LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

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Class UBRAW

FARM ANIMALS

^ OF THE

UNIVERSITY

- OF

SHORTHORN BULL — THE POPULAR BEEF BREED.

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FARM ANIMALS

Horses, Cows, Sheep, Swine, Goats,
Poultry, Etc.

By E. V. WILCOX, Ph.D., A.M.

U. S. Department of Agriculture

NEW YORK

Doubleday, Page & Company
1907

OF THE \

UMIVER51TY 1

ft. ^

Copyright, 1906, by Doubleday, Page & Company
Published October, 1906

All rights reserved,

tochtding that of translation into foreign languages
including the Scandinavian

CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER I. THE HORSE 3

Uses, market classes; breeds; breeding horses on the
farm; feeding; grains; hay and coarse forage; roots and
fruits; miscellaneous feeds; various other feeding matters;
narrow vs. wide rations; rations for colts; care of
horses; diseases of the horse; care of the horse's hoof;
breaking and training of horses.

CHAPTER II. THE MULE 75

Importance, breeds of jacks; breeding mules; market uses
and classes; feeding of mules; mule vs. horse; training;
fattening for market; diseases.

CHAPTER III. BEEF CATTLE . . . , . 87

Beef industry; breeds; market classes and grades; feeding
for beef; calves; baby beef; mature beef; feeding; light,
heavy and medium weight rations compared; proprietary
feed; roughage for beef production; pastures; animal
feeds; shelter; diseases.

CHAPTER IV. THE DAIRY COW .... 148

Extent of dairy industry; breeds; feeding dairy cows;
coarse fodders; milk yield; soiling; silage; pasture; butter;
cheese; age of cow as related to milk yield; methods of
milking; care of milk; dairy hygiene.

CHAPTER V. PIGS 195

Pork; bacon; feeding hogs; coarse forage; pasture;
tankage and other animal materials; therazorback as com-
pared with the pure breeds and grades; breeds; diseases.

174G21

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI. SHEEP 238

Extent of industry; wool; mutton; breeds of sheep; grains
for sheep; coarse feeds; winter lambs; weaning and
marketing lambs; shearing; dipping; diseases.

CHAPTER VII. GOATS 286

Present status of the goat industry; common, Angora and
milch goats; Mohair; care; feeding; diseases.

CHAPTER VIII. POULTRY 293

Poultry farms and business; chickens for eggs, meat and
general purposes; feeding; caponizing; marketing; moult-
ing; breeds; incubation; brooders; diseases; ducks, geese
and turkeys; their care, diseases.

CHAPTER I.

THE HORSE

The horse has been recognized as man's most
intimate animal friend and notwithstanding
that it has not been under domestication so
long as some other animals it is at present
associated with man by more points of sympathy
than any other of our domestic animals. Geolo-
gists have shown that the original ancestors of the
horse occurred in America in past ages but that
these were all exterminated by some climatic
or other unknown cause and that our present
horses are all descended from old world horses
which in turn are derived from the original geolog-
ical ancestor of the horse in America. It has
recently become fashionable with certain writers
to refer to the waning importance of horses and
to use such phrases as the "horseless age" and
others which indicate that the horse is gradually
losing his claim of service upon man. In view
of such misinformation it seems desirable to state
that the horse was never in greater favor than
to-day. The number of horses in the United
States is increasing rapidly, more interest is being
everywhere manifested regarding their care and

4 FARM ANIMALS

management, and more appreciation of the horse
is shown in protecting him from annoyance, over-
work, exposure, and disease. Formerly the quack
horse doctor was able to make as much money as
the qualified veterinarian and in many cases his
services were taken in preference to those of the
latter. This was largely due to the relative
cheapness of the horse and the slight esteem in
which this animal was held. Within recent
years veterinarians everywhere have observed
the increased respect paid by horse owners to
their animals. Owners are not only willing to
pay more liberally for professional services but
give more personal attention to the study of the
necessary hygienic conditions for horses and to
the simple diseases which may yield to home
treatment. The horse is more than holding
its own with the automobile and thus the pre-
dictions of the automobile enthusiasts have en-
tirely failed to come true.

Horses are required on the farm for saddle
purposes, driving and ordinary farm work although
on more extensive farms with various lines of
industry there may be required some more detailed
classifications of their usefulness. Horses are
not raised exclusively for farm work, however,
and farmers who wish to breed horses for sale
must first acquaint themselves with the require-
ments of the market along this line. In general
two types of horses are recognized on the market,
namely the draft and light types. These two
types are essentially different from each other.
The draft horse is heavy of body and the length
of the body is relatively much shorter than in the
light type. The only use of the draft horse is to
haul loads of greater or less weight, usually

FARM ANIMALS 5

at a slow gait. The gait, however, depends
somewhat on the size of the draft horse and the
purpose to which he is put. The draft horse
proper, as a recognized market class, should
stand about 16 hands high. From a mechanical
standpoint the limit of height of such horse
should be 17.3 hands since exceptionally tall
draft horses are usually weak in some other
points of their conformation. The light type of
draft horse may range from 15.3 to 16.2 hands.
The draft horse should weigh at least 1000 pounds
and for heavy use each additional 100 pounds
they weigh will add nearly $25 to the value of
the horse. The weight limit is not a definite
matter and for certain uses the heavier the horse
the better. According to Alexander a grade Shire

gilding weighing 2210 pounds brought $660 on the
hicago market in 1904. Draft horses should
show comparatively short legs, smooth form
without angularity, strong legs with wide hocks
and knee joints, and regular, sloping pasterns.
The walking gait is the most important gait of
the draft horse and should be a rapid stride
with straight leg movement, that is, all the legs
should move forward in a straight line and should
not show any lateral movement or waddling.

From the class of drafters there are many culls
or defective specimens which go to make up other
poorly defined classes. For example, lumbermen
require a draft horse of great strength but since
these horses are used in the woods slight blemishes
do not count much against their value provided
they do not interfere with the work or action of
the horse. The draft horse therefore with good
strength and good points but slightly blemished
may be sold to lumbermen as loggers. Such

6 FARM ANIMALS

horses must show strength and if possible a firm,
muscular structure. Recently as shown by Alex-
ander the lumbermen have found it advisable to
buy logging horses from the producers rather
than after they have been over-fattened and
made blubbery by the feeders on the stock markets.
This class of horse may be expected to bring about
$150 to $250 per head whereas draft horses
without blemish should bring from $350 to $500.
Draft horses of mixed type and mixed breed
and somewhat under weight are sometimes grouped
together in the class known as farm chunks.
These horses may be found on the market in
large numbers and sell for $90 to $175 per head.
As a rule they stand 15 hands or more high and
weigh from 1200 to 1500 pounds. They are
among the heaviest of the light type of draft
horse but on account of their character and low
price are extremely unsatisfactory horses for the
farmer to market. Approaching to the general
type of draft horse we find the market class
known as express horses which are draft horses
standing 15.3 to 16 hands high and weighing
from 1350 to 1600 pounds. This class of horses
must have the general conformation of the draft
horse so far as deep bodies are concerned but
must stand higher on the legs, show more grace
and better gait, cleaner legs with somewhat
smaller joints, and less feather in the case of
grades from breeds which carry a heavy feather
on the leg. These horses are sometimes de-
scribed as draft horses with a cart horse finish and
it is necessary that they be able to move moder-
ately heavy loads at a brisk walk or even a trot.
Such horses bring about $25 more than farm
chunks. Various other classes are occasionally

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UNIVERSITY

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FARM ANIMALS 7

recognized on the market, approaching tne general
type of the draft horse. The call for such horses
is less frequent than for the recognized classes
and the farmer is therefore not justified in attempt-
ing to raise horses to fit this class. These draft
classes are known as bus horses, tram horses,
artillery horses, van horses, cart horses, etc.
Some of these are shipped to England and other
parts of Europe for use in hauling heavy busses
and public street vehicles. In this country such
horses are most commonly drawn from the other
standard market classes.

The general term driving horse includes a
considerable variety of types which differ in
height, strength, and gait. The typical driving
horse should stand from 15.1 to 15.3 hands
high and weigh from 1000 to 1150 pounds. The
business of the driving horse is to pull a light
vehicle at a comparatively rapid stride and for
a considerable period. Such horses in order
to bring remunerative prices must be graceful
in form, symmetrical, smooth, sound, with clean
legs and with fine heads. It is quite useless for
the farmer to expect any profit in breeding driving
horses for market so long as they do not please
the eye in every respect and show more than the
average speed and graceful gait. The market is
always overloaded with poor or medium driving
horses and it is impossible to get enough from this
type of horse to pay for raising them. The
coach horse stands about 15.3 to 16 hands
high and weighs from 1050 to 1250 pounds.
This horse is slightly heavier than the true driving
type, should show correspondingly larger body
and must show if anything a smoother form and
otherwise the general conformation of the roadster.

8 FARM ANIMALS

The chief characteristic is its gait which must
be high without stopping the movement of the
feet, and the knees and hock must be strongly
flexed in action. Evidently it is impossible to
expect a horse to show high knee and hock action
and at the same time great speed. Coach horses
which can show a speed of from 6 to 10 miles an
hour are quite satisfactory. The knee action
however must be up to the standard and in
driving the knee should be flexed so decidedly
that the feet describe an almost perfect circle
in their motion without coming to a decided
stop at any point. The coach horse must also
show style and legs of good form and action,
otherwise the price will be unsatisfactory. For
the proper coach type about $475 to $500 per
heaa is the price on the Chicago market.

The cob horse is a special type of coach horse
of small size and light weight, 1000 to 1050 pounds.
This horse is used commonly as a single driver
or in tandem, must possess very high action of
the knee and hock and must show a rather more
compact, blocky form than the coach horse, with all
of the style of the latter.

The saddle horse naturally varies considerably
in weight to accommodate the difference in
weight of the intending buyers. The height
varies from 15.1 to 15.3 hands and the weight from
1000 to 1200 pounds. This type of horse is
essentially that of the trotter or thoroughbred
with slightly more muscular build. The con-
formation must be smooth, shoulders and pasterns
sloping, withers moderately high and narrow and
the back strong and muscular. The saddle
horse in order to bring a satisfactory price must
be gaited, that is must be able to assume at com-

FARM ANIMALS 9

mand one or the other of at least five gaits, in-
cluding walk, trot, canter, running walk, and rack,
slow pace or fox trot.

The horse market also makes a considerable
demand for standard bred trotters, wagon horses,
polo ponies, hunters, fire horses, police horses,
and horses for other special purposes. As already
indicated, however, the farmer who wishes to
make a reasonable profit in raising horses for
market must first study carefully the demands for
various classes of horses on his home market,
the exact standards required for these classes
and must then proceed to carry on his breeding
work so as to obtain the desired results. It is
useless to raise nondescript horses or horses
which do not fulfill the requirements of some
recognized class. This is self-evident since the
nondescript horse is so called because it cannot
be described, therefore cannot be entered in a
definite class and will obviously not be called
for by buyers.

There are certain points in the conformation
of horses which it may be well to bear in mind.
In the thoroughbred or racing type the height
at the withers and also at the croup should be
the same and equal or greater than the length
of the body while the depth of the body at the
withers should be considerably less than half
the height. In saddle horses, hunters, steeple-
chasers or any other horse where speed is re-
quired the shoulders should be sloping. This
point in the conformation is necessary if the horse
is to take long or sustained strides. In horses
where the shoulder blade occupies an approxi-
mately vertical position the speed is necessarily
handicapped by this fact. In both the light

10 FARM ANIMALS

horse and the heavy horse type the knees and the
hocks should be relatively large, for great strength
is required at these points and too small joints
are an indication of weakness. In the heavy
horse type the legs are as large and strong as is
compatible with quality. There should be no
tendency towards coarseness or sponginess of
the legs. The length of the body in this type
should be considerably greater than the height
at the withers. On account of the extreme
muscular development in the shoulders of draft
horses the relative length of the head may be less
than in speed horses.

In breeding horses it is desirable to take into
consideration some of the effects of climate and
soil on the conformation of the horse. It is
a fact of general observation that horses reach
their greatest height in temperate climates and
diminish in size both in the cold and hot climates.
Great altitude has the effect of reducing the
size of the horse somewhat but may simultaneously
add considerably to the hardiness and relative
power of the horse. The effect of the varying
numidity of the air in different regions is not
very striking in temperate climates. Excessive
moisture, however, may predispose horses to
the disease known as roaring. The quality of
the pasture exerts a rather striking influence on
the development of the horse. Thus we have the
blue grass horses of Kentucky pastured on the
blue grass of that state, the long suffering and
indefatigable broncho reared on the nutritious
range grasses of the mountain pastures and
various other geographical varieties of this sort.
Moreover the heavy draft type develops best
on low lying pastures while the light horse in-

FARM ANIMALS 11

tended for speed is a native of higher ground
well drained and without an excess of moisture.
Speed and strength of horses as well as the legs
and bones are to a considerable extent influenced
by the soil conditions since lime and various
other minerals are known to be necessary in the
proper nutrition of all animals. Where these
mineral matters are absent from the soil they
naturally exist in a low percentage in the plants
grown on such soils and various bone diseases
may result in horses and other domestic animals
pastured on such grasses. At any rate it is
impossible to secure the proper strength and
toughness of bone without having the right
geological conditions of the soil.

BREEDS OF HORSES

Breeds of horses, like breeds in any other
domestic animals, are groups of closely related
individuals having a common ancestor and showing
a number of characteristic points in common by
which they may be classed together and described
by a common set of terms. The horse has de-
veloped along two common lines, viz. the draft
type and the speed horse, and these two types are
in turn subdivided into a number of distinct breeds
each of which traces its ancestry back in a more
or less pure line for many years and some of them
for several centuries. The two types of horses
from which our modern breeds have descended
come from different localities in which the soil
conditions were entirely unlike. The modern Thor-
oughbred is the latest development of the so-called
Oriental horse which developed in various forms
in Africa, parts of Asia, Spain, and was finally

12 FARM ANIMALS

brought to its present perfection in England. The
modern Thoroughbred is the first form which
breeders have developed; but a number of other
breeds, each having stud books and separate stan-
dards for registry, have been developed from the
same source. These breeds are the Trotter,
American Saddle Horse, French Coach, German
Coach, Hackney, Cleveland Bay, Morgan Horse,
and various breeds of ponies.

On the other hand a low, heavily built horse,
with comparatively large feet and limbs developed
and spread over a considerable portion of Europe,
especially the northern, low lying sections, and from
this old black horse of Europe or the Black Horse
of Flanders as it is variously called, all of our
modern draft horses have been produced by selec-
tion, careful breeding, and a mixture of other
strains of blood. These breeds include the Per-
cheron, Clydesdale, Shire Horse, Suffolk, French
Draft and Belgian Draft. In the following
paragraphs we shall give the characteristics of the
different breeds, beginning with the draft horse as
being peculiarly suitable for breeding on the farm.

Percheron. — This breed of horse is unquestion-
ably the most popular of all the drafters. It was
developed in France in the district of Perche and is
to be considered as the national French horse.
Two forms of the Percheron were developed first,
one of which was a comparatively light horse used
for coach purposes, while the second was the heavy
draft type which is preferred in America. The
Percheron was introcfuced into America about 50
years ago. It is a massive, heavily muscled horse,
standing 16 to 17.2 hands high and weighing from
1600 to 2200 pounds or more. The Percheron is
known throughout the country for his character-

FARM ANIMALS 13

istic gray color but black is now coming into fashion
and bays and roans are common with an occasional
brown or chestnut. The head of the Percheron is
small compared with the size of the body, the neck
is well arched, the hind quarters broad and muscu-
lar, and the legs short with very little "feather."
The action of the Percheron is good but the stride
is not so showy nor quite so active as that of the
Clydesdale. Occasionally there is a tendency in
Percherons to develop a chest so wide that the
stride becomes a rolling or waddling gait. Per-
cherons are used very extensively on farms, espe-
cially in the Middle West for producing grade draft
horses from native mares. At present there are
more than 30,000 registered Percheron horses in
the United States.

Clydesdale. — This draft horse originated in Scot-
land by improvement from the old black horse of
Europe, the foundation stock being imported into
Scotland early in the 18th century. At present the
prevailing colors of the Clydesdale are brown, bay,
or black, with white markings on the face and legs.
The Clydesdale stands from 16 to 17 hands high
and weighs from 1600 to 2200 pounds. The head
of the Clydesdale is long, usually with a straight
but sometimes with a Roman nose. The back is
sometimes a little too long but the hindquarters are
splendidly covered with muscle and the feet and
legs are perhaps as well formed as in any breed of
draft animals. The legs are clean with a slight
feather which springs from the back tendons and
not from the sides of the leg as in the Shire horse.
In some cases the leg bones are somewhat too light
but the defects in the breed are being corrected by
special attention given to these points. The
characteristic feature of the Clydesdale is his long

14 FARM ANIMALS

stride and rapid walk which is particularly de-
sirable in a draft horse.

Shire Horse. — The Shire horse, also known in
the early days of England as the "great horse" or
"war horse," is quite closely related to the Clydes-
dale in its early development into a distinct breed.
This horse has recently become popular in the
United States. The prevailing colors are bay,
brown, black, and gray. In height they somewhat
exceed the Clydesdale and the weight is also some-
what greater. The Shire horse usually has a
Roman nose, short neck, straight shoulder, broad
back, short loins, and strong legs with a heavy
feather springing not only from the back tendons
but also from the sides. The legs show a ten-
dency to coarseness in some individuals and the
walk is slower than that of the Clydesdale.

Suffolk. — This breed of draft horses, also known
as the Suffolk Punch, originated in England and
has been developed from an early date with especial
reference to its use on the farm. The Suffolk is
almost always some shade of chestnut or sorrel, a
bright chestnut being preferred. Occasionally
bays are seen; but any color other than chestnut or
sorrel is looked upon as evidence of impure blood.
The body of the Suffolk horse is well rounded, the
legs are clean, and the action brisk. The Suffolk
is not as large as the Clydesdale or Shire horses,
standing 15 .3 to 17 hands high and weighing from
1500 to 2000 pounds. This breed is not exten-
sively used in the United States as yet.

French Draft Horse. — This breed of drafters
originated in Northern France. The prevailing
colors are gray, bay or black. French drafters are
among the heaviest of horses, weighing up to 2200
pounds or more and standing 16 hands high or

FARM ANIMALS 15

more. They are a particularly massive horse on
strong legs with light feather. In the early days
it was not kept distinct from the Percheron but at
present no admixtures of blood are allowed in
registered horses of this breed. On account of the
impure ancestry of the horse it does not breed so
true as other horses which have been kept pure in
their descent.

Belgian Draft Horse. — This may be considered
as a typical development of the old black horse of
Flanders with its tendency to great size and strong
legs sharply accentuated in its modern represen-
tative. The Belgian draft horse has not been
imported in large numbers into the United States
until recently but the breed is rapidly increasing in
popularity. The first importation of this breed
was severely criticized for their heavy, thick legs,
coarse bone, and lack of quality in general. Re-
cently, however, they show a marked improvement
in these respects. In conformation they are
heavier than the Percheron, somewhat shorter on
the leg, with heavier head, ears less erect, sometimes
with a tendency to droop. This is the giant among
horses and weighs from 1700 to 2500 pounds or
more and stands from 15.3 to 17 hands high.

Thoroughbred. — The Thoroughbred is the oldest
breed of horses with an authentic pedigree. The
early history of this breed shows conclusively that
it was formed from importations of Oriental horses
of various sorts, including Barbs, Spanish, African
and Turkish horses. The name of the breed
deserves brief attention since it is anomalous in the
respect that it is not a characteristic breed name.
On account of the fact that the Thoroughbred was
the first breed of horses to be definitely established
this horse came to be known as the TJ

16 FARM ANIMALS

in contrast to other horses which were half-breeds
or mongrels. The name has persisted so that at
present the term Thoroughbred should be applied
only to the pure breed of race horses originated in
England and later transplanted to the United
States and various other countries. In the numer-
ous books and less extensive articles which have
been written on this horse, a considerable percent-
age of writers have extolled in glowing terms the
Arabian horse and have traced nearly all of the
speed, life and endurance of the Thoroughbred to
its Arabian blood. Investigations of this matter,
however, show that the Arabs originally used
camels and were entirely unacquainted with
horses until at least as late as the 3rd century of the
Christian era. Modern investigators have found
that the Arabs are not very excellent horse breeders
and recent importations of Arab horses have in all
cases proved inferior to the Thoroughbred both in
speed and endurance. The credit for establishing
the Thoroughbred must therefore be given chiefly
to English breeders rather than to the more or less
fabulous speed of the Arab horse. The color of
the Thoroughbred is brown, bay or chestnut with
a blaze on the forehead, or white feet. The breed,
as is well known, is racy in build with a tendency
to angularity, long slender legs, long neck car-
ried not high above the withers, strong back and
hindquarters, which, however, are somewhat droop-
ing.

The American Trotter. — This breed, as indicated
above, is based on the Thoroughbred, as are all
other horses showing unusual speed. The founda-
tion horse to which the best of American trotters
trace their ancestry was known by the name of
Messenger, a Thoroughbred. Various modifica-

FARM ANIMALS 17

tions of form have been made by American breeders,
special attention being paid to the development of
a rapid stride. The Thoroughbred blood appears
in the speediness and endurance of the Trotter.
Both Thoroughbreds and American Trotters may
show both the pacing and the trotting gait. Since
our point of view is that of the usefulness of the
horse to the farmer we may pass on without a
lengthy description of famous trotters. These
matters belong less to the province of the farmer
than to that of the typical horseman. The speed
of these horses has been greatly increased until it
has come inside of two minutes. At the present
time the number of standard bred Trotting stallions
in the United States is nearly 30,000.

The Morgan Horse. — This breed was developed
from a horse of this name owned by a man of the
same name in West Springfield, Mass. The
Morgans were more favorably known in the last
century than at present but within recent years a
considerable revival of interest in the breed has
taken place. The chief controversy regarding this
horse, which is essentially a trotter, is concerning
its ancestry, which has been frequently called in
question. The original line has been mixed with
Narragansett pacers and has developed a number
of famous horses such as Black Hawk and Ethan
Allen.

The American Saddle Horse. — This is another
breed of horses developed in America especially
among the pioneers 01 Virginia, Kentucky, and
Tennessee. The early settlers took great interest
in horses bred particularly for the purpose of
producing saddle animals of endurance and speed.
Their business required the use of such horses and
great improvements were made along this line

18 FARM ANIMALS

before a breed could be said to be definitely estab-
lished. The foundation stallion is usually con-
sidered to be Denmark, a Thoroughbred. This
animal was brought into Kentucky in the year 1839.
The American Saddle Horse has inherited its spirit
and endurance from the Thoroughbred but the
nervousness of the Thoroughbred has been elimi-
nated. In order to be registered in the American
Saddle Horse stud book the horse must be able to
show five gaits, walk, rack, trot, canter, and either
the running walk, fox trot, or slow pace. The
American Saddle Horse stands about 15.2 high
and is of various colors, being brown, black, or
chestnut, and many of them are valuable for either
saddle or harness purposes. Some saddle horses
have developed a trotting gait somewhat better
than 2.30.

Hackney. — The Hackney originated in England
from good native driving mares bred to Thorough-
bred stallions. The term Hackney is derived from
hack, originally meaning any horse which was suit-
able for hauling comparatively light vehicles at
considerable speed. The modern Hackney has
been developed into a heavy harness horse of great
style. His speed is not great since more attention
has recently been given to the development of the
walking gait with a high knee action. The form of
the horse has become smoother and rounder than
that of the Trotter with less tendency to angularity.
The height ranges from 14.2 to 15.3 hands. In the
movement of the legs the Hackney closely resembles
the coach horse. The legs are greatly flexed and the
knees raised to an extreme height and in motion the
foot describes a circle. The chief faults of the
Hackney from a farmer's standpoint is that his size
is too small as a sire of work horses and his speed and

FARM ANIMALS 19

endurance are not equal to that of the standard bred
Trotters as a sire to driving animals. In fact the
Hackney and Coach horses are chiefly useful as park
animals and for driving in boulevards where style
and not speed is required. On the western ranges
a number of Hackney stallions have been introduced
for crossing on broncho mares but the results of these
experiments cannot yet be stated with much confi-
dence.

French Coach Horse. — This breed is the direct
result of government enterprise in France. The
French government felt the need of remounts for
cavalry purposes and imported Thoroughbred stalli-
ons for crossing on native mares. On account of the
repeated use of Thoroughbred stallions the French
Coach Horses are still in many cases half-breeds
rather than a pure breed. The faults of this breed
are that it does not come true to color or type on
account of the many admixtures of blood which have
taken place. The action of the horse, however, in
good specimens, is about equal to that of the Hack-
ney or other coach horses.

German Coach Horse. — This breed originated in
northern Germany and showed a number of differ-
ent forms in different provinces, some of which
have been recognized as distinct breeds. The best
known type of the German Coach horse is the Olden-
burg, which, like the French Coach horse, was taken
up by the German government for the purpose of
improvement. Like the French Coach horse also it
was bred originally for cavalry purposes. The
German Coach horse stands about 15.$ to 16 hands
high and weighs from 1000 to 1200 pounds. The
prevailing color is bay or brown. The action of the
German Coach horse is somewhat less showy and
artificial than that of the Hackney.

20 FARM ANIMALS

Cleveland Bay .—This breed originated in England
and was in the early days used chiefly as a coach
horse. It stands 16 to 16.2 hands high and weighs
from 1100 to 1300 pounds. This breed has been
introduced into the United States to a considerable
extent and on account of its size and speed is
recognized as an excellent horse not only for farm
work but also for driving purposes, particularly as
heavy harness horses.

Ponies . — A great variety of ponies has been pro-
duced in England as well as in the north of Scot-
land. Some of these ponies have been bred in suf-
ficiently pure lines to lead to the formation of
breeds. Perhaps the best known pony is the Shet-
land which came originally from the Shetland
Islands. This pony is extremely hardy and the
imported specimens show rather long and wavy
hair. Typical specimens stand from 9 to 10.2
hands high and weigh from 273 to 500 pounds.
The color varies but perhaps bays, browns, chest-
nuts and blacks prevail. The form of the Shetland
is that of a heavy harness horse or sometimes
that of a draft horse in miniature. Originally
these ponies were used as pack animals and mine
horses but at present they are used almost exclu-
sively as children's pets. Various other breeds
have been introduced from England such as Ex-
moor, Dartmoor, New Forest and Welch ponies.

On our western ranges the prevalent type of
horse is also a pony known by various names such
as mustang, broncho and cayuse. This horse is of
Spanish origin and therefore of Oriental blood.
The relationship to the Thoroughbred is also
shown by its marvelous endurance and considerable
speed. The modern broncho is used as a mine
horse, for driving purposes, and as a saddle or pack

FARM ANIMALS 21

animal. Some of them are still practically wild
and considered a nuisance. Until recently they
were from time to time rounded up and shipped to
a horse abattoir where they were slaughtered and
the meat sent to Denmark and other parts of Eu-
rope. The broncho is capable of carrying a man
and heavy saddle from 40 to 80 miles a day, is sure
footed and a good rustler but frequently of bad
disposition and ugly form. Recently a number
of experiments have been made in crossing pure
bred stallions of various breeds to broncho mares.
Thus Thoroughbred stallions have been found very
valuable as sources of polo ponies from broncho
mares. In fact some of the ponies of the western
ranges make excellent polo ponies without any ad-
mixture of other blood.

BREEDING HORSES ON THE FARM

As is indicated in the foregoing discussion of
breeds and market classes the individual farmer
will select that breed for which he has the greatest
liking and will attempt to produce horses adapted
for use on the farm or such as will conform to
some market class. Many terms are in constant
use in the literature of breeding and some of them
may well be referred to in this connection. It is
often said that heredity or the tendency of an ani-
mal to transmit its characteristics to offspring is
the cornerstone of breeding. This is quite true
from one standpoint but from another standpoint
variation is equally if not more important. Every
one knows that the progeny of tne same parents
are not exactly alike. They may easily be recog-
nized by certain differences. This tendency to be
unlike in certain respects is known as variation. It

22 FARM ANIMALS

is evident that were it not for the tendency towards
variation it would be impossible to improve upon
native stock or upon our present breeds to any
great extent. Variation furnishes suggestions of
valuable tendencies, which after being noticed
are seized upon and perpetuated through heredity.
In breeding animals the tendency is sometimes ob-
served in offspring to "throw back" or to develop
characteristics which do not appear in the parents
but rather in grandparents or some other more re-
mote ancestor. This is known as atavism and
sometimes interferes to a slight extent with the
efforts of the breeder but cases of atavism are,
as a rule, extremely rare.

Among the various myths which have grown up
around the subject of breeding we may mention
those concerning maternal influence and the influ-
ence of a previous sire. Many writers have argued
and thousands of instances have been collected to
prove that experiences of the mother animal during
pregnancy may produce definite effects upon the
offspring. This matter has been investigated quite
extensively and innumerable instances of this sort
have been compiled. It is sufficient to say re-
garding this matter that no unquestionable evidence
of any such case has ever been shown. Similarly
with the belief in the influence of a previous sire, we
find a great deal of talk mixed up with supposed
observations of fact. It has been quite generally
believed by breeders of pjigs, cattle, horses, chickens
and other animals that if a pure bred female bear
offspring to a mongrel male or male of another
breed, the influence of this male will always be
manifest in subsequent offspring from other males
or that such animals after once being " contamina-
ted " can never again bear pure offspring. Recently

FARM ANIMALS 23

this matter has been tested very thoroughly by Prof.
Ewart in breeding hybrids between zebras and the
horse. His long-continued and careful experiments
have shown as conclusively as may be that the theo-
ry of the influence of a previous sire must be entirely
discarded.

In the various systems of breeding different meth-
ods have been used. In the origination of pure
breeds it has often been found necessary to use in-
and-in breeding. This term signifies the use of
animals of close relation as for example where broth-
er and sister and father and offspring are crossed.
The purpose of in-and-in breeding is to get a con-
siderable number of animals containing unmixed
the blood of some animal which shows excellent
characteristics desired by the breeder. Obviously
if outside blood were mingled with this blood other
tendencies would be introduced and the desired
characteristics would perhaps be lost.

Cross breeding consists simply in crossing one
pure breed with another so that the offspring are
half breeds. This method has been resorted to
at frequent intervals, particularly in the breeding
of sheep. Similarly Thoroughbreds have been
crossed with various other breeds of horses as
indicated in the above discussion. As a rule
however, this method is not to to be recommended
for the reason that when various tendencies are
mixed the results cannot be predicted with cer-
tainty and sometimes the undesirable points of
both parents are perpetuated in the offspring.

The system of breeding described by some
authors as line breeding may be defined as a mere
extension of in-and-in breeding after the latter
system has been in operation for several gener-
ations. In other words breeding takes place

24 FARM ANIMALS

exclusively between members of a family in one
general line of descent without strict regard to the
nearness of relationship. In most cases, how-
ever, it is obvious that the relationship would not
be particularly close.

The only system of breeding which can be
conscientiously recommended for the average
farmer is that known as grading up. This consists
in the use of a thoroughbred sire upon native
scrub animals. The result is a great improvement
of the native stock toward the standard of the
thoroughbred sire used in any particular case.
This system of breeding is the least expensive of
any of those just mentioned and does not require
the skill which is necessary in carrying out other
systems with success.

As a matter of fact it is useless for the average
farmer to go to any great expense in securing high
priced, pure bred sires of any kind of animal
provided he does not intend to use improved
methods of caring for his breeding animals. Under
scrub conditions scrub animals will give as much
profit as thoroughbred animals and, of course, cost
less.

To incur a great initial expense in securing
thoroughbred sires makes it necessary to take
better care of these sires, to use them so that the
greatest possible number of offspring are obtained
from them and to give extra care to these offspring
in order to get out all there is in them. If the
farmer is not prepared by training or experience
or is not conveniently situated for carrying on an-
imal industry according to the most profitable
systems, with the best of care and scientific use of
feeding stuffs and other methods strictly up to
date, it will be impracticable to indulge in any fine

FARM ANIMALS 25

stock of any sort. This, however, should not be
taken as an attempt to discourage the improvement
of farm stock in all possible ways. It is simply
a statement of the financial side of practical stock
raising.

FEEDING HORSES

Horses are fed for quite different purposes than
those for which other farm animals are fed,
In the United States, horses are raised only ex-
ceptionally for the production of meat. The main
purpose sought in the horse is work. They must
oe fed, however, with materials which produce
an increase of weight, especially during growth
and during the periods of fattening for market
as well as for the production of energy. Energy
may be compared with milk, wool, eggs, and other
products produced by other animals aside from
the mere increase in weight. In order to feed
horses or any other farm animals successfully
and economically it is necessary to give some heed
to preparing and compounding rations. Food
stuffs, as is generally known, contain a number of
nutritive elements which are referred to in all
literature relating to the feeding of animals. We
may therefore briefly define the most necessary
terms used in feeding. Protein is the general
term used to include all sorts of substances in
food stuffs which contain oxygen, hydrogen,
carbon, and nitrogen in addition to phosphorus,
sulphur and other constituents. Substances con-
taining protein are also said to be albuminous or
nitrogenous on account of the fact that they con-
tain nitrogen. The white of the egg, the gluten
of flour, and the casein of milk are familiar
examples of

26 FARM ANIMALS

Carbo-hydrates is the term used to denote
nutritive compounds containing carbon, oxygen,
and hydrogen in certain proportions. The most
familiar examples of the carbo-hydrates are the
starches and sugars and these are the carbo-
hydrate elements which are of the greatest value
in feeding stuffs.

Ether-extract as used in literature on the feeding
of animals includes various oils and fats in feeding
stuffs which can be extracted by means of ether.
The amount of fat in various plants varies greatly.
In general there is a larger amount of oil and fat
in grains and seeds than in coarse fodders and
still less in roots and fruits. Seeds of cotton, rape,
mustard and flax contain large quantities of fat
and similarly with beans and other leguminous
seeds. Among grains, corn and oats contain
large amounts of fat.

Crude fiber is the tough, fibrous part of plants
and consists largely of cellulose and woody tissue.
Obviously the amount of crude fiber in a plant
depends to a large extent on the stage of growth at
which it is harvested. In general, coarse fodders
contain more crude fiber than grains.

All animals require a considerable variety of
feeds in order to thrive best and most economically.
Rations compounded on a proper basis according
to the nutritive value are said to be balanced.
The balancing of a ration implies that a proper
amount of protein is obtained along with the fats
and carbo-hydrates. All writers on the feeding
of animals, use the term nutritive ratio in this
connection to indicate the ratio between the
digestible protein and the other digestible matter
in any particular feeding stuff. In calculating
the nutritive ratio, it has been found that fats

FARM ANIMALS 27

have 2.4 times the heat value of carbo-hydrates.
The percentage of fat as shown in an analysis of
a given food stuff is therefore multiplied by 2.4,
the resulting quantity being added to the carbo-
hydrates and the total of both being divided by
the amount of digestible protein. In general
nitrogenous grains may be taken as examples of
a narrow ration, for example, linseed meal in
which the nutritive ratio is 1:1.7, while in corn
the ratio is 1 :9 . 8, this being known as a medium
ration, and in timothy hay 1 :15 . 5, this being called
a wide ration.

GRAINS FOR HORSES

In the following paragraphs attention is given
first to a brief discussion of the various feeding
stuffs which are commonly used for feeding horses,
and later to a general discussion of suitable rations
for horses. Feeding stuffs are grouped for the
sake of convenience into grains, coarse fodders,
roots and fruits, and miscellaneous feeding stuffs.

Oats. — Oats are quite generally considered as
the best grain for horses. The belief is firmly
rooted with a large percentage of horsemen that
no other grain is suitable for horses or, at least,
not for horses used for driving or speed purposes.
Oats are cjuite nitrogenous and, therefore, furnish
the protein which is necessary for the growing
horse. They are also palatable and well liked by
all horses. Another point in connection with oats
is that the amount of hulls in the grain is consider-
able so that the masticated mass does not become
sticky or solid in the stomach and, therefore, does
not give rise to digestive troubles. Oats are
cultivated as horse feed and for the production of

28 FARM ANIMALS

food for human beings in nearly all parts of the
world. They are, therefore, available for horses
wherever horsemen feel under the necessity of
using them. In many localities, however, they
are quite expensive when compared with other
grains which may be obtained more cheaply. As
a rule, oats are the grain for horses in the north-
eastern quarter of the United States. Many
years ago a chemist reported the discovery of a
peculiar substance in oats under the name of
avenine. This substance was supposed to contain
a life-giving principle, characteristic of oats. The
discovery was supposed to be substantiated by
other investigations, but recent chemical work has
failed to show the presence of any such principle in
oats. One of the great advantages of oats, as
compared with other grains, is that they may be fed
in large quantities without causing indigestion or
other serious troubles in the horse. Again oats
may be fed, without any previous treatment such
as steaming or grinding, to all horses so long as
the teeth are in a suitable condition. They may be
fed in rations of from 8 to 20 pounds per day
according to the size of the animal and amount of
work to be performed. Wherever oats are too
expensive they should be replaced by some other
grain as indicated in the following paragraphs :

When oats were compared with mixed grain
composed of gluten meal, middlings, and linseed
meal in Maine the best results were obtained and
at the least cost from the mixed grains. In
another test, oats produced less growth in colts
than an equal weight of a mixture of peas and
middlings, the ratio being 100:111. teas are
somewhat costly, however. In the test with the
mixture of middlings, gluten meal, and linseed

FARM ANIMALS 29

meal in the ratio of 60:35:15 respectively the total
cost of the ration was 12 cents while when oats
were substituted for the grain mixture the ration
cost 14 cents per day. The total gain in weight
was one and three-tenths pounds on the mixed
grains and two-thirds of a pound on oats. In
Utah it has recently been found that bran and
shorts mixed may be substituted for oats when
horses are fed either timothy or alfalfa as roughage.
As a rule, the cost of maintaining horses may be
reduced by using bran and shorts in the place of
oats. In North Carolina when oats were com-
pared with cowpeas pound for pound, the ration
being 4 pounds per day in addition to wheat, corn
and cob meal, and meadow hay, the total cost
was 24 . 4 cents in the oat ration and 20.4 cents for
the cowpea ration. Both rations proved highly
effective and satisfactory, but the cowpeas were
evidently the most economical and practical feed
for horses in North Carolina. In Maryland a
direct test was made of the value of ground oats.
In this experiment it was found that while horses
readily digested oats either in the whole or ground
condition, the grinding increased their digestibility
to an appreciable extent.

Barley. — This grain is extensively used to
replace oats. Its feeding value is about equal
to oats and it is used for horses in California, and
almost exclusively as the grain ration of horses in
Africa and Asia. In Algeria horses receive scarcely
any other grain and since horses in Algeria and
Arabia are noted for their speed and endurance
it is obvious that barley has great feeding value
for horses. Barley is exceedingly hard and should
preferably be cracked or crushed. It is still
better to mix it with bran or a little molasses.

30 FARM ANIMALS

According to some experiments 4 pounds of
barley are equal to 6 pounds of oats. Boiled
barley is perhaps the best grain for colts. It
gives a rapid growth and great strength of bone
and muscle as well as sleek coat. In Germany a
direct comparison of barley and oats showed that
these grains were about equal in value as horse
feed. As a result of these tests a ration was
recommended for farm horses containing one-
third oats, one-third barley, and one-third beans.
In a comparison of barley and oats in North
Dakota with heavy work horses barley did not
prove quite as valuable pound for pound as oats,
especially when the horses were taxed to the
limit of their endurance. Some horses do not take
so kindly to barley as to oats and the same fact is
observed occasionally with mules. Malted barley
proved not to be equal to whole barley in a con-
tinuation of this test. In fact, it did not prove to
be an economical feed for horses. A number of
horses were also fed on a mixture of malt and
bran. This mixture, however, as compared with
oats did not keep the horses in as good flesh nor
did it produce an equal amount of work.

Corn. — This is the king of all grains for fatten-
ing purposes and for the production of energy.
On account of its low protein content, however,
corn should not be used extensively in feeding
growing colts. Good corn, however, may be sub-
stituted for oats without injury to the health of
animals. Old horses may not be able to eat it
without previous grinding. A mixture containing
50 per cent, corn, 15 to 20 per cent, cracked beans,
10 to 15 per cent, bran, and 10 to 20 per cent, of
malt makes an excellent ration for a horse when 10
to 15 pounds of the mixture are used daily. An-

FARM ANIMALS 31

other very effective mixture for feeding horses and
which is considered as equal to 220 pounds of oats
consists of 154 pounds of corn, 10 pounds of ground
meat, and 11 pounds of chopped straw.

As is generally known street car and bus com-
panies in Europe as well as in the United States
have extensively tested the feeding of corn to horses
for the purpose of determining not only its suita-
bility for substitution in the place of oats but also
its possible effect on the health of horses. In
England ten street car companies determined upon
a ration of four pounds of corn, six pounds oats,
two pounds beans and peas, and one-third pound
of bran. In Leipsic a ration of ten pounds of corn
and three pounds of oats was fed to bus horses at
hard work. Horses, after a continued use of this
ration, were in better condition than when on an
exclusive oat diet and the coat was smoother and
sleeker. It was concluded from these experi-
ments that oats had been somewhat overestimated
by horsemen and that an exclusive oat ration was
not only not necessary but not even as desirable
as mixed grain. It has been found that corn is
well adapted to the production of energy in work
horses. Fivelbs. of corn may be substituted for six
Ibs. of oats for farm horses. When the ration con-
sists of part oats and part corn it is well to feed
the oats during the day and the corn in the evening
since the corn is less readily digested than the oats.
Before feeding corn may be soaked for twenty-four
hours or may be fed in the form of corn meal, corn
and cob meal, shelled corn without grinding or
cracking, or even in the ear. In Utah the use of a
ration of corn meal and timothy hay did not sus-
tain work horses as well as oats and clover. This,
however, was to be expected since the protein con-

32 FARM ANIMALS

tent of the second ration is much higher than that
of the first.

In general it may be said that extensive experi-
ments on a commercial scale have shown that the
feeding value of corn is equal or in some cases
superior to that of oats. Corn is the chief grain
fed to horses and mules throughout the southern
states and in fact until recently it has been almost
the only grain used for this purpose in the South.
In North Dakota feeding experiments showed that
seventy-seven and one-half pounds of corn were
equal to 100 pounds of oats for work horses. Ac-
cording to some authorities corn incites perspir-
ation and renders horses softer than when oats or
barley are fed. Lavalard, who has made a most
extensive study of corn as a feed for horses, re-
ports that for cavalry and artillery horses as well
as for all horses at hard work, corn may be used
to replace oats without in any way injuring the
horses. Horses which received corn were able to
work more hours and to travel at the same gait as
those which received oats. The constituents of
oats are perhaps more easily and somewhat
better digested than those of corn but corn in turn
is more easily digested than beans which are often
used as a horse feed. In North Carolina some
advantage was found in grinding corn for horses
and excellent results were obtained when horses
were fed corn and cob meal. Again whether grind-
ing is to be recommended depends entirely on the
cost of grinding and the distance of the farm from
a suitable mill. Similar results were obtained in
Maryland where corn meal was found to be con-
siderably more digestible for horses than shelled
corn.

Cotton Seed Meal. — This meal, as is well known,

FARM ANIMALS 33

is highly nitrogenous and has been found to be a
very effective feed for the production of beef, milk,
and pork. When fed in too large quantities with-
out suitable roughage it has been found to be more
or less injurious or poisonous. For that reason it
is recommended by some authorities that cotton
seed meal be not used as a feed for horses, especial-
ly for brood mares. In New Hampshire it was
found that at first horses did not like cotton seed
meal and refused to eat it. Gradually, however,
they acquired a taste for it and it proved to be one
of the cheapest grain rations when compared with
other rations containing other grains. In North
Carolina it was found that from two to four pounds
of cotton seed meal could safely be fed to horses
at work. In some cases horses gained considerably
when at hard work on the ration containing cotton
seed meal. This substance may be used to replace
a corresponding amount of other grains in the
ration with an advantage in the amount of work
performed by the horses and with economy in the
feed.

Rye. — This grain, though not raised in large
quantities, may be safely fed to horses if convenient
and if the grain is in a clean condition. The oil
contained in rye is perhaps less easily digested
than that of oats and in general rye cannot be con-
sidered as equal to oats as a grain ration for horses.
Nevertheless rye may be used to replace some of
the oats in the ration. It is usually recommended
that rye be scalded before using and that horses
be gradually accustomed to it. As is generally
known rye is sometimes attacked by ergot. If
infested with this disease it should be fed very
sparingly since horses may ultimately become af-
fected by eating ergot. In some of Lavalard's ex-

34 FARM ANIMALS

periments rye was substituted pound for pound for
oats but in general it should not be used to replace
more than one-third of the oats in the ordinary
ration. Rye may be fed whole, cracked, boiled,
as flour, or baked as bread. While cockle seed is
sometimes considered harmful and is found in
rye screenings it has been found by certain tests
in Germany that rye screenings containing a con-
siderable quantity of cockle seed in rations of two
pounds per day did not cause harm.

Wheat. — Wheat cannot be profitably fed to
horses when in prime condition, as it is of too much
value for use in the manufacture of flour. When-
ever the market price is low, however, or when
the wheat has been injured by frost or in elevator
fires, it may be fed with good results. Wheat is
quite readily digested, but should usually be mixed
with some other grain in order to obtain the best
results. In North Dakota a comparison of ground
wheat, and bran with oats showed that the wheat
and bran ration was considerably superior to
oats. When horses were fed a fine quality of
wheat for three or four weeks in succession in
rations of 14 pounds daily, it was found that
horses working for nine hours a day maintained
their health and increased in weight. In some
cases, however, the digestion ultimately became
somewhat deranged and a considerable portion
of the wheat kernels passed through the alimentary
canal undigested. Apparently it is not advisable
for the average farmer to use wheat as an exclusive
grain ration for horses. In feeding stallions, a
certain amount of wheat is often substituted for
part of the oats in the grain ration. It is neces-
sary, however, in such rations to use the utmost
precaution since wheat may produce an irritation

FARM ANIMALS 35

or itch after long periods of feeding similar to the
results produced by buckwheat.

Buckwheat. — In this country buckwheat is
cultivated on an extensive scale only in a few
regions, particularly in New York. It, therefore,
is not used as a general horse feed. In various
parts of Europe buckwheat has been used to a
limited extent to replace oats as a part of the grain
ration. The maximum daily ration may be placed
at about four to six pounds. Buckwheat is not as
readily digested as oats and has the further dis-
advantage that it may become pasty and somewhat
unpalatable during mastication. It may be fed,
however, both whole and ground, particularly
in the form of middlings and bran since the flour
is ordinarily used as human food.

Rice. — On account of the recent extensive
cultivation of rice in the southern states, par-
ticularly Louisiana and Texas, this cereal and
some of the cheaper milling products from it have
been tested quite extensively as stock food. In a
number of tests it has proved a valuable feed for
both horses and mules. It may be fed whole or
preferably in the form of rice bran, rice polish or
some other milling product. The composition of
rice is such that it may be used as a substitute for
other nitrogenous grains without changing the
amount, but not all horses take to rice at once
without previous experience.

Kafir Corn. — This grain, as is well known, is
grown extensively, particularly in the dry regions
along the northwestern border of the cotton belt.
In Kansas and Oklahoma it has been fed to horses
and mules with good results. Kafir corn is a
carbonaceous grain and has a very similar com-
position to corn. It may, therefore, be used

36 FARM ANIMALS

almost pound for pound as a substitute for corn in
horse rations. In some cases it is not eaten so
readily as corn, but no especial precautions are
necessary in feeding it since it appears to be safe
and wholesome.

Millet. — Millet, especially when ground in the
form of a meal, is quite suitable as a part of
the grain rations for young, or developing horses.
It is somewhat more nitrogenous than oats but
has a smaller fat content. Some feeders have
found that millet is very desirable in producing
energy in work horses. In North Dakota, when
cut just before maturity and fed as the only coarse
forage to horses, millet after a considerable time
exercised a very injurious effect on the liver and
kidneys, causing increased action of the kidneys
followed by lameness, swelling and distortion of
the joints, softening of the bone tissue and death
in a number of cases. The causes of this effect
of millet are not well understood, particularly
since it has been extensively fed in many localities
without any such effects.

Beans. — -Beans of all kinds have been fed to
horses with excellent results in the production
of energy. Recently, Java beans, particularly
the wild ones, have been found to contain prussic
acid at times, but this is apparently not true of the
cultivated varieties. The nutritive value of beans
is very high and for this reason they should not
be used to replace any large proportion of the
usual grain ration of working horses. The com-
mon variety used for feeding purposes is horse
beans. Paris cab companies have used this bean
extensively and recommend that when fed to
replace a part of the oats in the ration one pound
of beans be substituted for two pounds 01 oats.

FARM ANIMALS 37

Nearly all horsemen say that beans are especially
suited as a food before long-continued, sudden,
or severe exertions, and this seems to be well
founded. In some of the leading racing stables
of England a considerable proportion of beans is
used in the ration of young horses during training.
In experiments with work horses, it has been
found that not more than four pounds of the usual
amount of oats or equivalent grain in the ration
should be replaced with beans. It must be re-
membered also that on account of the high protein
content of beans an additional amount of starchy
food may be given to balance the ration.

Peas. — Peas contain twice as much nitroge-
nous material as oats and are, therefore, indi-
cated as a valuable grain food where energy or
the production of tissue is required. Peas are
practically equal to beans in feeding value, but
since they have a slightly constipating effect it is
recommended by Stewart that a mixture containing
eight parts peas, eight parts corn, and one part
flax seed be ground together and suitable rations
given from this mixture. The continued feeding
of peas in large rations is occasionally said to pro-
duce a bad effect on the kidneys, causing bloody
urine. This complaint, however, has not thus
far been substantiated. Peas as well as beans may
be fed cracked, ground, or cooked. On account
of their hardness it is undesirable to feed them
whole.

Various other leguminous seeds such as vetches,
lupines, lentils, flat pea, carob bean, etc., have
been fed to horses to some extent, but their use
will naturally be confined to localities in which
these materials can be obtained conveniently and at
a reasonable price.

38 FARM ANIMALS

Bran. — Bran is known to all horsemen as a
valuable feed. It is considered as having a slight
laxative effect and as maintaining a good condition
of the skin and a softness and silkiness of the hair.
Even when it is not used as a continued part of the
ration it is usually fed once a week or oftener in the
form of a wet mash. Recently the Canadian
government made a direct comparison of the
feeding value of bran and oats for heavy horses.
It was found that the oat ration in order to be as
effective as bran and oats cost two cents per day
more for each horse. A ration containing two
parts of bran, one part of linseed meal, and two
parts of oats is considered as an almost ideal grain
ration for horses. In some cases the use of a large
quantity of bran, apparently makes animals soft
and inclined to perspire more readily than when
oats or other grains are used. A comparison of
bran with oats in New Hampshire showed con-
clusively that bran may be substituted for oats
with a saving in the expense of the ration. A
mixture of corn and bran was found to be an
exceedingly effective and cheap ration for both
summer and winter work. In North Dakota a
combination of bran and shorts proved to be
equally as effective as oats for horses. The
results of this experiment show that when oats are
worth 25 cents a bushel bran and shorts are
worth $15 . 60 per ton for the same purpose.

Horse Bread. — The use of bread for feeding
horses is familiar to nearly all horse-raisers. Bread
for this purpose has been made from the flour of
wheat, rye, barley, and other cereals, and in some
cases has been mixed with various other materials
including blood, milk, molasses, etc. In one in-
stance a horse bread prepared from skim milk and

FARM ANIMALS 39

oats was directly compared with oats alone as a horse
food. The horse bread had to be used in rations of
twice the weight of the oats in order to give the
same results. The bread, however, was relished
by all horses and did not appear to cause con-
stipation or other bad effects. On the contrary
it appeared to be palatable and readily digested,
partly on account of its mechanical condition.
The use of bread made from any kind of flour for
feeding horses will naturally depend entirely
upon the price of flour which is usually too high
as compared with untreated grains. The use of
bread for horse feeding will not be extensive for
some time to come.

Dried Brewer's Grains. — Farmers have learned
the high feeding value of dried brewer's grains for
various kinds of stock and at present all of this
material is ordered far ahead of the actual pro-
duction so that it is somewhat difficult to obtain it.
The most extensive experiments in feeding dried
brewer's grains to horses have been carried on in
New Jersey, where it was found that this material
was quite as useful as oats, pound for pound in a
ration for horses. When dried brewer's grains
were substituted for a part of the oats in the ration
containing hay, wheat bran, and corn, a saving of
five cents per day per horse was accomplished.
In feeding this material to horses it should be
remembered that one pound of dried brewer's
grains is equal to four pounds of wet, and is far
more desirable than the wet grain.

Dried Distillery Grains. — This material, until
recently, has not been fed to farm animals so
extensively as dried brewer's grains and has not
been subjected to as careful feeding tests as the
latter. Since, however, it appears to be impossible,

40 FARM ANIMALS

or, at least, not economic to feed horses on ex-
clusive grain rations of oats, it has become neces-
sary to study carefully all possible substitutes for
oats and where barley, corn, Kafir corn, wheat, or
beans are not available at reasonable prices, it
may be desirable to use various milling products,
such as dried distillery grains. This product was
recently tested in Indiana. The material used
was what is known as Viles Fourex distillery dried
grains with a guarantee of 33 per cent, protein.
Different horses ate different quantities of the
grain, varying from six to 50 pounds per week. As
a rule neither horses or cattle took kindly to it and
some animals never ate a ration of suitable size.
It appears, therefore, that dried distillery grains
are lacking somewhat in palatability as a horse
feed and, therefore, it is not necessary to discuss
the economy of feeding this product.

Linseed Meal. — Linseed meal, as well as ground
flax seed, has a laxative effect and is fed occasion-
ally on account of this medicinal property, as
well as on account of the fact that it has a tendency
to keep the coat in a glossy, sleek condition. In
New Hampshire it has been shown that as much
as four pounds of linseed meal per day may be fed
without producing any bad effects on the horse.
In general, however, large quantities are not
eaten with much relish and on account of the high
price of this product and its medicinal effect it is
quite unnecessary to feed it in such large quantities
particularly for long periods. About two pounds
of linseed meal and two pounds of bran, in addition
to eight pounds of corn, constitute an excellent
grain ration for work horses. It has sometimes
been asserted that when horses have been fed for
a considerable period on linseed meal it is unsafe to

FARM ANIMALS 41

make a sudden change to a ration without the
linseed meal. Direct tests seem to indicate that
there is no danger in suddenly adding two pounds
of linseed meal to the ration or in suddenly leaving
it out after a continued use of this product.

Whole vs. Ground Grain. — The cost of grind-
ing grain for feeding to animals has been consider-
ed by a great many stockmen to be an unnecessary
expense in animal industry. In general, it has
been found that the expense of the process must
be taken into consideration. Where the farmer is
conveniently situated near the mill, and where the
expense of grinding the grain is not great, as for
example by the use of a power feed grinder on the
farm, the advantage obtained in the increased di-
gestibility of the grain may more than equal the
cost of tne grinding. For horses with good teeth it
is not necessary to grind oats, soft wheat, buckwheat,
or Kafir corn, but beans, peas, and barley are im-
proved by cracking or grinding. If the teeth are
poor, as in old age, or when they are being replaced
in colts, it is desirable to grind or otherwise soften
the grain used in the rations. The problems con-
nected with this question have been carefully con-
sidered in various localities. In Utah it was found
that whole oats, wheat, or corn were equally as
effective as after grinding. It was estimated, in
making these tests, that in order to pay for the
process of grinding, ground corn must show an
increased effectiveness of fifteen to twenty per cent,
and as no increased nutritive value was obtained
from the ground corn, the grinding was, therefore,
done at a loss. All horsemen know that it is an
important matter to keep colts growing uniformly
after they are weaned. In accomplishing this re-
sult, since, as has already been indicated, the teeth

42 FARM ANIMALS

are being shed and replaced at intervals until the
horse is five years old, it is necessary to take account
of the condition of the grain during this period.
In Iowa a test was made of the value of grinding
different grains for colts, with the results that some-
what greater growth was obtained when oats, corn,
barley and wheat were ground. It is a curious
fact that in localities where grain is cheap the farm-
ers as a rule do not expend any energy in grinding
grain for horses, while in New England and the
more thickly settled parts of the country with high
prices for grain, additional expense is usually in-
curred in grinding or otherwise preparing the grain
for the horse. It is the belief held by most horse-
men that the increased digestibility and food value
of the grain after grinding somewhat more than
pays the expense of grinding. A further test of the
matter in Utah, however, showed no advantage in
grinding grain for horses. Naturally the question
must be left with each individual to be judged ac-
cording to the hardness of the grain and to the
condition of his horses, particularly with reference
to their teeth.

Cooked vs. Raw Grains. — Certain grain mix-
tures are rendered much more readily available for
horses by cooking or steaming. The relative di-
gestibility of cooked and uncooked grains, however,
has not been determined with any great accuracy.
In some cases cooked grains appear to be less diges-
tible than the same grains fed in the natural con-
dition. As a rule it does not pay to cook any kind
of food for farm animals, but certain well-known
exceptions occur and these will be mentioned in
other places. For horses, for example, it is desir-
able to cook potatoes, since otherwise they may
cause colic or other digestive troubles if fed in

FARM ANIMALS 43

large quantities, but grains need not be cooked or
steamed before feeding to horses, excepting cases
in which a very rapid growth is desired or in fatten-
ing horses for market. In the case of brood
mares, stallions, 'and horses being fattened for mar-
ket it may be desirable to use boiled food at inter-
vals or, in the case of draft horses being prepared
for market, once or twice daily. The cooking of
grain in cold weather has not been found to give
any advantage, excepting cases where the horses'
teeth are in bad condition.

HAY AND COARSE FORAGE

The hay used for horses varies greatly in differ-
ent parts of the country. In general timothy has
long been considered by horsemen, especially for
racers and speed horses, as the only desirable
coarse forage. In all localities where timothy is
fed as roughage to horses, clover is likewise a com-
mon hay and is often fed mixed with timothy as
they grow in the meadow, or often constitutes the
more important part of the roughage. Through-
out the Rocky Mountain region of the country
alfalfa is considered as the best roughage for horses.
In California barley, oat, and wheat hay, particu-
larly barley hay, is fed extensively, the hay being
cut when the grain is in the milk. Throughout
the corn belt and in the South, corn fodder con-
stitutes one of the most important parts of the
roughage for horses. It is thus apparent that just
as there is no one exclusive grain ration for horses,
so there is no one exclusive coarse forage which
is universally better than any other for horses.

Alfalfa. — Alfalfa, as already indicated, is one of
the best, if not the best, hay particularly for work-

44 FARM ANIMALS

ing horses. This hay has been studied carefully
in the United States and in European countries
with reference to its availability for horses and other
farm animals and as to the possible medicinal
effects from its use as a food. In Germany alfalfa
hay has been found superior to ordinary meadow
hay, furnishing about 180 Ibs. more of nitrogenous
matter per acre. Alfalfa has been fed to brood
mares with excellent results and without producing
bad effects on the mare or foal. In Oklahoma and
other states and territories where it has long been
fed to horses under careful observation it is pro-
nounced the best possible coarse food. It has
sometimes been accused of causing heaves and
bloody urine, but this does not appear to be the case
under normal conditions. As before stated it is
the almost exclusive feed of young horses in all of
the Rocky Mountain states and if it had the tenden-
cy to produce heaves or bloody urine or other un-
desirable effects these would have been noticed
much more frequently than has been the case. On
many farms, horses are maintained at hard work
on alfalfa alone without any grain. On account
of this observed fact a study was made of alfalfa
as an exclusive maintenance ration for horses in
Utah. It was found much easier to maintain the
weight of horses on alfalfa than on timothy, the
cost of the maintenance was always less, and the
appearance of the horses was in every case in favor
of the alfalfa ration. No bad results were noted on
the health of the horse and it was found that colic
and other digestive disturbances could be prevented
by rational treatment of the feed. In general it
may be stated that too much hay is fed to work
horses on the farm. In some localities the amount of
hay fed to such horses might profitably be reduced

FARM ANIMALS 45

one-half and the grain ration increased to a slight
extent to make up for the hay. It has been found
that the horse which is used to alfalfa hay will eat
from 35 to 40 Ibs. per day when it is fed ad libitum.
This large quantity of hay, however, is likely to
cause colic and other disturbances. If the amount
be reduced from 10 to 12 Ibs. the digestive disturb-
ances will not be noticed except in rare instances.
Some writers have stated that alfalfa has a diuretic
effect on the kidneys. A careful study of this, how-
ever, comparing the effect of early, medium and
late cut alfalfa fails to show that any bad effects can
be attributed to alfalfa. It is very doubtful whether
there is any economy in allowing horses to eat 40
pounds of alfalfa per day. Twenty Ibs. is suffi-
cient for the maintenance ration and the same quan-
tity with a considerable grain ration is enough for the
horse at work. In Wyoming it has been found that
alfalfa hay, with straw given ad libitum, makes a
good maintenance ration for horses and is sufficient
for light work without any grain. Horses were
readily maintained on 14 Ibs. of alfalfa per day
with liberty to eat straw at a stack but without grain.
In other tests 15^ Ibs. of alfalfa, 2J Ibs.. of oat straw,
were required for a maintenance ration. It is
generally considered that 12^ Ibs. of alfalfa and 2
Ibs. of oat straw are a maintenance ration for horses
per 1000 Ibs. of live weight.

It is scarcely necessary to give a detailed record
regarding all the experiments on the feeding of
different kinds of coarse fodders to horses. Timo-
thy, clover, alfalfa, corn stalks, and cereal hays are
the standard materials for this purpose in different
parts of the country. Nearly all kinds of coarse
fodders, however, have been fed to horses in different
states. Horses do well on beggar-weed hay where

46 FARM ANIMALS

this material can be obtained in suitable quantities .
Similarly with brome grass. No unfavorable re-
sults are recorded after its use as a substitute for
timothy. In some cases its feeding value seems to
be slightly higher than that of timothy. Clover
hay is everywhere used as a feed for horses, sub-
stituted for timothy or in mixtures with this grass.
As is well known, moldy clover may affect the kid-
neys and liver to some extent or in certain cases
may even cause serious disease and death. It is
also noticed that clover, especially second crop,
may induce slobbering in horses. The exact cause
of this is not known but usually the addition of
bran or apples to the ration partly stops the tenden-
cy to slobber. Clover hay may be cut into short
lengths before feeding and when this is done it is
not so likely to cause sore mouth by pricking the
mucous membrane as is the case with timothy and
other stiff stemmed grasses. Clover hay should in
all cases be clean and not moldy, since any but
bright clean clover may lead in the end to digestive
troubles and may also cause heaves. It should not
be imagined, however, that ordinarily clover hay
is undesirable as a horse feed. Comparative tests
have shown its feeding value to be considerably
greater than timothy and when fed by experienced
men danger from its use is exceedingly slight.

Corn stover is fed to horses as a coarse forage
throughout the corn belt. It may constitute the
only coarse fodder in the ration or may be used to
replace a part of the hay. Where corn stover and
timothy hay or other common meadow hays have
been compared the stover has proved of about equal
feeding value. No undesirable effects from the
use of clean corn stover have been noticed. The
new corn product, which is corn fodder with the

FARM ANIMALS 47

pith removed and ground into a coarse meal, may
be mixed directly with the grain ration so that all
the different elements necessary in the horse ration
are fed at the same time. In tests of this material
it has proved a very desirable form in which to
feed corn fodder.

Cowpea hay contains so much protein that it
may be used to some extent to replace grain. In
fact, as the result of some tests of cowpea hay it
appears that this forage is equal to bran in feeding
value. As a rule, however, no coarse forage, how-
ever nitrogenous, can completely replace all of the
grain in the ration, especially in the case of horses
which are accustomed to receive a ration contain-
ing a considerable amount of whole or ground
grain.

It is generally desirable that hay should be fed
for the most part at night, small rations in the
morning and none at noon. This arrangement
is to be recommended on account of the fact that
when hay is eaten in considerable quantities at the
same time with grain it may carry some of the grain
through the stomach before it is completely di-
gested. Horses soon become accustomed to eating
their grain ration without hay at noon and in the
morning they need but little hay if they have been
fed a suitable ration the night before. As already
indicated hay may be cut into short lengths and
mixed with the grain. There is no objection to
this practice and in the case of clover hay its di-
gestibility seems to be somewhat increased. With
some horses, however, the sharp ends of the cut
pieces appear to make the mouth sore. Millet hay
as well as the grain is usually recommended as
a valuable feed and excepting for one experience
in North Dakota no complaint has been made

48 FARM ANIMALS

regarding its injurious effect. In that state how-
ever, continued use of millet was found to irritate
the kidneys in a pronounced manner, to cause
various symptoms of brain trouble accompanied
with struggles and also to affect all of the bones
and joints. All of the cereal straws are used for
feeding horses as a partial substitute for hay or
other material in the coarse fodder. Oat straw
is perhaps the most desirable for feeding horses,
followed by barley, wheat and rye straw in the
order of their nutritive value. When horses are
fed straw they require some extra grain but in
some cases the saving in hay more than compen-
sates for the additional grain required.

Pea hay may be fed to work horses for months
at a time without harm and in some of the southern
states has been found to increase the beauty of the
coat of horses and mules in a way which can be
accomplished by no other food. It may be fed in
rations of 10 Ibs. per day, mixed with corn stover,
sorghum and other coarse forage. Occasional
complaints have been made that this hay causes
bloody urine and other kidney troubles, but this
seems not to be the case when it is fed in a rational
manner. Horses have been kept at hard work for
several months on pea hay without any grain.

Pasture for horses naturally varies in different
parts of the country and need not be discussed at
any length for the reason that the feeding value of
the different forage plants found in pastures has
already been discussed. Ordinary pasture with-
out grain is not enough for horses used to a heavy
grain ration. When such horses are turned out
upon pasture it is usually observed that they fall off
in weight. This is due partly to their inability
to get sufficient nourishment at first from the

FARM ANIMALS 49

pasture, and also by worry caused by flies, absence
of shelter and lack of grooming. It thus comes
about that overworked horses accustomed to large
feeds of grain, when turned upon pasture without
grain for a rest period, are often in poorer condition
at the end of tnis period than when placed upon
the pasture. Some grain is desirable in nearly all
such cases.

Silage has been quite extensively fed to horses
without bad results provided the material is in a
wholesome condition. Musty silage may cause
serious poisoning or death. In some localities
difficulty has been experienced in feeding horses
silage in winter on account of the ease with which
it freezes. It has been fed in varying quantities,
some feeders obtaining good results from the use
of 30 Ibs. per day. In the majority of cases, how-
ever, 10 to 12 Ibs. will be found sufficient, and even
then it must be in good condition, not musty nor
improperly fermented. Good silage appears to
be a perfectly safe and suitable forage for horses
when fed together with some leguminous, cereal, or
meadow hay. Silage when fed in this way re-
places a portion of the grain ration and also a part
of the roots which are usually fed to horses.

Sorghum hay is about equal to corn fodder in
feeding value in a dry state, but somewhat supe-
rior in a green condition. It loses rapidly under
careless curing. Sorghum hay may be mixed
with alfalfa for the purpose of balancing the ration.
In general there appears to be little danger from
sorghum if it is fed with other coarse fodders.
Occasionally, however, as has recently been shown,
especially in the case of cattle, this forage plant
may at times contain prussic acid and is then a
deadly poison.

50 FARM ANIMALS

Various other forage plants, as already indicated,
have been and are fed to horses in various parts
of the country. Thus sweet clover is a valuable
horse feed in cases where it is eaten with relish. It
should be cut at an early stage and cured like
alfalfa. Horses must first become accustomed to
it before they will eat it in large quantities.

BOOTS AND FRUITS

Roots should always constitute a portion of
the horse ration. It must be considered that on
account of the comparatively small size of the
horse's stomach they cannot successfully be fed to
horses in as large quantities as to cattle or sheep.
As a rule about six to ten pounds is a suitable
ration of roots per day. The feeding value of the
different roots varies so slightly that they may be
used interchangeably to replace one another.
Their most important point is to add palatability
and variety to the ration as well as some suc-
culence. This is accomplished by feeding carrots,
beets, or pumpkins. Turnips may also be fed
for the same purpose. The use of fruits as a
horse feed is not a very important practice except-
ing in certain localities. All kinds of fruits are
known to possess some value on account of their
palatability and their chemical composition. In
the far west almond hulls, apples, apricots, grapes,
peaches, figs, and raisins either fresh or dried have
been fed to horses. Naturally when fruits are
dried their feeding value is considerably greater
than in the fresh state.

Carrots are one of the common root crops for
horses and almost everywhere constitute a portion
of the ration. They may be fed in rations of

FARM ANIMALS 51

four to five pounds to colts and eight to ten pounds
to adult horses. They need not be run through a
grater. Carrots are beneficial on account of the
succulence added to the ration and are also slightly
laxative. Mangels may also be fed in the same
manner as carrots, in rations of six to ten pounds
per day, with or without cutting. In parts of the
South where cassava is grown, this material is
used as feed for horses, but it is not very well
relished and appears not to be particularly desirable
as a horse feed.

Potatoes have been extensively fed to horses
both in a raw and cooked condition. A ration of
twelve pounds of raw, wholesome, ripe, uiisprouted
potatoes may be fed to horses with good results.
If large potatoes are used they should be sliced,
while small ones may be fed whole. It is desirable
to mix potatoes with straw or hay and horses
should not be watered too soon after feeding,
otherwise colic may develop. Potatoes on account
of their high starch content may be substituted for
a part of the corn in the grain ration. They
apparently do not cause sweating as has sometimes
been stated for in many instances horses have been
found to show better appearance when potatoes
have been added to the ration. Many feeders
have strongly recommended that potatoes should
always be steamed or boiled before feeding,
claiming that raw potatoes have a tendency to
cause colic. Potatoes may be successfully com-
pounded in rations with peas, beans, lupines, and
other leguminous seeds.

Horses soon acquire a liking for pumpkins and
may receive some benefit from eating them. In
certain instances pumpkins have apparently had
a slight curative effect in cases 01 asthma and

52 FARM ANIMALS

heaves. They may be fed in rations of ten to
twelve pounds a day or much larger rations, if
desired, without danger. Sugar beets have been
extensively fed to horses and other animals.
They may occasionally cause horses to scour and
some feeders recommend that a single feed a week
is sufficient. If horses are receiving alfalfa or
some other laxative feed they do not need sugar
beets in the rations. Sugar beet pulp apparently
assists in digesting hay and grain in horse rations,
and may be safely fed to the extent of twenty to
forty pounds per day. The smaller ration, how-
ever, is usually most desirable. Sweet potatoes
constitute a good root food for horses. They are
relished and the addition of sweet potatoes to the
ration as a substitute for a part of the corn ration
can be made with benefit to the horse and with
economy. The usual ration of sweet potatoes rec-
ommended by feeders who have tried them, is
ten to fifteen pounds per day. Turnips may also
be used as a part of the ration, being given to the
extent of ten pounds per day. The experience of
Canadian feeders appears to indicate that the use
of some kind of root in the ration to the extent of
five to eight pounds per day serves to prevent
indigestion.

MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS

A number of feeds of a miscellaneous nature have
been used in horse rations more or less successfully.
Milk is a more important element in horse rations
than is usually suspected. Many feeders have
found it greatly to their advantage to feed colts
cows' milk or separator milk. Colts give as good
returns for the milk as any other animals and

FARM ANIMALS 53

develop strong vital organs and good bone when
receiving milk in the ration. Young colts may be
profitably fed from five to ten pounds of separator
milk.

Molasses has long been fed to horses, cattle and
other domestic animals and recently quite an
unusual interest has developed in the use of this
material. Apparently molasses hastens the pas-
sage of the food through the alimentary canal to
some extent. The feeding value and the place in
the horse ration is essentially the same in the case
of molasses, sugar, syrup and various mixed feeds
which contain molasses as a constituent. Sugar
does not appear to affect the digestibility of the
other parts of the ration. Molasses may be fed
in small quantities to replace a portion of the grain
or in larger quantities depending on the market
value of the different feeds and the convenience
with which molasses can be obtained. In some
instances one or two pounds of molasses is fed per
day, while in other cases the amount is much
greater, even up to thirty pounds. It has been
found that horses will keep in good condition with
a large amount of work when receiving seven
pounds of corn and nine pounds of a mixture of
straw and molasses in equal parts dried at a tem-
perature of 110° F. Molasses has the advantage
of rendering inferior hay more palatable and thus
increases the amount of available food material
on the farm. In some instances it has been rec-
ommended as useful in colds and in all cases
is effective in making horses fat at comparatively
small expense. Throughout the southern states,
molasses is widely used on the* plantations for
feeding horses and mules, the rations varying
from two to twenty-eight pounds per day. Molasses

54 FARM ANIMALS

has been mixed with blood, ground corn, and
various other materials in the production of
combination molasses feeds. Thus blood-molasses
has been manufactured from a combination of
250 parts blood, 200 parts molasses, 200 parts
oat Dran, 100 parts corn meal. Various forms
of peat-molasses have also been fed to horses.
Blomo food is a mixture of ground corn stalks or
some similar material with dried blood and refuse
molasses. It is a black sticky material recom-
mended by the manufacturer as a substitute for
oats. It may be fed to horses in daily rations of
six quarts without harm but it is rather expensive
and does not keep very well, especially in hot
weather. Molasses unless very carefully mixed
with hay, grain or some other material makes the
manger exceedingly gummy and dirty. Under
the best conditions it is a nasty feeding material
arid attracts flies in warm weather. Moreover
recently some experiments have shown that the
feeding of molasses or sugar in any form to horses
may lead to diabetes and, if persisted in, to more
serious kidney diseases in which albumen is found
in the urine. It may be wise therefore to feed
this material with caution until its exact place in
the ration has been better established.

VARIOUS OTHER FEEDING MATTERS

Horses are usually fed for the production of
energy. It should be remembered, however, that
horse flesh is just as valuable an asset as additional
weight in steers. The weight and appearance of
horses count greatly in their market value. In
order that the best price may be obtained it is
necessary, as already indicated, to put the horse

FARM ANIMALS 55

in a fat condition. For this purpose the teeth
must be in good shape and attention should be
given to the digestive organs. In the case of most
feeders who prepare horses for market the hay
is fed in self-feeders and grain is given four or five
times a day. According to one scheme which is
in considerable favor the horses are fed corn in the
ear at 5 a.m., receive water at 7 a.m., hay in the
racks and three quarts of a mixture of one-third
oats and two-thirds bran at 9a.m., corn in the ear
again at 12 m., oats, bran and hay at 3 p.m.,
water at 4 p.m., corn and hay at 6 p.m. The
daily corn ration is about fifteen ears. The clover
hay must be free from defects and some advantage
is derived from steaming the grain. Linseed meal
should be given occasionally, say once per week.
In a feeding regime such as this, horses gain from
three to five pounds per day and in rare instances
even seven pounds daily. Bran is an excellent
feed for both colts and mares of the draft type. In
fattening draft horses for market, from ten to
twelve pounds of a mixture of corn and peas, or
bran, oats and corn may be given or a mixture of
three parts oats, two parts bran, or a mixture of
corn, peas, bran, wheat, and shorts. In such
cases the daily ration may consist of eighteen ears
of corn, given in two feeds, fifteen quarts of oats
and bran mixed with about ten pounds of hay.
According to the experience of a number of feeders,
however, the fattening of horses for market may
be best and most quickly accomplished by feeding
them a mixture of boiled barley, ground corn, and
molasses. Some feeders recommend a feed con-
sisting of three pounds boiled barley, two pounds
of corn meal and linseed meal at the rate of one
pound per day.

56 FARM ANIMALS

NARROW VS. WIDE RATIONS

The narrow ration is always desirable for
growing colts and for mares until the colt is weaned.
Some difference of opinion prevails, however,
regarding the comparative value of narrow and
wide rations for the adult horse at work. In one
set of experiments where corn and timothy as a
ration were compared with a ration of oats, clover
and timothy, it was found that the horses which
received only the corn and timothy did as well as
the others and that consequently for work animals
a wide nutritive ration was equal to a narrow one
and of course considerably cheaper. Other ex-
periments continued along the same line, however,
showed that corn meal and timothy did not sustain
work horses as well as oats, wheat and clover and
upon this experiment it was recommended that a
narrow ration be fed, particularly in summer. In
winter, however, a wider ration was suggested.

It has been found practically impossible to
maintain horses on an exclusive grain ration. No
farmer, however, would think of feeding in this
manner and the fact has simply a scientific value.
It appears that horses as well as other herbivorous
animals need some coarse forage along with the
grain in the ration.

Considerable attention has been given to
determining a maintenance ration for horses. As
a rule when horses are not at work they are fed the
usual form of coarse forage, timothy, clover,
alfalfa, corn stalks, cowpea hay, etc., and a small
quantity of grain or none at all. In such cases
hay is fed ad libitum and the amount eaten per
day is therefore not determined. Alfalfa has been
extensively tested for the purpose of determining

FARM ANIMALS 57

the amount necessary as a maintenance ration
for horses. In some localities in the winter it
has been found that for this purpose from fourteen
to sixteen pounds per day is sufficient without
grain. In some localities it has been found that
after alfalfa has been fed to dairy cows the coarse
stalks left by the cows are readily eaten by the horses.
The amount of such material necessary for main-
tenance is higher than when first class alfalfa is fed.
In Utah it was found possible to maintain horses
in good condition upon thirty-two pounds of alfalfa
daily. Better results were obtained, however,
when the amount of alfalfa was not more than
twenty pounds, and when some corn was substi-
tuted for the remainder of the alfalfa.

Horses like all other animals frequently get off
their feed as the common saying is when fed
carelessly or without regard to a suitable balancing
of the ration or variety of feeds. In order to avoid
the loss of appetite and the actual development of
digestive troubles considerable attention should
be given to the proper compounding of the ration.
A slight loss of appetite may be due to a lack of
variety and this occurs most often when the same
grain ration is fed for a long period, particularly
if the grain ration is composed exclusively of one
variety of grain. Some improvement is always
obtained in such cases from the feeding of mixed
grains as well as a coarse fodder. Loss of appetite
may, however, be due to overwork, lack of ex-
ercise, or to the defective condition of the forage
as well as to lack of variety. In cases of loss of
appetite horses may be fed a mixture of crushed
oats, corn meal, and linseed meal with small quan-
tities of silage added and in persistent cases with
the addition also of a spoonful of sulphate of iron

58 FARM ANIMALS

or powdered gentian. It has been observed that
a systematic course of feeding and water is a pre-
ventive of disease. The importance of systematic
feeding may be noticed from the fact that irrational
feeding may cause a variety of diseases including
abortion, heaves, swelled legs, founder, scratches,
sore mouth, urticaria, gastritis, constipation, dysen-
tery, azoturia, diabetes, bloody urine and many
other diseases. Abortion may be caused by the
feeding of rotten food or of material infested with
ergot. Founder and azoturia may be caused by
excessive feeding at times when little exercise will
be taken for the next 24 hours. Diabetes may
be caused by excessive feeding of sugar or molasses
and bloody urine sometimes results from the ex-
cessive use of nitrogenous feeds, especially cowpea,
lupine forage, etc. While considerable variety of
opinion prevails regarding the manner in which
hay, water and grain should be given to horses in
order to secure the best results from the feeding
stuffs and to prevent digestive troubles, a simple
rule to remember and one which will give favorable
results is simply to give water at least half an hour
before or after feeding.

The amount of water drunk by horses naturally
varies according to the temperature, severity of
work, and the ration fed. In one experiment when
alfalfa and timothy were compared in this respect
it was found that horses eating alfalfa drank 107J
pounds of water daily while horses on timothy
drank 103f pounds. Horses at rest, however,
drank considerably less, so that the average amount
daily for horses on alfalfa was 88 pounds and for
those on timothy 78 pounds. Therefore the char-
acter of the food excercises an appreciable influence
on the amount of water required by horses. The

FARM ANIMALS 59

amount of water also varies considerably on ac-
count of the difference in individual horses with-
out relation to other factors. In a direct test re-
garding the influence of the time of watering upon
the weight of the horse it was found that horses
watered before they were fed grain maintained
their weight better than when watered after the
grain ration. The appetite also appeared to be better
when the water was given before the grain although
the digestion was not influenced by the time of
watering. In general it appears to be desirable to
water horses both before and after feeding pro-
viding the interval is one half an hour or more.

THE COST OF HORSE RATIONS

The cost of keeping horses naturally varies ac-
cording to the character of the ration fed and the
market price of the materials used. It has been
found by a series of tests in New Hampshire that
horses at work may be kept on a liberal ration of
hay, bran, corn, gluten meal, linseed meal, cotton
seed meal and other grains at a daily cost of from
17 to 22£ cents. As a rule oats are an expensive
grain ration and therefore raise the cost of the feed
when fed too exclusively. In most localities it is
a simple matter to substitute a grain mixture for a
part of the oats in the ration with a considerable
saving in the cost. When suitable substitutions
were made it was found that the average total cost
of feeding stuffs for horses at work in New Hamp-
shire was $74 per year. According to the experience
of some of the Canadian feeders the cost of feeding
and caring for a horse at work is 37c. per day. In
Ohio work horses were fed at a cost of $84 per
year, the daily grain ration consisting of 7-| pounds

60 FARM ANIMALS

each of corn meal and bran and each horse being
allowed one ton of hay per year with 30 pounds of
silage daily in the winter.

RATIONS FOR COLTS

Colts to be raised by hand should receive fresh,
warm cow's milk with a tablespoonful of sugar to
each quart of milk. This addition of sugar is
desirable on account of the fact that mare's milk
contains more sugar than cow's milk and less fat.
For this reason it is not best to use milk which
contains more than four per cent, of fat. Colts
may be given a pound or less of suitable cow's milk
five to ten times daily. Fresh separator milk may
be substituted as with calves and some grain may
be fed. Colts may be taught to drink in the same
manner as calves within two months. Some feed-
ers recommend the addition of one fresh egg stirred
into the milk daily for the first few weeks. If the
colts are to obtain their greatest development they
should be fed grain as soon as they will eat it. For
this purpose oats and bran are the best. Corn is
not desirable for young colts since it does not con-
tain sufficient protein. Colts should not be starved
or underfed during the first year since then they
will never reach their full size.

If brood mares are maintained on the range they
should be moved from time to time since the feed
may be poor in one locality and consequently
the necessary supply of milk may run short. It
is necessary also to look after the water supply. A
little protection for the foals if possible is always
desirable and, wherever convenient, good results
are obtained from the use of a little forage to sup-
plement the range grasses.

FARM ANIMALS 61

RATIONS

As is apparent from the foregoing discussion the
rations which are fed to horses on farms, will vary
greatly according to the supply of food stuffs on
hand. While considerable variation in the quanti-
ty of the food used and in the nature of the food
stuffs is actually observed on different farms never-
theless it is evident that some standard should
prevail in this matter. In other words the horse
in doing a certain amount of work should receive
a certain amount of food to do this work without
loss of weight. A few examples may be mentioned
of rations which have been found effective and
satisfactory for horses at hard work. In one case
horses hauling coal were kept in good condition on
a ration of ten pounds of oats and twenty-one
pounds of Italian rye grass hay. When the hay
in this ration was diminished by 2 pounds the
horses lost weight. This indicates quite closely
the feeding requirements of the horses in question.
In Kansas City draft horses are successfully kept
on a ration of twenty pounds of corn and twenty
pounds of hay. This ration, however, might
probably be somewhat reduced. In the same city
other companies keep their horses on a ration of
4^ Ibs. corn and 6^ Ibs. oats morning and noon
with 6 Ibs. of wheat bran at night and 20 Ibs. of
hay per day. In California horses are kept at
light work on a ration containing 9 to 15 Ibs. al-
falfa hay, 9 to 11 Ibs. wheat or barley, 6 to 7 Ibs.
corn. It is an evident fact that too little attention
is given to the proportioning of rations. This
matter requires as careful study as in the case of
dairy cows or other animals. The kind and
quality of foods should be noticed and the ration

62 FARM ANIMALS

balanced more or less accurately according to
their content of protein and carbo-hydrates.
Where timothy and oats are too expensive various
other substitutions for these materials should be
made as suggested above. Many of these substi-
tutions not only reduce the cost of the ration but
increase its effectiveness.

Feeding Mares. — Previous to foaling and es-
pecially after foaling mares should be fed grain
and green feed with a view to producing a large
milk yield. The more milk produced by the mare
the better the development in the colt. In this
respect the colt is on the same basis as the lamb,
call or pig. For the production of large amounts
of milk a relatively narrow ration is indicated.
For this purpose clover and alfalfa should be fed
in the place of timothy and a relatively nitrogenous
grain ration should be given, accompanied by
bran, cotton seed meal, barley, peas, or other
similar material depending upon the market price
of such feeding stuffs. While the colt is sucking
the mare, some care should be exercised to prevent
the feeding of materials which could unfavorably
influence the milk, and thus affect the colt. Even
when mares are on the best of pasture they should
receive some grain feed in order to keep up the
milk yield to its highest point.

Feeding Stallions. — Similarly with the stallion

the object should be, especially during the season
of service, to give him feeds which contain a rela-
tively high percentage of protein, as well as other
materials which make the ration as a whole some-
what laxative. Oats, bran, clean hay, crushed
barley and green grass or other suitable material
may be given but corn and Kafir corn or other
highly carbonaceous foods are not indicated during
this time.

FARM ANIMALS 63

The digestive capacity of the horse as compared
with the cow is quite small. On this account
horses should not be overfed at any time since
otherwise there may be a loss in undigested feeding
stuffs and colic may result. In some experiments
instituted for gaining light on this point it was
found that by reducing the amount of hay the per-
centage of colic was considerably lowered. The
grain ration in such cases may be increased and
the hay ration diminished so as to increase the
effectiveness of the whole ration without increasing
its cost. Most investigators claim that horses are
unable to digest their feeds as completely as cattle
or sheep. Such a statement is probable when it
is remembered that the feeding stuffs do not re-
main as long in the stomach of the horse as in that
of the ruminant. In tests of this matter in Utah,
however, it was found that horses make as good
use of their feed as cattle, and that in general they
are as easily brought to maturity as steers. Since
the market price of the horse is partly determined
by the weight of the horse, it is desirable to know
the cost of the gain in horses in order to estimate
the economy of raising horses for market. Very
few careful experiments have, been made with
this idea in mind. It appears, however, that the
cost of gain in colts is about Gets, per pound and
as long as the developing colt does not cost much
more than this there is considerable profit in horse
raising.

Injurious Feeding Stuffs. — Attention must al-
ways be given to the quality of the forage and grain
fed to horses in order to detect any injurious
qualities in these materials. Ergot occurs on the
seeds of many grasses and on rye. If fed during
long periods this fungus causes serious disease in
horses. Numerous plants are known to be poison-

64 FARM ANIMALS

ous to horses. For example the common horse
tail, golden rod, lupine, loco weed, larkspur,
rattlebox, aconite, etc. These plants can only be
obtained by horses in native pastures or on uncul-
tivated lands. They furnish argument for a
suitable system of rotation by which all pastures
are plowed and planted to some cultivated crop at
frequent intervals. In this way harmful weeds
are kept in check. In addition to the poisonous
plants already mentioned, mustiness of all forage
plants must be mentioned as dangerous to horses.
Musty corn, corn smut, oat smut, wheat smut and
rusts of these cereals are calculated to render the
forage in question unsuitable or even dangerous to
horses.

Care of Horses. — It is unfortunately true on a
large percentage of farms that horses receive less
care than other farm animals. When it is remem-
bered, however, that it is desirable to keep them in
condition for work as long as possible and at any
rate for a much longer period than other farm
animals are kept, the necessity of proper care and
hygienic arrangements becomes evident. Not only
should the forage materials be clean and of the
best quality as just Indicated but the water supply
must be pure and carefully supervised. Horses
are subject to a number of infectious diseases car-
ried in water and various forms of colic and other
digestive troubles may be produced by impure
water. If running water is used in the pasture or
in the stable it is necessary to have the trough con-
structed in such a manner that it can be easily
cleaned and so as to exclude filth to as great a
degree as possible. Box stalls may be constructed
of two inch by six inch stuff placed in a vertical
position and spaced about three inches apart. In

FARM ANIMALS 65

order to maintain as cleanly conditions as possible
the feed boxes may be so constructed as to face out-
ward except at feeding time. They may thus be
easily cleaned. Ventilation must always be care-
fully provided for in the construction of stables.
Bad air predisposes horses to catarrh and other
respiratory troubles and generally unsatisfactory
conditions. Domestic animals readily endure a
rather low temperature, provided their shelter in
other respects is satisfactory. It is more desirable
to have pure air in the horse stable than to get a
high temperature in winter with all of the accom-
panying undesirable conditions such as undue con-
tent of moisture, carbon dioxide and other stable
gases. In providing for ventilation impure air
may be most easily removed through the roof while
the cold air may be drawn in from the side at a
distance from the ground. The matter of lighting
should also receive consideration in the construc-
tion of stables. Many cases of eye disease in
horses are produced by improper lighting. Horses
which are kept in dark stalls are subject to great
changes in the intensity of the light in passing from
such dimly lighted quarters into the bright sunlight.
The more light in the stable the better, provided
the direct rays of the sun do not strike the horse in
the face. The best results are obtained under
uniform temperatures by having the horses' stalls
on the north and west sides of the barn rather than
on the east and south sides.

In order to obtain the best results from horses
it is absolutely necessary to give immediate atten-
tion to all ailments which may develop in them.
This applies not only to serious ailments but to all
slight troubles such as sore shoulders, collar galls,
sore mouth, wounds, scratches, uneven develop-

66 FARM ANIMALS

ment of the feet, cracking of the hoof, lameness, etc.
Some of the common diseases of the horse are brief-
ly discussed below. If any trouble appears which
is not familiar to the farmer or horseman a quali-
fied veterinarian should be called at once. In seri-
ous cases of tongue lolling it has been found that
this defect may be cured by amputating the tip of
the tongue. This, however, requires the attention
of a veterinarian. About three inches of the tongue
may be removed without any danger and without
diminishing the usefulness of the tongue in the
least. In simple cases of tongue lolling a change
of bits may bring the desired result.

The average age at which the horse ceases to be
of great service is perhaps 20 years. They occa-
sionally live to the age of 40 or 50 and quite often
beyond 30 years. Frequently they are capable of
considerable work up to 30 years. In individual
cases mares have produced 32 colts and thorough-
bred mares are usually bred up to the age of 22 and
draft mares to 15 to 18. As a rule stallions are not
considered suitable for service beyond the age of
20 years.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE

It is obviously impossible in the space at our
disposal to give even a brief description of the nu-
merous diseases which may affect the horse. Atten-
tion may be called to some of the most important
and common ones with suggestions as to what may
be done in different cases. In general it should be
remembered that congestion, inflammation and
fever are mere symptoms of disease and should al-
ways suggest investigation to determine the cause
of the trouble.

FARM ANIMALS 67

In the first place we may mention some of the
more important infectious diseases of the horse.

Influenza is a contagious fever which causes
great depression and is complicated with numerous
secondary troubles. Infection from this disease
is frequently carried in water but most horses be-
come infected from exposure in dirty stables.
After exposure a period of 4 to 7 days passes before
the disease appears. The symptoms are high fever
with a temperature of 104° to 107° F., stupor,
dulness, hanging head, red color and inflammation
of the mucous membrane of the mouth and eye.
The pink condition of this organ is responsible for
the name pink eye which is often applied to this
disease. Pregnant mares are often caused to ab-
ort by influenza. One attack of the disease renders
the animal immune. Horses are most susceptible
at the age of 4 to 5 years and consequently in buying
horses this constitutes another reason why those
past the age of 5 should be preferred. While the
appetite remains the horse should be fed small
quantities of hay or grain and roots. To reduce
the high temperature cold water may be applied by
injecting into the rectum or small doses of Glauber's
salts or bicarbonate of soda may be administered.

Strangles, also called distemper, is an infectious
disease which is most frequently observed in young
horses. As a rule one attack renders the animal
immune. The disease is transmitted by direct con-
tact with infected animals usually in barn yards,
livery stables, and other places where large num-
bers of horses come and go. The symptoms are
cold, dejection, thirst, staring coat, chills, rapid
pulse, cough, discharge from the nostrils within
two days after the outbreak of the disease. A
swelling takes place in the jaw which is at first very

68 FARM ANIMALS

puffy and hot and later breaks and discharges
freely. Light cases require little treatment beyond
such care as is suggested for all sick animals. If
the fever is excessive, it may be reduced by admin-
istering Glauber's salts in handful doses three times
a day or niter in one dram doses every few hours.

Glanders, also known as farcy when occurring on
the skin, is an infectious disease of horses of acute
or chronic form and always or nearly always results
in death. On account of the fact that this disease
may be transmitted to men in a fatal form and on
account of its rapid spread among horses it is al-
ways necessary to kill and bury or burn all horses
found affected with it. The symptoms of glanders
are a continuous or intermittent discharge from the
nostrils, ulcers on the mucous membrane, cough,
swelling of the maxillary glands at the corners of
the jaw and in some cases the development of
numerous swellings and ulcers at various points on
the body, particularly on the legs. This disease
is transmitted by contact, by drinking water from
infected places or by eating from infected man-
gers. No treatment for the disease is successful
and as already indicated none should be under-
taken.

As stated above horses are subjected to a consid-
erable number of diseases affecting the digestive
organs. If any difficulty in eating is observed the
mouth and teeth should be carefully examined at
once. It may be that some sharp pointed particles
of the forage have penetrated the mucous mem-
brane causing canker-sores or ulcers. This may
be cured by swabbing with a solution of borax,
nitrate of silver, carbolic acid, or any powerful
antiseptic. The mouth should also be examined
for the possible occurrence of irregularities in the

FARM ANIMALS 69

teeth. Occasionally the teeth do not wear smooth-
ly, but show points on the outside of the upper jaw
and on the inside of the lower jaw. In such cases
the tongue and cheeks may be greatly lacerated at
these points. If such sharp points are present
they may be readily filed or floated" off. In-
discriminate floating of horse's teeth, however, un-
der all conditions is greatly to be deprecated.

One of the imaginary troubles of the horse is
commonly called lampas. This name is given to
a swelling of the hard palate immediately back of
the incisor teeth of the upper jaw. It appears in
all horses and ordinarily does not indicate any bad
condition whatever. It was formerly the case that
when any trouble occurred in the appetite of the
horse this hard palate was lanced in one or more
places in order to reduce the swelling. It is quite
unnecessary to say that such treatment does not
give the desired effect.

Colic. — This is a disease which is very frequently
met with in horses. It may occur in a number of
forms but one of the most frequent forms is known
as spasmodic colic. In such cases the disease be-
gins suddenly, the horse may stop suddenly, paw and
show signs of abdominal pain. He may begin to
plunge and roll at once. After the first attack is
over he appears to be at ease for some time, but
the attack recurs subsequently at shorter intervals.
In cases of spasmodic colic, chloral hydrate may
be given in water in doses of one ounce or Indian
hemp in similar doses. Some horsemen have
excellent results from the use of two ounces of sul-
phuric ether and two ounces of alcohol in water.
If the violent symptoms recur the second time the
dose may be given every hour or so. Another
common form of the disease is known as flatulent

70 FARM ANIMALS

colic, caused by anything which tends to produce
indigestion. The symptoms develop more slowly
than in spasmodic colic. The horse appears dull,
but does not lie down or plunge. Signs of bloat
soon appear, and if not relieved as soon as noticed,
the horse is in a dangerous condition. In this form
of colic charcoal may be given in any quantities.
Chloral hydrate may also be administered in one
ounce doses in water and a physic is indicated such
as Barbadoes aloes or turpentine in rectal injection
of one or two ounces.

Constipation in horses is ordinarily due to feed-
ing improper rations and may be readily relieved
by adding laxative foods to the ration such as alfal-
fa, sugar beets, or various other materials. If
the constipation is of a more serious nature, some
laxative drug may be given, Barbadoes aloes being
one of the best for this purpose.

Diarrhoea on the other hand may be due to feed-
ing too large quantities of alfalfa, sugar beets, or
other laxative foods and may usually be cured by
reducing these materials in the ration and adding
other substitutes like rye-bran, timothy hay or
similar materials which have a slightly constipating
effect.

Bots in horses is usually considered a more serious
trouble than it really is. The bot fly lays its eggs
on the shoulders and front legs of the horse from
which they are licked off by the horse and later
hatch and develop in the stomach. They some-
times appear in great numbers upon the inner coat-
ing of the stomach. Occasionally they may cause
irritation of the stomach, but as a rule such is not
the case and they ultimately reach their complete
development and pass away in the feces. Va-
rious other parasitic worms occur in the intestines

FARM ANIMALS 71

of the horse, particularly stomach worms, but these
troubles are quite insignificant and readily yield to
treatment with vermifuges.

Ring Worm. — The general symptom of this
trouble is the formation of circular scabby patches
where the fungus becomes established and where
the hair falls off. Finally the spot becomes quite
bald and a disagreeable odor is emitted from it.
This trouble may be best treated by washing the
affected spots thoroughly with soap and hot water
after which they may be painted with iodine or
some other strong antiseptic.

Wounds. — Wounds in norses require consider-
able attention since they may lead to tetanus or
blood poisoning. If properly cleansed on the other
hand they heal rapidly without persisting as a
running sore. In the treatment of wounds suitable
antiseptics should be freely used. For this purpose
bichloride of mercury, one part to one thousand
parts of water, two to five per cent, solution of
carbolic acid, two to four per cent, solution of
boric acid, two to five per cent, solution of creo-
lin or lysol, are to be recommended. If pow-
dered antiseptics are preferred iodoform may
be used. It is desirable that wounds be attended
to at. once not only on account of the danger of
infection, but also because they are likely to be
rubbed by the harness in working and thus become
sores irritating to the horse. All such worry causes
loss in weight and requires an additional amount of
feed to balance it.

Azoturia. — In mild cases of this disease the trou-
ble may appear as a lameness in one leg, the mem-
branes of the eye and of the nose are of a dark brown
color and some tenderness is shown when the last
ribs are touched. The nostrils may become dilated,

72 FARM ANIMALS

the skin shows a heavy coating of perspiration and
the animal soon falls to the ground and moves the
legs convulsively. Such cases may result fatally
within a few hours and in all cases of azoturia
treatment is only partly successful. The disease
may be prevented to a great extent by giving the
animal a reasonable amount of exercise during the
days when it is not at work. In other words,
azoturia is caused in most cases by feeding the
usual working ration to the horse at rest.

Lameness. — Horses are subject to a great variety
of lameness in the shoulders, hips and legs. It is
obviously impossible to describe all of the causes
which may cause lameness. In some cases it is due
to the development of splints which are bony en-
largements of the cannon bone between the hock
and the fetlock joint, side bones on either side of
the coffin bone in the hoof, spavin a bony enlarge-
ment of the hock joint, ring bone and various other
diseased conditions in the bones of the leg. It is
an extremely difficult matter after the initial appear-
ance of lameness to locate the cause, and treatment
in all cases, in order to be effective, must be applied
in the right manner and at the right place. It is
desirable, therefore, to call in the services of a
qualified veterinarian since by unskillful treatment
the lameness may be increased or the horse may be
kept out of commission for a much longer period
than is necessary.

CARE OF THE HORSE?S HOOF

As a rule the farmer does not shoe his own horses,
but depends upon the skill of some blacksmith
whom he considers as qualified to do this work.
Some points in the care of the hoof, however, may

FARM ANIMALS 73

well be attended to by the farmer. It should be
remembered that the hoof grows at the rate of one-
third of an inch per month. Hoofs on the hind feet
grow faster than those on the front feet. It is neces-
sary that the hoof be kept trimmed in such a manner
that contact with the ground will be uniform and
will not cause the splitting of the toe or other parts
of the hoof. Attention should be called particu-
ularly to young colts. When kept in the stable
without abundant exercise they cannot wear down
their hoofs and consequently the cleft of the frog
should be cleaned out every few days and the whole
hoof washed thoroughly. The outer edge of the
hoof should also be rasped whenever necessary so as
to secure symmetrical development. Horses should
not be kept exclusively on dry planks since the
hoofs may become too dry and inclined to crack
and grow too slowly to prevent irregularities after
shoeing.

BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES

This is a matter which cannot be discussed in
detail in this connection since the manner of train-
ing and the methods adopted in breaking will
necessarily vary greatly under different conditions.
Horses intended for saddle purposes, trotters,
roadsters, coachers, etc., obviously require long
and special training during which attention must
be given to numerous details in order to secure the
right style and finish. This is an art which can
only be learned after considerable experience.
Draft horses and ordinary farm horses, on the other
hand, require but simple training since in these
cases the gait is much less important.

In all cases where possible, breaking and training

74 FARM ANIMALS

should begin in early colthood. Young colts may
readily be halter broken and as they grow older
may gradually be accustomed to the bridle and
other parts of the harness so that all these matters
are familiar to them by the time they are ready for
use. It is necessary in all cases to be kind and
patient, but firm. The horse must be mastered
at first and must recognize from then on that he is
under the orders of the man who is breaking him.
If it is inconvenient to train colts gradually during
very early life the breaking of a fully developed
animal is a more serious matter. In such cases it
is usually necessary to devote some time exclusively
to each horse, teaching them the meaning of the
halter, bridle, harness, wagon and other objects
with which they must come in more or less intimate
contact. It is always necessary to show the horse
that there is no danger in a number of objects which
commonly cause fright on the street. Among these
mention should be made of open umbrellas, moving
bits of paper, and similar things which will occur
to every farmer as common objects of fright to
horses.

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER II.

THE MULE

As is generally known the mule is a cross between
the jack or male ass and the mare. The opposite
cross, or that between the stallion and the jennet or
female ass, is known as the hinny and is also quite
frequently met with. In general, the mule is con-
sidered quite superior in all respects to the hinny
and is almost the only hybrid form between the
horse and the ass which is used on a commercial
scale. It is a curious fact that while all species of
the horse genus readily cross with one another and
produce hybrids, all of these hybrids are sterile.
Thus hybrids are known between the horse and ass,
zebra and quagga. None of these hybrids have
ever been known to produce offspring. Occasion-
ally claims have been set up regarding the existence
of fertile mules, but such claims have proved to be
unfounded. The cross between the mare and the
male zebra is known as the zebroid and has been
experimented with quite extensively in England and
Brazil. Furthermore, recently the Bureau of
Animal Industry has begun some experiments
along this line. From observations of the zebroid
in Brazil claims have been set up that this hybrid
is more graceful than the mule and more docile.
However that may be, the only important hy-
brid between the horse and the ass, so far as we are
concerned, is the mule.

75

76 FARM ANIMALS

In order to breed mules successfully it is desirable
to know something of the different breeds of jacks
which have been used for this purpose.

Poitou Jack. — We may start with this breed
which originated in France and has been used in
the production of mules for many years. At pres-
ent more than 50,000 mares are used exclusively
in France for mule breeding and this breed of jack
is almost the only one concerned. The Poitou jack
was the last breed of jack to be imported into the
United States. His head is very large with com-
paratively small mouth and large ears. The chest
is unusually broad and the abdomen large. The
bones of the legs and feet are large and this point
is of importance in mule breeding since the most
important parts in so far as the jack is concerned is
to gain as much size and strength as possible in the
mule. The Poitou is perhaps the most powerful
of all breeds of jacks and on account of the recent
demand for them in mule breeding the price has
been driven to extremely high figures, the ordinary
figures being about $1200 and occasionally reach-
ing as high as $3500. The prevailing color of the
Poitou jack is a black or dark brown, and this is
the color chiefly desired in mules.

The Andalusian was the first breed to be im-
ported into the United States. It comes from the
southern part of Spain, is gray with an occasional
black or brown. On account of its color it is not
so popular as the dark breeds of jacks for mule
raising. The height is about fourteen and one-
half hands and the legs are of fair size and strength.

The Maltese jack comes from the island of
Malta and was the second breed to reach the
United States. They are the smallest of the
Spanish breeds, rarely standing higher than four-

OF THE

NIVERSiTY

FARM ANIMALS 77

teen hands. The color is brown or black. Some
breeders who desire small jacks in mule raising
speak well of the Maltese.

The Catalonian also comes from Spain, having
been imported into the United States by Henry
Clay. The color of this breed is uniformly black
or brown, and on account of the strength, size and
action of the Catalonian he stands in favor among
many mule breeders. The Catalonian is at the
foundation of our native jacks and has been used
quite extensively for mule breeding in Kentucky
and elsewhere.

The Majorca, from the island of the same name,
is a strong legged, comparatively heavy type. The
color is black or brown, like the Catalonian, and
as a rule the Majorca is somewhat taller than the
latter breed. It is believed that this breed by
proper attention could be induced to develop even
greater size than it has at present and thus increase
its value in mule breeding. This cannot be done
in the United States, however, since we have no
pure bred females of this breed and the demand for
them is so great that they can scarcely be procured.

The Italian is a small breed, rarely standing
fourteen hands high, raised all over Italy, but not
much improved. In fact little systematic attention
has been given to the breeding of this animal.
According to the experience of some mule breeders,
the Italian jack, while a successful mule getter,
is frequently vicious.

The native jack is, in the opinion of most mule
raisers in this country, by all means the most
desirable breed for use in the production of mules.
The native may show all colors since it is really the
product of a crossing of all the imported breeds.
Within recent vears, however, attention has been

78 FARM ANIMALS

given to the fixing of a black color in the native
jacks so that at present this color prevails. The
native jack is healthy, has larger legs and feet than
the imported jacks and on this account transmits
the most desirable qualities to his mule colts.

In breeding for mules it is necessary to select not
only a good jack, but also a good mare. Most
breeders, however, consider that the best jacks
should be used in the production of jacks and not
in mule raising. Two classes of jacks are thus
established and are frequently referred to under
the names Jennet jacks and Mule jacks, according
as they are employed in the production of jack or
mule colts. The mare used for raising mule
colts, or, as she is commonly referred to, the mule
mare, should be of good form, without defects and
of a black, brown or bay color so as to give the
desirable dark color to the colt. Ordinarily the
mule inherits the form of its ears, head, tail and
legs from the jack and the size and formation of
the body from the mare. Since this statement is
based on the extensive observations of mule
breeders, it is obvious that the desired results can
only be obtained in mule raising by giving proper
attention to the form and size of the jack and mare.

The mule can be used for almost all kinds of
work ordinarily performed by horses and further-
more possesses certain decided advantages over
the horse. In mines mules far excel horses in the
amount of work they can do and the hardship they
can endure. Moreover, as pack animals the
mule is universally recognized as superior to the
horse. In our military organization the army
mule has long been famous and those who have
had extensive experience with mules, as for
example Riley and others, are unanimous in the

FARM ANIMALS 79

opinion that the mule can do more work under
longer hours and in more trying circumstances and
with greater hardship than the horse. It is not
true, however, as sometimes asserted, that the
mule eats less than the horse. On the contrary
the mule has an excellent appetite. However,
the mule can go longer without food and can live
on coarser and more unpalatable food than could
be expected to give results with the horse. Con-
trary to a prevailing belief also, the mule is equally
susceptible to various diseases as the horse. In
the Philippines our mules suffered as much as
horses from surra. Glanders has always been
dreaded as one of the scourges of the army mule.
Even colic and other digestive troubles familiar
to horse raisers also occur among mules.

The jack may begin service at the age of two
years, but should not be allowed to reach a maxi-
mum until he is mature. With mules also it is a
mistake to put them to work before they are fully
mature. Many of our military authorities have
had serious trouble in attempting to put three-year
old mules at a maximum of work. At this time
the milk teeth are being shed and replaced by oth-
ers and they are unable to eat enough to keep them
in strength and condition. While the mule is usu-
ally sold on the market just after two years of age
he should not be put to work at full rate until five.

THE FEEDING OF MULES

As would naturally be supposed the mule can be
fed on the same materials and in about the same
rations as the horse. Time of feeding and the meth-
od of giving the food should also be the same. A
large number of experiments have been carried out,
especially in the southern states, Jamaica, South

80 FARM ANIMALS

Africa, and France, and from these experiments
a number of reliable and valuable data have been
secured. It appears, for example, that mules
may be kept through the winter when not at hard
work on an exclusive cotton seed ration, four or
five pounds of cotton seed meal and all the cotton
seed hulls the animal will eat. If the above
ration is adopted the mules should receive salt and
water in the same quantities as required by horses.
In the southern states it has been found par-
ticularly desirable for the ration to be always
slightly laxative or, at least, not constipating since
under such circumstances an irritation may appear
on the skin leading to a disease called jack sores.

Mature mules can be kept at work on an almost
exclusive ration of corn. During growth only
small amounts of corn should be fed in the nitrog-
enous ration. Bran and clover hay may be con-
sidered a suitable part of the ration in order to
prevent it from becoming constipating. Hay may
be given in self feeders or otherwise given ad libi-
tum. Throughout the South and in South Africa,
molasses is a common mule food as well as an im-
portant ration for horses. It is fed to mules in
rations of six to twenty pounds per day. In some
cases it has been found to bring an excellent finish
to the coat and to prevent colic in mules to an
extent which has not been secured by other methods.
Cassava, sweet potatoes, wheat hay, cowpea,
silage, clover hay, corn stover, oats, gluten meal,
bran, pumpkins, roots of all kinds and various
other grain and forage crops are as readily digested
and utilized by mules as by horses. The danger
from colic should always be borne in mind. Thus
with feeding cotton seed meal it is well to begin
with a ration of one to two pounds per day, grad-

FARM ANIMALS 81

ually increasing to six pounds which should be the
maximum. The meal should always be yellow
and unfermented. Occasionally it is noticed that
mules do not relish cotton seed meal.

In fattening mules for market slightly different
methods are practiced, depending on the class of
the mule. The two market classes of mules are
sugar mules and cotton mules,, the sugar mules
being larger and the cotton mules smaller, but both
of the same conformation. The sugar mule is put
on a fattening ration in November and brought to
a weight of 1150 to 1350 pounds by the first of
September, after it reaches the age of two years.
The feed during this time should consist of mature
corn in the ear, clover and alfalfa, sheaf oats, bran
and other green forage. Oats and bran are con-
sidered as essential in producing the proper market
finish. Cotton mules are put in the stable during
the August after they reach two years of age and
fed in about the same manner as sugar mules with
the idea of getting them in the market by the first
of January, when the cotton mule market opens.

As an example of what may be expected from
mules in the way of work and in feeding require-
ments, we may mention a team of mules in Okla-
homa which was worked seven hours per day.
During the year this team ate forty-one bushels
of Kafir corn, seventy-three bushels of corn, forty-
three and one-half bushels of oats and four hundred
and forty-five pounds of bran, at a total cost for the
grain of $36.40. At the same time the mules con-
sumed four tons of Kafir corn stover and four and a
half tons of hay worth $26.00. The whole cost for
the year was therefore $62. 40 or seventeen cents per
day for the team of mules. In spring the mules drank
one hundred and seven pounds of water per day,

82 FARM ANIMALS

and in hot weather as much as one hundred and
thirteen pounds each. When not working, how-
ever, especially in cold weather, the amount of
water required per day was often only eighteen or
twenty pounds for each mule. These mules did
one third more work than horses and ate less grain,'
but rather more coarse fodder. These differences
between horses and mules are such as are ordi-
narily found. The mule, while patient and pos-
sessed of great endurance, especially toward all
kinds of neglect, nevertheless has an excellent ap-
petite and will eat rations corresponding to those
required by a horse of the same size. His appetite
is not so delicate as that of the horse and conse-
quently he may be induced to eat more coarse and
undigestible food than the horse will. The extent
of the mule industry and its importance may
be seen from the fact that according to the last
census there are nearly 3,500,000 mules in the
United States. This industry is rapidly spread-
ing. In former years it was largely confined to
the southern states, especially Texas, Mississippi,
Kentucky, and Tennessee. Recently, however,
it has developed so as to include not only those
southern states and others, but many of the north-
ern states. In fact at the present time some of
the largest mule raising ranches in the country
are located in the northern states, and the Chicago
and other northern markets for mules are very
important centers of traffic in these animals. In
Jamaica, the importance of the mule industry has
been the cause of considerable neglect in horse
raising so that a governmental investigation was
necessary to determine means of improving the
horses of the country.

In the breeding of mules a large number of

FARM ANIMALS 83

jacks are kept and used for no other purpose.
The mule breeders of the country have realized
the importance of improving the mule as well as
other stock and have organized a jack and jennet
association with a registry of about 1,400 animals.
It has been found that jack colts are best weaned
at the age of six months. They are fed plenty of
nitrogenous material such as oats and bran with
hay and an abundance of green forage. The
percentage of mule colts obtained from jack ser-
vice is about one half or approximately the same
as is the case with horses. In breeding jacks it
is always to be remembered that there is some
aversion on the part of the mare and in many in-
stances the jacks may appear to be afraid of the
mares. It is, therefore, desirable to use a pit or
chute in which the mare can be confined so as not to
injure the jack. As already indicated the market
requires a dark colored mule. White, gray and
mouse colored mules are not desired and many
stories are told by army officers and others to the
effect that mules of these undesirable colors are
less hardy, more susceptible to disease than dark
colored mules. However that may be the public
demands a dark mule and this is the end of the mat-
ter. It is desirable, therefore, to use dark mares
and dark jacks in order to secure the proper re-
sults.

Much controversy has raged around the point
of the proper size for jacks. Some breeders
would not use a jack above fourteen hands in
height, arguing that since jacks have comparatively
small legs and transmit these characteristics to the
mule colt it is impossible to secure proper pro-
portion in mules if too much height is obtained.
In other words mules with large bodies inherited

84 FARM ANIMALS

from the mares on slender, spindling legs are
certainly not desirable animals for use. Such
results are not always obtained, however, and
recent practice is to use as tall jacks as can be
obtained provided they have the proper strength
of bone in the leg. Since the size of the mule as a
whole seems to be inherited from the mare, it is a
very important matter to use the right kind of a
mare. Some breeders use Percheron mares and
jacks fifteen and two-tenths hands high with
heavy bone, deep chest and long body.

As with other animals so with jacks, the best
results are obtained after they reach maturity.
Mature jacks are more certain of getting foals
than young jacks and transmit a greater hardiness
to them. The spring is usually preferred as the
time for breeding. All mules are strictly sterile,
but in order to secure the proper docility it is
necessary to castrate male mules and this should
be done at one year of age. As a rule female mules
are preferred to males for the reason that they
mature rather more promptly and develop a better
form than the males.

Mules are to be broken in the same way as horses.
While many mule raisers insist upon it that these
animals are incomparably more stubborn and
vicious than horses, requiring much care and a
great deal of harsh treatment to secure obedience,
the exact opposite is claimed by others. Some
mule breeders maintain that with ordinary kind-
ness, especially with some attention while the colts
are young, no more trouble need be experienced
in breaking and handling mules after they are
broken than with horses.

Hinnies, or the hybrid between the stallion and
the jennet, have never been much used in this

OF THE

FARM ANIMALS 85

country. The statement was long ago made on
fairly good authority that hinnies are weak, lack
hardiness, and are far more stubborn and vicious
than mules. Recently, however, in Jamaica some
breeders have come to the opposite opinion,
finding that hinnies are better than mules for
nearly all purposes. They are more like the horse
than the jennet and show a more graceful head,
and heavier mane and tail, inheriting these prop-
erties from the horse. The slight use to which
hinnies have been put in this country makes it
impossible to predict just how important they
may become. If burro mares are crossed with
thoroughbred stallions they have been found to
produce a hinny of some speed, excellent temper,
and good style and action and since the burro is
nothing but a diminutive jack it is evident that not
all hinnies are too cross and vicious to be managed.
If trouble is experienced in breeding mules or if
it is desired to breed a considerable number of
mares at the same time, artificial impregnation
may be adopted in the same manner as is practiced
with horses. When this method is used no especial
breeding chute or other device for confining
need be arranged.

The main question before the farmer in under-
taking a line of industry with which he is unfamiliar
is with reference to the duration of the market and
the prices of the product. In this respect it is
impossible to see any serious difficulty in the im-
mediate future of mule raising. As already in-
dicated, they are being used more and more for
almost all work ordinarily performed by horses,
and mule-breeding establishments are springing
up in the north and northwestern states for sup-
plying the local and general market. Although

86 FARM ANIMALS

large numbers of mules are to be found in the
stock yards of Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis and
St. Paul, all these animals are nevertheless grabbed
up at remunerative prices so that there appears
to be no danger of overstocking the market. The
price for average mules is almost always higher
than for average horses and the fact that they
are marketed at two years rather than five years
is an important consideration in the matter of
time and feeds. At present, under proper man-
agement, the profit from raising mules and market-
ing them at two years of age is more than twice
as great as that from raising horses and marketing
them at maturity or 5 years of age,

CHAPTER III.

BEEF CATTLE

In recent years an unusual interest has developed
in the beef industry, partly on account of the great
advance which has been made in the scientific
feeding of cattle so as to obtain a better market
finish and a better quality of beef, and partly on
account of the changed market requirements and
the breeding which has been done to bring about an
earlier maturity of beef cattle. These improve-
ments in the methods of beef production have been
made necessary on account of the higher prices of
land, of labor, and of feeding stuffs. In fact, at
present the feeding of beef cattle for market has
become a special line of work which requires a high
grade of skill and thorough understanding of the
feeding values of different materials used in the
production of beef, as well as an appreciation of the
requirements of animal nutrition, and shrewd
business ability. Without these prerequisites, the
feeder is doomed to receive very small returns for
his labor or simply starts on the road to bankruptcy.
The market requirements for beef at present are
much higher than in former years. It is necessary
therefore, in order to receive prices which remuner-
ate the feeder for his time and feeds, to produce
in his feeding a herd of cattle as nearly uniform
as possible in appearance and quality and with
a high market finish and symmetrical develop-
ment, particularly in those parts which yield high-

87

88 FARM ANIMALS

priced cuts, in which the profits lie for the butcher.
During the early days of the cattle industry in
this country steers were marketed at the age of
five or six years, fully matured and only in fair
condition as far as the quality of the meat was con-
cerned. These animals might be of larger form
and in many cases the actual weight more than that
of the average beef animal brought to market at
the present time. Such cattle, however, were not
uniform in size, finish, frame or quality and, more-
over, yielded a profit so small that as soon as the
prices of feeding stuffs rose to their present standard
the further raising of such animals became unprof-
itable to the farmer. In those early days the de-
velopment of the cattle kings of the West took place.
The cattle were hardy and were allowed to run on
government land or upon open grass land held under
the old Mexican land grants at practically no ex-
pense, excepting the salaries of a comparatively
lew cowboys and foremen. Under these conditions
all chances were taken with the weather, disease,
poisonous plants, and other emergencies which
might arise. Nevertheless, under favorable con-
ditions enormous profits were made. Later as the
range became crowded and forage less abundant
the cattle went into the winter in a poorer condition
and in the case of an unusually severe winter died
by the thousands. The losses which occurred in un-
favorable winters, particularly in 1884, compelled
the cattle men to adopt other tactics, such as in-
vesting in better stock, caring for them more atten-
tively, feeding in winter, marketing in a better
condition and at correspondingly higher prices.
The sheep industry gradually claimed more and
more attention on account of the large profits made
from this business, and from 1885 until the present

FARM ANIMALS 89

time sheep have gradually been crowding cattle
from the western ranges and reducing the number
which is run under the old methods of the cattle
business.

With the adoption of modern market require-
ments for the quality of beef, the old classes of
beef animals went out of style and were replaced
by improved beef breeds which would mature more
early and produce a better style of beef animal.
The propaganda, thus originated, spread first over
the corn belt where the best quality of beef animals
is still raised, but has gradually extended over the
western ranges until the old Texas longhorn with
his shaggy coat and lank frame has almost dis-
appeared and has been replaced by Herefords,
Shorthorns, Angus, Galloways, Red Polls, and
other beef breeds with their grades.

According to the most recent estimates the num-
ber of beef cattle in the United States is 43,670,000.
Of this number twenty per cent, are annually
slaughtered for beef. The number of calves from
beef cows raised to maturity is eighty per cent.
During the year 1905, the total number of cattle
slaughtered "in the United States was 12,500,000
of which 875,000 were exported. The aver-
age value of the carcasses of these animals was
$41.50.

In order to start in the business of beef produc-
tion in the right manner, it is necessary to know
something of the different beef breeds. Naturally
it is impossible to make a choice in this matter for
different persons, but some of the characteristics
of the different pure breeds now produced in the
United States may be given in order that the indi-
vidual may choose from this list according to his
peculiar conditions.

90 FARM ANIMALS

BREEDS

Shorthorn. — Undoubtedly the Shorthorn is the
most popular at present of all the beef breeds.
This statement is based chiefly on the number of
registered Shorthorns which is considerably greater
than that of any other breed and on the replies
received by various experiment station authorities
from representative farmers and beef raisers in
different states. Shorthorns or Durhams are at
present raised to some extent in every State of the
Union. They were first imported to this country
about 1790 and from 1835 on began to increase
rapidly in popularity. In the American Shorthorn
herd book 600,000 animals have been registered
and in Canada about 65,000. Shorthorns readily
adapt themselves to all kinds of climatic and agri-
cultural conditions and weather and their hardi-
ness is, at least, of medium grade. In size and
weight they are rather superior to any other breed
and in the early maturing quality they are equal
to the Hereford and Angus which are their most
prominent competitors. They become fully mature
at 30 months and reach the limit growth at 4 years.
On the range and on native pasture their grazing
ability is medium. They are perhaps excelled in
this respect by the Hereford and Angus. They
make good use of their feed and lay on a thick fine
coat of flesh on the outside of the frame. The
quality of the meat is also excellent. One of the
chief advantages in Shorthorns is their high milk-
ing quality. This breed is usually referred to as a
dual-purpose breed since it is both a good milker
and a beef producer. There are two general tend-
encies shown among breeders of Shorthorns, one
being to produce an excellent quality of beef and

FARM ANIMALS 91

the other to obtain a combination dairy and beef
animal. We thus have the fat Shorthorn and the
dairy Shorthorn. In grading up native cattle,
Shorthorns have been widely used with good re-
sults. In some instances they have been found
wanting in constitution and with a tendency to
sterility on account of forced feeding and irrational
treatment, particularly in breeding.

Shorthorns show in all respects the form and
characteristics which feeders require in the beef
type of animal. The outlines are those of a
parallelogram, the back lines and belly lines being
straight parallel lines and the side lines showing no
pronounced tendency to converge in the hips and
shoulders. The whole form is round and regular
with a good coat of flesh over the whole body and
all cavities well filled. The standard colors
commonly recognized are red, roan, and white,
red being preferred by nearly all breeders and
cattle buyers. Roan is always an acceptable
color in Shorthorns, but white is not a favorite in
some localities. In fact judges occasionally dis-
criminate against Shorthorn cattle showing this
color.

Hereford. — In point of numbers this breed
should come second to the above breed. The
Herefords have been referred to in England since
1627 and were first introduced in the United States
by Henry Clay in 1817. At present they are
distributed throughout nearly every State and
territory of the United States and most of the
provinces of the Dominion of Canada. About
200,000 Herefords have been registered in America.
This breed is almost equal to the Shorthorn in
size and weight and is rapidly gaining in popu-
larity. They readily adapt themselves to all

92 FARM ANIMALS

conditions and on the range are considered by
many cattle raisers as more active and better
rustlers than any of the other beef breeds. They
mature at 30 months like Shorthorns and Angus
and are, therefore, excellent cattle for the pro-
duction of baby beef. The quality of the beef
is unobjectionable. The amount of milk yielded
by Herefords, however, is rather small. In color
they are red and white; the ground color being red
with white on the face and on the underline
running from the throat along the lower part of the
body. The tip of the tail is also white. The
large white mark on the face gives them their
popular name of White Face and the usual dis-
tribution of red and white produces a beautiful
pattern. Recently a Polled Hereford breed has
been established. It is identical with the standard
Hereford excepting the absence of horns. Polled
Herefords give much promise.

Angus. — The original ancestors of cattle were
without horns and in their hornless condition the
Angus, therefore, show the recurrence of the old
character. They originated in the counties of
Aberdeen and Angus in Scotland and their full
name is a combination of these county names or
Aberdeen Angus, commonly shortened, however,
into Angus. This breed has been frequently
referred to since 1735 and was introduced into the
United States in 1873. The Angus thus came
quite late as compared with the Shorthorn and
Hereford and on that account had to establish
a reputation for itself before it could become very
widely distributed. At present the popularity of
the Angus among those who know them is perhaps
second to no other breed of beef cattle. They are
largely distributed throughout the entire country

Courtesy Nebraska Experiment Station.

HEREFORD STEER -A LIVING BLOCK OF BEEF.

FARM ANIMALS 93

and in Canada, but are raised in the greatest
numbers in the central corn states, especially
Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Ind-
iana. Within recent years a large number of
importations have been made and an increasing
number of native stock has been distributed
throughout the various parts of the country for
the purpose of improving the grade of beef animals.
In regard to their grazing ability, opinions differ
quite widely and much bitter controversy has
prevailed. According to some cattle men, the
Angus is too indolent to become a good animal
on the range. Others, however, insist upon it
that the Angus is superior in this respect to the
other breeds. The quality of the meat of the
Angus is usually considered superior to that of
the Shorthorn or Hereford and equal to its near
relative the Galloway. One of the chief strong
points of the Angus is its strong prepotency. The
Angus bull, when used in grading up beef animals
from native stock, transmits its characteristics to
an unusual extent. In from seventy-five per cent,
to ninety per cent, of cases the progeny of Angus
bulls are black and hornless without regard to the
color of the cow. In size they are slightly inferior
to the Shorthorns and likewise in milking prop-
erties. In Scotland the Angus gives a fair amount
of milk of good quality, but in America no attempt
has been made to keep up the quantity of the milk
in breeding. Attention has been given in this
country entirely to the production of the finest
possible quality of beef. The Angus appears to
stand shipping by rail somewhat better than the
other breeds of cattle. As already indicated the
color of the Angus is black with an occasional
occurrence of a narrow white line along the belly

94 FARM ANIMALS

behind the navel. The Angus is the first and
most important of the polled or hornless breeds,
both the Shorthorn and Hereford bearing horns,
the latter being wider spread and larger in diameter
than those of the former.

Galloway. — This breed, like the Angus, comes
from Scotland and was introduced into Canada in
1853 and into Michigan in 1870. A Galloway
breeders' register was established in the United
States in 1882. At present this breed is dis-
tributed mostly in Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas,
and Minnesota. The Galloways are gaining in
popularity wherever they are raised. This breed
is the hardiest of all the beef cattle with the
exception of the West Highland cattle. The hair
is long and wavy. In size they are somewhat
smaller than the Shorthorn, Hereford, or Angus.
Under ordinary conditions they do not mature
as early as the Angus or Hereford, but may be
readily forced by suitable feeding. The Galloways
are excellent grazers and are capable of giving
a good account of themselves under unfavorable
conditions. The quality of the beef has been
referred to as of unusual excellence, in England,
for the past two centuries. The prepotency of
the Galloway is perhaps stronger even than that of
the Angus since from ninety-five per cent, to
one hundred per cent, of the progeny of Galloway
bulls from native stock are black and hornless.
They are good breeders, but yield a very small
quantity of milk. One peculiar value of the
Galloway lies in their beautiful hide which is
extensively used for robes and other purposes.
On account of their long, wavy hair the Galloways
are preferred in crossing with Buffaloes to produce
the half breed known as the Catalo, The color

FARM ANIMALS 95

of the Galloway is black with a slightly brownish
tinge. In general they are spirited. They closely
resemble the Angus in appearance excepting for
the possession of wavy hair.

Red Poll. — This breed comes originally from
England and has been crossed to some extent with
Shorthorns and West Highland cattle. It was
introduced into the United States in 1879 and has
been distributed in small numbers throughout the
country. The Red Polls are a dual-purpose breed,
yielding a large quantity of milk and are valuable,
therefore, in the combination of dairy farming
and the production of beef. They are capable of
adapting themselves readily to our conditions and
are somewhat smaller than Shorthorns, maturing
at a medium early age and showing good grazing
ability. They are of considerable value in grading
up native stock to produce a better beef type. The
color is a bright red with white on the tip of the
tail and the udder.

Sussex. — This breed of cattle seems to be
related in its origin to the Devons. Sussex
cattle were first imported into the United States in
1884 and have never become very popular. There
are only a few hundred registered animals in the
United States at the present time and these are
chiefly in Tennessee, Indiana, Oklahoma, and
Texas. They are about equal to the Galloway in
size and are excellent grazers, maturing rather
early, and are good feeders. The quantity of
milk is not very large. On account of the small
number of Sussex cattle in the United States their
qualities have not been thoroughly tested. The
color is ordinarily a light or dark red.

West Highland Cattle. — This breed has long
been known in Scotland and is sometimes

96 FARM ANIMALS

called Kyloes. These cattle have been sparing)/
introduced into the United States and have
gradually spread into the West and British Colum-
bia. They are the hardiest of all beef cattle and
for that reason are recommended for ranges of the
northwest United States, and British Columbia,
and Alaska, where severe winters and violent
climatic changes are to be met. They are capable
of maintaining themselves in good condition on
very poor range and for this reason are considered
excellent beef cattle for some of the worn out
ranges of the West. The quality of the beef is
excellent. The amount of the milk is small.
For grading up native cattle they have little to
recommend them. Since their chief advantage
is their hardihood this might be lost in the offspring
from native cows. In size they are rather too
small to compete with the leading beef breeds.
The color is black, red, dun or yellow and the
hide is covered with abundant, long, wavy hair.
Polled Durhams. — This breed of cattle is strictly
a dual-purpose breed and yields a good quantity
of milk. The Polled Durham originated in the
United States, chiefly in Ohio, and came from
native muley cows crossed with Shorthorns. They
are, therefore, strictly hornless Shorthorns. The
Polled Durhams have become gradually dis-
tributed from the middle West to the far West
and other parts of the United States, and appear
to be increasing in popularity. The standard
of points for the breed is essentially the same
as that required for the Shorthorns and the char-
acteristics are much the same as in the latter
breed, except in the one point that they are horn-
less. The quantity of the milk is perhaps some-
what greater than that given by the Shorthorn.

FARM ANIMALS 97

This completes the list of pure breeds of beef
cattle in the United States, with the exception
of the occasional introduction of some European
type by a fancier without any definite purpose
in view. There are a few specimens of Holder-
ness cattle in different parts of the country,
particularly in New York. This animal is es-
sentially a variation of the Shorthorn and resembles
it in most particulars, excepting as to coloration,
which may show more irregular white spots
than are shown upon the Shorthorn.

MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES

Sharp distinction must be made between market
classes of beef animals and market grades. These
differences have been drawn in a very satis-
factory manner by the Illinois Experiment Station.
The classes recognized include beef cattle, Texas
and Western range cattle, butcher stock, cutters
and canners, and stockers and feeders, and
veal calves, while the grades usually recognized
on the market are prime, choice, good, medium,
common and inferior, referring obviously to the
quality of the beef rather than to the form and
condition.

Beef Cattle. — This class includes all grades
of steers and heifers in the case of which serious
efforts have been made to put them in proper
market condition. The steers in this class range
in weight from 900 to 1,600 pounds, depending
on the grade. Prime steers should weigh from
1,200 to 1,600 pounds, and quality and condition
are always important features in determining
the market value of these animals. In this
class we also have shipping steers which are

98 FARM ANIMALS

intended for the eastern and southern trade and
export steers or foreign steers and dressed beef
cattle which are bought chiefly by the large
packers of Chicago and other beef centers. In
the same class baby beef, distillers and Texas
cattle are considered as distinct sections. They
really belong, however, in the market class of beef
cattle. Baby beef is the term usually applied
to steers weighing from 800 to 1,000 pounds
and between one and two years of age. Dis-
tillers is the term used to refer to cattle fed on
the by-products of distilleries. The term arose
from the fact that at first only poor grades of
cattle were fed on these by-products. Recently,
however, much better classes of cattle have
been used for this purpose, chiefly because it
has been found that cattle fed on distillers' grains
and other by-products carry an unusually small
amount of offal and a very high percentage of
dressed beef.

Texas and Western range cattle is a term which
requires no explanation since it refers to all western
branded cattle in fairly good condition and finish,
according to the method of feeding which prevails
throughout the range country. These cattle are
usually purchased as feeders, brought to the corn
belt and put into a finished market condition by
means of corn and other grains.

Butcher Stock. — This class is made up of the
culls of beef cattle. However clever the feeder
may be, it is well known that in selecting his stock
some of the animals will fail to develop the best
market condition or in other ways will not utilize
the feed to the best advantage. Such animals are
thinner than they ought to be and the fat is not as
well distributed as in high-grade beef animals.

FARM ANIMALS 99

The larger part of this class is composed of tolerably
fat cows, and heifers, and bulls which show many
grades of fattening.

Cutters and Canners. — These include some of
the thinner culls from beef animals. The grades
of this class run from inferior to good, no choice
animals being included in it. Some of the less
desirable bulls in this class are commonly referred
to as bologna bulls.

Stackers and Feeders. — This class includes calves,
yearlings, two-year-olds, and other animals of both
sexes. If the animals are intended for immediate
shipment to the feeding lot they are known as
feeders. If the age is eighteen months or more,
calves, heifers, yearlings and steers are commonly
known as stockers. As a rule animals which are
intended for the feeding lot weigh from 900 pounds
to 1,000 pounds. The weight of stockers may
range from 450 pounds to 900 pounds.

Veal Calves. — The weight of the animals in
this class varies from 80 pounds to 160 pounds and
the main factors in determining the grade to which
the veal calf belongs are age, condition and weight,
but chiefly age and weight.

The prices paid on the market for beef animals
of the various classes depend primarily on the
quality of the animal and market finish, and second-
arily on its size, appearance and conformation.
The standard for the market classes of beef animals
is obviously on a rather different basis than that
of horses. Nevertheless, it is of prime impor-
tance for the beef raiser to make himself thorough-
ly acquainted with the market requirements for the
different classes of beef animals in order that he
may take measures to produce the best possible
quality of animal, and be able to estimate the value

100 FARM ANIMALS

of different crops very closely so as to put his feed-
ing upon a business basis.

FEEDING FOR BEEF

As already stated, farmers have devoted an un-
usual amount of attention during recent years to
improved systems of feeding beef animals so as
to meet the market requirements in this regard.
It has become generally recognized as necessary
to study all questions relating to the digestibility
and effectiveness of feeds, early maturing proper-
ties of different breeds of cattle, and other matters
relating to the increase in weight of cattle and the
profits to be derived. In other words, sharp com-
petition between the eastern and western states,
and the advanced prices of all feeding stuffs and
work connected with beef production have made
it essential that each man watch carefully every
point where any advantage may be gained and
where a leakage in the profits may be stopped.
Otherwise there is no use in attempting to produce
beef since nothing but failure can be expected
if the best equipment and the most skillful methods
of applying all known agencies in the production
of beef are not used.

In order to obtain a beef animal of the right
form and quality it is necessary to start with the
calf. Great changes have taken place in the last
few years in the methods of feeding calves and at
present several systems prevail. On the range
each calf is allowed to suck its own mother until
weaning time and the only other feeds which it
gets during this time are the range grasses. On
inclosed farms a number of methods have been
adopted. The calf may be allowed to run with

FARM ANIMALS 101

its mother and take all her milk in case the farm
is not conveniently situated for the disposal of
the milk as such. The calf may also be confined
and allowed to suck three or four times a day,
being given suitable grain as an additional ration
as soon as it is old enough to eat. According to
this system two or three calves may suck the same
cow at first, or, as the capacity of the calf increases,
he may take the milk of two cows. Wherever
there is a good opportunity of selling the milk or of
making butter or cheese from it the question at
once arises whether it is not possible to make more
from the fat of the milk in butter and to give the
calf substitutes for this fat in the form of grain.

According to this system, which prevails exten-
sively throughout the dairy region, it is possible
to combine dairying and the production of fine
beef in the most economic manner. The milk is
skimmed by a hand or machine separator, the
fat sold as cream or in the form of butter and the
fresh warm skim milk fed to the calves. If the
purpose of the farmer is to raise baby beef, or
bring his animals to maturity as soon as possible,
it is somewhat of an advantage to have the calves
come in the fall. They may then be maintained on
skim milk and grain, with small amounts of rough-
age added, until spring when the grass starts.
They are then turned upon pasture and thus suffer
only a small check in their growth. At any rate,
this check in development is less than takes place
when the calf has been used to milk and grass dur-
ing the summer and has to be weaned and changed
to dry feeds in the winter. In general, however,
where no special attempt is made to produce baby
beef, the spring season is chosen by four-fifths or
more of the cattle raisers as the time for their

102 FARM ANIMALS

calves to come. Statistics collected on this matter
in Illinois indicate that about half of the feeders
raise baby beef. Many of these men, however,
include in the term animals of somewhat greater
age than is usually allowed for this class on the
market. As the result of extensive and repeated
experiments in various parts of this country and
in the provinces of Canada it has been demon-
strated beyond question that the cheapest method
of raising calves consists in allowing them to suck
the cow for two to five days, after which they are
gradually accustomed to skim milk, with the ad-
dition of grain feeds as soon as they are able to eat.
The change from whole to skim milk must be
accomplished with some care. After the calves are
taken away from the cows, they should be kept
where they cannot see the mother nor hear
her too much, as otherwise they may be inclined
to worry. At first the calves are taught to drink
whole milk. This may be accomplished by the
use of the finger or by artificial feeders of which
several are on the market. After they are taught
to drink, the whole milk is gradually replaced
little by little with warm fresh skim milk during
a period of three to five weeks. At the end of
this time the calves receive nothing but skim milk.
This must always be fed sweet and warm ranging in
temperature from ninety-six to one hundred degrees
F. The preliminary period of sucking the cow
and drinking whole milk should be about two
weeks and the period of changing from whole milk
to skim milk another two weeks. The skim milk
ration may begin at eight to ten pounds per day
and should be gradually increased to fifteen to
eighteen pounds at the age of four weeks after
which it may be further increased, according to

OF THE

BLACK ROCK.

The Grand Champion Steer at the International Live Stock Show at Chicago.
A grade Angus fed and exhibited by the Iowa State College.

GLENFOTL ROSE.

Champion Two- Year-Old Angus Heifer at Kansas City and Chicago.
Small udder development, but of great beef capacity.

FARM ANIMALS 103

the size and capacity of the calf. It is absolutely
necessary that attention be given to the milk during
all this time to prevent it from becoming unclean
or sour in the slightest degree, since, otherwise,
scouring may take place and the calf will be consid-
erably checked in its growth. In order to ; prevent
the slightest scouring taking place, considerable
benefit has been found in the use of lime water, rye
bran or wheat bran each of which has a somewhat
constipating effect. In order to obtain the best
possible growth in calves, it is desirable to give
them a liberal milk ration until they reach the age
of five months. The milk feeding may then be
stopped and the grain and forage ration increased.
It is desirable from the age of two or three weeks
that calves be taught to eat grain. They may be
taught to eat ground grain or meal by placing a
small handful in their mouth, beginning at the
age of two weeks. They soon learn to eat the
grain and look forward to this portion of the ration
with considerable relish. A large variety of sub-
stances have been fed to calves as substitutes for
cream. The actual materials selected in each
case will depend upon the relative prices of these
grains or other feeding stuffs, and the convenience
with which they may be obtained. It has been
found that young calves will make a gain of three
pounds per day on a ration of fourteen quarts of
milk to which six eggs are added. Cod liver oil
has been extensively used as a cream substitute,
two ounces being added to each three gallons of
milk. Cod liver oil is easily fed and is relished
by calves and, under ordinary conditions, pro-
duces a rapid gain at a reasonable cost. In Ire-
land it has been found that calves may be raised
more cheaply on skim milk, corn meal, and cod

104 FARM ANIMALS

liver oil, or some other cream substitute, than on
whole milk. In one test the cheapest gain was
made on skim milk and cod liver oil, a pound of
gain costing eight cents on whole milk and three and
one-half cents on skim milk, corn meal, and cod
liver oil under the same conditions. Occasionally
it has been observed that the greatest gains are
made on whole milk, but almost uniformly it has
been found that the use of skim milk and cream
substitute gives excellent results at a great saving
in the cost of the ration. Various other sub-
stances have been added to skim milk to take the
place of cream, removed in separating. Thus, for
example, starch, oleomargarine, scalded linseed
meal, corn meal, Kafir corn meal, rice meal, cocoa-
nut oil cake, cocoa shell milk, hay tea and other
materials have been used with more or less success.
In substituting a material in the calf ration for
the cream, attention must be given to the cleanli-
ness of the grain or other materials used as other-
wise the calves may scour. In this regard, cod
liver oil has been found very beneficial as it ap-
parently obviates the danger of scouring and in
one or two instances has given better results than
a mixture of linseed meal and molasses, which in
turn were more expensive than the cod liver oil.
In some cases cod liver oil has been added to the
ration in the proportion of two ounces to five
quarts of milk, after the calves had been fed on
whole milk for a period of five weeks. It is usually
best, however, to make the change from whole
milk to skim milk and cream substitute at an early
age. Cocoanut oil cake has been used with success
at the rate of four ounces to three gallons of milk,
with the further addition of two ounces of mo-
lasses. This mixture, however, is not as easy to

FARM ANIMALS 105

prepare as many other similar ones. Cocoa shell
milk may be prepared by boiling one-quarter of a
pound of cocoa shells in two gallons of water and
feeding the milk thus produced in rations of one
and one-half to two gallons daily.

A large number of feeders have had the best re-
sults from the use of flaxseed meal as a substi-
tute for cream. When this cannot be obtained in
suitable quantities corn meal and Kafir corn meal
or other similar grain mixtures may be used in its
place. Corn oil has been found rather too laxative
to use in calf feeding, even when added to the milk
so as to make a two per cent, mixture. Linseed
meal gives uniformly good results. It is not only
an excellent food for replacing the cream for calf
feeding, but is also a very economic food. It may
also be mixed with germ oil meal with good re-
sults.

In Pennsylvania it was found possible, as the
result of numerous experiments, to raise calves of
prime quality without any milk whatever after the
age of two weeks. A number of successful milk
substitutes were devised. One of these contained
a mixture of sixteen and two-thirds parts flour,
thirty-three and one-third parts flaxseed meal and
fifty parts linseed meal. Another contained wheat
flour, cocoanut meal, nutrium, linseed meal, and
dried blood in the proportion of 30:25:20:10:2.
Still another contained corn meal, nutrium, flax
seed, dried blood, flour, cocoanut meal and oat
chops.

In Kansas considerable experience was had with
the use of calf -feeders, consisting of a rubber tube
fastened at a convenient height for the calf to reach,
and the tube being connected with the milk in the
pail. Considerable difficulty was had with the man-

106 FARM ANIMALS

agement of the calves by this method and, in gener-
al, it is believed that it is easier to teach the calf
to drink with the fingers. In the Kansas experi-
ments the best results were obtained from feeding
the calf three times a day, — four pounds in the
morning, two at noon, and four again at night.
After about two weeks the feeding periods need not
be oftener than twice daily. During the first few
days, however, the calf may well be fed five or six
times. The amount of skim milk to be fed as soon
as the whole milk is discontinued must be deter-
mined by the appetite of the calf. All experiments,
however, agree in the point that the milk must
always be sweet.

The cost of raising the calf up to the time when
it can be put on a grain and hay ration at about
four months of age was found to be $10 in Penn-
sylvania. In Connecticut it cost from $11.50 to
$12.90 to raise calves to the age of six months and
in New Hampshire the total cost of raising calves
to the age of seventeen weeks was $9. In Con-
necticut the cost of raising calves from birth to
a proper market condition at the age of two years,
according to the methods just outlined, was found
to be $33 per head.

Baby Beef. — It is assumed in forcing calves, in the
manner just described, that they are being raised
for the purpose of producing baby beef. The
economy of bringing a considerable percentage of
calves to a market condition at the age of one to
two years should be apparent from the following
discussion. In the first place, heifers at this age
bring as much pound for pound as steers and this is
the only period of life when such a condition is
true. It is obvious that with a shorter feeding
period less expense must be incurred in caring

FARM ANIMALS 107

for the animals and less material required for
maintenance and fattening. In Kansas it has
been found that after the period of calf hood, above
described, has been passed, alfalfa hay and corn,
or Kafir corn, will put steers and heifers in excellent
market condition at two years of age. In many
tests of skim-milk-fed and sucking calves, it has
been found that the early training which skim-
milk calves receive in the way of constant handling
and in learning to eat and drink stand them in
good stead during the fattening period, so that the
total gains made by such calves are greater than
those made by sucking calves, while the food re-
quired per pound of gain is somewhat less. In the
production of baby beef it is necessary that the
feed be fresh and palatable at every feeding period
and that the animals should be handled in such a
manner as to induce them to eat all that they can
with safety. The best results are usually obtained
by feeding corn mixed with chopped roughage
(alfalfa hay or a similar material), since, in this
way the ration appears to be rendered most pala-
table and animals are less likely to get off their feed.
The production of baby beef is a specialty which
requires great skill in feeding and should not be
undertaken on a large scale until some preliminary
experience has been had in a small way. The kind
of cattle to be used for this work cannot be pre-
scribed rigidly for all sections . Of course, no scrubs
can be used, in fact, nothing but pure beef breeds
or good grades of these breeds. They all mature
fully at the age of 30 months and can be put in a
fine marketable condition as baby beef at the age
of two years. The champions of the various breeds
claim that each is the best, but no one will make a
serious mistake by selecting any one of the three.

108 FARM ANIMALS

The importance of raising baby beef has been well
stated by the Kansas Experiment Station. The
farmer who raises and fattens for the market mature
steers has to provide sufficient pasture for his
cows and his steers for three years. During this
time he can realize nothing on his animals, and
only one-fourth of his total herd are cows producing
calves. Where, however, the farmer raises baby
beef he can stock his farm to the full extent witn
cows and may obtain returns from his steers and
heifers which he has fed for the market within one
year. Thus, his capital is turned over three times
as fast as by the other method and a correspond-
ingly greater profit is made.

FEEDING FOR MATURE BEEF

In feeding steers so as to bring them to a market-
able condition at the age of two and one-half years
or somewhat later a large variety of feeding stuffs
is at the disposal of the feeder. If his animals
have been properly fed during their early life by
the use of a balanced ration containing a suitable
amount of nitrogenous material, the animals at the
beginning of the final feeding period have a suffi-
cient strength of bone and digestive power to
enable them to be forced rapidly by the use of
cheaper, more carbonaceous foods. The scheme
of economic beef production, therefore, consists
in the use of sufficient nitrogenous feeds for young
animals to give them proper development and con-
stitution to endure forced feeding just before they
become mature.

Corn is the king of all grains which may be used
for the production of beef, pork or mutton. It has
been found by carefully conducted experiments

FARM ANIMALS 109

and by the experience of innumerable farmers that
beef can be excellently fattened without the use
of any other grain than corn. Such a statement
cannot be made of any other known grain. The
problem of the feeding of beef cattle, therefore,
consists largely in determining the form in which
corn shall be fed, the amount to be fed and the
amounts of other grains which may be economically
added for the purpose of increasing the appetite
of the steers or for arranging the ration more
economically at times when corn is extremely
high. During the early fall, in some parts of the
country, the frost may injure the corn so that it does
not properly mature. The question, therefore,
arises regarding the nutritive value of such corn as
compared with hard fully-matured corn. Careful
experiments have shown that such soft corn is
fully equal in feeding value to mature hard corn.
Cattle make about as good gains and show about
as fine a finish as on the mature corn. When
corn injured by frost can be purchased for thirty
cents per bushel and mature corn for fifty cents,
the production of beef is possible at a cost of
three and one-half cents less with soft than with
hard corn. Apparently, the amount of moisture
present is the only point in which soft corn differs
from mature corn in so far as feeding is concerned.
While corn, as already indicated, is considered to
be the king of all grains for the fattening of steers,
the use of other grains such as linseed meal, cotton
seed meal or gluten meal shows an increased rate
of gain and a slightly finer finish in the majority
of cases than does corn used alone. These feeds
are especially valuable in balancing the ration when
the roughage used does not contain much nitrogen.
The extent to which such feeds are to be used will

110 FARM ANIMALS

depend entirely upon the relative price of corn and
the nitrogenous feeds in question. Experiments,
indicating the value of supplemental feeds with corn
have been carried out at the Iowa and Nebraska
Experiment Stations and elsewhere.

A study of cattle farms in Illinois showed that
in feeding steers in the winter about twenty-five per
cent, of the farmers used shocked corn, thirty-nine
per cent, ear corn, ten per cent, shelled corn, three
per cent, corn and cob meal. In summer feeding
about three per cent, used shocked corn, fifty per
cent, ear corn, thirty-six per cent, shelled corn
and five per cent, corn meal. A most careful
study of the methods of feeding corn has been
carried out at the Illinois Experiment Station.
It appears from these tests that the value of steers
per hundredweight may vary as much as fifty cents,
depending on the method under which they were
fattened, arid that this amount is often sufficient
to make a difference between actual profit and
loss to the feeder. According to these experi-
ments corn and cob meal does not appear to
be so valuable for fattening steers as corn meal.
Ear corn, however, is much more efficient for the
production of beef than is shelled corn, and exper-
iments along this line show this point so conclu-
sively that we must decide against the grinding or
shelling of corn for feeding steers, at least during
the winter season. It obviously does not pay to
grind corn during the winter, but during the sum-
mer, while the steers are on grass, the conditions
may be somewhat different.

As already indicated corn is so necessary from
a financial standpoint in fattening steers that a
center of corn production is practically synony-
mous with one of beef production. In general,

FARM ANIMALS 111

it will be observed that the area where the best
beef is grown is co-extensive with the corn belt.
Statistics show that the eleven chief corn states,
which produce seventy-five per cent, of the corn
crop of the United States, produce also sixty per
cent, of the fine cattle, milch cows, sheep, hogs,
horses and mules. The importance of corn is
even greater than would appear from this statement,
since thousands of range cattle and sheep are
annually shipped into the corn belt for fattening.
Corn affords not only ear and shelled corn, corn
stover and silage, all of which are most excellent
for the production of beef, but affords also a large
variety of milling products including corn meal,
corn and cob meal, hominy chop, corn bran, corn
germ, corn-germ meal, various kinds of gluten
meal, gluten feeds, starch feed, etc. From this list
of feeds it is apparent that a selection may be made
among the many gluten meals and gluten feeds so as
to balance the ration with corn meal or shelled
corn. This is possible because of the protein in
corn remaining in the gluten meals and gluten feeds
after the starch has been removed in the process of
manufacture.

Corn is thus conceded by all investigators to be
the best exclusive grain ration for fattening animals
of all kinds, considered both from the standpoint
of efficiency and economy. The best methods of
increasing the already great effectiveness of corn
consist in supplementing corn with some nitroge-
nous grain or forage. This may be done most cheaply
by the use of clover hay, alfalfa hay, or cowpea
hay in the East, West and South respectively. By
means of this combination of corn with nitroge-
nous hays a most effective ration is obtained and
beef is produced at the lowest psosible cost.

112 FARM ANIMALS

Cotton Seed Meal. — This meal is known to be
one of the most nitrogenous of all grain foods and,
therefore, furnishes a satisfactory means for balan-
cing the corn or other carbonaceous grains in
rations for steers as well as for other animals. In
Illinois it appears that cotton seed meal is fed by
about seven per cent, of the beef raisers in rations
of from one to nine pounds with an average of
four pounds per day. This may be taken as an
average use of cotton seed meal for the northern
states. In the cotton belt the meal is used much
more extensively on account of the effectiveness
of cotton seed meal and on account of its great
economy, both as a direct beef producer and as a
means of balancing the ration. In Iowa it has been
found that by means of corn and cotton seed meal
in rations of average size steers may be made to
gain two and one-third pounds per day. Steers
fed on shelled corn, cotton seed meal and sorghum
hay in Mississippi dressed fifty-nine per cent, of the
live weight and showed a relatively low shrinkage
on shipping to market. As a result of quite ex-
tensive experiments with cotton seed meal in Okla-
homa, it is recommended that not more than eight
pounds per day be fed to steers, and as a rule better
results are obtained from four to six pounds.
Contrary to what might be expected from theoreti-
cal considerations it appears that the best results
are obtained with cotton seed meal when the coarse
forage is highly nitrogenous, for example, alfalfa
and cowpea hay. Cotton seed meal mixed with
a carbonaceous grain such as Kafir corn, or corn
with more nitrogenous grains, such as wheat or
barley, adds palatability to these grains and induces
the steers to chew them more thoroughly. In one
set of experiments good gains were produced from

FARM ANIMALS 113

steers on a ration of eleven and one-half pounds
wheat meal, three and one-half pounds cotton seed
meal and four pounds of prairie hay per day.
When corn costs as much as or even a little more than
cotton seed meal, it is profitable to use it in replac-
ing a portion of the cotton seed meal. In feeding
experiments carried on in England, cotton seed
meal showed a lower feeding value than decorti-
cated cotton seed cake. In a series of tests in
Alabama it was found that when sorghum was
used with the cotton seed meal steers showed a
better percentage of dressed beef than when sor-
ghum was replaced with mixed hay or corn stover.
In the rapidity of gain, the cotton seed meal and
sorghum ration also stood at the head and, like-
wise, the amount of food required for a pound of
gain was less with this ration than with any other.

Distiller's Grains. — Recently the by-products of
distillation have been tested to a limited extent in
feeding cattle, pigs, horses and other animals. It
appears that dried distiller's grains in combination
with corn are a very economic ration for steers.

In a set of experiments in Kentucky this ration
proved the cheapest and less corn was required
for a pound of gain, when distiller's grains were
used quite extensively.

Gluten Feed, as well as gluten meal, has proved
a very effective grain for domestic animals. In
fattening steers, gluten feed in some experiments
has proved superior to a mixture of cotton seed
meal and ground wheat. The daily ration may
be five or six pounds. Gluten feed is not expensive
as compared with its feeding value and often gives
a greater profit than a mixture of cotton seed meal,
barley and linseed meal. Certain feeders have
found it advisable to begin the feeding of gluten

114 FARM ANIMALS

meal at the rate of one-fifth pound per day, in-
creasing gradually to four pounds as a maximum.
In Iowa steers on a ration of corn, gluten feed and
wheat straw gained two and nine-tenths pounds per
day at a cost of $9.65 per 100 pounds of gain. In
England gluten feed has been found to compare
well with oats, mixed grains, cotton seed meal, lin-
seed meal and other mixed grains.

Linseed meal enters into the fattening and grow-
ing rations of nearly all farm animals. It has been
found in Scotland to give better gains than corn or
a mixture of cotton seed meal and linseed meal.
In feeding this meal, Scotch beef producers have
found that it is best to make the ration narrower as
the feeding period progresses. This is accom-

Rlished by adding relatively larger quantities of
nseed meal. In Iowa linseed meal has been fed
with great profit by gradually increasing the ration
from one-fifth to four pounds, in addition to nine-
teen pounds of corn daily. In Illinois, inquiries
among many farmers elicited the information
that linseed meal is fed in rations of from two-
tenths to six pounds daily by the beef producers of
the state. All of these highly nitrogenous products
such as gluten meal, linseed meal, cotton seed
meal, etc., have the additional advantage that they
improve the appearance of the coat and thus give
the steers a better market finish.

Oats. — This grain is usually too expensive to
constitute the whole ration for any of our domestic
animals. It is quite largely fed, however, in
certain states to steers and with good results. Oats
enter into the ration fed by some of the most exten-
sive cattle feeding companies in Nebraska, and are
considered very valuable for the purpose. In
Montana a ration of mixed corn and wheat alone

FARM AXIMALS 115

was found to be considerably superior to oats.
Oats, however, were equal to barley. Steers did
not as easily become tired of oats in the ration as is
the case with wheat. Many feeders use oats in the
sheaf in feeding steers and in some cases their
value has proved to be about equal to that of wild
rye grass for this purpose. In Texas a test of oats
for fattening steers showed that they possessed
about the same value as grain chops.

Peas are quite generally used in England, Canada
and the United States in a whole or ground con-
dition, preferably the latter. In Canada it has
been found that pea meal causes more rapid gains
than corn, but on account of its expense is not so
economic. Peas and oats together are found in a
large percentage of the mixed grain rations fed to
steers in Canada.

Rice Products. — The recent development of the
rice industry in Texas has led to experiments for
the purpose of testing the value of rice products in
feeding stock. It has been found that the use of
rice hulls in large quantities is attended with some
danger. The hulls contain sharp pointed fibers
which may produce irritation of the mouth and
stomach. Such trouble occurs, however, only
when rice hulls are fed in large quantities. They
have a feeding value practically the same as wheat
straw. Rice polish is slightly superior to corn in
feeding value and resembles wheat or oats in this
respect. In addition to these two forms of rice
products, rice bran is used in three qualities, pure,
mixed with rice hulls and mixed with rice polish
and hulls. The mixture of rice bran, polish and
hulls in the proportion in which they come from
the whole grain has a considerably higher feeding
value than the rice bran.

116 FARM ANIMALS

Rye is not an important feed in fattening steers,
partly on account of the limited extent to which
it is grown and partly for the reason that it is not
so palatable as other grains. In Idaho fairly
satisfactory results were obtained in steers when
fed a grain ration consisting of one part chopped
rye, one part bran and two parts chopped wheat.
The chopped rye, however, was not very well
relished by the steers.

Soy-Bean Meal. — This is used in increasing
quantities in parts of the South. Along with other
similar legumes it has the advantage of improving
the soil and on this account has received more
attention of late years in the South. In Kansas
soy-bean meal was scattered over the other grains
in the feeding boxes to the extent of one-half pound
per head at first and this amount was gradually
increased to a maximum of four pounds per day.
The meal when fed in rations of this size proved to
be too laxative and had to be reduced to one pound.
On account of its pronounced laxative effect the
use of soy-bean meal was discontinued as a part of
the steer ration in Kansas.

Velvet Beans. — Velvet beans in the pod have
been fed in Florida in rations of three bushels.
When fed alone with a suitable rough age it appeared
to constitute a ration which was somewhat inferior
to a nitrogenous hay and cassava.

Wheat when chopped and fed as the only grain
ration, in combination with corn silage and hay,
is a very effective ration in fattening steers. It
appears to be somewhat superior in this respect to
barley or oats. When wheat is fed continuously,
steers tire of the ration after a period of two months
and a change is necessary to induce them to eat a
maximum grain ration. In England when wheat

FARM ANIMALS 117

was compared with corn it was found that corn
meal made more rapid gains and at less cost than
wheat. The rapidity of gain in steers fed wheat in
Nebraska was greater than that of those on an ex-
clusive corn ration. During a short feeding period
steers on wheat gained twenty-two pounds per
head more than those on corn.

LIGHT, MEDIUM AND HEAVY GRAIN RATIONS
COMPARED

A practical question of great importance to the
ordinary feeder is how much grain can be fed with
the best results. This question has been thoroughly
studied at a number of experiment stations and
the results obtained were fairly uniform and sat-
isfactory. In a series of experiments rations of
sixteen, twenty and twenty-four pounds of corn
were compared with reference to their effectiveness
and economy. It was found that the steers which
received the small corn ration did not show the
same thickness of flesh and finish possessed by the
other lots. In general, it appears that gains in
fattening cattle may be made at a smaller cost with
light or medium rations than with heavy ones. In
a feeding period of 190 days, however, it is often
impossible to put ax sufficiently fine finish on cattle
maintained on a light or medium ration. The
difference in the selling price of finely finished cat-
tle is usually more than enough to compensate for
the cheaper gains made by the smaller rations of
grain. On this account the use of heavy grain
rations is most profitable to the feeder. The size
of the grain ration is indicated in the above dis-
cussion in connection with each particular grain
and in general must be determined by the appetite

118 FARM ANIMALS

of the steers. The grain ration may be made as
large as the steers will eat clean and with appetite.
In Montana it was found that on a ration of nineteen
pounds of clover hay per day, more economic gains
were obtained when barley was fed in five-pound
rations than when fed to the extent of nine pounds.
It is calculated, therefore, that the maximum rate
of gain is to be secured from barley fed at the rate
of one-half pound per hundred pounds live-weight
of steers. While it is generally true that the extra
gains obtained from heavy grain rations put a
finer finish on steers than can be obtained by light
grain rations, nevertheless, this is not always the
case, and if care is not exercised the extra gains
thus obtained may fail to compensate for the extra
cost of the ration. When the grain is fed separate
from the roughage the steers are likely to chew it
too little and swallow it quickly. It may be,
therefore, that a considerable portion passes
through the alimentary tract undigested. When
the grain is mixed with the roughage it has been
found that the steers spend some time in chewing
the whole ration and, therefore, swallow the grain
in a finely cracked condition and exposed to the
rapid action of the digestive juices. Some feeders
believe, therefore, that the best results are obtained
when the feed is so mixed that every mouthful
which the steer takes contains some grain and some
roughage.

The amount of grain which is shattered oil in
harvesting cereals makes it worth while to graze
old stubble fields. A test of the feeding value of
shattered grain was made in Montana with the
result that the stubble fields were found to be worth
$1.50 per acre above the maintenance ration of
steers, pigs, and other animals grazed on such fields.

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FARM ANIMALS 119

PROPRIETARY FEEDS

An almost innumerable list of proprietary and
condimental feeds has been compounded and
placed upon the market with advertisements re-
garding their virtues. Some of them are claimed
to increase the palatability of all feeding stuffs, to
induce a more rapid growth than can otherwise be
obtained, prevent indigestion, cure various dis-
eases, and offer insurance against other losses.
Obviously such claims are quite impossible of
fulfilment. As a rule, the proprietary and condi-
mental foods advertised on account of their medici-
nal properties contain well known drugs such as
aniseed, fenugreek, coriander, etc., which may be
purchased much more cheaply than the price asked
for them in condimental foods. In Scotland tests
were made of condimental foods, which were found
to be considerably inferior to oats pound for pound
for cattle. Some benefit was derived, however, in
a long series of experiments by adding to the ration
two ounces of a mixture of equal parts of fenugreek,
caraway, coriander, and aniseed. If cattle are
cared for in the proper manner and kept in sanitary
conditions, groomed and fed a well-balanced ration,
with variations from time to time, the health and
appetite of the animal should remain unaffected
during the ordinary feeding period of 150 to 190
days.

ROUGHAGE FOR BEEF PRODUCTION

Alfalfa. — This is at the present time the most
important and the most effective roughage for beef
production. It occupies the same position in the
list of forage plants for steers which corn does in
the grains. It may be fed green or in the form of

120 FARM ANIMALS

hay, whole or cut into short lengths. In Kansas it
cost about thirty cents per ton for the labor to cut
alfalfa hay into one-inch lengths. Steers on cut
hay were found to gain about seven pounds per
head more than on whole hay during a feeding
period of usual length. It is obvious, therefore,
that if the feeder is properly prepared to cut alfalfa
hay, it will pay to run it through a feed cutter for
steers. As already hinted, a combination of alfalfa
and corn makes an ideally balanced ration for steers
and is exceedingly economic and effective. The
unusual value of a combination of alfalfa hay and
corn for the production of fine beef has been demon-
strated by numerous experiments and by the prac-
tical experience of beef raisers throughout the
country. The flavor of the beef produced by alfalfa
hay and corn is excellent. In feeding alfalfa hay
worth from $5 to $7 per ton on the market in
New Mexico from $10 to $13 per ton was ob-
tained by turning it into beef. The economy of
marketing it in the form of beef is, therefore, obvi-
ous. For beef production it is recommended that
alfalfa hay be stacked in the field, since in this way
more of the leaves are kept in connection with the
stems than by other methods of handling. By
feeding a combination of alfalfa with a succulent
feed it is possible to make very rapid gains in
steers and at the same time to put them in the
best market condition. Corn stover or even corn
silage does not contain the nutriment required by
the steer for producing the best results in beef.
When this forage material is supplemented with
nitrogenous feed, such as alfalfa, linseed meal, or
cotton seed meal, better results are secured. Al-
falfa and silage, moreover, not only furnish a
combination which yields excellent beef, but can

FARM ANIMALS 121

almost always be depended upon for the produc-
tion of good health. In fact the effectiveness of
alfalfa and its suitability for steer rations is appar-
ent from a test made in Kansas in which twice as
much profit was obtained from the use of alfalfa
for roughage as from any of the other ordinary
forage plants used for this purpose.

Brome grass hay is about equal to western rye
grass for the production of beef. In Canada it
has been found that cattle require less grain feed
when fed brome grass hay in ordinary rations, but
that there is more profit from corn stover than
from brome grass.

Clover Hay. — This is generally considered ex-
cellent roughage for steers. It takes the place of
alfalfa throughout that portion of the eastern
states where alfalfa has not secured a commercial
foothold. Like alfalfa, clover makes it possible
to economize greatly in nitrogenous grain feeds
when corn is used as the main grain ration. Clover
like alfalfa may be fed ad libitum to steers without
danger, provided the material is clean and prop-
erly cured.

Corn Stover. — Corn stalks are valuable as rough-
age for steers in all forms in which they have
been prepared either as corn stover, stripped corn
leaves, silage (or shredded corn fodder. The
relative loss of nutrition in corn stored in the form
of silage and cured in the field differs very little,
so that the method of storing may be determined by
the special circumstances under which the farmer
is situated. As a rule corn can be most economi-
cally stored and harvested in the form of silage.
Generally one pound of corn fodder is equal to
three or four pounds of silage. In Alabama
shredded corn stover of a poor quality and some-

122 FARM ANIMALS

what unpalatable was found to be inferior to
sorghum. This test, however, was not fair to
the corn stover since thirty-seven per cent, of it
remained uneaten. In Illinois it has been found
that eighty per cent, of the beef raisers pasture
corn stalks in the field or cut part of them for
shocked corn and pasture the remainder. It is an
astonishing fact that a considerable portion of the
corn fodder found in the corn belt where fine
steers are raised, is plowed under or burned. Its
feeding value is much too high to be treated in
this manner. When corn stover is compared
with silage for both summer and winter feeding,
it is found that shock corn produces slightly better
gains than silage. The difference, however, is not
of great consequence. As a rule corn silage is
not fed extensively to steers. From statistics
collected in Illinois, it appears that only eight
feeders to whom circulars were sent mentioned
the use of silage for feeding steers. It is, of
course, fed throughout the same part of the country
much more extensively and regularly to dairy cows.
Some feeders, however, have obtained very satis-
factory results in feeding silage. Steers take a
fine market finish and show a good condition of
health during all of the feeding period. A study
of the relative profits from silage and shock corn
in Illinois indicated that it required nearly twice
as great an expenditure of labor and capital in
harvesting and feeding silage as in feeding shock
corn. During these same investigations, silage-
fed steers appeared more thrifty and were in a
better finish at the end of the test than were the
steers which received shock corn. The amount
of silage fed in these experiments ranged from
fifteen to thirty pounds per head.

FARM ANIMALS 123

Cowpea Hay. — Cowpea hay when fed to steers
with corn as the grain ration produced a gain of
two and six-tenths pounds per head daily, while
timothy and the same corn ration made a gain of
one and six-tenths pounds, and corn fodder one
and nine-tenths pounds. Both clover and cow-
pea hay give a better market finish and a finer
coat to steers than timothy or corn fodder, with
corn as the exclusive grain ration. This is due to
the fact that leguminous hays balance the ration.
It is evident that these hays should not be sold,
but held on the farm and fed in the production
of meat. In Tennessee, cowpea hay has been
tested as a substitute for cotton seed meal, sub-
stituting two pounds of hay for one of meal. The
results from this experiment were very satisfactory,
a considerable increase in the gain being produced
by the partial substitution of cowpea hay for cotton
seed meal. When large crops of cowpea hay can
be produced cheaply throughout the South it is
obvious that this hay may be utilized to advan-
tage in replacing a portion of the corn meal,
cotton seed meal, or other portions of the grain
ration which are more expensive. Cowpea hay
cannot be so well substituted for cotton seed meal
in the case where the ration is succulent as where
the ration is dry.

Johnson Grass. — In the southern states cotton
seed hulls are fed sometimes as the exclusive rough-
age to steers. A test was made for the purpose
of comparing the feeding value of Johnson grass
hay with these hulls. In this test it appeared
that one pound of Johnson grass is equal to
one and two-tenths pounds of cotton seed hulls
for feeding purposes and is worth $10.00 per
ton.

124 FARM ANIMALS

PASTURES

The pastures in which steers are allowed to run
vary greatly in different parts of the country. In
some localities they contain nothing but native
grasses and are often not continuously sodded
over. On the other hand in localities where a
more intensive system of farming is practiced the
pasture may always consist of some cultivated
forage plant, especially leguminous or mixed
grasses in fine condition. On the western ranges,
pasture consists of the highly nutritious range
grasses which cover the arid plains and which
are as nutritious as well-cured hay in winter.
Statistics collected in Illinois indicate that pastures
contain blue grass in fifty-five per cent, of cases,
timothy in twenty-five per cent, and clover in
ten per cent. In many tests carried on at experi-
ment stations, the use of pastures in fattening
steers has not given satisfactory results. Nearly
all practical feeders, however, give their steers the
freedom of a pasture and find that the results are
satisfactory both in the rate and economy of gain.
In general, it is necessary that a small grain ration
be fed to steers on pasture even if they are not
being forced at the time. In Nebraska it has
been found that when steers are to be marketed in
the fall or early winter there is more profit in keep-
ing them on pasture during the summer with a grain
ration whereas, when steers are to be marketed
in the spring there is more profit in keeping them
on pasture without grain. In Alabama some
interesting data were collected regarding the
gains made on native pasture by scrub cattle.
These observations extended over a period of
three years, during which the native cattle were

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FARM ANIMALS 125

allowed to graze on low fields and swampy thickets.
The average daily gain was estimated to be .28
of a pound for cows, .49 for yearlings, .67 for
sucking calves, .79 for steers and bulls and .82
for heifers. The total gain made by scrub cattle
on native pasture during a period of seven months
ranged from 103 to 172 pounds per head, or a
beef value of $2.58 to $4.30. Cattle maintained
in unimproved southern pastures throughout the
winter, however, may lose weight greatly and in
many instances as shown in Florida and elsewhere
may become badly emaciated. In the use of
pastures for beef animals it is highly desirable to
prevent their being overstocked. If the grass is
to have the full value which it should have in the
ration it is necessary that it be present in suitable
quantities and be easy of access for cattle, other-
wise they do not obtain as much as is needful and
lose time in hunting for it.

Numerous other coarse feeds are used more
or less extensively throughout different parts of
the country in rations for steers. Thus Pearl
millet has been tested in a number of localities
with rather unsatisfactory results. Steers did
not do as well on it as on Kafir corn or corn sto-
ver. On the western ranges, considerable feeding
value has been found in the prickly pear. This
cactus may be fed in rations of forty to two hun-
dred pounds. It has been found that oxen may
be worked on an exclusive ration of prickly pear
and, when fed in this way, need water only two
or three times a week. Hair balls may form in
the stomach, however, from an excessive use of
this feed. Prickly pear may be rendered edible
by singeing the spines off, slicing, steaming or
ensiling. Rye pasture has been used as a part

126 FARM ANIMALS

of the ration for fattening steers. In Alabama
it was found that steers gain at the rate of one
and sixty-seven hundredths pounds per day on
this pasture. Green rye, however, is not suit-
able tor an exclusive feed, but should be supple-
mented with liberal grain rations. It appears
that sorghum silage can be produced at the rate
of seven tons per acre or slightly less than the
average yield of corn made into silage. The
cost of raising and harvesting an acre of sorghum
is $13.00. Silage made from sorghum is a very
satisfactory roughage for cattle and seldom causes
any trouble except in rare instances where the
second crop develops hydrocyanic acid. Soy-
bean silage in a ration of twenty-five to thirty
pounds daily is an excellent feed for wintering
calves with an additional grain ration of one to
two pounds cotton seed meal and five pounds
corn. Speltz straw is useful in fattening steers
and may be considered as worth about half as
much as ordinary hay.

Investigations instituted in Illinois developed
the fact that the cattle raisers of that state use
clover hay most as a roughage for steers, fol-
lowed by corn fodder, hay, oat straw, corn stover
and blue grass hay. A few of the beef raisers
of the state use cowpea, alfalfa, redtop, sorghum,
millet hay, sheaf oats and silage. Similar vari-
ations prevail in other states in regard to the
roughage. In Canada tests were made of cut
and uncut hay for the purpose of determining its
relative feeding value. In this experiment it was
found that the cost of one hundred pounds of
gain on a ration containing cut hay and cut roots
was $10.80 and on a ration of uncut hay and
roots $11.50. The economy of the process will

FARM ANIMALS 127

obviously depend on the expense of cutting.

Some form of succulence is quite necessary in
order to obtain the best results from the other
parts of the ration. Roots may be fed in rations
of twenty-five to sixty pounds per day. In Eng-
land it has been found that a ration of fifty-six
pounds of swedes per day is effective and cheaper
than when one-half of this root ration is replaced
by clover hay, molasses and corn meal. It is
recommended by English feeders that fattening
steers should be fed at least twenty-eight pounds
of roots per day. The feeding value of different
roots for steers is very similar.

In Florida cassava has been fed to steers, partly
for succulence and partly to supply the starch
part of the ration. The benefits derived from cas-
sava were very striking in certain cases. Cas-
sava was given in rations of thirty pounds, or
cassava pulp, from starch factories, in rations
of eighteen pounds mixed with five pounds of
cotton seed meal. Cassava pulp is sold at a price
which renders it less economic than the whole
root. Rarely, cassava may contain prussic acid.
Certain Queensland feeders, therefore, recommend
that cassava should be sliced and boiled before
feeding.

Sugar beet pulp has lately become one of the
most important feeds for adding succulence and
increasing the digestibility of the ration for steers.
It is sold from sugar beet factories at from fifty
cents to $2 . 50 per ton and at this price is an eco-
nomical feed. It is not only bought and fed on
a small scale by farmers, but has been used in
enormous quantities by a number of the extensive
cattle feeders of the West. Sugar beet pulp
contains essentially the same elements as sugar

128 FARM ANIMALS

beets with most of the sugar removed. No pre-
cautions are necessary in feeding it, provided
it is clean when received. In Wyoming it has
been fed in rations of fourteen pounds with al-
falfa hay, while in France rations of sugar beet
pulp as high as one hundred and twenty-six
pounds daily have been used. Reports thus far
received from farmers and feeders are quite fa-
vorable to an extensive use of sugar beet pulp and,
as already indicated, it is becoming a more and
more important feed. The Colorado Experi-
ment Station advises absolute cleanliness in han-
dling and feeding it, and calls attention to the fact
that it may readily freeze in winter and, therefore,
become uneatable. Apparently, cattle prefer a
well-cured sugar beet pulp from the silo, and
where the conveniences are not to be found for
keeping it in a suitable condition it may be well
to ensile it in a fresh condition from the factories.
It has been found in feeding experiments that
when alfalfa hay is worth $5 per ton, sugar
beet pulp is worth $1.50 per ton for feeding pur-
poses. It requires nine pounds of sugar beet
pulp to equal one pound of corn or two and one-
half pounds of alfalfa hay for steers. In Cali-
fornia a number of steers fed on sugar beet pulp
and alfalfa hay returned a considerably larger
profit than when corn, barley, and oats were
added to this basal ration. It may be estimated
that one ton of pulp is equal to four hundred and
twenty-one pounds of corn stover or two hundred
and forty-seven pounds of mixed hay or sixty-
nine pounds of mixed grain for fattening steers.
In another set of tests undertaken in Michigan
the feeding value of sugar beet pulp was some-
what higher. In Utah steers made a pound of gain

FARM ANIMALS 129

from eleven and one-half pounds of alfalfa and
thirty-one and one-half pounds of pulp at a cost
of two and eight-tenths cents. Tests in Utah
showed that those steers which received pulp
and alfalfa made the smallest daily gains, but
yielded the largest profits.

ANIMAL FEEDS

It is a well-known fact, which has been demon-
strated by numerous feeding experiments, that
animals which are naturally herbivorous may be
taught to eat considerable portions of animal
feed and show profitable returns from such ma-
terial. Thus, dried blood may be added to the
grain ration, gradually increasing the ration from
a few ounces to one and one-half pounds daily
toward the end of the feeding period. Blood
meal when used at the rate of one and one-half
pounds per day showed an increased cost of gain,
bone meal is readily digested by cattle. It is
a frequently observed fact that cattle are fond
of bones and they attempt to eat them when found
lying on the ground. The feeding value of all
kinds of animal foods for all kinds of stock which
relish them and digest them readily is very high.

Molasses. — Molasses, sugar and syrup have
been largely fed to steers, as well as to horses, and
for similar purposes. Thus, in Utah it has been
found that molasses fed in rations of four pounds
a day with eight pounds of corn and sugar beet pulp
ad libitum showed a feeding value of $2.35 per
ton. In subsequent experiments steers were fed
medium-sized rations of bran and shorts with
the addition of eight pounds of molasses per day
and alfalfa hay. The feeding value of molasses

130 FARM ANIMALS

in this test appeared to be about the same as in
the previous one. The results from feeding molas-
ses and sugar are not uniform. In a set of ex-
periments in Scotland the growth of steers was
somewhat checked and they went off feed when
fed sugar in rations of one to two pounds per
day.

Feeding Methods. — A number of matters con-
nected with the profitable feeding of steers remain
to be considered. Statistics collected among over
five hundred cattle raisers in Illinois show that
about forty per cent, of them found the most profit
in fattening steers in summer, twenty-six per
cent, in fall, twenty per cent, in spring and four-
teen per cent, in winter. It has been found that
about thirty days must be allowed to get cattle
on full feed after the fattening ration is begun.
The period usually occupied by feeders in working
up from a maintenance ration to a fattening
ration varies from fifteen to forty days. The
length of the fattening period varies extremely
under different conditions, ranging from three to
six months. From the standpoint of economy,
it is profitable to feed steers so long as they are
gaining regularly a pound a day. It will be found
in practice that some steers begin to lose appetite
after a fattening period of one hundred and fifty
days. In Minnesota it has been found that steers
give a much greater profit from a medium grain
ration for one hundred and forty days than when
forced on a large grain ration for eighty-four days.
Not all steers can be depended upon to endure
sufficient forcing to put them in a market condi-
tion in so short a period as eighty-four days. The
southern feeder will do well to begin feeding his
cattle not later than November fifteenth to Decem-

FARM ANIMALS 131

her first. They can then be fed until the middle of
April, making a feeding period of one hundred
and fifty days, and during this time, if proper
rations are given, they should gain from one and
one-half to two pounds per day. The shorter
feeding periods will usually not be found prof-
itable.

The number of feeds per day in fattening steers
is almost universally two, and there appears to
be no reason for changing the common practice
of farmers and feeders in this respect. Farmers
vary greatly in the amount of feed given steers
on full rations. Thus, in Illinois it has been found
that twenty-five per cent, of the cattle raisers
give yearlings all the grain they will eat while
others feed one peck of corn. This ration is
usually in addition to bran, oats or some other
nitrogenous ration. Yearling steers on grass are
seldom fed more than one peck of corn a day.
Two-year-olds in winter are fed corn ad libitum,
but in a much larger percentage of cases it is
measured out in rations of one-half bushel per day
together with two to five pounds of bran or linseed
meal. Two-year-olds on pasture receive usually
a similar quantity of grain, even during the winter.
The profitable amounts of different grains to be
given fattening steers have already been stated
in the discussion of the different feeds.

Among farmers and feeders the average gain
of cattle is about two and seven-tenths pounds
per day in summer on pasture with grain, and
two and two-tenths pounds per day in winter.
The amount of feed required for one hundred
pounds of gain varies, according to the experience of
different farmers, from four to twenty bushels of
grain in winter and from ten to sixteen bushels

132 FARM ANIMALS

in summer. The feeding effectiveness of different
grains has been mentioned above. The amount
of hay required for one hundred pounds of gain
varies in the experience of farmers from four
hundred to one thousand pounds. These points,
however, are really not observed carefully enough
by the average feeder. The length of the feeding
period has been found to exercise an influence
on the rate of gain. Thus, cattle gain most
readily at the beginning of the forcing period and
gradually diminish in the rate of gain until finally
no further gain is possible. This point seems to
be at the limit of the animals' toleration for a
forcing ration. This fact, therefore, should have
some influence in determining the length of the
feeding period. In Canada it has been found
from careful computations that the cost of one
hundred pounds of gain for a one hundred and
sixty day period is $10.50 and for a one hundred
and seventeen day period $12.75, the average
daily gain during a feeding period of one hundred
and nineteen days was one and eight-tenths
pounds, while the average daily gain in a period
of one hundred and seventy-four days was one
and six-tenths pounds.

Numerous experiments have been made regard-
ing the value of exercise for steers during the fat-
tening period. In Canada it has been found in
a test of fattening tied and loose steers in stalls
that the loose steers made a larger absolute gain
than the tied steers and at a smaller cost. The
rate of gain per day was also higher in the loose
steers. In nearly all feeding experiments where
attention has been given to the value of size in
steers it has been found that there is more profit
in a heavy than a light steer.

FARM ANIMALS 133

Age and Cost of Gain. — The hundreds of feed-
ing experiments which have been carried out
with steers show conclusively that the rate of gain
is greater in young animals and decreases with
the increase in age. This is true not only of
steers, but also of sheep, hogs and poultry. It
is of considerable economic importance, there-
fore, to bring steers to market maturity as early
as possible, since the greater the gain the greater
the profit and the less the cost in caring for the
animals. Statistics based on more than fifty
thousand cattle fed under careful observation
show that the rate of gain in yearlings is nearly
twice that of four-year-olds.

The question is frequently asked how returns
from beef cattle may be increased. When this
question was proposed to Illinois beef raisers a
variety of opinions were given, but the majority
considered that the best results would be obtained
from the use of more well-bred cattle, more
intelligent use of feeds, cheaper stockers and feeders,
cheaper feeds, more pasture of good quality and
better care of cattle. In Massachusetts the ques-
tion has been answered by farmers essentially in
the same way, since they recommend in order to
obtain greater returns from feeding cattle that
better strains should be used, better feeding meth-
ods adopted, steers should be brought to ma-
turity earlier and pastures should be improved.
Likewise in Alabama the essentials to the highest
profit in beef production are considered to be
the use of thoroughbred bulls, abundance of good
pasture, extension of the cultivation of cowpeas,
alfalfa, sorghum and other similar crops, and
the employment of men better acquainted with
the management of beef cattle.

134 FARM ANIMALS

Shelter. — Considerable controversy has raged
around the question as to the amount of shelter
which should be given to steers during the fatten-
ing period in winter. In some climates it has
been found that excessive cold weather is likely
to retard the growth, especially, of young cattle,
and some feeders have even recommended the
use of artificial heat in barns during January
and February. As a rule, however, where care-
ful experiments have been carried out it has been
conclusively demonstrated that steers make much
better gains when allowed the freedom of yards,
protected from storms and severe winds, than when
kept in barns, or tied in stalls. As the result of
past experience more than sixty per cent, of Mis-
souri feeders prefer an open shed for fattening
steers, twenty-three per cent, barn yards, and only
seventeen per-cent. barns. In Illinois about one-
half of the cattle raisers give their cattle the freedom
of open sheds. It is apparent from numerous
experiments, which have been carried out along
this line, that while theoretically cattle may have
to eat a little more to make up for the loss of heat
in open sheds, nevertheless from a practical stand-
point their health and vigor are much better, the
appetite is more active and, therefore, as a general
result gains in weight are made more economically
in sheds than when confined in stables. The
Pennsylvania Experiment Station has been carry-
ing on a series of experiments on this question
for a number of years. As a result of three years'
work it appears that the actual amount of feed
eaten by steers in outside lots is less than that
eaten by steers in barns. The gains made by
fattening steers were not increased by keeping
them in warm quarters and it is concluded that

FARM ANIMALS 135

it is not possible to have stables or shelters too
cold for fattening steers in a climate like that of
Pennsylvania, provided the animals are kept dry
and properly bedded.

Salt. — Among the cattle raisers of Illinois eighty-
five per cent, use barrel salt, while seven per cent,
use rock salt. Sixty-five per cent, of the feeders
keep the salt before the cattle all the time and thirty-
five per cent, feed it at regular intervals. On the
western ranges it is customary to use rock salt
in large chunks placed in certain localities which
eventually become known as cattle licks.

Water. — It is a matter of some importance
that the supply of water should be abundant and
clean. The economy of this matter will deter-
mine whether liberal expenditures for self-water-
ing devices should be incurred or not. As a rule,
it has not been found desirable to warm water
in winter, except where there is danger of freezing.
So long as water does not freeze no economy has
been found in supplying artificial heat.

Breeds as Related to Gains. — Among Illinois
cattle raisers fifty per cent, believe that Shorthorns
give the best result, twenty per cent, favor the
Herefords and eighteen per cent, the Angus.
This is, however, somewhat a matter of opinion.
In careful experiments carried out under scientific
conditions the gains in different breeds have not
been found to vary appreciably and no conclu-
sions can be drawn from such experiments. As
a rule fine grades or pure-bred beef breeds give
better results than poorly bred animals, but even
this conclusion cannot be deemed infallible, for
in some instances scrub cattle have yielded larger
returns than pure breeds when kept under the
same conditions.

136 FARM ANIMALS

The Beef Type vs. the Dairy Type. — There is
abundant reason why the beef type should be
preferred to the dairy type in beef production.
In the first place, it has been bred for producing
a suitable beef form and the high-priced cuts are
present in larger proportion in beef animals than
in the dairy type, at least, as a rule. Then, too,
the percentage of dressed weight is somewhat
higher in beef cattle than in dairy cattle. In
Kansas it has been found that steers of the dairy
breeds when properly handled make good beef,
hi

but not of so nigh a quality as that secured from
well-bred beef animals. The cost of feeding for
one hundred pounds of gain in the Kansas ex-
periment was $15 for Shorthorns, $17 for Angus,
$15 for Jerseys, $15 for Holstein, and $14 to $17
for scrub cattle. The relative value of beef and
dairy animals for beef production has been thor-
oughly tested at the Iowa Experiment Station,
where it was found that dairy steers showed a
higher percentage of offal and a lower percentage
of dressed weight with more fat on the internal
organs and a larger percentage of cheap cuts.
There was, however, little difference in the fine-
ness of grain or quality of the meat. In a recent
series of experiments in Minnesota a Jersey-Hol-
stein steer cost less to raise and fatten to the age
of thirty-eight months than beef steers up to
twenty-two months. The dairy steer in this case
dressed five per cent, less, but actually carried
a higher percentage of loin and higher-priced cuts
and, therefore, made good for the lower percent-
age of dressed weight. Experiments have shown
conclusively that steers from Jersey cows and Angus
or Hereford bulls make excellent baby beef.
Such cross-bred steers readily pass for Angus or

FARM ANIMALS 137

Hereford and thus the possibility of combining
dairying and beef production in a most economic
manner is realized.

In a comparison of western and southern steers
for beef production in Iowa it was found that cattle
from southern ranges may be taken directly to Iowa
feeding lots and used for feeding purposes. Under
these conditions when fed on the same feeds as
western steers they gain as fast or even faster than
the range steers. Southern steers have been found
to take on flesh readily and can be brought to a
market maturity in a satisfactory manner.

Heifers are usually bred for beef production dur-
ing the spring after they become two years old.
Some difference prevails in this matter, however, so
that the breeding age of heifers ranges from 12 to
36 months. As a rule probably the best results are
obtained from breeding heifers at the age of two
years.

The extent to which pure-bred bulls are kept
for the production of beef cattle varies greatly in
different parts of the country. In Illinois about
87 per cent, of the raisers keep pure-bred sires, the
remainder using grade bulls. The pure breeds
stand in the following order in point of numbers:
Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus, Red Poll, Polled
Durham and Galloway. The question is often
raised by the farmer as to whether he can afford
to buy thoroughbred bulls for the production of
beef. This may be answered in different ways.
If the farmer has only a few cows and is not in a
position to raise fine beef after the most approved
methods of feeding and care, it will not prove
profitable for him to buy pure-bred bulls. In
other words if a large initial expense is to be in-
curred for the purchase of fine stock it is necessary

138 FARM ANIMALS

to give special care to these animals in order to
secure the necessary profit to repay the higher price
paid for the original stock. Thus where a man
has but a few cows and can buy a good grade bull
for $25 or $30 it would hardly seem advisable for
him to go to the expense of buying a thoroughbred
Angus, Hereford or Shorthorn at a cost of $200 to
$300. We do not hereby wish to discourage the
improvement of beef cattle. In order to prevent
the use of grade bulls it will probably be best for
several farmers to buy a thoroughbred sire in part-
nership provided any individual does not Keep
enough beef cows for the entire service of the bull.

If polled breeds are not used it is desirable to
dehorn calves as soon as the horn button appears.
This is much more humane and causes less check
in the growth of the animal than to remove the
horns after the steers have become mature. In
calves three to four days old the hair may be clipped
away from the horn button and a stick of caustic
potash, wrapped in paper to protect the fingers, is
moistened on one end with water and rubbed over
the horn until it becomes sensitive. This process
may be repeated several times. Within a few days
a scab appears over the horn button and later falls
off leaving the poll hornless. Mature steers re-
quire about two weeks to recover from the process
of dehorning. Otherwise very little bad effect has
been noted.

Throughout the range country branding is nec-
essary for the identification of ownership of cattle
This, as is well known, is almost universally done
by means of a hot branding iron. From time to
time various branding fluids have been proposed as
substitutes for the branding iron on the ground
that the process is less repulsive and more humane.

FARM ANIMALS 139

In Arizona as well as in Queensland and New
Zealand branding fluids have been tested on a small
scale. It has been found that although the brands
were legible at first the design gradually became
less conspicuous and when the animal was killed
and the hide tanned the leather was found to be
injured to about the same extent as after branding
with a hot iron.

DISEASES

Tuberculosis. — Among the various diseases which
affect cattle tuberculosis is by far the most impor-
tant. This disease attacks not only cattle but also
all other domestic animals including poultry and
man as well. The disease is caused by the tubercle
bacillus, which gains entrance to the alimentary
tract in the feed or to the lungs in impure air. The
percentage of infection increases with the age of
cattle. Thus in calves only a small part are in-
fected while in old dairy cows from 15 to 60 or
even 90 per cent, of the animals in individual herds
are affected with this disease. Tuberculosis ap-
pears in the lungs or all of the lymphatic glands of
the body, upon the vital organs and even the skin.
The progress of the disease may be rapid or slow.
The disease, therefore, may at once become appar-
ent or may be hidden for years. The tubercle bacilli
are rarely found in the meat even in advanced cases
of tuberculosis. The milk of tuberculous animals
is, however, always dangerous and should never
be used without previous sterilization by heating.

A long and bitter controversy has raged over the
identity of human and bovine tuberculosis. It has
finally been demonstrated beyond question, how-
ever, even to the disciples of Koch, that cattle may

140 FARM ANIMALS

become infected with tubercle bacilli from man and
man in turn with tuberculous milk or meat. The
disease may be detected by the use of tuberculin,
which is usually administered by state sanitary
officers. This material gives a fever reaction in
diseased animals and no reaction in healthy ones.
They may thus be divided into two lots and the
infection prevented from spreading to the healthy
animals. Recently various German, French,
English and American investigators have found
an apparently satisfactory method of vaccinating
cattle so as to render them immune to the disease.
For vaccine tubercle bacilli from man are used after
being reduced in virulence. A mild form of the
disease is thus produced from which the animals re-
cover and later are not subject to tuberculosis.

Texas Fever. — This is the most important cat-
tle disease of the southern states and has long
caused serious loss to the agriculture of that part
of the country. Texas fever is caused by a blood
parasite which destroys the red blood corpuscles,
causes a high fever, rapid emaciation and death
in a large percentage of cases. The blood par-
asite is carried from the diseased animal to healthy
ones by the cattle tick and without the agency of
this tick Texas fever cannot be distributed. It
is evident, therefore, that in order to control this
disease effectively it is desirable to attack the
cattle tick. On account of the difficulty of its
extermination, however, and the belief by a large
percentage of investigators that the extermination
of the cattle tick was impossible, attention was
first turned to a method of immunizing cattle
against the disease. The Bureau of Animal In-
dustry and a number of experiment stations have
worked out a very successful method according

FARM ANIMALS 141

to which susceptible cattle are inoculated with a
small quantity of blood of the cattle which have re-
covered from Texas fever. This inoculation gives
a mild form of the disease from which ninety-five
per cent, or more of the animals recover and are,
thereafter, immune. The importance of this method
is obvious when it is considered that all dairy-
men and beef raisers in the South are desirous of
improving the quality of their herds. In order to
do this they must import high-bred cattle from
the North and these cattle, being susceptible to
Texas fever, will take the disease and die in
seventy-five to ninty per cent, of the cases unless
previously vaccinated. Within the past few years,
the belief has gained ground that it is possible to
exterminate the tick and thus eradicate the disease
completely. Thus, in North Carolina, Louisiana,
Tennessee and elsewhere it has been shown that
by a simple rotation of pasture and cultivated
fields the ticks can be starved to death and cattle
entirely freed from them. In North Carolina the
State Veterinarian, at an expense of $6 per farm,
has entirely exterminated the cattle tick in ten
counties and placed this large area above the
quarantine line. The cattle tick constitutes a seri-
ous danger not only to all cattle in the South,
which have not become infested with the cattle
tick during calfhood, but to all northern cattle
taken south of the quarantine line without vacci-
nation. It also stunts all cattle which are badly
infested and delays their maturing so that it costs
more to feed them, preventing in many cases their
breeding until they are three or four years of age.
A considerable appropriation has been placed at
the disposal of the Bureau of Animal Industry to
use in co-operation with various southern states in

142 FARM ANIMALS

the attempt to develop means for the extermination
of the cattle tick.

Abortion. — This term is used to mean prema-
ture birth of the calf from whatever causes. In
many cases it may be due to the sudden onset of
some disease accompanied with high fever or to
bloating or other digestive disturbances. Occasion-
ally abortion is caused by eating grass or grain
infested with ergot. This form of abortion, how-
ever, does not accjuire much importance. The
most serious form is infectious and is transmitted
from one member of the herd to another, espe-
cially from the bull to the cow. Cows which have
once aborted are thereafter rendered useless for
breeding purposes for the reason that it is usually
impossible to sterilize thoroughly the reproductive
organs of the cow. The only treatment for this
disease, which at times assumes very serious
proportions, is one of antisepsis, that is, the re-
productive organs and the hind quarters of the
aborted cow should be thoroughly washed with a
solution of corrosive sublimate in water at the
rate of one part in one thousand or a one per cent,
solution of carbolic acid or some similar disin-
fectant. The aborted calf and the membranes
should also be burned or otherwise destroyed so
as to prevent the spread of the infection.

Anthrax is one of the oldest-known infectious
diseases and is called charbon in the southern
states and sometimes carbuncular disease. It
affects not only cattle, but also sheep, goats, horses,
dogs, cats and other carnivorous animals. The
disease may also be transmitted to man. In one
form of anthrax the animal suddenly falls down
and dies without the existence of previous symp-
toms. In acute cases the disease begins with a

FARM ANIMALS 143

high fever and results in death within two or three
days while occasionally the course of anthrax is
slower. Anthrax exists as a continuous infection
in a number of areas in the southern states and
has long been known to thrive best in certain lo-
calities in the central states where extensive out-
breaks have occurred as a result of the infection of
water from tanneries and other sources. The
disease is perhaps most frequently transmitted by
means of infected hides used in tanneries and by
the agency of scavenger animals such as turkey
buzzards, dogs, cats, etc., which feed upon animals
dead of anthrax. In order to prevent the distri-
bution of the disease it is important that the ani-
mal carcass be buried or burned. This should
be done without previously cutting open or skin-
ning the animal since by such operations the
bacillus of the disease may be widely scattered.

Blackleg. — This disease, which is often con-
fused with anthrax, may be distinguished from it
by the fact that in cases of black leg the swellings
which appear underneath the skin crackle under
pressure with the hand owing to the development
of gas in the tissues, while the anthrax tumors are
entirely free from gas and show a consistency like
dough. Moreover, in cases of blackleg the spleen
is not enlarged as in cases of anthrax. Further-
more, anthrax is readily infectious for nearly all
animals while blackleg is not. Blackleg attacks
most frequently calves between ages of six and
eight months. The disease rarely appears in
calves under six months and is scarcely ever seen
in old animals. Man, horses, hogs, dogs and cats
are immune to blackleg. The prevention of
blackleg is accomplished by means of a vaccine
which has been used extensively throughout the

144 FARM ANIMALS

civilized world. In this country the vaccine is
prepared by the Bureau of Animal Industry,
various state experiment stations and by a num-
ber of drug firms. During the past six years the
Bureau of Animal Industry has distributed nearly
8,000,000 doses of blackleg vaccine for use in the
area where this disease prevails most extensively.
The amount of loss from blackleg after vaccination
has been reduced to less than one per cent.

Big Jaw, also known as lumpy jaw, wooden
tongue and by various other terms, is an infectious
disease due to a bacterial organism known as the
ray fungus. Big jaw attacks not only cattle, but
also horses, sheep, deer, pigs and man. The
most common location for the disease is in the
bone of the lower jaw which it causes to become
spongy and enormously enlarged. The bone
tumor thus formed may break through to the out-
side and discharge. Big jaw may be treated by
cutting away the tumor and by administering
iodide of potash. This drug has been found to be
a specific for the disease. After giving it daily for
one week in doses of eight to twelve grams, then
withhold for two or three days, repeat again for
another week and the organism which causes the
disease is destroyed completely. Big jaw is not
readily infectious and on this account much con-
troversy has arisen regarding the question whether
the meat of such animals is dangerous. In gen-
eral it can hardly be considered so and, unless the
internal organs are affected it may be passed as
wholesome meat.

Foot and Mouth Disease. — This plague of cattle,
sheep, goats, and hogs fortunately does not occur
at present in the United States. In 1902, however,
a serious outbreak occured in New England which

FARM ANIMALS 145

was promptly attacked by the Bureau of Animal
Industry in co-operation with the state author-
ities and completely eradicated. The method
of attack consisted in killing and burying all dis-
eased animals and paying an indemnity to their
owners. Foot and mouth disease is exceedingly
infectious and spreads rapidly throughout the
herd. It may be recognized by the formation of
eruptions on the foot and in the mouth and swell-
ing upon the udders. As a rule it does not cause
death in affected cattle, but the milk from such
cows is exceedingly dangerous to man. Oc-
casionally the disease may be complicated with
pneumonia or the loss of the hoofs, in which case
the animals must be slaughtered. A vaccine
method has been devised for this disease, but is
not very successful. In Italy good results have
been claimed from inoculation with a dilute solu-
tion of corrosive sublimate. The effectiveness
of this method also remains in doubt.

Milk Fever. — This is a dangerous disease pecu-
liar to the cow and particularly heavy milkers.
It ordinarily occurs shortly after calving, but
sometimes appears not to be directly connected
with this function. The name is somewhat mis-
leading since ordinarily there is not a high fever,
but, on the contrary, a lower temperature than
normal. The cow becomes dull and unable to
walk. She lies upon the breast bone with the
head thrown around upon one side. Many reme-
dies have been proposed for this disease, the first
of which consisted in the use of aconite and cold
packs on the head. Later, Schmidt worked out
a very successful method of treating the disease
by means of the injection of ten grams of iodide
of potash into the udder. After this treatment a

146 FARM ANIMALS

large percentage of cows recover. Recently, how-
ever, it has been found that the disease may be
successfully controlled in nearly all cases by the
injection of any inert substance into the udder, as
for example, warm water, oxygen, or ordinary
air. The last method has been extensively used
and has given the best results of all treatments.
For the injection of air, it is simply necessary to
have a tube of the right size to fit the milk duct,
connected by means of a rubber tube with the air
pump. The udder is then tightly distended with
air after which the affected cow shows a rapid
recovery in ninety per cent, of cases or more.

Garget is an inflammation of the udder also
known as mammitis and may occur in varying
degrees of severity. A mild case may yield to
treatment with hot poultices or manipulation with
the hands. Occasionally the disease is infectious
and then great care must be exercised to prevent
the spread of the disease. Some benefit has been
found from the use of an ointment containing three
ounces of belladonna in eight ounces of vaseline.
In cases of infectious garget the affected quarter
of the udder may become so changed in structure
as not to secrete milk thereafter.

Bloating is due to the formation of gas in the
rumen or first stomach. Alfalfa, clover and corn
stalks appear to be most susceptible to fermen-
tation and are, therefore, most likely to cause
bloat. If the production of gas in the first stomach
is not too extensive it may be checked by adminis-
tering drenches of soda or by giving lard or some
inert oil. In violent cases where such a remedy
would act too slowly immediate relief is obtained
and the animal's life is saved by thrusting a knife
through the left side of the body at a point a few

FARM ANIMALS 147

inches in front of the thigh bone below the process
of the back bone and behind the last rib. At this
point the stomach is firmly attached to the body
wall so that the gas escapes through the opening
to the outside. The wound caused by the oper-
ation heals readily under ordinary care.

Mange is a disease caused by a mite, which
closely resembles that of horse mange and sheep
scab. This prevails most extensively on the ranges
of the far West. The affected cattle rub them-
selves, and the hair comes loose in patches. The
only successful treatment for this consists in plung-
ing cattle into a dipping vat containing lime and
sulphur in the proportion of twenty-one pounds
sulphur and seventeen pounds lime to one hundred
gallons of water or from the use of some of the pro-
prietary remedies prepared for this purpose and
readily obtained on the market.

Cattle besides being affected with numerous
other diseases of less general distribution such as
corn stalk disease, joint ill, septicemia, etc., are
frequently attacked by horn flies, ox warble fly, buf-
falo gnat, etc. The ox warble fly punctures the
skins and, thus, the hides are reduced in value. The
horn fly worries cattle and causes considerable
loss in weight during the summer season. Many
preparations have been concocted for spraying
on cattle to keep flies away. The best success
has been obtained from the use of the ordinary
kerosene emulsion which may be sprayed on the
hair at frequent intervals at a very slight expense.
Buffalo gnats prevail in the Mississippi valley,
especially after extensive inundations. In some
instances they occur in such numbers as to cause
great loss in cattle. The cattle may be protected
to some extent by the use of smudges.

CHAPTER IV.

THE DAIRY COW

The dairy industry is perhaps the most important
single line of farm work in the United States at
the present time and is rapidly becoming more and
more important. This country was not at first
greatly interested in dairying, but the profits to be
derived from the proper management of dairy cows
are gradually inducing an increased number of men
to engage in this business. In fact, as population
increases and becomes more dense, it cannot be
otherwise than that the dairy industry will continue
to become relatively more extensive and more im-
portant. While foods are cheap, pasture to be had
practically for nothing, and while little labor is
required for the management of cattle, sufficient
returns may be obtained from beef animals to pay
for the money invested. As soon as population
becomes dense, however, and the price of all feed
stuffs and labor connected with the production
of beef increases, the profits to be derived from
beef production are greatly cut down, and the beef
raiser must practice all possible lines of economy
and exercise shrewd business ability in order to
avoid failure. Dairying, however, is much more
susceptible of an almost unlimited development
under conditions of dense population. In the first
place, dairy cows do not require any extensive
pasture. They may be more economically kept

148

FARM ANIMALS 149

on silage, roots, hay and soiling crops fed to them
in the stable or open shed with the addition of a
suitable grain ration. The acreage required, there-
fore, for the maintenance of dairy stock is not a
serious proposition, partly for the reason that dairy
cows are able to utilize legumes and other coarse
foods to an extent which is possible with no other
animal.

Then, too, there is a striking difference in the
economy of milk production and beef production.
From a long series of careful tests it has been
found that a dairy cow can make a pound of
milk out of a pound of dry matter in her feed
while the best Deef steers of the most improved
breeds require from ten to fifteen pounds of feed
to make a pound of beef. In other words it
requires about ten times as much food to produce
a pound of beef on the beef steer as a pound
of milk from the milch cow. The relative economy
in these two lines of industry is not at once apparent
from this statement. In the first place, it may be
objected to this unfavorable showing for the beef
steer that his value for beef is much higher than
that of the dairy cow and that her only value lies
in the production of milk. On ihs other hand
the dairy cow at the end of her period of usefulness
in milk production may be fattened so as to yield
a fairly good carcass of beef, and she thus pays for
her keep during the time when she is not producing
milk. It must be admitted that beef is the most
expensive form of animal product which we can
produce. The beef steer requires fully one-third
more food to produce a pound of beef than does the
sheep for the production of a pound of mutton.
Similarly, the Deef steer requires twice as much
food in making a pound of beef as does the pig in

150 FARM ANIMALS

yielding us a pound of pork. Domestic fowls are
also much more economical in the manufacture of
a finished product than are beef animals. Since,
as already stated, the dairy cow can produce ten
pounds of milk on the material required by the
beef steer for the production of one pound of beef,
it is perfectly obvious that the production of beef
is a luxury which can only exist so long as the price
of feed stuffs and other conditions are favorable.
It must also be obvious that as the cost of 'produc-
tion increases, beef will become more and more a
luxury and a greater economy of production will be
found in a more extensive practice of dairying.

BREEDS

In order to start in the right way in the dairy
business or to improve an already existing herd, it
is necessary to select cows with reference to their
milk yielding properties. There is a dairy type as
well as a beef type of animal. The dairy type
differs from the beef type in that the form of the
dairy cow is in general that of a wedge, the body
being deeper behind than in front with a large
capacity for digestive organs and milk production.
The general outlines may also be angular, at least
far more so than in the beef type. These differ-
ences, however, must not be insisted upon too
strongly for they do not always exist. In fact,
about all that can be said in particular regarding
the differences between the beef type and the
dairy type is that a larger percentage of beef ani-
mals are better adapted for the production of beef
and that a larger percentage of dairy cows are better
adapted for the production of milk than is the case
with the beef breeds. Individuality, however, is

FARM ANIMALS 151

the keynote of success in selecting dairy cows.
The dairyman does not keep his cows because they
conform to a certain type, but because they give
milk and the only reason for selecting the improved
dairy breeds for this purpose is that a larger per-
centage of these animals are likely to be good
milkers.

Holsteins. — This breed comes from Holland
and has been referred to in literature for nearly
two thousand years. It was introduced into Amer-
ica quite early in our history and has become a pop-
ular breed on account of its high milking qualities.
At present the Holsteins are kept in every state in
the Union. In number the Holsteins are second
only to the Jerseys. They have a large body,
showing a capacious development for milk produc-
tion. In size, this cow is trie largest of the dairy
breeds in the United States. One of the chief
virtues of the Holstein is its enormous milk produc-
tion. In that point it is superior to all other breeds.
The percentage of milk fat, however, is somewhat
lower than in other dairy cows. They mature
perhaps somewhat later than the smaller breeds,
but are exceedingly valuable in grading up a herd
of dairy cows from scrub cattle. The color is
black and white, - the relative proportion of the
different colors varying greatly. Thus, in some
cases the ground color may be white with black
spots while other animals are black with white
spots. The colors are never mixed and the spots
are sharply defined.

Ayrshires are by no means so popular as the
Holsteins, but are hardier than most other dairy
cows and mature quite early. The average milt
yield, however, from these cows is as great as any
other breed, but there have been no such examples

152 FARM ANIMALS

of enormous yields as have been obtained from
Guernseys, Jerseys, and Holsteins. The color is
red, brown or white or a mixture of these colors
with all the spots quite sharply defined.

Guernseys come from the island of Guernsey and
are closely related in their early development to the
Jersey. They have become widely distributed in
the United States and are increasing in popularity.
The Guernsey appears to be best adapted to cli-
mates of moderate severity. They mature some-
what more slowly than the Jersey and on the whole
are excellent dairy cows with few prominent weak
points, but with a slight tendency to be delicate,
especially in herds where the breeding has been
careless. The color of this breed may be red,
fawn, orange or lemon, with various white marks.
The muzzle is frequently of a buff color. The
Guernsey gives milk of a high fat content and is
an economical user of food stuffs. Recently a
Wisconsin Guernsey made a new world's butter
record of one thousand pounds in a year.

Jerseys are perhaps better known than any other
breed 01 dairy animal in the country. They came
originally from the island of Jersey and have been
imported into the United States since 1853, or per-
haps a little earlier. At the Columbian competitive
test, in 1893, the Jersey carried off the prizes in
competition with Guernseys and Shorthorns.
They are distributed throughout the country, but
are most numerous throughout the middle and
eastern states. For the individual who can keep
only a cow or two the Jersey is unquestionably the
breed, being docile and easily managed and en-
during confinement as well as any other breed of
cows. They are also equally valuable in large
herds and yield milk of a high fat content. Jerseys

FARM ANIMALS 153

are easily kept and, therefore, produce milk on a
very economic basis. One of their chief defects
is their small size and tendency to delicacy, especial-
ly where they have been inbred, and a relatively
slight adaptability to the production of beef.
This is a matter of some importance in dairy breeds
since the steers must be sold for beef and the cows
are used for this purpose at the end of their milk
giving period. The color of the Jersey varies
greatly from fawn and white to gray, cream color,
shades of red with steel gray and other colors show-
ing black points. The muzzle usually shows con-
siderable black. Jerseys are much smaller and of
finer structure than the Holsteins, with a greater
tendency to a straight back than the Ayrshire and
with somewhat finer bone than the Guernsey.

Devons are an ancient breed of cattle from Eng-
land. They are essentially a dual-purpose breed,
being well adapted for the production of beef as
well as milk. The Devon was first introduced into
the United States in 1817 and has gained consider-
able popularity. They are active, good grazers,
somewhat smaller in size than the Galloway and are
noted for the high percentage of fat in the milk.
In the production of beef their chief weakness is
lack of size. The Devons are of a uniform red
color with a white spot occasionally on the udder.

Dutch Belted cattle come from Holland, where
they have been held chiefly under the control of
the nobility of that country. They were first
introduced into the United States in 1838 and have
thus far failed to make a large place for themselves
in this country. They are not lacking in hardiness,
and in size are intermediate between the Holstein
and Guernsey. They mature with moderate rapid-
ity and utilize their food with medium economy.

154 FARM ANIMALS

According to the tests which have been made in
this country they are somewhat lacking in vigour.
The milk yield, however, is excellent. The color
is black with a sharply defined, broad white band
extending around the body between the hips and
the shoulders.

In addition to these breeds of dairy cows we may
mention French Canadian, Kerry, Brown Swiss,
Holderness, Shorthorn, Polled Durham, and Red
Poll. Some of these breeds are commonly referred
to as dual-purpose cattle on account of their posses-
sion of the essential beef form and they have been
referred to in the discussion of beef cattle.

FEEDING DAIRY COWS

In feeding milch cows a number of systems are
in vogue, depending largely on the kind of feeding
stuffs which are most convenient for the farmer in
different localities. In general, it should be remem-
bered that the dairy cow is capable of utilizing a
large amount of feed and turning it into milk.
These cows are the biggest eaters and also produce
the greatest amount of milk from their food. It
is not enough, however, merely to give the cow an
enormous quantity of food without regard to its
quality. On the contrary, if any point has been
definitely determined by experiments regarding the
dairy cow, it is the fact that she needs a compara-
tively narrow ration, that is, one containing a large
amount of nitrogenous material. There are obvi-
ously two ways to obtain this protein, either through
purchasing nitrogenous feeding stuffs such as bran,
cotton seed meal, middlings, linseed meal, gluten
meal, oats, peas, etc., or by the use of leguminous
forage plants such as alfalfa, clover, cowpeas,

Vfc.

FARM ANIMALS 155

vetches, soy-beans, field peas, etc. Cows, however,
should always receive some grain, no matter what
the rest of the ration may be. With regard to the
size of the grain ration for cows it is, of course,
necessary to graduate this according to the appetite
and capability of each cow to utilize grain profit-
ably. The grain ration varies in different instances
and under different conditions from two to twelve
pounds per day. Some cows may not be capable
of utilizing economically more than two or three
pounds a day while others can give good returns
from twelve pounds or, in rare instances, even more.
As a rule, the average cow cannot give profitable
returns from a larger grain ration than about
eight pounds per day.

As already stated some grain should always be
fed in the ration for dairy cows. While they are
kept on pasture the kind of grain will naturally
vary according to the kind of forage plant which
constitutes the pasture. Thus, on alfalfa, clover
and cowpeas the grain ration may be largely corn,
Kafir corn or other carbonaceous grain while on
pasture of rye, wheat, timothy, sorghum, millet,
and various other cereals and non-legumes, the

§rain ration should be more highly nitrogenous,
imilarly in the winter the character of the grain
ration should depend upon the kind of hay which
is fed and the amount of silage and roots which
complete the ration.

All dairy cows at all seasons of the year require
at least two and for the most part three kinds of
food, viz. grain, succulent material and coarse
forage. The grains as already indicated may
include nearly all of those raised on the farm.
Succulence is obtained in the form of silage, soiling
crops, pasture and roots, while dry roughage is

156 FARM ANIMALS

obtained from leguminous and cereal hays, corn
fodder etc. A suitable mixture of these which can
be applied almost universally with local substitu-
tions is about eight pounds of grain, thirty-five to
forty pounds of silage, and ten pounds of hay.
For the silage, roots may be substituted if con-
venient, or a comparatively large ration of alfalfa
hay, for example twenty pounds. It is, of course,
not strictly necessary that the ration should contain
succulent material, but better results in digestion
and in the production of milk are always secured
when some form of green or succulent material
is contained in the ration.

In the list of the grains fed to the cows wheat
bran is always an important one. Wheat may be
fed in various forms such as bran, ground wheat,
or even whole wheat, but as a rule wheat alone is
not equal to mixed grains. Bran may be fed in
combination with silage, soiling crops, or on pasture
but in some instances is not quite so effective in a
large silage or root ration for the reason that all of
these feeds are slightly laxative. Where grain is
fed to the extent of three to four pounds per day
in the form of cotton seed meal and gluten meal in
rations of two pounds each, bran should be fed at
the rate of three pounds per day. The amount of
bran which can be fed economically will, of course,
depend on the relative cost of this material. In
the southern states bran is considerably more
expensive than cotton seed meal and for this reason
should be fed in smaller quantities than in the
North. When wheat bran is compared with cotton
seed meal directly the usual finding is that cotton
seed meal produces butter at from two to three
cents per pound less cost than the bran. Coarsely
ground wheat, however, may be used wherever

FARM ANIMALS 157

the market price of wheat is not too high, and with
good results in milk production.

Buckwheat middlings is a favorite dairy food
and has been shown in numerous tests, especially
in Vermont, to be more effective than a combination
of corn and bran. In some instances it produced
more milk than the other common mixtures of
grain feeds. Recently the meal of India wheat,
which is really another species of buckwheat, has
been tested and found to be a good substitute for
wheat bran, cotton seed meal or linseed meal.

In all cases where a direct comparison has been
made of the value of carbonaceous and nitrogenous
rations for dairy cows the latter have given the best
results. For this reason it is always desirable to
balance corn or Kafir corn with some other grain or
with alfalfa or some other leguminous forage plant.
When corn is worth ten cents per hundred pounds,
barley is worth ten cents, cowpeas fifteen cents,
cotton seed meal twenty-eight cents, soy-bean meal
twenty-three cents, wheat bran ten cents, wheat
middlings twelve cents, linseed meal twenty-two
cents, and other grains in proportion. Gluten meal
is a product obtained from corn in the manufacture
of starch and is highly nitrogenous. For milk pro-
duction it is about equal to cotton seed meal and
may be used in rations of three or four pounds.
A similar statement may be made regarding hominy
feed, germ meal and a large number of other milling
products which may be obtained from corn.

Kafir corn is carbonaceous like corn and may be
used as a substitute for it in feeding dairy cows. As
a rule, it is about equally effective with corn.
Naturally it will be fed only in those regions where
it is grown extensively since, otherwise, corn is
rather to be preferred. Soy-bean meal and the

158 FARM ANIMALS

meals of other leguminous seeds are highly nitrog-
enous and are indicated as valuable materials
for balancing rations which contain a large amount
of succulent material with a comparatively low
percentage of protein. Among the various milling

Products which have been used for milk production
rewer's grains and distiller's grains occupy impor-
tant places. These materials are being fed more
and more until at present it is difficult to obtain
them at the brewery since they are contracted for
long periods in advance. Brewer's grains are
rather more nitrogenous than the whole barley
since a part of the starch is changed into sugar and
fermented out in the manufacture of beer. They
may be used in rations of thirteen to fourteen
pounds with excellent results. It requires about
four pounds of wet grains to equal one pound of the
dried grains. Some difference of opinion has pre-
vailed regarding the effect of brewer's and distil-
ler's grains on milk and butter. When used in
rations of average size there appears to be no seri-
ous objection against them on this score. In Mas-
sachusetts, brewer's grains have been found some-
what more effective than wheat bran. Malt
sprouts, another of the products of brewing, are
about equal to gluten meal in feeding value. Reg-
ular distiller's alcohol grains have been found to be
very effective in producing milk, while the rye
grains are somewhat less valuable. Distiller's
grains, when compared with cotton seed meal, were
found to be somewhat more costly than the latter,
but the percentage of fat in the milk was increased
while the quality of the butter was slightly inferior
to that produced by cotton seed meal.

Cotton seed meal is universally recognized as one of
the most effective nitrogenous feeding stuffs whether

^\

OF THE V

f UNFVERSITY

OF /

C>4| -erkoMNKiX

Ve>

FARM ANIMALS 159

for the production of energy, meat or other animal
products. For milch cows it is exceedingly effect-
ive and may be fed in rations of one to six pounds
per day to balance other carbonaceous grains or
coarse fodder. Naturally cotton seed meal is fed
most extensively in the South, but it has also been
tested throughout the northern states where it has
universally given satisfactory results, when fed
with other grains and when used in rations contain-
ing all kinds of succulent materials and coarse
forage. When fed within reasonable limits it
appears to have no injurious effects upon dairy
cows. One fact which is noticed in the butter is
that the melting point is somewhat raised so that
butter from cows receiving cotton seed meal is
unusually firm. Linseed meal is also used almost
universally in the dairy. It has with dairy cows
the same effect, as with other animals, regulating
the digestive organs and adding to the thriftiness
of the animal and the good appearance of the coat.
It may be safely fed in rations as high as five pounds
but this would not be profitable under ordinary
circumstances. Fortunately, a much smaller
amount, one to two pounds with wheat bran and
corn is quite sufficient to produce the desired re-
sults. Speltz, emmer, oats, peas, beans, rye, sor-
ghum, millet, and various other grains are fed to
dairy cows in different localities with satisfactory
results, provided, in each case the ration is balanced
so as to contain a suitable proportion of protein
and carbonaceous materials.

As already indicated, wherever the rations
ordinarily fed by farmers to dairy cows have been
studied with reference to their protein content
and other rations suggested containing more
protein, an increase in the amount of milk and

160 FARM ANIMALS

in the relative economy of milk production has
almost universally taken place. It is obvious,
therefore, that in order to obtain the greatest
results from dairy cows this matter should receive
due attention. Of course, the cheapest way to
obtain protein is from home grown leguminous
forage plants. Where this is not possible, it is
necessary to purchase nitrogenous grains such
as cotton seed meal, bran, linseed meal, etc.

Succulent Material. — Among the various foods,
which may be used to add succulence to the
ration we may mention apples, and other fruit,
artichokes, sugar beet and other beets, cabbage,
carrots, mangels, potatoes, pumpkins, turnips,
silage, soiling crops and pasture. In general,
these may be grouped into roots and fruits, soiling
crops and pasture.

Apples and other fruits are sometimes fed in
considerable quantities to dairy cows when the
fruit is unusually cheap or injured by bruises.
Windfalls are used quite extensively for this
purpose. In Vermont, apple pomace has been
studied very carefully as a feed for dairy cows
and has been found to produce more milk and
butter than immature corn silage. The butter
was not injuriously affected in any way when
apple pomace was fed in rations of thirty-three
pounds per day. Likewise with pumpkins, all
dairymen understand the digestive value of that
feed. In fact, on many farms pumpkins are
raised for little else than for feeding dairy cows
or pigs. They may be fed in rations as high as
forty or more pounds per day, but naturally should
not be depended upon for affording much nutri-
ment. In some tests where pumpkins were added
to the ration it has been found that six per cent.

FARM ANIMALS 161

more milk and butter was obtained than when
pumpkins were omitted. Sugar beets and sugar
beet pulp, especially the latter, have recently come
to occupy an extremely important place in the
dietary of the milch cow. This material has been
fed throughout the sugar beet belt and in many
instances the pulp has been shipped long distances
and has still been fed with profit. It is sold at all
sugar factories at from fifty cents to $2.50 per
ton and in many instances has proved to have a
feeding value considerably higher than its market
price. Sugar beet pulp may be fed in an almost
unlimited ration, for example from twenty to
one hundred pounds per day, but as a rule about
twenty-five or thirty pounds give the best results.
Sugar beets should be fed in smaller quantities,
about ten to twenty pounds per day. Recently
it has been found that dried beet pulp and dried
molasses beet pulp may be advantageously used
as food for milch cows in localities where the fresh
beet pulp cannot be easily obtained. As is well
known, sugar beet pulp undergoes injurious fer-
mentation easily, and therefore, especially in
summer, cannot be kept in good condition except-
ing for a short time. The use of dried pulp in
New Jersey has given excellent results.

COARSE FODDERS

Alfalfa. — As may be gathered from the above
discussion, leguminous forage plants are the most
valuable of all coarse fodders for milk production.
At the head of the list in this respect stands alfalfa,
which is the chief leguminous crop throughout
the arid and semi-arid West and is rapidly coming
into more and more prominence in the eastern

162 FARM ANIMALS

and southern states. Alfalfa may be fed in the
form of hay, as a soiling crop, or may be easily
ensiled in the field by stacking and packing down
tightly in a fresh condition. In Kansas, it was
found that cows would eat as much as forty-five
pounds of alfalfa hay per day, but that better
results were obtained when the amount was reduced
to fifteen or thirty pounds with a suitable grain
ration in addition. With alfalfa, cows require
less grain than with cereal hays, but on account
of the great effectiveness of corn when properly
balanced, a combination of alfalfa and corn meal
gives one of the most profitable milk-producing
feeds which can be procured at the same expense.
In fact, there is hardly any combination which
can equal alfalfa and corn, either for milk pro-
duction or for making meat. When compared
with silage, alfalfa is superior in milk production
and is far more effective than any form of wild,
cereal or meadow hay. Careful tests of alfalfa
in New Jersey show that on an average about
$67 worth of milk can be produced from the
alfalfa from one acre of ground. Under favorable
conditions, a considerably higher yield than this
was obtained. In Tennessee it has been found
that alfalfa hay can be safely and economically
substituted for a considerable proportion of the
grain in the ration for dairy cows. When used
for this purpose it is slightly less effective than
cowpea hay and either of these kinds of hay may
be used to replace a considerable part of the bran
or other grain fed in the cow ration, allowing one
and a half pounds of alfalfa hay for each pound
of wheat bran. Estimating the value of alfalfa hay
at $10 per ton, and wheat bran at $20 a ton, it
gives a cost of twenty cents less for every one

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

FARM ANIMALS 163

hundred pounds of milk when alfalfa hay is
substituted for wheat bran.

One of the most important items of economy
in the production of milk is, therefore, the sub-
stitution wherever possible of home grown crops
in the form of leguminous forage plants for high-
priced purchased grain foods. As already in-
dicated, alfalfa is not the only valuable leguminous
forage plant, but red, white and crimson clover,
cowpeas, vetches, soy-beans, velvet beans, Canada
field peas, etc., may be used for this purpose.

Cornstalks. — The corn plant, exclusive of the
grain, is universally recognized as an important
coarse fodder for all animals which require such
material. Since dairy cows can utilize more
coarse forage than any other animal this material
has come to fill a large place in the dietary of the
dairy cow. The corn plant may be fed in the
form of corn shives, pulled leaves, corn stover,
corn fodder, or silage. If fed in a dried form,
field cured, or stacked in barns, corn fodder
should occupy about the same place as hay in
the ration and should be supplemented by some
succulent material such as corn silage or roots.
The relative expense of harvesting, storing and
feeding corn in the various forms has been care-
fully studied by a number of the agricultural
experiment stations and it appears that, while
the evidence in the case may vary according to the
price of labor or other factors, it is usually more
economical to harvest the corn just as the dent be-
gins to show and ensile it, ears and all, and feed as
silage. The difference in cost is not great, but is suffi-
cient to make it desirable to recommend this manner
of caring for corn for dairy cows wherever the con-
veniences are at hand for the production of silage.

164 FARM ANIMALS

In feeding meadow hay, timothy and other
similar hays, it should be remembered that the
nutritive value is much lower than the legumes
and that this material is also inferior to corn stover.
It is necessary, therefore, to use, in connection
with such hays, a large amount of nitrogenous
grain feed. As already indicated it seems to add
to the effectiveness of the ration if some hay is
mixed with the silage ration. Thus in Maine
it was found that twenty-five pounds of silage,
thirteen pounds of hay and eight pounds of grain

fave better results in milk yield than when the
ay ration was reduced one-half.
Soiling. — The importance of using soiling crops
in dairy farming must be obvious even upon the
slightest consideration. In the vicinity of large
cities, where land values are high and where a
crowded population renders it impossible to use
large areas as pasture or for the production of
single crops, it nas been found possible to raise
much larger yields of milk-producing material
in the form of soiling crops than by any other
means. In the various systems of soiling which
have been adopted by the agricultural experiment
stations which have taken the matter up, a number
of schemes have been devised by which, through
a suitable rotation, an abundance of green material
may be obtained from May to November in the
latitude of New Jersey. In a system of rotation
it is necessary to use a number of different crops
such as rye, crimson clover, oats, peas, soy-beans,
wheat, cowpeas, millet, corn, barley, sorghum.
As compared with pasture, it has been found that
three to five times as much material can be obtained
from an acre of ground by the soiling system as
from pasturing. By the system of soiling, various

FARM ANIMALS 165

plants raised on the land devoted to this purpose
are cut before becoming mature and are fed im-
mediately in a perfectly fresh condition to the
cows. The material is thus presented to them
in the most succulent and palatable form in which
it can be obtained and this, as is well known, has
a great deal to do in determining the effectiveness
of foods in the production of milk. In all locali-
ties where alfalfa can. be cultivated successfully
this should constitute part of the soiling system.
Alfalfa may be cut from three to five times annu-
ally and the area devoted to this crop may be al-
lowed to remain in alfalfa for eight or ten years
while neighboring plots may be plowed frequently
as required and planted to other crops to con-
tinue a proper system of rotation. In Wisconsin,
excellent results in soiling have been obtained in
the use of fall rye, alfalfa, red clover, oats, peas,
flint corn, sorghum, sweet corn and other forage
plants.

Pasture is a term which means various things,
according to the system of dairy farming prac-
ticed by the individual dairyman. It may mean
the familiar old fields allowed to remain in native
grasses year after year without any attempt at
improvement by way of cultivation or in intro-
ducing other and better forage plants. On the
other hand, pasture may mean the most succu-
lent and nutritious crops of alfalfa, cowpeas,
clovers, vetches, oats, Canada field peas, wheat,
rye, corn and other crops used particularly in in-
creasing the milk yield. Obviously the amount
of forage produced by native grasses without any
assistance from man is exceedingly small. If the
price of land is high it is bad economy to allow
the soil to remain in that condition, since from

166 FARM ANIMALS

ten to one hundred times as much material can
be obtained from the land by a suitable system
of rotation. Not only is the amount of forage
increased, but it is in better condition on account
of being in a more active stage of growth than
is the case with native grasses, which begin to
turn brown and dry up in late summer and, there-
fore, do not tend to keep up the milk flow. Suc-
cessful dairying, where suitable land is at hand
for pasturing, depends to a very large extent on
the proper management of such land for the pro-
duction of large amounts of succulent forage. As
already indicated, a great variety of forage plants
may be pastured, but the most nutritious of these
and the most effective in making milk are the
legumes. Some of the cereals like winter rye
and winter wheat may be depended upon to pro-
duce a very early growth of green forage and are,
therefore, of great value for that purpose. Pas-
ture, however, does not compare favorably in the
amount of forage produced with soiling since
the animals tramp down and soil or destroy a
certain amount of the forage in pasture, even
under the best possible conditions. In the south-
ern states the utilization of pasture may extend
over a much longer period than in the North,
where the growing season is relatively much
shorter.

In the western states a large number of native
prairie grasses have been found very effective
in producing milk. Orchard grass, English blue
grass, red clover, and brome grass make a large
milk flow under ordinary conditions. Moreover,
brome grass withstands dry weather quite success-
fully and is, therefore, indicated in regions where
a summer drouth prevails. Green wheat and

FARM ANIMALS 167

cereals have been found to give striking milk
yields in Kansas and other states in the central
west. A test of various pasture and soiling crops
in Nebraska showed conclusively that cowpeas
were capable of producing a greater quantity of
milk and of butter fat from the same area than
any other crop which has been tested in that
state. Similar favorable results have been ob-
tained from the use of cowpea pasture in Alabama
and other southern states. Corn is likewise fre-
quently planted to be eaten by cows in a young,
fresh condition as pasture. In addition to the
various crops already mentioned as pasture
crops, millet has frequently given satisfactory
results.

However luxuriant, succulent and nutritious
pasture may be, it is always necessary to feed some
grain to dairy cows on pasture, if the greatest
possible milk flow is to be obtained. The amount
of grain is much smaller on leguminous pasture
than on pasture land bearing other less nutritious
crops. In fact, if a leguminous pasture such as
alfalfa and cowpeas is in excellent condition the
flow of milk is quite satisfactory without grain.
In nearly all cases, however, where the matter
has been tested, the flow has been somewhat in-
creased even on such pasture by the use of bran,
cotton seed meal or corn meal.

Silage. — Throughout the dairy region of the
United States silage is one of the important feeding
stuffs for dairy cows. Its great advantage con-
sists not alone in its succulence, palatability, and
effectiveness in producing milk, but in the fact
that it is so easily preserved during the winter,
thus furnishing succulent material during the
whole season when no growth is taking place out-

168 FARM ANIMALS

side and also, in the fact, that the expense of har-
vesting and preserving the crop in the form of
silage is by no means a serious one. In fact,
as the result of hundreds of experiments to test
the economy of harvesting corn in various ways
it has been demonstrated that the most economic
one consists in ensiling the plant, ears and all,
and feeding in this form to cows. More silage
is fed to dairy cows than to any other class of
animal, although it is a valuable food for all farm
animals. In numerous experiments it has been
found that corn silage is the most economical
succulent food available for dairy cows at a season
when pasture cannot be obtained. It is, of course,
not a balanced ration, but it tends to a heavy
milk production, especially when fed in con-
nection with a leguminous hay. Moreover, silage
can be fed not only during the winter, but also
during the summer, particularly if the pasture
should run short or become dry on account of
the prevalence of drouth. Corn is, of course,
the chief silage, and in most instances is the only
plant concerned when silage is spoken of. It may,
however, be combined in the silo with cowpeas
or soy-beans and when this has been done the
feeding value of the mixture is greater than that
of corn alone, ton for ton. If corn is to be pre-
served in the silo is should be harvested just as
the kernels begin to glaze. It is then cut by
machinery and tightly packed in the silo, using
care to tramp down particularly the outside por-
tion of the cut corn. The top of the mass of corn
in the silo is usually covered with a layer of straw,
but this does not seem to be absolutely necessary
since a certain amount of the top is sure to decay
anyhow and be unfit for food. In a series of

FARM ANIMALS 169

nearly four hundred tests in which the effect of
silage on the flavor of the milk was studied, sixty
per cent, were in favor of the silage. These tests,
in addition to thousands of other practical tests
of the matter on dairy farms, in almost every state
in the Union, show that no injurious effects should
be looked for in the milk from feeding silage. If
silage is fed in liberal rations, for example thirty-
five to sixty pounds per day, the amount of grain
necessary to produce a maximum flow of milk
may be somewhat reduced or, stated in another
form, silage may be utilized to replace a portion
of the grain which would otherwise be necessary
for feeding dairy cows. This obviously means
a saving in expense since the chief item of expense
in feeding cows is the grain feeds, especially if
these have to be purchased. Where silage is fed
in addition to a leguminous hay a still further
reduction in the amount of grain is possible and
a still greater economy in the cost of feeding. One
great advantage of silage, which cannot fee lost
from sight, is that it is palatable for nearly all cows.
The slightly acid and fermented taste which good
silage possesses seems to be exactly to the liking
of nearly all cows and they will eat it in preference
to almost any form of hay, even the best alfalfa
hay when they are not acccustomed to the latter.
It should not be imagined that since corn is the
chief crop used for silage that it is the only crop
utilized in this way. Not only corn and various
legumes are ensiled, but also cereal hays, roots,
sugar beet pulp, sunflowers, and other farm crops.
Certain farmers practice the stack system of en-
siling leguminous crops and have obtained good
results. This practice, however, seems not to
have recommended itself very strongly to the

170 FARM ANIMALS

majority of farmers. The method consists merely
in stacking alfalfa or clover in a perfectly fresh
condition as soon as possible after it is cut and
allowing the hay to ferment in the stack. A layer
on the outside and top of the stack spoils as is the
case in the silo, but otherwise the material keeps
in good condition.

Disagreeable Flavors in Milk. — All milk users
are familiar with the disagreeable flavors in milk,
which are frequently observed, particularly in the
spring and fall. A considerable number of plants
are known to lend a bad taste to the milk when
eaten in large quantities. One of the most famil-
iar disagreeable flavors in milk is that of the wild
onion, or garlic. This plant is widely distributed
in the dairy region, and on account of the fact that
it springs up somewhat in advance of pasture
grasses, is frequently eaten by the cows with very
bad effects in the flavor of the milk. Various other
weeds, however, lend less striking and less specific
flavors to the milk, but in some respects no less
disagreeable. Thus, fenugreek is objectionable
on this account as well as elder leaves and other
strong smelling brush. A number of the common
roots used in feeding cows transmit a character-
istic odor to the milk, which disappears under
proper aeration. Thus, turnips give a turnipy odor
to the milk. If the turnips are fed shortly before
milking the flavor is much more distinctly influ-
enced. A peculiar fact in connection with the
turnip odor is that it may not be noticed in the
milk at the body temperature but appears when
the milk is heated to a somewhat higher tempera-
ture.

Maintenance Ration. — It is obviously a difficult
matter to determine just how much of her food

FARM ANIMALS 171

the cow uses to maintain herself in weight and con-
dition and how much is transformed into milk.
j The proportion of the food used for maintenance
'' has been estimated at from thirty to sixty per cent.
It is not a matter of great importance for the average
dairyman since for the greater part of the year the
cow is giving milk and the dairyman is not con-
cerned in the exact classification of the food accord-
ing to its use by the cow. He knows by experience
that certain rations are required to keep the cow
in a good condition and sustain a profitable milk
flow. Dry cows in winter may be kept in fairly
good condition on wheat straw or other straw with
the addition of wheat, corn or Kafir corn or other
suitable grain. Where red clover or alfalfa hay
is available this may constitute the maintenance
ration without the addition of grain food.

Rations. — Suitable rations for dairy cows have
been carefully worked out, based on the experience
of actual dairymen and the tests of dairy experts,
for every state in the Union. In order to give a
specific instance of the range of these rations a
few examples may be reproduced in this connection,
but without recommending them for any particular
state. Each ration which has been recommended
by various dairymen for dairy cows will obviously
be most applicable to that locality where the foods
in question are most easily obtained. Thus an
excellent milk flow may be maintained on any one
of the following rations.

Alfalfa hay, twenty pounds; oat straw, five
pounds; wheat bran, two and one-half pounds;
shorts, two and one-half pounds; oats, five pounds;
cotton seed meal, one and one-half pounds.

Corn silage, thirty pounds; clover hay, five
pounds; corn fodder, three pounds; oat straw,

172 FARM ANIMALS

one pound; bran, five pounds; linseed meal, two
pounds; cotton seed meal, two pounds.

Corn silage, 25 pounds; mixed hay, seven pounds
bran, six pounds; cotton seed meal, two pounds.

Turnips, forty-five pounds; wheat chaff, seven
pounds; silage, fifteen pounds; oats two and one-
naif pounds; pea meal, two and one-half pounds.

Alfalfa hay, thirty-five pounds; wheat bran,
seven pounds ; barley three pounds.

Prairie hay, twenty pounds; corn stover, ten
pounds; corn meal, eight pounds; bran three
pounds; linseed meal, one-half pound.

Timothy hay, ten pounds; clover hay, ten
pounds; corn, eight pounds; oats, one and one-
naif pounds.

The amount of various foods which can safely
and most economically be fed to dairy cows will
obviously vary greatly in different parts of the
country on account of the variation in the prevail-
ing market value of different crops.

Influencing Milk by Means of the Ration. — It
has long been the dream of the dairyman to be
able to increase decidedly the amount of fat in the
milk by means of suitable changes in the ration or
by feeding certain materials which would increase
the amount of fat secreted in the milk. This,
however, has not been possible to any marked
extent. In fact the belief of all dairy experts and
the general statement on the subject has been that
the amount of milk obtained depends partly on
the individual cow but can be greatly influenced
by the character of the food while the percentage
of fat in the milk is purely an individual matter
with the cow and not subject to influence by the
kind of food in the ration or by any changes in the
ration. As a rule all experiments carried on to

FARM ANIMALS 173

test this matter have brought forth evidence in
support of this proposition. Certain changes in
the composition of the milk may temporarily take
place as the immediate results of a change in the
ration. Thus it has been found that the milk flow
is increased decidedly when the greatest increase
in the nutriment in the ration is made. On the
other hand the most rapid shrinkage of the milk
flow usually occurs when a great reduction in the
total amount of nutriment in the ration takes place.
Usually changes in the ration which can be made
with regard to the amount of protein in it have less
effect on the quantity and character of the milk than
changes in the total amount of nutrition in the
ration. This means in simple words that the
greater the food the greater the amount of milk,
at least within the limits of the cow's capacity for
transforming food into milk.

With regard to the possibility of increasing the
fat content in milk it may be stated that this can
only be done within narrow limits and as a rule
only for short periods. The feeding of oils and
foods containing an excessive fat content may pro-
duce a temporary increase in the amount or milk
but this increase is not always in the form of pure
butter fat. In fact the specific character 01 the
oil of the food may pass through into the fat of
the milk so that the milk is in a certain sense
adulterated when it comes from the cow.

We may now discuss briefly a number of practical
points concerning the feeding and management of
cows. With regard to the water furnished cows
the practice varies greatly, some men preferring to
have the water constantly before the cows in in-
dividual troughs or otherwise supplied as directly
as possible from the hydrant while other dairymen

174 FARM ANIMALS

have had better success in watering cows only at
regular intervals during the day. In some direct
tests of this matter cows that were driven into the
yard for watering gave as large an amount of milk
and kept themselves in as good condition as those
which had constant access to water. In summer
cows prefer cold water and in winter they like to
have the chill taken from it. Whenever oppor-
tunity is given cows to choose between extremely
cold and cool water in winter, they always prefer
that from which the chill has been taken. It is not
desirable however, to heat the water too much.

Bedding should always be furnished in a clean
and comfortable form. In fact this matter appears
to be far more important, according to recent
experiments, than has usually been supposed
Not only is a sufficient amount of clean bedding
necessary for the comfort of the cow and therefore
for the greatest production of milk but the bedding
serves incidentally to absorb the liquid parts of the
manure and thus make a great saving in its fertilizer
value. The materials which may be used for bedding
vary greatly. Thus farmers may utilize for this
purpose spoiled hay, straw, corn stalks, chaff, saw-
dust and shavings. In general, however, any
material which contains dust or which easily gives
rise to dust by the trampling of the cows is ob-
jectionable. For this reason chaff, moldy or
musty hay or straw are undesirable as compared
with other materials such as corn, rye or wheat
straw, sawdust and shavings. In the matter of
cost shavings are ten times as expensive as saw-
dust, being about on a par with cut or uncut wheat
straw and cut corn fodder. Recent experiments
carried out at the Maryland Experiment Station
show that the yearly cost for stabling cows 24

FARM ANIMALS 175

hours per day is forty-five cents with sawdust, and
$4.80 for shavings or cut wheat straw. Sawdust
was found to absorb a much greater amount of the
liquid manure than any of the compared materials.
Moreover sawdust adds to the bulk of the manure
and to the ease with which it may be spread upon
the land. Cleanness and a wholesome appearance
of the cow stables are secured by the use of saw-
dust and in this respect no other material can
compare with it excepting perhaps shavings and
these are always too expensive as compared with
sawdust. It is obvious therefore that if a saw
mill is located conveniently for the dairyman it is
desirable to haul this material for use as bedding
in order to benefit from the increased cleanliness
and appearance which can thus be obtained in the
stable.

The Age of the Cow as Related to the Milk
Yield.— Good dairy cows usually give an increasing
yield of milk up to the age of seven years or more
after which the milk yield remains nearly stationary
up to the age of ten or twelve when it begins to
decline quite rapidly. As a rule the quality of the
milk decreases as the cow advances in age. In one
series of tests the average fat content was, for the
first year of lactation, 4.49 per cent., for the second
4.4 per cent., for the third 4.29 and for the fourth
4.17 per cent. Similarly during any single period of
lactation the amount of milk decreases during the
period and also the production of milk fat. As a
rule the yield of milk decreases about eight per
cent, for each month while the amount of butter
fat decreases about seven per cent. It may be
stated that the milk yield is greatest in the second
and third weeks of lactation.

A lively rivalry naturally exists regarding the

176 FARM ANIMALS

relative merits of the different breeds of dairy cows,
and these claims have often led to comparisons in
the yields of milk, which may be expected from the
different breeds. According to most tests which
have thus far been made, the Holstein gives the
greatest amount of milk, but of a low fat content.
In tests in Wisconsin for the relative yields of dif-
ferent breeds the Holstein was followed by the
Brown Swiss, Shorthorn, Guernsey, Ayrshire,
Dutch Belted, French Canadian, Red Poll, Jersey
and Devon. With regard to the fat content of milk,
Jerseys and Guernseys stand close together at the
top followed by Devons, French Canadian, Ayr-
shires, Red Poll, and Shorthorn. In the matter
of the cost of production of milk, the Guernseys and
Ayrshires stand at the head of the list in most
tests. Thus, in one set of experiments in New
Jersey, the different breeds stood in the following
order with regard to the cost of milk fat : Guernsey,
Jersey, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, and Holstein. In
the relative profit derived from milk the usual
order in which the breeds have stood in actual
experiments is Holstein, Shorthorn, Ayrshire,
Guernsey, Jersey and Devon. Tests have also
been made regarding the relative profits of different
breeds for cheese production, but this is not of
great value since, as a rule, a good cheese cow is
also a good butter cow. While in all of these tests
the influence of the food on the quality of the milk
has been noted carefully, it has been found in
corroboration of what was said before on this point
that in general the food of the cow influences the
fat content in the milk very slightly or merely to
the extent that the cow yields the greatest amount
of milk with the highest fat content on rations
which are relatively high in protein.

FARM ANIMALS 177

It is interesting to note the sources of the fat in
milk, and numerous experiments have been with
this definite idea in view. From these experiments,
it appears that a part of the milk fat comes from the
sugars and starches in the food. The cow has the
power of manufacturing milk fat not only from
the fat of the food, but from the carbo-hydrates.
In one experiment, in which, for a period of two
months, the cow was fed a ration as free from fat
as it was possible to obtain it, the cow produced
eighteen and one-half pounds of milk fat, which
was not present in the food in any other lorm than
starch or sugar. During this time the cow gained
in weight so that the fat could not have been ob-
tained from the body fat of the animal. Evidently,
therefore, the cow is able to transform the starch
and sugar in her food into milk fat.

At Cornell University an interesting and care-
fully planned experiment was carried out to test
the general problem regarding the possibility of
improving the quality of the milk through the
ration. The experiment was continued for two
years. It appeared as a result of this work that
the quality of the milk can be influenced to an
appreciable extent by giving attention to the com-
position of the ration. Thus, in the case in ques-
tion, an abundant ration of easily digestible and
nitrogenous foods resulted in an increase of one-
fourth of one per cent, in the milk fat. At the
same time the quantity of the milk was increased
about fifty per cent., so that the very slight increase
in the fat content becomes of considerable impor-
tance in view of the largely increased amount of
milk from which the fat could be removed. The
rations used in this experiment contained such
foods as are readily accessible to all farmers, and

178 FARM ANIMALS

the only point worth mentioning in connection
with them was that all the rations were compound-
ed with reference to the quality of the food so as
to give a suitable balance.

In addition to the food, various other things
exercise a greater or less effect upon the milk yield.
Thus, in sudden changes of weather unfavorable
results may be experienced in the diminution of
the amount of milk obtained. The dairy cow is
rather a nervous creature and responds quickly to
these changes. It is desirable from a financial
standpoint, if no other consideration appeals to the
farmer, to protect the cows against inclement
weather, especially cold rains. Muddy sheds,
insufficient amount of bedding, excessive attacks
of flies, worry from dogs and from the presence
of strange attendants, any of these immediately
influence unfavorably the amount of milk obtained.

The question is often brought before the farmer
regarding the forms in which he may most profit-
ably dispose of his dairy products whether as milk,
cream, or butter. As a rule, a greater profit is
obtained for the milk as such or for cream than
can be secured in the form of butter. Thus, if
the farmer can obtain from seventeen to nineteen
cents per gallon for milk and seventy cents per
gallon for cream, as is usually the case, the milk
fat would have to be paid for at the rate of forty
cents and the butter would have to sell for thirty-
three cents a pound in order to realize the same
amount for the milk. Creameries, however, almost
never pay that much for milk fat, and farm butter
cannot be sold for an average price of thirty-three
cents a pound. The result is that for most farmers,
the greatest profit is to be derived from selling the
milk or cream. Professional dairymen keep an

FARM ANIMALS 179

account of the cost and the profits in the case of all
of their cows. This should Be brought to the notice
of all persons intending to enter into the dairy
business. The profits derived from dairy cows
obviously depend upon the individuality of the
cow and the kind of treatment she receives. As
the result of a test of ordinary farm cows in various
states throughout the country, the surprising fact
has been disclosed that in nearly all dairy herds
there are cows which do not give enough milk to
pay for their keep. Where such cows are kept for
dairy purposes it simply means that the milk is not
weighed nor tested for milk fat and that, therefore,
the owner has no means of knowing whether the cow
is yielding an average amount of milk or not. The
results obtained by this test furnish striking argu-
ments for the necessity of frequently testing the
milk of all cows to determine the yield and per-
centage of milk fat. When this has been done it
is an easy matter to eliminate the unprofitable
cows from the herd and fatten them for beef,
replacing them with other dairy cows.

From records obtained in creameries in Missouri
it appears that the average returns from cows in
that state amount to from $37 to $61 . The value
of the milk sold at the creamery may be estima-
ted at from $50 to $60 per cow, the value of the
cream and the milk returned and fed to calves
and other domestic animals is about $10 per
cow and the value of the calf for veal about $4.
This makes the average financial production of
each cow range from $64 to $74 per year.

It must always be borne in mind, however, as
shown by almost innumerable tests for milk fat
and milk yield, that there are enormous differences
in the profit to be derived from individual dairy

180 FARM ANIMALS

cows. A striking illustration of this is seen in the
fact that a number of cows have yielded from
five hundred to eight hundred pounds of butter
per year and one Guernsey cow in Wisconsin
even one thousand pounds in a year, while the
average yield may be set down as two hundred and
fifty pounds of butter. It is apparent, therefore,
that one cow may produce four times as much as
another during one period of lactation. A cow
with a high milk yield does not necessarily eat much
more than an unprofitable cow. At any rate, the
difference in the amount eaten is so small as
scarcely to affect the relative profit from the cow.
Moreover, as already indicated, there are thousands
of cows kept for dairy purposes which do not pro-
duce more than one hundred pounds of butter per
year. Such poor milkers cannot be kept at a
profit and are less valuable for milk than for beef.
t)ifferent cows vary greatly, not only in the amount
of milk produced, but in the amount of food
required to produce a pound of milk. Those cows
which can transform feed into milk most economic-
ally are obviously the most profitable cows, since
the greatest expense in connection with dairying is
the providing of food.

Reference has already been made to flies as a
source of annoyance to cows. There are many
species of flies which attack cows, but the horn fly
and the common stable fly are most injurious and
are distributed over the greater part of the dairy
region. In some localities it has been found
necessary during the worst part of the summer to
keep the cows in cool barns during the heat of the
day, with the windows carefully screened to keep
the flies out. The cows are then allowed to graze
on pasture at night. Numerous remedies have

FARM ANIMALS 181

been tried for driving flies away from cows and for
exterminating them in the vicinity of stables. In
Kansas the best results have been had from spray-
ing cows with a mixture containing one-half pound
of resin, two cakes of laundry soap, one-half pint
of fish oil and enough water to make three gallons.
The effectiveness of this mixture is somewhat
increased by adding one-half pint of kerosene.
This insecticide costs about seven or eight cents
per gallon and one half pint is enough for one
application for a cow. At the height of the fly
season it may be necessary to give three applications
a week. The general question of flies in the dairy
has been studied in Connecticut, where it was
found that the annoyance caused by flies appears
to have been somewhat overestimated. In Connect-
icut, as in Kansas, the most attention was given
to horn flies and stable]flies, and numerous remedies
were tested on the recommendation of those who
had tried them in Connecticut, Wisconsin and
other dairy states. These remedies included many
proprietary ones, all of which appeared to be
reasonably effective although somewhat expensive.
In Virginia the application of ordinary kerosene
emulsion to cows during the season when they were
badly attacked by horn flies was found to be most
effective and the cheapest remedy of all those
which could be easily applied to cows.

Methods of Milking. — -It is a well-known fact
that the first streams of milk that come from the
cow contain a very low percentage of fat, one per
cent, or even less, while the strippings may contain
as high as twelve per cent, of milk fat. This fact
shows how important it is to secure all of the milk
which has been secreted at each milking. In
order to do this a number of practical schemes have

182 FARM ANIMALS

been devised which may be described as consisting
simply of thorough stripping at the end of each
milking period. Recently considerable interest has
been awakened in a new method of milking rec-
ommended by a Danish dairy expert, Dr. J0 Hege-
lund. The method is accordingly known by his
name. This method of milking has been tested
throughout the country and somewhat contra-
dictory reports have been given out concerning it.
The Hegelund method may be described as follows :
The right quarters of the udder are pressed together
by the two hands, the thumbs being held on the
outside of the udder and the index fingers in the
division between the two halves of the right side.
In producing pressure by the hands a slight upward
motion is also given to the udder. This motion is
repeated three or four times after which all of the
milk in the milk cistern is removed and the manipu-
lation is repeated, the same treatment being, of
course, given to the right and left sides. Fol-
lowing upon this, the two front quarters and
the hind quarters are treated similarly, and finally
the teats of the four quarters are manipulated so
as to secure all the milk which has been secreted
at the time of milking. In a dairy herd kept at
the Wisconsin University, the yield of milk was
increased four and five-tenths per cent, by means
of the Hegelund method and the production of
fat was increased from three to thirty per cent,
with an average of nine and two -tenths per cent.
The large increase in the milk fat obtained is
obviously due to the fact that by this method the
rich milk yielded at the end of the milking period
is obtainea more completely than by the ordinary
method of milking. This increase in the yield and
in the fat percentage was maintained throughout

FARM ANIMALS 183

a period of four months, and it is estimated that if
this method of milking were adopted by all dairy-
men throughout the state of Wisconsin there would
be an annual gain of thirty million pounds of butter
fat.

Shelter. — A great difference of opinion prevails
regarding the question of the proper amount of
shelter to be furnished dairy cows, especially
during the winter. Some dairymen recommend
that cows should be protected against cold tempera-
tures during the winter season, even to the extent
of furnishing artificial heat for the stable if neces-
sary to secure the best results. In fact the state-
ment has been made that a high temperature is
more necessary in the cow stable than proper
ventilation or arrangements for the escape of oclors
and of animal substances excreted by the lungs.
By no means all dairymen, however, follow this
practice and the opposite statement is frequently
met with, viz. : that dairy cows do not endure con-
finement and yield more milk and keep in better
health when allowed a reasonable amount of outdoor
freedom even during the coldest weather of winter.
In order to obtain data regarding the common
practice of dairymen in this respect, the Experi-
ment Station in Illinois sent out circular letters to
the most prominent dairymen of the state asking
for a direct answer to the question regarding the
comparative merits of freedom for cows versus
stabling. Nearly all the dairymen replied to this
series of questions that the cows kept cleaner when
allowed to remain in the open shea for a consider-
able portion of the day and furthermore that the
milk stable may be kept in a more sanitary con-
dition and that cleaner milk is, therefore, produced,
and that the cows do not worry or injure one

184 FARM ANIMALS

another so much in the open sheds as when con-
fined in stanchions. There seems, therefore, to be
a general belief among dairymen who have tried
this outdoor method of keeping dairy cows that
great advantages are thereby to be derived, the chief
being as already stated, clean stables, cleaner cows,
cleaner milk, better health in the cows and an
increase in the amount of manure obtained since
a relatively large amount of bedding must be used
in the open sheds in order to keep the cows per-
fectly clean. As a result of the prevalence of this
practice of allowing dairy cows outdoor freedom
in winter, the Illinois Experiment Station con-
ducted a careful experiment with this end in view.
The results of this experiment showed that the cows
kept much cleaner than when stabled, that the milk
stable was in a more sanitary condition and, there-
fore, that it was much easier to produce clean milk.
The cows showed better health and better appetite
than when kept in the stable and the saving of
labor was quite striking. It is well perhaps to
call attention to the great importance of this econ-
omy of labor since at present one of the most
serious questions on dairy farms is that of getting
sufficient qualified labor to take care of the cows.
Where cows are kept in the stable continuously,
it is obvious that unusual attention must be given
to their surroundings in order to make them com-
fortable. It appears to be an unnatural practice
to keep dairy cows tied up in stanchions for six
months of the year, as is too frequently practiced
among dairymen. In such cases the feed and water
are brought to the cows without their being allowed
to have any exercise, and this lack of exercise
appears to be a sufficient cause for the loss of vigor
and a shortening of the life of usefulness of dairy

FARM ANIMALS 185

cows. The Wisconsin Dairy School suggests the
following daily schedule for the care of cows:
4.20 a.m. grain fed; 4.30 a.m. milked; 6 a.m.
silage fed; 7.30 a.m. stables cleaned; 8.30 a.m.
water; 9.00 a.m. hay; 10.00 a.m. grooming of
cows ; 2 . 00 p.m. cows turned out ; 3 . 30 p.m. watered ;
4.00 p.m. stables cleaned, and corn fed; 4.30 p.m.
milked; 6.00 p.m. silage fed; 8 p.m. bedding
arranged for the night.

Dehorning Cows. — It is, of course, best and
most humane to dehorn calves when only a few
days old as described in the chapter on beef cattle,
but if this operation has been omitted it is
desirable to remove the horns by means of a
clipper in order to prevent the cows from worrying
one another. Every one who has worked with
cows knows that in every herd there is one or
perhaps more cows whicn attempt to hector the
rest of the herd, the result being a loss of milk
and frequently more or less serious injury. The
dehorning of adult cows should preferably be
done at a time when they are dry rather than
during the height of the milk flow. Experiments
in dehorning cows in full flow of milk show that
the milk yield may be diminished nearly fifty
per cent, for the first two or three days and it
may be a serious matter for a week or so.

Dirt in Milk. — The purpose of keeping dairy
cows is not simply to produce milk, but to produce
clean milk. In order to obtain clean milk no
devices or methods can be included which tend
in any way to an unsanitary condition of the milk.
When cows are kept in the stable for a part of
each day, it is quite unavoidable that they should
become more or less contaminated with dust and
animal filth. This material, if not carefully

186 FARM ANIMALS

brushed from the cows before milking, falls into
the milk in large quantities at milking time and
thus contaminates the milk not only in the way
of the filth introduced, but by the numerous
bacteria carried on this dirt. It is practically
impossible under ordinary dairy conditions to
prevent some dirt from falling into the milk.
by careful grooming and washing of the teats
and milking with dry hands, however, the amount
of dirt may be reduced to a minimum. Experi-
ments have shown, with cows kept in an ordinary
condition, but not groomed, that during the
process of milking one ounce of dirt is added to
each two hundred and seventy-five pounds of
milk.

The presence of dirt in milk is always an evidence
of unsanitary conditions or methods on the part
of the dairyman. The mere presence of filth,
however, may not be injurious in any way in
itself. Filth in milk is always associated with
an increase in the number of bacteria in the
milk and this is a much more serious proposition,
for a greater number of bacteria in milk sour
the milk quickly and are likely to produce colic
and other digestive disturbances in children and
to a less extent in adults.

Milk as it is secreted in the actual glandular
tissue contains no bacteria. Many bacteria, how-
ever, succeed in penetrating into the milk duct
of the teats and, therefore, the milk in the milk
cisterns contains some bacteria. Milk is one
of the best of nutritive media for the growth of
bacteria and, therefore, their numbers multiply
with astounding rapidity. Moreover the number
of bacteria in milk is suddenly added to from
other sources such as the air, cow's skin, the

FARM ANIMALS 187

hands and clothes of milkers, and unsanitary
milking utensils. Thus, from actual tests, a
sample of milk which contained one hundred
and fifty-three thousand bacteria per cubic inch
when examined first, contained five hundred and
forty thousand per cubic inch after one hour,
one million after seven hours, and eighty-five
million after twenty-four hours. If the bacteria
in the milk are not particularly harmful ones
which do not produce any disease, the milk is
not greatly to be feared, except in view of the
fact that it may produce slight digestive dis-
turbances. Where, however, the cow is affected
with tuberculosis or garget or where the milkers
are affected with scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhoid
fever, or tuberculosis or come in contact with
persons suffering with these diseases, the question
of milk supply becomes a very serious one. In
hundreds of instances milk has thus become
the agent for the carrying of typhoid, scarlet
fever, diphtheria, and tuberculosis to children and
adults. The milk of tuberculous cows is always
dangerous as human food and that from cows
suffering from garget is not only highly repulsive
on account of the fact that it contains actual
pus, but it is dangerous on account of the fact
that it produces serious cases of diphtheritic sore
throat or other throat troubles. In marketing
milk, it is necessary to adopt some standard of
excellence, and dairymen who desire to furnish
a wholesome product naturally bear these facts
in mind. Pure milk from a bacteriological stand-
point should contain less than ten thousand
bacteria per cubic centimeter and must be ab-
solutely free from disease germs and pus. The
actual number of bacteria found in samples of

188 FARM ANIMALS

market milk varies from twenty-five thousand
to ten million per cubic centimeter. The presence
of fifty thousand bacteria per cubic centimeter
does not indicate any serious neglect of sanitary
precautions on the part of the dairyman, but
much larger numbers are evidence of neglect on
his part.

In order to practice sanitary dairying it is nec-
essary to observe many precautions, some of which
may be set down as follows : It is necessary to re-
move the milk at once from the stable, cool it down
to a temperature at which bacteria do not readily
grow and keep it under conditions where it cannot
be affected by the presence of filth. It is not
necessary to construct expensive stables, but the
milk stable should not be directly connected with
the hay or feed barn in such a way that dust from
the latter may contaminate the milking stable. In
order that this stable may be kept clean, the floors
must be smoothly laid, preferably of dovetailed
boards or still better of cement. All dairy uten-
sils with which the milk comes in contact must
be thoroughly sterilized by boiling water or steam
after each using. The sanitary care of dairy
utensils is a matter which often gets too little at-
tention. It is not sufficient merely to wash the
dairy utensil as other dishes are handled, but the
utensils must be washed in all corners in order
that no milk fat is left behind in them and every
part of the utensil must be thoroughly sterilized
with boiling water or steam, otherwise bacteria
remain in connection with the fat from the milk
and are in a position to cause a rapid souring of
fresh milk when placed in such utensils. These
requirements should apply with special force to
the hand separator on the farm. This utensil has

FARM ANIMALS 189

recently come into unusual prominence throughout
the country and thousands of them have been sold
for home use in small dairy herds. It has been
shown, however, by painful experience, that the
butter made from milk separated by hand separa-
tors on ordinary farms is usually of inferior grade
and this fact is partly due to the lack of attention
in cleaning the separator. If the hand separator
is not taken apart, thoroughly scoured, and steril-
ized after each using, it becomes simply an incu-
bator for bacteria, and the milk which is subse-
quently run through it becomes immediately con-
taminated and rendered more or less unfit for use.
The Care of Milk. — As should be apparent from
the previous discussion, milk is the most suscepti-
ble of all human foods to various changes which
render it unsuitable for use either on account of
bad odors, bad flavors, souring or other bacterial
changes. The care of milk so as to prevent these
undesirable happenings is, therefore, one of the
most important parts of dairy science. In the
present discussion, however, it is impossible to go
into this in any detail and it is unnecessary to do so
on account of the fact that the subject of practical
dairying is really a technical one by itself and the
average farmer is through with the dairy business
as soon as the milk is produced. At any rate, he
is chiefly interested in its production rather than
its manufacture into a finished food product. One
point in the care of milk which particularly con-
cerns the farmer relates to its preservation in a
wholesome condition until delivered to the cream-
ery, or to patrons. He must also give heed to the
preservation of skim milk for feeding to calves and
to the proper ripening of cream for the manufacture
of butter at home.

190 FARM ANIMALS

In order to secure sanitary market milk many
plans have been devised, some of which have been
put in operation in the different states. The
conscientious dairyman who honestly desires to
deliver sanitary milk to his patrons or to the city
dealer will naturally be interested in observing all
precautions which tend to the best preservation of
milk. To this end a large number of factors
contribute. In the first place, the stable should
be arranged with a view to the comfort of the
animal. Floors, gutters, walls and ceilings should
be constructed so that they can be readily cleaned.
Ventilation must be provided so that disagreeable
odors will be rapidly carried away. The stable
must be scrupulously cleaned at frequent inter-
vals and, if at all possible, the milking stable is
best separated from the feed barn for the reason
that dust from hay and odors from other feeds are
thus prevented from getting into the milk. The
herd itself must be tested with tuberculin and
known to be free from tuberculosis. All cows
must be healthy in every respect. Particularly, they
must be free from garget or any form of inflam-
mation of the udder which can influence the ap-
pearance or condition of the milk. While not all
animal diseases are transmitted to man, it is ob-
viously dangerous to human health to sell milk
from any cow suffering from a serious disease, es-
pecially if it is accompanied with high fever.
The water supply should be carefully guarded and
should not Be drawn from close proximity to
manure heaps, privies and other sources of con-
tamination. The milkers must be cleanly in all
their habits and of course be in health. It should
be strictly forbidden that any one affected with
a contagious disease, or living in the same room

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

FARM ANIMALS 191

with another person affected with a contagious
disease, should milk cows during such time as
he is likely to carry infection. The cows should be
thoroughly groomed before milking and the milk-
ers' clothes and hands should also be free from
filth.

In order to prevent fermentation and other bad
effects which must necessarily arise from the filth
and bacteria which get into milk even under the
best conditions it is desirable to adopt certain other
practices in order to make as little room as may be
necessary for the development of such bad results.
On this account milk should be strained and aerated
immediately after milking. It must at once be
removed from the milking stable and cooled down
to a temperature of forty to sixty degrees F. On
the farm it is often impracticable to cool milk to
forty degrees F., but it keeps better if this temper-
ature can easily be obtained. If the milk is to be
run through a separator this process should take
place while it is warm and fresh or, if that be im-
possible, and the milk is allowed to cool, it is best
to warm it up again to a temperature of one hundred
degrees F. or above, before running through the
separator. If there is any question about the qual-
ity of the milk as regards bacteria, and particularly
if any doubt exists regarding the fermentation of the
milk from disease germs it should be pasteurized
at a temperature which will destroy these organ-
isms. This may be accomplished by heating the
milk to a temperature of one hundred and forty
degrees F. for about twenty minutes. Not all
bacteria will be destroyed by this method, but the
milk will be rendered practically safe for all pur-
poses. If milk is cooked at the ordinary boilii
temperature, the composition is slightly cl

192 FARM ANIMALS

as well as the taste and it is, therefore, less desirable
as a food for infants and has the peculiar cooked
taste which is objectionable to many individuals.
Without entering into the merits of these various
schemes for securing the cleanliness of milk, it
may be said that when sanitary methods have
been adopted on farms where they were previously
not practiced, the cleanliness and keeping quality
of the milk have been greatly improved at an ex-
pense so slightly increased as to be almost negligi-
ble. In fact, it is everywhere well understood that
a much larger price can be reasonably asked and
readily obtained for a product which can be guaran-
teed to be clean and wholesome than for one about
which any doubt exists. Milk and eggs are per-
haps the two human foods about which it is neces-
sary that no doubt should exist as to their quality.
While milk is used almost universally as a human
food the consumption of it would undoubtedly in-
crease greatly if the quality of the ordinary market
milk were better. Many persons hesitate to drink
milk or use it in any form before it has been cooked
on account of the fear of bacterial contamination
or the presence of some other filth. If these ob-
jections to milk be removed by the observance of
clean methods on the part of all farmers and dairy-
men, a greatly increased market for milk will be
obtained and the benefit derived from such an
increased consumption of milk would be equally
shared by public at large and the farmer.

In discussing the methods of preserving milk,
reference has been made only to those requiring
cleanly habits and pasteurization. It is possible
to prevent milk from souring by the addition of
preservatives and a number of these have been used
to a greater extent than is desirable. While a bitter

FARM ANIMALS 193

controversy still rages regarding the injurious effects
of preservatives in food it would obviously be with-
out point to enter into the discussion of the matter
in this connection. However, no injustice is done
any one in urging that, even if the use of preserva-
tives be finally justified in the case of meat and other
products destined for long keeping, this method
does not apply to milk. Milk is obtained twice
daily and can be delivered in a perfectly fresh con-
dition to a distance of two or three hundred miles
from surrounding towns by means of the fast milk
trains, which are a special feature of the modern
dairy business. Tt is, therefore, utterly unneces-
sary to attempt to preserve milk beyond the length
of time it will keep if clean. The use of preserva-
tives merely furnishes an excuse for the prevalence
of filthy habits about the dairy. Perhaps the least
objectionable of all of these preservatives is forma-
lin which, when used in the proportion of one part
to forty thousand, has the effect of checking the
growth of bacteria and preventing the souring of
milk much longer than would otherwise be the case.
Even formalin, however, has been objected to by
physicians on account of its injurious effects upon
infants.

In comparing the relative power of the beef steer
and the dairy cow to make products out of food,
it was stated that the dairy cow makes ten times
as much milk from the same amount of food as the
steer does beef. This statement may be subject
to great discount by reason of the fact that meat is
considered to be a more solid food than milk. The
percentage of water, however, in meat and milk
is nearly the same and this fact makes the relative
production of the dairy cows as compared with the
steer even more marvelous. The average compo-

194 FARM ANIMALS

sition of milk as based on more than two hundred
thousand samples is : water, eighty-seven and two-
tenths per cent. ; fat, three and nine-tenths per cent. ;
milk sugar, four and seventy-five hundredths per
cent. ; casein, three per cent. ; albumen, four-tenths
per cent. ; ash, seventy-five hundredths percent. The
total solids in milk ranges from eleven to fifteen per
cent, in different breeds and in individual cows. It
is apparent, therefore, that the recognized great food
value of milk rests on a substantial basis of chemi-
cal analysis*

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER V.

PIGS

For various reasons pigs are more profitable
animals to raise than beef steers or sheep and on
this account have always occupied a highly impor-
tant place in the list of farm animals throughout the
country. The unusual profitableness and economy
in raising hogs are due to a number of facts. In the
first place, the size of the litter is larger than of any
other farm mammal. Thus litters of eight or ten
are not rare, and sows which give birth to less than
four or five pigs are considered unprofitable. On
the other hand the birth of twins even in sheep and
cows only occurs in a comparatively small percent-
age of cases, excepting in certain breeds of sheep.
Moreover, hogs are ready for market at the age of
ten months or, at any rate, under one year. This
is also true to a limited extent of lambs raised for
the winter market, but as a rule hogs compare very
favorably with any other farm animal in the early
age of maturity. Then, we must remember that hogs
only require half as much food to make a pound of
gain as is necessary for the production of a pound of
beef. In this respect hogs also excel sheep, requir-
ing only two-thirds as much food for a pound of
pork as sheep consume in making a pound of mut-
ton. Another point in favor of pork production,
as compared with other lines of animal industry, is
that the percentage of dressed weight is very high,

195

196 FARM ANIMALS

ranging from seventy-five to eighty-two per cent,
or more. This is considerably better than either
beef or mutton. Hogs are everywhere known to
be useful in the transforming into pork of various
waste products which are not much eaten by other
farm animals. Again hogs are inexpensive animals
to buy and the original cost of getting into the bus-
iness of raising pork, is, therefore, very small as
compared with that of beginning beef production.
On acount of the rapid multiplication of these
animals, a herd is readily built up from one or two
sows and the foundation laid for a profitable pork
producing industry.

At the present time the pork production in the
United States is on a very fine basis. The profits
to be derived from it have perhaps never been
greater and the market at home and abroad is daily
increasing. Fifty-six million, five hundred thou-
sand hogs are annually slaughtered in the United
States and of this number six million, five hundred
thousand are exported, for the most part after
curing. The average value of the pork carcass
is $8.75. It may be added as a curious fact that
statistics show that the number of hogs slaughtered
annually is one hundred and ten per cent, of the
total number kept on hand. This difference is
readily explained by the fact that pigs are kept less
than one year before slaughtering and the litters are
very large. It is possible, therefore, to slaughter
each year a larger number than are actually kept
over and still maintain a tolerably constant or
slightly increasing number of hogs in the whole
country.

While, as already indicated, it is a comparatively
inexpensive and simple matter to get started in pork
raising it is, nevertheless, true that considerable

FARM ANIMALS 197

skill and intelligence must be exercised in this busi-
ness as in other forms of animal industry. In fact
the farmer cannot expect to obtain the best price
for his pork unless the pork answers the market
requirements in all respects. There are a number
of market classes of hogs as there are market classes
of beef steers and horses. The usual classes recog-
nized are prime heavy hogs, butcher hogs, packing
hogs, light hogs and pigs. Various other miscella-
neous classes of more or less importance also occur.
With regard to the weight required in these dif-
ferent market classes it should be stated that im-
portant changes have taken place in the fashionable
sizes of hogs during recent years. Thus, we can all
easily remember when the market tolerated and even
required immense hogs weighing from four hundred
to five hundred and fifty pounds and of mature age.
Later this kind of hog went out of style entirely and in
its place we had a demand for young hogs not over
ten months of age and weighing one hundred and
fifty to two hundred and fifty pounds . Within the past
year the pendulum of taste seems to be swinging
back again towards the heavy hog and a consider-
able demand is now felt for heavy hogs of mature
age. This is due to the fact that the packers must
have material from which to make lard and large
quantities of lard can be obtained from these heavy
hogs when in a fat condition. The market class
of prime heavy hogs includes animals weighing
from three hundred and fifty to five hundred
pounds. This is the extreme size of the fat lard hog.
Butcher hogs weigh from one hundred and eighty
to three hundred and fifty pounds and are divided
into different subclasses, light, medium and heavy,
according to weight. The butcher hog should show
the true lard form, viz. with a broad back, well-filled

198 FARM ANIMALS

hams and shoulders, short heavy neck and short
legs. Packing hogs may weigh from three hundred
to five hundred pounds, but as a rule are of a poorer
grade than the butcher hogs. The pork from pack-
ing hogs is used for curing or made into mess pork
and other pork products. Packing hogs constitute
forty per cent, of the hogs which come to the Chi-
cago market. The light hog class includes animals
which weigh from one hundred and twenty to two
hundred and twenty pounds, and range in age from
five to eight months. The form of this class may
vary considerably. It includes a number of light
hogs of the lard type and also bacon hogs which are
used for the production of the so-called Wiltshire
sides. Our bacon hogs differ considerably from
those preferred in England. Pigs weigh from
sixty to one hundred and twenty-five pounds and
include about ten per cent, of the swine which are
put on the market.

The pork raiser should make himself thoroughly
familiar with the demands of the market where he
expects to sell his product. Since about two-thirds
of the world's supply of pork is produced in the
United States and since at least six-sevenths of our
hog production takes place in the corn belt, any
individual who intends to go into the business of
raising pork cannot do better than make a study
of the business on the farm of some successful raiser
in this region. He will then become acquainted
with the type of lard hog which is characteristic
of our hog industry and will learn many other prac-
tical points which could not otherwise be acquired.
Chicago is the greatest hog market in the world and
the prices for pork products are, therefore, largely
set in this city. The retail dealer, however, may
exercise a considerable influence on the price of

FARM ANIMALS 199

pork by holding up the price at a timekwhen pork
is tending down whereby the consumption of pork
is diminished and the price of hogs will obviously
go still lower,

FEEDING HOGS

It has already been stated that the area of exten-
sive pork production is practically identical with
the corn belt. In fact, corn and nogs seem to be
inseparable in the minds of nearly all farmers who
have engaged in the business of raising pork.
While corn, as so often stated, is the king of grains
raised in this country and while it may be used with-
out any other grain, particularly in the case of near-
ly mature hogs, it should be stated at the outset
that the best results cannot be obtained excepting
when some other material is fed with it. In pork
production, therefore, we have corn as the chief
grain mixed with some other grains such as barley,
peas, cotton seed meal, wheat, bran, middlings,
soy-beans, etc. to balance the ration, various kinds
of coarse forage like alfalfa hay, clover hay, pasture
(both leguminous and non-leguminous), roots and
fruits, and various waste materials, skim milk and
animal feeds. The chief classes of feeds are, how-
ever, grains, pasture, roots, skim milk and animal
feeds.

Corn. — As already indicated corn cannot be suc-
cessfully fed alone in the production of pork. Per-
haps the most extensive series of experiments along
this line have been carried on at the Wisconsin Ex-
periment Station, but nearly all of the agricultural
experiment stations where hogs are raised and
various other investigators have come to the same
conclusion regarding corn, namely that it does not

200 FARM ANIMALS

pay to feed it without other grain. In fact, the ex-
perience of pork raisers throughout the country
has shown conclusively that if hogs are confined in
pens they will not make satisfactory gains if their
grain feed consists exclusively of shelled corn or corn
meal. For a few weeks hogs seem to relish corn
meal or shelled corn, but if the ration is not varied
the appetite soon fails and various other unfavorable
tendencies appear. Thus, on corn meal young pigs
fail to develop sufficient strength of bone and
muscle. Even if the first generation fed on corn
meal alone does not show great unthriftiness, the
constitution is, nevertheless, undermined to such
an extent that they become practically valueless
for breeding purposes and the stock, therefore, runs
out. Moreover the profit from feeding corn alone
is much smaller than if some other grain is added
to the corn. Thus, in one set of experiments the
profit from a ration containing corn, middlings
and other nitrogenous foods for balancing purposes
was nearly four times as great as that from an ex-
clusive ration of corn. Corn meal not only weak-
ens the appetite, produces light bone and general
unthriftiness as shown above, but the gains are
unsatisfactory and all of the vital organs, especially
the heart, lungs and liver are smaller than where a
balanced ration is fed, in fact, smaller than they
should be to perform properly the functions of a
vigorous animal. It is evident, therefore, from
hundreds of experiments that corn is not a desirable
food for hogs as an exclusive ration, especially for
young growing pigs and breeding stock. The
question arises, therefore, what are the supple-
mental feeds which should be given along with corn
meal or shelled corn. For this purpose a great
variety have been fed. Thus, in Canada various

FARM ANIMALS 201

nitrogenous grains, chiefly barley, have been added
to the grain ration for the purpose of improving the
quality of the pork produced and preventing the
bacon from being soft. It is not only grains, how-
ever, which are fed with corn meal to balance it
and prevent the bad effects of an exclusive corn meal
ration, but skim milk must also be mentioned
among the supplemental feeds to be fed with corn.
In Missouri the recommendation is made that alfalfa
and clover hay and skim milk are to be considered
the best feeds to use with corn in completing the
pig's ration. In New Hampshire it was found that
when four pounds of skim milk were fed with each
pound of corn meal excellent results were obtained
in pig production. Pigs which received this ration
were the best feeders and made the best gains and
the cost per pound of gain was two cents less than
with a mixture of corn meal and middlings. In
Missouri various grain feeds have been found valu-
able as supplemental to corn in raising pjigs. In
this list we may mention linseed meal, middlings,
bran, oats, gluten feed, and bone meal. Among these
feeds linseed meal gave the most efficient results
and the greatest profit. Bone meal and other ani-
mal foods, however, especially skim milk, are per-
haps better utilized by pigs than by any other of
our domestic animals. In one set of experiments
in which various other grains were used to replace
part of the corn meal in rations for pigs it was found
that one ton of linseed meal was equal to seven
thousand seven hundred pounds of corn, while a
ton of bran was equal to three thousand two hun-
dred pounds of corn.

Cotton Seed Meal. — Among the nitrogenous feeds,
which are necessary additions to the ration in
securing the greatest effectiveness from corn meal,

202 FARM ANIMALS

cotton seed meal must be mentioned as one of
peculiar importance, both on account of its effect-
iveness and the danger which lies in its careless
use. Cotton seed meal has long been known to
produce poisonous effects when fed in undue
quantities to farm animals. It is less likely, how-
ever, to injure beef steers, dairy cows and horses
than pigs. Recent experiments seem to indicate,
however, that this is largely due to the fact that it
is not fed to the larger farm animals in as high a
proportion to the body weight as is the case with
pigs. The actual cause of the poisonous effects of
cotton seed meal on pigs is unknown, but numer-
ous experiments have developed methods of avoid-
ing the bad effects of cotton seed meal while secur-
ing all of its great efficiency in the production of
pork. It appears that the poisonous effect of cot-
ton seed meal is a matter of dosage or the amount
fed. Small amounts may be fed indefinitely, but
larger amounts only for short periods. The safe
ration is determined by the amount per day and
the body weight rather than by the total amount
fed. At the Arkansas Experiment Station the
safe limits have been carefully worked out and have
been proposed as follows: For pigs under fifty
pounds, one-fourth of a pound of cotton seed meal
per day; for pigs between fifty and seventy-five
pounds, one-third of a pound of cotton seed meal
per day; for pigs between seventy-five and one
hundred pounds, two-fifths of a pound per day;
for pigs between one hundred and one hundred and
fifty pounds, one half of a pound per day. In
addition to these proportions according to live
weight, the proportion of cotton seed meal should
be about one to five or eight of the other grains fed
at the same time while a greater insurance against

FARM ANIMALS 203

poisoning from cotton seed meal is obtained if the
nogs are allowed plenty of green forage or are kept
on pasture and, particularly, if wheat bran is
mixed with the grain. Within these safe propor-
tions the long continued use of cotton seed meal
does not give rise to any bad effects. According to
other calculations of safe rations of cotton seed
meal it may not be used in amounts greater than
one-fourth pound to each one hundred pounds of
live weight. As a result of experience had with
cotton seed meal in Oklahoma, it is recommended
that this grain be not added to a greater extent
than one-fifth as compared with other grains and
that it be fed in alternate periods of two to three
weeks. According to the experience which has
been had in Arkansas, it is not necessary to inter-
rupt the ration of cotton seed meal provided it is
made low enough. In Kentucky it was found com-
paratively safe to use cotton seed meal in rations of
one-half pound per day for each pig, particularly
during the finishing period. In Washington the
amount of cotton seed meal eaten by pigs during
a period of eighty-four days varied from eight to
one hundred and fifty-four pounds. After this
period of feeding cotton seed meal it was found that
the lard was actually adulterated with cotton seed
oil to an extent varying from four-tenths to fifteen
per cent, in different animals. Only one animal
out of the twenty three used in .this experiment was
badly affected by the cotton seed meal, but the
weather was cold during the whole experiment and
the pigs were given abundant exercise and large
quantities of succulent feed.

The various rice products have been tested but
not extensively in pig feeding. Rice bran is not
relished by hogs and does not produce a rapid

204 FARM ANIMALS

growth. Rice polish, however, is a good pig feed
and in effectiveness is somewhat superior to corn.
It appears that seventy-eight pounds of rice polish
are equal to one hundred pounds of corn meal.

Wheat is everywhere known as a good feed for
pigs. Naturally, in the corn belt wheat is looked
upon as rather too expensive for this purpose, but
is used as a supplemental feed to balance the corn
ration. In the western wheat country this grain is
used rather more extensively and has oeen found to
give good results. The effectiveness of wheat in
making pork is considerably increased by grinding
or soaking. It may also be combined with pea meal.
Frosted wheat is almost or quite as good as first
quality wheat and, of course, is a much more econom-
ic food. In Oregon it has been found that four
and one-half pounds of wheat will produce one
pound of pork. The effectiveness of wheat is
much geater in the first part of the feeding period
than in the last part. Shrunken wheat, such as is
usually found in wheat screenings, or as the result
of rust is usually fed to hogs. A comparison of
plump and shrunken wheat showed that sixty-three
cents was realized from a bushel of fifty-seven-
pounds wheat and fifty-seven cents from a bushel
of shrunken wheat weighing forty-four pounds.
No hesitation, therefore, should be had in feeding
shrunken wheat rations when properly balanced
with corn or other carbonaceous materials. In
Washington wheat showed itself to be the best food
for long continued feeding to pigs. They main-
tained a more uniform -increase on wheat than on
any other grain food. Apparently the addition
of peas or oats did not increase the effectiveness
of the ration. A combination of wheat and bar-
ley was a somewhat less economic food than wheat

FARM ANIMALS 205

alone. It has been demonstrated that when hogs
bring five and one-half to six cents a pound there is
good profit in feeding wheat. Barley, however,
may not yield suitable returns at the same price for
pork. Likewise, in Colorado wheat gave a hand-
some profit in the form of pork. Wheat and bar-
ley ground together were found to make a well-
balanced ration which surpassed corn alone as a
hog food. When wheat and barley are ground
together and fed in the form of meal better results
are obtained in a dry form than in a slop. In
Canada it has been found that four and one-half
pounds of barley are required for the production of
one pound of pork and that pigs on barley will
make an average gain of eight -tenths of a pound per
day. In some experiments barley has been shown
to be more efficient than a mixture of barley, oats
and corn. The addition of roots is beneficial in
most instances. In Nebraska it was found in a
comparison of wheat and corn as food for pigs that
the meat of the wheat fed hogs contained a little
more lean and was firmer than that of hogs which
received corn. In general, it may be stated that
wheat may be profitably substituted for corn in
feeding pigs so long as the price is not more than
nine per cent, greater than that of corn. Wheat
is improved as pig feed by soaking. Rye, while
usually placed in the same category with barley and
wheat, in the list of foods, is less desirable than
either of the latter, since it fails to produce as much
gain and is not as well relished by hogs. Of the
three grains just mentioned wheat stands at the top
in the efficiency of pork production, eighty-five
pounds of wheat being equal for this purpose to
one hundred pounds of barley.

On all farms where hogs are raised, middlings

206 FARM ANIMALS

are used quite freely as one of the grain feeds. It
is generally recognized that middlings is a desirable
feed to combine with corn. Middlings may be
at times too expensive, but if the price is reasonable
this food will yield fine profits in pork. Dried
distiller's grains have also been tested in feeding
pigs, but they proved to be a very poor material
for this purpose. At the most they should not
constitute more than one- third of the grain ration.
When fed to the extent of one-third or one-half of
the ration, with corn as the rest of the grain the
results showed that there was no profit. In many
of the western states millet is cultivated to an ex-
tent which makes it an available food for hogs and
other farm animals. Millet should be fed ground
and when prepared in this way may be offered to
hogs ad libitum. It is not quite equal to wheat or
barley, but in localities to which it is adapted it
should have a place in the rotation of crops for pig
feed. While hogs relish millet and thrive on it the
results are not so profitable if it is fed as an
exclusive grain ration for long periods. Thus, in
North Dakota excellent results were obtained for
a period of fifty days, while in a longer period of
eighty-four days the rate of gain diminished. Ap-
parently, a bushel of millet weighing fifty-six pounds
is equal as pig feed to a bushel of barley weighing
forty-nine pounds, but pound for pound it requires
more millet than barley or wheat to produce a
given amount of pork.

Soy-beans are excellent for pigs when mixed with
corn in the proportion of one to two. On account
of their high protein content this proportion of soy-
beans is sufficient to balance a ration of corn in a
very satisfactory manner. In the test where soy-
beans were compared with middlings the greatest

FARM ANIMALS 207

gain was made on a ration containing one-third
soy-bean meal and two- thirds corn meal. As com-
pared with an exclusive corn ration, the pigs fed
the ration mixed in the proportion just mentioned
made gains twice as great. At the same time it
required only three hundred and ten pounds of
mixed soy-bean and corn meal to produce one hun-
dred pounds of pork, while on corn meal alone five
hundred and fifty-seven pounds were required.
The importance of balancing rations in this manner
is, therefore, apparent.

Dry vs. Wet Grain. — Considerable controversy
has been had concerning the merits of dry and wet
feeding of pigs. A majority of careful experiments
on this point, however, show that on an average
seven per cent, greater gains are made by feeding
wet materials than from the same amount of dry
material. Occasionally, however, the opposite re-
sults are obtained. Thus, in Utah better gains
were made on dry bran and corn meal or dry ground
wheat than when these materials were fed wet.
Similarly, in experiments in Idaho there seemed to
be a small margin in favor of feeding both whole
grain and meal in the dry form rather than wet.
The relative advantages, however, were not suffi-
ciently marked to make any great difference in
favor of either method. Ordinary farm practice
should be guided by the preponderance of evidence
gained from careful experiments, which indicates
a slight advantage from wet materials and a some-
what larger advantage from soaking whole grain
for pigs. Whether or not this be done would de-
pend on the expense of the operation and the con-
veniences at hand for carrying it out.

Whole Corn vs. Corn Meal. — A large difference
of opinion has always prevailed regarding the value

208 FARM ANIMALS

of grinding grain for hogs and a larger number of
experiments have been carried out with corn in
testing this matter than with any other grain. At
the Wisconsin Experiment Station, a continuous
series of experiments was made for eight years
with a great uniformity of results. It appears
from this careful work that there is a saving of
seven per cent, of the corn by grinding it to meal
before feeding in combination with middlings or
other nitrogenous grain for balancing corn. Whether
or not it will pay, therefore, to grind corn will
depend entirely on the distance of the farm from
mills or whether the farmer has a feed mill on his
premises. With some other grains such as Kafir
corn, millet, screenings, and shrunken wheat it is
always best to grind into meal before feeding, since
otherwise a considerable part of it will pass through
the intestines undigested. The experimental re-
sults just mentioned on the question of wet vs.
dry grain and ground vs. whole corn are based on
American experiments. In Canada all of these
questions have also been tested with somewhat
similar results. From the Canadian experience,
it appears that merely wetting meal does not aid in
its digestion, while soaking it for twenty-four to
thirty-six hours is of considerable benefit. Cana-
dians recommend that nearly all grains be fed
ground for pigs. This, it appears, in their expe-
rience was more important in the case of oats, peas
and barley than for other grains. Soaking for a
day or two before feeding will render the meal more
digestible. With regard to the amount of water
which should be used in wetting grain, it should be
stated that in fattening pigs a thick slop is certainly
preferable while for pigs on pasture or for breeding
stock the slop may be much more diluted. In cold

FARM ANIMALS 209

weather the question may arise regarding the rela-
tive value of feeding corn or other materials warm
or cold. It is a decided help to the thrift and
health of pigs to feed warm meals at least once or
twice a day during cold weather. Grain need
never be cooked for swine and, in fact, experiments
show that most grains are more readily digested in
a raw than in a cooked condition. With roots,
again the question of whether they should be fed
raw or cooked is to be answered differently in the
case of different roots. For example, potatoes,
turnips and pumpkins give better results cooked
than raw while sugar beets, common beets and other
roots need not be cooked.

Condimental Feeds. — This is a rather delicate
question to discuss in connection with pigs as well
as with other animals for the reason that such
diverse opinions prevail. As a rule, there is no
special objection to the use of proprietary stock
feeds. Some of them contain a suitable amount of
nutriment to keep pigs or other animals in good
condition. The chief objection to them usually
lies in the fact that the price is excessive and far
beyond their real value. Under ordinary condi-
tions the farmer can prepare his own condiment al
foods and do it much cheaper than by means of
purchased material. As a matter of fact, if suita-
ble variety is introduced into the ration, and par-
ticularly if the rations are balanced, using corn as
the basal part of the grain fed and supplementing
it with wheat, barley, cotton seed meal, peas, bran,
middlings, screenings, etc., there is no occasion for
the use of condiment al feeds, since pigs do not get
off their feed and do not require any stimulant. If
the need is felt for a tonic feed, small quantities
of linseed meal may be given. The condiments

210 FARM ANIMALS

which hogs require most and which must be ac-
cessible to them at all times are charcoal or ashes
and salt. It is strictly necessary that an abundant
supply of charcoal or soft coal should be provided
hogs that are maintained in pens or during the
winter when the ground is frozen. There seems
to be a natural requirement for this material on
the part of all hogs and it must be provided, if the
best results in health and strength of bone are to
be obtained. A good plan consists in mixing ashes,
charcoal, air slaked lime and salt. Pigs eat about
one-tenth of a pound of salt per day and eat the
charcoal and asnes as fancy strikes them,

COARSE FORAGE

The stomach of the hog is not large as compared
with that of cattle or sheep. It is more like that of
the horse in size and the digestive process resembles
that of the horse, except that it is considerably
more active. The hog, however, is an omnivorous
animal and not a ruminant and is, therefore, not
adapted to utilizing large quantities of coarse fodder
in a profitable manner.

In the arid states where alfalfa is such an im-
portant forage crop it has been found that alfalfa
nay is readily eaten by hogs to the extent of one-
half of a pound per day in addition to a pound or
more of sugar beets and a suitable grain ration.
Where alfalfa hay is fed in self feeders it is always
observed that hogs spend much of their time pulling
it out and eating it between the regular feeding
times for grain. Where tests have been made to

it has been demonstrated that five pounds of alfalfa
hay may be used to take the place of three pounds

FARM ANIMALS 211

of mixed grain. One ton of alfalfa hay will pro-
duce from two hundred and fifty to eight hundred
and fifty pounds of pork, depending on the quality
of the hay and the character of the pigs. The second
cutting of clover hay may be boiled before feeding
to pigs and in this form is somewhat more efficient
as a pork producer than clover silage. Silage is
not fed as extensively to hogs as to dairy cows,
steers and sheep. It is rather too bulky for the
digestive organs of the pig and for this reason should
not be fed to a greater extent than one-fourth of the
ration. For brood sows, however, it is valuable in
increasing the flow of the milk. Silage cannot be
depended upon to replace any of the grain, but
when fed in addition to grain it yields a profit since
quicker gains are obtained and the hogs remain in
excellent health.

PASTURE

A large variety of field crops are commonly cul-
tivated as hog pasture. It is almost universally
recognized that while hogs do not require a large
amount of coarse forage in a dry form they can
utilize more material in a green state by grazing on
it or when fed in the form of soiling crops. In
the South, peanuts, chuf as, cowpeas, sweet potatoes,
sorghum, vetches, oats and rape may be depended
upon to furnish a continuous series of green mate-
rial for hogs during a long season. The amount of
grain required per pound of pork produced on
pasture composed of these various crops varies
from one and seven-tenths pounds in the case of
peanuts to three and seven-tenths pounds in the
case of sorghum. Chufas, peanuts, cowpeas, ar-
tichokes, and other roots are readily harvested by
the hogs with good results and no expense is in-

212 FARM ANIMALS

curred by the farmer on this score. The only ob-
jection to peanut and chufa pasture is that the
lard of hogs which are fed on these materials is
very soft. Canadian hog raisers depend on rape,
vetches, a combination of oats and peas, soy-beans,
red clover, alfalfa, artichokes, mangels, carrots,
and turnips, as pasture crops for pigs. Artichokes
as pig pasture should be planted in the spring and
the crop is then ready for use about the end of
September. The best way of harvesting them is
to let the pigs do the work. In Utah a test was
made of the rapidity and the economy of gain in
feeding hogs on pasture, in pens and in yards. In
this test, a field of alfalfa pasture was eagerly eaten,
but it appears that such pasture furnishes simply
a maintenance ration for nogs and that grain must
be given in order to secure rapid gains in weight.
Pigs kept on alfalfa pasture from spring until fall
gradually ceased to gain in weight after the first of
October. This indicates clearly the necessity of
feeding grain even under the best pasture conditions
in order to prevent a check in the growth of the
pigs. Since, however, alfalfa pasture is at least
a maintenance ration it may be used economically
in pork production in combination with a small
amount of grain. As compared with pigs which
were fed in pens there was a noticeable difference
in favor of those which were allowed the freedom
of pastures. Pigs on pasture with a small grain
ration produced gains at the least cost and witn the
greatest rapidity. It has been demonstrated be-
yond question in many of the far western states
that alfalfa and sugar beets are a highly profitable
ration in pork production, when fed in connection
with a limited ration of grain. In Kansas, a test
was made of fattening three lots of hogs, one on

FARM ANIMALS 213

alfalfa pasture, one on rape pasture and one with-
out pasture. It was shown in this experiment that on
alfalfa pasture three hundred pounds of grain were
required for one hundred pounds of pork, on rape
pasture three hundred and one pounds and without
pasture three hundred and seventy-one pounds.
The daily gain of the hogs was fastest on alfalfa
pasture and least in the lot without pasture. The
pork-producing value of alfalfa in this test appeared
to be about $25 per acre. Green peas also consti-
tute a valuable pasture crop for pigs when supple-
mented with a small ration of shorts and sldm
milk. The black-eyed marrowfat is a valuable
variety for this purpose. When pastured in this
manner one-fourth acre of peas is sufficient to
carry nine mature hogs for two months or more.
The pork-producing capacity of peas is about $60
per acre when grazed under proper conditions.

In general pigs like other animals waste a con-
siderable portion of pasture, if allowed to graze
freely on it. It is customary, therefore, to graze
them in hurdles, using a system of movable fences
so as to confine them at will. This system
however has the objection that the crop may be
injured by too close grazing and tramping if the
hogs are not moved at sufficiently frequent in-
tervals. When grazed in the hurdle system it
has been found that an acre of peas will main-
tain about four thousand pounds of live hogs for
a period of two weeks and produce about 170
pounds of pork during this time. Peas are
usually sown mixed with oats as a hog pasture and
this combination is a very successful one, since
the oats serve as a sort of nurse crop and assist
in holding the peas off the ground.

Rape is generally recognized as an excellent

214 FARM ANIMALS

crop for hog pasture. Not all experiments with
this crop have given equally successful results.
In Wisconsin rape was found to be a better hog
pasture than clover pasture and pigs made gains
on a much less quantity of grain than was required
for the same gain on clover pasture. For hog
pasture it is recommended that rape be sown in
drills about thirty inches apart and that the hogs
should not be turned upon the crop until the
plants are about a foot high. Rape, however, is
not sufficient by itself, but a fairly good sized
grain ration must be fed in combination with it.
From Utah comes a less favorable report con-
cerning rape. Pigs appeared to like it after a
few days' trial, but the gains which they made on
rape pasture were small and the amount of grain
required for each pound of pork produced was
too large. Moreover, the crop was greatly in-
jured by attempting to hurdle the pigs, therefore,
the total productiveness of the rape crop was much
reduced. In many parts of the country a succo-
tash mixture as a pasture crop for hogs is much
in favor. For this purpose one mixture quite
strongly recommended consists of one peck each
of corn, peas and oats and six quarts of barley
sown at the rate of two and one-half bushels per
acre.

If we consider the economy of feeding in each
case, of course, the final test of efficiency in this
matter must be based on which combination of
pasture and grain gives the best results. The
nature of pasture will of course vary according to
the locality. Dwarf Essex rape, field peas, vetches,
soy-beans, alfalfa, and clover are valuable crops
for the production of pasture for hogs. Pasture
not only furnishes a great amount of nutri-

FARM ANIMALS 215

tious feed for hogs at an economic rate, but
serves to maintain a proper state of the digestive
organs in pigs and furnishes them with the needed
amount of exercise. In some instances where
pen feeding and pasture feeding have been com-
pared, the most economic gains have been made
by feeding pigs in pens. The majority of experi-
ments, however, show clearly that hogs must
have sufficient exercise to enable them to maintain
their appetite. Under ordinary circumstances no
extra amount of care or feeding can take the
place of this natural requirement.

Roots. — As already stated a large variety of
roots and fruits may be profitably fed to pigs.
According to extensive experiments by Canadian
feeders who have given much attention to this
subject roots and similar foods are rated in the
following order according to their palatability
and value as pork producers. Artichokes, po-
tatoes, sugar beets, mangels, carrots, turnips,
apples, pumpkins, kohl rabi, cabbage and ensi-
lage. These feeds, while furnishing much val-
uable nutriment and succulence and aiding the
digestion, must be fed to the extent of five hun-
dred to one thousand pounds to equal one hundred
pounds of mixed meal in the production of pork.
Naturally, only spoiled or windfall apples will be
used in feeding pigs. Similarly with cabbage,
the best part of the crop is too expensive for feed-
ing. Other roots, however, may be fed to hogs
under ordinary conditions with profitable returns.
Apples merely constitute a maintenance ration for
swine. In Oregon it was found that three shoats
eight months old ate one thousand, one hundred
and nineteen pounds of apples in fifteen days.
At the end of that time, however, they began to

216 FARM ANIMALS

lose weight. When grain was added to the ration
the pigs kept in excellent condition and the di-

§estive value of apples is thereby made apparent,
ugar beets have been perhaps more extensively
tested as a hog food than any other common
root. In Utah hogs have been found to gain in a
very satisfactory manner on a ration of two pounds
of bran per day and sugar beets ad libitum.
Sugar beets may be profitably used as a part of
the ration for pig feed during the winter months
throughout the pork-producing area. In Mon-
tana when two sets of pigs were fed for the purpose
of comparison, one lot receiving a grain ration
only and the other receiving sugar beets in ad-
dition to the grain, the pigs which received the
sugar beets made a slightly larger daily gain and
produced pork one cent per pound cheaper than
those which received grain only. If sugar beets
are fed to hogs they may be harvested and fed
whole or the hogs may be turned into the field and
allowed to do their own harvesting. Very little
of the crop is wasted by the latter method and all
of the expense and labor of harvesting is obviously
saved. On all farms which are conveniently
located to sugar factories or to which the pulp
may be shipped by rail, sugar beet pulp may be
fed with profit in fattening hogs. The value of
pulp for feeding is nearly equal, pound for pound,
to that of sugar beets. Beet pulp should not be
fed in too large quantities. In Colorado the pulp
proved to be a profitable addition to the ration
of growing pigs and also to the grain ration at the
first period of fattening. The feeding value of
sugar beets and also of the pulp appeared to be
about $1.50 per ton. The pulp, however, served
the same purpose as the beets and could be ob-

FARM ANIMALS 217

tained at a slightly less expense. Pigs do not
always take kindly to beet pulp and it may be
necessary to mix some meal or grain with it in
order to induce them to eat it.

Skim Milk. — All dairy by-products may be
very profitably utilized in making pork. Pigs
are particularly well adapted to transforming
these products into meat. They make gains as
fast or faster than young calves and do not require
as careful attention to the condition of the milk as
is the case with calves. Skim milk may, there-
fore, be fed sweet or sour and whey and butter-
milk may also be utilized in feeding pigs. Much
attention has been given to the question of the
proportion between skim milk and corn meal or
other grain in feeding gigs. The rate in which
these materials are fed in actual practice on the
farm varies greatly. Thus, in Tennessee skim
milk was fed at the rate of three to five pounds
to one pound of corn meal. In these tests skim
milk appeared to have a feeding value of twenty-
eight cents per one hundred pounds. Since corn
is a highly carbonaceous grain, the protein neces-
sary to balance the ration may be very easily
secured in skim milk and these two feeds seem to
make an almost ideal mixture for pork production.
The injurious effects of exclusive corn feeding are
entirely done away with by adding skim milk to
the ration and the strength and vigor of the pigs
are maintained at a high point and they do not
get off feed. Moreover, the meat of hogs fed on
this ration has a most desirable flavor and shows
a proper marbling and intermixture of fat and
lean. The profit from feeding a mixture of skim
milk and corn meal is always far greater than can be
obtained by feeding corn meal alone. At Cornell Uni-

218 FARM ANIMALS

versity the most profitable gains in pigs were made
when skim milk and corn meal were fed in the pro-
portion of one to three. Various other tests were
made, however, during subsequent years and it
has been found that a considerable variation may
prevail in this respect. Thus, corn meal may be
economically fed with from three to eight times
its weight of skim milk. It is ordinarily safe to
feed skim milk in as great a quantity as the pigs
will readily consume. Wherever attention has
been given to determining the actual feeding
value of skim milk in the northern central states it
has been found that it is worth fifteen cents or more
per one hundred pounds in the production of
pork. The more skim milk pigs will eat readily
the more grain can be saved in compounding
the ration and for this reason the more economic
is pork production under the circumstances. Skim
milk may not only be fed with corn meal, but with
any grain ration such as a mixture of corn and
wheat meal, soy-bean meal, linseed meal, gluten
meal, or animal feeds. In a series of tests in
which skim milk was fed in amounts varying from
three to twelve pounds for each pound of corn
meal or mixture of corn and other meal, it was
found that the gain per head per day on corn
meal alone was one-third the gain of pigs which
received skim milk, corn meal and wheat meal,
while the cost of each pound of gain was much
higher on the exclusive corn meal ration and the
profit about one-seventh of that obtained from
the skim milk and meal ration. As already in-
dicated the consumption of skim milk reduces the
amount of grain necessary, so that the economy
of production is much greater. Rations contain-
ing skim milk have been fed to pigs throughout

FARM ANIMALS 219

the country and everywhere give very satisfactory
results not only in the cost of production, but
in the gains of pigs. The same story of the great
value of skim milk comes from the southern
states, Arizona, and other parts of the southwest,
Oregon and Washington, the central dairy states
and Canada. On the basis of Canadian ex-
perience, it is recommended that skim milk be
fed in rations of five pounds for each pig daily.
In Canada skim milk lias been found to possess
a feeding value about one-fifth as great as that
of corn.

Molasses. — While cheap molasses and various
other sugar cane and sugar beet products are com-
ing into great value in feeding horses, mules and
steers these materials do not give much promise
as profitable pig feeds. To be sure they have
not been thoroughly tested with pigs, but in one
experiment where a pen of five pigs received
eight pounds of corn meal, twelve pounds of molas-
ses and twenty pounds of skim milk daily the pigs
soon got off feed and some of them died. The
molasses seemed actually to exercise a poisonous
effect upon them and it became necessary to leave
out this part of the ration. Since there are so
many other excellent feeds known to produce
pork under economic conditions, it appears at
present, at least, to be unnecessary to attempt
to use molasses as a pig feed.

Tankage and Other Animal Materials. — Of all
domestic mammals pigs make the best use of
animal feeds. Every one who has been near
country slaughter-houses knows that a consid-
erable number of pigs are constantly kept about
such places and fed on the offal of slaughtered
animals. They make very satisfactory gains on

220 FARM ANIMALS

such material, but objections may be made to
the practice on a sanitary basis since pigs fed in
this way may become tuberculous or infested
with trichina. Tankage as it comes from the
slaughter-houses is variable in quality, but always
contains a high percentage of protein and is,
therefore, suitable for balancing rations of corn.
This material is fed in large quantities and al-
ways with profitable results. It may be fed at
the rate of a pound to five or ten pounds of corn
meal. When tankage is added to a ration con-
taining corn meal the cost of production is di-
minished by nearly two cents a pound. More-
over, tankage does not show any injurious effects
on the quality of the meat and, in fact, the pork
of tankage fed hogs is firmer than that from hogs
which receive only corn ; and the strength of bone
and general finish of hogs when receiving tank-
age is of the very best.

Attention has already been frequently called
to the 'fact that corn meal is not a satisfactory
ration in producing pork. The necessary pro-
tein for balancing corn may be obtained not only
from nitrogenous grains and leguminous forage
plants, but from animal meals. We, thus, have
other sources of protein for adding to the grain to
give strength and vigor to hogs during the fat-
tening period and to prevent them from getting
off feed. In some cases tankage does not give
quite as favorable results in pork production as
middlings or soy-beans, but it is ordinarily a very
valuable and successful feed for pigs. As already
indicated tankage is only one of the various
animal feeds which may be fed to pigs. Dif-
ferent packers furnish different grades of tankage
and in addition to tankage proper we may use

FARM ANIMALS 221

beef scraps, bone meal, animal meals, and various
other animal products.

The Cause of Soft Pork. — Nearly all feeds have
an effect upon the softness or firmness of bacon
or pork in addition to their feeding value. It
is necessary to give some attention to this in order
to secure pork of the highest market quality.
The standard of firmness for pork varies some-
what in different parts of the country. Thus, in
the southern states corn is frequently referred to
as producing a firm pork as compared with chufas,
peanuts and various other feeds which are known
to produce a very soft pork and lard. Cotton
seed meal, however, is well-known as a hardening
feed. It not only produces a firm quality of
lard and pork, but also has the same effect upon
tallow, butter and other animal products. The
Canadians have given more attention than have
we to the production of a fine grade of bacon
according to the requirements of the English
and Danish markets. The soft pork problem
has, therefore, been extensively investigated by Can-
adian hog raisers. According to their experience
and also that of American feeders throughout
the corn belt corn produces a pork which is too
soft. It is necessary, therefore, to add some
nitrogenous grain, skim milk or some other ma-
terial to balance the corn and secure firm bacon.
Among the feeds which have the tendency to pro-
duce firm bacon we may mention barley, blood
meal, bran, clover hay, wheat, oats, oat meal,
turnips, rye, shorts, skim milk, speltz, emmer,
distiller's grains, tankage, whey, and whole milk.
The common farm feeds which have the oppo-
site tendency or produce soft pork include peas,
buckwheat, city refuse, corn and gluten feeds.

222 FARM ANIMALS

While both corn and peas have a decided tendency
to soften pork rendering it less valuable as bacon
or for the production of fine cuts of meat
this tendency may be overcome by feeding skim
milk. A mixture of oats, peas and barley in
equal parts produces an excellent quality of pork.
Skim milk may also be added to this mixture.
If fed in connection with a good ration, rape,
pumpkins, artichokes, sugar beets, turnips and
mangels do not injure the quality of the pork. In
fact, the value and the firmness of the pork may
be slightly increased by feeding these roots.
This has been found to be particularly true where
roots have been added to a mixed grain ration.
Perhaps the best proportion is obtained by feeding
roots in quantity equal to the grain ration. As
already indicated, the desirable amount of succu-
lence for pigs may be obtained from pasture,
silage, or from soiling crops as well as from roots.
A moderate amount of clover, vetch, alfalfa and
similar crops has a beneficial effect on the quality
of the pork. In addition, the softness of bacon
may be due not only to feeding an improper ration,
such as corn meal or peas exclusively, but to too
little exercise, lack of thriftiness in the pigs, lack
of finish and any check which may occur in the
process of fattening. As already indicated, it
nas been found in the South that the melting
point of lard from pigs which are fed large quan-
tities of chuf as and peanuts is much lower than
when they receive corn in addition to their other
grain. Thus, in Arkansas, the melting point of
lard from pigs fed on chufas and peanuts was
ninety-three degrees F. and on corn one hundred
and one degrees F.

Various feeds not only have an effect on the soft-

FARM ANIMALS 223

ness, value and quality of the meat, but on the
strength of bone in hogs. This is an important
matter from a practical standpoint since hogs are
heavy animals as compared with the size of their
legs and are, therefore, particularly susceptible to
bone fractures in transportation. The fracture
of* a leg in transportation is equivalent to the loss
of the hog, since they can be sold for little or
nothing. The meat is greatly injured in appear-
ance in the region of the bone fracture. Numerous
feeding tests have been made to determine the
difference in strength of bone in hogs fed different
rations. After such experiments are carried to a
conclusion the thigh bones are taken and the break-
ing strength determined in a manner similar to
the method adopted in the case of timber tests.
In such tests, for example, it has been found that
the strength of bone in hogs fed corn and skim
milk is sufficient to support four times the weight
of the body, while on corn and beef meal it is
sufficient to support eight times the bodyweight.
Beef meal and other animal feeds have a striking
effect in increasing the strength of the bone.
On the other hand, exclusive feeding of corn
will so weaken the bones on account of the lack
of sufficient mineral matters that spontaneous
fractures occur in the legs in the ordinary move-
ments of the pig in getting up and down and in
walking about the yard.

It is a matter of some practical interest to know
the amount of milk secreted by the sow. From
careful tests carried out to determine this point it
appears that Berkshire sows yield about six pounds
01 milk daily, Poland Chinas five pounds, and
razorbacks slightly more than five pounds. The
total amount of milk yielded by the sow during

224 FARM ANIMALS

an average period of lactation varies from four
hundred to five hundred and thirty pounds with
an average of four hundred and sixty-five pounds.
The milk of sows varies greatly in its composition.
Thus, the fat may range from four to twelve per
cent., but is always higher than in cow's milk.
In connection with the amount of milk yielded
by sows, the question is frequently argued whether
greater gains will in the aggregate be made from
small or large litters. As a rule, pigs in large
litters are more thrifty and show better appetite
than those in small litters. Some of the pigs in
large litters, however, may be killed by the sow
so that the total production of pork is somewhat
reduced. The production of large litters in-
dicates unusual vigour on the part of the sow and
this quality is usually transmitted to the off spring.
The milk production of sows has been found to
vary considerably according to their temperament
and feeding, in much the same way as is observed
in cows.

It is sometimes thought that sows should not
be overfed before the pigs are weaned and that
no effort should be made in this way to hasten
the growth of the pigs. It is possible, however,
to force the sow to such an extent as to increase
greatly the rate of growth in the pigs before
weaning and such extra feeding has Ibeen found
to be an economical practice. Ordinarily when
this is done the amount of food consumed by the
sow and utilized by her in maintaining her own
weight and in increasing the weight of the pigs is
about the same as that required by the pigs after
weaning.

The proper age for weaning pigs is eight weeks.
The practice on this point varies with different

FARM ANIMALS 225

farmers from seven to ten weeks. It is ordinarily
best to take away two or three of the strongest
pigs and thus gradually remove them from the
sow so that no trouble arises in the way of inflam-
mation of the udder.

The sow may be depended upon to carry her
pigs ten weeks, the actual time varying from
one hundred to one hundred and fifteen days.
The weight of pigs at birth varies from one and
one-half to three pounds with an average of
two and one-half pounds. The total weight of
litters from prolific sows is usually about 15
pounds.

Age in Relation to Cost and Rate of Gain. — It
is a general law which holds true for all domestic
animals that less food is required for a given
amount of gain in young animals than in adults.
The amount of food required for each pound of gain
increases uniformly with the increase in age. Con-
versely the rate of gain decreases as the age in-
creases and consequently the economy of gain de-
creases with the age of the animal. This fact should
not be surprising, since it is well-known that the
digestion is much more active in young animals
than in adult animals and, therefore, the food is
better utilized. Not only are the rate and economy
of gain decreased by the age of pigs, but they also
depend to a considerable extent on the length
of the fattening period. No animal can be suc-
cessfully fed beyond a certain period, which is usu-
ally quite limited. In cattle it may range from
four to six months, but in pigs it is considera-
bly shorter. As a rule, pigs make their best gains
during the first month of fattening and after that
considerable difficulty is experienced in producing
economic gains. In other words, they are more

226 FARM ANIMALS

apt to get off feed and consume more feed for a
given amount of gain until a point is reached
where their feeding can be accomplished only
with an absolute loss. It is, therefore, apparent
that the rate and economy of gain diminishes
as the length of the feeding period increases.
As a rule, this period should not last more than
three months. In fact, some hogs may be brought
to an excellent condition in fifty or sixty days.
This is particularly true if the pigs are kept
growing without any check in their development
from weaning time until five to ten months of
age when they may be sold for pork.

In the western states, where the extent of the
Chinese population is sufficient to create a market
for young pigs, considerable attention is given
to this business. The pigs are forced by heavy
feeding of the sow before weaning and are then
fed as heavy grain rations as they will eat until
they are about three months old. After rapidly
forcing them to this time they may be sold at
a very profitable figure.

Water. — The amount of water which is usually
required by pigs is a matter which has not been
generally studied. As a rule, pigs will drink
two or three pounds of water for each pound of
grain consumed. Since, however, few farmers
furnish water to pigs in troughs or other receptacles
where it can be measured this is not a matter of
great importance. It is desirable, however, that
more attention be given to this point and that the
quality of the water furnished to hogs should be
better. It requires but little thought to convince
one that the practice of allowing hogs to wallow
in mire and secure their only water from this
source is very reprehensible.

FARM ANIMALS 227

THE RAZORBACK AS COMPARED WITH THE PURE
BREEDS AND GRADES

The quality of all animals on the average farm
is undergoing a gradual improvement. We, there-
fore, see fewer razorbacks than formerly except
in some of the less cultivated parts of the Soutn.
The razorback hog differs from the improved
breeds not only in general form of the body, length
of the leg, shape of the head, but also to some
extent in the length of the intestines and its general
capacity for utilizing food in an economic manner.
In a number of tests in which razorbacks have
been compared directly with pure breeds like
the Poland China and Berkshire it appears that
it costs about one-half cent per pound more to
produce pork on razorbacks than on the pure
breeds or on crosses between razorbacks and
pure breeds. In the case of skim milk it appears
that razorbacks are capable of utilizing this food
in as economic a manner or even more successfully
than pure breeds. This may be due to the fact,
however, that razorbacks do not do well on con-
centrated grain rations of great size. They always
require an abundance of pasture and more bulky
food than do pure breeds. Razorbacks are gen-
erally objectionable for several reasons. They
do not fatten uniformly. Some may put on weight
rapidly and others slowly so that a pen of them
cannot be kept in the same condition of fatness.
Then, too, the form varies greatly as well as the
firmness of the meat. Moreover, they cannot
be forced to as large size as is easily accomplished
with pure breeds. There is, therefore, no excuse
for raising them since pure bred boars of excellent
quality can be obtained for $25. The claim

228 FARM ANIMALS

is sometimes made for the razorback animal
that he is more resistant to hog cholera and other
infectious diseases than pure breeds. This matter,
however, is a doubtful point. It has not been
shown by experiments and it appears that if pure
breeds are properly fed and allowed exercise
under sanitary conditions that no great difference
in susceptibility to infectious diseases can be
observed between the pure breeds and razor-
backs.

When it comes to a comparison of different
pure breeds great difference of opinion prevails,
depending on the particular purpose for which
the breed is raised. On the basis of the experience
of Canadian hog raisers it appears that in economy
of gain the pure breeds stand in the following
order: Berkshire, Tamworth, Yorkshire, Duroc
Jersey, Chester White; while for the production
of bacon the breeds stand in the order, Yorkshire,
Tamworth, Berkshire, Chester White, Duroc Jer-
sey and Poland China. In a feeding period of
four months, the Canadians found the greatest
gain in the Yorkshire and the least in the Tam-
worth. The relative position in which the breeds
stand in different tests is, however, not always
the same as shown by experiments at different
times by the same feeder. The Yorkshire and
Tamworth are obviously the best breeds for the
production of bacon for export while in most tests
the Berkshire seems to be at the top in economy
with which feed is utilized. A number of cross-
bred hogs have been found to be very desirable
for the production of bacon. Thus, crosses
between the Tamworth and the Poland China
are very fine animals for this purpose. In fact,
according to many experiments, crosses appear

FARM ANIMALS 229

to be superior to pure breeds in the economy
with which feed is utilized. Thus, in Kansas,
crosses between the Poland China and Duroc
Jersey, Berkshire, and Tamworth produced a
pound of gain on less grain than pure bred Poland
China, Duroc Jersey or Berkshire.

The dressed weight of the different breeds
varies somewhat, but does not differ uniformly
with the breed. In one series of experiments on
this point the dressed weight was highest in the
Poland China, being eighty-three and five-tenths
per cent, and also lowest in poor specimens of the
same breed. The dressed weight of the Berkshire
was eighty-two and nine-tenths per cent., Duroc
Jersey eighty-two per cent, and Tamworth eighty-
one per cent. The weight of the hams in the
same test varied from thirty-four pounds in the
Poland China to ten pounds in small Duroc
Jerseys with an average of twenty-five pounds
in all breeds tested. The Berkshire usually
shows more lean and less fat than the Poland
China in the development of the hams and shoul-
ders.

Some difference of opinion prevails regarding
the value of runts. Unfavorable results with
runts are sometimes due to not giving them a
chance, it being taken for granted that they are
not worth wasting feed upon. It occasionally
happens that runt pigs can be bought for a very
low price and when well-cared for and fed suitable
rations they make profitable returns. In one
test with runt pigs in Kansas one hundred pounds
of gain were made on every three hundred and
thirty pounds of grain consumed and this result
is equal to or better than the result obtained in
ordinary pig feeding.

230 FARM ANIMALS

BREEDS

A few descriptive notes may now be added on
the general characters of the different breeds of
hogs which are raised in the United States, The
intimate connection of the hog and corn industry
is clearly shown by the fact that the area of the pro-
duction of fine hogs is almost co-extensive with
that of the corn belt. In fact, six breeds of
improved hogs originated in the corn belt of the
United States. These are Chester White, Ohio
Improved Chester, Poland China, Cheshire, and
Victoria. The breeds of hogs are frequently
classified on the basis of their color. If this is
done the white breeds are Chester White, Ohio
Improved Chester, Yorkshire, Cheshire, Victoria,
and Suffolk. The black breeds are Poland China,
Berkshire, Hampshire, and Essex, and the red
breeds are Duroc Jersey and Tamworth.

The Poland China. — This breed originated in
Ohio about twenty-five years ago from a mixture
and improvement of the Big China, Poland and
Byfield breeds. The Berkshire was also mixed
with the Poland China. The present name for
the breed was finally adopted in 1872. At first
this hog was black and white spotted, but at present
the color is black with white on the feet, face
and tip of the tail. The face is somewhat dished.
The breed at present is about equal to the Berk-
shire, matures early and is readily adaptable to
all climatic conditions. It is the extreme type
of the large lard hog, boars weighing six hundred
pounds and sows five hundred pounds at two
years of age. Occasionally the Poland China
is not so prolific as it should be, but the weak
points of the breed are being rapidly overcome.

FARM ANIMALS 231

The Berkshire originated in England from a
mixture of native and imported breeds. The
original color was reddish with black spots, but
at present the color is black with white spots
like the Poland China. The face is similar to
the Poland China, but the ears are short and
erect and the neck exceedingly short. The bone
of the legs is fairly strong, but not equal to that
of the Poland China. In size also they are some-
what inferior to the latter, boars weighing about
four hundred and fifty pounds and sows four hun-
dred pounds at two years of age. The weak points
of the Berkshire are not serious, but it has suffered
somewhat from being forced too much in feeding
so that its fertility is somewhat diminished.

The Hampshire or Thin-Rind, also known in
its earlier history in this country as the McKay
or Belt breed, came from the Hampshire region
of England and then through Canada into New
York, Kentucky and the corn belt. The color
is black with the exception of a white belt, which
encircles the body around the shoulders, including
the fore legs. It is a prolific breed, the sows are
good mothers, they are excellent rustlers with
good, strong legs. The Hampshire matures early
and it is claimed for the breed that the weight
is chiefly distributed in the better cuts of meat.

The Essex also comes from England and was
introduced into the United States about 1850.
At maturity this pig may weigh six hundred
pounds and the breed matures very early. The
quality of the meat is good and the Essex is a
desirable hog for crossing on other breeds. The
color is black, the face small and broad, the
ears erect, but drooping with age, and the hair
fine and very free from bristles.

232 FARM ANIMALS

The Chester White originated in Pennsylvania
and the name was at first given to nearly all hogs
of a white color. Some crossing with the York
shire, therefore, probably took place. As a rule
the Chester White is not equal in quality to the
Poland China. The strong points of the breed
are its grazing ability, hardiness and fertility.
In size it is about equal to the Poland China.
Within the past few years the Ohio Improved
Chester has originated by selection and improve-
ment, based on the Chester White. This breed
has become quite widely distributed and it is
claimed that some of the weaknesses of the original
Chester White have been eliminated.

The Yorkshire came from England and is already
quite generally distributed throughout the country.
The large Yorkshires are perhaps longer than
any other breed of hogs, but not so broad as the
Chester White. They mature at a medium early
age and the quality of the meat is excellent.
This breed is the standard one for the production
of bacon and in their length of body they form
the required bacon type.

The Cheshire originated in New York and has
been maintained pure since 1873. They are of
medium size, mature early, are fairly good grazers,
and are medium breeders. The color must be
uniformly white without any black hairs.

The Victoria breed also originated in New York
and Indiana. At present it shows a tolerably wide
distribution in the country. The Victoria stands
next to the Poland China in size, but in this point
they are not uniform. They mature at a medium
early age and the quality of the meat is good.
The color is white with an occasional black spot
on the skin. They are not so large nor so uniform
in size as are the Berkshire.

FARM ANIMALS 233

The Suffolk originated in England and has
obtained some foothold in the United States.
They do not reach a large size and produce rather
small litters. The Suffolks mature early and
may be marketed in a fairly good condition at
six months. The legs are rather long with a
long, rather cylindrical body.

The Tamworths originated in England and
for a long time were not largely distributed outside
of their own country. Within recent years they
have been imported quite extensively into the
United States and Canada. In size the Tamworths
are about equal to the large Yorkshire. They
mature at a medium early age. The chief points
claimed for the Tamworth are that they are
unexcelled for fertility and the quality of the
meat for bacon production, the Tamworth and
Yorkshire being the two chief bacon breeds.
The color is a reddish chestnut which darkens
somewhat with age.

The Duroc Jersey originated in New York,
apparently from a mixture of the Duroc and
Jersey breeds. They are comparatively small in
size but are good rustlers, mature early and show
a relatively large proportion of lean meat. The
Duroc Jerseys are not equal to the Berkshires
for bacon production but otherwise the two
breeds do not differ in a pronounced manner.

So much for the chief characters of the breeds
with which we have to deal in pork production.
In general it should be remembered that the white
breeds are more limited in distribution than the
black or red breeds for the reason that in the
southern states the white breeds are affected with
sun scald and therefore cannot compare with the
black and red breeds.

234 FARM ANIMALS

Diseases of Pigs. — The farmer, of course, is
chiefly interested in the positive side of the pig
business, that is in the production of pork. In
order to make a great success of this, however,
it is necessary to become acquainted with the
various drawbacks which may be brought by
disease. Pigs, like other farm animals, are subject
to a variety of diseases, but not all of them are
of great seriousness. The chief drawbacks to
hog raising throughout the corn belt are found
in hog cholera and swine plague. These two
diseases, or, as it appears from recent investigations,
three diseases, there being two forms of hog
cholera, sometimes occur separately or are found
together in the same hog, and when once the
infection has become established on the farm
it is somewhat difficult to get rid of it. Hog
cholera is an infectious disease which attacks
chiefly the intestines and corresponds most closely
to typhoid fever in man. The appetite suddenly
disappears, a high fever is seen and the bowels
may be constipated or be affected with a profuse
diarrhea. The affected hogs often hide them-
selves in corners of the yard or crawl under straw
or rubbish. A red coloration may appear on the
skin of the ears, neck and flanks. The animals
may die in two or three days or may linger for
a month or longer and the mortality is eighty per
cent, or higher.

Swine Plague differs from hog cholera in that
the chief seat of the disease is in the lungs so that
the disease may be described as more nearly
pneumonia and the infection takes place through
the air while in hog cholera it takes place in the
food. Otherwise the two diseases resemble one
another very closely and, in fact, sometimes can-

FARM ANIMALS 235

not be distinguished except by microscopic study.
No remedy is known for either hog cholera or
swine plague and thus far vaccination for these
diseases has not given uniformly good results.
The work of the Bureau of Animal Industry
and various experiment stations along this line
gives promise of a satisfactory solution of the
problem.

In order to avoid infection with this disease
it is desirable to watch the food and water supply
carefully and to quarantine hogs from suspected
localities for thirty days before allowing them to
run with the farm herd. It is also a good plan
to move the hog yard from time to time to different
parts of the farm. In this way the old yards
may be plowed up and cultivated and the hogs are
kept in clean quarters and the filth is not allowed
to accumulate indefinitely.

Hogs often become infested with lice and other
parasitic insects, as well as with the mange.
Mange appears first on the head and later, if
untreated, may spread over the rest of the body.
This disease may become so serious that it is
desirable to dip the hogs every month or so during
the warm season. The materials which are most
frequently used for this purpose are zenoleum,
chloronaptholeum, and lime and sulphur. The
first two remedies may be used in a solution of
three to four per cent. Hogs infested with lice
may also be sprayed or dipped in a mechanical
mixture of water and kerosene or crude petroleum.
Some hog raisers have found a successful device
in keeping rubbing posts smeared with crude
petroleum. In this way the hogs treat themselves-
Hogs may also become infested with kidney
worm and various intestinal worms and lung

236 FARM ANIMALS

worms wnich are usually not of great importance
and also with, at least, two parasitic worms which
infest man. These are the hog measle worm and
trichina. Neither of these parasites, however, is
a serious matter in this country for the reason
that the habit of eating raw pork is fortunately
very limited and both of these parasites are de-
stroyed by the cooking of the meat. In order to
prevent the infestation of hogs with trichina it
is merely necessary to feed them wholesome
materials and not allow them to eat offal and
rats around slaughter-houses.

In some localities young pigs may become badly
infected with canker sore mouth. This disease
usually appears soon after birth and up to the age
of six weeks. Blisters appear in the mouth, fol-
lowed by scabs and ulcers in the mouth, on the
jaws, and as the disease progresses, on the head
and neck. A good remedy for this trouble has
been found in permanganate of potash in a solu-
tion in water at the rate of one ounce to a gallon.
The solution is placed in a pail and the pig's
head immersed for a few seconds, the operation
being repeated frequently.

Occasionally considerable difficulty is expe-
rienced from sows eating their pigs. This habit
most frequently develops in the case of large
litters and some breeders believe that a difference
is noticeable in the different breeds in this respect.
The observations along this line, however, are
somewhat unreliable. The causes which are usu-
ally mentioned for this vicious habit on the part
of sows include keeping them in pens without
suitable exercise, use of too much animal food,
digestive troubles, constipation and inflammation
of the udder. The use of animal food cannot

OF THE

UW/VERSJTY

OF

FARM ANIMALS 237

be an important cause. Many experiments in
which large quantities of animal meal have been
used have shown that these foods have no tendency
to cause sows to eat their pigs. Apparently,
one of the chief causes of this trouble is found
in the inflammation of the udder or soreness due
to the biting of the pigs or to the bruising of the
organ upon sticks or other obstacles. At any
rate, the habit has often been checked in appar-
ently vicious sows by rubbing the udder with a
cocaine solution containing five per cent, of cocaine
and lanolin or some other greasy material.

CHAPTER VI.

SHEEP

During the past twenty-five years the sheep
industry in the United States has been more
profitable perhaps than any other line of animal
industry, with the exception of pork raising. This
is due to a number of causes. In the first place,
sheep may be raised under nearly all climates.
They withstand cold weather better perhaps than
any other domestic animal and are able to care
for themselves on the range under what would
be disastrous conditions for either cattle or hogs.
While it has been often asserted that sheep are
not adapted to the general farming conditions
of the southern states, recent experiments seem
to indicate that fine profits can be secured from
sheep raising in Louisiana and the Gulf states.
Sheep are raised for two general purposes and
accordingly two types have been developed in
breeding them, viz., the wool type and the mutton
type. These two types have been necessary and
have been developed for the purposes of adapt-
ing sheep to different climatic and market con-
ditions. Thus, in the eastern states or where the
country is thickly settled and a large demand is
made for mutton it pays handsomely to raise sheep
for the mutton without regard to the value of the
wool. Under this system of sheep farming the
greatest profits may be made from marketing the

Photograph furnished by H.

DELAINE MERINO RAM.

This breed produces the familiar Delaine wool.

Photograph furnished by E. M. Moore.

VON HOMEYER RAMBOUILLET RAM.

The popular Merino of the range country.

Photograph furnished by E. M. Moore.

VON HOMEYER RAMBOUILLET EWES.

Photograph furnished by y. T.

YEARLING LINCOLN EWE — THE WOOL IS AS LONG AS

MOHAIR.

FARM ANIMALS 239

wethers at an early age and feeding the old ewes
for mutton as soon as they are past the age when
they can be profitably kept for breeding pur-
poses. If mutton is the main point for which the
sheep is raised the size, form and quality of the
meat are obviously the main points sought by
the sheep raiser.

On the other hand, throughout the western
range states very different conditions prevail
with regard to the sheep industry, and this has
led to different methods of sheep raising. In
general an attempt has been made for many years
in the western range states to obtain a sheep
which may be referred to as a general purpose
sheep. This sheep has been bred so as to produce
a fairly good mutton form of reasonable size and
at the same time as much wool as is possible with
good mutton development. In securing this gen-
eral purpose sheep, it has been the habit of the
sheep raisers throughout the northern and cen-
tral Rocky Mountain region to breed back and
forth, alternately crossing with coarse wool bucks
and fine wool bucks so as to prevent the fleece
from becoming either too fine or too coarse. For this
purpose two flocks of bucks are maintained, usually
Lincolns or Cotswolds for the coarse type and
Merinos for the fine wool. As soon as the lambs
show a too coarse wool they are bred to Merino
rams in order to bring the wool of the succeeding
generation back to the requisite fineness. Along
the Pacific coast and throughout the Southwest
and Mexico, the Merino has been the prevailing
type of sheep from early historical times and it
may be said also that the Merino has recently gained
ground in the region where a grade sheep with me-
dium fine wool has heretofore been preferred. The

240 FARM ANIMALS

great prevalence of the Merino in this region is
due to the fact that the main purpose of raising
sheep in that region is to obtain wool. Sheep men
have gradually realized that the greatest profits
from sheep under their conditions are to be ob-
tained from wool and not from mutton. The
distance of the chief sheep ranges from markets
is so great as to prevent the sheep men from real-
izing attractive prices from shipping sheep to the
Chicago market or other sheep markets. To be
sure, these sheep may be fattened on the native
grasses and sold in the local market, but the de-
mand is not sufficient to encourage a large number
of feeders to go into the business.

This may be considered as the usual point of view
of the western sheep man. A large number of sheep
raisers in the West, however, have come to the
conclusion that profits may be made from feeding
sheep and shipping them to the eastern markets
and these men have actually made good profits
from feeding sheep and shipping them on this
basis. The majority of the western sheep raisers
have agreed, however, that it does not pay to
compete in the main markets with the sheep
raisers of the East and they have, therefore, settled
down to the business of producing wool rather
than a high grade of mutton and of considering
mutton as a secondary matter in the sheep busi-
ness. If this view continues to prevail there is
obviously little direct competition between the
East and the West in the matter of sheep raising,
for the West would thus continue to produce
sheep for wool and the eastern sheep raisers would
continue to feed their sheep on forcing rations,
thus, giving them the finest market finish and
getting them on the market at times when the

FARM ANIMALS 241

Westerner would really not be in a position to
compete.

Trie business of sheep raising in the western
states has been and still is greatly handicapped
by range wars and trouble between the sneep
raisers and the cattle raisers. This state of affairs
has greatly diminished the possible production
of the western ranges in both mutton and beef.
The grasses of these ranges are of unusual value
and nutriment, in fact, they correspond to and even
excel the famous blue grass pastures of Kentucky.
These grasses, however, cannot be abused without
suffering to a greater or less extent and it may be
said without entering in much detail into the
range troubles of the western states that most
of their range lands have been overstocked and
their carrying capacity greatly reduced in conse-
quence. If, however, the range is cared for and
the grasses given a chance the range may readily
be brought back to as fine a condition as it ever
showed. In some parts of the range the grasses
have not deteriorated to any great extent as the
result of grazing. These favorable conditions
are usually due to the fact that the men lease the
land or have some ultimate claim upon it so that
they take an interest in preserving its present
condition. On the other hand, so long as the range
remains public and everybody's property it is
simply a case of being nobody's property and for
that reason is treated without any regard to its
future condition. It is possible by means of a
system of rotation, keeping the sheep on one part
of the range in winter and another in summer
and not grazing any of the range the year round,
to preserve the native grasses in their present con-
dition or even make them more abundant. This

242 FARM ANIMALS

may also be accomplished by collecting seeds of
the native grasses and sowing them on the range.

In the following paragraphs some of the charac-
teristics of the chief breeds of sheep with which we
have to deal in this country are outlined. In the
first place, there are two general types of sheep,
the mutton and the wool types. The mutton
type as ordinarily understood, includes such
breeds as Shropshire, Southdown, Hampshire,
Cotswold, Lincoln, Oxford, Leicester, while the
wool type is chiefly represented by the various
breeds of Merinos. The breeds of sheep are
frequently classified according to the quality of
the wool. When the classification is made on this
basis the coarse-wooled breeds include Leicester,
Lincoln, and Cotswold, the medium wooled include
the Southdown, Shropshire, Dorset, Cheviot,
Suffolk, Oxford, and Hampshire, and the fine
wooled breeds various kinds of Merinos. Nearly
all of the modern breeds of domestic sheep origi-
nated in Great Britain and have found their way
to this country and elsewhere from their original
home. The chief characteristics of the so-called
mutton type include depth, length and regular form
of body, a fleece of even length and uniform quality
and well formed shoulders and hips. In gen-
eral, the type of this sheep has been developed
so as to give a form in which the fine cuts of mutton
are highly developed and in this respect the form
of the mutton sheep corresponds in its purpose
with that of beef cattle.

Merinos originally came from Spain, but have
undergone great modifications in the various
countries where they have been distributed. In
the United States we have the American Merino,
Delaine Merino and Rambouillets. In general,

i

I

O >H

P

FARM ANIMALS 243

the Merinos are the lightest of all the improved
breeds of sheep. They are perhaps more easily
adaptable to all kinds of climate and other con-
ditions than any other breed and are excellent
grazers but do not mature very early and are some-
what lacking in the quality of the meat. The
Merino, as is well-known, produces the finest
wool of all sheep and is, therefore, gradually
dispossessing other sheep in the region where
sheep raising for mutton is not considered prof-
itable. The Delaine Merino is for the most
part the American Merino with a larger body. A
number of varieties have been developed from
this breed, some of which are perhaps destined to
become independent breeds. A polled family
has been established under the name of the Polled
Dickinson Merino. The Delaines are heavier
than the American Merino, but somewhat lighter
than the Rambouillet. The latter breed is de-
scended from the Spanish Merino and improved by
careful breeding and selection. It is now in high
favor throughout the western range states on ac-
count of its comparatively early maturing quality
and great hardiness.

The Southdowns are commonly mentioned first
among the improved breeds of mutton sheep,
partly for the reason that they are the basis for
the development of the various Down breeds of
sheep. The fleece is white with a moderate
amount of yolk, the face of a brown or gray color,
the breast wide, and the general form that of an
ideal mutton sheep.

The Dorset has a number of distinguishing
characteristics, among them the fact that both
sexes bear horns and that the ewes breed at almost
any time of the year. They produce a large per-

244 FARM ANIMALS

centage of twins and are among the most fertile
breeds of sheep that we have. The Dorset is pecu-
liarly valuable for the production of winter lambs.
It is an old breed and has long been kept in a pure
form so that its characteristics are firmly established.

The Shropshire has been considerably modified
by selection and breeding within the present cen-
tury. This breed is not equal to the Southdown
or Merino in its grazing ability, but the quality
of the meat is excellent and the fleece is of good
size and character. The face and legs are of a
soft black color.

The Cheviot originated in the hill country of
Great Britain and is noted for its hardiness and
grazing ability. The quality of the mutton is ex-
cellent and tne fleece weighs about seven or eight
pounds. This breed is especially valuable on
account of its hardiness, but at present the num-
ber in the United States is comparatively small.

The Suffolk, like so many other breeds, came
originally from England and is somewhat larger
than the Shropshire or Dorset. The quality of
the meat is very fine and the ewes are noted for
being good mothers and milk producers.

The Hampshire has been improved by crossing
with the Southdown and by careful selection.
This is one of the typical Down breeds with black
face and legs. It is now widely distributed through-
out the United States. The Hampshire are large,
early maturing, good rustlers and produce tender
and juicy meat. The fleece is heavier than that
of the Southdown and the hardiness of the breed
is quite satisfactory.

The Oxford has been improved within recent
years, especially by crossing with the Southdown,
Hampshire and Cotswold. The breed is widely

^x

: OFTHE

UNIVERSITY

"

FARM ANIMALS 245

known in this country and is popular because of
its being readily adaptable to all climatic conditions.
The quality of the meat is recognized as high and
the breed is useful in grading up from ordinary
scrub sheep.

The Leicester came from the county of the same
name in England and was much improved by the
efforts of the famous English breeder, Bakewell,
during the middle of the eighteenth century.
The Leicesters are somewhat lighter than the other
breeds of long-wooled sheep, but heavier than
the medium-wooled breeds. They are particu-
larly suited to sections where intensive farming
is practiced and mature at a very early age. The
quality of the meat is excellent, but they fatten
readily and have a tendency to become too fat
if forced beyond moderation. The weight of the
fleece ranges from nine to eleven pounds.

The Gotswold came from the low, limestone
hills of England and has gained great favor through-
out the United States since its introduction in
1832. This is the largest breed, excepting the
Lincoln and they are equal to the Lincoln in earli-
ness of maturity. The Cots wold, like the Lincoln,
is widely used in crossing with the Merino on the
western ranges to produce a general purpose
sheep of comparatively heavy fleece with fairly
good mutton form.

The Lincoln is the largest and heaviest of all
breeds of sheep, rams weighing frequently from
two hundred and seventy-five to three hundred
pounds. This breed is particularly adapted to
arable regions with level rather than hilly pas-
tures, but has recently found considerable favor
in the range country of the West in crossing with
Merinos to give a mutton form to the grade

246 FARM ANIMALS

sheep. The same practice prevails widely in Aus-
tralia and other countries. The staple of the wool
is very long and the fleece may weigh from twelve
to fourteen pounds.

There are no such well-defined market classes
of sheep as are recognized among beef cattle or
hogs. A difference of mutton form, however,
must be recognized, but on account of the presence
of wool this is not so conspicuous as in the case of
beef steers or hogs and is, therefore, judged on a
somewhat different basis. It is a fact which has
been well established by careful observation of
the fattening qualities of different sheep that some
sheep are very deficient in this respect, producing
a very thin layer of meat over the ribs and without
sufficient fat and without proper marbling or
mixture of the fat and lean.

GRAINS FOR SHEEP

As with other animals raised for meat so with
sheep, corn is to be considered as the king of all
grains, but must be mixed with other grains, par-
ticularly when fed to young stock or when fed for
long periods, in order to secure the best results.
Fortunately for the feeder, the economy of corn
feeding may be fully utilized in sheep for the
reason that the feeding period is ordinarily not so
long as with steers. In a ninety-day feeding
period the profit from a ration of corn and alfalfa
hay is ordinarily considerably less than that from
a ration of emmer, barley or wheat with alfalfa in
the western range country where corn is not
raised in large quantities. The financial outcome
of feeding in the corn belt is quite different, for
even in Colorado and other range states it has

FARM ANIMALS 247

been found that, when purchased at the same
price, corn has a feeding value greater than a\
mixture of wheat, barley and oats. Emmer in j
the western states has proved about equal to corn
in feeding value for sheep. Among the feeds
which may be used with corn, emmer deserves
considerable attention. This grain has been found
to be worth twenty-seven cents when corn is worth
forty cents. Soy-beans as a supplemental feed
with corn are of great effectiveness and show a
feeding value somewhat superior to corn. Gluten
feed, gluten meal and various leguminous hays
may also be fed with corn to balance the ration.
Pound for pound, however, corn is rather more
effective than emmer for sheep. In South Dakota
considerable attention has been given to emmer
or speltz as it is quite commonly known, and this
grain was directly compared with barley. In
this test it was found that emmer produced a profit
of forty-four cents per lamb during a feeding period
of ordinary length, while barley gave a profit of
ninety-two cents. The conclusion was, therefore,
drawn that emmer is worth about two-thirds as
much as barley for feeding to lambs. Throughout
all the great grain growing areas immense quan-
tities of screenings are available for use. This
material consists of shrunken and broken kernels
of wheat together with various weed seeds, de-
pending on the part of the country in which it
is grown. Screenings have proven in hundreds
of experiments to be a very important grain feed
for sheep. In one instance wheat screenings
were compared with wheat, oats and barley and a
mixture of these grains in a ration containing
clover hay as the coarse forage. The screenings
proved to be the cheapest and most efficient gram

248 FARM ANIMALS

ration, followed in effectiveness by the mixed grains
and wheat, barley and oats in the order given.
A slightly greater amount of grain was required
in the ration containing mixed grain than when
screenings were used and the relative profit was
considerably greater since the cost of one hundred
pounds of mutton was $1 less with screenings
than with the mixed grains.

Soy-beans have been fed extensively to sheep
and with excellent results. The amount of grain
required for a pound of gain is much less in a
ration containing corn and soy-beans than in one
containing corn and oats. Wherever soy-beans
can be grown successfully they may well be used as
a part of the grain ration for lambs and old sheep.

Grain on Pasture. — The question is often asked
with sheep on pasture, as with steers and hogs,
whether tne feeding of grain under such condi-
tions is a profitable practice or not. This matter
has been carefully tested by many sheep raisers and
by some of the agricultural experiment stations.
It appears that the greatest profit is to be obtained
when sheep are kept on pasture sown especially
for them. This system of sheep raising enables
the farmer to maintain a much larger number of
sheep with the same area of ground and also
makes it possible to supply the sheep with a
succulent ration for a longer period than could be
done on ordinary unimproved pasture. Among
the crops used for this purpose we should mention
winter rye, oats, peas, barley and oats, and rape.
By this means the farmer may keep the pasture
capable of maintaining a large number of sheep for
the whole growing season. Where the feeding
of grain has been tested with sheep maintained
even on the best of pasture it appears that the

FARM ANIMALS 249

gain in lambs is from fifty to sixty per cent, greater
when they receive a half-pound of oats, barley or
some other similar grain than where no grain is
fed. The additional increase made by the use
of grain is worth much more than the cost of the
grain used in obtaining it and is, therefore, to be
recommended from a financial standpoint. The
use of cultivated pastures of the sort above de-
scribed is to be highly commended, since if sheep
are kept on native pasture or prairie grass or other
less nutritious grass the increase in weight is
liable to be seriously checked as soon as the grass
becomes dry in the fall. In the range region
proper the native grasses are more nutritious when
dried up in the fall than are some of the more
recently introduced species of grass. The growth
of sheep, however, is not satisfactory on such '
pasture without grain. In a comparison of various
grains fed to sheep on pasture, the grains stood in
the following order in the economy of mutton pro-
duction; whole corn, corn and bran, whole mac-
aroni wheat, whole hard wheat, ground macaroni
wheat and bran, whole emmer and ground emmer.
With regard to the amount of grain which it is
desirable to feed to sheep, it should be remembered
that only a light grain ration is necessary to pro-
duce an excellent finish in lambs when legumes are
available. For example it has been found that
one-half to three-quarters of a pound of grain per
head per day is sufficient to put a fine market
finish on sheep fed during a period of seventy to
ninety days with plenty of alfalfa or clover pasture.
The grain ration, however, even when legumes are
fed as roughage should be maintained throughout
the whole feeding period rather than toward the
latter half of this period.

250 FARM ANIMALS

It is not necessary to import grain from other
states or to send away long distances for milling
feeds. The ordinary farm grains such as are
grown on every farm may be utilized in lamb or
wether feeding when they are mixed in the right
way and with suitable roughage. Thus, a mixture
of corn and oats, corn and peas, or corn, peas and
oats will produce rapid gains in lambs at a hand-
some profit. It is not necessary to feed these
grain mixtures in larger quantities than three-
quarters of a pound per day, together with such
roughage as is ordinarily present on the farm. In
a comparison of various grain rations for sheep in
Wisconsin, it was found that one containing equal
parts of corn, oats and bran with silage and hay
is exceedingly satisfactory for ewes. A very
efficient ration was found in equal parts of shelled
corn, oats and brewer's grains. The feeding of
brewer's grains has one advantage over corn and
corn and oats in that among other effects it produces
a larger milk yield in ewes and, therefore, produces
the rapid development of the lamb. If the con-
dition of the ewes and the growth of the lamb are
both considered as the purpose of feeding a grain
ration, brewer's grains and corn silage stand high
in effectiveness. In another comparison of grains
for sheep feeding brewer's grain stood at the head,
followed by bran, shelled corn and oats. Any one
of the grains, however, was quite satisfactory
when fed in connection with two and one-half
pounds of silage and two pounds of hay per day
ror each ewe. As in previous tests dried brewer's
grains and corn silage were most effective in in-
creasing the milk yield of the ewes. The sheep
raisers frequently ask the question whether it is
more profitable to feed grain extensively from

FARM ANIMALS 251

birth until the lambs are ten to twelve months old,
or from weaning time until the market finish is
completed or merely from the beginning of winter
until the end of the feeding period. As a rule, it
is found that lambs fed grain from the earliest
age at which they will eat it produce better results
than those which receive grain only during the
fattening period. Lambs fed grain during early
life become accustomed to it and make more
economical use of grain than those which receive
it only in forcing rations when the fattening period
is begun. In some tests of this sort the curious
fact has been developed that occasionally corn
makes more economical gains than other grain
mixtures even for a period of ten months. Lambs
fed on an exclusive ration of corn, however, would
not be fit for breeding purposes, since their vitality
is considerably weakened by the lack of protein
in the ration.

The above discussion of grains for sheep has not
included all of those which may be fed to sheep, but it
should be remembered that the most important
ones ordinarily are corn, barley, wheat, oats, peas,
emmer and some of the milling products like mid-
dlings, gluten meal, cotton seed meal, etc. Cotton
seed meal has not been fed extensively to sheep
for the reason that other less expensive nitrogenous
feeds may be readily obtained in the North and the
southern states have thus far not done much feeding
of sheep for mutton.

COARSE FEEDS FOB SHEEP

At the head of the list of coarse feeds for sheep
we must place alfalfa. This does not indicate
that alfalfa is always and everywhere the most
effective coarse feed which can be used in fattening

252 FARM ANIMALS

sheep, but that it is actually used to such an enor-
mous extent throughout the western states where
the sheep business prevails most widely that it
justifies placing it at the head of the list. Alfalfa
may be used as the exclusive fattening ration for
sheep with merely the addition of a small quantity
of roots. This practice prevails among many
sheep men of the western states who have found
it possible to put a tolerably fine finish on lambs or
even old sheep by feeding them alfalfa ad libitum
with small amounts of mangel-wurzels or sugar
beets for a period of seventy to ninety days in
winter. The profits derived from feeding al-
falfa hay under such circumstances are well worth
considering, since a ton of this hay will produce at
least $7 to $10 worth of mutton in localities where it
can be purchased for $5. The feeding problem
when nothing but alfalfa hay and roots are used
is reduced to its simplest terms and the cost of
managing sheep under such conditions is very
slight.

It has been demonstrated that while alfalfa
may be depended upon to bring sheep to a fairly
good mutton form by the addition of grain, the
greatest profit is, nevertheless, to be obtained in
feeding small amounts of grain and sugar beet
pulp with alfalfa. The best method of doing this
is to feed the beet pulp ad libitum as well as the
alfalfa hay and a small quantity, say one-half
pound per day per head of grain. When such a
ration is used a pound of mutton can be produced
on one and one-naif pounds of grain, four pounds
alfalfa and ten pounds sugar beet pulp. The
cheapest grain to feed in this ration in the western
states has been found to be wheat screenings. It
has also been shown by various farmers that good

FARM ANIMALS 253

results can be obtained from feeding sheep nothing
but alfalfa and straw. The gains which are made
on this ration are economic and the quality of the
mutton is good enough to command high prices
on the local markets.

A reaction has set in in many of the western
markets against the overfed and excessively fat
lambs which have been brought to market during
the past few years. If lambs are placed in the feed-
ing pens in a fairly good condition they may be
brought to the right finish in from seventy-five to
one hundred days by the addition of a small grain
ration with alfalfa hay fed ad libitum. Lambs will
yield good returns on either native grass or alfalfa
hay in connection with a small grain ration. In a
series of comparative tests alfalfa produced twenty-
seven per cent, greater gains, one thousand two
hundred and eighty pounds more mutton per acre
and one and one-half per cent, more dressed weight
at fifteen per cent, less expense than, native hay.
In this test it appeared that the value of alfalfa hay
for mutton feeding purposes was about $17 per ton.

Brome Grass. — In those parts of the western states
where brome grass has been cultivated extensively
it has proved to be a valuable feed for lambs and
old sheep. Where this grass has been sown on the
range it starts up in the earliest spring and, there-
fore, yields succulent forage in advance of the
native grasses. The hay under favorable condition
also produces large yields and has been shown to
be more nutritious than timothy hay or prairie hay
for feeding lambs. When lambs receive brome
grass hay, less grain is required for a pound of
gain than on timothy or prairie hay. Clover of
various kinds is also fed to lambs and old sheep
with the best results. In the eastern and middle

254 FARM ANIMALS

states this hay takes the place of alfalfa in the
sheep ration of the western sheep man. Red
crimson, alsike and white clover have been fed to
sheep with satisfactory results. In one comparison
of alfalfa with red and alsike clover both kinds of
clover produced slightly larger gains in lambs than
alfalfa and the amount of alsike clover and red
clover required for a pound of gain was slightly
less than the amount of alf alf a required for the
same amount of gain. Clover hay may also be fed
in the place of cereal or grain hay where this
material is considered a standard feed for sheep.
In one comparison of clover hay and grain hay
lambs gained seven pounds per month on clover
and five and one-third pounds on grain hay. The
amount of clover eaten for each pound of gain
was fourteen pounds and of grain hay eighteen
pounds. In some tests the cost of producing one
hundred pounds of mutton on clover was $1 less
than that when grain hay was used.

Cowpea hay has been extensively used for feed-
ing sheep, especially in the southern states where
this crop is grown most widely. It compares
favorably with other coarse forage for both lambs
and old sheep. In fact, in some localities where
coarse forage and grain are exceedingly expensive
it has been found that about the only way to obtain
suitable profit from fattening sheep is by the use
of cowpea hay. This reduces the amount of grain
necessary to give a good market finish and may
itself be produced very cheaply in the southern
states. According to the ordinary state of the
market it cannot be considered as higher than $5
a ton.

Pea pasture is one of the favorite sources of feed
for mutton. Many varieties of field peas have been

FARM ANIMALS 255

used for this purpose from Canada to the cowpea
region and from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast.
In the San Luis valley, Colorado, a special industry
has grown up in the use of pea pasture for lambs
and old sheep until at present about three hundred
thousand sheep are fattened annually on this, the
sheep being allowed to harvest their own food.
Sheep are quite successful in collecting shattered
peas in the field after the crop has been harvested
and peas as a grain are everywhere recognized as
an important part of the ration for sheep. The
whole material is, therefore, well suited to this pur-
pose. In some parts of the western states where
peas are needed for seed or may be sold at too high
a price for lamb feeding, pea straw is used as a feed
for sheep. This also gives good results as shown
in numerous experiments by farmers and in tests
carried on by experts in animal industry. The
great importance of Canada field peas is apparent
from the variety of conditions under which it
makes a successful crop. Thus, as already stated,
it not only grows throughout a wide stretch of
latitude, but thrives well at all altitudes from sea
level to nearly eight thousand feet. At high alti-
tudes in Wyoming it was found that even with a poor
crop of peas the total yield was two thousand pounds
of which one thousand three hundred pounds
was vines and seven hundred and forty pounds
grain. It is a frequent mistake among farmers
who utilize pea pasture for sheep to allow them to
run over the whole pasture from the start. Some
of the plants are thus trampled down and soiled and
are, therefore, refused by the sheep so that a con-
siderable percentage of the crop is wasted. Pea
pasture may best be utilized by hurdling the sheep
on small areas of the field and moving the fences

256 FARM ANIMALS

from time to time. The average gain of lambs fed
on different rations in Wyoming showed that the
most effective ration was one containing alfalfa,
turnips, corn and linseed meal, while a ration con-
taining nothing but field peas was almost equal to
it and various other rations were far less effective.
Field peas, even when used alone, are thus seen to
be a fine ration for sheep. There is no use in put-
ting scrub lambs on expensive feeds. They cannot
be fattened in a short period and the growth is not
sufficiently rapid to allow any profit to be made.
The only way to secure a good profit from high-
priced feeds is to use the very best quality of lambs
and sheep which can be obtained. In one test with
pea pasture sixty lambs maintained themselves for
one hundred days on eleven and one-half acres of
field peas, which were raised without irrigation.
The lambs harvested their own crop, made more
rapid gains and went to market in a better condition
than those which were fed in pens on alfalfa and
grain.

While all kinds of roots may be fed to sheep with
good results in increasing the effectiveness of the
ration the most extensive tests have been made
with sugar beets and sugar beet pulp. In the first
place, the sheep feeder should not expect too high
returns from the use of roots as a food for any
animal. Their effectiveness as already indicated
is largely to give succulence and palatability to the
ration. Sugar beets in different experiments where
the value of all feeds was carefully noted have shown
an effectiveness indicating a feeding value of from
one and one-half to three dollars a ton, depending
upon the time of the year and quality of the sheep.
Beet pulp may nearly always be obtained for a
much lower price than sugar beets, and is nearly

FARM ANIMALS 257

as effective as the latter. It is, therefore, indicated
as a valuable food for producing mutton. In
states like Colorado it is considered that the purpose
of the farmer in feeding lambs is to obtain a profit-
able market for his surplus alfalfa, sugar beet pulp
and home grown grains. Even when sugar oeet
pulp gives only one-half the mutton production
which is secured by sugar beets its use is, never-
theless, cheaper than that of sugar beets on account
of the much lower market price. Beet pulp is a
very useful material for feeding with alfalfa, espe-
cially during the early part of the fattening period.
The mutton produced on beet pulp has an excellent
flavor, but is ordinarily not very fat unless some
grain is fed with it. In Colorado and neighboring
states, lambs may be made to produce mutton very
cheaply on sugar beet pulp and alfalfa with a small
ration of wheat, barley or corn. The feeding value
of sugar beets, however, is not so high as sometimes
supposed. If sugar beets can be sold for $4. 50 per ton
at the factory it does not pay to feed them to lambs.
It should not be supposed that sugar beet pulp or
sugar beets themselves can in any sense replace
alfalfa in the lamb ration. They should simply
be used as a supplemental feed in such rations.
Since sugar beet pulp contains about ninety per cent,
of water it is evident that there is less than two
hundred pounds of actual feeding material in a ton
and in feeding experiments a ton of sugar beet pulp
has proved to be about equal to three hundred
pounds of corn. It is too bulky, however, to feed
in large quantities and when fed to excess produces
soft mutton. In order to feed it to the best advan-
tage it must be fresh and this means that it cannot
be transported long distances. About four pounds
per day is a sufficient ration for lambs which should

258 FARM ANIMALS

also receive nine ounces of corn per day or similar
rations of barley or wheat. The whole feeding
value of sugar beet pulp and alfalfa cannot be
obtained, except by the addition of some grain
to the ration. From the experience of feeders in
Utah, it appears that the best plan is to feed pulp
ad libitum together with a ration of alfalfa and
mixed grains. As an example of the effectiveness
of such a ration, it has been found that one pound
of mutton is produced from one and one-half pounds
of corn, ten pounds of pulp and seven and one-half
pounds of alfalfa hay. It appears to be advisable
when sugar beet factories are offering reasonable
prices to sell the sugar beets and buy back the pulp,
since in this way a greater profit will be obtained
from the crop of sugar beets than if the beets are
directly fed to sheep. In a series of comparative
tests of different rations, sheep which received only
alfalfa and sugar beet pulp made the smallest gains
per day, but gave the largest profits on account of
the cheapness with which these materials can be
produced. Much faster gains and a better finish
were obtained by adding grain to the ration.
* In localities too far removed from sugar beet
factories to obtain this material in a fresh condition
the beet pulp may be used in the dried form.
When dried and in good condition it keeps for long
periods and may be managed so as to give good re-
sults in mutton production. In some tests dried
beet pulp and corn have proved to be about equal
in feeding value for sheep. When dried beet pulp
is mixed with grain the effect is very striking in the
rapidity of gain and in the fine market finish of the
mutton.

Sheep as Weed and Brush Exterminators. — The
general usefulness of sheep about the farm is quite

FARM ANIMALS 259

well understood, but on many farms they are not
managed in a way to secure all the good which can
be obtained from them. Thus, sheep will make a
large amount of mutton at no cost for feeding
material when allowed to graze on weeds about the
fence corners in corn fields and similar situations
and in brush lands. The forage thus obtained may
not give an excellent quality to the meat, but the
sheep easily maintain themselves without expense
to the farmer and at the same time are a benefit in
cleaning up the land. Moreover, on stubble fields
sheep pick up enough of the scattered grain to make
a very satisfactory gain and to produce a good
quality of mutton. Whenever sheep are confined
entirely to brush for their forage they are likely to
get poor and young lambs will not make the best
growth. The use of such material for sheep is
suggested merely to show the possibilities of the
sheep's foraging powers and is not to be recom-
mended to farmers who desire to produce standard
mutton for finicky markets. This has been demon-
strated to the complete satisfaction of thousands
of farmers who have tried it. Brush pasture can
be used for a part maintenance ration of stock
sheep during the summer, but cannot be considered
as desirable for fattening fine mutton sheep. The
conditions are somewhat different in the range states
where some of the weeds and native grasses ob-
tained are extremely nutritious and capable in
themselves of making sheep as fat as the market
could require. Some sheep raisers, however, main-
tain that mutton produced on such forage is not
quite equal in flavor to that raised on various
grains, including corn.

The value of cow's milk for lambs is a point of
considerable practical importance. On all large

260 FARM ANIMALS

sheep ranges it is customary to bring up on the
bottle a large number of lambs which fail to get
owned or which become motherless through the
death of the ewe. These lambs, which the sheep
men call "bums," are by no means pitiable objects
after they have been cared for in the pens or about
the farm houses and fed at regular intervals on
cow's milk from a bottle. The successful use
of cow's milk in producing a uniform rate of gain
in lambs depends upon its being given to them
at frequent intervals while they are young. The
relative merits of cow's milk from the bottle,
ewe's milk from the bottle and ewe's milk directly
from the ewe has been tested in a number of ex-
periments. It appears, in general, that lambs which
suck the ewes make more satisfactory gains than
by any other method of obtaining milk. If fed
large quantities of ewe's milk from the bottle,
however, they lay on flesh in a very rapid man-
ner. Satisfactory gains are also always obtained
from the use of fresh, wholesome cow's milk.
Thus, in a comparison of cow's milk and sheep's
milk, this did not appear to exercise any great
influence on the lamb. The fat content of ewe's
milk is nearly twice as high as that of the cow,
but the lamb does not appear to miss the fat in
the cow's milk.

Rations. — As is apparent from the above brief
discussion of rations used in fattening sheep a
great variety of satisfactory rations may be com-
pounded for this purpose. These rations vary in
different parts of the country according to the
ease and economy with which different feeds may
be obtained. For example in Utah, Colorado,
Idaho and other Rocky Mountain states an ex-
cellent ration may be prepared from sugar beet

FARM ANIMALS 261

pulp, alfalfa, and wheat screenings. It must be
always remembered in compounding rations that
the margin of profit is small even under the best
conditions and may be easily destroyed entirely
unless the feeding value of the ration and the
market price of the different feeds be carefully
borne in mind. Thus, in the region where alfalfa
and sugar beet pulp may be conveniently obtained
eight pounds 01 alfalfa and seventeen pounds of
beet pulp will produce a pound of gain. The same
amount of mutton will be made by sheep for every
six pounds of alfalfa and four pounds of wheat
screenings eaten. Even in a region where the
price of the latter is high, it is possible to produce
gains in lambs for less than four cents a pound
with rations of alfalfa, sugar beet pulp and wheat
screenings.

In the corn belt, corn should naturally con-
stitute one-half or more of the grain rations, since
this may be produced the most cheaply of all
grain feeds and is exceedingly effective in mixing
with peas, wheat or barley. In the Southwest,
corn may be partly or wholly replaced by Kafir
corn and in the South by sweet potatoes or other
starchy roots. It is always best, however, to
feed a certain amount of highly nitrogenous grain
such as barley, wheat or peas and this mixture
constitutes the mainstay of the sheep raisers among
the Canadians, where corn is not produced ex-
tensively and has a relatively higher market price.

Water. — It is important to provide a clean and
sufficient water supply for sheep at all times and
especially during the fattening period. Sheep
will gain more rapidly when they have constant
access to water than when they are watered only
once per day. The cost of gain is also less with

262 FARM ANIMALS

a running water supply. On the range the sheep
have different requirements in regard to their
water supply. They may need water twice a
day, once a day or every third day according to
the character of the food. In some of the desert
ranges where the only green plants are of a suc-
culent nature, it has been found possible to main-
tain sheep successfully without watering oftener
than once in two or three weeks. In the winter
on the desert ranges advantage is taken of the
fact that localities which have no surface water
supply whatever may be safely grazed on account
of the presence of small quantities of snow. The
sheep eat snow whenever they are dry and thus
obtain a sufficient supply of water in a clean
wholesome condition. Under ordinary circum-
stances there is no advantage whatever in warm-
ing water for lambs or old sheep in winter.

Feeding Range Lambs. — While it is entirely
true that many of the larger western sheep ranches
decline to feed any of their sheep, saying that it
does not pay to attempt to compete with the
eastern sheep raisers on the mutton market,
nevertheless the practice of feeding western sheep
on the ranges wnere they are grown is gradually
increasing. The profits obtained from this prac-
tice have been so flattering in many instances
that the feeding of range lambs has become an
extensive business in localities where it is well-
suited and where the necessary grain feeds are
convenient. In Montana and many other local-
ities sheep are put in a fairly good condition without
grain by merely feeding a ration of alfalfa hay
and roots. The sheep rancher finds that every
year he has a certain percentage of surplus sheep,
some being wethers and some old ewes which he

FARM ANIMALS 263

must turn into mutton. He must, therefore,
face the problem of whether these sheep and lambs
are to be sold to the feeder or whether they
are to be shipped East and sold at a very low
price, on account of their poor market condition,
or whether he should go to the extra expense and
extra risk of putting a market finish on such ani-
mals . This matter has accordingly been thoroughly
tested in many of the range sheep states. In
Idaho it has been found that by the means of
clover, pea hay, whole oats, and such roots as
mangels and carrots or with small quantities of
silage an excellent quality of mutton may be
produced on range sheep. At times there may
be little profit in such feeding, judging from the
actual cost of the gain on range sheep, but the
profit is always relatively great if we stop to con-
sider the low price which ranchmen would other-
wise have to accept for the range sheep. Not
only in the Pacific Northwest and the northern
Rocky Mountain states, but also in the Southwest
the feeding of range sheep has been found to be
a profitable industry and has given added impetus
to methods of range improvement, cultivating
every foot of ground upon which water can be
turned. In all of these western range states the
surprising fact has been true within the past year
or two and is still true in many localities, namely,
that mutton is produced, sold on the hoof and
shipped to the eastern markets, after which it is
brought back again from the packing houses.
There is absolutely no business sense in such a
procedure. The local markets in the range
states are quite sufficient for the fine mutton that
can be produced at present and if the practice
of feeding range sheep at home increases beyond

264 FARM ANIMALS

the limits of the local markets the large central
markets are available for such sheep and at re-
munerative prices, as shown by a number of ex-
periments along this line. If the ranchman can
raise large quantities of alfalfa he will find no
way of securing so large a price for it as by feeding
it to lambs, since they will return from $7 to $15
per ton in localities where the market price of
alfalfa is not above $5.

The same problem of what to do with range
lambs has come up before the sheep raiser of
South Dakota and has been solved in the same
manner. He has found it desirable to feed his
lambs on local grains such as emmer, macaroni
wheat, and barley together with liberal rations
of alfalfa, clover or other forage plants. In
certain localities of Utah the local market for
mutton is already supplied and during the past
eight years it has been found more profitable to
feed lambs for the eastern markets than for the
local market. It seems to be the practice of the
local dealers in Utah to regulate the price of lambs
by the prevailing prices in the central markets,
subtracting the estimated cost of the transpor-
tation. This estimate is, however, frequently put
so high that the western feeder has found it to his
advantage to prepare to put the finest possible
finish on his lambs and ship them East in direct
competition with the eastern sheep feeders. The
range lamb does not usually suffer in this com-
petition and the practice is therefore increasing.
The same story comes from Wyoming and other
parts of the range country where a really serious
effort has been carried on by men who have made
a study of the requirements of sheep and the de-
mand of the market regarding the quality and
form of mutton.

OF THE

[ UNIVERSITY )

OF

FARM ANIMALS 265

Sheep in the South. — Much difference of opin-
ion prevails regarding the practicability of rais-
ing sheep in the far South. The question has
often been decided in the negative by farmers
without looking for any experimental results or
without testing the matter for themselves The
widely prevalent belief is that sheep cannot thrive
in hot countries and this has been the end of the
matter in so far as the average farmer is concerned.
There are actually many difficulties in the way
of sheep raising in the South, but they are not so
serious that they may not be overcome. Thus,
pure breeds imported from the North often yield
but meagre profits to the southern farmer. This
may be due to the great change of climate and en-
vironment, but it is frequently due to the unusual
prevalence of stomach worms. The long warm
season of the southern states renders this a large and
a much more serious problem than in the North where
it is serious enough. In fact, while the stomach
worm is the most serious trouble of the sheep in-
dustry east of the Mississippi River, it is a par-
ticularly difficult problem to cope with in the
South. The infestation with parasites, however,
may be largely overcome by the intelligent use of
pastures, frequent changing of the sheep as often as
twice a week from one pasture to another pasture
and in localities where the pest is particularly bad,
keeping the lambs in bare lots and feeding them
on green feeds during the season when the parasites
are worst. Excepting for the prevalence of par-
asitic worms, however, sheep do not suffer from
other troubles any worse than in the North and
there appears to be no reason why the sheep in-
dustry should not be more extensively developed
in the South that it is at present.

266 FARM ANIMALS

The Cost of Gain. — The actual expense incurred
in putting a pound of gain on lambs or old sheep
depends primarily on the cost of the grain and al-
most equally on the skill of the feeder. It is
frequently true that the cost of a pound of gain
during the fattening period is equal to the price
per pound finally secured for the sheep when sold
in a finished market condition. At first thought,
this would indicate that the feeding had been done
at a loss, but this is quite untrue as should appear
upon a little consideration. In fact, the same
condition appears everywhere with all kinds of
farm animals. The cost of gain is almost always
apparently obtained at a loss. It should be re-
membered, however, that the market value of the
whole carcass is increased by putting on a fine
finish. While, therefore, the price obtained for
the gains produced during the fattening period
may not be more than what the same amount of
meat cost in feeding the lamb, yet the increase in
value in the rest of the carcass is sufficient to make
the whole process of fattening a profitable one.
In general, the cost of gain in lambs under the
prevailing conditions and managed in a skillful
manner should range from three and a half to
four and a half cents per pound. It may actually
run much higher than this, but so long as five,
six or even seven cents a pound may be obtained
for live sheep in a fine market form there is
sufficient profit for the feeder to incur this ex-
pense.

The Milk Yield of Ewes. — Ordinarily, the ewe
yields n\ilk for from four to six months and then
dries up, whether the lamb has been taken from her
or not. It is a matter of interest to determine the
amount of milk yielded by ewes. This is obtained

FARM ANIMALS 267

by weighing the lambs immediately before and
after sucking the ewe. By this method it has been
found that ewes yield from thirteen and a half to
sixteen pounds of milk per week or from two to
two and a half pounds per day. Occasionally
ewes yield as high as three pounds per day. Ob-
viously, the amount of milk yielded by the ewe is
an important matter in determining the growth of
the lamb during his early life. The lamb with a
heavy milking mother has an advantage over his
less fortunate comrades which cannot easily
be overcome by subsequent care and feeding.

Another matter of importance is to determine
the best treatment for ewes before lambing in order
to obtain the most vigorous lambs and a large milk
yield. It has been found that feeding a ration
consisting of one-half of a pound of equal parts
bran and oats per day for about two weeks before
the lambing period is a very satisfactory feed so
far as the physical condition of the ewes is con-
cerned. The lambs, however, are not so vigorous
and the milk yield is inferior to that obtained when
corn stover or silage is fed and one-half of a pound
of bran and oats per ewe daily. Ewes do not
thrive so well on oats and hay as on silage and hay.
Corn stover, however, almost universally gives
excellent results. When corn stover and corn
silage are fed together roots may also be added to
the ration with good results in the condition of
the ewe and the milk yield.

Ewes carry their lambs from one hundred and
forty to one hundred and fifty-six days, the usual
period being from one hundred and forty-four to
one hundred and fifty days. The longer period
given by French authorities is due to the fact that
their figures are based largely on Merinos which

268 FARM ANIMALS

rhature more slowly than the large mutton breeds*
The other breeds do not differ much in the length
ojjthe period of gestation. There appears to be a
slight difference in the period of gestation in the
case of large and small lambs, large lambs being
carried somewhat longer. The different breeds
show a difference in the vigour of the lambs at
birth. Thus, seventy-eight per cent, of South-
down lambs are what would be called strong at
birth, while the percentage in cross bred Shrop-
shire and Merinos is seventy-three and in Dorsets
sixty per cent. Single lambs are larger at birth
than twins and twins than triplets, the average
difference in weight between single and twin lambs
being about one-half of a pound, yet the twins
usually make as good gains by a stated time
after weaning as single lambs.

The Milk of Different Breeds of Sheep. — Some
importance attaches, as already indicated, to the
quality and quantity of the milk and in this re-
spect the breeds of sheep vary somewhat, the
amount varying in different breeds from one and
six-tenths pounds to four and five-tenths pounds
per day, according to actual weighing tests. In
these comparative tests Southdowns gave the
least and Dorsets the highest. Considerable dif-
ference has also been noted in the content of fat in
the milk of different breeds. Thus, the cream
or fat of sheep milk varies from five and eight -tenths
per cent, in Shropshires to eight and four-tenths per
cent, in Dorsets. As a rule, Dorsets and South-
downs excel other breeds in milk supply when
the lambs are young.

The Weight of Lambs at Birth. — The size of the
lamb at the time of birth depends largely on the
ewe. The heaviest lambs come from the heaviest

FARM ANIMALS 269

ewes and the weight of the lambs and the ewes
vary together. The breed and size of the ram
appear to have little to do with the weight of the
lamb. Ram lambs, however, are about fifteen per
cent, heavier than ewe lambs and make slightly
more rapid gains, at least, during early life. As
already hinted the weight of twin lambs averages
about one-half pound less than the average weight
of all lambs, and the amount of gain for the first
two months is greater in lambs having the heaviest
weight at birth. A comparison of the weight of
Merino, Shropshire ana Hampshire lambs in
Missouri showed the average to be at birth seven
and seven-tenths pounds for the Merinos, seven and
eight-tenths pounds for the Hampshires, and eight
and four-tenths pounds for the Shropshires, while
the average birth weight of lambs from ewes weigh-
ing ninety pounds was seven and two-tenths
pounds, from one hundred pound ewes seven and
four-tenths pounds, from one hundred and ten
pound ewes seven and five-tenths pounds, from
one hundred and twenty pound ewes seven and
nine-tenths pounds, and from one hundred and
thirty pound ewes eight and three-tenths pounds.
As just hinted, the weight of male lambs at birth
exceeds that of female, averaging eight and one-
tenth pounds for males and seven pounds for ewes
with an average for both sexes of seven and six-
tenths pounds. Likewise the average weekly gain
in ewe lambs is three and nine-tenths pounds and
in ram lambs four pounds. The average weight
of single lambs of all sexes is seven and eight-tenths
pounds and of twin lambs seven pounds.

Winter or Hothouse Lambs. — Nearly all sheep
are bred in the fall and thus bring the lambs in
late spring. The ordinary practice of allowing the

270 FARM ANIMALS

rams with the ewes in November makes the Iambs
come in May. By the time these lambs are fit for
market the demand for young lambs is not very
great and if they are held over until the winter
market opens they are too old to command the
highest market price. It is highly desirable, there-
fore, from a business standpoint, to secure ewes
which will breed in the spring or early summer so
as to mature the lambs for the winter market, just
after the holiday poultry season is closed. For the
purpose of winter sheep production the Dorset
ana Hampshire sheep are the best adapted, but
the Dorset is unquestionably the best. This sheep
can be made to breed at any season of the year and
even twice in a single year. The latter practice,
however, is hard on the ewes and is not to be
recommended for the average farm. Moreover,
the Dorset produces twin lambs in about thirty-
nine per cent, of cases and, as already indicated,
give enough milk to force these twins to early ma-
turity. In the production of winter lambs it is,
therefore, best to depend on the Dorset tendencies
of early breeding and twin lambs. It is not neces-
sary to purchase outright a whole flock of Dorsets,
but if a Dorset ram is bought and bred to ordinary
sheep, the grade ewes thus obtained will breed
earlier than their mothers, in fact, in some cases
they will breed as early as pure Dorset ewes. At
any rate, the second crossing on these grade Dorset
ewes will produce ewes which for all practical pur-
poses in early lamb raising are equal to Dorsets.
In some respects, the grade ewes thus obtained are
superior to the pure bred ewes in hardiness and in
form. Moreover, some markets demand black-
nosed lambs and these can be secured in grades, while
the pure Dorsets have white noses. The best results

FARM ANIMALS 271

in breeding up grade ewes for early lambs have
been obtained from crossing Dorset rams on Meri-
no, Shropshire or Coltswold ewes. The demand
for winter lambs is rapidly increasing after having
first originated in some of the large eastern markets.
At present the supply is hardly equal to the demand
although the prices paid for such lambs are very
attractive. Tnus, lambs at a weight of fifty or
sixty pounds and in prime condition may be sold
for from $3 to $18, depending on the quality of
the lamb and the time at which he is marketed.
Such prices cannot be obtained for lambs if kept
several months longer, although in the meantime
they have gained considerably in weight.

The vigour of the sheep, and climatic conditions,
must be considered in this business. While it is
possible to get Dorsets to breed at any time, in
practice there are certain seasons which are far
better than others. Thus, if the sheep are bred in
May or June they will bring the lambs to the finest
market condition during the holiday season when
the highest prices will be realized. Winter lambs
are marketed at the age of about two months and
at this time, as already hinted, should weigh about
fifty pounds.

In order to force winter lambs to the finest ap-
pearance, it is desirable to give the ewe a rather
heavy grain ration to increase her milk yield.
While the Dorset gives a larger quantity of milk
than other sheep they, nevertheless, require milk
producing foods in order to keep up this flow. For
this reason the grain ration should be liberal and
should be helped out by the use of roots, silage or
soiling crops like alfalfa, clover, rye, or by a good
pasture. Moreover, the lambs should be taught
to eat grain at the earliest possible moment. They

272 FARM ANIMALS

will begin to eat grain at the age of four weeks if en-
couraged, or even somewhat earlier, and will grad-
ually increase the size of their grain ration dur-
ing the remaining month until they reach a proper
market finish. A test was paade of crossing Dor-
sets on Merino and Shropshire ewes in Wisconsin
in which it appeared that the first cross Dorsets
would breed before the ninth of July and drop their
lambs by the middle of November. While it is,
therefore, true that the first cross ewes are ordi-
narily ready to breed at the right time for securing
winter lambs there is more certainty of early breed-
ing in the second cross of Dorset rams on native
sheep. It should not be supposed that ordinary
ewes will breed any earlier to a Dorset buck than
to any other kind of sheep. The tendency to early
breeding majr be transmitted from the rams,
not to the native ewes, but to their cross-bred off-
spring and to the subsequent lambs obtained by
using a Dorset ram to the cross-bred sheep.

The production of winter lambs is a specialty
which requires skill and experience and should not
be gone into headlong without some previous know-
ledge of the business. One advantage beside the
profit to be gained from raising winter lambs is
that in regions where the stomach worms are very
bad, lambs which come in the late fall are largely
spared the risk of infection, especially in the nor-
thern states, whereas lambs which come in May
are almost sure to become infested during the sum-
mer months. This does not apply to the same
extent in the far South where the growing season
extends nearly the year round, but in the northern
states the infestation with the stomach worm takes
place almost always in the summer and consequent-
ly if lambs come in November they need not be

FARM ANIMALS 273

allowed on pasture at all, since they naturally do not
eat anything but the mother's milk for about one
month. At the end of that period practically all
danger of infestation with stomach worms is past.

Likewise, in Minnesota it has been found by a
long series of careful experiments that the breeding
habit in ewes which ordinarily drop their lambs
in the spring may be changed so that they will
produce them in the fall or early winter. This
change is effected in practice by crossing with
pure bred Dorset rams for two or three genera-
tions. It appears that after the changed breeding
habit has been brought about in the ewes a super-
ior quality of lambs, at least, in many instances,
may be obtained by using rams of a black-faced
breed, for example Southdowns or Shropshires.

Lambs vs. Wethers. — As with all other farm
animals, including chickens, so with sheep, the
rate of gain is greater in young than in old an-
imals and the cost of gain is less. This difference
is sufficiently great to affect the financial results in
breeding sheep in a pronounced manner. For
example, in Montana it was found that the cost
of feeding per day in lambs was one and two-
tenths cents and in wethers one and five-tenths
cents while the cost of a pound of gain in lambs
was four and five-tenths cents and in wethers
six and three-tenths cents. These differences,
while very slight in a single sheep, become a large
factor when it is multiplied by thousands as is the
case on large sheep ranches. In a subsequent
test of this matter in Montana it was found that
the cost of producing one hundred pounds of
meat on lambs was $4 . 18, on one-year-old wethers
$5 . 83, on two-year-old wethers $5 . 90 and on old
sheep $6.78. These differences in cost were due

274 FARM ANIMALS

to the fact that the amount of food required for
a pound of gain increases regularly with the age
of the sheep. On account of the more rapid growth
in young lambs than in older sheep it is desirable
to feed more grain, particularly of a nitrogenous
nature. As a rule, it will be found desirable to
feed grain to lambs to the extent of twenty-four
per cent, of the ration, to one-year-old wethers to
the extent of fifteen per cent, and to two-year-
old wethers to the extent of fourteen per cent.
The amount of shrinkage in making long ship-
ments to market is about the same in lambs, year-
lings and two-year-old sheep, but is considerably
higher in very old sheep. In order to reduce the
amount of shrinkage in shipment as much as pos-
sible, it is desirable not to feed sheep too heavily
during the early part of the trip.

Grades vs. Scrubs. — We find again in sheep
the same question regarding the relative merits
of pure breeds, grades and cross bred animals as
compared with scrubs. There can be no question
whatever regarding the superiority of pure breeds
or animals containing a considerable percentage
of pure blood as compared with scrubs, providing
always that corresponding care and attention is
given to the superior quality of animal. For ex-
ample, it has been found in Colorado that Shrop-
shire lambs make better gains than common
western lambs when given the same ration. Thus,
during a feeding period of ordinary length Shrop-
shire grade lambs gained forty-three and five-tenths
pounds while native western lambs gained only
thirty-one pounds. In fact, it has been shown
beyond question that it is folly to feed high-priced
grains and forage plants and give expensive care
and attention to common scrub lambs or sheep,

FARM ANIMALS 275

since the expense of such operations cannot be
covered by the price obtained for the scrub lambs.

Exercise. — While in actual experiments to test
the value of open lot and pen feeding for sheep,
somewhat contradictory results have been ob-
tained there seems to be little reason to question
the proposition that sheep of all sorts require some
exercise other than what they can obtain when
housed or penned too closely. The results secured
in testing this matter in Wisconsin were not always
the same in different years, sometimes being in
favor of exercise and at other times in favor of
non-exercise. As a rule, however, the best results
have been obtained in practice from allowing
sheep considerable freedom, even during the
height of the forcing period. In order to make
a success with sheep it is necessary to start with
vigorous lambs, since otherwise they will not thrive
and cannot make an economic use of their food.
The strength of the lambs depends in turn on the
care and management of the flock in winter. As
shown by experiments in Minnesota one of the
most common mistakes in sheep management
and one which always brings disaster in its wake
is to keep sheep in too warm and close quarters.
Sheep are covered with a heavy coat of wool in
winter and readily endure any ordinary degree
of cold without harm, provided they have dry
places in which to lie down. On the other hand,
crowding in close quarters with the temperature
too warm and the air too moist causes the sheep to
sweat. The best results are commonly obtained
in allowing sheep in open yards even in the coldest
days of winter with a protected place in which
they may lie in time of cold rain storms.

Shrinkage in Shipment. — It has already been

276 FARM ANIMALS

stated that the shrinkage in shipment is practical-
ly the same in lambs and old sheep. The ordinary
shrinkage for a railroad journey of one thousand
five hundred miles is about eight per cent, of the
live weight. This may be depended upon as the
average, which will be observed in sheep from
the age of six months to three years.

Mutton Production of the United States. — An
idea of the importance of the sheep business from the
standpoint of mutton production may be obtained
from the statement that about eighteen million
five hundred thousand sheep and lambs are an-
nually slaughtered in the United States with an
average carcass value of $4.25. The number
of sheep slaughtered annually amounts to about
thirty-eight per cent, of the total number which
are kept on hand. It should not be supposed,
however, that variation in the number of sheep in
the country depends entirely on the demand for
mutton or on the market price obtained for mutton
sheep. There are other more important factors
in this variation. The most important is naturally
the price of wool. Recently, as is generally known
wool has been high and the profit derived from the
sheep business has been correspondingly great.

In order to give a definite idea of the relative
importance of wool and mutton on the western
ranges, where the greater part of our sheep pro-
duction takes place, it is only necessary to state
that a general tendency prevails toward the de-
velopment of a fine-wooled, heavy-fleeced sheep
without much regard to the mutton form. Care-
ful accounts kept on a large sheep ranch in Mon-
tana for the past twenty-five years show that by
far the greatest part of the profit in sheep comes
from wool. This statement, of course, presup-

FARM ANIMALS 277

poses that the market price of wool is reasonably
good. Thus during trie past few years on the
ordinary Montana and Wyoming sheep ranch it
has cost $1 . 60 per head per year to feed and care
for sheep under conditions where a considerable
amount of land is cultivated to forage crops and
a large percentage of the grazing land owned or
leased. The value of the fleece averages about
$1 . 25 and the value of the mutton about seventy-
five cents per year for all of the sheep maintained
on a given ranch. This does not mean that the
average price of a mutton sheep is seventy-five
cents but only a certain part of them can be sold
in a given year for mutton so that of a total in-
come of $2 which may be taken as the average
for all sheep on the ranch only seventy-five cents
of it is to be credited to mutton while $1.25
comes from wool. Incidentally these figures
show an average profit from sheep under the con-
ditions mentioned to be about forty cents per head
per year or where the expense of feeding and care
are normal this is twenty per cent, on the money
invested or a clear profit of four per cent, on the
total invested capital. The sheep business is
thus seen to be, as at present managed, a reason-
ably profitable one.

The Treatment of Lambs. — Unless the lambs
are to be sold for mutton at the age of two or three
months it is best to dock the tails and castrate all
ram lambs excepting such as are to be preserved
for breeding purposes. Both of these processes
should take place at the same time and ordinarily
when the lambs are from ten to fourteen days of
age. The tails of blooded stock of great value
may be docked by the use of a hot pinching in-
strument especially devised for this purpose and

278 FARM ANIMALS

the cut surface may then be treated with a proper
antiseptic and the lamb watched to guard against
inflammation or irritation by flies. On the west-
ern sheep ranch, however, such a process would
occupy altogether too much time. The ordinary
foreman of a sheep ranch is capable of docking
the tails of about two thousand lambs and cas-
trating the ram lambs, which average one-half
of them, in the space of two and one-half to three
hours, whereas, by the process of using a hot
pinching instrument the same number of lambs
would require several days work. The ordinary
practice on the western ranches is to have several
men catch the lambs and place them before the
operator in the proper position. The tail is cut off
by one stroke of a sharp knife and the ram lambs
castrated without any attempt to use antiseptics
or other precautions to prevent accidents. As a
matter of fact the loss as a result of this process
is very slight and need hardly be consideredf.

Shearing. — On small farms where only a few
sheep are maintained shearing does not consti-
tute a serious proposition and the time occupied
in shearing each sheep is naturally much longer
than is the case on a large ranch. The common
practice is to tie the legs and place the sheep on
a table or in a trough in order to assist the operator
in holding the sheep. As a rule, the old-fashioned
sheep shears are still used although hand machine
clippers are gradually being introduced and are
favorably reported on by a considerable percentage
of those who have tried them. On the western
sheep ranges the shearing is done by men who
follow this business as a profession and work at
it the year round. These men shear in Australia
and Argentine Republic during our winter season

FARM ANIMALS 279

and then travel into the North Temperate Zone
with the advance of spring, so that their work,
as just indicated, continues the year round. In
the United States they begin shearing in Texas
and Arizona and New Mexico in early spring,
January or February, and gradually travel north-
ward, completing the season's work in Montana
and British Columbia in June and July. On
these large ranches the shearing machines are
coming into greater and greater favor. The
clippers are connected by means of flexible or
jointed rods with a long shaft providing power for
twenty or thirty or even more clippers, depending
on the extensiveness of the business. A good
sheep shearer averages about one hundred sheep
per day and the record made with hand shears is
the same as with the machines. Such men are
capable of shearing sheep either by the machine
or by hand in about four minutes. The advan-
tages in favor of the machines are that the sheep
is sheared somewhat closer, is cut less and more
wool is obtained. Most men who have tried both
methods find that from three-quarters to one
pound more wool is obtained by the machine
clipper than by the hand shears. At first it was
thought that sheep clipped closely by machines
would be subject to sun scald but such has not
been found to be the case.

Sheep Scab. — This is the most serious disease
of sheep throughout the western range country.
The disease is due to the attack of a small mite
which burrows under the skin and causes irritation
and shedding of the wool in the infested patches.
The presence of the mite causes intense itching
and this in turn causes the sheep to rub on anything
convenient and this tears out the wool and leaves

280 FARM ANIMALS

the fleece ragged. The first sympton of the disease
is observed in the sheep rubbing and they should
immediately be investigated to determine whether
the mite is present or not. This disease is readily
transmitted from one sheep to another, so that
it spreads with considerable rapidity throughout
the flock. There are two forms of scab, the body
scab being the most serious and the head scab,
caused by another mite, which confines its attacks
largely to the head and neck. The prevalence
of scab on the western ranges became such a serious
matter that the Bureau of Animal Industry under-
took its eradication on a large scale and began the
dipping of sheep in the worst infested states. In
this work several million sheep have been dipped
in the states of Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon
and elsewhere and the work has been attended with
very satisfactory results. Sheep scab has been
thoroughly checked and practically exterminated
in Wyoming and excellent progress has been made
in other states. The immense importance of this
work can only be appreciated by those who have
seen scabby herds of sheep and have realized the
immense loss which this disease caused, not only
in wool, but in the weight of the sheep. The
treatment adopted by the Bureau of Animal In-
dustry and the one which has been the most gen-
erally effective consists in plunging the sheep into
a mixture of lime and sulphur while warm. The
essentials of a good dip are that it should kill the
scab mite in the skin, injure the sheep as little
as possible and cause no damage to tne color of
the wool or the quality. Tobacco dips are effective,
but sometimes discolor the wool. Occasionally
objections are made against the lime and sulphur
dip that this material injures the staple of the wool,

FARM ANIMALS 281

but such injury has not been of a serious char-
acter. The chief objection to the lime and sulphur
dip is that it requires some time and attention to
make it, but this is not a serious matter where there
are thousands of sheep to be dipped. The pro-
portions commonly recommended are twenty-four
pounds of sulphur, eight pounds of lime in one
hundred gallons of water, the whole mixture to
be thoroughly boiled and maintained at a temper-
ature of one hundred and ten F. while the sheep
are immersed. None of the dips commonly rec-
ommended for sheep can be safely used in a
strength sufficient to kill the eggs of the mite.
They only kill the mites of different ages. It is
therefore, necessary in the case of scabby sheep
that they be dipped a second time after an inter-
val of about ten days. The reason for this is
that during this interval all the eggs which were
not destroyed by the first dipping will have hatched
and the young mites will thus be destroyed.

Stomach Worms. — Mention has already been made
of the stomach worms in the southern states.
This small worm which lives in the stomach
of sheep, goats and calves and is not over
three-quarters of an inch long and about like a
hair in diameter, causes a most serious disease of
sheep throughout the country from the Mississippi
valley eastward and north and south. It begins
to make its effect visible in May and in nearly all
cases where lambs are unthrifty and show a dry
papery skin during the summer they are infested
with stomach worms. The examination of the
stomach of one of these animals will show the pres-
ence of the worms. A number of good remedies
have been devised for stomach worms, but there
is the serious objection against all of them that

282 FARM ANIMALS

the operation is altogether too tedious. If a large
number of lambs are affected at the same time it
is almost impossible to give each one a drench of
any medicine several times. In the sheep business,
as in some other lines of animal industry, it is
necessary from a financial standpoint to be able to
apply remedies on a large scale in case of an out-
break of infectious disease. This is possible
with scab since dipping vats may be constructed
of such size that from three thousand to fifteen
thousand sheep may be run through in a day. The
remedies commonly used in treating stomach worms
are turpentine at the rate of one part in sixteen
parts 01 milk and given in doses of one to three
tablespoonfuls, or one tablespoonful of gasolene
in four ounces of sweet milk, or coal tar creosote
in doses of two to four ounces of a one-per-cent. so-
lution in water. The same treatment may be given
to goats or calves.

The best way of controlling the disease, however,
consists in a frequent rotation of pastures so as
to prevent any pasture from becoming too thorough-
ly infected. In this way the lambs may be kept
from becoming infectea by eating grass soiled
with the droppings of other infested sheep.

Lung Worms. — In the lungs of sheep another
parasitic threadlike worm occurs which causes
coughing and sneezing and a discharge of mucus
from the nose. The skin becomes exceedingly
papery and gives rise to the name paper skin for
the disease. The treatment for this trouble as
usually recommended consists in driving the lambs
into a small closed space in which they are forced
to inhale irritating fumes. This causes violent
coughing which assists in expelling the worms.
Another treatment to be given in connection with

FARM ANIMALS 283

this consists in injecting a mixture of olive oil and
turpentine into the windpipe. This remedy, how-
ever, suffers from the serious objection that it
takes altogether too much time and the best way
to control the disease is by the use of preventive
measures, such as are recommended for the
stomach worm.

Sheep occasionally become affected with a sort
of blood poisoning as a result of cutting with dirty
shears at the time of shearing. The disease runs
a rapid course and is characterized by swellings
and intense inflamation near the cut part. There
is no cure for this disease but the trouble may
obviously be prevented by the use of clean shears.

All sheep are subject to liver flukes which cause
the so-called liver rot. This flat parasitic worm
is also taken into the stomach on grass eaten along
the edges of ponds. Attention should always be
given to the condition of waterways in pastures
in which sheep are kept in order to prevent infection
by these parasitic worms for most of them are ac-
quired by eating soiled grass in pastures.

Similarly with the common tape worms of sheep
which sometimes occur in such numbers as almost
to obstruct the passages in the intestines as well as
in the bile ducts of the liver. These parasites are
also taken into the stomach on grass infested by
a young form of the tape worm which comes in
turn from infested dogs. This indicates the desir-
ability of keeping all useless dogs out of sheep
pastures and of treating for tape worms all dogs
which are used for herding sheep. The best
vermifuge for use in expelling tape worms from
sheep is the areca nut which may be given in doses
of one to three drams.

Sheep are also attacked by a parasitic worm

284 FARM ANIMALS

which burrows into the walls of the intestines and
causes nodules, giving rise to the name nodular
disease for this trouble. This disease is more
serious in the South than in the North, but occasion-
ally occurs as far north as New York. No medic-
inal treatment is of value in ridding sheep of this
disease. The whole trouble must, therefore, be
controlled by preventive measures. Lambs may
be kept on bare lots where there is no grass for
them to eat. They may then be fed green crops in
racks, taking care to remove all of the material that
is left after each feeding. There is little likelihood
of the lambs becoming infested under such circum-
stances, even if the intestines of the ewes are badly
attacked by this parasite. The bare lot method
has been tested with considerable success in Louis-
iana and has the practical value that ewes which
are infested may thus be kept for breeding pur-
poses without danger of transmitting the parasites to
the lambs. This is of course, an important matter
since if it were not possible it would be necessary
to get rid of all the infested ewes or, at least, they
could not be utilized for breeding purposes.

The gid worm has not been definitely known to
occur in the United States until within the past
few years. A few cases have been found in Mon-
tana and it may be possible that the disease is more
widely spread than is thought. This disease is a
serious one in sheep in Europe and is due to an
immature form of a tape worm which lives in dogs.
The disease is thus transmitted from dogs to sheep
and this furnishes another reason for keeping close
watch of all dogs about the sheep pasture. The
immature tape worm when taken into the stomach
of the sheep penetrates through the tissue to the
surface of the brain, where it develops in a sac

FARM ANIMALS 285

containing a fluid. The pressure on the brain
causes a curious and characteristic symptom in
the infested sheep. The animal keeps turning
around to the right or left according as the parasite
is located on the right or left side of the brain.
There is obviously no remedy for this disease and
prevention is again the only hope of eradicating it.

The sheep bot fly lays its eggs within the nostrils
of the sheep where they develop into maggots and
cause serious irritation and worry to the sheep.
Some sheep raisers have found considerable success
in preventing the fly from laying its eggs by smear-
ing the sheep's nose with tar or some other sub-
stance of a disagreeable odor. In many cases the
maggots may be removed by a direct application of
turpentine in the nostril with a feather.

It is necessary to dip sheep annually and some-
times more than once a year not only on account
of the sheep scab, but also on account of infesta-
tion with the sheep tick. This is a peculiar insect
which lives on the skin of the sheep and when
occuring in large numbers causes great loss of
flesh. It may be destroyed by the same dips which
are recommended for sheep scab. The best time
to dip sheep for this purpose is immediately after
shearing, since at that time the dip readily gets in
contact with all the ticks which may be in the short
wool.

CHAPTER VII.

GOATS

Goats have always been raised to a greater or
less extent in this country, but in the past eight
or ten years a considerable increase in interest in
the goat business has been stirred up by the efforts
of the Bureau of Animal Industry and of others
who have helped to develop goat raising in the
United States. According to recent statistics there
are about two million goats in this country of which
perhaps seven hundred thousand are Angoras,
the rest being common goats. These goats are
distributed quite unevenly throughout the country
but occur in every state and territory. Texas
stands at the head with more than six hundred
thousand, followed by New Mexico, Alabama,
Oregon, California, Georgia, Mississippi and other
states. During the recent revival of interest in
the goat industry, particular attention has natural-
ly been given to the Angoras, which with other
improved breeds, together with the common goat,
are considered to be descendants of a common
wild species. The Angoras were first introduced
into this country from Turkey during the admin-
istration of President Polk. The Angora goat
and common goats are valuable on account of
their ability to clear brush land and derive a main-
tenance ration from leaves, bark, small twigs,
weeds and other waste materials which would

286

FARM ANIMALS 287

scarcely be eaten by any other farm animal, ex-
cepting sheep. It is claimed that when Angoras
are allowed to graze on such material the meat
takes on a gamey flavor and, in fact, some de-
mand has arisen for Angora meat which is some-
times sold under the name Angora venison. The
chief value of the Angora is for the production of
mohair which constitutes the greater part of their
fleece. Mohair is extensively used in this country
in the manufacture of plush and a large percentage
of it is imported. Some coarse hair or kemp is
usually mixed with the mohair in our Angoras
and this indicates impurity of the blood.

The weight of the fleece in three-quarters bred
Angoras is one to one and a half pounds, worth
about fifteen to twenty cents a pound, while seven-
eighths goats shear two to three pounds and fifteen-
sixteenths bred goats three to five pounds, worth
from thirty to forty cents a pound. Occasionally,
of course, much higher, weights of fleece have
been obtained, the weight sometimes reaching
sixteen pounds. This, however, is very excep-
tional. The skins of Angoras with the mohair
attached and properly tanned are in considerable
demand for rugs either in a natural color or dyed.
Such skins may be used for rugs or robes. An-
other purpose for which Angoras are used by the
ranchers of the West, is as a leader for a herd of
sheep. Many sheep raisers consider it advisable
to have a goat with each band of sheep, since,
goats travel more rapidly than sheep, are not so
easily frightened and are more likely to assume
the initiative in looking after good grass. The
band is thus prevented from tramping about too
much on the same area, therefore, injuring the
grass and failing to obtain the best grazing.

288 FARM ANIMALS

The common goat is rather more hardy than
the Angora, but even the Angora is capable of
maintaining itself under most conditions where
sheep thrive. Thus, they are raised under all cli-
matic conditions from Alaska to the tropics. Goats
are more active grazers than sheep and travel
over greater distances. If they are to be con-
fined they require a good quality of fence. On
the western ranges the herders sometimes find
that a horse is required, since herding on foot be-
comes a more difficult business than herding
sheep in the same way. Under eastern conditions
and where the rainfall is heavy some protection is
necessary for the goats to prevent them from be-
coming too badly soaked with water and a little
pretection from the sun during the hot season is
desirable. While, as already indicated, goats are
capable of picking up a living on what would
otherwise be called waste material they do not
always thrive under such treatment and they
naturally respond like other farm animals to suit-
able feeding. It is not necessary, however, to go
into the subject of the feeding of goats much
further than to say that goats can be fed the same
feeds and in the same proportion as recommended
for sheep.

The young kids for two or three days are ex-
ceedingly delicate and must be cared for atten-
tively. The best time for the kids to come is in
the early spring when the leaves are just starting
on the bushes. For some time after the kidding
season the young must be left in the corral every
day while the does go out to graze. Kids are not
hardy enough to stand travel. They may be kept
in ordinary corrals or may be kept tied in open
sheds. Goats are weaned at the age of five months

FARM ANIMALS 289

and the buck kids that are not intended for breed-
ing purposes should be castrated at ten to twelve
days of age. An Angora herd may be bred up
from common goats by the use of a pure bred
buck. It is commonly considered that five crosses
of this sort produce an animal about as good as
the average so-called pure bred Angora obtained
in this country. The cost of producing a small
herd of Angoras is, therefore, not very large. Goats
are sheared once or twice a year according to the
climate, twice in Texas, New Mexico and Arizona,
in March and September, and once in the north-
ern states. The mohair is removed by hand
shears or by clipping machines, as is the case
with sheep.

It is often stated that goats are practically im-
mune to the diseases which attack sheep and that
the business of raising goats is, therefore, com-
paratively safe. Such, however, has not been
found to be the case. Goats are very susceptible
to stomach worms as a number of men who have
engaged in the industry have found to their cost.
They are also subject to tuberculosis to a slight
extent, notwithstanding the fact that they are com-
monly said to be immune. Recently a serious
disease broke out among goats in this country
and was thoroughly studied by the Bureau of
Animal Industry. This disease is called takosis
and is exceedingly fatal to goats. What is still
worse, there is no satisfactory remedy for this
disease, so that the goats are rapidly carried off
when the disease breaks out in a herd and the
owner stands in a helpless condition. Fortun-
ately takosis seems to be somewhat less prevalent
during recent years than in the past.

Recently there has been a revival of interest

290 FARM ANIMALS

in this country in milch goats and this interest
has been further stimulated by the importation
of a number of Maltese milch goats. The ad-
vantages of goats for milk production are that the
milk is claimed to be excellent for children and
invalids and for cookery, that it is comparatively
free from tuberculosis and that it can be produced
very cheaply. The milch goat yields from one to
four or five quarts a day, but three quarts is a
good average even under the best conditions. In
chemical composition goat's milk contains a little
more fat than average cow's milk. The odor
of goat's milk is not very disagreeable, except in
case some of the filth from the goat should fall
into the milk. The period of lactation of milch
goats is about seven months, but may occasionally
be somewhat longer. The milk of goats may be
carried to consumers by the same methods as are
adopted for cow's milk, or as is the case in some
countries the goats may be driven along the street
and milked as demands are made. Goat's milk
has also been used to some extent in the manu-
facture of cheese and butter. The price ordi-
narily obtained for goat's milk is twelve to twenty-
five cents a quart and this high price is partly
due to the scarcity of the article and partly to the
belief that goat's milk is practically sure to be free
from tuberculosis.

The size of the Angora goats which were first
brought to this country was rather too small. At
present an attempt is being made to increase the
size and individual animals are found which weigh
from one hundred to one hundred and eighty pounds.
Some pains is also being taken in breeding to pro-
duce heavier fleeces of a long staple. In manag-
ing goats it has been found advisable to train dogs

FARM ANIMALS 291

especially for the work. In some parts of Texas
a goat dog has been developed by crossing collies
and the ordinary hound. This produces a dog
of considerable intelligence, speed and size. While
many good points have been brought out in rais-
ing goats in this country and considerable interest
stirred up in the business, there seems to be not
the same good business reason for raising goats as
for raising sheep. In most localities where sheep
thrive they will yield more profit to the owner
than goats. It is a particularly difficult and te-
dious process to work up a regular demand for an
unfamiliar product. Customers are scarce, the
article is comparatively little known and the
average individual does not know what to do
with it, so that considerable hesitation is felt in
buying it. This is to some extent the case with
goat's milk. Then, too, we have to consider the
fact that the use of goats in the production of milk
under ordinary eastern conditions, at any rate, is
a far more expensive procedure than the mainten-
ance of dairy cows. It may be fairly assumed
that a goat will eat one-fifth as much as a cow.
The productiveness of the average dairy cow, how-
ever, is far beyond five times that of the goat.
Moreover, in so far as freedom from tuberculosis
is concerned cow's milk may be readily rendered
safe by sterilization, pasteurization, clean methods,
the use of healthy cows or even by the use of form-
alin as recently recommended by Von Behring.
In 'putting these strictures on goat raising, it is
not intended to discourage any one from entering
into the business, but simply to call attention to
the fact that goat raising does not always prove
profitable and at best only in the hands of skilful
men who have had some experience in this line

292 FARM ANIMALS

of business. There is always more demand for
the improvement of those lines of animal industry
which are already well developed and for increas-
ing the productiveness of those animals upon which
we already depend than in introducing and popu-
larizing animals with which we are relatively unfa-
miliar.

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CHAPTER VIII.

POULTRY

The immense value of poultry is hardly realized
by those who have paid no attention to the statis-
tics relating to this matter. Nearly every farmer
and a large proportion of the inhabitants of small
towns and some even in cities raise poultry to a
greater or less extent. The total number of birds
thus kept for home use is probably considerably
greater than the estimates furnished by the Census.
According to the most recent figures the total
number of chickens in the United States is 233,600,
000, of ducks 4,807,000, of geese 5,677,000, and
of turkeys 6,600,000. The number of Guinea
fowls has not been separately estimated but is
probably not less than 500,000. The American
hen produces annually about 1,294,000,000 dozen
of eggs valued at $144,000,000 besides an annual
crop of chickens for meat valued at $137,000,000.
The amount of money invested in the poultry
business is therefore quite sufficient to entitle this
to a position in the front rank of the lines of animal
industry. The annual international poultry trade
at present amounts to $300,000,000 of which
$100,000,000 is in eggs. It is apparent, there-
fore, that chickens and other poultry not only
occupy a large place in the home and on the home
markets but also in international trade.

The difference from a financial standpoint be-

293

294 FARM ANIMALS

tween the poultry business and other lines of ani-
mal industry is that as a rule the raising of poultry
is carried on purely as a side line and without much
attention to the business details of the matter.
For this reason it happens that a considerable
percentage of those who raise poultry are unable
to say anything definite concerning the profit and
loss side of the business. Perhaps a larger num-
ber of people have failed to make a success with
poultry than in the case of any other line of animal
industry and this fact indicates clearly, that while
it is possible for almost any one without the exer-
cise of any care or of common sense to raise some
poultry, it is not possible to make a business
success of the matter without giving attention to
all the necessary matters including the health and
food of fowls but also to market conditions and to
all known points which relate to the business. In
other words, poultry, raising, like other lines of
animal industry, does not run itself but must be
conducted on a scientific basis. As a rule poultry
is maintained only in small flocks but recently an
increased number of large poultry farms have been
established, devoted exclusively to the raising of
chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys. Thus, in the
neighborhood of Petaluma, California, several
square miles have been given up exclusively to
this business and great success has attended these
efforts. Again in the region of certain large poul-
try markets like New York many men have found
handsome profits in buying chickens, ducks, geese
and turkeys and putting them in a fine market
condition at the right time to realize the best
prices.

As a general thing, it may be asserted that
success in the poultry business depends on the

FARM ANIMALS 295

knowledge of the business, construction of suit-
able houses, use of proper breeds, avoiding over-
crowding, proper feeding and care of hens, recog-
nition of the profitable laying age of fowls, and
thorough care of chickens from the time of hatching.

In order to discuss some of the practical matters
which must be considered in profitable poultry
raising this chapter is divided into sections accord-
ing to the kind of fowls concerned.

Chickens. — It is perhaps well to start out with
the subject of feeding chickens. Too many people
seem to act upon the theory that success with chick-
ens can be had without giving any attention to
their feeding. It is of course a fact that chickens
will eat almost any kind of green material or grain
food as well as waste materials and that under
ordinary circumstances, especially where they have
considerable freedom and opportunity to find in-
sects and other food, no serious trouble arises.
Certain phases of considerable importance in the
feeding of chickens have been thoroughly demon-
strated by experiments and better results can be
obtained by giving proper heed to these experimental
facts than by attempting to overlook them and to
go into the chicken business headlong.

In the first place chickens need considerable
variety in their ration which should always include
animal food, ground grain, and some green feed.

Animal Feeds. — Chickens can perhaps utilize a
larger amount of animal food in proportion to
their weight than the larger farm animals and this
is also true of ducks, geese and turkeys. No
animal food need be excluded from the ration.
They seem to relish and make good use of all of
them. Thus, satisfactory results have been ob-
tained from the use of milk albumen, beef scraps,

296 FARM ANIMALS

animal meal, bone meal, chopped meat, skim milk,
offal from slaughtered animals, and various other
animal materials either in a raw or cooked form.
Preferably, however, these materials, if not from an
infected animal, should be fed raw since they
appear to act most beneficially on the digestion
of the chicken in that condition. Sometimes it
appears that in feeding for eggs the poultryman
may be able to accomplish better results by the
use of cheap fats like beef scraps than are obtained
by feeding higher priced animal meals. As a rule,
where direct comparison has been made between
rations with and without animal meal or some other
animal food it has been found that the greatest
increase in weight has taken place in those animals
which received meat meal. The difference in this
respect is usually of considerable importance. A
high grade of beef scraps may be obtained from
packing houses and fresh meat and bone may be
easily secured from local butchers and ground up
as occasion requires. This constitutes an exceed-
ingly cheap source of food for chickens and no
opportunity should be lost to buy them whenever
they can be obtained at reasonable prices. The
use of animal meals in egg production is highly
desirable from two considerations. In the first
place, these foods contain large amounts of protein
which is utilized in the formation of eggs, and in
the second place, they do not tend to an overfat
condition which is sure to result in relative ster-
ility of the hens. As already hinted, however, it
frequently happens that better results are obtained
from beef scraps than with ground meat, ground
bone, or milk albumen, and this material should
always be utilized wherever it can be conveni-
ently obtained. The great egg-producing value of

FARM ANIMALS 297

ground fresh meat has frequently been shown by
comparing this food with meat meal which is an
excellent egg producer. As a rule, ground fresh
meat or fresh bone gives a larger increase in weight
and leads to the production of more eggs than does
meat meal. Fresh green bones, in addition to
the protein which they contain, and which is a neces-
sary element of the ration in egg production,
contain also considerable quantities of lime com-
pounds in the most available form in which they
can be fed to the chickens. Ground fresh bones
are far better sources of mineral material than are
oyster shells or other cheap forms of calcareous
material. It is commonly estimated that one
pound of fresh bones is sufficient for sixteen hens.
Bones should be run through a cutter before
feeding.

Skim Milk. — Skim milk is an excellent and most
effective feed for chickens of all ages. It may be
given as a drink or may be mixed with ground
grain or meal or compounded with beef scraps
or animal meal. When added to a meal mixture,
two pounds of milk are sufficient for one pound
of meal. Skim milk is perhaps the best feed for
producing a white skin in chickens, while animal
meal, especially if fed in large quantities, gives a
yellowish flesh sometimes of a decided color, an
undesirable quality. The most economic gains
are made in chickens when skim milk is fed both
as a drink and added to the grain mixture. In
addition to the animal feeds already mentioned,
blood meal and tankage, if obtainable at reasonable
prices, may be satisfactory and economic foods in
fattening chickens and in increasing the egg
production.

Grains. — There is scarcely any grain which may

298 FARM ANIMALS

not be fed to chickens with good results, with the
possible exception of cotton seed meal, which may
be left out of the list of chicken foods for the reason
that it appears to exercise a somewhat poisonous
effect. Thus, barley, buckwheat, corn, wheat,
oats, rye, Kafir corn, millet, sunflower seeds,
screenings, rice milling products, all kinds of ground
and cracked grains and various weed seeds have
been used in feeding chickens and all these materi-
als have a place in the chicken ration. Through-
out the corn belt corn is, of course, looked upon
as the sovereign food for chickens as well as for the
large farm animals and many fowls receive no
other grain except corn. This furnishes a com-
paratively satisfactory ration where the fowls
have a run so that they can pick up insects or
other animal feed in addition to screenings and
cracked grain. The chicken, by reason of its
strong muscular gizzard, is capable of digesting
minute seeds, cracked grain and other hard grain
material much more thoroughly than the domestic
mammals. For this reason much material which
is unsuited as food for other farm animals may be
kept for chickens and fed to them with excellent
results. Corn is readily digested by chickens,
whether fed whole or cracked or in the form of
corn meal and whether fed moist or dry. If finely
ground grain is fed, it is usually best to moisten
the meal before feeding.

Buckwheat. — Throughout the region where it
is produced this is considered a fine food for
poultry. Where buckwheat has been compared
directly with corn, the results have usually been
somewhat in favor of corn. Either whole buck-
wheat or buckwheat middlings and bran are well
worth feeding to chickens and produce results
which are nearly always satisfactory.

FARM ANIMALS 299

In many localities peanuts are fed to chickens
and the returns from this food are usually quite
fine. Peanuts, as is well-known, contain a high
percentage of both protein and fat and may, there-
fore, be used in feeding chickens for market, but
are ordinarily not used for laying hens. Various
rice products as well as wild rice have been tried
for chicken feed. In one instance a direct com-
parison of rice and wheat gave results decidedly
in favor of the rice as a food for the production
of eggs. Rice milling products may be relatively
too high in price, except in Louisiana and Texas,
where these materials are produced in abundance.

Wheat. — This grain is everywhere fed to chickens
and is considered excellent feed for them. Not
only good whole wheat may be fed, but also cracked
wheat, shrunken wheat, screenings, and frosted
wheat with the reasonable hope of getting good
returns from them. Where considerable animal
food is given to chickens wheat appears to be not
much superior to corn. The great value of wheat,
however, appears in cases where little other pro-
tein is given in the ration. In some cases, where
large quantities of skim milk have been fed to
chickens, corn has proved quite superior to wheat.
Corn has usually been found superior to wheat in
rations where considerable animal food was used,
while with beef scraps wheat and corn are about
equal. Similar results have been obtained in
rations containing milk albumen and other animal
foods.

While barley, wheat, buckwheat and rice con-
tain a relatively high percentage of protein it is,
nevertheless, true that poultry sometimes require
a more nitrogenous ration and one containing more
animal material than is supplied by the ordinary

300 FARM ANIMALS

grains. In order, therefore, to avoid feeding a
defective ration, it is often necessary to feed highly
concentrated by-products such as the animal foods
which have already been mentioned. For this
purpose the use of milk albumen has usually
given fine results. Gluten meal and gluten feeds
are inferior to bone meals, especially in rations
for young chickens. The inferiority of these
nitrogenous materials is due to the relatively low
amount of mineral material in them.

Proprietary Foods. — While balanced and econ-
omic rations have been determined by careful
experiments for steers, sheep, dairy cows, hogs
and horses, less attention has been given to this
matter in the case of poultry until within recent
years. As a result of the uncertainty which pre-
vails regarding the proper rations for egg produc-
tion and for fattening chickens, the venders of
proprietary chicken foods have reaped a rich har-
vest in selling their comparatively cheap products
for an exceedingly high price. It is often asked
why there are so many more proprietary chicken
foods than proprietary foods for cows, pigs, horses
and sheep. The answer is obviously to be sought
in the facts above mentioned. It is likely that when
poultrymen have determined a suitable ration for
chickens the same as for other animals the sale of
proprietary or condimental chicken feeds will be
very small. By this statement it is not meant to
imply that no value attaches to proprietary chicken
feeds on the market, but simply to indicate that
the price demanded for these feeds is entirely too
high as compared with their actual feeding value.
Thus, from analyses of these feeds it appears that
some have contained as high as eighty-nine per
cent, of ash, which is principally carbonate of lime

FARM ANIMALS 301

or shell material. Since this substance could be
obtained very cheaply by using oyster shells or
other similar material it seems unbelieveable that
poultrymen should continue to pay from twenty
cents to forty cents a pound for material which is
really worth about one-half cent a pound.

Green Feeds for Chickens. — If chickens are
raised under conditions where they cannot have
access to grass or other green material some green
feed must be supplied to them in their pens or yards.
For this purpose almost any garden stuff, grass or
weeds are available and valuable, but the legumi-
nous hays are most nutritious and effective both
in the production of eggs and in putting meat on
chickens. So well known is the value of alfalfa
and clover that a number of chicken feeds are now
on the market containing green alfalfa as a basis
with grain and other materials added. This again
is objectionable on account of the unnecessarily
high price which must be paid for the material.
It is far cheaper for the poultryman to buy his own
alfalfa or clover if he does not raise it himself and
grind it to feed hens. About one-third of the mash
fed to poultry may be made of alfalfa and clover
and when this material is fed the results are always
satisfactory both in egg production and in gain in
weight. Where chickens are allowed to run prac-
tically at pleasure they pick up as much green
material as they require and are always observed
to be fond of leguminous crops such as alfalfa,
clover and peas. That the recommendation in
favor of the constant green feed in the ration for
chickens is based on practical feeding is proved by
the fact that in all comparative feeding tests, where
an excellent ration has been fed with and without
green feed, the best results have always been ob-

302 FARM ANIMALS

tained from fowls to which the green material is
given. The presence of green feed in the ration
is most desirable and most effective in winter. Its
influence is then apparent in the production of
eggs. Since in summer fowls may obtain their
own green feed, if not strictly confined, it is neces-
sary to feed green feed only in winter and this may
be done in the form of cheap cabbage, roots and
other garden stuff or as above mentioned by alfalfa
and clover hay which may be ground and moistened
before feeding.

Mineral Matter in the Feed. — The actual lime
and salts which are required by growing chickens
in the formation of bones and by laying hens for
the production of egg shells may be best supplied
from ground bone. It must always be remembered
that the importance of animal feeds in poultry
feeding is much greater than in the case of other
farm animals. In the case of ground bone the
value of this material sometimes depends much
more on the amount of mineral matter which it
contains than on the protein. In New York tests
were made to determine the importance of sand in
feeding chickens, both in rations containing animal
feed and in those which did not contain animal
feed. In all cases it was found that chickens were
in better health and made more efficient use of
their feed when grit in some form was added to the
ration. Grit may be supplied in the form of
ground Florida rock phosphate or oyster shells,
but in general oyster shells are the most undesirable
manner in which mineral matter may be added to
the ration. The great objection to oyster shells is
that they seem to cause injury to the alimentary
tract of the fowls and this does not happen from
feeding ground rock, ground bone or sand. Even

FARM ANIMALS 303

the addition of sand was found to be of consider-
able importance. Finely ground bone supplies
both lime and phosphorous, while oyster shells
supply little but lime and when fed to chickens
in large quantities nearly always produce an
injurious effect and sometimes disease and death.
The curious fact has been shown by experiments
that there is advantage in mixing fine sand in the
feed of chickens even when they are running on a
floor covered with sand. Obviously the poultry-
man should secure their own mineral feeds rather
than buy proprietary feeds containing them.

Narrow vs. Wide Rations. — With chickens as
with other animals we must meet this question.
It is comparatively easy to answer this question,
however, since the best results have generally been
obtained from the use of narrow rations in feeding
for eggs and from slightly wider rations in fattening
for market. As is well known an overfat condition
in chickens is not conducive to egg production and
this can best be avoided by feeding a comparatively
narrow ration containing nitrogenous grains, animal
feeds, green feeds rather than too much starch or
fat. The narrow ration is likewise best for young
chickens until they reach considerable size. During
the forcing period for market it is not necessary to
pay so much attention to the health of the chicken
and a wider and cheaper ration may therefore be
fed containing for example largely corn or corn
meal. There is likewise economy in feeding wide
rations since protein is more expensive than starch
and sugar in feeding animals.

Heavy vs. Light Rations. — The position which
the poultryman should take on this will also depend
on the purpose for which he is feeding. During the
later stages of feeding for market, fowls may be

304 FARM ANIMALS

induced to eat all that they will since gains are then
most rapid and the cost of fattening is obviously
diminished by shortening the period of fattening.
In feeding for eggs, however, hens should be given
rations which keep them of about a constant
weight without producing an overfat condition.
The effect of light and heavy feeding on the fer-
tility of the eggs is apparent from the fact that when
conditions are favorable for a high egg production
the eggs hatch better than when the conditions
are unfavorable. In some breeds of chickens
which are slow in their actions and which
rapidly fatten as the result of heavy feeding the
eggs do not hatch well or if they do hatch do not
produce vigorous chicks.

Ground vs. Whole Grain. — The fact that chickens
possess a thick muscular gizzard may make it
appear quite unnecessary to grind or otherwise
prepare grain for feeding to them. Nevertheless
this matter has been thoroughly tested by poultry-
men. Where the grain ration consists of a mixture
of corn and oats it has been found that with both
young and old fowls better results are obtained
when one-third of the grain ration is fed ground
and moistened than when all of the grain is fed
whole. On farms where poultry are allowed
almost perfect freedom they thrive excellently well
and produce a reasonable number of eggs without
grinding or otherwise treating the grain ration.
The grinding of grain relieves the gizzard to some
extent and appears to make the grain more diges-
tible. For light breeds of fowls kept for egg pro-
duction it appears to be a good general practice
to feed about one-third of the grain ground and the
other two-thirds whole, scattering it in the litter.
The use of too much ground feed or mash conduces

FARM ANIMALS 305

to laziness on the part of the fowls since it is fed in
troughs or basins and the fowls do not have to
search for it. By throwing the whole grain in the
litter the material becomes somewhat hidden and
the fowls are forced to take some exercise in
scratching and finding the grain. On this account
the use of some whole grain is generally recom-
mended and this recommendation is based on
better results obtained where the chickens are thus
forced to take exercise than where they are allowed
to eat large quantities of mash in a lazy manner.
Dry Feeding vs. Mash. — It is desirable to know
the relative value of feeding grain cracked or
ground in a dry form and after moistening. Where
these two kinds of material have been compared
it has been found that chickens are very fond of
broken and whole grain moistened and that they
will eat such material better than a dry mixture
of finely ground grain. They will eat dry meal,
however, in small quantities whenever they need it
and always fill the crop before going to roost.
Dry meal, however, is not eaten in such quantities
as to cause the chickens to sit down and waste the
day without taking exercise, thus becoming overfat.
The latter objection, as already hinted, attaches
to the excessive use of wet mash. It should not be
understood that a general objection is made to
the use of wet mash, since a small quantity in the
morning, especially if fed warm, is an excellent
stimulant in egg production. One system of
feeding consists in the use of a warm morning meal
of mash followed later in the day by green feed and
whole grain thrown in the litter which will keep
chickens busy searching during a large part of the
day. Moreover at moulting and after the old
feathers have become loose and the new feathers

306 FARM ANIMALS

are taking their place the use of mash is very
effective in hastening the production of new
feathers. In fattening, the use of mash feeds are
far superior to dry feeds and this practice is fol-
lowed by all poultrymen.

The Cost of Feeding Broilers. — A great amount
of attention has been given to the production of
broilers. The profit from feeding young animals
is always greater than from feeding old birds, and
this fact, in addition to the handsome prices which
are realized on young broilers properly fed, has led
a large number of people to engage in this special
line of poultry raising. The total cost of feeding
chickens up to the proper size and age for broilers
varies in different parts of the country, depending
on the cost of feed and the kinds of feed used. In
South Carolina it has been found that the cost of
feeding chickens up to eight weeks is about seven
and one-half cents per head and to twelve weeks,
twelve cents, or an average of one cent per week.
These figures do not take account of the green feed
used in forcing broilers for market but on all farms,
especially where arrangements are made so that
chickens have a suitable range, the cost of green
feed is so small that it can be neglected in stating
this side of the proposition.

Feeding Chickens for Market. — Owing to the
fact that chickens can be marketed at an early age
it is found unnecessary from a physiological
standpoint to give strict attention to the balancing
of the ration as in the case of animals which are
kept to a greater age and are fed over a longer
feeding period. The chief purpose of balancing
the ration for chickens intended for market and
not for breeding purposes is found in the fact that
they put on gains faster and the process is therefore

FARM ANIMALS 307

more economic. In preparing chickens for market
it is usually best to separate the cockerels and
pullets into two flocks. They may then be fed on
a porridge twice a day, prepared of four parts corn
meal, two parts middlings, and one part beef scraps.
The mixed material should be moistened with
water or still better with milk. From experiments
in Maine it is recommended that the amount of
water or milk used should be enough to make a
rather thin porridge. If fed on a fattening ration
for four weeks they become meaty and soft and
some feeders have found that they are in a better
market condition than when fed on dry grains and
given more liberty. It is not profitable for poultry
raisers to sell chickens in a poor or medium con-
dition. They have an active digestion and make
good returns for the feed which they consume.
It pays therefore in all cases to put enough feed in
them to finish them up in a fat condition. One
month is about the limit of a profitable fattening
period and if proper attention is given to the chick-
ens during this time they can be put in excellent
market shape. In general it has been found that
they will do as well on a fattening ration when kept
in pens large enough to accomodate a hundred
as when placed in small latticed coops containing
only four chickens and kept with a small amount
of exercise.

The Amount of Feed for Each Hen During the
Year. — It is necessary to know how much a hen
requires during the year in order to be in a position
to estimate the proper amount of feed to buy or
set aside for the use of a flock of fowls. Among
Maine poultrymen it has been found that each hen
will consume annually from fifty to fifty-five pounds
of dry grain in additon to clover, roots and other

308 FARM ANIMALS

material added to the mash. A similar quantity
of grain should be fed at the same time in the litter.
Most poultrymen have found that the quantity of
grain to be given may be well determined from a
practical standpoint by allowing as much for each
feed as a flock will eat during the course of an hour.
In a long series of tests in which hens were found to
require from fifty to fifty-five pounds of mash
annually, each hen also received eighteen pounds
of wheat, six and one-half pounds cracked corn,
six pounds oats, six pounds oyster shells, three
pounds dry bone and forty pounds of roots. On
this ration good hens should average about fifty
pounds of eggs per year. The annual cost per
hen when such rations are used will vary from
$1.50 to $1.75 per hen. In Utah it was found
that, even with comparatively expensive grain
rations, the annual cost of grain per hen varied
from sixty-nine cents to $1 . 26. Trie value of eggs
produced on native grains and legumes in Utah
ranged in value from $1.29 to $2.78 per fowl
according to the breed. In another series of exper-
iments carried on in Utah it was found that the
average value of eggs amounted from $2 . 06 to $3 . 60
per fowl per year and that the total cost of feeding
was such that the eggs were produced at an
average cost per dozen of six and one-half cents.
Roots. — Roots have a larger place in the ration
for fowls, perhaps, than in those for the domestic
mammals. This is largely due to the fact that
chickens are omnivorous in their habits and will eat
not only all of the standard grains and other feeds
which are used in fattening large farm animals but
also make good use of various feeds and by-
products which would otherwise be waste material
on the farm. As a result of very extensive experi-

FARM ANIMALS 309

ence in poultry feeding in California a number of
rations have been found to give excellent results
and one or two of them may well be mentioned in
this connection. For a flock of one hundred hens
it is well to allow for each day's food four pounds
of corn meal, five pounds of wheat, five pounds
barley, two pounds bran, two pounds alfalfa, one
pound meat meal, one and one-half pounds blood
meal. Various other ground animal feeds may be
substituted for those in the above ration in a proper
proportion. Thus we may use middlings, cocoa-
nut oil cake, linseed meal, skim milk, shorts, and
various materials which will readily occur to the
poultryman. In fattening chickens for market
excellent results have been obtained from the use
of a mixture of two pounds ground oats, one pound
ground barley, and one pound corn meal to which
beef suet is added boiled in milk. Fowls are fed
all they will eat of this mixture twice daily. After
chickens have been forced about two weeks they
begin to lose their appetite and a crammer may
then be used if desirable. The ordinary crammer
consists merely of an apparatus by which grain
mixture or mash containing also some animal and
green feed is forced down the chickens under
pressure. The mixture is of course previously
moistened to such an extent that it is semi-fluid.
An all grain ration for fattening chickens is some-
what cheaper, but is considerably less effective
than a mixture of grain and beef scraps.

The cost of gain in chickens usually amounts
to about three to four cents a pound. Since the
farmer can obtain at least ten and sometimes as
high as twenty cents a pound for well-fattened
fowls the profit from transforming grain and other
farm products into chicken meat should be appar-

310 FARM ANIMALS

ent without further argument. As already hinted
the chicken ration may contain grains of all kinds,
either whole or in the form of a mash, boiled pota-
toes or other roots can be fed and if possible alfalfa
and clover cut fine and moistened and animal feeds.
It would be quite impossible to indicate all of the
suitable combinations of farm feeds which may be
used in fattening chickens and this would be un-
necessary even if it were possible for the fact that
many references have been made to suitable com-
binations which balance the ration for other farm
animals, makes it evident that little difficulty will
be experienced by the intelligent farmer in com-
plying with these requirements in the feeding of
chickens. The main point to be considered in
fattening chickens is to change the ration frequently.
While the fattening period for chickens lasts only
about a month the chickens are sure to lose appe-
tite and get off feed even in this short period unless
suitable attention is given to the ration, particularly
to the variation of its component parts.

An all-cooked ration is usually quite unsuitable
for fattening fowls. Cooked food spoils the diges-
tion of chickens and for this reason they should
always receive a part of their ration raw. This
may best be accomplished in so far as the grain
part of the ration is concerned by feeding mash in
the morning or afternoon and whole or cracked
grain between meals by throwing this material
into the litter where the fowls are forced to scratch
for it.

Capons may be made from any breed, but prefer-
ably from the large meat breeds, such as Light
Brahmas, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, etc. In
most markets where capons are known and where,
therefore, a steady demand exists for them they

FARM ANIMALS 311

bring from two to six cents per pound more than
ordinary poultry. There is no extra expense from
feeding or caring for capons aside from the initial
expense of caponizing. At the same time as found
from wide experience in South Carolina and else-
where capons grow faster and reach a larger size
within a given time than cockerels. In a period of
eight months capons usually exceed cockerels by
about two to four pounds and in twelve months
from four to five pounds, especially where large
breeds are used. The average rooster at eight
months of age will perhaps weigh six pounds
whereas a capon will weigh about eight pounds and
the total price realized by farmers in South Caro-
lina is about forty-two cents for cockerels and
eighty-eight cents for capons. The profit from
capons is therefore relatively much higher than
that from roosters.

In caponizing fowls the operation is often incom-
pletely performed on a considerable number of
fowls. Such birds are known as slips and bring a
price intermediate between that of ordinary poul-
try and the capons. The reason for this is that in
slips, and still more decidedly in capons, the
amount of breast meat is greater and 01 a better
quality. Moreover the structure and flavor of the
meat of capons is universally recognized as superior
to that of average fowls. In South Carolina and
other states a curious use has been found for capons
in addition to their value as meat. It appears that
capons will take care of young chickens as well as,
and in most cases, better than a hen. The hackle
feathers, wing and tail feathers in the capon are
larger than in the hen and they are, therefore,
capable of covering more chickens. In most
instances they seem to take kindly to this work

312 FARM ANIMALS

since otherwise they have no associates. As is
well known neither hens nor roosters will have
anything to do with capons and they therefore lack
company unless allowed to take care of young
chickens. They may, therefore, be used, if con-
venient in the place of brooders. Not only the
breeds already mentioned may be used for the
production of capons but also the Cochins, Lang-
shans, Leghorns and Dorkings.

The operation of caponizing, while comparatively
simple in the hands of an expert, requires, never-
theless, considerable skill which can only be ob-
tained by actual practice. As a rule there is a
large percentage of slips among the first attempts
of a breeder to produce capons. It is usually
recommended in caponizing cockerels that the
fowl be placed in such a position that the sunlight
strikes fairly upon it so that operator can see his
work. The fowl is then laid upon its left side and
the wings and legs are fastened so that it cannot
move during the operation. Curiously enough,
however, the operation itself often appears to cause
no inconvenience or suffering to the fowl. If the
side of the bird where the operation is to be done
is moistened with cold water the bleeding will be
greatly checked. Any common antiseptic may be
addea to the water to prevent complications. An
incision about one inch long is made between the
first and second ribs, the cut is then spread and a
scoop spoon introduced. Some care must be
exercised not to cut too near the backbone. The
right testicle is first exposed after which by pushing
the intestines aside the left may be seen and may
be twisted off after which the other is removed.
There are many companies which sell caponizing
tools at a small price and any reliable firm will

FARM ANIMALS 313

give satisfactory results. In order to prevent
accidents which are likely to happen during the
first few operations it is excellent practice to operate
first on a number of dead cockerels which have been
killed for home use.

Age as Related to the Number of Eggs. — The
universal experience of poultry raisers is that pullets
during their first season lay more than during the
second and the number of eggs rapidly falls off if
they are kept longer. Thus in Utah a careful
record was kept in which it appeared that forty-one
fowls laid during a given period nine hundred and
ten eggs as pullets and during the same season the
next year only four hundred and thirty-seven eggs.
It is a striking fact that pullets not only lay more
eggs than two-year-olds or aged hens but they lay a
much larger proportion of them in winter when
the demand for eggs is greatest and the prices
correspondingly high.

On the basis of uniform experience that pullets
yield more eggs than old hens it is often recom-
mended that they be killed at the end of the first
laying season. This is good practice in some
respects but occasionally it is observed that the
fertility of the eggs obtained during the second
season is greater than in those from pullets and for
this reason some of the best layers may well be
kept a second season in order to obtain eggs for
hatching purposes.

Age and Gain. — It has already been stated that
young fowls gain faster than older ones and that the
economy of feeding is much greater. In one com-
parative test extending over a period of twenty-one
days fowls which were three hundred days old at
the beginning of the test gained only one-half as
much as chickens which were ninety-five days old

314 FARM ANIMALS

when the fattening period began. Since the older
fowls ate fully as much and in some cases more than
the young fowls the great superiority of young
fowls from a financial standpoint is quite manifest.

The Egg Type of Hen. — We have mutton and wool
types of sheep, draft and speed types of horses,
lard and bacon types of hogs, and beef and dairy
types of cattle. It is highly pertinent therefore
to ask whether there is an egg type of hen. Prac-
tical poultrymen have answered this question in
different ways. Many men have studied certain
qualities or characters which from their experience
they believe indicate laying qualities in hens and
on the basis of these characters fowls are separated
into layers and non-layers. The success which
attends such classifications obviously depends on
the skill of the man who does the work and upon
the keenness of his observation in selecting the
proper characters upon which to divide the flock
into two groups. Recently a patented system has
been devised for separating hens into layers and
non-layers on the basis of certain characters which
indicate good laying qualities or lack of the same.
From the successful experience of a number of
poultrymen who have tried this system the writer
can vouch for the importance of the scheme when
the separation of the flock is done by a skilled
poultryman.

It certainly requires no argument to show that
the profit to be derived from a flock of fowls kept
for eggs can be greatly increased if any system can
be put in operation by means of which non-layers
can be separated. These hens are, of course,
mere dead weights and bring down the average of
the flock. As soon as the poultryman has a scheme
by which he can pick out the non-laying hens at

FARM ANIMALS 315

once they may be fattened and the full market-
price obtained for them. He is thus saved the
expense of wasting food on non-laying hens in the
attempt to produce eggs from them. Not all of
the schemes which have been devised to separate
layers from non-layers are successful. Thus, in
Utah the matter was tested by keeping a careful
record of the egg yields of a number of hens of
apparently different types, submitting the photo-
graphs of these hens to various individuals who
posed as being able to differentiate between layers
and non-layers. In this test the characters which
were relied upon by the different experts failed
entirely. The grouping of the different hens, as
made by the different experts was entirely different,
so that their classification appeared to be little
more than guess work.

Coops vs. Yard Fattening. — Much difference of
opinion prevails regarding the merits of close
confinement and freedom in fattening fowls. In
the majority of tests which have been carried out
to answer this question the birds with a liberal
run have given better results than those in coops,
and the economy of meat production has been
greater. This matter has been thoroughly tested
by poultry raisers at home and abroad. English
and French poultrymen who make a specialty of
fattening poultry for market use small coops
holding only five or six fowls and claim decided
advantages for this method. In Canada coop
feeding has been used quite widely with more or
less satisfactory results. This problem has been
studied in Maine with the result that the gains
produced from fowls in small coops were equal
to those claimed by French experts in eleven coops
containing four birds each, while in twenty-four

316 FARM ANIMALS

other coops of the same size the gains were con-
siderably less than in houses and yards. The
results were in harmony with the belief and prac-
tice of the average poultryman and farmer, who
raises poultry as a side line, to the effect that small
coops in fattening fowls are not necessary to secure
the finest market condition. In fact, most fowls
appear to make greater gains and at least show
greater economy in feeding when given some liberty.

With regard to the amount of exercise which
is necessary for fowls it is useless to argue the
matter if all fowls are lumped together, for some
fowls appear to require more exercise than others.
In the case of birds which are naturally lazy it is
often desirable to feed them in such a manner that
they are forced to scratch in order to obtain the
grain. In a comparative test which was carried
out in Utah the Leghorn stood enforced idleness
better than other breeds but the effect of too close
confinement was disastrous to the egg laying of
all breeds. The only safe conclusion in this
matter is that no exercise is decidedly bad. It is
not necessary, however, to go to the opposite
extreme since the best results of all have been
obtained where a moderate amount of freedom or
exercise is obtained. We have obviously the same
problem with chickens as with other farm animals
and the results obtained from experiments are
largely in harmony throughout the whole series.
Hens which have a free range and proper feed
usually give better results in egg laying and in the
fertility of the eggs than those which are too closely
confined.

Marketing Poultry. — While the average farmer
and poultryman can generally figure out that he
makes a profit from his hens, it should be stated

FARM ANIMALS 317

that with better methods of preparing fowls for
market the profit made from them would be much
greater. Skill and experience in this respect count
for as much as in any other line of animal industry.
It requires but little thought to realize that the
consumer will naturally select fowls which present
the best and most sanitary appearance on the
market. Other things being equal he will pay
higher for such fowls. The dealer understands
this fact well and will therefore be willing to pay
a little higher price to the farmer. Any reason-
able amount of time and expense in improving
the appearance of poultry intended for sale is
profitably spent. In handling eggs the neatness
and effectiveness of the package have a great deal
to do with the price received. Eggs should be
properly graded according to size and in some
markets according to color. Thus in Boston eggs
are commonly classified as extra, first and ordinary,
the highest price being obtained for brown eggs.
Before killing fowls for market they should be
kept without food long enough to make sure that
the crop is entirely empty. This is contrary to
the practice of many poultry raisers who appar-
ently want to obtain meat prices for cheap foods
in the crop. Such food, however, rapidly fer-
ments and adds an uncanny appearance to the fowls.
The best way to kill fowls is to make a deep cut
through the blood vessels in the neck at the junction
of the neck and skull. For this purpose the knife
should be inserted through the mouth. A slightly,
higher price is paid for dry picked fowls than for
those which are scalded before picking, but the
work of dry picking is, of course, somewhat more
tedious than after scalding. If fowls are to be
picked dry the work must be done immediately

318 FARM ANIMALS

after they are killed and before they become cold.

At present the general practice is to market
dressed poultry undrawn and commission men and
dealers claim that in this form it keeps better than
when drawn. The controversy on this point has
reached an acute stage and both sides are seeking
arguments with which to fortify themselves. It
must be admitted that the feces and other similar
materials contained in the intestines quite rapidly
ooze through the intestinal walls and penetrate into
the meat, giving it a disagreeable flavor. We have
become so accustomed to eat cold-storage poultry
which has been stored undrawn that the disagree-
able flavor thus produced has come to be considered
as normal. A comparison of such fowls with
fowls freshly dressed under clean conditions will
instantly dispel this idea. The difference is very
marked. Under careless conditions, however, it
is clearly apparent that drawn fowls are subject
to changes due to the use of unclean water an$
uncleanly hands in drawing and picking the fowls.
It must be admitted, however, tnat if fowls were
picked and cleaned under such conditions as
prevail in the slaughter of large animals in packing
nouses the best possible results might be obtained
and without injuring the keeping quality of the
fowls. In fact it may be seriously doubted whether
undrawn fowls will keep as long as drawn fowls.

The ordinary market classes of fowls are broilers,
roasters, fryers and capons. The first broilers
usually appear in January and weigh from one and
one-half to two pounds per pair. Roasters weigh
about eight pounds per pair. Fryers are inter-
mediate between roasters and broilers, weighing
about six pounds per pair, but need not be in
excellent condition and, therefore, usually bring

FARM AXIMALS 319

lower prices. The market classes of fowls include
also the common poultry sold at all seasons of the
year. In killing fowls for market it should be
remembered that the by-products are worth saving,
particularly if the farmer is operating on a large
scale. All fresh blood should be saved since this
furnishes an excellent food for laying and young
fowls. The feathers of chickens, ducks and geese
are worth from four and one-half cents to sixty
cents per pound depending on the quality. The
loss in dressing poultry varies somewhat according
to the breed. In comparative tests carried on in
Connecticut the loss in dressing varied from twenty-
four per cent, in Barred Plymouth Rocks to thirty
per cent, in Rosecomb Brown Leghorns.

Warmth During the Night for Hens. — It has fre-
quently occurred to poultrymen that hens might
be more comfortable and perhaps lay more eggs
if kept warm at night, especially during the cold
snaps of winter. This matter, however, depends
'entirely on how the heat is furnished. If with the
heat a close and stuffy atmosphere prevails it does
not pay to furnish warmth. In a number of
instances curtains have been tried as a method of
keeping hens warm at night. Usually, however,
this device has not given satisfactory results.

Trap Nests. — It is, of course, an important
matter to know whether a given hen is laying or
not and the ordinary method used for determining
this point is to use some form of trap nest by means
of which the hen is marked by a ring or some other
way so that it may be known just how many eggs
she lays. A great variety of trap nests have been
invented and placed on the market and very
sturdy claims are made concerning the usefulness
of these nests. In a series of tests in Rhode Island

320 FARM ANIMALS

twenty different kinds of patented trap nests were
used with the result that none of them proved to be
as effective as claimed by manufacturers, suffering
from the further disadvantage that they were
altogether too expensive. The best advice that
can be given the poultryman on this point is to
consult with some other poultryman who has used
trap nests after which a home-made contrivance can
be constructed fully as effective as the patented
ones and for very slight expense.

Egg Production and Warm Houses. — The subject
of warmth in hen houses may be approached from
several points of view and some of these have
already been mentioned. Warmth may be ob-
tained by constructing the houses as tight as
possible and depending on the sunlight and the
heat of the bodies of the fowls or it may be supplied
by some form of stove or hot- water apparatus.
In West Virginia a comparison was made between
the egg production of hens kept in loosely con-
structed nouses and those in tight houses, both
being without artificial heat. The number of eggs
obtained from the hens in the warm house was
one thousand from a flock of one hundred hens in
excess of those obtained from those in the loosely
constructed house. At local prices that meant a
saving of $22.00. As already indicated, however,
the matter of warmth for fowls is a somewhat
relative one and it should not be insisted that fowls
require a high temperature or that they will lay
more eggs than when kept at a low temperature.
Fowls may become accustomed to one condition
or the other and then require a continuance of the
temperature to which they are accustomed if they
are to produce the best results in eggs.

The Fertility of Eggs. — The most vital question

FARM ANIMALS 321

to be asked concerning eggs which are to be set is,
will they hatch ? A great difference in this respect
is noted in eggs from different hens and obtained
under different conditions. It becomes an impor-
tant problem, therefore, to determine as closely
as possible what conditions tend to lower the fertil-
ity of eggs and what conditions tend to increase
the fertility. We will first refer to conditions
which unfavorably influence the fertility of eggs.
If eggs are kept for a long time before incubating,
especially in tightly closed cases^ the fertility is
better preserved than if kept in the open air. This
indicates that eggs should not be too much exposed
when intended for incubation. A greater strength
of germ and higher fertility is observed in eggs
which are kept at a temperature of seventy degrees
F. before incubation than in those which are kept
at the lower temperature of fifty degrees F. After
a shipment of eggs from a breeder to a customer
it is of little consequence whether the eggs are set
or incubated at once or whether they are allowed
to rest for a few days. A slight difference is
perhaps in favor of not resting the eggs. The
question is frequently asked also how soon eggs
become fertile after mating begins and has been
determined by experiments as being not longer
than forty hours. That is eggs laid two days
after the cockerels are placed with the hens are
likely to be fertile. Eggs continue to be fertile
for at least two weeks after the cockerel has been
removed. There is no difference in the fertility of
eggs of different shapes. In a comparison of
twenty-five normal eggs with long eggs and roundish
eggs the fertility and strength of germs appeared
to be almost identical. Close confinement of hens
exercises a strong influence on the fertility of eggs.

322 FARM ANIMALS

In some comparative incubation tests made in
studying this point it has been found that fully
three times as many infertile eggs were laid by hens
closely confined as by those which had an unre-
stricted range. Another serious cause of infertility
in eggs is overfeeding. Hens which are excess-
ively fat are likely to lay a high percentage of eggs
with weak germs or absolutely infertile.

A distinction is usually made between fertility,
strength and vitality of eggs. The egg which
begins development after incubation is said to be
fertile although it may not result in a completely
formed chicken. For practical purposes, however,
there is no difference in the results whether the
egg is absolutely infertile or whether the chicken
dies before the end of the twenty-one days. In
practice it has been found that chickens in eggs
with weak germs die between the tenth and twenty-
first days of incubation. Another cause of infer-
tility is found in allowing hens to lay for too long a
period before taking eggs for hatching. In hens
which have laid industriously through the whole
winter season the spring eggs show a low percentage
of fertility until the hens have been allowed the
freedom of an outside run for a week or so.

The fertility of eggs varies from zero to one
hundred per cent. In a long series of tests in Rhode
Island eggs obtained from different sources and
under different conditions proved to be fertile to
the extent of thirty-five per cent., forty-one per
cent., forty-four per cent., and eighty-three per
cent, under different conditions. A fertility of
eighty per cent, is considered quite satisfactory.
Eggs which will hatch under a hen will also hatch
in the incubator. This point has been determined
by numerous comparative tests. The incubator,

FARM ANIMALS 323

if properly handled, does not injure the vitality of
the eggs. The fertility of eggs is always increased
by giving the hens considerable freedom, exercise,
fresh air. A long series of observations made on
the causes of infertility in eggs in Canada show that
in spring the egg germs become strong within
twelve to fifteen days after the hens are allowed to
run outside. In one series of incubation tests in
which eight thousand, six hundred and seventy-
seven eggs were used, seven thousand, two hundred
and five or eighty-three per cent, were fertile.
This may be considered a satisfactory percentage
of fertility.

Moulting. — The moulting period which occurs
in late summer, beginning usually in July is a dull
time in the poultry yard. The hens do not lay
during this period and make the most unfavorable
appearance to be seen at any time of the year. In
some cases the process of moulting seems to drag
on unnecessarily long and some attention has been
given by poultrymen to hastening this matter and
getting it finished as soon as possible. Perhaps
the most successful means of accomplishing this
is known as the Van Dreser method and has been
tested in various parts of Canada and the United
States. Tkis consists simply in reducing the ration
decidedly during the first part of July. The hens
stop laying and the reduced amount of nutriment
seems to further the shedding of the feathers. As
soon as the feathers are fairly well shed, that is
after a period of two or three weeks, a heavy ration
is resumed. The theory upon which this is based
is that the reduction of the ration causes a shedding
of the feathers while the increased ration is re-
quired later to furnish material for the rapid
growth of new feathers. The ordinary moulting

324 FARM ANIMALS

period is from ten to twelve weeks, but may be
shortened to eight weeks by proper feeding as just
suggested. If the moulting period is allowed to
continue too long the fowls go into the winter in a
shabby condition and it may not be possible to
induce them to lay at all during the season when
eggs are most in demand.

The Flavor of Eggs and the Color of the Yolk. —
The question is sometimes asked whether the kind
of feed given to hens has any influence upon the
flavor of the eggs. In some tests this appears not
to be the case. Even when oil of sassafras, celery
oil and other flavoring materials were added to the
ration, they had no bad effect on the eggs. It
frequently happens, however, that the use of onions
lends a slight taint to the eggs. In general where
the poultryman desires to produce only the best
quality of eggs and satisfy his customers in every
respect it is of course desirable not to take chances
with the use of foods which may taint the eggs.
The color of the yolk may be easily affected by
the ration. Thus the use of wheat and white corn
or oats without any other grain feed has a tendency
to produce yolks of too light color to satisfy the
fancy taste. Yellow corn is useful, however, in
giving a rich color to the yolk. In Utah it has been
found that corn and wheat were not as influential
in determining the color of the yolk as was alfalfa.
In a series of tests it was found that eggs were too
light colored whatever grain ration was fed if
alfalfa was omitted from the feed. As soon as
alfalfa was added to the ration again the color of
the yolk improved.

Egg Preservation. — Eggs should be cared for
as attentively as milk. As soon as gathered they
should be put in a cool place free from dirt since

FARM ANIMALS 325

disagreeable odors are readily absorbed through
the shells. The hens should have clean, whole-
some feed and when the eggs are being produced
for market it is best not to have the cockerel with
the hens since the unfertilized eggs have the best
flavor. In artificial preservation of eggs a great
variety of substances have been employed including
water glass, lime water, salt, vaseline, dry wood
ashes, gypsum, sulphur, permanganate of potash,
salicylic acid, salt brine, and other materials. By
far the best results have been obtained on the
whole from the use of lime water or water glass
solutions. Lime water used at the rate of one
pound to five gallons gives excellent results with
comparatively fresh eggs. In Canada lime water
has been found equal to water glass and much to
be preferred on account of economy and ease of
preparation. Water glass solution has been widely
tested and recommended as superior to any home
preparation. The results obtained from compara-
tive tests, however, do not bear out the claims
made for the water glass. The ordinary strength
of water glass used in preserving eggs is three per
cent, to ten per cent, in water. The ten per cent,
solution is stronger than necessary and sometimes
gives unfavorable results. The lime water solu-
tion may be mixed with salt and the combination
is exceedingly effective.

Vaseline will preserve eggs for a few days or two
or three weeks, but for longer periods it is very
unsatisfactory since the eggs spoil as a result of
the exclusion of the air and a disagreeable flavor
penetrates into the egg. Likewise with wood ashes
the yolk soon becomes gummy and of dark color.
Gypsum if used in long periods of preservation will
ruin nearly all the eggs. Sulphur also ruins the

326 FARM ANIMALS

eggs. The quality of the eggs after long preserva-
tion is about equal from the use of water glass and
lime solution while in the case of other preserva-
tives the quality is much injured. The loss from
evaporation in eggs preserved in dry salt after
several months is thirty-three per cent., from eggs
waxed and then preserved in salt twenty-five per
cent., and no evaporation takes place in eggs
immersed in lime water or water glass solution.

The Cost of Egg Production. — Cornell University
carried on an extensive series of experiments for
the purpose of determining the cost of egg pro-
duction in different flocks of poultry throughout
the state. In the first series of tests it was found
that the cost of producing eggs on ordinary farms
ranged from eight to thirty-four cents per dozen
while the cost of food for one hundred hens for
seventeen weeks ranged from $28 to $39. The
average profit for a period of seventeen weeks
was found to be $23 . 93 for each one hundred hens.
In a subsequent test the average annual production
per hen was one hundred and twenty-nine eggs.
The average cost of eggs per dozen was nine cents
and the average cost of feeding one hen a year was
ninety-nine cents. In this series of observations
of actual farm conditions it appeared that forty-
four per cent, of the total value of the eggs produced
was required for the feed and that the annual
value of eggs exceeded the cost of feed by $1.30
for each hen. These experiments were carried
on during still another year in which it appeared
that the average cost of feeding one hundred hens
for seventeen weeks was $35.33, and the average
profit from one hundred hens for this period was
$16.13. In a comparison of different breeds the
White Leghorn stood first and the Black Minorca

FARM ANIMALS 327

last in egg production while in economy of feeding
a Black Minorca and White Wyandotte cross
stood first and Black Minorca last.

Egg Production and Space for Hens. — It is
obvious that hens require some room, especially in
their houses, in order to produce the best results.
The factor of overcrowding in egg production has
been tested in Maine where it was found that
the number of eggs diminished rapidly when the
hens were crowded beyond a comfortable limit in
houses.

Increasing the Number of Eggs by Breeding. —
Many poultrymen have tested tne effect of building
up the flock of hens by selecting those which lay
a large number of eggs and using these eggs for
hatching out the birds of the future flocks. In this
way flocks have been built up in which nearly
every hen will lay from two hundred to two hundred
and fifty eggs per year. There can be no question
that the egg production of a flock of fowls can be
appreciably increased by careful selection of the
birds. This system of selection is based on the
practical idea that the offspring of the best laying
hens should lay more eggs than those from poorer
hens. The same principle works out in practice
in breeding other animals and would naturally be
expected to hold good for fowls. Tests thus far
made by poultrymen have shown this to be true.
The same methods have been adopted in the East
and West and it appears certain that the hen has
the power of transmitting her laying qualities to
offspring. On account of the fact that eggs of
uniform size are desired for market appearance
the same attempt has been made to determine
whether uniformity in size was a matter which
could be regulated by selection. It has been found

328 FARM ANIMALS

possible to produce a strain of fowls which will
lay eggs of a fairly uniform size and of a uniform
color.

Breeds. — Among the almost innumerable breeds
of fowls which have been produced by poultrymen
and fanciers it is impossible to mention more than a
few of those which are of real value and produc-
tiveness under ordinary conditions. The chicken
breeds for the farmer are probably the Barred and
White Plymouth Rock, White Wyandotte, and Buff
Orpington. This may seem to be an unnecessary
discrimination against many breeds which are
known to be excellent layers and fairly good meat
makers. The birds mentioned are what might be
called general purpose breeds, being good layers
and capable of producing a large quantity of
excellent meat. In a series of comparisons made
in Canada regarding the cost of gain in different
breeds the Light Brahma stood first at three and
seven-tenths cents per pound followed by White
Plymouth Rock, Faverolle, Dorking and Buff Orp-
ington at three and eight-tenths cents per pound,
Barred Plymouth Rock at four cents, White Wyan-
dotte four and two-tenths cents, Indian Game four
and five-tenths cents, and Rhode Island Red four
and seven-tenths cents. In selecting birds for use
on the farm it is desirable to know the color of the
flesh. The Hamburg, Minorca, Andalusian, Red
Cap and Black Orpington are black-fleshed breeds.
The Leghorn, Ancona, Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte
and Brahma are yellow-fleshed while the Houdan,
Buff Orpington and Scotch Gray are white-fleshed
breeds. In Utah a number of comparisons have
been made between breeds to determine their
relative merits. In one test the average annual
profit per hen from Barred Plymouth Rocks was

FARM ANIMALS 329

fifty-one cents; for Wyandottes, eighty-eight cents,
and for Leghorns, $1 . 12. In comparing the weight
of eggs of different breeds it was found that Wyan-
dotte pullets laid eggs weighing one and a half
pounds per dozen and Leghorns one and thirty-
seven hundredths pounds per dozen.

The breeds of fowls which we have to deal with
in this country are classified according to their
original geographic origin. Following this system
the American breeds include the various kinds of
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, American
Dominiques and Jersey Blues. The French class
includes Houdans, Crevecoeurs, and La Fleche.
The Asiatic class includes Brahmas, Cochins and
Langshans, while other classes have been estab-
lished to include the Polish, Hamburg, English and
miscellaneous birds. The best practical classifi-
cation divides fowls into general purpose breeds,
which include the American breeds; meat fowls,
which include the Asiatic breeds; and egg breeds,
which include the Mediterranean class of Domin-
iques, Leghorns, Minorcas, Andalusian and Black
Spanish. According to this system of classification
all other breeds would be referred to as ornamental.

Incubation. — The chief advantage of incubation
by artificial means is that the eggs may be hatched
earlier in the season than hens can normally be
induced to sit and the business can be conducted
on a much larger scale than is practical with hens.
It requires far less time to watch an incubator
holding two hundred eggs than to care for enough
hens to cover the same number of eggs. In fact
in South Carolina it has been found that the cost
of feed alone for the hens is greater than the cost
of managing incubators for the same number of
eggs. Incubators should be kept in a cellar or

330 FARM ANIMALS

room where the surrounding temperature does not
vary greatly. The incubator should be started
running a few days before the eggs are to be placed
in it in order to determine whether the regulator
is running evenly or not. It is generally recommen-
ded that eggs should be turned twice daily after they
have been put in the incubator for about forty-eight
hours. Within from five to seven days the eggs
should be tested by taking out of the incubator and
holding before a light. Fertile eggs at this time
will show a dark spot surrounded by a net work of
veins while unfertile eggs will appear clear. They
should therefore be removed and may be used for
cooking purposes or for feeding to young chickens.
The temperature of the incubator should range
from one hundred and two to one hundred and
three F. and may be easily regulated by means of
a thermostat which is provided with all makes
of incubators. There is no point in making a
decision here between the different makes of incu-
bators. Nearly every one who has used them is
prejudiced in favor of the one with which he is
acquainted and the beginner will do best to look
into the matter in a practical way by consulting
with some one who has had experience with them.
The amount of ventilation required in incubators
is a matter about which some difference of opinion
prevails. It has been found by actual experience
that too much ventilation and too low a per cent,
of carbonic acid in the air of the incubator tends
to cause chickens to die before they are fully
developed. The action of carbonic acid consists
in softening or disolving the egg shells but does not
affect the egg membrane inside the shell.

During incubation the eggs gradually decrease
in weight. During the first five days they lose

FARM ANIMALS 331

about five per cent., during the second week about
six per cent, of their weight and during the third
week about seven per cent. This loss in weight
is of course due to evaporation of moisture through
the egg shell. Most manufacturers of incubators
recommend that the eggs be moistened daily with
tepid water. It may be advisable for the beginner
to adopt this practice. Many poultrymen of long
experience have found that this is not necessary
wnen all the conditions are thoroughly understood.

Brooders are a source of great loss and dis-
appointment unless properly managed. These
troubles, however, may be combated in a com-
paratively simple way. In the first place the
brooder should be thoroughly cleaned between
each brood of chickens which are kept in it. Other-
wise it will sooner or later become infected and
spread tuberculosis, diarrhea and death among the
chickens which are placed in it. One of the most
important matters in connection with the manage-
ment of the brooder is to keep the temperature as
uniform as possible and avoid the heating of one
point around which the chicks will congregate
and smother one another. If poultry is managed
on a large scale the best results are obtained from
the construction of large brooder houses in which
the proper temperature for chickens can be secured
with creeps surrounded with thick curtains in
which a slightly higher temperature is maintained.

The Care of Young Chic teens. — With chickens as
with other animals if an early maturity is to be
obtained it is necessary to start in the right way, and
keep the animals growing uniformly and in good
condition. As every one Knows who has had even
a short experience with chickens, if they are stunted
during their early life it is impossible to get a

332 FARM ANIMALS

normal size or development from them. The
feeding and care are therefore of prime importance
in the production of poultry. Probably more
financial loss is suffered from inattention at this
time than from all other causes combined.

For the first few days different poultrymen have
different rations which they use with excellent
results. A bread may be made of three parts corn
meal, one part bran and one part middlings or
flour soaked with skim milk. After thoroughly
baking and crumbling it may be fed to chickens
during the first few days together with a small
amount of hard boiled eggs, ground fine, shell and
all. Bread and grain mixed may be used as the
ration for the next two or three weeks after which
beef scraps are added in a finely ground condition.
This is not the only ration which nas proved to be
successful in raising chicks, but will probably
give better results in a majority of cases than the
much advertised proprietary chicken foods. A
small amount of grit in the form of fine sand should
always be added to the ration for young chicks.
Particular attention must be given to keeping the
food clean and sweet. It must never be allowed
to remain more than two or three minutes after
the chickens are through with their meal. Char-
coal, ground bone and sliced roots may be placed
so as to be always convenient for the chicks.

Diseases. — Unfortunately chickens as well as
other domestic animals are subject to a number of
diseases and these are often exceedingly trying and
troublesome for the poultry raiser. If the business
is carried on in a small way and the individual is
so constituted that he can patiently fuss with each
sick bird it may be possible to save a large percent-
age of them, no matter what the disease is. In

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FARM ANIMALS 333

dealing with poultry on a large scale however it is
necessary to exercise the greatest care to prevent
the outbreak of poultry diseases, since when once
an infectious disease is started it is an exceedingly
tedious matter to try to save the sick birds.

One of the most dreaded of poultry diseases
is fowl cholera. This makes itself known by its
rapid spread and by the loss of flesh and emaciation
of the fowls accompanied by diarrhea and other
digestive disturbances as well as high fever and
great stupidity of infected fowls. The disease
may be readily suspected from its rapid spread
among a flock of fowls. There is no practical use
in attempting to treat fowl cholera. The only
thing that can be done is to stop its spread. All
affected birds should be killed at once and burned
or buried and the premises must be thoroughly
disinfected with a two per cent, solution of chloride
of lime, whitewash, a one per cent, solution of
carbolic acid, a strong solution of blue vitriol,
or some other convenient antiseptic. Uninfected
fowls may be protected to some extent by the
removal of the affected fowls and by adding to
their drinking water corrosive sublimate so as to
make a solution of about one in two or three
thousand.

Roup, or as it is sometimes known, chicken
diphtheria, is a highly contagious disease which
affects the membranes of the throat, nose and eyes
and may extend farther down into the lungs and
breathing passages. Roup may be recognized by
the thick yellow material which commonly forms
in the throat and nostrils and may also cover up the
eyes and render the fowls entirely blind. This
material sometimes accumulates in large quantities
under the eyelid. If fowls are untreated they may

334 FARM ANIMALS

live on for several days, recovering in a small
percentage of cases, or more often strangling to
death as the false membrane which characterizes
the disease forms and thickens in the larynx and
windpipe. When roup is first noted it may be
treated by removing all of the false membrane with
a dull knife or a small stick and treating the affected
surfaces with lunar caustic after which the mouth
and nose may be washed with a solution of nitrate
of silver at the rate of eight grains in an ounce of
water. The success from any method of treating
roup, however, is not very comforting to the poultry
raisers. In California and at Cornell University
a large series of remedies have been tried and many
of them proved to be quite ineffective after they
had apparently given good results in a number of
cases. Many birds are relieved or cured by dipping
their heads in kerosene, a weak solution of perman-
ganate of potash may be used in the same way.
Prevention is the important factor in controlling
this disease, however. The essential element of
prevention consists in the isolation of all diseased
birds and the removal of the uninfected ones to
clean quarters.

Occasionally quite serious outbreaks of tubercu-
losis occur among poultry. Strangely enough this
disease has been recently found quite extensively
in California. There is of course no satisfactory
treatment for this and reliance must be placed upon
sanitary, cleanly quarters and other methods of
prevention. The disease known as leukemia some-
times affects fowls and causes them to stand in a
crouched position for long periods. They show
a high fever but usually no diarrhea. This appears
largely to be confined to the small intestines and
is highly contagious. In many cases the appetite

FARM ANIMALS 335

remains active until shortly before the fowl dies.
This disease may also be controlled by the prop-
er sanitation of poultry houses. Likewise with
"going light," a disease in which diarrhea
appears and the affected fowls drag on until all
the muscle disappears. This trouble may some-
times be checked by giving laxatives like castor
oil followed by tonic foods. Gapes in young
chickens may be cured if the owner has time to
bother with the trouble by applying turpentine to
the inside of the throat with a feather. Occasion-
ally forcing chickens to inhale irritating gases will
make them cough so as to expel a portion of the
gape worms which are attached to the inside of the
windpipe. Since it appears that this worm gains
entrance to the chicken from the bodies of angle
worms upon which chickens feed it is desirable
during the first few weeks to keep chickens on dry
board floors and not allow them access to garden
soil where they may get worms.

Chicken pox, or Sore Head may be treated by
painting with iodine or washing with a weak
solution of potassium permanganate. The places
where chickens are kept sometimes becomes fear-
fully infested with lice and other insect pests. It
is necessary to wage continual warfare against
these vermin in the warmer climates. This may
best be accomplished by isolating the roosts as far
as possible from other structures in the hen houses,
spraying them occasionally with kerosene and
spraying the walls of the hen houses with kerosene
emulsion at intervals of two or three weeks. This
is quite effective and is comparatively inexpensive.

336 FARM ANIMALS

DUCKS

While many breeds of ducks have been pro-
duced and are reared in domestication in this and
other countries there are not more than six breeds
which may conscientiously be recommended to the
farmer as profitable birds to raise. The best yof
these is the Pekin which is of a pure white color and
is distinguished from the Aylesoury by its slightly
larger size and turned-up tail feathers. The Pekin
matures more rapidly than any other breed and
is therefore the most profitable in the production
of so-called green ducks which correspond in duck
raising to baby beef in cattle raising. The Ayles-
bury is also white but slightly smaller than the
Pekin with straight tail feathers. This duck is
very popular in England and Europe. The Ayles-
bury sometimes reaches a weight of eighteen pounds
per pair. The Rouen are brilliantly colored ducks,
marked very similarly to the wild mallard and
evidently being related to this species. The Rouen
is of good disposition, rather nardy and matures
quite rapidly. The drake often reaches a weight
of nine pounds and the duck eight pounds. Their
meat is of fine color and flavor. The Black Cayuga
as its name indicates, is black in color and origi-
nated in the central part of New York state. They
are not as extensively raised as the breeds above
mentioned but those who have had experience with
them are well satisfied with their qualities. The
color is somewhat against them for market purposes
but the meat is excellent. In addition to these
four breeds the colored and white Muscovy ducks
are raised to some extent on farms. They come
from South America and are of very different form
from those which have been mentioned. They are

FARM ANIMALS 337

quite strong fliers and in a wild condition nest in
trees. They are unsatisfactory for farm ducks
on account of their nervous disposition and quarrel-
some habits. It is not possible in this connection
to enter into a description of the form and qualities
of the colored and white Call ducks, Black East
Indian ducks, Crested White ducks, which are
merely ornamental and not capable of yielding
profits to the farmer.

The Management of Ducks. — The duck industry
has developed rapidly during the past twenty years.
Previous to that time there was not much demand
for ducks as food and this was due partly to the
fact that little attention was given to feeding them
and they were allowed to eat fish and other aquatic
animals so that their flesh was badly flavored and
quite unsuited for human food. Recently, how-
ever, the number of special duck farms has in-
creased considerably so that there are now farms
which raise ten thousand to twenty thousand ducks
per year and use as much as three tons of food
daily in fattening the birds. Ducks are well
adapted to raising on a large scale and it should be
stated at the outset that it is not necessary to have
ponds or other water supply for them to swim in.
It has been demonstrated beyond question that
ducks do equally well or perhaps better when they
are not allowed access to water except for drinking
purposes. Duck eggs may be hatched under hens
or in incubators, for as a rule the modern duck is
not a good sitter and has the very irregular habit of
laying her eggs on the ground or wherever the idea
occurs to her. It is therefore necessary to gather
them and put them under hens or in incubators.
The period of incubation is about twenty-eight
days and the eggs require about the same treatment

338 FARM ANIMALS

as hens' eggs excepting that it maybe more essential
to moisten the eggs with tepid water two or three
days before hatching. Young ducks may be kept
in brooders in which a similar temperature and
similar care is provided as for young chicks.
Ducks, however, are somewhat more hardy than
young chickens and less subject to diarrhea.

Feeding Ducks. — Ducks have no crop and there-
fore should not receive whole grains such as are
recommended for young chickens. Their diet
should consist of soft vegetable and animal food.
The grain feed should be finely ground and fed in
the form of a mash together with finely cut vegeta-
bles, grass and animal feed. A system of feeding
highly recommended by some duck raisers consists
in the use of a mixture of bread crumbs, green
material, boiled eggs, and five per cent, of sand
mixed with water and fed four times per day for
the first five days. During the next fifteen days
a mixture of wheat, bran, corn, and rolled oats,
beef scraps, sand and clover may be used. For
the succeeding twenty-two days, bran, corn meal,
beef scraps, sand and clover are recommended,
and finally during the last few weeks a similar
mixture in which the corn meal is considerably
increased. The amount to be fed naturally varies
according to the size of the ducks. The feed should
be measured out in rations such as they will eat up
clean or if any is left it should at once be removed
in order to keep the pens in a sanitary condition.
Oyster shells or some other form of grit should
always be present for young ducks. Breeding
stock should be fed on rations similar to those
already mentioned, that is, containing a considerable
quantity of grain, beef scraps and other animal feed
and using a relatively small amount of green feed.

FARM ANIMALS 339

In a test of the value of animal feeds in New York
it was found that the rations which contained
animal food were far superior to those of exclusive
vegetable origin but having the same amount of
nutriment. It has been found possible to supply
from ninety-four to ninety-eight per cent, of the
total amount of nitrogenous material in the ration
in the form of animal food without any bad effect
on the ducks. As a rule about sixty per cent, of
the nitrogenous food in the ration may be sup-
plied in the form of animal feed. After this
large percentage of animal food has been fed for
the first five or six weeks it is more economical to
continue on the cheaper grain foods the remainder
of the fattening period. According to some com-
parative tests dried blood and bone meal appear
to produce a more rapid rate of gain in ducklings
than animal meal and milk albumen. One of the
finest animal feeds for ducks is skim milk. In
feeding any kind of poultry skim milk, however,
it should be placed in troughs or vessels in such a
way that young birds cannot soil themselves with
it as otherwise the feathers become sticky and the
birds are uncomfortable. Ducklings forced to an
early maturity at about the age of ten weeks are
profitable fowls to raise in any locality where a
market for these birds has been developed. In
Utah it was found that such ducklings produced
a profit of sixty-five cents per head from the food
consumed.

Ducks are subject to some of the same diseases
which affect chickens and if such troubles break
out they may be treated in the same manner. As
a rule, however, ducks appear to be more hardy
than chickens and do not suffer from such diseases
as scaly legs, sore head, tuberculosis, leukemia or

340 FARM ANIMALS

"going light." Occasionally diarrhea breaks out
among ducks and runs a very rapid course with a
high death rate. The only thing to do in such a case
is to separate the heatlhy from the diseased birds
immediately and to disinfect the premises thor-
oughly.

It should be stated for the benefit of those who
have not raised ducks in the way of comparing the
troubles and profits of the business with chickens
that ducks are easily hatched and reared by arti-
ficial means, that the Pekin breed is best and should
average a weight of five pounds at ten weeks of
age. Ducks grow faster and cost less than chickens .
While chickens will weigh one and one-half to two
pounds at ten weeks ducks will weigh five pounds
or even more. The cost of raising ducks to the
age of ten weeks should not be more than forty-five
cents and the market price is usually ninety cents.
In some parts of England the best results have
been obtained in fattening ducks, by feeding a
mixture of boiled rice and meat or chopped crack-
lings. Various other fattening rations for ducks
have been suggested but the one given above will
prove perfectly satisfactory and various changes
and substitutions may be made at the discretion of
the individual duck raiser. The domestic duck
is quite polygamous, although not so strongly so
as the common fowl. Early in the season about
three to five ducks should be allowed to each
drake and still later the number may be increased
from ten to twelve. Vigorous ducks should lay
from one hundred to one hundred and forty eggs
per season and the fertility of these eggs is com-
paratively high,

FARM ANIMALS 341

GEESE

The profitable breeds of geese in this country
are six in number while some other fancy breeds,
like the Colored Egyptian geese, have been intro-
duced and are raised to a small extent for orna-
mental purposes. The Toulouse geese come from
France, are gray in color and are quite generally
popular as farm birds. They lay about forty eggs
per season. The meat, however, is a trifle coarse.
The average weight for an adult bird is about
twenty pounds. Embden geese come from West-
phalia, are pure white in color, somewhat more
erect in carriage than the Toulouse and are some-
what smaller. The African geese are gray in color
with a knob at the base of the bill on the top of the
head. The knob is black and the prominent dew-
lap under the throat is gray. The African geese
are the most profitable of all breeds of geese to
raise for meat. They mature most rapidly and
are ready for market at the age of ten weeks when
they weigh from eight to ten pounds. The Colored
and White China geese are lighter than the breeds
already mentioned, weighing about seven pounds
less per bird. They lay more eggs than the other
breeds, however, averaging fifty or sixty per year.
Both of these breeds have a knob on the top of the
head at the base of the bill but are distinguished
from other geese in their erect carriage. Wild
geese are widely domesticated and raised in nearly
every state in the country. These birds are some-
times considered rather difficult to raise, but fine
success has been had by most individuals who have
attended to the business. They have a long slender
neck with a small head and a white stripe behind
the eyes. The adult birds weigh from fourteen to

342 FARM ANIMALS

sixteen pounds. The wild goose is much used in
breeding mongrels which are sterile crosses between
this wild form and the domestic breeds of geese.
The mongrel is greatly prized for its excellent
quality of meat. The business of producing these
mongrels is a specialty which requires considerable
skill and experience.

Geese cannot be raised on a large scale like
chickens and ducks. This is partly due to their
requirement of a large run and to the fact that they
are not so polygamous as other farm poultry.
The gander may be induced to mate with three or
four but seldom more geese. This makes it nec-
essary to maintain a large number of ganders if the
flock is to be of unusual size and necessarily entails
additional expense. It is a very uncommon sight,
therefore, to see any large number of geese on the
ordinary farm. A number of geese feeders have
developed a considerable business in buying up
geese raised on the farm and fattening them for a
period of two or three weeks before putting them
on the market. In this way special geese feeding
farms where several thousand geese are fed for
market each year are established.

Geese live to a very great age. Instances have
been known of their reaching one hundred years
and they frequently remain vigorous and lay a
tolerably large number of fertile eggs up to twenty-
five or thirty years of age. The ganders, however,
are somewhat unreliable after from seven to nine
years, but the wild Canada geese may be profitably
kept for twenty-five years or longer. With geese
it is desirable to have water for bathing purposes and
waste land around ponds or unused springs may
be profitably utilized as a goose pasture. Two or
three layings of eggs per season may be obtained

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FARM ANIMALS 343

by removing the eggs from the goose. The eggs
may be hatched under hens or in incubators, the
period of incubation being from twenty-eight to
thirty days or sometimes longer. Goslings require
little or no food during the first 24 hours but should
have water to drink. It should be remembered
that geese, like ducks, have no crop and therefore
should be fed at frequent intervals. They should
first be allowed to eat green grass and should also
receive soaked grain, corn, oat meal or corn meal
mixed with sweet skim milk with a little sand added.
With young geese green feed is exceedingly impor-
tant and with either clover or alfalfa pasture they
will maintain themselves without any other food
unless an attempt is being made to force them to an
early maturity. In the production of "green
geese" the fattening period should begin when the
long wing feathers have grown sufficiently to reach
the tail. The geese should be penned up in fairly
close quarters and should be fed two or three times
daily on a soft mash containing four parts Indian
meal, one part beef scraps, slightly salted. During
the middle of the day they may receive whole grain,
especially if soaked. Toulouse geese crammed by
hand for five weeks on one pound of corn meal
daily produce a liver which weighs from two and
one-half to four pounds. This is an important
industry in France and other European countries
where the foie gras commands a large price on the
market. The feeding period for foie gras lasts
about four to six weeks and the birds are fed two
or three times daily. In England the preferred
ration for this purpose is one and one-half pounds
of a mixture of corn and cracked beans per day.
According to another system of feeding young
goslings they receive the first three days the same

344 FARM ANIMALS

food as ducklings. Then the boiled eggs are
omitted from the ration and they are given bread
soaked in skim milk, oat meal, boiled rice, onions
and grass. A grass run is quite necessary. Water
is strictly necessary to drink but not to bathe in
until at a slightly later age. If goslings are fattened
on a mixture of barley meal and corn meal soaked
in buttermilk they should be ready for market at
the age of twelve to fourteen weeks.

As already indicated the general consensus of
opinion of those who have had the most experience
with geese is that the African geese should be given
preference in the production of fat goslings for
market since they grow faster than any of the other
breeds of geese. A large number of crosses have
been made between different geese, and some of
these crosses, as for example between the Toulouse
and African and the Toulouse and China, are even
more satisfactory in some respects than the parent
breeds.

Geese, like ducks, are comparatively free from
serious diseases. The most dangerous trouble is
cholera and this occurs as a rule on the premises
of goose feeders who keep a large number of geese
in relatively close confinement. When cholera
breaks out on such farms it runs a rapid course
and the mortality is high. In general these troubles
may be avoided by feeding the geese in small pens
containing only a few birds in each pen. If the
disease should break out under such conditions
the affected pen may be readily removed far enough
away to prevent the spread of the disease. Good
sanitation is as necessary in successful raising of
geese as with other farm animals.

FARM ANIMALS 345

TURKEYS

It is generally admitted that the domestic turkey
came from the wild species of turkey which inhabits
North America, Mexico and Central America.
The turkey was first taken to Spain between 1518
and 1520 and into England in 1524. From these
early importations two breeds have originated in
England, namely the Cambridge which closely
resembles our Bronze, and the Norfolk which
appears to be almost identical with our Black
Turkey. The standard breeds of turkeys in the
United States are Bronze, Narragansett, Buff,
Slate, White and Black. The Bronze most closely
approaches the wild turkey in form, size and
coloring, while the Narragansett is very similar
with more steel gray bands on the wings. The
buff, slate, white and black breeds are instantly
recognized by the color which gives them their
names. The colors are in most instances quite
uniform.

In the breeding of turkeys much carelessness
has prevailed in allowing too close crosses so that
in many instances the vitality and vigour of the
stock has been greatly injured. The vigour of the
Bronze has been kept from deteriorating and
improved by occasional crosses with wild turkeys.
For this purpose a considerable number of wild
gobblers nave been extensively used. In general
strict attention should be given in selecting breeding
stock to make sure that tne males and females are
as little related as possible since otherwise an
unthrifty condition of the turkey chicks will obtain.

Feeding Turkey Chicks. — After the first few
days turkey chicks may be fed on stale bread soaked
in milk with the milk mostly squeezed out and with

346 FARM ANIMALS

the addition of hard boiled eggs and finely chopped
onions. Cheese curds also give good results.
Later on oat meal, rolled oats, stale bread, onion
tops, corn meal, middlings, etc., moistened with
skim milk with a little black pepper may be fed
as the appetite increases. For the first five weeks
turkey chicks should be fed four times daily and
later three times. By this time they are able to
range for their food with the mother turkeys.

While turkey eggs may be hatched under hens,
turkeys or incubators, it is common on farms to
allow the hen turkey to do her own incubating.
The turkey is an excellent sitter and in fact may
sometimes be induced to sit the year round, being
used in such instances as a natural incubator.
They have a tendency to steal their nests and some
attention must be given to this point to prevent
weasels and other vermin from destroying the eggs.

Turkeys naturally show more wild tendencies
than other farm poultry. For this reason they have
to be allowed a wider range. At any rate from the
age of five weeks to that of fattening in the fall they
are perfectly capable of finding their own living if
allowed free range. Their food consists of grass-
hoppers and other insects as well as grain and
herbage. When the fattening period begins in
the fall it is best not to confine the birds but to
allow them free range, merely feeding grain two
or three times a day. For this purpose corn is
excellent and may be adopted in relatively large
(quantities since the turkeys themselves will find
insects and other material to supply the nitrog-
enous side of the ration. As a rule wheat and corn
L-re fed in combination and this seems to be as good
as any mixture which can be fed for this purpose.
Turkeys cannot be confined closely during the

FARM ANIMALS 347

laying period. Wherever this has been tested to
determine the effect, it has been found that the
health of the hen turkeys is affected and that the
fertility of the eggs is greatly diminished. Their
roosting place should be as open as possible,
simply protecting them against the heavy rains. In
fact, on the average farm, turkeys select their own
roosts in trees which they prefer and return to the
same place every night. They seem not to take
any harm from heavy rains which they are fre-
quently subjected to during the summer nights.
At any rate, turkeys endure confinement less readily
than any other of our domestic fowls, and this is
a fortunate circumstance in many respects since
a very hardy fowl can be produced in this way with
exceedingly small expense for feeding and for labor.
The diseases to which turkeys are susceptible are
for the most part the same as those which occur
among chickens and may be treated in the same
manner. Young turkeys are exceedingly suscep-
tible to diarrhea and in order to prevent this trouble
much attention must be given to the sanitary
condition of the food. If the trouble breaks out
in a mild form the young turkeys may be fed
hard-boiled eggs and stale bread thoroughly cov-
ered with pepper. In some cases a little sulphuric
acid added to the drinking water gives satisfactory
results. Blackhead is a contagious disease of
turkeys which has been most extensively studied
in Rhode Island where it sometimes occurs in
serious outbreaks. In this disease the liver is
affected, showing peculiar spots under post mortem
examination, and in many cases the head becomes
discolored, giving rise to the popular name for the
disease. This disease is located in the intestines,
and like all other intestinal diseases is spread

348 FARM ANIMALS

through the excrement of affected birds. This
obviously necessitates the removal of the dead
birds at once in order to prevent the spread of the
disease among healthy birds.

INDEX

Aberdeen cattle, 93

Abortion in cows, 142

Aerating milk, 191

African geese, 341

Age of cow and milk yield, 175

fowls and number of eggs, 313

rate of gain, 313
hogs and cost of gain, 225
steers and cost of gain, 133
Air treatment for milk fever, 146
Alfalfa for beef, 119

chickens, 301

cows, 161

hogs, 210

horses, 43

sheep, 251
Andalusian jack, 76
Angora goats, 286

extent of industry, 290
venison, 287
Angus cattle, 93
Animal feeds for steers, 129
Anthrax in cattle, 142
Appetite, loss of, in horses, 57
Apple pomace for cows, 160
Apples for cows, 160

hogs, 215
Arabian horse, 15
Artichokes for hogs, 212
Ashes for hogs, 210
Atavism, 22
Aylesbury ducks, 336
Ayrshire cows, 151
Azoturia in horses, 71

Baby beef, 106-108

Bacon hogs, 198

Bacteria in milk, 186

Balanced ration, 26

for chickens, 298
cows, 157, 159
hogs, 205
horses, 29
sheep, 248

Beans for horses, 36
Bedding for cows, 174
Beef and dairying combined, 101
cattle, 87, 97

cost of production, 132, 133
production, 87, 89
scraps for chickens, 295
ducks, 338
hogs, 221

vs. dairy type for beef, 136,
Beggar weed hay for horses, 45
Belgian Draft horse, 15
Berkshire hog, 231
Big jaw in cattle, 144
Black Cayuga ducks, 336
Blackhead in turkeys, 347
Blackleg in cattle, 143
Bloating in cattle, 146
Blomo feed for horses, 54
Blood, dried, for ducks, 339

meal for steers, 129
Blood-molasses for horses, 53
Blood poisoning in sheep, 283
Blue grass pasture for beef, 124
Bone meal for chickens, 296, 302

steers, 129
Bots in horses, 70
sheep, 285
Bran for cows, 156
horses, 38

Branding cattle, 138
Bread for horses, 38
Breaking horses, 73
mules, 84
Breeding horses, 10, 21

principles of, 21
Breeds of cattle, 90

chickens, 328

dairy cows, 150, 176 ^

ducks, 336

hogs, 230

horses, 11

geese, 341

sheep, 242

349

350

INDEX— Continued

Breeds of steers, and gains, 135

turkeys, 345

Brewer's grains for cows, 158
horses, 39
sheep, 250
Broilers, 318

for market, 306
Brome grass for beef, 121
horses, 45
sheep, 253
Broncho, 20
Bronze turkeys, 345
Brooders for chickens, 331
ducklings, 338
Brown Swiss cows, 154
Brush destroyed by goats, 287
sheep, 258

Buckwheat for chickens, 298
cows, 157
horses, 35
Buffalo gnats, 147
Bulls, pure-bred, as sires, 137
Burros, 85
Butcher hogs, 197
stock, 98

Butter, profit from as compared with
milk and cream, 178

Cabbage for hogs, 215
Calf, cost of raising, 106
feeders, 105
raising, 100
veal, 99

Canker, sore mouth, 236
Canners (cattle), 99
Caponizing, 311
Capons, 310
Carbohydrates, 26
Carrots for horses, 50
Cassava for steers, 127
Castrating lambs, 277
Catalonian jacks, 77
Cattle, beef, 87

breeds of, 90

diseases of, 139

feeding, 100

on range, 88

ticks, 141
Cayuse, 20

Cereal pasture for cows, 166
Charcoal for hogs, 210
Cheshire hogs, 232
Chester White hogs, 232
Cheviot sheep, 244

Chicken-pox, 335
Chickens, 295

breeds of, 328
cost of gain in, 309
diseases of, 332
fattening, 309
feeding, 295
feeding for market, 306
Chicks, care of, 331
feeding, 332
Cholera in geese, 344
Chufa pasture for hogs, 212
Classes of cattle, 97
Cleveland Bay horse, 20
Clover for beef, 121

chickens, 301
hogs, 211
horses, 46
sheep, 253
Clydesdale horse, 13
Coach horse, 7
Cob horse, 8

Cocoa shell milk for calves, 105
Cocoanut oil cake for calves, 104
Cod liver oil for calves, 103
Colic in horses, 69
Colts, rations for, 60
Condimental feeds for beef, 119
hogs, 209

Constipation in horses, 70
Contamination in breeding, 22
Cooked food for chickens, 310

vs. raw grains for horses, 42
Cooking feed for hogs, 209
Coops for chickens, 315
Corn and legumes for beef, 111

forage in various forms
for beef, 108
cows, 163
chickens, 298
hogs, 199
horses, 30

meal for calves, 103

sheep, 246

stover for beef, 121

cows, 163

horses, 46

whole vs. meal for hogs, 207
Cotswold sheep, 245
Cotton mule, 81

seed meal, 112

for cows, 158
hogs, 201
horses, 32

INDEX — Continued

351

Cotton seed meal, for sheep, 251
Cowpea hay for beef, 123
cows, 163
horses, 47
sheep, 254
Cows, 148

breeds of, 150
feeding, 154
profit from, 179

Crammer for feeding chickens, 309
Cream, profit from as compared with

milk and butter, 178
Cross breeding, 23
Crude fiber, 26
Cutters (cattle), 99

Dairy cows, 148

breeds of, 150
stable, care of, 190
type vs. beef type for beef, 136
Dairying combined with beef pro-
duction, 101
economy of, 148
Dartmoor pony, 20
Dehorning cattle, 138
cows, 185

Delaine Merino sheep, 243
Devon cows, 153
Diarrhea in horses, 70

turkeys, 347

Diphtheria carried in milk, 187
Dipping cattle, 147
hogs, 235
sheep, 280
Dirt in milk, 185
Diseases of cattle, 139

chickens, 332
ducks, 339
geese, 344
goats, 289
hogs, 234
horses, 66
sheep, 279
turkeys, 347

Distiller's grains for beef, 113
cows, 158
hogs, 206
horses, 39

Docking lambs, 277
Dorset crossed on other breeds of

sheep, 272
sh«ep, 243

for (raising winter
lambs, 270

Draft horses, 4, 7, 12
Dried blood for steers, 129
Dry feeds for chickens, 305

vs. wet grain for hogs, 207
Duck eggs, incubation of, 337
Ducks, 336

diseases of, 339

feeding, 338

management of, 337

profit from, 339

vs. chickens, for profit, 340
Durham cattle, 90
Duroc Jersey hog, 233
Dutch Belted cow, 153

Eggs and age of fowls, 313

and space allowed the hens, 327
animal feed for production of,

296

cost of production, 326
fertility of, 320
flavor and color of yolk, 324,
increasing number by breeding,

327

preservation of, 324
type of hen, 314
vitality of, 322
Emden geese, 341
Emmer for sheep, 247
Essex hog, 231
Ether extract, 26
Exercise for chickens, 316
sheep, 275
steers, 132
Exmoor pony, 20
Ewes, milk yield of, 266

treatment before lambing, 267

Farm chunks, 6

Fattening horses for market, 54

mules, 81

Feathers of fowls, 319
Feed, amount per pound of gain in

steers, 131

Feeds, number of per day for steers, 131
Feeding chickens, 295

dairy cows, 154

ducks, 338

for beef, 100, 108

geese, 343

hogs, 199

horses, 25

methods in beef production,
130

352

INDEX-— Continued

Feeding mules, 79

period for steers, length of,

130

range lambs, 262
sows, 224
turkey chicks, 345
Fertility of eggs, 320
Flax seed meal for calves, 105
Flies on cows, 180
Fluke worms in sheep, 283
Foot and mouth disease in cattle, 144
Forage for hogs, 210
Formalin in milk, 193
Fowl cholera, 333
Fowls — see Poultry
French Canadian cows, 154
Coach horse, 19
Draft horse, 14

Fruits for cows, 160
horses, 50
Fryers, 318

Gaits of the horse, 9
Galloway cattle, 94
Garget in cows, 146
Garlic flavor in milk, 170
Geese, 341

age of, 342

diseases of, 344

feeding, 343

management of, 342
German Coach horse, 19
Gid in sheep, 284
Glanders in horses, 68
Gluten feed for beef, 113

meal for beef, 113
Goats, 286

as brush destroyers, 287

as leaders in herds of sheep,
287

care of kids, 288

diseases of, 289

dog for herding, 291

favorable conditions for, 288

for milk, 290

meat of, 287

Going light in chickens, 335
Goose eggs, incubation of, 343
Goslings, care of, 343
Grade sheep and pure breeds vs.

scrubs, 274
Grading up, 24
Grain, dry vs. wet for hogs, 207

Grain, for calves, 102

chickens, 297
cows on pastures 155, 167
ducks, 338
horses, 27
lambs, 251
sheep, 246

sheep on pasture, 248
ground vs. whole for chick'

ens, 304

rations for beef, 117
Grazing sheep on the range, 241
Green ducks, 336

feeds for chickens, 301
geese, 343
Grit for chickens, 302

ducks, 338
Guernsey cows, 152

Hackney horse, 18
Hampshire hog, 231
sheep, 244

for raising winter

lambs, 270

Hay, cut and uncut for steers, 126
for cows, 161
horses, 43, 47
sheep, 251
tea for calves, 104
Heavy hogs, 197

Hegelund method of milking, 182
Heifers for beef, 137
Hens, amount of feed per year, 307

— see also Chickens
Heredity, 21
Hereford cattle, 91
Highland cattle, 95
Hinnies, 84
Hog cholera, 234
Hogs — see Swine
Holderness cattle, 97
Holstein cows, 151
Hoof of horses, care of, 72
Horn fly, 147
Horse, alfalfa for, 43

barley for, 29

beans for, 36

bran for, 38

bread for, 38

breaking and training, 73

breeding of, 10, 21

breeds of, 11

brewer's grains for, 39

buckwheat for, 35

INDEX— Continued

353

Horse, care of, 64

coach type, 7

cob type, 8

conformation of, 10

cooked vs. raw grains for, 42

corn for, 30

cost of keep, 59

cotton seed meal for, 82

diseases due to poor feeding, 58

diseases of, 66

distillery grains for, 39

draft type, 4

effect of soil and climate on,
10

express type, 6

farm chunks, 6

fattening for market, 54

feeding, 25

for driving, 7

for food, 21

for lumbering, 5

for saddle use, 8

gaits of, 9

hay for, 43

importance of, 3

kafir corn for, 35

linseed meal for, 40

loss of appetite, 57

millet for, 36

oats for, 27

on the farm, 4

peas for, 37

rice for, 35

rye for, 33

uses of, 4

various draft classes, 7

various light classes, 9

wheat for, 34

whole vs. ground grains for,

41

Hothouse lambs, 269
Hurdling hogs on pasture, 218

In-and-in breeding, 28

Incubation of eggs, 829

Incubators, 829

India wheat for cows, 157

Influenza hi horses, 66

Iodide of potash for milk fever, 145

Italian jack, 77

Jacks, 76, 79

proper size, 83
Jersey cows, 152

Johnson grass, 123

Kafir corn for cows, 157
horses, 35

Kemp in mohair, 287
Kerosene emulsion for flies, 181
Kerry cows, 154
Kids, care of, 288

Lambs, docking and castrating, 277
grain for, 251
mflk for, 259
on alfalfa, 253
scrubs vs. grades, 256
— see also Sheep
twins, 268
vs. wethers, 273
weight at birth, 268
winter or hothouse, 269, 272

Lameness in horses, 72

Lampas in horses, 69

Lard hogs, 197

Layers and non-layers, 314

Leicester sheep, 245

Leukemia in chickens, 334

Lice on hogs, 235

Lime water for preserving eggs, 325

Lincoln sheep, 245

Line breeding, 23

Linseed meal for beef, 114

calves, 104, 105
cows, 159
horses, 40

Liver flukes in sheep, 283

Loggers, 5

Lumpy jaw in cattle, 144

Lung worms in sheep, 282

Maintenance ration for cows, 170
horses, 56
Majorca jack, 77
Maltese jack, 76
Mammitis in cows, 146
Mange hi cattle, 147
hogs, 235

Mangels for horses, 61
Mares, feeding, 62
Market classes of cattle, 97
hogs, 197

Marketing poultry, 816
Mash for chickens, 305
Measle worms in hogs, 236
Meat for chickens, 297
Merino sheep, 242
Middlings for hogs, 205

354

INDEX— Continued

Milch cows — see Cows

goats, 290

Milk, affected by rations, 172, 177
albumen for chickens, 295
bacteria in, 186
bad flavors in, 170
care of, 188, 189
composition of, 193
dirt in, 185
fat source of, 177
fever in cows, 145
for calves, 100-106
chickens, 297
colts, 52
hogs, 217
lambs, 259
of sheep, 268

tuberculous cows, 139
production, economy of, 148
profit from, as compared with

cream and butter, 178
secreted by sows, 223
substitutes in feeding calves,

101, 105

transmission of disease by, 187
yield and age of cow, 175

of ewes, 266
Milking methods, 181
Millet for hogs, 206
horses, 36

Mineral feed for chickens, 302
Mohair, 287

rugs, 287

Molasses for hogs, 219
horses, 53
steers, 129
Mongrel geese, 342
Morgan horse, 17
Moulting in poultry, 323
Mule, 75

breaking, 84
breeding, 82
fattening for market, 81
feeding, 79
future of, 85
industry, 82
mares, 78
uses of, 78
Mustang, 20

Mutton, cost of production, 266
extent of production, 276
type of sheep, 238, 246

Narrow vs. wide rations for horses, 55

Native jacks, 77
Nests, trap, for hens, 319
New Forest pony, 20
Nodule disease in sheep, 283
Nutritive ratio, 27

Oats for beef, 114

horses, 27

sheep, 248
Offal for hogs, 219
Ohio Improved Chester hog, 232
Oldenburg Coach horse, 19
Oleomargarine for calves, J04
Onion in milk, 170
Oxford sheep, 244
Oyster shells for chickens, 302

Packing hogs, 198
Pasteurizing milk, 191
Pasture for beef, 124
cows, 165
hogs, 211
horses, 48
sheep, 248

Pasturing sheep on brush, 259
Pea hay for horses, 48

pasture for sheep, 254
Peanuts for chickens, 299

hogs, 212

Pearl millet for steers, 125
Peas for beef, 115
hogs, 213
horse, 37
Pekin ducks, 336
Percheron horse, 12
Pigs, 195

size and weight of litters, 225
weaning, 224

Poisonous plants for horses, 63
Poitou jack, 76
Poland China hogs, 230
Polled Dickinson Merino sheep, 243
Durham cattle, 96
Hereford cattle, 93
vs. dehorned cattle, 138
Ponies, 20

Pork, soft, cause of, 221
Potatoes for horses, 51
Poultry, 293

drawn vs. undrawn, 318
dressing, 317

factors of success with, 294
farms, 294

Poultry, industry compared with other
lines of stock farming, 298

INDEX— Continued

355

Poultry, killing for market, 317

warmth for, 319, 320
Prenatal influences, 22
Preservatives in milk, 192
Previous sire, influence of, 22
Prickly pear for steers, 125
Proprietary feeds for beef, 119

chickens, 300
Protein, 25
Pullets vs. hens, 313
Pumpkins for cows, 160
horses, 51
Pure bred bulls, 137

Raising mules, 82
Rambouillet sheep, 243
Range cattle, 88, 98
lambs, 262
sheep, 239, 263
wars, 241

Rape for hogs, 213
Rations, as affecting milk, 172, 177
balancing, 26
effect on firmness of pork,

221
effect on strength of bones

in hogs, 223
for chickens, 309
colts, 60
cows, 155, 171
horses, 55, 60
mares, 62
mules, 80
sheep, 260,
stallions, 62
Rations, narrow vs. wide and heavy

vs. light for chickens, 303
of gram for sheep, 249

beef, 117

Razorback hogs vs. pure breeds, 227
Red polled cattle, 95
Rice for horses, 35

products for beef, 115
calves, 104
chickens, 299
hogs, 203

Ring bone in horses, 72
worm in horses, 70
Roadster, 7
Roasters, 318

Roasting pigs for Chinese, 226
Roots for chickens, 302, 308
hogs, 215

Roots for horses, 50
sheep, 256
steers, 127
Rouen ducks, 336
Roughage for beef, 119
Roup in chickens, 333
Runt pigs, 229
Rye for beef, 116
hogs, 205
horses, 33
pasture for steers, 125

Saddle horse, 8, 17

Salt for preserving eggs, 325

steers, 135

Sand for chickens, 302
Sawdust as bedding for cows, 174
Scarlet fever in milk, 187
Screenings for sheep, 247
Scrub sheep vs. grades and pure

breeds, 274

Shavings as bedding for cows, 174
Shearing goats, 289
sheep, 278
Sheds for cows, 183
steers, 134
Sheep, 238

as weed exterminators, 258

breeds of, 242

diseases of, 279

exercise for, 275

for wool, 240

grains for, 246

hay for, 251

in the South, 265

on the range, 239

pasture for, 248

rations for, 260

scab, 279

shearing, 278

shrinkage in shipment, 275

stomach worms, in 265

water for, 262
Shelter for cows, 183
steers, 134
Shetland pony, 20
Shire horse, 14
Shorthorn cattle, 90
Shropshire sheep, 244
Silage, effect on milk, 169

for beef, 122
cows, 167
hogs, 211
horses, 49

356

INDEX— Continued

Sires, pure bred vs. grades, 24
Skim milk for calves, 101

chickens, 297
hogs, 217

Slips in caponizing, 312
Sort bacon and pork, cause of, 221
Soiling for cows, 164
Sore head in chickens, 335
Sorghum for horses, 49

silage for steers, 126
Southdown sheep, 243
Southern vs. Western steers, 137
Sows eating their pigs, 236

feeding, 224

Soy bean meal for beef, 116
cows, 157
hogs, 206
sheep, 247, 248
Spavin in horses, 72
Speltz for sheep, 247
Splints in horses, 72
Stack silage for cows, 169
Stallions, rations for, 62
Stomach worms in goats, 289
sheep, 281
Straining milk, 191
Strangles in horses, 67
Straw for horses, 48
Stubble fields, grazing by cattle, 118
Succulence for cows, 160

steers, 127

Sugar beet pulp for cows, 161
hogs, 216
sheep, 256
steers, 127
beets for cows, 161
hogs, 216
horses, 52
sheep, 256
steers, 130
mule, 81
Suffolk hog, 233
horse, 14
sheep, 244

Sunflower seeds for chickens, 298
Sussex cattle, 95
Swine, 195

breeds of, 230

comparison of breeds, 228

diseases, 234

economy of raising, 195

feeding, 199

industry, 196

market classes of, 197

Swine plague, 234

Takosis in goats, 289
Tamworth hogs, 233
Tankage for hogs, 219
Tapeworms in sheep, 288
Teeth in horses, 68
Testing cows, 179
Texas cattle, 98
fever, 140
Thin-rind hog, 231
Thoroughbred horses, 11, 15
Ticks on cattle, 141

sheep, 285

Timothy for horses, 43
Toulouse geese, 341
Training horses, 73
Trap nests, 319
Trichina in hogs, 236
Trotting horse, 16
Tuberculosis in cattle, 139

chickens, 334
goats, 289
milk, 187

Turkey eggs, incubation of, 346
Turkeys, 345

diseases of, 347

management and feeding.

346

Turnips for horses, 52
Turnipy flavor in milk, 170
Twin lambs, percentage of, 268
Typhoid fever in milk, 187

Van Dreser moulting method, 323

Variation, 21

Veal calves, 99

Velvet beans for beef, 116

Victoria hogs, 232

Warble fly of cattle, 147
Water for cows, 173

hogs, 226

horses, 58

sheep, 261

steers, 135

glass for preserving eggs, 325
Weather and milk yield, 178
Weedy flavor in milk, 170
Welsh pony, 20
West Highland cattle, 95
Western vs. Southern steers, 137
Wethers vs. lambs, 273
Wheat for beef, 116

INDEX— Continued

351

Wheat for chickens, 299

cows, 156

hogs, 204

horses, 34

White China geese, 841
Whole vs. ground grain for horses,

Wild geese, 341

turkeys, 345
Winter lambs, 269
Wooden tongue in cattle, 144

Wool, profit from, 276

type of sheep, 238
Worms in sheep, 265
Wounds in horses, 71

Yards for chickens, 315

steers, 134
Yorkshire hog, 232

Zebra crossed with horse, 75

Zebroids, 75

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