of living ani- mals, but of which the whole race, the whole order, has passed away, leaving no descendants either changed or unchanged. To begin with the Dinosaurs. They are a very varied group and mostly were of great size. They seem to have occupied in many ways the same sort of place on the earth’s surface which was filled at a later period by the great mam- mals, such as elephants, rhinoceroses, giraffes, giant kangaroos, etc. Preying on the vege- table-feeding kinds there were huge carnivorous dinosaurs, representing the lions and tigers of to-day. Yet the mammals I have mentioned are in no way descended from these great reptiles. They came from another stock, and only superseded them on the face of the earth by a slow process of development, in which the 192 NEW ZEALAND TUA-TARA THE ‘OZIS [RINjeU OY} JO pAIYJ-oUO SI oANSy oy, ‘“sngnzpound uopouaydg se UMOTY ‘Q16q-BNJ, Pplezry puvleoz MON CY} Jo ofl, Ulosy UOWey YSVO V Jo YdeaisoJOUgG—'/ET “OIA 193 EXTINCT ANIMALS great reptiles disappeared and the great mam- mals gradually appeared and took their place. Some of the forms assumed by the great Toad). € « 38.—Phrynosoma orbiculare (Mexican Horned Lizard or Horned Photographed one half the natural size 1 Fta. Dinosaurian reptiles are not unlike the forms of the small scaly lizards of to-day (see Figs. 137, 138, 139, 140) ; but on the whole the Dino- saurs were more like mammals in shape, stand- 194 THE CHLAMYDOSAUR -9uo 04 poydevasoqoyg - ‘OZIS [BINZBU OY palyy “eYeaysuy “puvlsucon’) tory “bury sninvsophumyg—6et “ot 195 EXTINCT ANIMALS jo ozIs oy} Jey poydeasojgoyg ‘o.myeu ‘(paezry peppatyg yeory) snaguphrb snInuog—'OFT “OLA THE GREAT DINOSAURS ing well up on the legs. We do not know much about their skin; it was probably smooth and with only small horny scales on it, as in many living lizards, and often had great horns and crests growing out of it. But we know the BD ja’: ee BKK ASS Ly : Laae, D\ W\ WPS ax 2 Nie : (iS pee ie oY Ate Ra mec RoR Sia se Se e Fic. 141.—Drawing of the skeleton of Iguanodon berniscar- tensis. From the ground to the top of the head as the animal is posed, is about fourteen feet. complete skeletons put together from bones chiselled out of the hard rock in which they are found, and we know that in important matters of shape and build the skeleton was different from that of living reptiles. The great size to which some of the Dinosauria attained is 197 EXTINCT ANIMALS shown by the thigh-bone of one found in the United States, and called Atlantosaurus—photo- Fre. 142.—Probable appearance of the Iguanodon in its living condition. graphed in Fig. 6, p. 11. This thigh-bone is one third as long again as that of the biggest elephant known. 198 THE IGUANODON In Fig. 141 is shown the complete skeleton of the Iguanodon. This great Dinosaur was one of the first to be discovered. As yousee, it stood on its hind legs like a kangaroo, and in running occasionally went on those feet only, touching the ground now and then with its front feet. Footprints in slabs of sandstone, once soft wet sand, are found showing | this. The animal stood about fourteen feet from the Jf = head to the ground in a Cea & >= 2 the position shown in ~~ - the figure. Its thigh bone was only three feet long and it was therefore only half the pic. 143.—Two teeth of Igqua- size, in linear measure- "olen, Martel of th ment, of the Atlanto- serrated margin. saurus. In Fig. 142 an attempt is made to show what the animal looked like when the skeleton was clothed with flesh and skin. The first bones and teeth of the Iguanodon were found seventy 199 EXTINCT ANIMALS years ago by a celebrated and most delightful collector and explorer of the earth’s crust, Dr. Gideon Mantell, in the strata known as the Wealden in Sussex, just below the Chalk and Greensand (see table of strata). Dr. Mantell found that the teeth, of which two are here represented of the natural size, were those of a Fic. 144.—A portion of the upper jaw of the recent lizard Iguana, showing the serrated edges of the teeth, similar to those of Iguanodon. herbivorous animal and like those of the little living lizard from South America, called the Iguana, in the fact that the broad chisel-like crown has a saw-like edge (Fig. 144). From this fact the name Iguanodon (Iguana-toothed) was given to the new fossil giant reptile. The bones found by Mantell and others were scat- tered and not in their natural position and the 200 THE IGUANODON form of the creature had to be cuessed at by fitting this and that together. But some twenty-five years ago a wonderful find was made near Brussels in a coal-mine at a village called Bernissart. The skeletons of no less than twenty-two huge Iguanodons were found com- plete, and embedded in a fairly soft clay-like rock! The authorities of the Government Museum took charge of the place and most care fully removed the rock containing the skeletons to the Museum workshops at Brussels, where the complete skeletons of seven were, with enormous difficulty and care, removed bit by bit from the rock and set up as entire skeletons in the Brussels Museum, where they may be seen. A cast of one of these seven isin our own Natural History Museum. The photograph of the skull of one of these specimens is given in Fig. 145, It shows not only the teeth in position, but in front the bony supports of a great horny beak, like that of a turtle. As you may see in the drawing of the skeleton (Fig. 142), the forefeet (or hands) were provided with five fingers, of which the thumb had a huge claw on it at least a foot long. The foot was very much like that of a bird and had only three toes, and the bones 201 EXTINCT ANIMALS of the pelvis or hip-girdle are extraordinarily like those of a bird. In fact it is now certain that reptiles similar to the Iguanodon were the stock from which birds have been derived, the front limb having become probably first a Fic. 145.—Photograph of the skull of an Iguanodon as dug out of the rock, showing the teeth of the lower jaw and the smooth bony supports for the horny beak of both upper and lower jaw. The specimen is three feet in length. swimming flipper or paddle, and then later an organ for beating the air and raising the creature out of the water for a brief flight. From such a beginning came the feather-bearing wing of modern birds. Fig. 146 shows the skeleton of a Dinosaur of 202 MEGALOSAURUS THE “SNANBSOTRSOTL 94 ‘UOpoURNS] O44 JO OzZIS OY} SpaAIyy-OMY YNoge sem [RUIIUR OTL], MVsOUIC, SNOAOATUIRD B JO UOJI[OYS Oy JO SUIMBIGQR— ‘OFT “DI coy \ 203 EXTINCT ANIMALS somewhat less size but with the same kangaroo- like carriage, which was a beast of prey. It is the Megalosaurus, and had many tiger-like teeth in its jaws. It hunted down and fed upon the herbivorous Dinosaurs as lions and tigers hunt and eat antelopes and buffalo to-day. By no means all the Dinosaurs walked on their hind legs. There were enormous kinds which went on all fours. Here is the skeleton of the Brontosaurus (Fig. 147) and a sketch of its appearance in life (Fig. 148). The great Ceteo- saurus, of which the limb bones and most of the skeleton were found near Oxford, is similar to this,and Mr. Andrew Carnegie has presented to the Natural History Museum a complete re- construction of the skeleton of a closely allied Dinosaur—the Diplodocus—which was _ exca- vated in Wyoming and is now in the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburg. It is eighty feet long. Its head is very small, and a great part of the length is made up by the very long neck and the very long tail, but the body is bigger than that of the biggest elephant and the back was nearly fourteen feet from the ground. The immense profusion in which the bones of these huge creatures have been found in 204 THE BRONTOSAURUS ‘Surdooj3s yNoYIIM Yoou oy} Jopun sBoz_ oy} Jo quOAT UT ¥yeM pfnoo ueUI V [rez pue peoy oy} Jo YySuS] 4yeois oy} pu ][Nys oy} Jo ozIs [feuIs AyouTeIzxO sy} 9JON ‘“ShaANesojuoIg ay} JO UOJO[VYS poroysaa AToyoTdur09 eB Jo Surmeriq—')/F] ‘Yi Saco F544 St « Sed SEE 4 =p ze rr END \\ ( «& “a ? as 5 7 Accs ; “6 7 = N Zul /f \\ RO RAR 7 TAN \ / « Nees ay Gur xa \ i EXTINCT ANIMALS Mesozoic strata in the United States is astonish- ing; no less remarkable is the skill and success with which American naturalists—chief among whom have been Professor Marsh of Yale and Professor Cope of Philadelphia—have collected, : ao ee en et oad ‘ 7, o's | Siege eee a RE ea a A le NE . Fic. 148.—Probable appearance of the Ceteosaurus (and of the closely similar Diplodochus and Brontosaurus) in life. It has been suggested that the animal walked along the sea or river bottom keeping its head just above water. Speci- mens of over sixty feet in length have been found. wu fitted together and drawn every detail of more than thirty different kinds of these monsters. They have given such full evidence of the structure and build of the animals that we may with confidence accept the reconstructions of the appearance of the animals such as those 206 THE TRICERATOPS aytydea sty, ‘SOLODOUIY YY] SUIAT] 4SASIR] OY J *(A10jSTFT TRINgYeN JO UMesny UBoTIOUTyY at} Aq pons 0 9ZI1S 04} JO SBA SI [opoul B I9}}® sdoze1901Ly, “INBSOUI(T Pp9udOY-I91Y} IY JO Of, UT aouvareodde 9yy jo SuIMeIq—'6F1 ) raya | 207 EXTINCT ANIMALS shown in Figs. 149 and 150, where the rhino- ceros-like Triceratops and the huge crested Stegosaurus are represented. Such crests and horns are bizarre and grotesque even when carried by little living lizards a few inches long, Fie. 150.—Probable appearance in life of the Jurassic Dinosaur Stegosaurus. The hind leg alone is twice as tall as a well- grown man. but it must be remembered that the Dinosaurs drawn in Figs. 149 and 150 were as big in the body as large elephants. A curious fact about these great Dinosaurs is that they had, as compared with big living reptiles such as the crocodiles, very tiny brains. 208 THE BRAIN OF DINOSAURS You will remember that the extinct mammals known as Titanotherium and Dinoceras have brains one-eighth the bulk of living mammals of the same size, such as rhinoceros and hippo- potamus. So it was with the huge extinct reptiles. In some the head itself was ridicu- lously small according to our notions of cus- tomary proportion, and even in others, such as Triceratops, where the bony and muscular parts of the head were big, as in a rhinoceros, yet the brain was incredibly small. It could have been passed all along the spinal canal in which the spinal cord lies, and was in proportion to bulk of body a tenth the size of that of a crocodile. Very probably this small size of the brain of great extinct animals has to do with the fact of their ceasing to exist. Animals with bigger and ever increasing brains outdid them in the struggle for existence. So much for the Dinosaurs, which might well occupy a complete course of lectures all to themselves. We will now turn to the Thero- morphs, which are an older group even than the Dinosaurs and flourished in the Trias period (see table of strata, p. 60). The Thero- morphs are so called because in some important 209 P EXTINCT ANIMALS parts of the structure of skull and jaw, and often also in the teeth, they resemble the mammals or Theria. They come near to a point in the history of terrestrial vertebrate beasts which is the common origin of Reptiles, Mammals and Batrachia or Amphibians (newts, salamanders and frogs’. Their remains have been found in the Triassic sandstones and limestones of South Africa, of Russia, of India and of Scotland and the centre of England. One of the most striking of these is represented by a completely reconstructed skeleton from Cape Colony in the Natural His- tory Museum, photographed in Fig. 151. The skeleton is some eight feet long and looks like a gigantic pug-dog. This is the Pariasaurus, and is shown by its small teeth to have been herbivorous. From the same locality we have the Dicyno- don with two huge tusks, and the Cynognathus with a skull and set of teeth wonderfully re- calling those of a bear at first sight. Another strange crested form belonging here is the Dimetrodon from the Permian strata of | Texas, Wi52A. (Big. 152): But I am now able to show you, through the 210 THE PARIASAURUS Joo} JYSIO JNoqe [Ie 07 JNOUS OAT YQSUETT =‘UINESnI AIOySIFT [RANAeN 0yyy ut AToog aossejorg Aq dn gyos sv f *‘Sn.In: eselied JO uojJo[oys oyy Jo Ydeisoqyoyug— {eT oI | | | 211 EXTINCT ANIMALS kindness of Professor Amalitzky, of Warsaw, a set of photographs taken by him, showing the discovery and working out by him of a whole series of skeletons of these Theromorph reptiles, closely similar to those from the rocks of Cape fl ee . % ee nat wean. ne 5 | Fie. 152.—Probable appearance in life of the Theromorph Reptile, Dimetrodon, from the Permian of Texas. As big as a large dog. Colony but belonging to a locality far removed from South Africa, namely, to the banks of the Northern Dwina near Archangel in North Russia. Professor Amalitzky has not yet finished his excavations nor published these No [2 THE BANKS OF THE DWINA photographs, and it is therefore a great kindness on his part to allow me to show them here in London. First of all, we have the cliff of Permian strata on the banks of the Dwina (Fig. 153), from i i etanmientt os ee ae Fie. 153.—View of one of the dark patches in the cliffs of the river Dwina (the Northern of that name), where nodules containing the skeletons of extinct reptiles are found. which and from another similar spot the remains were extracted. At this point, where the colour is dark in the photograph, there is a peculiar “pocket” or accumulation of sandy matter with large hard nodules embedded in it. These nodules are removed and broken up for mending 2m EXTINCT ANIMALS the roads. The pocket seems to be in a fissure and of Triassic age, later, that is to say, than the Permian rocks on each side of it. However that may be, the great nodules are removed from it for road mending, and four or five years ago Professor Amalitzky on visiting the spot was astounded and delighted to find that when broken each nodule was seen to contain the skeleton or skull of a great reptile. Fig. 154 BESS Fig. 154.—One of the nodules showing the form of the em- bedded skeleton, head to the right, tail to the left. shows such a nodule, some eight feet long, and in this specimen one can easily distinguish the skull, the four limbs and the backbone of a large animal. The Russian geologist determined to make a most thorough investigation of this wonderful deposit, and for some years now has spent a thousand pounds a year, obtained for 214 a REPTILES FOUND IN NODULES the purpose through the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg, in having the nodules dug out by the peasants after their farming work is over for the year, and in removing them to the University of Warsaw, where with the finest Fic. 155.—Peasants working on the face of the cliff near Archangel and removing nodules containing the skeletons of great reptiles. Instruments and greatest care the nodules are opened and each bone removed in fragments is put together from its more or less broken parts, firmly cemented and set up in its natural position and relations as part of a complete skeleton. 215 EXTINCT ANIMALS Fig. 155 shows the peasants at work, protected by a shed from the fall of stones from above. Fig. 156 shows some of the nodules as yet unopened lying in the laboratory of the geologi- cal professor at Warsaw. Fig. 157 shows a Fra. 156.—Professor Amalitzky’s work-shop in Warsaw, showing skeleton-holding nodules ready to be broken open and others already under preparation. number of skeletons of the huge but harmless vegetarian Pariasaurus which have been cleared out of the nodules and set up on iron supports, as more or less complete specimens. Of course it is not possible in every individual to get out 216 . at a \ sai ~~ ta PARIASAURUS SKELETONS all the bones complete, especially those of the feet. Few of the individuals were complete even when originally embedded in the mud ages ago. When an animal’s body is carried away by ariver and floats in a decomposing state it tends to fall to pieces. Fie. 157.—A series of aeons of Dariaaaunus need bit by bit from Archangel nodules and mounted as detached specimens by Professor Amalitzky. The cliff formed by the present river Dwina consists of rocks of immense, indeed of almost inconceivable, age, and existed as solid rock ages and ages before the surface of the earth had its present form. These deep-lying rocks have been brought near to the surface by bending of 217 EXTINCT ANIMALS the strata (as shown in Fig. 36, p. 52), and the cutting or cliff made by the comparatively modern river exposes them to our view and to easy excavation. The nodules are relatively to the age of the river-valley or cutting (which is probably some 150,000 thousand Fic. 158.—Photograph of a skeleton of Pariasaurus, removed from an enveloping nodule and mounted by Professor Amalitzky. years old), as much older than it is as are Roman coins older than the trench dug three hours ago which brings them to light. If you look at the position of the Trias and Per- mian in the table of strata you will get some idea of how immensely remote is the time when these great reptiles lived where now is Arch- 218 SPECIMENS OF PARIASAURUS angel, for whilst the thickness of a twentieth of an inch suffices to indicate the accumulations of strata since the mammoth lived in England, the Trias is a long way down the series, far below the Eocene, where the ancestral elephants of Egypt are found, far below the Chalk, and freeis5 = Photegeaph by Professor Amalitzky on a larger seale of a skull of a Pariasaurus from an Archangel nodule. older than the long Jurassic series of rocks in which the remains of the great Dinosaurs we have recently looked at, occur. In Fig. 158 one of Professor Amalitzky’s specimens of Pariasaurus is shown. There is no artificial completing of this skeleton: all that is seen is actual bone as cleaned out of a 219 EXTINCT ANIMALS nodule. Only one foot is preserved, but that of course tells us as to its fellow of the opposite side. The skull of another specimen of Paria- saurus is shown in Fig. 159. It is very remark- able that this species seems to be so closely similar to the one discovered far away in South Africa in beds of the same age. Fie. 160.—Skeleton of a huge carnivorous beast of prey-—the reptile named Inostransevia, discovered and_ photo- graphed by Professor Amalitzky of Warsaw. The skull alone is two feet in length. These Pariasaurs were about as big as well grown cattle, but not so high on the legs, In Fig. 160 we have the skeleton of another creature revealed by these nodules. It is an enormous and truly terrible carnivor, with a 220 INOSTRANSEVIA, THE CARNIVOR skull two feet long and enormous tiger-like teeth. This creature is named Inostransevia by Pro- fessor Amalitzky, and is larger than any of the carnivorous reptiles from South Africa. Speci- mens of its skull are shown in the Professor’s photographs reproduced in Figs. 161 and 162. Fia. 161.—Skull of the gigantic Theromorph Carnivorous Reptile, Inostransevia discovered by Professor Amalitzky in Northern Russia. It is allied to Lycosaurus found in Cape Colony in beds of the same age. No doubt the vegetarian herds of Pariasaurus, whose small peg-like teeth indicate clearly enough their inoffensive habits, were preyed upon by the terrible Inostransevia, as were their brethren in South Africa devoured by the Cynognathus, the Lycosaurus, the Cynodraco 221 EXTINCT ANIMALS and other carnivorous reptiles of that remote Triassic age. So we see the co-existence of blood- sucker and victim—of the destructive oppressor and the helpless oppressed—forced on our attention in these two localities, Russia and = j Fre. 162.—Photograph of another skull of Inostransevia. South Africa, when we study the immensely remote past of the Triassic age. We leave now these great extinct land-dwell- ing reptiles and take a glance at representatives of two extinct orders of huge aquatic creatures which must also be classified as reptiles. These are the Plesiosauria and the Ichthyosauria. Though some of them must have measured thirty feet from snout to tail, they do not equal 222 PLESIOSAURS in size the great aquatic mammals of to-day, the whales. ‘uunoesnyy, A1ojsTH [BANAN Og UT o}eqs ogoTdu09 AyrBoU B UT eUOG Aq ouoq dn jos pure ‘ysno10qiejog «ieoU ( goe oIssBing Jo) Aepo oyg Woody spoe’] ‘N poayly “aq Aq poaouted anesorse[q B JO UOZoTays B Jo Ydvasoyoug—E9T “HI Z Lay OBES en OE aw In Fig. 163 is shown the photograph of the skeleton of a large Plesiosaur, and in Fig. 164 223 EXTINCT ANIMALS is given a drawing showing how the creature appeared in life. It had a body like the hull of a submarine with four paddles attached, the fore- and the hind-legs. It had a long neck like that of a swan and an elongated head pro- Fie. 164.—Plesiosaurus as it probably appeared when alive, swimming near the surface of the water with its back showing and its neck and head raised above the surface. vided with powerful jaws armed with numerous pointed teeth. It probably could swim under water as well as on the surface, and when in the latter position could snap small lizards and birds from the land. The paddles have the definite structure of legs, with five toes, wrist or ankle 224 ICHTHYOSAURS and fore-arm or fore-leg and upper arm or thigh. A great number of kinds of these Plesiosaurs have been discovered, especially in the Lias rocks of the South of England, slabs containing whole skeletons being frequently obtained. They and the similarly embedded and flattened skeletons of different kinds of Fig. 165.—Photograph of a skeleton of the large-paddled Ichthyosaurus preserved in Liassic rock. Ichthyosauria may be seen in quantity on the walls of the gallery of fossil reptiles in the Natural History Museum. In Fig. 165 the flattened skeleton of an Ichthyosaurus is photographed. This particular species is remarkable for the great size of its fore-paddles. is) to Ou ie) EXTINCT ANIMALS In Fig. 166 a drawing of an Ichthyosaurus, as it must have appeared in life, isgiven. The Ichthyosaurs are much more fish-like or rather whale-like in form than the Plesiosaurs. They were indeed singularly like the porpoises and Fie. 166.—Drawing to show the probable appearance of an Ichthyosaurus swimming beneath the surface of the sea. grampuses among living whales and stand in the same relation to land-living reptiles that the porpoises do to land-living mammals. Their fish-like appearance and fins are not primitive characters and do not indicate any closer blood- relationship to fishes than that possessed by — 226 ICHTHYOSAURS other reptiles. They are the offspring of four- legged terrestrial reptiles which have become specially modified and adapted to submarine life. Like many whales they had a median fin on the back devoid of bony support. The bones of their legs have become greatly changed, much more so than those of the Plesiosaurs and form often more than five rows of nearly circular or polygonal plates fitted together as a flexible paddle. The tail is fish-like, but has the lower lobe bigger than the upper and the vertebral column bends down into the lower lobe instead of turning up into the upper lobe as it does in fish. The details as to the fins are known from some wonderfully preserved speci- mens found in the fine hardened mud known as the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, where the soft bodies of jelly-fish, cuttle-fishes and the wings of flying reptiles also are preserved. As mentioned in the first chapter, the Ichthyo- sauria (see Fig. 2) had a ring of bony plates supporting the eye-ball (as birds also have), and these are often preserved in the fossil specimens. In Fig. 168 a view of the top of the skull of an Ichthyosaurus is given in order to show the round hole in the middle line of 227 EXTINCT ANIMALS the brain-case (on a level with the letter P). This is called the “‘ parietal foramen,” and is a fair-sized hole in which was lodged an eye, a Fra. 167.—Photograph of the upper surface of the skulljof an Ichthyosaurus. Ona level with the letter P in the middle of the skull is seen an oval pit, the ‘‘ parietal foramen ” in which was lodged the “‘ third ”’ or “‘ pineal ”’ eye. third eye called the pineal eye. This eye is found in some other reptiles also, and especially 228 ICHTHYOSAURS AND COPROLITES in some of the living lizards where its structure has been studied with the microscope. There is no doubt that the body filling this hole in living lizards is an eye, although it seems to have lost the power of sight in these recent forms. A third eye, placed on the top of the head strikes one as a very strange arrangement and contrary to all our common experience of vertebrate animals. Fic. 168.—Side view of the skeleton of an Ichthyosaurus. Below the skeleton is drawn a “‘ coprolite ”’ showing spiral grooving on its surface. In Fig. 168 we have a drawing of the side view of the skeleton of an Ichthyosaurus and below it a fossilized lump of its excrement. These are called coprolites and consist of scales and bones of fishes digested by the Ichthyosaurus. They show a corkscrew-like moulding of the surface, proving that the intestine of the 229 T ANIMALS 1 J EXTINC Ichthyosaurus had a spiral fold like a spiral staircase on the walls of the intestine, as have ‘sotoods oures 049 Jo Suouttoeds az9y4o Wodf UMBIP SULEq Sse_ puly pue Apoq ‘yoou ‘T[Nys ayy ‘seuoq yengow oY} ov SLosUy PUB o[pPALS JopyNoYys ‘sue vy} JO souDg oYy, ‘UIMesny AqoystyT [RIngeN oy} ur uoMyeiedeid eB wor yooy usezYySIe sounsvout dry 037 dy wor ssurm oy} jo Yyoqorys oY, ‘(uopouniatq) atAqoep -O10}q BOIS 9Y}Z JO UOJO[oysS oYy JO UOTZRIOJSAI B Jo YdeIZOJoOYG— ‘GOL “DIT . We also find within well preserved the sharks. specimens of the skeletons of Ichthyosaurus the LID: 230 PTERODACTYLES skeletons of unborn young individuals, showing that the Ichthyosaurus brought forth its young alive. We pass on now to even more astonishing reptiles—the extinct order of the pterodactyles or flying reptiles of the Mesozoic period. These Fic. 170.—The great Pterodactyle Pteranodon as it appeared in flight. creatures were as truly aérial as the birds and bats of to-day. They were of many kinds, from the size of a crow to so huge a form as that drawn in Fig. 169, which measured eighteen feet from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other. Their wings have been found well 251 EXTINCT ANIMALS preserved in the Lithographic slates (see Fig. dl, p. 47), and each consisted of a membrane spread from one enormously big elongated finger to the side of the body and little hind legs. Fig. 170 gives some idea of the form and appearance of the wings when expanded. Such a wing is more like that of a bat than that of a bird, since it is a membranous skin and not a series of feathers. The bat’s wing is a mem- brane supported by three of the fingers as well as the side of the body and hind leg. In Fig. 171 the fossil wing of a Pterodactyle, that of a recent bird with the bones and the great quill-feathers only in place (the smaller feathers having been plucked off), and the wing of a bat are photographed and placed together for comparison. There are two other kinds of flying animals, namely, the flying fishes (which do not fly far), and the six-legged insects or flies, bees and beetles. They have all inde- pendently acquired the habit of flying and have had certain parts of their bodies changed into wings. The process of change must have been gradual and have taken an enormous lapse of time to bring it about in each kind. There are QQ9 =“o- WINGS COMPARED Fic. 171.—Photographs of three wings for comparison of their structure. A. That of a Pterodactyle, membrane sup- ported by one long finger. B. That of a Bird, feathers set on the fore-arm (cubitus) and hand. C. That of a Bat, membrane supported by three elongated fingers. QXOND) ~JI9 EXTINCT ANIMALS some animals, such as the flying squirrels and flying lizards (Draco volans) of to-day, which do not really fly, since they have no wings to beat the air with, but can spread out a great flat surface on each side of the body which enables them to sail through the air for some distance without falling when they jump from the branch of a tree. This, however, is a long way from the point reached by animals which have wings and can strike the air as a fish strikes the water with its fins. Probably the wings of birds and of insects were both derived from fin-like organs which were used to swim with—before they were used in the air. But the origin of the wing of the Pterodactyles, and independently that of the wing of the bats, does not seem to have been of this nature, and is one of the many very puzzling matters which further discoveries may one day enable us to ~ understand. In Fig. 172 two other kinds of Pterodactyle are shown. Some Pterodactyles had no teeth, but long beak-like jaws (Fig. 169). Others had numerous sharp-pointed teeth and were beasts of prey. | It seems natural to pass from the winged 234 PTERODACTYLES reptiles to birds: But as a matter of fact the birds are not very closely related to Pterodac- tyles (Dimorphodon and Rhamphorhynchus). Fra. 172.—Probable appearance in life of two kinds of Jurassic Pterodac- tyles. Birds are, it seems, derived from rep- tiles, and are very specialized, warm-blooded descendants of certain reptiles. They are so 2395 EXTINCT ANIMALS peculiar that they are considered as a distinct “class,” and the reptiles which come nearest to them in structure are the Dinosaurs, especially those Dinosaurs (like Iguanodon) which walked on their hind-legs and had only three toes to the foot. Fossil remains of birds are not abundant—but a few very interesting birds have been found in the Lower Eocene and in the Cretaceous rocks (see list of strata, p. 60), and one more remarkable than any other in the Lithographic slates of Jurassic age. Modern birds have all got feathers and beaks, and, with one or two rare exceptions, the quill feathers are set on the fore-arm and hand so as to form the wing. No living bird has teeth, but fossil birds are known with well developed teeth like those of reptiles. In Fig. 173 is shown the draw- ing of the skeleton of an extinct bird, which had a full set of teeth. The most remarkable extinct bird as yet discovered is that shown in Fig. 174. Two specimens of it have been obtained from the Lithographic slates of Solenhofen in Bavaria. The first one found is preserved in the Natural History Museum ; the. second and more perfect is in Berlin. This bird—called Archeopteryx—was of the size of 236 TOOTHED BIRDS o iS (py IS TY Saher’ Y, Y /) eZ Z Fic. 173.—Restored skeleton of the toothed Bird, [chthyornis —of the size of a pigeon—from the Chalk of Kansas, U.S.A. a large pigeon, had a short head apparently without a beak, and its jaws were armed with teeth. Whereas living birds have the fingers 225 ay] EXTINCT ANIMALS of the hand aborted and tied together, this bird had three distinct fingers, each armed with a claw. Its legs were like those of living birds, Fie. 174.—The Berlin specimen of the Archewopteryx siemensi, showing the wings with three fingers, the long tail, the head and neck and the feathers of the wings and tail. and it had four toes. Its tail was unlike that of any living bird, and like that of a lizard. Whereas the bony part of the tail of living birds is very short and bears the tail feathers set 235 THE ARCHAOPTERYX across it fan-wise, the Archzopteryx had a long bony tail made up of many vertebra, and the feathers were set in a series one behind the other on each side of it, so that the tail resembled the leaf of a date palm in shape. Strange as this little creature appears, it was a genuine bird, for it had true feathers well developed, which are clearly shown in the two fossil speci- mens. Besides the two rows of feathers on the long tail, there are the full set of feathers spreading from the fore-arms and hands to form the wings, and the thighs also were covered with feathers. It cannot be said that this ancient extinct bird goes far towards connecting birds with reptiles: but in the possession of separate claw- ‘bearing fingers, a long bony tail and teeth, in the apparent want of a beak, it does come nearer to lizard-like reptiles than does any other known bird. In the Tertiary Strata remains of various birds have been found. One of great interest on account of its enormous size is the Phoro- rachus of South America. We have in Fig. 175 a photograph of the skull of this bird placed beside the stuffed skin of a living South American 239 EXTINCT ANIMALS bird, the Cariama or Screamer. If the extinct bird had the general proportions and habits of the Cariama, as seems probable, it must have been a terrible monster, standing some twelve feet high and far exceeding the most powerful eagles and vultures in strength and the size of Fic. 175.—Photographs to one scale of the South American Cariama and the skull of the gigantic extinct Phororachus. its beak and claws. Great extinct wingless birds are found in quite recent “alluvial”’’ deposits in New Zealand and in Madagascar. The discovery of the bones of the great Moa of New Zealand has already been mentioned in our second chapter (p. 69). Many species of Moa have been found in New Zealand. The 240 WINGLESS BIRDS Moa is allied to the ostriches of Africa, the emeus and cassowaries of Australia, and the rheas of South America. It appears that under certain conditions of life birds may gradually lose the use of their wings, which dwindle in size and finally may dis- appear altogether. Such wingless birds are not necessarily of one stock. The wingless condi- tion, or the great reduction in the size of the wings, has occurred in various kinds of birds at various periods of the earth’s history, and in the same way wingless insects of different orders have come into existence. In New Zealand, besides the Moas, which are all now extinct, a small kind of wingless bird is found which is still alive and is known as the Apteryx or Kiwi. In Fig. 176 we have placed one behind the other each with its egg in front of it: a Kiwi, the skeleton of a very fine Ostrich, and the skeleton of a giant Moa (Dinornis maximus). The Polynesian islanders who landed in New Zealand some five hundred years ago, found the Moas still living, and hunted them down and lived upon their flesh. Skin and feathers of these enormous birds have been found preserved in a dried condition as well as the skeletons, and there are 241 R EXTINCT ANIMALS traditions as to the hunting of the Moa still in existence. The Moa of Madagascar seems to ie i —_ | Fie. 176.—Photographs to one scale of the Apteryx, the Ostrich and the giant Moa of New Zealand, each with its egg. have been a smaller bird, but laid a proportion- ately much larger egg. It will be seen in Fig. 242 FLIGHTLESS BIRDS 176 that the eggs of the Ostrich and of the Dinornis are not nearly so big in proportion to the size of the bird as is that of the Apteryx, which lays a truly gigantic egg considering the size of its body. The Moa of Madagascar is known as the Adpyornis and laid the biggest egg known—much bigger than that of the biggest New Zealand Moa—resembling the Apteryx in the proportionate sizes of its egg and its body. It was this very large egg which inflamed the imagination of ancient navigators and led to the vast exaggeration, which thrills the reader with wonder and terror, in the accounts of the “‘roc”’ given by Sinbad the Sailor in the Arabian _ Nights. Flightless birds necessarily, unless they are, like the penguins, great swimmers, must get destroyed and become extinct when man arrives on the scene. The dodo, of which I spoke in my first lecture (p. 26), was a close ally of the pigeons, but had lost its power of flight owing to the fact that it had no dangerous enemies in the island of Mauritius. It had become a heavy, slow running, though powerful ground bird. As soon as man arrived, and with him the pig, the flightless dodo was doomed to 243 EXTINCT ANIMALS extinction. An extinct water-bird, the Hes- perornis, had no wings whatever, whilst the penguins use their wings as swimming organs and are unable to fly. This was also the case with the gare-fowl or great auk (Fig. 15, p. 23), which has recently become extinct. CHAPTER, VI PXTINCT FISHES — BELEMNITES — LINGULA — TRILOBITES—SCORPIONS AND STONE LILIES E might, if we had time, now look at the remains of the great bony Labyrintho- donts—creatures allied to the newts, salaman- ders and frogs of to-day, which form the class Amphibia. They stand lower than the R2ptiles, Birds and Mammals; and though they have typically five toes and crawl or walk the earth, yet are essentially aquatic animals, inasmuch as their young are “ tadpoles,” fish-like in form and provided with gills. No reptile, bird or mammal has hitherto been found in what are called the Paleozoic strata, but in the Upper Paleozoic strata—those of the Carboniferous system, the period of the coal-bearing strata (see Table of Strata)—there was an immense 245 EXTINCT ANIMALS 5) variety of ‘‘ Amphibia,’”’ some of very large‘size —as large asa well-grown crocodile. It seems as though we might describe the Carboniferous as the period of the predominance of Amphibia, just as the Jurassic is that of the predominance of Reptiles and the Tertiary that of the predominance of Mammals. The Labyrinthodonts, though of great interest to the trained anatomist, do not present many striking forms; the most noticeable were of the size and shape of large alligators. Accord- ingly, in the short space that remains to us, I propose to pass by the Labyrinthodonts and go on to the fishes, and bring to your notice some of the strange fishes, the remains of which are dug up in very ancient strata, as far back even as the Upper Silurian and the Devonian rocks. I shall then have space to mention a few of the more extraordinary extinct animals of the lower kinds, strange shell-fish, star-fishes and scorpions of the remote past. The silver-scaled fish which are so abundant at the present day, with their symmetrical tails, such as herring, salmon, carp, roach, perch and other modern fishes more curious in form, such as eels, flat-fishes, sticklebacks, pipe-fishes 246 GANOID FISH-SCALES and parrot-fish, are all of comparatively recent origin. They are not found in the rocks older than the Cretaceous system. On the other hand, the sharks and dog-fish of to-day are the most ancient kind of fish known to us, remains of shark-like fishes occurring in Silurian strata. But the sharks have soft cartilaginous skeletons, and have only, as a rule, left teeth and spines Fic. 177.—The hard bony scales of aGanoid Fish. (#) Four scales as fitted together on the surface of the fish’s body ; (6) two scales turned over to show the ridge by which they lock into one another. and the denticles of the skin (shagreen) in the rocks. On the other hand there are certain fishes known which have hard bony scales and often great plates of bone on the head. They are often called ‘“‘ Ganoid fishes” on account of their hard smooth bony scales (see Fig. 177), which differ in substance and shape from the thin, flexible scales of common fish. They 247 EXTINCT ANIMALS were very abundant in Mesozoic and Pale- ozoic times, and have left their hard scales in a very perfect state in the ancient rocks of those periods. They had often unequally divided triangular tail-fins, and in internal structure were like the sharks rather than the modern bony fishes. Very few of these Ganoid fish survive to the present day, but a fine one, the Polypterus (Fig. 178), still lives in the Nile and other African rivers, and another, the bony pike or Lepidosteus, in the North American lakes. The sturgeon also belongs to this set of fishes. In the Devonian is found, together with many others, a beautifully preserved fish, the Osteolepis (Fig. 180), which had lobed fins and hard bony scales like the Polypterus of the Nile. Allied to these Ganoid fishes, but differing in the fact that they possess lungs as well as gills and have very peculiar lobate fins, are the so-called mudfish of Africa (Protopterus) and of South America (Lepidosiren). A third mud- fish is found in the rivers of Queensland, Aus- tralia, and is now living in the Zoological Gar- dens in London. It is called Ceratodus (Fig. 181), and is obviously related to some very ancient extinct fishes, of whose race it is a last 248 THE NILE OF THE POLYPTERUS [req wetpnood oyy puw uy [esiop peplarp yonur oy ‘suy [e1oyood poqo] oy} ‘soyevos o1quIoYya paey oy SMoYs 4 ‘avoUTT ‘ezIs — Ssh Yai [erngzeu oy} palyy-ouo ‘ofIN’ eyy jo snaoydAjog oy Jo urys potap vB yo ydeasoqoyg 249 ANIMALS EXTINCT One of these ancient forebears of the Ceratodus is found fossil in the Devonian SUrVI1VOTr. Scotland and of Sandstone of Old Red or (umoesny YS4ylIg oy Jo sooysnay, oy} Aq yuoyT) (‘Aapney aoyyy) ‘[re} popratp ATTenboun oy4 pure soyeos Auoq aepnsue qos Ayosopo oy} sAdOSqGQ, ‘SatoquIoqIN AA jo sey aoddyQ oy} wWoay st pure ‘sesuaajzay snjopidayT st YsSy ou, ‘yoOI UL poppoequIe poeroAOodsIp se ‘YSTy prlouey [ISsof W—'G6LT “pI u y It is known as Dipterus, and is shown 2 Russia. . It differs from Ceratodus in having Fig. 18 strong bony scales (whence its preservation as in THE OSTEOLEPIS The true a fossil) and a triangular tail-fin. ‘suy (Je10j00d 10) [e194e] TOTIOZUB 9} JO oqo], URIpoU 904} OJON “puURTOOg Jo (URTUOAGCT) SYOOI oUOYSpuURg por PIO 94} ur punos ‘stdefoo4sCQ Ys prlouesy yoUTZxXO OY} JO SurmVap oUTTINOQ—'OST “DIT Qe —S—* tail-fin has disappeared altogether in the living Dipterus has peculiar teeth} just mud-fishes. 251 EXTINCT ANIMALS like those of Ceratodus, and its fins are similar in character to those of the latter. In the Devonian strata are found also the It grows to a length g as well as water by its gills. ritish Museum. ) > ) 181.—The Australian lung-fish Ceratodus. of two feet and breathes air by its lun (Figure lent by the Trustees of the FE Fia. extraordinary fishes known as Pterichthys. They were compared by the wonderful Scotch quarry- man, Hugh Miller—who seventy years ago 252 THE DIPTERUS discovered them and cleaned out many speci- mens from the rocks of his native hills at Cro- (‘uInesny YSIZIag oYy Jo seoysnay, oyy Aq quo; canst) ‘suy ueTpour ojearedos szoyyo pue uy [rez podofeaop Ayjny orcoul vB sey ynq ‘snpoyzyesog oy] syoodser AuBUL UT SBAL 4 = “BISSNYT ul pue pueyoog ur punoy ‘snaoqdiq, ‘Ysly UeTUOAG”, youTyxXe eT —'SZ8l “OTT ( ce wae LG ELE: eee ez. ee AE ge OE a marty in Scotland—to a tortoise’s shield with a fish thrust into it. We have now gained from 253 EXTINCT ANIMALS Fic. 183.—Outline drawing of the extinct fish Pterichthys from the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone strata. A dorsal (34), ventral (35) and lateral view (36) are given. The various bony plates are numbered. The scaly body with dorsal fin and tail fin is shown. Note also the lateral leg-like anterior fins. The round orbits (4) are seen in Fig. 34 and the mouth in 35 between the plates 2and 3. (After Traquair.) the examination of a great number of specimens ‘ from Canada as well as Scotland a very detailed 254 THE STRANGE FISH, PTERICHTHYS knowledge of the curious bony plates which ‘carapace ’’ of the body (4 build up the case or Fig. 184.—Photograph of a cardboard model of Pterichthys made by Hugh Miller, the celebrated stone-mason and naturalist of Cromarty, preserved in the Natural History Museum. of Pterichthys (Fig. 183), and also of its soft scaly tail, and the two extraordinary paddles 255 x EXTINCT ANIMALS or limbs which represent the anterior or breast fins of acommon fish. Hugh Miller puzzled this out with great skill and constructed a card- board model of the fish which we have still pre- served in the Natural History Museum. It will, I think, be interesting to those who have read | the writings of Hugh Miller (The Testimony of the Rocks, My Schools and Schoolmasters, and other books) to see a photograph of the model of Pterichthys which he made with his own hands (Fig. 184). In the same rocks with Pterichthys occurs another very curious fish, the Coccosteus. This and Pterichthys were of small size only, about a foot long, but in Ohio in the United States the lower jaws and skulls of huge fishes allied to Coccosteus have been found, which must have been ten or twelve feet in length. The lower jaw of one of these (called Dinichthys), together with a restored outline of Coccosteus is shown in Fig. 185. Very strange and curious fishes (only a few inches long) are found in still older strata—in the oldest Devonian and the Upper Silurian. One of these is called the buckler-head or Cephalaspis (Fig. 186). Its head is of the shape 256 COCCOSTEUS AND DINICHTHYS of a saddler’s knife and the two eyes are placed near the centre. Another fish is known almost solely by the shields which covered the head or head and body, one above and the other below. a | -y (4 te ya Co Aig peace ray git Sele 15 / E 2% Ox far)\ mt 23 pe Oat a 3 we HW ar Vy 22 2 a a : ae Fig 1 Fic. 185.—The upper figure is a restored outline of the curious Devonian fish, Coccosteus. It is about a foot and a half long. The lower figure is a photograph to the same scale of the lower jaw of a huge fish allied to Coccosteus found in the Devonian rocks of Ohio in the United States of America. Itis called Dinichthys, and must have been from ten to twelve feet long. The above jaw and nearly complete skulls are in the Natural History Museum. This is the Pteraspis (Fig. 187). The head or nead-and-body shields of these fishes and those of Cephalaspis are found in immense numbers in the hard gritty ‘“‘ cornstones ’’ of Worcester- 257 S EXTINCT ANIMALS shire and Herefordshire, also in Scotland. The stone is quarried for road mending, and great quantities of specimens have been found, though no other fossils occur with these fish-heads. It used to be imagined that this rock was the deposit of a great fresh-water lake, but that is not likely, since Pteraspis heads are found with marine shells in the rocks of Galicia. The curious thing is that although occasionally a Fic. 186.—Photograph from the original specimen of Cephalas- pis lyelli, preserved in the Natural History Museum, one- third the natural size, showing the saddler’s-knife-shaped head and the scale-bearing body. tail or body of Cephalaspis covered with scales and provided with fins has been found attached to a head-shield, as in Fig. 186, yet the body or tail of Pteraspis remains unknown. The only specimen showing any trace of the hinder 258 THE SCALES OF PTERASPIS region of Pteraspis is one which I obtained when I was a boy (in 1864) at a quarry in Herefordshire, the workmen from whom I got it saying it was a fossilized fir-cone. As a Fic. 187.—Drawings of the head-shield of the fossil fish Pteraspis. A is the species Pteraspis crouchit. B is Pteraspis rostratus. C shows a view of the under surface of the fish’s head, which was protected by a peculiar oval plate (called Scaphaspis, when it was supposed to repre- sent an independent kind of fish). The probable position of the mouth in front of the oval shield is shown. (Original. ) little concession to my vanity, I have had this solitary specimen, which I gave long ago to the British Museum, photographed of the natural size (Fig. 188). It is not much to look at, but it is one of the most interesting specimens I 259 EXTINCT ANIMALS have myself had the pleasure of unearthing. The strange thing is that it is and remains unique. Fig. 189 is a photograph of the upper and Fic. 188.—Photograph (of the natural size) of a specimen showing parts of the upper and lower head-shields of Pteraspis crouchii, with ten rows of lozenge-shaped scales attached. This is the only specimen showing the scales of Pteraspis, and was obtained by the author at Cradley, near West Malvern, Herefordshire, in 1864, and subse- quently presented by him to the British Museum. under side of a model of the Drepanaspis, a most strange fossil fish of the same early age, allied to Pteraspis. It is prepared from the 260 THE DREPANASPIS drawings of Professor Traquair, who has de- scribed the fish. Specimens of it in a crushed state preserved in the slate-rock of North Germany are in the Natural History Museum. pes Fie. 189.—Photographs of models of the Devonian Fish Drepanaspis, in the Natural History Museum, prepared after the drawings of Dr. Traquair. (Original.) Fishes resembling this in shape have recently been found in the Silurian strata of Lanark- shire, and they, together with the curious little fishes drawn in Figs. 190, 191, are 261 EXTINCT ANIMALS the oldest remains of fishes which have been discovered. These last two—Birkenia and Lasanius (Figs. 190, 191)—are very puzzling Fie. 190.—Outline drawing of the Silurian fish Birkenia from Scotland, described by Dr. Traquair. little creatures, with spines set in a row along the belly. It is difficult to make out back from belly or to distinguish eyes or mouth, yet they show characteristic fish tails and a scaly cover- Fie. 191.—Outline drawing of Lasanius, another genus of fish similar to that drawn in Fig. 190, and from the same locality, described by Dr. Traquair. ing of the body. These are among the most recent discoveries and come from the Upper Silurian strata of Scotland. Specimens of these are in the Natural History Museum, but the finest series are in the Edinburgh Museum, where Professor Traquair has made a special study of the most ancient fish remains, the 262 VAST EXTENT OF ANCIENT STRATA most ancient vertebrate remains, yet disinterred from the crust of the earth. Ancient, inconceivably ancient, as are these Upper Silurian rocks, there are yet immense thicknesses below them of stratified rock, con- taining fossils in which no fish remains have been discovered. We must not conclude that the very curious-looking fishes of the Upper Silurian are really the actual forefathers of all later fish and of all vertebrate life. They just happen to be preserved and dug up, but probably soft-bodied fishes existed then and before that time which had no bones inside and no hard scales outside, and so have left no sign, in the rocks, of their existence. The Upper Silurian strata are, as you will see by looking at the Table of Strata on p. 60, just halfway down in the thicknesses of rocks, between the present river gravels above and the Cambrian beds with the oldest known fossils (certain Trilobites) below. We will revert to the Trilobites directly ; but before leaving the extinct fishes I wish to men- tion the great fossil sharks of the late Tertiaries (Miocene and Pliocene). These we know by their teeth ; enormous shark’s teeth are found which are three times the length of the teeth 263 EXTINCT ANIMALS of the biggest living sharks on record, as shown in Fig. 192. These teeth are found in beautiful preservation in Malta, in the Antwerp Fic. 192.—Photograph of the jaws of a large recent Shark (Carcharodon rondeletii), the largest specimen of the kind in the Natural History Museum. At a, a, right and left, is placed a single tooth of the great extinct Miocene shark for comparison. The space between the upper and lower jaw is two feet. The fossil teeth are six inches in length, and the largest in the jaw are two inches in length. sands, in Maryland, U.S.A., and in Suffolk in England. In Suffolk they occur in the same wonderful bone-bed of the Red and Coralline Crag (see Fig. 1924), from which we get the 264 |) re i %. 1924.—Photograph of the natural size of a tooth of the great shark, - Carcharodon megalodon, from the bone-bed of the Red Crag of Felix- stowe, Suffolk. The specimen is in the author’s cabinet. It is three times the length of the largest living shark’s tooth, and the fish which bore it was probably 100 feet in length. A kind of sandstone is seen adhering to a part of the surface of the tooth, which shows that this tooth (like many others found in the Red Crag) had been embedded in an earlier sandy deposit (the Diestien sands) before it was washed into the Red Crag. 265 EXTINCT ANIMALS teeth of mastodon, rhinoceros and tapir. It seems to be a correct conclusion that this huge shark (Carcharodon megalodon) was nearly one hundred feet in length, since its teeth were fully three times the length of an almost identi- cal recent shark (Carcharias rondeletii), which measures thirty feet in length. ** Extinct animals” include, as must be obvious at once, a vast number of smaller creatures besides the vertebrate Fishes, Am- phibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. Rocks occur containing thousands, even millions, of shells of Molluscs (whelks, bivalves, etc.) crowded together in a space of a few feet. Remains of minute shrimpsare equally abundant, and whole mountains are built up of rock formed by the coral or calcareous skeleton of minute polyps resembling our sea-anemone. Many of these are very peculiar forms, unlike those now living. Others, again, are remarkable for the fact that though found in the most ancient rocks they yet closely resemble creatures still living to-day. We will now glance at a few of the more ek) remarkable “‘ fossils ’’ of these lower or simpler kinds. (See the table of classes on p. 56.) 266 THE AMMONITES In the Jurassic strata and in the Greensand and Chalk wonderful coiled shells are very Fic. 193.—Ammonites (Aegoceras capricornus) from the Lower Lias of England. commonly found which have been compared by the country-folk to petrified snakes and to Fic. 1934.—The shell of the Pearly Nautilus, cut in half so as to show the air chambers in the coils of the shell. (Lent by the Trustees of the British Museum. ) the coiled horns of the ram. These are the so- called Ammonites (Fig. 193), of which there 267 EXTINCT ANIMALS are a great number of different kinds, some as big as five feet in diameter. When cut across they are seen to be divided into a number of chambers internally. In fact, their structure is the same as that of the beautiful shells of the Pearly Nautilus (Fig. 1934), which to-day lives inthe Indian and Pacific oceans. The chambers in the shell of the pearly nautilus contain gas Fic. 194.—The divided shell of the Pearly Nautilus, with the animal in place in the large front chamber. (Lent by the Trustees of the British Museum.) and act as a float, whilst the animal lives in the last chamber (Fig. 194). There are only some three or four species of pearly nautilus now living, and they represent a vast variety of extinct creatures which comprise not only the Ammonites but the more ancient Goniatites, Some of these extinct allies of nautilus, such as 268 ALLIES OF AMMONITES the Orthoceras, were not coiled but quite straight ; others were loosely coiled, as is the Ancyloceras : Gir of NY SS Wily Lyf) y Fic. 195.—The shell of Ancyloceras matheronianum, from the Neocomian (Lower Cretaceous) rocks of France. (Lent by the Trustees of the British Museum.) A similar shell is found in the Lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight. shown in Fig. 195, and others were twisted into elongated spires (Turrilites). The creature which lived in these shells was similar to a cuttle-fish (as we know from ex- 269 EXTINCT ANIMALS amination of the animal of Nautilus), and be- longed to the class Cephalopoda of the great group Mollusca. The Molluscs include, besides these, the whelks, snails, mussels, clams and oysters. Fic. 196.—Belemnites hastatus from the Oxford Clay (Jurassic). The left-hand figure represents a specimen cut in half and shows the conical cavity or phragmacone (rudimentary chambered shell). The right-hand figure is the “‘ thunder- bolt ” as usually found. A celebrated fossil which is the internal shell or “‘ pen ”’ of a kind of cuttle-fish is that known bythe name ‘‘ Belemnite”’ (Fig. 196). These fossils are called “‘ thunder-bolts”’ in some parts of England, where they are sufficiently common in the clay and shale to attract attention. They 270 THE BELEMNITE’S CUTTLE FISH’. are found only in the Jurassic and Cretaceous formations. In fine clay specimens occur showing the soft parts of the sort of cuttle-fish in which they were formed (see Fig. 197). They Fic. 197.—Restored drawing of the animal in which the ‘““Belemnite ” is formed. The dense pencil-like piece lies embedded near the hinder end. (From a drawing by Sir Richard Owen.) are of the same character as the “ cuttle-bone ” of the living cuttle-fish and the pen of the squid (Fig. 198), but are more solid and heavy. The oldest fossils which are known are found 277 EXTINCT ANIMALS in the Lower Cambrian rocks (see Table of Strata, p. 60), and are the remains of small marine creatures, which were, however, by no means very simple in structure. One of these is the Lingula davis (Fig. 199), from the Lingula Fic. 198.—Loligo media, a cuttle-fish or squid now living in British seas. On the left is seen the long horny “ pen,” which, like the Belemnite, is embedded in the animal’s back. (Lent by the Trustees of the British Museum.) flags of Wales. Only the simple oval shells are known, but they are almost exactly like the shells of a marine animal which is still found living in immense numbers on the shores of the warmer oceans. The living owners of these shells occur in great numbers burrowing in sand and BLT Ds <-/- THE OLDEST FOSSILS OF ALL have a very highly complex structure and _ red- coloured blood. It is indeed a most remarkable fact that the remote fossil shells of the lower Fie. 199.—Lingula (Lingulella) davisii, of the natural size, embedded in the slaty rock of Port Madoc, North Wales. Cambrian strata should be identical with those of a living animal of a high rank in the scale of structure. Not only is that the case, but in all Fig. 200.—One of the most ancient Trilobites known (Cono- coryphe lyellii), from the Lower Cambrian of Nun’s Well, Wales. From a drawing by Professor Gaudry. This Trilobite is also called Conocephalites. the deposits above the Cambrian we find the shells of Lingula, so that we must conclude that Lingula has been existing in the seas of 273 40 EXTINCT ANIMALS this earth, with very little change in form, ever since the Lower Cambrian times. Another class of fossils which are equally ancient are the Trilobites (Fig. 200). These are well-marked forms with ringed or jointed bodies divided very often into three longitudinal lobes; hence the old name Trilobites. An immense number of different kinds of Trilobites are known and classified, but they ceased to exist in the Permian period (see Table of Strata, p. 60). For along time the legs of these creatures were unknown; they have only been found within the last ten years. Mr. Beecher, of the United States, discovered them in one particular kind— the Triarthrus becki (Fig. 201). Some people consider these animals to be allied to the wood- lice or other crustacean shrimp-like forms now living. But it seems most probable that they were a primitive marine group allied to the scorpions, spiders and king-crabs (the Arachnida). It is a fact of very great significance that the earliest fossils yet discovered are the remains of very highly developed animals, by no means near the beginning of animal life. It is indeed a reasonable supposition that the earliest forms — of animal life must have preceded the Cambrian — 274 THE LEGS OF TRILOBITES = BAC df Ly aA \ ZN ie hy a EAAZ Ge AK ve (Somat fy CU sty Wes MWR RT 3 SSS SS ANS SS nl \eNS SS \ SS Fic. 201.—Drawing of Triarthrus becki, a Trilobite from the Silurian rocks (Ordovician) of New York, of which the legs and antennz are well preserved, although no other Trilobite has been found showing these parts. (Lent by Macmillan & Co.) 275 EXTINCT ANIMALS Trilobites and Lingula by as long a period as these latter precede the animals living to-day. Apparently the soft-bodied animals which pre- ceded the Cambrian fossils have not left any remains in the rocks below the Cambrian or their remains have been destroyed by chemical and Fic. 202.—The Desert Scorpion (Buthus australis). Drawn from a living specimen in the author’s laboratory. structural change in those most ancient deposits. The Scorpion itself (Fig. 202) isa very ancient and important animal which so far impressed the imagination of even the earliest civilized men, that they named one of the constellations after it. Some hundreds of distinct species of scorpions are known as living at the present day 276 EXTINCT SCORPIONS in various parts of the world. In the Car- boniferous strata we find fossil scorpions hardly differing at all from those now alive, and even in the Upper Silurian we find a scorpion (Fig. 203), which would be recognized at once by a child Fig. 203.—Drawing of the remains of a Scorpion (Palewophonus hunteri) from the Upper Silurian of Lesmahago, Scotland. as being a true scorpion. It, however, seems probable that whilst modern scorpions are terrestrial, and breathe air by means of lung- sacs, the Silurian scorpion was aquatic. This is indicated by its thick crab-like legs with strong pointed end-joints (Figs. 204 and 205). Besides the Silurian scorpion of undoubted 277 EXTINCT ANIMALS affinity to modern scorpions, we find in the Silurian and Devonian rocks remains of enor- mous aquatic scorpion-like creatures, sometimes Fic. 204.—Completed draw- Fie. 205.—Completed draw- ing of the Scotch Silurian ing of the Silurian Scorpion (Paleophonus Scorpion of Gothland hunteri), seen from be- (Paleophonus nuncius), low, so as to show the seen from above. attachments of the legs. four or five feet in length (Figs. 207, 208, 209). These are known as the Eurypterids (Ptery- gotus, Stylonurus, Eurypterus, etc.). They had 278 THE EURYPTERIDS six legs like the scorpion, of which the anterior carried nippers in some instances. The great Fic. 206.—View of the anterior part of a recent Scorpion from below, so as to show the attachments of the limbs, the genital plate (VII go), the combs (VIII p), and the lung- mouths (IX stg to XII stg). Note also the claws at the ends of the walking legs. spine at the end of the body is the representa- tive of the scorpion’s sting, whilst they agree with scorpions in the position and character of 279 EXTINCT ANIMALS the eyes and in the number of segments or rings which build up the body and the head. , A very interesting animal which is still alive (but is also found in ancient rocks) connects the Fic. 207.—View from below of the anterior part of the great Silurian Scorpion-like creature, Pterygotus osiliensis (From Zittel’s Paleontology, lent by Messrs. Mac- millan. ) scorpions with the great extinct Eurypterids and also with the Trilobites. This is the King- crab (Figs. 210, 211, 212), which is not a true crab—that is to say, a member of the class 280 “ THE KING CRAB Crustacea—but is a sort of marine scorpion with shortened tail (though having a long sting-like spine at the end of its body)—a $8 Fic. 208.—Photograph of a restored model of Stylonurus lacoanus, from the Upper Devonian of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Original about five feet in length. By Professor C. E. Beecher. member of the class Arachnida. Its legs, six in number (Fig. 212), are singularly like those of the scorpion, and in a great number of minute 281 EXTINCT ANIMALS details it agrees with scorpions (see Fig. 213) ip F, il ee e & A Al wl al) co) 6 uit 3 Fie. 3209.—Eurypterus fischeri, a marine Scorpion-like animal from the Silurian rocks of Rootzikul. Half the size of nature. (Cut lent by Macmillan’s Co., New York, from | Zittel’s Paleontology.) and differs from crabs. It is the only surviving representative of the aquatic ancestors from 282 | THE KING CRAB which the modern air-breathing scorpions and spiders have been developed. From amongst all the great variety of extinct Fig. 210.—Dorsal view of the King-Crab (Limulus polyphemus Linneus), one-fourth the size of nature. (Cut lent by Messrs. Macmillan from Parker and Haswell, T'ext-book of Zoology.) invertebrate animals, I select for our last illus- trations and descriptions a few of the beautiful stone-lilies or Pentacrini, or Encrinites as they 283 IK : ES > a DIT Lk VD eae ee oe i i ee aes ian ae I Ichthyornis — skeleton of toothed bird, 237 Ichthyosaurus : Excrement, fossilized lump, showing spiral groov- ing, 229 Extinct order of reptiles, 192 Eyes—third or pineal eye placed on the top of the head, 227, 228 3 Ichthyosaurus—contd. Fish-like or whale-like ap- pearance, 226, 227 Head of, from Liassie rocks of Lyme Regis, 6 Large-paddled ichthyosau- rus preserved in Lias- sic rock, 225 Offspring of four-legged ter- restrial reptiles, 227 Size of, 222 Skeletons, 225, 229 Young, bringing forth alive, 231 upper jaw showing serrated edges of teeth similar to those of the iguanodon, 200 Iguanodon : Bones and teeth, discover- ies made by Dr. Gide- on Mantell, 199, 200 Footprint, supposed, in Isle of Wight sandstone, o4 Foot like that of a bird— stock from which birds have been derived, 202 Size, shape, ete.—probable appearance in living condition, 198, 199 Skeletons : Complete skeletons dis- covered near Brussels, 201 Drawing of, 197 Skull—specimen discovered near Brussels, 201— photograph, 202 ‘Teeth showing — serrated margin, 199 Iguana O INDEX Iguanodon—contd. Illustrations—contd. Similarity of teeth to those of the little South American lizard igu- ana, 200 Ilford brickfield, remains of mammoth, etc., found in, 92, 295 Illustrations : American mastodon, 101 Ammonites, 267 Ancyloceras, shell of, 269 Apteryx, ostrich and giant moa with eggs, 242 Archeopteryx, 238 Armadillo, 169 Arsinoitherium, 152, 153 Atlantosauros,thigh-bone,11 Beavers, 15 Belemnite’ scuttle-fish speci- mens, 270, 271 Birkinia, Silurian fish, 262 Bognor rock, 45 Bones embedded in rock, from Pikermi near Athens, 2 Brain-cavity of Dinoceras, small size compared with that of the horse, ete., 150 Brontosaurus, skeleton, 205 Cephalaspis, 258 Ceteosaurus, Diplodochus and Brontosaurus, 206 Chilian coast, change in level ; alleged Spanish inscriptions on rocks, 38, 39, 40 Chlamydosaur from Queens- land, 195 Clouded tiger, teeth of, 81 -Coccosteus : curious Devon- ian fish, 257 Sati Coypu rat, teeth of, 82 Crocodile—fossil jaw, 82 Deer—skeleton of male of giant Irish deer, 94 Dinoceras, 148, 149 Dinosaur stegosaurus, 208 Dinosaur, Triceratops — three-horned dinosaur, 207 Dinotherium, skull of, 118 Diprotodon — skull, skele- ton, ete., 185-188 Dodo, 26, 27 Drawings by primitive men 91, 92 Drepanaspis, 261 Dromatherium, lower jaws of, ete., 189 Divina river, Northern Rus- sia — Professor Ama- litzky’s discoveries,213 Ear of man, show spiral construction of inter- nal ear, 74-76 Elephant, mammoth, and mastodon— transverse ridges on molar teeth, 110-113, 115 Elephants : Head of African elephant, with uplifted trunk 122 Indian and African ele- phants, 97, 98 Skulls, 104, 107, 108, 109 Skulls and jaws of series of elephant ancestors, 126, 128 Tusks, specimens in Natural History Mu- “seum, 99 INDEX Tllustrations—contd. Illustrations—contd. Fayum Desert, remains of silicified trees, 124 Flint implements, 86 Footprints of animals in ancient rocks, 54, 55 Ganoid fish fossil, 250 Hard bony scales of, 247 Giraffe, 21 Five-horned giraffe, 156, 157 Teeth of lower jaw and allied animals, 159 Glyplodon—skeleton, 170 Great auk and egg, 23, 25 Horse : Hyracotherium, Eocene ancestor, 139, 140 Model of thoroughbred English horse, 133 Phenacodus, skeleton of, 141 Toes and foot of modern horse and of four-toed and three-toed ances- LOLS oO One eloS Horse and man, skeletons compared, 70—72 Human teeth, 80 Ichthyornis—toothed bird, 237 Ichthyosaurus, 6, 225, 226, 228, 229 Iguanodon, 197, 198, 199, 200, 202 Inostransevia, skeleton and skull, 220, 221, 222 Jaw of mammal from Stonesfield slate, 84 Jelly fish preserved in litho- graphic limestone, 48 512 King-crab, 281-286 Lasanius—Silurian fish, 262 Lingula, shell of, 272, 273 Lizard : Mexican horned lizard, 194 New Zealand lizard, Tua- tara, 193 Loligo media — cuttle-fish living in British seas, 272 Lyme Regis, strata of cliff at, 49, 51 Mammoth : Imaginary picture of, 96 Skeleton found frozen in Siberia, 93 Mastodons : Meritherium, 129, 130 Tetrabelodon angustidens, long-jawed Miocene mastodon, 116, 117, 119, 121 Megalosaurus — skeleton, 203 Megatherium—skeleton, 7 Moa—New Zealand moa, 68, 69 Mylodon : Remains of, discovered in cave, Piece of skin of the mylodon, ete., 175, 176 Various specimens found with the remains) of the mylodon, 177-182 View from the mouth of the cave on the fiord of the Ultima Speranza in Southern Patagonia, 174 INDEX Illustrations—contd. Skeleton, 173 Nodules containing skele- tons of reptiles—Pro- fessor Amalitzky’s dis- coveries, 213-216 Occipital condyles in skulls of mammals and rep- tiles, 73, 74 Okapi, specimen of, dis- covered by Sir Harry Johnston, ete., 163, 164, 165 Osteolepis—extinet ganoid fish, 251 Pariasaurus—skeleton, 211, 218—skull, 219 Pearly nautilus, 267, 268 Phororachus, 240 Pig’s teeth, 77, 79 Plesiosaurus, 223, 224 Polypterus of the Nile, 249 Pteraspis, 259, 260 Pterichthys, 254, 255 Pterodactyles, 230, 231, 235 Puzzuoli, Roman remains at, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37 Quagga, 18 Rhinoceros : Skeleton of Rhinoceros antiquitatis, 143 Skulls of African square- mouthed — rhinoceros and of Rhinoceros anti- quitatis (found in Lon- don), 10 Stuffed specimen of square-mouthed rhino- ceros, 144 Ripple marks preserved in Triassic strata, 53 Llustrations—contd. Samotherium : skull, 161 Scorpions and scorpion-like creatures, 276-283, 286 Sea-cow discovered by Steller, 22 Shark—jaw and tooth of the great shark, 264, 265 Sivatherium, 160 Skeleton of animal found embedded in calcare- ous rock at Montmar- tre, Paris, 46 Skulls of monkey, primitive man, and modern man, 88, 89 Sloth, 168, 171 Stone-lilies, 287, 288, 289, 291 Tilted strata of chalk at Seaford, Sussex, 50 Titanotheriuwm, 145, 146, 147 Tortoise of Court House, Mauritius, 29 Toxodon, 8 Trilobites from Silurian rocks of New York, 275 Urus or bull of Julhus Cesar, 17 Wings—hirds, bats, and pterodactyles com- pared, 233 Wings of dragon-fly and pterodactyle preserved in limestone, 47 Wolf, 14 Zebra, 19 India — remains of Thero- morphs found in, 210 elephant refer to title Elephants Indian 313 INDEX Indian or or:ental region— zoological province, 63, 65 Information concerning ex- tinct animals, sources of: Author’s advice to those seeking information, 294 Bones and teeth found in the earth, 2—4 Tradition, 1 TInostransevia — skeleton and skull of huge specimen discovered by Profes- sor Amalitzky, 220,221 Insects : Flying insects, 232, 234 Fossilized wings, preserva- tion in stratified rock, 46, 47 Irish deer—skeleton of male of giant Irish deer, 94, 95 Isle of Wight : Footprint of animal in the sandstone, 54 Fossils—where fossils are to be found, 295 J Java—skull of monkey-man discovered in, 88 Jaws refer to Teeth Jelly fish preserved in litho- graphic limestone, 48 Johnston, Sir Harry, 156, 158, 161, 163 Julius Cesar, great bull or uruS of, 16, 17 Ik Kangaroos—giant kangaroos: Bones of gigantic creatures found in Australia, 184 Living specimens in Aus- tralia, size of, com- pared with gigantic ex- tinct creatures of the same kind, 166 Kansas refer to United States of America King-crab Animal which connects the scorpions with extinct Eurypterids and Tri- lobites, 280 Diagrams of, 284, 285 Dorsal view of—illustra- tion, 283 Member of class Arachnida —scorpion-like . crea- ture, 281 Only surviving representa- tive of aquatic ances- tors from which mo- dern air - breathing scorpions and_ spiders have been developed, 282 Segments and post - anal spine or sting of scor- pion to compare with the king-crab, 286 Kipling, Mr. Rudyard, 120, 122 Kiwi—wingless bird found in New Zealand, 241 Knowledge, imparting—logi- cal method v. exciting the desire to know, 4 314 {INDEX L Labyrinthodonts : Allied to creatures which form the class Amphi- bia, and_ essentially aquatic animals, 245 Size and shape of large alli- gators, 246 Lanarkshire—fishes found in Silurian strata, 261 Land, rising and sinking see title, Changes in the earth Land-dwelling reptiles refer to Reptiles, and names of reptiles Lasanius—oldest remains of fishes which have been discovered, 262 Leeds, Mr. A. N., 223 Lepidosiren — mud-fish of South America, 248 Lepidosteus—specimen of ga- noid fish in North American lakes, 248 Lepidotus helvenis—fossil ga- noid fish—illustration, 250 Limestone — fossilized wings of insects, etc., pre- served in, 46, 47 Limestone in solution, amount carried past Kingston ' by the Thames every year, 44 Limulus Polyphemus—dorsal view of the king-crab, 283 Lingula, shells of, found in the Cambrian rocks, 272 Lingula—contd. Complex structure of living owners of these shells, ete., 272, 273 Lizard : Chlamydosaur from Queens- land—photograph, 195 Flying lizards, 234 Great girdled lizard—photo- graph, 196 Jawbones found in Oolitic strata supposed at first to be those of izards, but afterwards found to belong to small mammals, 188 Mexican horned lizard or horned toad, 194 Zealand lizard Tua- tara—photograph, 193 Local naturalists rarer now than they were forty years ago, 296 Loligo media—cuttle-fish liv- ing in British seas, 272 London—skull of rhinoceros found in Whitefriars, New 9510 Lycosaurus — remains dis- covered in Cape Co- lony — Inostransevia allied to, 221 Lyme Regis : Ichthyosaurus head from Liassic rocks of, 6 Strata of cliff at, 48, 49, 51 M Madagascar, wingless birds found in, 240 Malta, shark’s teeth found in, 264 315 INDEX Malvern Hills—where fossils are to be found, 295 Mammals : Ancestry—size an descrip- tion of original “‘ type,” 114 Brains of ancient big mam- mals much smaller than those of recent big animals, 148-151 Classification of — tabular list of chief orders, 571 Kar, spiral construction of internal ear, 74-76 Oldest remains—fossil jaw found at Stonesfield, one of most ancient evidences of existence, 82, 84, 186, 188 Skulls provided with pair of condyles, 73 Teeth refer to title, Teeth Mammoth : Appearance in life, imagi- nary picture of, 96 Description of, 91 Drawings by _ prehistoric men, 90, 91 Hairy skin, 94 Remains of, found all over the Holarctic region, 91, 92, 93 Skeleton of mammoth found frozen in Siberia, 93 Teeth — transverse ridges WT), Wa Man : Prehistoric man see _ that title Man—contd. Skull, size of : Giant Australian Dipro- todon, size of skull compared with that of human skull, 185 Modern man compared with that of a monkey and of a primitive man, 88-90 and horse — skeletons compared, correspond- ence in details of strue- ture, 70 Mantell, Dr. Gideon, 200 Maps : Europe — elevation of the sea-bottom, effect on distribution of land and water, 40, 41, 42 Zoo-geographical map, 63— 66 Marine creatures refer to titles, Reptiles, Fishes, Shells, also names of creatures Marsh, Prof., 147, 206 Marsupials : Australia distinguished by, 64 Giant Australian marsupial, Diprotodon,184—skull and skeleton, 185, 186 Jawbones embedded and preserved in ancient rocks — specimen dis- covered in Stonesfield slate near Oxford, 186— 188 Mastodon-like creature found in the Miocene—Dino- therium, 117, 118 Man 316 INDEX Mastodons : American mastodon, 101, 102, 106, 113 Skull more projecting than that of an ele- phant, 105 Survival later in America than in Europe, 102 Teeth less peculiar than those of true elephants — fewer transverse ridges, 107, 112-113, 114 100, Meritherium, Eocene (Egypt) : Description of, head, teeth, etc., 128-132 Elephant ancestry, con- nection with, 132 More primitive mastodon than any yet known, 125 Picture representing pro- bable appearance in life, 130 Palzsomastodon, Eocene (Egypt), 126, 128 Description of—link in the series leading back from bulldog-faced ele- phants to ordinary mammals, 127 Size, 128 Skulls and jaws of series of elephant ancestors compared, 126, 127, 128 Tetrabelodon angustidens, long-jawed Miocene mastodon : Drawing representing probable appearance in lite ALES Mastodons—contd. Tetrabeloden angustidens— contd. Skeleton from Miocene strata of south of France, 115, 116 Trunk not a “ trunk,”’ but an elongated upper lip, 118 Tusks and _ horizontal SS urtMl<-28 Se Ol elec ZO Mauritius : Dodo found in, 26 Giant tortoise living in Court House Garden, 28, 29 Megalosaurus : Skeleton, drawing of, 203 Teeth, tiger-like teeth, 204 Megatherium : Comparison with little liv- ing sloths of to-day, etc., 172 Photograph of skeleton, 7 Similarity to sloth, 9 Meritheritum see Mastodons Mesohippus — three-toed an- cestor of the horse, 136 Teeth, 141 Meyer, Herman von, 76 Middle Tertiary Period, see Oligocene Period Migration of Animals : Results of—Tapir found alive in Sumatra and also in Central Amer- ica, 66 Zoo-geographical map, 63— 66 Miller, Hugh, 252-256 3t7 INDEX Moa : Eggs of apteryx, ostrich and the giant moa— size compared, 242, 243 New Zealand giant bird see New Zealand Size of the Madagascar moa, 242 Models of horses and cattle : Set of, in the Natural His- tory Museum, 133 Value of models as a record of best breeds, 134 Monkey, monkey-man, and modern man-skulls compared, 88—90 Monstrous size—giants in for- mer days, theory of, 2, 165, 166 Montmartre, Paris—skeleton of animal found in stratified rock, 46 Moreno, Dr., 175 Mud-fishes allied to the ganoid fishes — mud-fishes of Australia and South America, 248 Mule — okapi as hybrid or “mule” between ze- bra and giraffe theory, 164, 165 Murchison, Sir R., 296 Mylodon : Date of extinction — sup- posed date, 174, 182, 183 Remains discovered in cave of the Ultima, Speranza in South-west Patago- nia—tresh remains, ete. Mylodon—contd. Alive in the cave—indi- cations that the mylo- dons lived in the cave and were fed by the Indians, 178 Bones, claws, etc., of the mylodon, 178 Inhabitants of the cave : probable Indian inha- bitants, 176 Pellets of dung of the mylodon, 178—photo- graphs, 177, 181 Position of the cavern : explorers’ difficulties, 181 Skin covered with green- ish-brown hair, 174; photograph, 175, 176 Skin, hair, etc., preserva- tion of, in original state—probable expla- nation, 182 Various remains of the mylodons and of man, 177-180 Skeletons—comparison be- tween the skeletons of the mylodon and two- toed sloth, 172, 173 N Neanderthal, skulls of primi- tive men found in sand of, 90 Neo-tropical region—zoologi- cal province, 63, 65 318 INDEX New Zealand : Animals—New Zealand dis- tinguished from the rest of the world, 64 Birds—giant birds : Moa — ostrich-like bird, 240, 241 Skeleton constructed by Sir R. Owen, 69, 70 Thigh bone, from which existence of bird was inferred, 68, 70 Wingless birds found in New Zealand, 240, 241 Lizard Tua-tara — photo- graph, 193 Nile — Polypterus, specimen of ganoid fish still liv- ing in the Nile and other African rivers, 248—photograph, 249 Nodules containing skeletons of great reptiles—Pro- fessor Amalitzky’s dis- coveries, 213-216 Nordenskjéld, Dr., 174 Norway — changes in coast level, 38 O Object of the book—bringing to notice a few of the marvellous and _ de- lightful things which are known as “ Fos- sils,’’ 294. Occipital condyles — mam- mals distinguished by, from birds and _ rep- tiles, 73 Okapi—animal allied to the giraffe : Equus Johnstoni — name given to the okapi by Dr. Sclater, 164 Hoofs, paired hoofs, 161, 164 Horns, paired horns, 164 Skin and skulls discovered by Sir Harry John- ston, 161, 163 Skull of a male okapi— photograph, 164 Species — smaller larger species, 163 Specimen of the okapi— photograph, 163 Striped skin on legs and haunches, 162 Girdles and bands for ornament made out of skin by natives, 163 ‘“* Bandoliers ”’? cut from the striped skin ; pho- tograph, 165 Teeth—crown of tooth in lower jaw divided by shit into two halves, described as bi-foliate, 159, 162 Unknown species of animal— hybrid or mule be- tween a zebra and giraffe theory, 164 Oligocene or Middle Tertiary Period — distribution of land and water in Europe, map showing attempt to determine, 42, 43 Oriental region — zoological province, 63, 65 and 319 INDEX Orthoceras—extinct allies of pearly nautilus, 268 Osteolepis — extinct ganoid fish : Beautifully preserved speci- men found in the De- vonian strata, 248 Drawing, 251 Ostrich-like bird—New Zea- land moa see New Zealand Owen, Sir R., 68, 69, 70, 184, 186, 271 Oxen : Skull of ox, photograph showing occipital con- dyles, 73 Urus of Julius Cesar, 16, V7 Wild cattle still to be found in England, ancestry rove lays 17) Pp Paleomastodon, Eocene (Egypt), 126, 127, 128 Paleophonus hunteri—draw- ing of the remains of a scorpion from Upper Silurian of Lesmahago, 277, 278 Paleophonus nuncius—Silu- rian scorpion of Goth- land, 278 Paleotherium — _ skeleton found in calcareous rock at Montmartre, Paris—photograph, 46 Paleozoic strata—no reptile, bird, or mammal found in, 245 Pariasaurus : Nodules containing skele- tons— Professor Ama- litzky’s discoveries, 216-220 Remoteness of when these lived, 218 Size of the reptile, 220 the time reptiles Skeleton set up by Pro- fessor Seeley, 211 Skeleton and skull removed from an archangel nod- ule, 218, 219 Skull of Pariasaurus dis- covered in Russia: species similar to one discovered in South Africa, 220 Pearly nautilus—structure of shell, species now liv- ing, etc., 267, 268 Penguins — use of wings as swimming organs, 244 Pentacrini see Stone-lilies Permian strata on banks of the Dwina, North Russia — Professor Amalitzky’s dis- coveries, 212-222 Peterborough—skeleton of a Plesiosaur removed by Mr. A. N. Leeds—pho- tograph, 223 Phenacodus — five-toed an- cestor of the horse, 139, 141 Phororachus of South Amer- ica—photograph, etc., 239, 240 320 INDEX Phrynosoma orbiculare (Mexi- can horned lizard or horned toad)—photo- graph, 194 Pithecanthropus or monkey- man—skull compared with skulls of chimpan- zee and modern man, 88-90 Placentalium terra—zoologi- cal province, 63, 64 Plesiosaurs : Extinct order of reptiles, 192 Form and shape—probable appearance in living condition, 224 Number of kinds discovered in Lias rocks of the south of England, 225 Size of, 222 Skeleton of, 223 Plymouth—changes in coast level, 38 Polypterus—specimen of gan- oid fish still living in the Nile and_ other African rivers, 248— photograph, 249 Prehistoric man : Antiquity of remains in Europe, 85-87 Drawing, skill in — photo- graphs of engravings upon bone and ivory, ete., 90-92 Skull compared with that of a monkey and of a modern man, 87—90 Pritchard, Mr. Hesketh, 181 Protopterus — mud-fish — of Africa, 248 Pteraspis —fish known by its shields, which covered head and body, where found, etc., 257, 258 Hinder 258 Specimens obtained by the author in Hereford- shire — unique speci- mens, etc., 259, 260 region unknown, Pterichthys — _ discoveries made by Hugh Miller from rocks of his na- tive hills at Cromarty, 252 Cardboard model made by Hugh Miller, 255 Curious bony plates, soft sealy tail, etc., 255 Outline drawing of the fish, 254 Pterodactyles—flying reptiles Different kinds of Jurassic pterodactyles — prob- able appearance in life, ete., 234, 235 Extinct order of reptiles, 192 Form, size, etc., as it ap- peared in flight, 231 Skeleton, 230 Wings : Formation of — bat-like appearance, etc., 232, 233 Preserved in sandy lime- stone of Oolitic Age, 46, 47 Pterygotus — _ scorpion-like creature, 278, 280 321 Y INDEX Puzzuoli or Puteoli, condition of Roman remains at: proof of changes that take place in the level of the land, 32-38 Q Quagga : Extinct, owing to country ranged over being oc- cupied by white men, 20 Photograph of specimen in Zoological Gardens in 1875, 18 South Africa, inhabitant of, 18 Queensland refer to Aus- tralia Queenstown — Encrinite dis- covered by Vaughan Thompson, 290 R Raindrops, marks preserved on rocks which were once soft sand, 53 Rains and rivers, quantity of material carried — off surface of land by, 43 Raised beaches, 38, 43, 44 Rats—teeth of Coypu rat, 81, 82 Reindeer—drawings by pre- historic men, found in eaves, 90, 91, 92 Reptiles : Atlantosaurus, thigh-bone of, from Jurassic rocks of UsS-Ayy TF 12 2 Reptiles—contd. Birds derived from — rep- tiles coming nearest to birds in structure, ete., 235, 236, 239 Classification of — tabular list of chief orders, 58 Crocodile see that title Difference between living and extinct reptiles— separate orders made for living — reptiles, 191 Extinct orders—disappear- ance of remains from rocks, ete., 192 Flying reptiles, 231 Groups, 190 Land-dwelling — reptiles— great extinct reptiles, 190-222 Marine reptiles—represen- tatives of extinct or- ders of huge aquatic creatures, 222 Pterodactyle skeleton pre- served in lithographic limestone, 47 Size of extinct reptiles— enormous sizes, 167, 191 Snake, fossil remains of, found in the Fayum 125 Teeth : Description of, 81 Peg-like teeth with single fangs, 81, 82, 83 (refer also to names of reptiles) INDEX Rhinoceros : Horns : Composition of, etc., 144 Creatures allied to the rhinoceros, horns of, 144, 146 Skulls compared — African square-mouthed rhino- ceros and Rhinoceros antiquitatis, 9, 10 Square-mouthed African rhinoceros (white rhi- noceros), 144 Rhinoceros — antiquitatis— woolly rhinoceros of late Pleistocene period in Europe and Siberia : Hairy coat, 143 Skeleton of, 143 Ripple marks preserved in Triassic strata, 53 Rising and sinking of surface of the land see title, Changes in the Earth Rivers and rains—amount of material washed from surface of land and carried away by, 43 Roman remains at Puzzuoli, condition of—proof of changes that take place in the level of the land, 32-38 Rootzikul—imarine_ scorpion- like animal from Silu- rian rocks, 282 Russia—Theromorph reptiles, discovery and working out of skeletons near Archangelin North Rus- sia by Professor Ama- litzki,‘ 210, 212-229 3 S Samos, Island of — Samo- therium, giraffe - like animal found in Mio- cene beds, 159, 160 Samotherium — giraffe - like animal : Skull—photograph, 161 Teeth—crown of tooth in lower jaw divided by slit into two halves, described as bi-foliate, 159 Saxony—Triassic rock from, showing footprints of Cheirotherium, 55 Scales of fishes see Fishes Schweinfurth, traveller, 123 Sclater, Dr., 164 Scorpions : Ancient and important ani- mal—number of dis- tinct species: extinct Species, etc., 276, 277 Animal which connects scorpions with extinct Eurypterids and Tri- lobites—king-crab, 280 Desert scorpion—drawing, 276 Silurian scorpions and enor- mous aquatic scorpion- hike creatures, 277-282 IXing-crab see that title Scotland—Fishes : Fishes with head and body shields found in “‘ corn- stones,” 258 Miller’s, Hugh, investiga- tions relating to the Pterichthys, 252-256 S INDEX Scotland—Fishes—contd. Recent discoveries from the Upper Silurian strata, 262 Sea Cow : Bony plates teeth, 23 Description of, 22, 23 Discovered by Steller, 21 Fossils found in the Fayum, 125 Picture of, 22 Sirenian group, sea-cow be- longing to, 23 Skull, photograph of, 22 Seely, Professor, 211 Seychelles—tortoise becoming extinct in, 28 Sharks : Most ancient kind of fish known, 247 Probable size of the great shark—100 feet long, 266 Teeth — enormous teeth, where found, ete., 263, 264, 265 Shells and small marine ani- mals, ete. : Animals which lived inside these shells, similarity to the cuttle-fish, 269 Bognor rock with shells em- instead of bedded, photograph, 45 Coiled shells—ammonites, pearly nautilus, ete., 267 Cuttle-fish —— Belemnite’s cuttle-fish, ete., 270 Extinet allies of nautilus, 268, 269 Shells, ete.—contd. Lingula, shells of, found in the Cambrian rocks, PAPA, PATB} Mollusea group, classes in- cluded in, 270 Oldest fossils which are known — remains of small marine creatures, PAM. DV: Trilobites see that title_ Vast number of smaller creatures included in ‘* Extinet Animals ?’— mountains built up of rock formed by the coral, etc., 266 Siberia—mammoth and rhi- noceros remains found in, 93, 94 Silver-scaled fish — varieties and comparatively re- cent origin, etc., 246 Sivatherium—extinct animal from India : Skull—photograph, 160, Teeth of lower jaw—crown divided by slit into two halves, described as bi- folate, 159 Size : Bones — giants in former days, theory of, 2 Mammals, remote ancestor not much bigger than a dog, 114 Recent animals, size of, compared with their representatives in the past— illus ons as to extinct monsters, 165, 166 324 INDEX Size—contd. (for particular animals see their names) Skulls : * Bull-dogging”’ of skulls in elephants, pugs, etc., 103-105, 106 Primitive man, skull com- pared with that of a monkey and of a mo- dern man, 87—90 particular animals see their names) Sloths : Giant ground sloth, Mega- therium : Photograph of skeleton, a (for Probable appearance in. life—illustration, 171 Living sloths of South ' America : Size compared with re- presentatives in the past, 166, 167 Mylodon and _ two-toed sloth, comparison be- tween: skeletons, etc., 172, 173 Two-toed specimens—pho- tograph, 168 Smaller creatures—vast num- ber included in ** Extinct Animals ” mountains built up of rock formed by the coral, etc., 266 Snake : Fossil remains of, found in the Fayum, 125 Size of extinct snakes: large size, 191 32 Soft-bodied animals—no re- mains in rocks to show earliest form of animal life preceding the Cambrian Trilobites and Lingula, 263, 275 South Africa see Africa South America see America Sphenodon punctatus (New Zealand lizard, Tua- tara)—photograph,193 Spiders—surviving represen- tative of aquatic an- eestors from which modern air-breathing scorpions and spiders have been developed, 282, 283 Spiral fold on walls of intes- tine — skeleton with excrement of the ichthyosaurus, 229 Spy, Belgium—skulls of pri- mitive men found in caverns, 89 Squirrels—flying squirrels, 234 Star fish refer to Stone-lilies Stegosaurus — probable ap- pearance in life of the Jurassic Dinosaur Ste- gosaurus, 208 Steller, discoverer cow, 21, 22 Stirling, Dr., 185 Stone-lilies, or pentacrini, or encrinites : Block of limestone showing several kinds of stone- liles from Iowa, 288 British encrinite— Vaughan Thompson’s discovery, etc., 290 5 wn of sea- INDEX Stone-lilies, ete.—contd. Young of the feather- star — Vaughan Thompson’s account established, ete., 291, 292 Common feather-star of to- day—resemblance to its remote Cambrian ancestors, 293 Encrinus Fossilis of Blu- menbach from rock of Jurassic age, 289 Fossil remains, 287 Known as fossils before they were found in the living state, 286, 293 Number of, and various species, 289, 290, 293 Stalks, length of—photo- graph, etc., 287 Stonesfield, jaw of mammal found at, 82, 84, 188 Stratification of rocks : Hard and soft rock, alter- nate layers : Pictures showing strata of cliff at Lyme Regis, 48, 49, 51 Tilting of strata, 48, 49, 50, ol Diagram showing effect of bending or undula- tion of earth’s crust, 52; 08 Ripple marks preserved in Triassic strata, 53 Seaford, chalk at, 50 Time elapsed during form- ation of strata, esti- mate of, 61, 62 Stratified rocks : Footprints on slabs of Tri- assie rock, 53-55 Formation of stratified de- posits from material brought down from the land by rivers, 44 ; Fossilized remains found in: Jelly fish preserved in lithographic limestone, photograph, 48 Shells embedded in slab of Bognor rock, 45 Skeleton of animal found in calcareous rock at Montmartre, Paris, 46 Succession from simpler to more complex forms of life—diagram, etc., showing position im which animal remains have been found, 60-62 Wings of insects, impres- sion preserved in lime- stone, 46, 47 Ripple marks and_ rain- drops, preservation of marks, 53 Thickness of systems of strata, diagram, etc., 60, 61 Sturgeon—ganoid set of fishes sturgeon belonging to, 248 Stylonurus — scorpion - like creature, 278, 281 Succession of animal life from simpler to more com- plex forms — position in strata in which fos- silized remains have been found, 60-62 326 INDEX Suffolk : Fossil remains, 66, 295 Land swallowed up by the sea, 43 Shark’s teeth found in the bone-bed of the Red Crag at Felixstowe, 264, 265 Sussex : Bones and teeth of the iguanodon discovered by Dr. Gideon Mantell, 200 Tilted strata of chalk at Seaford, 50 a Tadpoles—young of the Laby- rinthodonts, 245 Tanqueray’s, Lord, estate, ancestry of wild cattle ; on, 17 Tapirs : Fossil remains found all over Holarctic region, 66 Migration, results of—liv- ing tapirs found at pre- sent day in Sumatra and Central America, 66 Teeth and jaws: Arsinoithervum, 154 Bi-foliate canine see sub- heading Slit Birds, fossil remains of birds with teeth, 236 Dromatherium and Dryo- lestes, lower jaws of, 189 327 Teeth and jaws—contd. Elephants : Description — of 107-110 Ridges, 110-112 Fishes—Dipterus, peculiar teeth of, 251 Horse : Cheek-teeth of modern horse more complex teeth, than in ancestors, 140 Mesohippus, teeth of, 141 Upper molar tooth of a recent horse, 142 Human teeth : Distinct from all other teeth, 80 Photograph of upper and lower jaw bone, 80 Reduced in number, 79 Iguanodon—serrated mar- gin of teeth, 199, 200 Importance of, in deter- mining animal to which a fragment be- longs, 76 Mammals : Fossil jaw from Stones- field slate, 82, 84, 188 Modifications in teeth of mammals, 81 ** Reduced dentition,” 78 Typical number of teeth, 78 (see also sub-headings, names of animals) Mammoth, 110, 111 Mastodons, jaws of, 126, N27, WES, PAD asl INDEX Teeth and jaws—contd. Pig’s teeth : Description of, number, arrangement, etc., 76, 78 Front teeth have single fang, cheek teeth two fangs, 78, 79 Photographs of, 77, 79 Standard pattern for teeth of all mammals, 76 Reptiles, teeth of, 81, 82, 83 Ridges — elephant, mam- moth and mastodon compared, 110-115 Sea-cow—hbony plates in- stead of teeth, 23 Sharks — enormous teeth, where found, etc., 263, 264, 265 Slit—crown of toothin lower jaw divided by slit into two halves, described as _ bi-foliate — pecu- larity of the giraffe and allied animals, 158, = 159 Tusks see that title Two fangs peculiar to mam- mals, other animals only single fangs, 78 Tetrabelodon angustidens see Mastodon Texas, refer to U.S.A. Thames, river — amount of limestone, ete., carried past Kingston each year, 43 Theriogzea or land of big ani- mals—zoological pro- vince, 63, 64 Theromorph reptiles : Extinct order of reptiles, 192 Co-existence of, in the two localities, Russia and South Africa, 212, 221, 222 Older group than Dino- saurian reptiles—where remains had been dis- covered, ete., 209 Remoteness' of the time when these _ reptiles lived, 218 Russia, North: Professor Amalitzky’s discover- les, 212-222 Nodules containing skele- tons, 213-216 (for particular members of this group see their names — Pariasaurus, Dicynodon, Inostran- sevia, etc.) Thickness of each system of strata, diagram, etc., 60-62 Thigh-bone of Atlantosaurus, Wal, Ue, Thompson, Vaughan, 290 ** Thunder-bolts ’’ — Belem- nite’s cuttle-fish fossils, 270 Tiger—teeth of clouded tiger, 81 Tile-fish, destruction of, owing to change in temperature of sea, near American coast, 31 note 328 INDEX Theromorph reptiles—contd. Tilting of strata, 48, 49, 50, 51 Diagram showing effect of bending or undulation of earth’s “ crust,”’ 52, 53 Seaford, Sussex, chalk at, 50 Time — stratified deposits, formation of — esti- mate of lapse of time, 61, 62 Titanotherium—creature al- lied to rhinoceros : Brains much smaller than those of recent big animals, 148-151, 209 Horns, 146 Skeleton, picture of, 145 Skull, Pictures of, 146. 147 Tortoise : Becoming extinct, 28 Fossil remains found in the Fayum, 125 Giant living tortoise of the Court House, Mauri- tius, 28, 29 Size of extinct tortoises— large size, 191 Toxodon, 9—picture of, 8 Tradition—information con- cerning extinct ani- mals handed down bys Traquair, Prof., 260, 261, 262 Trees — fossilized remains found in sand of Fay- um Desert, 124 Triceratops : Brain, size of, 209 Drawing of, 207 Trilobites—ancient class of fossils : Animals which connect scorpions with the ex- tinct Trilobites—king- erab, 280 Number of different kinds— primitive marine group allied to the scorpions, ete., 274 Specimens in which legs and antenne are well pre- served, 275 Trunk of elephant, develop- ment of, from elon- gated upper lip of mastodon, 118-122 Tusks : Dinoceras, 148 Dinotherium, mastodon- like creature found in the Miocene, 117, 118 Elephants — Indian and African elephants com- pared — specimens of tusks in Natural His- tory Museum, 99, 100, 101 Tetrabelodon angustidens, ING W208 i: Meritherium, 129 U Uganda—five-horned giraffe, specimen shot by Sir Harry Johnston, 158 Okapi-skin and skulls dis- covered by Sir Harry Johnston, 161, 163 INDEX United States of America: Atlantosaurus, thigh-bone of, from Jurassic rocks, Gyressilils Ty 17 teks} Coccosteus found in De- vonian rocks of Ohio, 256, 217 Dimetrodon from the Per- mian strata of Texas, PO), PALL Dinoceros, skeletons found in Upper Eocene of Wyoming, 147 Didosaurian reptiles— pro- fusion in which bones have been discovered— skill and success of American naturalists, etc., 206 Ichthyornis, toothed bird from chalk of Kansas, 237 Mastodon remains found in bogs, etc., 102 Scorpion-like creature from Pennsylvania, 281 — Shark’s teeth found in Maryland, 264 Stone-lhes from Iowa— photograph, 288 Trilobite from Silurian rocks of New York, 274, 275 Urus or bull of Julius Cesar, 1G, hz Skull, picture of, 17 W Wales—shells of Lingula, dis- covered in Cambrian rocks, 272, 273 Warsaw— Professor Amalitz- ky’s discoveries at Archangel, workshop at Warsaw, 216 Water-birds—extinct Hesper- ornis, etc., 244 Whale-like reptiles—Ichthyo- saurus, 226 Whales : Size of, comparisons be- tween size of recent and extinct animals, 166, 223 Skull of, mistaken for that of a reptile, 76 White rhinoceros or square- mouthed African rhi- noceros see Rhinoceros Winged reptiles see Ptero- dactyles Wings : Birds see that title Insects — fossilized wings, preservation in strati- fied rock, 46, 47 Pterodactyles, flying rep- tiles—wings compared with birds and _ bats, 231, 232,208 Swimming organs, pen- So guins use their wings as, 244 | Winton, Mr. de, 125 Wolf—common grey woli— extinct in England, still existing in Europe, 14, 16 Wombats—living specimens in Australias, size of, compared with gigan- tic extinct creatures of the same kind, 166 330 INDEX Woodward, Miss, 130 Worcestershire — fishes with head and body shields found in “‘ cornstones,”’ 257 Wyoming, skeleton of the Diplodocus excavated at, 204 Y Young animals—features re- sembling ancestor s which disappear on at- taining full size, 106 Zebra : Africa, zebra common in, 20 Okapi—hybrid or mule be- tween zebra and giraffe theory, 164 Photograph of living zebra, 19 Zonurus giganteus great gir- dled lizard — photo- graph, 196 Zoo-geographical map, 63-66 Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printinz Works, Frome, and London, 331 Fo *y -- a A SELECTION FROM Messrs. Archibald Constable & Co.’s List vit Lees TP AE a tT = a We 4 i vy, Var Vit Ay Ys se) sii 33 ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO.’S The Far Eastern Tropics: Studies in the Ad- ministration of Tropical Dependencies, by ALLEYNE IRELAND. With a Coloured Map. Large Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. net. The author of this book spent nearly three years in various Far Eastern countries, making himself thoroughly conversant with the colonial methods of Great Britain, France, Holland, and the United States. He deals with Burma, Java, the Malay Peninsula, Hong Kong, French Indo-China, Borneo, and the Philippines. Armed with credentials from the Foreign and Colonial Office, Mr. Ireland enjoyed exceptional opportunities of carrying on his investigations, and in his preface he expresses his gratitude to the many British and Foreign officials whose assistance at once lightened his labours, and increased their value during his stay in Eastern Asia. 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By ERNEST GLANVILLE, Author of ‘The Kloof Bride,” etc. 17 ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO’S 4 THE OUTLET By ANDY ADAMS, . | Author of ‘The Log of a Cowboy,” “A Texas Matchmaker,” etc. Illustrated by E. Boyp Smitu. ° Ne Of ‘‘ The Log of a Cowboy,” The Daily Mail said :—“‘ It is splen- didly masculine and tells of gritty life, where men do not lie on what — Stevenson has called ‘ the feather-bed of civilization,’ but taste the © primal joys of the natural man.” WILL WARBURTON. By GEORGE GISSING, nN Author of ‘‘ Veranilda,” ‘‘The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft,” etc. A NEW NOVEL. By MEREJKOWSEI, Author of ‘‘The Death of the Gods” and “ The Forerunner.” This completes the trilogy, ‘‘ Christ and Anti-Christ.” JORN UHL. By GUSTAV FRENSSEN, B Translated from the German. Over 180,000 have already been sold of this remarkable novel. ») ¥ THE STEPPING STONE. By HELEN HESTER COLVILL, ane 4 Author of “Our Wills and Fates,” ‘Mr. Bryant’s Mistake,” etc. — TALES OF RYE TOWN. By MRS. 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