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Farm Craft Lessons

Issued SY the Educational Section Ae
Dyas of the Rr
U. s? Boys’ Working Resco ee Suerte
"U.S. Employment Service,
Department of Labor

PREPARED aND Epitrep By

EUGENE DAVENPORT
Dean of the College of Agriculture
University of Illinois
for

U. S. BOYS’ WORKING RESERVE

TRAINING THE BOY

FOR

NATIONAL SERVICE

PUBLISHED BY THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

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United States fous Working Reserve

Farm Craft Series.

‘CONTENTS
To the Teacher and the School
Practice Work

For Those Who Have Farm Experience Rae,
‘Lesson 1. Making the Victory Good .

2. When the City Boy Goes to the Farm 3 ie
3. Craftsmanship af A Ee
4, The Horse . baie
5, Grooming and Care of the Farm Horse — mae ss
6.. Harnessing and Hitching Up Farm Horses a
7. Working Farm Horses
8. The Cow
9. Handling Milk on the Farm
10. Separating and ee Cream
11. Swine. ~
12. Care of Farm Arye Ser,
13. The Wagon and Its Parts
14. Care of the Wagon
15. The Plow
16. The Mower Pore Sees: ‘
17. The Gas Engine an 3 os Poa
18. The Gas Engine (Continued) ; Bae oe
19. Miscellaneous Tools and Supplies .
20. Rope and Its Care
21. Some Useful Knots
22. Splicinga Repe =~ oe ek eer, eo
- 23. Preparation of the Seed Bed ee os ae
24. Cultivation — ere cael
25. Insect and Fungous Pieciciss bs
26. Spray Mixtures and Their Application =
_ 27. Cultivating Corn — te ses ee ie
~ 28. Shocking Wheat and Oats a ae tes
eee RO “Market Gardeniigs 28.5) aoe oe 3 aoe ee
Haat ea aR pe es gee» 2 of Boon se pra ae

MAY 38% 1919

A baa PA ag ay

United States Boys’ Working Rasiya

Farm Craft Series as vas

TO THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL

‘ ES It was inevitable that the United States should be drawn into the Great
4 Norld War, in which more than thirty nations have become involved in j
a re Wig ermining by force whether democracy shall remain upon the earth.
____ Substantially all the available energy of the civilized world has been
4 engaged in this titanic struggle. Not only has it taxed to the utmost the
resources of every country involved, but not an interest, not a family, not
an individual has remained unaffected, and even when actual hostilities have
% ceased there yet remains the gigantic labor of reconstructing ravaged coun-
\ tries, of clothing destitute millions, of feeding starving races, and of estab-
lishing law and order, for it must not be overlooked that as the power of
_ the enemy crumbles, a full half of the world is without a stable government.
The work of the war is not yet done, and it will be many months before.
“The Boys” come marching home again. Even the cessation of hostilities, Lance
and the promise of peace will make no immediate change in the need for Ry
i idditional labor on the land.

5 THE UNITED STATES BOYS’ WORKING RESERVE

{ So desperate is the need for labor now and for many months to come,
and so easy is it for the high school boy to render valuable service in the
ey field during the growing season with but little interruption to his educa-
“tional progress, that the Government of the United States is calling upon
the high schools of the country everywhere to do their utmost in three
i “definite: lines of special service: ~ ;
+ 1. To enlist in the Boys’ Working Reserve for sumrher work upon the
farm, all able-bodied boys from sixteen to eighteen years of age who are |
now in school (together with as many as may be reached of those who have b
~ left school).
*. 2. To do everything humanly possible to give these boys the right point 4
of. view as to the importance and the nature of the service to be rendered i
and of the new associations involved.
3. To make them really useful to the farmer hss teacuing them some r
the things which they will need to know in order to be instrumental __
a increasing food production and in order not to do more harm than good.
EnrottMEnt: There has been great activity and much success in reach-
; ind enrolling city boys for service on the land, but there has been a .
eneral neglect of the country boy who is already engaged upon his —
xi farm. This boy is _and has been doing really expert service and

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y on his father’s farm, not only faithfully but skillfully and effectiy : in
no other way, either, can the city boy and the country boy come together

organization youth under sixteen years of age, it none the less earnestly

& higher than upon the farm, but from which he would likely not return to

tunity to serve. One day it will come, but until then his business is to still

old kit bag and smile, ‘smile, smile.” ee

better or worse than what he has known before. What he has undertaken is an ven- |

’ than he gains in actual and effective work upon the fields, else food production will b

Ts he impatient if a “job” is not ready at once on April 1, or May 1, ase

‘of food production. It is highly important that both the schooi and the pupil make no ae

a |
ent?” t nr su il DC 5 a oy pa
for hire, else great inju ill be done the ‘boy who has labor

in the country under conditions mutually agreeable and therefore most favor : a
able to success. “i ‘ ait
While the Government does not admit to membership in this particular ~

invites all such able-bodied and right-minded young people to prepare for
actual membership by rendering, so far as possible, the same kind of service.
It invites the schools and all other public agencies to encourage them to that
end, and to train them for that service by the same methods employed for
the Boys’ Working Reserve.

Tue Point oF View: The great object to be achieved is the production
of more food than would otherwise be possible. It is not to make more money ~
for the boy, because that would take him to the shops where wages are —

school. It is not the making of more money for the farmer, though unless —
the boy is both willing and able to be really useful he will do more damage —
than good. It is a challenge to service on the part of boys too young ta
fight. ‘The next most useful thing is to help in the production of food for
which millions are in dire distress. i ey
Can the boy make more money in other ways? So could the soldier.

he may have hoped and expected? So is the soldier who imagined himself
walking into Berlin soon after joining the army, but who finds instead that —
he must undergo long periods of training, waiting anxiously for his oppor-

better prepare himself.
Will he have hardships to endure? Certainly he will. This is no picnic;
this is business. Upon the whole he will have a good time with most excel-
lent people, and he will see a new side of life, all of which is good for him.
But, like the soldier, his “chow” will not always be good nor to be had on
time, and he will sometimes be wet and hungry and tired. Is he therefore - :
to be downhearted? No! If he has the stuff in him of which soldiers are _
made, he will “pack up his troubles (most of which are imaginary) in his

But upon the whole and at the most, he will have it better than the soldier, for he
will sleep every night under shelter and free from bullets, shells, and bombs.

Above all, this young crusader is not to assume that he is going out into the wilder-
ness and among illiterates, nor that all which he sees that is different is therefore either

ture in Contentment as well as an enlistment for service. ’ if Goer
PREPARATION: To assist the schools in preparing the Boys’ Working Reserve for
service on the farm, a series of Farm Craft Lessons have been prepared and furnished

‘by the Federal Government, to be supplemented by Practical Exercises of the laboratory

type. sf ! : " a
ap These lessons and at not with the theory of agriculture nor with the scien-._

tific principles involved in farming, but rather the processes and the equipment which v
the boy will be expected to know when he presents himself as a helper in the business

mistake at this point. The boy is going as a helper in farm work, not asa partner nor

as a business adviser. 4 , é hud Pe
The farm is an exceedingly busy place, especially during the growing season. That —

is the time he will be there; and while the farmer must tell his helper how the work is —

to be done, yet he must not be obliged to devote so much time to that as to lose mor

retarded, not promoted. Hence the importance of doing everything possible by way oi sit

Tes, :

o goe things are in “ful ast’ with “no time for long

EDUCATION NOT TO. BE SACRIFICED

‘ , has put her school boys in the army and cut the period of instruction to

ab e usual. That must not happen in this country. Boys can, however, devote
ree or four months of the summer season to production and yet lose little from the
a m, so little that if matters be well handled the less in schoeling is fully com-

ed by the greater experience, the enlarged viewpeint, and the recognition of the
sd for specific preparation for something definite to be accomplished.

CREDIT IN SCHOOL COURSES

There is no good reason why school credit should not be given for this work, but
_ on the contrary there is every reason why it should be given. It has educational value
as to content, and the performance of faithful service has a disciplinary value in excess
of anything which goes with ordinary sehool work. i J F

Full credit however sheuld be conditioned upon faithful service, and in order to
see that such service is actually rendered and that the bey has a fair opportunity to
render it, the school should send its own representative; that is, the school should fellew
‘ the boy to the field both as a friend and as an inspecter. Here is a rare opportunity
$ to combine goed teaching with real service, thereby securing that adequate motive which
is so often lacking in our educational effort.

THE LESSON LEAFLETS

‘ The Lessons are limited to a few standard operations and deal solely with crafts-
manship rather than with the scientific principles underlying agricultural practice. Their
whole aim is to prepare the boy to be immediately useful to the farmer in a few major
capacities, to make him teachable, and to insure from the first that the farmer will not

~ need to spend valuable time in teaching the boy while his own team stands idle, or othér-

i" wise suffer more loss than would be made goed by the service of the pupil.

ra Of necessity these lesson leaflets are confined to subjects either of universal or of

__ Jarge sectional application. It is manifestly impossible for such a series te cover every

‘ minor local agricultural, enterprise—such as peppermint Brewing in restricted districts

of Michigan and Indiana, or citrus fruit production in California or Florida—and there.
is no-alternative but to ask the schools themselves either to prepare or to have prepared
such additional lessons as shall make the instruction fit the local conditions,

_ It is also impossible to cover adequately in any general series even such regional

subjects as potato growing for example, first because of prefound variation in local
practices, and second because these lessons should be limited to those phases of produc-
tion in which school boys can assist, Manifestly, a series of monographs on the crops of
the country and the breeds of farm animals would defeat their own purpese.
___ Last of all, even in the subjects treated in the Lessons, modification and elaboration
will be found necessary in order_to make that fit with local conditions which is essential
oy to success in acquiring skill. For example, in many sections mules are used instead
t of horses and in others left-hand machinery and driving with a single line are still in
vogue.
J _. These Farm Craft Lessons therefore must be considered as outlines and suggestions
. -rather than as iron-clad courses te be administered without alteration. Nevertheless,
_ whatever courses are decided upon should be thoroughly carried out, because these Les-
sons are designed to be learned, not casually read for entertainment. Besides that, if
we are to succeed, the Practical exercises must be as faithfully administered as any lab-
pgraiory ‘course which the school has ever conducted. It is at this point of fortifying the
_ Lesson with the Exercise that Success will be assured, or Failure invited.

a

! ; A COURSE OF TRAINING

This is not a “Course” to be finished, “passed,” and forgotten, but rather a line of
preparation to be pursued, and like the soldier the pupil should continue in his prepara-
tion until called into service. Some dissatisfaction has been experienced if a “job”? were
mot ready and waiting on the very day when the last lesson was finished. ‘ i

That would be ideal, of course, but like war this is emergency work. The soldier
that is called may and does desire to go at once to the front. But he is put into a long’
course of training and then more training and even after he is across the water he may
not be needed at once; so he goes on with his training—always training.

f r With the Boys’ Working Reserve, as with the soldier, there may be some waits,
73 but it is all a kind of imsurance scheme in a national emergency and the well-trained
eax and right-minded boy may be certain that his services will be needed.
.

THE MINIMUM

As has been indicated, this is not a course of specified length; a definite number

_ of lessons of specified character, Obviously many of the suggested lessons will be found

_ poorly adapted to certain localities. In the name of education, then, let them be dropped
or let others be substituted. }

_, As there is no definite number of “lessons” that must be completed, so there is no
iron-clad formula for computing the number or the exact nature of the Practical Exer-

3

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a yet at CMA ee A Wiki Paes | ie ae
cises that should be required. [rom the farmer’s standpoint the more the better | :
the Lessons and the Exercises fit his conditions. Manifestly, a Nebraska farmer woul
not be much interested in proficiency with an axe and crosscut saw, while it would. be
very valuable accomplishment in New England. But everybody would have horses
be harnessed and driven. Pee
From the standpoint of the school there must be a minimum number of lessons and
a minimum amount of practice to entitle to credit. As the school is free to fix the
amount and conditions of credit, these amounts and conditions will of course vary greatly,
but if the training is to be of much use to the farmer, a minimum of fifteen lessons and
fifteen periods of two hours each, or their equivalent, devoted to practice would be as —
pee ae is worth considering. Much more, especially of practice work, is in every way
esirable. :

THE HIGH SCHOOL TO GET THINGS DONE

The Federal Government cannot supply teachers. There is no alternative but to
expect the high schools either to provide this teaching from members of their own staffs
who have the skill, or to secure the instruction from outside sources. Results only are
important. In general, the schools, being accustomed to the business of instruction, are
competent to manage the methods necessary to meet this emergency.

In the neighborhood of every school is plenty of material in the shape of teams,
wagons, and implements; and in the person of retired farmers, teamsters, implement men,
and through such special craftsmen as harness makers and sailors, a vast amount of
skill in handicraft may be enlisted for teaching purposes. It is hoped that the schools
of the United States will be earnest and untiring in the utilization of the material and
the men which may be enlisted for this purpose. This service must not be perfunctory
or dispirited. It must be aggressive and enthusiastic. It is the teacher’s great oppor-
tunity and duty in lieu of active service at the front. j

A “REASONABLE SERVICE” .

The Government of the United States realizes that it is asking herein a very great
service on the part of the teacher and the high schools, On the other hand, it is obliged —
to employ every organized agency to the best possible advantage, and it appeals with
special confidence in this matter to the secondary schools supported by public money,
believing that in this emergency neither time nor funds can be used to better advantage
than in training this army of production. Business as usual cannot continue. Nothing ~
is as it was.

WHEN TO BEGIN

Experience indicates that the time to begin this work is not later than three or four
months from the opening of the growing season in the region where the school is located.
After it is begun it should be intensively prosecuted, with no less than one lesson and
one practice exercise a week, with more if feasible, and with all the speeding up pos-
sible in the academic work. Experience shows also that when the boy is sufficiently inter-
ested he can nearly double his effectiveness as a student.

PLACING

The business of the school is to do the educational work of enrolling, training for
farm work, and seeing to it that the conditions agreed upon are met and fulfilled upon
the farm in order to justify school credit. ‘

In most cases the school is not the best agency for actually placing the boys, at
least while war conditions exist. The Council of Defense, if there is one, or some equiva-
lent public body closely connected with farmers will be found the better agency for the
purely labor side of the enterprise, although there must be the closest co-operation and
the most cordial relations between the schools and whatever organization does the placing,

and accurate records must be kept of location, terms, et cetera. .

SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS

Whatever agency is concerned in administering the Boys’ Working Reserve will
need to guard carefully the following five points. It will need to:

tr. Establish a system of inspection to insure that the boy is faithful and efficient
and lives up to his contract. ; i

2. Insure against exploitation of the boy by the farmer in any way whatever,
although the wage must largely lie with the farmer.

3. Do everything possible to insure mutually desirable social relations between the
city boy upon the one hand, and the family and the neighborhood upon the other.

4. Guard against the natural impulse of some farmers to hire a particularly good ~
hand away from a neighbor at a slight advance, thus demoralizing the Boys’ Workag
Reserve and doing an injustice to right-minded farmers.

* 5. Hold in check as fatal to the purposes of the Boys’ Working Reserve the natural _
impulse of some boys to “jump’’ one job for another that promises more pay or “a better |
time.”

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

PRACTICE WORK

The test of good preparation for service on the farm is not the
learning and reciting of lessons about the various phases of farm’
work; the real test lies in doing so far as possible the things that
the farmer will expect to have done in actual work upon the farm.

Accordingly, the Farm Craft Lessons are intended to be enforced
and supplemented by practice work, in periods covering not less
than two hours and if possible a half day on Saturday. A list of
exercises is offered upon which the school may draw so far as it is
able, and from which it should deviate so far as local conditions
would seem to make it wise. If half the entire time to be devoted
to preparation for farm service be given to well-conducted laboratory
practice of this kind, it would not be too large a proportion.

Horst Work: No class of exercises stands in anything like the
same relation to good farm service as does the horse work. When
asked what are the things that boys ought to know before going
to the farm, the farmer invariably says that he should know how
to handle horses, and some add, “If he knows that, I will teach him
the rest.”” Because so much of the labor on the farm is done with
a team, and because good driving is a fine art, it is not too much if
half the entire laboratory time be devoted to horses and their
handling.

S1ZE OF CLAsses: Experience shows that for this kid of work

_ classes should not be large, and while the size of sections may vary

considerably, depending upon the particular subject, yet in general

the number working together at any one time under a single in-
structor should run from six to twelve.

Locat AssIstTANCE: Obviously the schools will be very de-
pendent upon local materials and upon local help, and unless a man
____ can be found who knows, for example, how an axe or a crosscut saw

I
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should be handled, it would be better to omit the exercise. The same
would be true of the pitchfork or the hoe, for pitching hay is not
“tossing” it, as recorded in rural poetry or in literary skits about
country life, and hoeing is something besides piling up soil with a
hoe. ;

Similarly, if sailors are to be found, a multitude of knots and
splices not given in the lessons may be included ; otherwise, it would
be well not to feature this line but to confine the work to what can
be thoroughly done. Experience shows that farmers, both active
and retired, are exceedingly willing to help, as are also teamsters
and implement dealers.

MatTeRIALs: It is upon local sources, too, that schools will need
to depend very largely for the material with which to work, and it is
hardly necessary to emphasize the importance Of exercising care
in the use of such equipment or of compensating for damage done.
The same man who would willingly give his time does not care to
have his equipment injured, nor can he afford it from an operative
point of view. Because of this fact the school should have a fund
with which to provide the smaller pieces of equipment and to make
good any damage to the material loaned. To do this work well
will require the closest cooperation between the school and the com-
munity.

Caution: This list of exercises is not to be taken seriatim and
pro forma and then left behind like a study that is “passed.” Some
of them, like greasing a wagon for example, may well be done once
for all, but others like grooming, harnessing, and driving horses,
should be done over and over again until the movements and the
“feel”? of things become “second nature” to the pupil. This is the
ideal. It will seldom be attained but every effort should be made
to approach it, so far at least as horse work is concerned.

LIST OF EXERCISES

1. Grooming horses—commonly spoken of as “currying.”
Grooming, however, is the technical term used by all real horsemen ;
besides, the currycomb is never used below the knee or the hock.

2. Harnessing, hitching, and unhitching horses, using time con-
tests to secure precision and speed.

3. Driving—utilizing so far as possible the business of. local
teamsters and to some extent the farms and livery stables.

4. Milking cows. If cows are not available, the strength and
endurance required of the fingers and the muscles of the forearm in

2
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———— a

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n = from actual farmers.
8. Running and cleaning the cream separator.

9g. Operating gas engines, and‘in rare cases tractors. )
_ to. Using the axe, the crosscut saw, the hand saw, and the

eee a

a Sharpening tools, especially scythes, mower knives, hoes,
and spades.
12. Using the hoe, the spade, the shovel, and the pitchfork. k
13. Digging post holes and setting posts, being careful to work
to a line and to tamp the earth firmly, especially at the bottom of the —
post and at the surface of the ground. 3

14. Rope work in tying and splicing. ‘
is ns: Running the fanning mill, and cleaning seed, mixing and
recleaning the same seed if necessary. ‘

Ps, 16. Recognizing and separating foul seed from seed store —
samples. ‘4
- 17. Treating oats and wheat for smut. )
18. Treating potatoes for scab.. eee
19. Making and applying spraying mixtures. oN

COLLECTIONS

| Make as complete a collection of farm tools as possible, calling fe
upon implement houses and farmers for gifts, loans, or sales of new <i
or used machinery. ca

_ 1, Horse-DRAwNn Macuinery: Walking plow, sulky plow, disk ”
harrow, smoothing harrow, corn planter, grain drill, mower, self-

_ binder or header, rear-delivery hay rake, side-delivery hay rake, hay bs
_ loader, ensilage cutter. ey

-~

_ 2, ~Hanp Toots: Fanning mill, cream separator, 4-, 3-, and |
_ 2-tined pitchforks, manure fork, spading fork, hay rake, garde a

>a wy cx hoe, common care tile spade, post hole ie wheelbarrow.

Make as complete collections as possible of:

1. The grains and other crops grown in the locality, that every-
body may know what they look like.

2. The weeds and insects of the region, with examples of insect
and fungous injury. . .

3. Weed seeds, both indigenous and as cleaned from farm seeds
in local stores.

(ya

| : United ‘Send Boys’ Working Reserve a
Farm Craft Series ‘

_ FOR THOSE WHO HAVE FARM EXPERIENCE
These Lesson Leaflets and these Practical Exercises are not in-
tended for high school boys who are living upon the farm or for —
_ others who have had farm experience. For these pupils the schools _
should organize some definite course in agriculture, using for the —

text such a book as Mosier’s “Soils and Crops,” Rand McNally and —
Company, Water’s “Essentials of Agriculture,” Ginn and Company,
or other text suitable for the region. Do not mix these two classes” Hi

a “ing. In addition to providing .:1ch a list it would be well also to —
subscribe for the principal agricultural papers of the section. =
P hi a It is not advised that reference readings be assigned to the inex-_
perienced pupils, but rather that these latter be confined to the field —
of craftsmanship. The school has upon its hands two distinct classes”
_ of pupils: those with more or less farm experience, and those with |
_none—and the two should be handled by radically Saat oe methods.

list following, and will gladly ond these books to boys who fe
interested in the study of agriculture.

ae
_ AGRONOMY:

_ Alfalfa in America: Wing. Sanders. $2.00. Written in popular ve n.
i A reliable account of the writer’s experience with alfalfa, with much
_ valuable information concerning the growing and handling. 520 pp. Ill. :
The Corn Crops: Montgomery. Macmillan. $1.60. Discusses. prodt
. tion, distribution, — otanical relations, physiology, environmental

Diseases of Economic Plants: Stevens and Hall. Macmillan. $2.00.
Designed for those who wish to recognize and treat plant diseases
without a long study of their causes. It deals with the prominent
characters of the most destructive diseases of the United States,
caused by bacteria and fungi. 510 pp. Ill.

Weeds of the Farm and Garden: Pammel. Orange Judd. $1.00. A
general discussion of weeds, their injurious effect, and their uses.
Methods of propagation are described. Special attention is given to
contamination of agricultural seeds by weed seeds, including laws for
protection and general methods of eradication. Botanical descriptions
and illustrations of important species are given. 300 pp. IIl.

The Story of the Soil: Hopkins. The Gorham Press. $1.00. The funda-
mental principles of soil conservation and improvement have been
woven into fiction in an interesting manner. The narrative contains
a store-house of valuable information. 5th ed. 360 pp.. Ill.

The Farm that Won’t Wear Out: Dr. C. G. Hopkins, Author and Pub-
lisher, Champaign, Ill. Paper 15 cents; cloth 30 cents. Full of informa-
tion of vital importance to American farmers on the subject of soil
improvement.

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture: Hopkins. Ginn. $2.25. An
authority on the subject of soil improvement. Of inestimable value
to all who are actually engaged in farming, as well as to teachers of

agriculture. It is especially satisfactory on account of the large amount ~
of data upon which the deductions are based. The author carefully
explains the processes by which the land may be brought to its ©

greatest economic productivity. 660 pp. Ill.

The Soil: King. Macmillan. $1.50. A popular book on soils, their origin,
physical properties and management, for the general reader. 13th
reprint. 300 pp.

Farm MECHANICS:

Farm Gas Engines: Hirshfeld and Ulbricht. Macmillan. $1.50. “A pop-
ular discussion, especially good for the farmer who is considering the
purchase of a gasoline or kerosene engine. 230 pp. IIl.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY:

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals: Plumb. Ginn. $2.00. A compre-
hensive book on the history of breeds. Discusses their characteristics
and adaptabilities. 560 pp. IIl.

Beef Production: Herbert W. Mumford, Author and Publisher, Urbana,
Illinois. $1.50. The feeding and breeding of beef cattle for market
is presented clearly and concisely from the feeder’s standpoint. Author-

itative and accurate. Its teachings will materially aid in making cattle,

feeding profitable. . 200 pp. IIl.

The Horse: Roberts. Macmillan. $1.25. All breeds and grades are dis-
cussed. It tells how to breed, train, feed, and care for them. 400 pp.
Til.

chive tars Husbandry: ‘Coffey. Lippincott. $2.50. A compre-
hensive text covering flock management, sheep and lamb feeding, and |
a buildings and equipment required for sheep. The leading breeds are —°
discussed and instructions given for the judging of sheep. 480 pp.

262 Iil.

Forty Years’ Experience of a Practical Hog Man:, Lovejoy. Frost. $1.25.
Discusses all phases of the business, including shows and sales, adver-
tising, shipping, meat curing, and buildings. 170 pp. IIl.

Domesticated Animals and Plants: Davenport. Ginn. $1.25. Discusses
the origin and development of domestic animals and plants with special
methods of improvement. Interesting to any family. 320 pp. IIl.

Feeds and Feeding: Henry and Morrison. Henry. $2.25. Contains elab-
orate and up-to-date tables giving the average composition of Aimeri-
can feeding stuffs, their digestible nutrients and fertilizing constitu-
ents, feeding standards for farm animals and a glossary of scientific —
terms. An excellent index and system of cross references greatly .
enhances its value and convenience. 1915. 15th ed. entirely rewritten.

700 pp. ~ oe

_ Dairy Cattle and Milk Production: Eckles. Macmillan. $1.60. Describes

the breeds and their qualifications, milk production and care, from
farmers’ and city standpoint; milk houses and calf raising. 340 pp. III.
Clean Milk: Belcher. Orange Judd. $1.00. Location and construction
of barns; manure; keeping cows clean; milking; bottling. 140 pp. IIl.

Milk and Its Products: Wing. Macmillan.* $1.50. Discusses the secre- ‘i
tion, composition, and testing of milk; separation of cream; butter, :
cheese, and ice cream making. 14th ed. Entirely rewritten. 310 pp. ,

w

3 Horricurture: * ‘
Kee? _ The Principles of .Fruit Growing: Bailey. Maori fern, $1.50. Discusses :
ie principles underlying fruit growing practice, including protection from
en frost, disease, and other dangers. 510 pp. ie
- it

_ The Nursery Book: Bailey. Macmillan. $1.50. Complete guide to the
‘cultivation and propagation of plants with methods employed in nur-
sery practice.

Design in Landscape Gardening: Root and Kelly. Century. $2.00. —
Invaluable for student or amateur. Gives simple basic principles for as
ornamenting home grounds. 1914. 270 pp. IIl. 4

Productive Vegetable Growing: Lloyd. Lippincott. $1.50. The cultural

requirements are fully analyzed, and the underlying principles pre-
sented clearly and concisely. 1914. 320 pp. IIl.

INsSEcTs AND BIRDS:

Insect Pests of Farm, Garden, and Orchard: Sanderson. Wiley and
4 Sons. ger The best comprehensive work on economic entomology.

foe v} ae Coa te ku way
tie at Tees Me 18) a ond eer ce Be

MISCELLANEOUS:

A Year in Agriculture: Nolan. Row, Peterson and Company. A good
text and reference book with home projects. 386 pp. Illus.

Adventures in Contentment: Grayson. Doubleday. $1.25. Excellent
narrative essays showing how Grayson found contentment in every turn
of country life. 300 pp. Ill.

Inited States Boe N | y
| F arm Craft Re ries }

| LESSON 1 —
MAKING THE VICTORY GOOD

A year ago our slogan was, Win the War or All the World Will
- Work for Germany. Now our job is to Make the Victory Good.
Jt is not enough to have defended ourselves against a blood- —
. thirsty, treacherous, and powerful enemy. It is not enough to have te
aN defeated him and driven him off the territory he has made desolate. 9 :
____ It is impossible to bring back to life and happiness the victims of fa
__ atrocities, but we can feed and clothe the millions he has made desti- 4
_ tute, and we can work with our Allies in establishing Jaz, order, and
| liberty upon the earth. This now is the great task of America in
making the victory good. !
_ Reconstruction: This labor of reconstructing an exhausted and _
? bleeding world is the inevitable burden of the Allies and it will tax
their Rasdot and their energies to the utmost. Mere cessation of
hostilities means that the gigantic task is but well begun, for over half
if As mivid 1s a. without a stable Li alata Sok millions of

a

, Darcey, her,

Source oF Foop: Much of this food must come from America. a
Some of it can of course be brought from other countries, but the
world was consuming all that was: produced before the war. Since
then, thousands have been drawn off the land and out of production, ; i;
and the best parts of Europe have been given over to desolation,
_ producing nothing. (The Germans even cut down the fruit trees of A
lng Many thousands of soldiers and of civilians, both men, .

ki says there are no children left in Poland under seven years fe

of 4
ah val Mit

.

And yet the number that have died or been killed is far less in
proportion than the country that has been devastated or otherwise
left uncultivated. There is no question that as a whole the world was
never so near famine as it is to-day, with no prospects for relief un-

til after another season and then only through the few countries that

have a stable government.

Mucu Lazor NeEepep: The cessation of actual fighting means
of course the stoppage of production in munitions of war, and our
problems of transportation will be simplified, but there are many
things that have been put aside “until after the war is over” that must
be given attention at the earliest possible moment. Next to food,
clothing, and shelter, Jabor will be the most precious and needful

commodity for some years to come, partly because the limiting ele-

ment in food production now is not land but labor.

Farm Herp Neepep: The need of the farmer for help is even
greater than a year ago if we are not going to let these millions
starve. It will be many months yet before the soldiers that have been
taken from the land can be hack again, and the best substitute for
this skilled labor is to be found in the high school boys of the United
States.

THE BOYS’ WORKING RESERVE

Realizing all the conditions that are upon us, together with the
ability and the anxiety of the high school boy to help his country
fight its battles, meet its duties, and discharge its obligations, the
Government of the United States has organized the Boys’ Working
Reserve, a voluntary organization of young men between the ages of
sixteen and twenty-one, pledged to do what they can in production as
the soldiers do in battle.

. Farm Lazor: Those boys who have definitely left school can
best help in the shops, because the shop runs continually. On the
other hand it so happens that the busy time on the farm is during the

‘growing season and this is almost the same as the vacation time for

the schools. For this reason a boy can work on the farm two, three,
or even four months during the busiest season, with but little inter-
ruption to his schooling and probably with no detriment to his edu-
cation, for if while in school he will “hump himself” as the soldier
does, he will make up for the time lost and have his experience and
a little money as “clear gain.”

Tue Opject: The great need for this farm work is not to help
the farmer (or the boy) make more money, but to help the land raise
more food. In doing this, however, both the farmer and the boy

; 2
i

SA

exercises that deal with the things a farmer would like the boy to
. know and be able to do Mei he comes to the farm to help in food
ae :

alae WILL IT “PAY?”

| But cannot the boy make more money by going into manufactur-
ee ~ ing plants or other enterprises which offer exceedingly high wages?

Sy Ve eee: a

Certainly he can, and so could the soldier, but when our country was
fighting for its life, it was not a question of making money but of *
‘ _ defeating the enemy and making him powerless to threaten us again.

It is so now with the high school boy and with the business of pro- 4
ducing the food which will help to avert famine from a stricken _
world, Of course ‘people who are very ee must work where they

oN LE ts
ae a ee

WHY THE FARMER PAYS LOW WAGES

_ There are three reasons why you cannot get as much money on
4 the farm as in a factory:
1. Most manufactured articles are more or less of the nature of
luxuries; that is, we can live without them. Being of such nature,
_ they go mostly to the well-to-do people at good prices, and wages can —
be high. Food, on the other hand, is an absolute necessity for every 4
person every day, and for this reason the price must be kept as low _ ‘4
as possible. . If the farmer should pay as high wages as do the face a
oy tories, the very poor would be unable to buy food. x :. i
2. It takes a “green hand” longer to learn farming than to learn ty ba
: to tend a machine in a factory. He is therefore longer in realy. ie

Your going to the farm may be a financial sacrifice, but it is the
“reasonable service” of those fortunate enough to be in school at a
time like this. Do not think of yourselves as “boys” any longer.
You must do men’s work now. The United States Government is
calling upon every able-bodied boy in the high school to join the
Boys’ Working Reserve and to do his bit upon the farm just as the
soldiers have done theirs at the front. How good a job will you do?
The school and the Farm Craft Lessons will do what they can to
help you.

S

i)

ci

os United States Boys’ Working Reserve

Farm Craft Series

LESSON 2

WHEN THE CITY BOY GOES TO THE FARM

TOMER. CITY BOY

The farmers are short of labor and they must have help if they
are to increase production. What they need is skilled labor, and
yet the able-bodied, right-minded city boy, above fourteen or fifteen
years of, age*, can make himself very useful, provided he trains
himself for the purpose. Whether he fights or whether he works,

the same clear-cut object must be kept constantly in view, and the

ax

same iron discipline must be maintained. The boy on the farm must
be his own disciplinarian and keep himself in training, not only
physically but in every way if he is to be an efficient aid in food
production.

Oxyects: When the city boy goes to the farm to help feed the
world, he must keep three distinct purposes always before him:

1. To serve his country by doing his bit in production and in
the prevention of waste, whether of food, animals, crops, or ma-

-chinery.

2. To serve the interests of his employer by caring for his

property and working to the best advantage possible.

3. To gain experience, to the end that he may be worth more’
every year both to the country and to himself.

These three objects should be always in mind and in the order
named. This is duty and with the true soldier no task in the line
of duty is too difficult. .

Metuops: This boy must also have a Plan, and this Plan must

include definite methods of going about the new undertaking. There
is both an art and a science in farming. The art means the “what”

and the “how” on things and this comes first. The science means

* Only Baus sixteen years old Bad over can belong to the United States —

“) Boys’ Working Reserve, but others can help to raise food. In some States,
tne 38) in Illinois, there has been organized a Junior Boys’ Working Reserve.
es ae Wes

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the “why” and that comes later with observation, reading, and study.
This is the way to go about the job:

1. Learn the materials and the equipment of the farm—its
animals, its crops, its machinery. Learn their names and the names
of their various parts. Learn the language of the farm. Learn to
know timothy from clover; learn to know a swath from a hay
cock. Learn to know the hock of a horse, the king bolt of a wagon,
the breeching of a harness.

2. Learn how to care for the equipment of the farm. If not
properly cared for and kept in repair, this equipment will not do the
work well and, besides, it may break down just when it is most
needed in a busy time. More horses are ruined by lack of care than
are worn out in work.

3. Learn how properly to use the equipment of the farm. In
no other way can it do its work efficiently or economically. This
equipment costs money, and with neglect and improper use it rapidly
goes to pieces causing unnecessary loss to the farmer and an increase
in the cost of food. ;

* 4. Learn the common processes of the farm—the morning and
evening chores; feeding and care of horses, cattle, and pigs; care of
the harness; plowing, disking, making the seed bed, sowing, planting,
cultivating—the thousand-and-one things that all need to be done
and well done each time, not simply ‘turned off.” Most farm work
is skilled labor. In a shop the workman does but a few things, re-
peating them day after day; on the farm he does many things—
some of them every day, others but a few times a year, but all
should be done in the bést possible way.

5. Gain skill first, and afterwards speed. The highly skilled
workman makes all his movements with rapidity and precision. To
become a good workman learn first to do a thing well, afterwards
to do it rapidly. The one who begins with speed will never become
a skilled workman.

6. Acquire a high degree of physical endurance. It is not the
one who rushes into a job or the one who makes the largest number
of motions for a few minutes that accomplishes the most. The day is
long, and the work is severe. Moderate speed, precision of move-
ment, and endurance that lasts to the end of the day and the next
and the next—that is what gets things done.

7. Learn anew thing every day. Let no day on the farm go by
without learning to do some new thing or a better way of doing
an old one, or getting a new idea about farming.

2
2

MBs.
a

e ct He and so ne you a
- thin ngs, and that is the science

autions.—Certain. precautions hood to be always i in. mind:
Don’t get “cocky” when you have learned a few things.
B Boaid to becoming a good farmer is a long one, and there is
‘a acy always a better way than the one you have learned.

ei ag 2. Guard against abuse of, or damage to, the animals, machinery,
or other equipment of the farm. Mistreatment of any kind will
mean loss to your employer. It is an evidence of your own lack of
knowledge or of care, possibly both; besides, it defeats by that much
the objects you intend to achieve. .
3. Do all in your power by forethought and hard intl id
prevent losses to your employer, whether of equipment or of crops. —
_ Preventing loss and avoiding waste are even more important than.
production itself. Why?
% eae Keep things “picked up”; know where ae belong. “After
| sing a hoe or other tool, latin it and put it back in its place. Keep
ors and gates shut, and do not expect others to pick up after you,
do your work, or to inquire whether you have fed the pigs.

_ 4. Do what you can to win the confidence of your employer,
not only as to your intention but also as to your ability to do things. ©
- Your faithfulness and efficiency. must not depend upon your
_ wages. Whatever your pay, you owe it to everybody, yourself
1 pactuded, to do your best. No man can expect to be paid large wages

Ss ee

age

ee es

2

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. te Accept Pe ratiticn and, having accepted it, do not break
down. Certainly do not avoid a ehiliie on the contrary, be
- quick to see obligations about to arise and get ready to meet them. __
_ The most common failing is unwillingness to accept and carry —
y Tesponsibility, and the next common failing is inability through
4 tous thoughtlessness.
, 6. Be clean, physically, abba and mentally. Only clean me:
: om carry heavy Pee ats without breaking down.

it) SS a ek

only “get on” with your employer and his family, but you will be
respected and all the objects you sought will be attained.
8. Be a real member of the community you enter. Don’t look

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7
I

down upon nor up to others of your own age, but be a good fellow.

in the best sense of the term. So shall you avoid being either a prig
or a dub. .

9g. Keep a diary of your experience and as opportunity offers
report to your school on what you have learned while in the volun-
tary service of your country on the farm.

1c. When you return to the city ask your employer for a letter
saying whether he has found you capable, faithful, and a gentle-
man. With this report you will be the more certain to receive credit
in your school work and, if you have fulfilled the requirements of
the Reserve, the recognition of the Government in the form of the
United States Boys’ Reserve Bronze Medal.

TO THE FARM BOY

When the city boy comes to the farm, much will depend upon
the way in which you receive him. He has come to help but he
doesn’t know exactly how. It is certain that he desires to be useful
or he would not have come, for he could have made more money in
the shops than he can make upon the farm. He doesn’t know much
about farm work because he has never had opportunity to learn.
Be his big brother now and teach him all you can, remembering how
you would feel if you were trying to learn some city job.

“But he is different!” Just so, and that is one of the good things
about it all. You are both “different” and therefore good for each
other. Warm up to him: first, because he is on strange ground and
therefore your guest; second, because you need each other. He has
had some practice in knowing boys and you will probably find him
a good fellow even if he is different. You will both be different
after you have been friends awhile and worked at the new job
together.

¢

-

oe United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Rca Farm Craft Series

LESSON 3
CRAFTSMANSHIP

FarmMinG Dirricutt: Farming is a complicated industry and
whoever touches it at any point must know something about it or
he will do more harm than good, either to himself, to others, or to
both.

How Srupiep: Farming may be studied from any one of four
different standpoints :

I. The scientific principles involved.

ge 2. The economics of the business—costs and income, or profit
a and loss. ;
mt 3. ‘The equipment—land, buildings, animals, and machinery.

_-—--4.-:«Craftsmanship, or the processes involved, commonly called
farm work.

Wuenre to Becin’: The farmer must study his business from
all four angles, but the helper must begin with craftsmanship and go
__on up the scale as he gains experience. Though the good workman
ae will become interested at once in the equipment of the farm, though
he will have his eye open always to the question of profit and loss,
and though he will become fascinated in his desire to know and to
__ understand the principles according to which he must work, yet, if
‘ his labor is to be effective, the only road to good farming is through
__ skill in performing the ordinary operations of the farm.

However much he may become interested in these other matters, — a

the chief question in the helper’s mind for a long time must be the —

“knack” of getting things done. How to develop skill in crafts--
manship is his constant query. Not only is this true of the helper,
_ but the experienced farmer all his life is looking for “a better way.”

_ Factory AND Farm: When a new man goes into the factory
s shown how book do a single piece of work and ‘he does the same

ae

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ae heres see Beet Ul a hep

thing day after day, soon becoming exceedingly skillful. On the
farm he may do a half dozen different kinds of work in a single day
and some of these he may not be called upon to do a dozen times
in the entire summer. It is much more difficult, therefore, to become
a good craftsman on the farm than in the factory.

The problem is complicated in another way. In the factory many
men are gathered together in the same room under a foreman. On
the farm the work is scattered and the helper must work inde-
pendently, because if the farmer must follow him everywhere to
show him how, he would better do the work himself. To acquire
real skill in craftsmanship, therefore, is the first great duty of the
helper who would really help. .

Waar CrarrsMANsHIP Is: Craft means skill or ingenuity in
doing things with the hands. It means precision in movements. It
means strength with dexterity. It means rapidity without hurry.
It means accuracy without lost motion. It means resourcefulness
in adapting methods and movements to the thousand-and-one new
situations that constantly arise when dealing with machinery and
with animals.

Bratn Work: It used to be assumed that the hand had so little
connection with the brain that craftsmanship was independent of
intelligence, but now we know that good workmanship never becomes
automatic. Instead the highest craftsmanship requires constant
supervision of the brain. The vision of what the man is to accom-
plish must first exist in the mind, just as the sculptor “sees” ‘the
finished statue even before he begins to chip away the marble.

EDUCATIVE VALUE OF CRAFTSMANSHIP: Work with the hand is
now recognized as highly educative in three exceedingly important
particulars:

1. For teaching precision and accuracy, in which nothing
equals the work of the hands.

2. For teaching speed and what may be called general efficiency,
or the adjusting of means to the end desired.

3. For gaining experience in bringing success out of failure,
because in manual operations the principle of “try, try again” till
success comes can be more quickly and more cheaply applied than
in any other line. A boy would better experiment upon a box than
upon himself. It takes but a few minutes to find a mistake in mak-
ing a box; it may take years to prove that a plan of life is wrong.

f 2'
3 ’

a

The work is more interesting 1an when the seaaaially is”

The work is actually more adele Mees ined.
A greater amount is accomplished in the same length of

. Pe: Tn. the end the man himself is improved and eae
Plc good craftsmanship, just as he is injured and ultimately —

! sin. to Become a Goop Crartsman: To become a good |
craftsman, six rules must be observed:
- You must really desire to be a superior workman.

he in your mind an accurate picture of what is to —

4. Learn ey through unceasing precision of movement and
ore out all “false motions” that do not get ahead. Ripe the

ne oad the eyes open always for “a better way” of doing a
You may learn it suddenly some day from.

6. Develop endurance as well as accuracy and speed. Th
eo who soon “gives out” will othe but little. Th
This does not pie:

/

put ane nly animal that has 1 hand i

aL
and t

| af advantage over ie animales We
accomplish with good hands! What could y ’

It was a great thing when man first learne o walk on eh two
leaving his hands for work! Yet how many men and women h
left the hand untrained. It is our best servant; learn to use it,
in using it make it obey and do always a good job. f
f CARE OF THE Bopy: The body is not only the house in which a
you live, it is also the machine with which you think and work. | As | "
the good workman always takes the best care of his tools, so should — ;
you take the very best possible care of the body. You will frequently ),.

get wet on the farm, and sometimes heated, but neither will i injure

the body that is well cared for.

ake - United States Boys’ Working Reserve
pie Farm Craft Series

' LESSON 4 a

THE HORSE | ;

; VALUE OF THE Horse: Oldest of all domesticated species ex- {
cept the dog, the horse is by far the most useful as he is the noblest
of the animals. Under the saddle he carries the rider or the pack

- upon his back. In harness he draws the carriage for pleasure, or he
_ hauls the wagon, the plow, the harrow, the cultivator, and the reaper
~as matters of business. Without the horse, modern American farm-

ing would be impossible. To make the most of his services, the
best of horsemanship must be employed. :

ee roe ts
te te Te ee

Bony PREREQUISITES OF A Goop Horseman: Before one can be a
_ good horseman, he must:

- Understand the nature of the horse.
_ 2, Know the methods employed by the best horsemen, both in

_ the handling and in the care of horses.

3. Get practice, practice, and yet more practice.

_ 4. Have always, as a driver, a clear comprehension of precisely
what the horse is expected to do before attempting to set him to
work.

5. Be able to convey to the horse ant information as to what
is expected of him, and do it in ways that will encourage and stimu- |
late, not frighten or confuse him. oy

6. Like horses so well that if they were human beings they
_ would be his intimate friends.

ee.

Sa

NATURE OF THE HorsE: While horses, like people, vary greatly
in their individual dispositions, yet in general it may be said that %
the following are outstanding characteristics of the horse: pee:
1. Timidity: Wild or domesticated horses are timid and there-
fore inclined to run away from strange objects or frightful sounds, j

and even from things familiar if suddenly and unexpectedly encoun-
tered. Hence, never punish a horse except for definite disobedience,
and then be certain that he knows exactly what it is that he has done
wrong. He will accept this kind of punishment like a gentleman —
‘and profit by it, but a good horse will either resent abuse and fight,
or he will be made so unreliable as to be dangerous. :
The horse is cee “skittish” about what comes up fae: 4

ide pocd eae ae bade atl eye ‘a

to the rear” in driving and speaks before touching a horse, espe-
cially when he is in the stable.

The horse may easily frighten himself. For example, a slight
“start” when he is hitched to something which rattles when it moves,
is likely to be converted into a first-class runaway. Therefore, if
there is danger that a horse will become frightened, keep him moy-
ing, but do not let him trot if it can be helped. Whatever happens,
the driver must keep his head.

It is the driver’s business to discover any fearsome object before
the horse discovers it. If he refuses to-go up to it or pass it, by no
means should he be whipped. If given time to study it out, with
an encouraging word from the driver, he will, in nine cases out of
ten, proceed upon his way.

2. Curiosity: Curiosity is a highly developed faculty of the
horse, and if left to himself he will ordinarily return to examine
the object that has frightened him. Hence it is useless to follow
a colt that is shying away from you—he will return presently to
look you over. However, never strike a horse with a halter when
you turn him into the pasture, even ina spirit of play, for you will
have trouble in getting him again when you want him.

3. Pride: Of all his characteristics, none is more prominent
than pride. While some horses are indifferent, others are as proud

as Lucifer, and most good horses work best in good harness well -

fitted. Some of them behave decidedly better when hitched to a
good turnout than when asked to haul a dilapidated and rattling
piece of machinery.

4. Workmanship: The good horse well trained is a good work-
man. That is to say, he likes to do the things that he thas learned.
In most teams one or the other takes the lead. It is only the horse
inferior in intellect or abused in treatment that takes no interest in
his work. Furthermore, it is the horse which is most interested in
his work that will last the longest and accomplish the most. The
experienced farm horse knows how to do most kinds of work and
is an exceedingly good judge of his driver. It is good policy to
stand well in his esteem.

5. Dependence: ‘The horse is naturally dependent upon his
driver, and this is the driver’s chief advantage over him. No man,
can master a horse except by winning his confidence. A good horse
well trained depends upon man’s superior intelligence, and such a
horse will no more “run away” than will a dog leave his master.
Good horsemen frequently take advantage of this trait in training
green colts and purposely get them into predicaments from which
they cannot extricate themselves, as, for example, allowing them
to become entangled in the harness. Once having been relieved
from such a difficulty, the horse quickly comes to depend at all
times upon his driver.

6. Memory: The horse has an excellent memory and seldom
forgets what he has learned, bad as well as good. Be careful, there-
fore, what you teach him.

2
4

ME ot ey

er: A few horses | 1¢

_ The vicious horse is likely to kick, to bite, or to strike with the front
feet. Of these three habits the last is the most dangerous. Almost

any horse is likely to kick if something touches him from behind

without warning. Therefore always speak to a horse before touch-
ing him. Some horses have been ruined by ill treatment and a few

are intolerably stupid, but these are extremes and most cases of

_ the kind have been produced by bad management.

‘LEARNING THE METHODs oF Goop HorsEMEN: These can be
) learned only by wide observation and long experience, keeping the
eyes always open to the customs of good horsemen—what they
ee and what they do not do. For example: If you have
occasion to quiet a horse, pat him upon the shoulder or the neck,
2 not upon the: nose. He resents the latter just as you would. If
he is afraid to pass an object, walk beside him, but never lead him
by the bit. . A good horseman never drops his lines until he is ready
Pate wnhitch,

Practice: Wide observation and much study are required for
good horsemanship, but even so practice is absolutely necessary in ©
order to acquire the “feel” of the lines, the feeling of assurance that _
goes with good driving, and the ability to inspire confidence on the

part of the horse, without which the best results are impossible.

~

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B KNOWING IN ApvANCE Wuart Is to BE DonE: Many unskilled

_ horsemen strike the horse with the whip or the lines before telling

_him'to start. Now the horse is entitled to know what he is expected

to do. Before giving orders, therefore, be assured that you your-
self know exactly what is to be done, how you are going to do it,
and the part which the horse is expected to perform.

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. COMMUNICATING WITH THE Horse: Good horsemen do not
yell at horses nor do they continually tap with the whip or the lines.
The one will confuse and possibly frighten; the other will breed
»

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_ laziness. A few words of command are necessary, but for the most __
part horses are driven with the lines.« Continual talking will make
them careless of what is said. They do not understand a general
conversation, and they grow heedless of continuous and harmless
clatter of any kind. Around horses, therefore, keep silent or speak
* to good purpose; and when you speak, do it distinctly and in a tone

of quiet assurance, as if obedience were to be taken for granted
-_-without being enforced.

ATTITUDE TowArp Horses: No man can be a good horseman
_ who dislikes horses, or who believes that “every horse should know
his master.” It is imperative for good horsemanship that the ani- __
_ mal should have confidence in and place absolute reliance upon his
human companion as a very superior creature. Never deceive a
horse except to encourage him in the belief that no harm can come —

0) Xa

way while you are there. This laudable deception is the key to

zs

dhorsemanship,

Whoever is to handle horses should ‘familiarize himself with
the names and the location of the different parts of the body. This
work can be done by study of the following chart, and it should be
completed with the live animal at the first opportunity for practice
work.

|
:

rt. Mouth 1r. Windpipe 21. Fetlock joint 31. Hip:
2. Nostril 12. Crest 22. Pastern 32. Croup
3. Chin 13. Withers 23. Foot 43. bau
4. Nose 14. Shoulder 24. Fore flank 34. Buttocks
5. Face 15. Breast 25. Heart girth 35. Quarters °
6. Ferehead 16. Arm 26. Coupling 36. Thigh
7. Eye 17. Elbow 27. Back 37. Stifle
8. Ear 18, Forearm 28. Loin 38. Gaskin
9. Lower jaw 19. Knee 29. Rear flank 39. Hock
ro. Throatlatch 20. Catinon 30. Belly
The left side of the horse is the ‘near’? side; the right side is the “off” side. (

Bd _ United States Boys’ Working Reserve
| Farm Craft Series

LESSON 5
GROOMING AND CARE OF THE FARM HORSE

y The first step in learning the handling of horses is grooming,
| commonly but erroneously called “currying.” As it must be done
every day, it is important to know how this work should be per-
formed in the very best way and with the least consumption of time

~ and labor.

Oxnyect: While good grooming improves the coat of the horse

: and adds to his appearance, the main reason for doing it carefully

and regularly is to assist in keeping the skin and coat healthy.

ie Keeping clean those parts upon which the collar and other portions

of the harness bear, aids in preventing them from becoming “galled,”
__ that is, irritated and sore.

mane,” or “reform,” type preferred), dandy brush, rub rag, and
hoof pick. The card is sometimes used but it is a crude tool; and
the sweat scraper, while used with race horses, is but rarely found
upon the farm. ;

E ' Toots: The ordinary grooming tools are: currycomb (“hu-

1. The currycomb is used to loosen up dirt which has “caked”

upon the coat. This should be the first step in grooming. The

movement employed by the hand and arm in the use of this tool

_ should be circular and the pressure only enotigh to get results and

{ not enough to irritate the skin. Keep the currycomb off the head,
and do not use it on the knees, hocks, or the parts below.

2 2. The dandy brush: When particular attention is given to
_-- grooming and an extra glossy coat is desired, a good body brush
of bristles will be needed. With farm horses, however, the work
can be well done, and much more speedily, with the dandy brush.
_ This brush should be vigorously applied in the direction in which the

to ete the use ee considerable pressure in his strokes. Starting

hair lies. The groom should stand far enough away from the horse _

in at the head, he should proceed over the whole body, remembering
to brush thoroughly all parts of the legs, particularly under the fet- —
locks. Muddy legs should not be washed, but the mud should be
allowed to dry and then be thoroughly removed with the brush.
Manes and tails should be faithfully brushed out because, when
neglected, the skin from which the long hair grows becomes itcliy,
and this leads to rubbing. Neither the ‘card nor the currycomb
should be used on manes and tails because too much hair would be
broken off. Brushes may be cleaned by occasionally passing them ¢
over the currycomb and knocking the dust out of the comb against »
the side of the partition.

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3. “The rub rag: A linen salt sack is the best—it should be used
in finishing in order to remove the surface dust. The rub rag is
also used after the sweat scraper, which in some. cases—although
not as a rule with farm work horses—is employed to dry horses
which are brought in hot amd wet with sweat.

4. The hoof pick: At the time the horse is groomed, it is a
wise plan to pick out the feet, that is, clean out the sand, gravel, and
dirt that have collected under the frog and in the walls of the hoof.
At this time also the condition of the hoof and the shoe should be
noted. Unshod horses should have their feet leveled and the outer (
wall rounded off with a hoof rasp at least once a month. Rounding
the outer wall tends to prevent its chipping off.

When to Groom: Although seldom practiced, the best time to
clean the horse is in the evening after he has cooled out from his
day’s work. When this is the rule, a light grooming in the morning
is all that is necessary. The work should be done well but with
speed, for time will not permit more than the doing of bare essen-
tials. There are a number of practices of the experienced groom
which have to be omitted on the farm for lack of time.

Blanketing: Blankets are used, for the most part, on farm
horses that have to stand exposed to the winter elements while ¢
waiting for their loads or drivers. It is a wise precaution, during
the winter season, to blanket horses that come into the stable very
hot. Putting a big handful of straw over the loin and under the
blanket aids in cooling out. The doors and windows in the horse
barn should be so arranged as to prevent drafts.

Care of the Shoulders: The most vulnerable part of a work
horse is his shoulder. If the collar is too small it may choke him;
if it is too large, which is more often the case, it will bear so

2
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hooey mela ae Rous oui ag 2 al

p ing. WA shoulder once made sore is exceedingly difficult to apt ald
ie very good horseman prides himself upon never allowing such a —
ondition to develop.
The collar is never too hard, but the adeee should see that it
fits like a good shoe, and even then he must give constant attention
to the shoulder. The mane frequently works under the collar and
irritates the skin, softened by the perspiration. The driver should _
be careful that this lock of mane is not allowed to remain under
the collar while at work, and to aos it very frequent attention —
>is necessary. é :
Then, too, in the spring of the year when the horses are soft
: and the skin perhaps none too clean after a winter of ‘ “roughing _
through,” the shoulder sweats profusely and a sticky gummy secre-
n is freely thrown out. If this is left all day without attention
ie shoulder will become “scalded” and-with continued neglect ex-
remely sore, even to the point of making the horse unfit for work.
What the driver should do is to lift the collar from the neck at
least once an hour in the early season—the neck becomes toughened
later on—and wipe the shoulder and the collar with the hand or
better with a cloth carried for the purpose. A little later all that
will be necessary is to occasionally lift the collar off the neck to let
the shoulder cool and dry.

ig Care of the Collar: A bad driver pays no attention to the

es: collar until he is ready to put it on in the morning. He will prob-—
“4 ably then “scrape the gum off” with a pocket knife or an old file,
and hammer the collar a little with a stick “to soften it.” A
The good teamster cleans the collar as soon as he renvoves it
from the neck in the evening and while the gum is warm and soft, :

} ches a cloth or a wet sponge with a little soap. He never does -

ie shoulder of the horse. No collar is too hard if only it is smooth; 2 hy r
: ndeed, collars have been made: of steel, ;

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: : United States Boys’ | Working Reserve
: Farm Craft Series

LESSON 6 |
) HARNESSING AND HITCHING UP FARM HORSES |

Lg

ete 4
: There are many different styles of work harness and good team- f
_ sters vary somewhat in their methods of doing similar things, yet ,
- all agree with the old saying, “A team well harnessed and put to- .

gether is half driven.” , i,

, GENERAL STATEMENT: ‘The universal custom is that all harness ~~
is put on and taken off from the Jeft, or near, side. The novice will

7

a

if

My

c i

HEAVY WORK HARNESS ‘f

fake bit 11, Housing 21. Girth billet i
2. Nose band 12. Hame line rings 22, Girth is
3. Cheeks 13. Collar 23. Breeching straps ng KR
4, Blinds _14. Hames 24. Lines or reins f y ‘
_§. Face drop ; 15. Bottom hame strap 25. Back strap i
6. Brow band 16. Breast strap 26. Breeching i
5. Crown 17. Collar strap 27. Trace carrier ;
8. Throat latch ; 18. Martingale 28. Crupper fa
Check rein 19. Pad 29. Cockeye vn

ha i

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WN

Oy Mannan a alfa

commend himself, therefore, at once if he knows which side of ie i
horse to approach for harnessing and unharnessing, just as he will
discredit himself by going up to the right-hand side.

Parts oF THE Harness: The first step is to learn the parts of
the harness as shown in Fig. 1.

HARNESSING THE HORSE TO BE DRIVEN SINGLY

We shall assume that the horse is in his stall, groomed and ready
to be harnessed. How shall we proceed?

HANDLING AND PLACING THE HARNESS:

1. Remove the harness from the hanger and carry: it on the @
right arm, the right hand grasping the off side of the saddle and the ~
left hand the near side.

‘From the near sidé of the horse, place the harness gently
on the back near the loin (in order to allow slack for the crupper),
pull down the breeching to proper position, and put the crupper in
place. See that there are no hairs from the tail caught between
the crupper and the dock.

3. Lift the saddle clear of the back, carry it forward into place,
and draw the pad girth sufficiently tight. For two-wheeled carts,
this girth must be tight, but for four-wheeled vehicles only mod-
erately so. *

4. Get the bridle and breast collar, carry them on the left arm,
take off the halter and slip the breast collar over the head. Hold
the bridle by the crown piece in the right hand, which may Ce.
grasp the foretop to steady the head, raise the bridle until it is in
position, and then with the left hand slip the bit into the mouth.

Do not crowd the bit against the teeth. If the horse is reluctant
to take it, he can usually be induced to do so by crowding the thumb
into one side of the mouth and a finger into the opposite side. In
very cold weather the bit should be warmed by the breath or by

holding it a moment in the hand, else it may stick to the tongue.

' When the horse has taken the bit, gently draw the crown piece
over the ears, being careful to straighten out the foretop and the
mane. The foretop should be wnderneath the brow band. Fasten
the throat latch loosely and see that blinds, brow band, and throat *
latch fit comfortably. The bit should not be so low that the horse
will be likely to get his tongue over it; neither should it be so high
that it will wrinkle and make the skin sore at the corners of the
mouth. (

5. Secure the lines to the bit (assuming they are doubled
through the pad-terrets—the rings on the pad), straighten the lines,
buckle their ends together, double them, and run them through the
near pad-terret.

HitcHinG UP:

1. In “hitching up” or “putting to” the single horse, remember
that shaft ends are rather frequently broken by attempting to back
the horse between them while the shafts or thills are resting upon
the ground. The shaft should be raised from the ground and the _

wheelers; for carts, allow a little slack), and finally fasten the hold-
back straps. . . a
3. The hold-back straps should be so wrapped about the shafts —
that when the traces are drawn taut, the breeching can be pulled —
_ three or four inches back from the quarters. It is well to wrap —
hold-backs or breeching straps in the following manner: Bring
the point of the strap underneath the trace and shaft a few inches —
in front of thé leather loop on the shaft, then bring it around over
the shaft and pull it tight. Give it two or three wraps about the —
shaft, depending upon the length. of the strap; bring the point back
‘through the loop on the shaft from the outside, and carry it under |
the trace to the buckle. _ |

| ' HARNESSING THE TEAM a
PLACING THE HARNESS: f

I. If the collar is closed at the top, turn it upside down, shp —

8 it gently over the head, and.reverse it to the proper position at the
» +—s« throat before attempting to adjust it to the shoulder. If it is —
buckled, unfasten the top and, raising the collar into position, hold —
it there with the left hand while fastening it at the top with the —
ae right hand. Collars taken off and put on over, the head without —
- unfastening will last longer than those which are opened at the top —
i _—some teamsters say at least twice as long. The open collar will ©
: last longer and fit better if it is buckled together as soon as it is —
removed. P
With the horse’s head in the position in which he holds it when ‘y

at work and with the collar pressed firmly back, it should fit snugly —
on all its bearing surface and leave room to insert the flat of the -
hand at the windpipe. If sweat pads are used to make collars a4
they should be always in place. Well-fitting collars which are kept ©
clean go far toward enabling a horse to do his full duty with ease
to himself and his driver. ce
) 2. After the collar is in place, take the harness from the hanger —
f -. with the right arm underneath it, the right hand grasping the off.
‘ hame, and the left, the near one. Do not drag the harness on the ©
back of the horse, but lift it clear of him, and carry it well forward, —
putting the hames on the collar and the rest of the harness on the ©

. back with enough slack to enable the hames to go into place easily.
Buckle the hames, remembering that they should fit the collar snugly.
The hame strap at the bottom should be drawn tight. One day’s —

_ work with improperly fitted hames may ruin a good collar, or if the —
_~ hames are loose the neck is almost certain to become sore. ‘a

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3. Lift the breeching clear of the back, put it in place, buckle —

the belly band, and fasten the breeching straps to the ring in the
rear end of the martingale, or choke strap.

4. Put on the bridle as directed for the single horse. Then,
using the hitch rein, back the horse out of his stall, secure his mate,
and after watering, the team is ready to be “hitched up” or “put
te,” whatever kind of wagon or tool is to be used.

HircHine Up:

1. If the team is to be hitched to a wagon, walk it to the point
of the wagon tongue. Then, with a hitch rein up close in each

hand, quietly step each horse into his place beside the tongue. Lead-

ing or driving horses across tongues causes needless breaking, par-
ticularly when the tongues are made of brash wood, as are those
of many farm implements.

2. Take down the lines, throwing the off line over the horse’s
back to the near side; fasten them to the bit rings after seeing that
the checks are not twisted, double them twice, and hang them on the
outside hame of the nedr horse. Then tie up the hitch reins.

3. Pick up the neck yoke and adjust the martingale and breast
straps. Slip the center ring of the neck yoke over the point of the
tongue, and quietly back the horses into position for fastening the

traces, the length of which should be such as to prevent the neck
yoke from slipping off 'the tongue and not so tight as to be uncom-
- fortable

4. fasten the inside trace of the near horse, and the inside

and outside traces of the off horse; then walk around the horses’ °

heads, carry back the lines, and fasten the outside trace of the near
horse. The team is now ready to be driven.

This procedure is handiest for hitching to right-hand machinery.
In hitching to carriages and wagons, it is frequently the practice to
finish on the off side and mount the driver’s seat from that side.
With young or restive horses, it is advisable to carry the lines on
the arm while hitching and unhitching.

UnnircHinc: In unhitching, reverse the procedure as outlined
above for “hitching up,” and be careful to prevent lines and traces
from being dragged about and cut or soiled by tramping. Going
at these things unsystematically is often the cause of damaged har-
ness and spoiled horses. The careless handler of horses’ harness
and machinery frequently costs more in delay and repairs than his
services dre worth, to say nothing about losing the pleasure which
is derived from work well done.

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AER)

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 7
WORKING FARM HORSES

A horse that is well groomed, properly harmessed, and hitched
up is ready for work, and his usefulness depends entirely wpon the
skill with which he is driven and managed.

DRIVING |

Do not hurry at the start. Take up your lines, draw them taut,
speak to the team, and start slowly. Start both horses of the team
together; do not let one of them get ahead of the other. The most
useful gait of the farm horse is a rapid walk, and the teamster has
much to do in maintaining and perfecting this gait. Horses work
best for firm, though quiet and kind teamsters ; more work is usually
done where there is the least fuss. Keep your eyes open, watch
the team, and watch the road ahead. A gentle pressure, just feel-
ing the horse’s mouth, should be exerted on the lines, except for
emergencies, when a firm line promptly applied may save trouble.
The two extremes are bad, that is, driving with loose, flopping lines,
or hanging on to the lines with a “hard hand,” making the horse
pull the weight of the driver with his mouth. The one gives no
control of the team and may be dangerous. The other teaches the
horse to pull with the mouth, making him a “hard driver,” besides
giving no slack of line for an emergency. Jt is the sudden takine

up of the slight slack, which goes with all good driving, that may

prevent a runaway.

HORSE TALK

Horses cannot understand conversation. All good horsemen
therefore teach them the few words they need to know and are

careful not to confuse them by a conglomeration of horse talk

which they cannot comprehend. The words commonly used are:
‘Whoa,” pronounced “hd” in a moderate voice but with a
I s
7 !

short decided inflection which seems to eed instant
ence. The life of the driver or of his passengers may some time |
depend upon its being promptly obeyed. Do not, like poor horse-
men, utter a succession of commands—“whoa,” “whoa,” “whoa,” ete.
The effect of this is to excite the horse and probably to send him ~
off, at least to give him a very poor opinion of you, in which case ~

you have lost his confidence. Say “whoa” once and expect it to
be heeded, enforcing the injunction with the lines if necessary.

This is the first comin taught a green colt and it should never
be used for any other meaning than to stop and stand still, Indif-
ferent horsemen sometimes use the word with a long 1
pronunciation, “whoa-a-a,” to steady the team when under condi- ©
tions likely to irritate or frighten it. But a different word is better,
so that “whoa” shall mean but one thing. The term “Steady” is
commonly used to quiet the team.

“Get Up.” This command, or a clucking sound made by the ©
tongue against the side of the mouth, means to go ahead. Many
good:horsemen start the team by tightening the lines as a signal
that everything is ready for a start. In general, good horsemen
use the lines as much as possible for conveying information and
speak only when necessary.

“Back” means, of course, to go backward in a straight line. he,
is the last word taught the green horse because, in general, horses. 4
do not like to back. Their legs are built for going ahead, anda
horse never goes backward unless compelled to do so. The lines
help, but no good horseman will pull a horse backward rapidly. It
is not only cruel but sometimes dangerous.

“Gee” and “Haw.” As oxen are not driven with lines, the ox
teamster has no means of turning to the right or the left except by
words of command. With him “Gee” means “turn to the right,”
and “Haw” means “turn to the left.” Horses are generally guided
by the lines, but in some kinds of work both hands are employed,
and for this reason most work horses are taught to mind “Gee”

and “Haw.”

The same terms are used with mules, but all horse talk varied
somewhat in different localities. The driver must adopt the terms
of his own section, whatever they may be. No good teamster ever
yells at his horses. Nothing will confuse or frighten them quicker. —
Nothing must be said or done to give them the slightest reason to
suppose that the driver is excited, confused, frightened, or other-
wise than in full command of the situation. It is never 'to be for-
gotten that safety around horses depends upon the confidence which _

Watertnc: Never water a horse when he is warm; it may

é ily ruin him. Some horses drink very rapidly, especially when F

ye thirsty, and. if allowed to go to the tank they will drink enough to

‘injure themselves before it would be suspected. .A horse is never

too hot for a few swallows, say a gallon or even two gallons, and _

he ought to have as much as that. An hour later when fil cooled

he may have all he wants. F
Feepinc: Never feed grain when the horse is heated. Hay a

may be fed at any time, but to feed grain to a heated horse is to i

“founder” him almost as certainly as to give him all the water he

wants. The foundered horse is permanently “stiffened”. and his. :

ms usefulness, like his value, is easily preneed by one half ; besides, he :

_ grain and water until the ‘Horse is se out” —anyway an Loli
after unhitching. This all applies with special force in the early |
spring when the horses are “soft.” Later in the season or when

4

_ once upon unhitching. What constitutes a “warm” horse will have
: si to be learned, but if sweating freely or if “lathering,” he is too warm
to feed or water. ey
SweaTinc: <A! “soft” horse at any time, or any horse in hot -
weather, will sweat when at heavy work, but he should not show
F signs of weariness. Jf the sweat suddenly dries up on a hot day
get him into the shade and give him a rest. |
Restinc: Rather frequent short stops for rest are preferabl
- to occasional long ones. At these times raise the collar to air th
shoulders, and pull out any strands of mane which may hav
worked under it. Vogl
CRUELTY : Probably the most cruel and useless habit a team

_ them. No horse which is continually ane of his mouth will pull
well, neither will he thrive. How would you like to wear a bit i

fi, “necessary or justifiable is in stopping horses which have started t t
bolt or run away. This should be done by a sudden heavy jerk |
i. with one line, followed by attempted control with both lines, keepi

P Wares fest in foal may lose their foals from. strains brought on a |
} be this way. a

a Hiremxc: ’ One must use discretion in leaving horses unat- « iy

es of both horse and fence. Bad accidents have occurred econ
of carelessness regarding this point. When moving from one place
to another either lead or drive the horse; never leave him to wander
a about. Above all do not slip off his’ iiler and let him go loose —
to the water tank.

Practice: Get as much practice as you can by riding witha
F pood teamster. Helping him to do a few jobs will likely result in
i his allowirig you to handle the team a bit under his direction. Th
local harness man can tell you much about harness and may be
persuaded to permit you to become aa with the differens har
~ ness pare in his shop.

=

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 8
THE COW

Cnores: Milking is one of the “chores” which every farm boy
seems to learn without being taught. While sometimes not so con-
sidered, milking is really a delicate operation and one which reveals
much as to the milker’s common sense and poise. It is worth learn-
ing carefully and is, of course, particularly important on farms
where milk is extensively produced.

- Mitxinc Macuines: Milking machines are in successful use
on specialized dairy farms, but because of breakdowns, hand milk-
ing is likely to become necessary at any time even there. Milking
by hand is the rule on ordinary farms, and as it is also necessary
in finishing after using the machine, it may be called one of the
standard jobs upon the farm.

NATURE ‘OF THE DAIRY COW

The dairy cow, sometimes referred to as a milch cow, 1s naturally
of a rather nervous disposition. It might be more accurate to speak
of her as sensitive. At any rate, she is a highly organized machine

for converting feed into milk and must be so regarded.

Mirkine Quatity: The extent of the cow’s ability to convert
feed into milk rather than into fat to be laid on the body is known
as milking quality. Because of this conversion of feed into milk,
ihe dairy cow is a thin-skinned, lean-looking animal, sometimes
loose jointed and even clumsy in appearance, carrying little or no
fat. As she has a thinner covering of fat than has the beef cow,
she is more easily chilled in cold and stormy weather.

Tue Carr: The young dairy animal of either sex is called a
calf, the male being known as a bull calf, and the female as a heifer
calf, \When the young animal approaches twelve months of. age it
is called a yearling heifer or yearling bull and retains that designa-
tion until it reaches. twenty-four months of age. The heifer ordi-
narily “freshens’—that is, bears youne—at from twenty-four to
thirty-six months of age. She is then “‘in milk” and is called a cow.
After milking from ten to eleven months, the cow ceases to give
milk. She is then called “dry,” and if she fails to freshen the next
season she is called “farrow.” “The bull calf of dairy breeding is

I

not usually of much account to fatten for beef, but in case he is used i
for this pu rpose he is castrated or emasculated when quite young,
and from then on is known as a steer.

MILK SECRETION

THe GLANDs: The mammary glands of the cow and all their
external attachments are referred to as the udder, or quite com-
monly in farm language, as the bag. This is divided internally into
four compartments, each connecting with one of the four teats (pro-"
nounced tits). Emerging from either side of the cow’s belly and
running back to the udder, is a rather large and more or less tortu-
ous “vein.” These two veins, although actually carrying blood, are
commonly referred to as milk veins, and the openings through which
they leave the body are called milk wells. In expert cow judging —
the fulness of these veins and the size of the milk wells are con-—
sidered as a good index of milking quality.

AMountT SECRETED: The amount of milk which a cow will be
able to yield will depend upon three factors:

1. Her breeding. z

2. The kind and amount of feed.

3. Her general care.

As the breeding is beyond the control of the helper, and as the

ration is fixed by the farmer, the subject of interest here is the care
of the cow, and too much attention cannot be given to this phase of

the dairy business. @)

IF ail ad i ee Fe

CARE OF THE DAIRY COW

Freep: Whatever the ration, it should be fed regularly, and the
cow permitted to enjoy herself while earning it.

TREATMENT: Remember always that the secretion of milk is
the function of a mother and that the cow requires, as well as de-
serves, gentle treatment. She must always be free from_excite-
ment or fright. It has been noted on specialized dairy farms that
-if a strange dog happens to run through the barn at milking time it
may cause a striking decrease in the amount of milk yielded at that ~
time. More than with any other farm animal, except the horse, the
workman coming near should always let his presence be known by
speaking, and, if he is working close to the cow, he makes his pres-
ence grateful by stroking his hand across her back. Men accus-
tomed to working with cows do this instinetively.

Creaninc: In cleaning the cow with currycomb and brush,
remember that she is a thin-skinned and nervous animal and be
gentle accordingly. Take particular pains to brush the udder and |
adjacent region, because naturally this makes a difference in the
cleanliness of the milk produced. Always exercise extreme care
in cleaning or touchin g the cow's udder, as this is a delicate gland, ©
very easily injured. Even a slight blow -with some hard substance
like a currycomb may cause inflammation.

3a

Pee ee te POM Teed See ny eT | nye we ae eet oy, ah Shea st cae ST

’ alving, th w’s udder is
ade - sometimes be feverish. At this time
est care is required in | nilking and only someone thor-.
oughly familiar with cows should attempt it. Incorrect handling —
may cause serious inflammation and injury. The cow’s milk for
_ the first three or four days is especially adapted to the needs of the ©

_ new-born calf, but it is not considered fit for human food until the |
“ninth milking’—some say the “seventh.” The time varies with —
_ differenteows, but when the milk looks normal it is fit for consump-
; tion. The farmer will determine that point.

a | THE PROCESS OF MILKING al

This is something which cannot be taught without practice, but —
_. there are several hints well worth learning. The principle ones are
the following: 4
1. Remember that the milker works on the right-hand side of |
the cow. To approach her on the left is to betray ignorance. :
: . 2. The first movement is to put the hand upon the right hip ~
_ \_ of the cow with a gentle push, when, if well broken, she will “hoist,” —
E that is, set her right hind foot somewhat back of the left, giving
ready access to the udder. eee
3. The milker should not work at arm’s length, but, seated
___ upon the stool with the pail between the knees, his head should he —
_. close against the flank. . aS ql
4. Grasp one teat in each hand, working with diagonal quarters; _ ;
that is, when the right hand is working with the right fore teat, let _
the left hand work with the left hind teat, and corresporidingly for i
the other two quarters. ae
5. In grasping the teats, remember that milking is a pumping
process. Grasp first around the upper end close to the udder with —
the thumb and forefinger. This prevents the milk from flowing
back into the udder when the teat is squeezed. By practice you will —
learn to squeeze regularly from the top downward, so that the milk —
is forced out in an even stream. The expert milker is not neces-_
sarily the most rapid. However, you should keep working steadily
in order that the milking may be completed promptly. If it is unduly
delayed, the cow will gradually fail in her milk flow. tH
B 6. Do not milk out two quarters of the udder entirely before
. starting on the, other two. Instead, milk a little while on two quar-
ters and then change off so that the entire udder is emptied at prac-
. tically the same time. 7
7. ‘The final process of milking by which the last drops of milk
are extracted is called stripping. It is important to milk out tl
last small quantity carefully because it is richer than any other par
of the milk and because unless it is drawn out it has a tendency to
encourage the cow to go dry. Me a
i With a strange milker a cow will sometimes “hold up” her mii
__ This is not, as is often believed, due to perversity of the anim
but is involuntary and the result of nervousness. The remedy

r
ae Pde CASE? alia) 47 Sy 3
‘ij ad i Pie AY at

ry

any evidence of soreness, and breaking out, or any lumpy condit
~ which might indicate internal inflammation. In such cases repo

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 9
) HANDLING MILK ON THE FARM

Milk is a delicate and valuable food easily injured by careless.
handling. The dairyman, therefore, must be constantly trying to
produce an article that is both clean and wholesome. This is not as
easy as it might first appear, for those of us who drink milk are
interested in the following requirements :

1. That it be free from disease.

2. That it be free from sediment.

3. That it possess good keeping quality.
4. That it have a satisfactory food value.

») FREEDOM FROM DisEaAsE: Milk may become contaminated with

) disease directly from the cow, from some milker or barn helper who
is not in good health, or from utensils that are not kept properly
sterilized. Healthy cows, healthy workmen and clean vessels are
therefore a combination necessary to produce good milk.

SeprMENT: People who use milk. form their opinion of its
cleanliness quite largely by the amount of sediment they can see in
the bottom of the pail or bottle. Milk should be produced and
handled in such a way that it will be practically free from any sedi-
ment.

Sourtnc: The souring of milk is due to the growth of micro-

» scopic plants called bacteria. Milk always contains some of these

D organisms, They get in with the dust from the cow and from the |

vessels in which milk is handled. In order to grow and multiply,

bacteria must have food, moisture, and heat. Milk is therefore an

_ ideal mediym for their growth. The problem of the dairyman in

_ keeping milk sweet is accomplished through clean milking, scrupu-

- lously clean milk vessels, and covered pails, which keep the num-

_ bers of bacteria as low as possible, and by thorough and rapid cool-
ing, which creates unfavorable conditions for bacterial growth.

I

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Med) th

bas hee aes 9 a ayes 3
yO

Toop VALUE: Milk § is-almost a perf ret food, cepetaiyl t 0 :
young, though its proportion of water tinfits it for an exclusive (
for adults. co

The composition varies principally as to fat which may ‘range
from 2 to 7 percent, generally from 314 to 4 percent. These dif-
ferences in composition are due principally to the individual and not —
to the kind of feed; that is, you cannot feed fat into milk. Pi q

Milk is used ieee for its fat in the form of cream or butter, —
but whole milk either “raw,” condensed, or dried, is used in immense
quantities in all parts of the world. As most of it is consumed in @
_ the raw state, that is without sterilizing, it is exceedingly important
that it be kept clean. Inasmuch as all kinds of organisms will grow
in milk, dirty milk is always dangerous.

Care or Mitk Urensirs: Pails, strainers, cans, dippers, stir-
rers, and other milk utensils are the most common sources from
which milk becomes contaminated and their condition has much to
do with the quality of milk that reaches the consumer. The fol-
lowing suggestions for washing and sterilizing these utensils may
prove to be helpful: .

1. Rinse the tinware in lukewarm water.
2. Wash thoroughly with hot water containing some good wade
ing powder. Always use a brush instead of a cloth in washing these a
utensils. i
3. Rinse thoroughly with boiling water or BL by steam-
ing. '
4. Dry all utensils. This may be done by placing them in shee
oven or on the top of a warm stove or by setting them in the sun-
shine. A dry vessel is unfavorable for the development of bacteria
and sunshine is a good sterilizer.

RuLes For Propucine Goop Minx: Cleanliness and rapid cool-
ing will result in good milk. -Therefore—

1. The owner should be sure that the cows are healthy and that{ we) wy),

the aaa handling the milk are not suffering from atly disease. “4
‘Be sure that all vessels coming in contact with, the milk are

Hee and sterilized.

3. Keep the cows clean.

4. Keep the barn clean.

5. Milk with dry hands.

6. It is preferable to use a covered or small-top pail.

7. If possible carry the milk to a separate room as soon as
drawn and strain it. Cool it as quickly as possible. This may be
done by running it over a mechanical cooler or by setting the can
in a tank of cold water. .

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United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 10
SEPARATING AND HANDLING CREAM

CARE OF CREAM

On farms where dairying is not the principal business it is frequently the
custom to sell sour cream to be made into butter, retaining the skim milk at
home to feed young calves and pigs; Cream for this purpose is often
neglected, which means that it arrives at the manufacturer’s door in poor
condition. To maintain our standards for creamery butter, the factory must
be furnished with a good grade of cream.

It is an economic proposition for a producer of cream to dispose of his
product at the best possible price. Yet a good many do not stop to consider
that their cream must be of the best quality in order to commané the highest

Je g
Top View of Barre] ee ee

~e se eemen ee
ee

A PROPERLY CONSTRUCTED COOLING TANK

1, Inlet, usually 1% inch pipe. 2. Wooden trough, conducting water to within 3 inches

of bottom. 3. Sticks, holding cans in place as shown by cut. 4: Shows position of half
filled can; run stick through handle in cover to prevent it from sliding out from under the
sti 5._ Shows position of can when filled. 6. Shows position of wire which prevents
the cans from tipping. 7. Outlet, usually 2-inch threaded nipple.

I

L en

price. In order to pay the highest price for cream the buttermaker must
make a very good marketable grade of butter, and to do this he must have

a good grade of raw material from which to make his product. His
finished product will be no better than the cream from which it is made.
Therefore, if a farmer expects to receive the best market price for his
cream, he must produce a quality of cream which will warrant such a price.

The following rules offer suggestions for caring for cream on the farm:

Keep the cows clean.

Use covered milk pails.

Milk with dry hands.
Remove all milk from the barn immediately and separate it at once.
Set the separator so that it will skim cream that will test from 35 to 40
percent in the winter and from 40 to 45 percent in the summer. ;

wif wh

Wash, scald, and dry the separator and all utensils immediately after

using. The separator bowl may be dried in a warm oven, though the oven
should not be so warm that it will melt the tin on the bowl parts. Setting
utensils in the sun is a good practice, as the sunshine acts as a germicide.

7. Keep all utensils and separator parts dry when not in use.

8. Cool the cream immediately, after skimming by setting the can in
cold running water. Construct a cooling tank so that the cream will be
cooled with the. water that is used to fill the stock tank.

9. Never mix warm cream with cold cream. Cool the cream before
mixing it with previous skimmings.

10. Do not allow the cream to freeze in cold weather. ;

tr. Stir the cream at least twice a day; this will keep it smooth and
free from lumps. Do not use a wooden paddle for a stirrer, as it is insani-
tary. :
12, The cream should be delivered frequently, at least twice a week in
winter and three times a week in warm weather.

CARE OF THE CREAM SEPARATOR

There are a great many different makes of separators on the market, and
most of them will do efficient skimming if they are run 1nd cared for
properly. If a separator fails to do good ‘work, it is more often the fault of
the operator than of the construction of the machine. No matter how well
a separator may be constructed, if it is abused by improper usage it will
soon fail to do properly the work for which it was designed.

The following suggestions may be of help to separator operators:

t. Set the separator level on a solid foundation and bolt it down firmly.
It is well to have a piece of rubber packing under each leg of the sep-
arator to serve as a cushion for absorbing vibration.

2. See that all bearings are clean and well lubricated at all times. Clean
the bearings occasionally with gasoline or kerosene to remove all grease
that may have become gummy ,and thus prevent proper lubrication.

3. Use only the best hand-separator oil. Never use common machine
oil.

4. Be sure to turn the separator at the speed designated by the manu-
facturer. Time it with a watch or spéed indicator.

5. In cold weather run about a gallon of warm-water through the bowl
to warm it before turning on the milk. -,

6. Separate the milk as soon after milking as possible, for the milk is
then warm and in good condition to secure a clean’ separation. No separator

will skim cold milk as well,as warm milk. The temperature of the milk

should be at least 75° Fahrenheit. ; ,

7, When through skimming, flush the bowl with about two quarts of the
skim milk. In cold weather, warm water may flush the machine more
effectively. ;

8. Wash the separator each time it is used. Wash all separator parts’
with moderately warm water containing washing soda. When all parts —

are clean, scald with boiling water and place parts in a warm oven to dry.

likely to melt the tin plating
to go unwashed rot only causes
ares the quality of the cream. It is

9, When a separator is running, the bowl should spin like a top, with no
vibration. If the bowl does vibrate, examine the bearings to see if they
are loose or worn.

The important bearings are always replaceable. Follow the book of in- |
structions sent with the separator you are using.

»
\

WHY CREAM TESTS .VARY

The question is often asked why the richness, or test, of cream from
the same separator varies from day to day. The answer to this question —
is found in the way the separator responds to the methods employed by —

different operators. First, the richness of cream is partly determined by
a device called a cream screw, which may be regulated by a screw driver.
Turning the screw toward the center of the separator bowl will resul
in richer cream; turning it away from the center of the bowl will resw
in thinner cream. (Some separators have a skim-milk screw instead o
a cream screw.) Second, the speed at which the separator is operate
also has a marked influence on the richness of the cream. Turning too fas
ill make a richer cream; turning too slow will make a thinner cream
Third, skimming milk too warm or too cold may also cause a considerable

P- i

Too much emphasis is. often placed on the variations of the test of —
successive cream deliveries. The real comparisons from one delivery to Bk
the next should be based either on the total pounds of butter fat paid for,
or on the amount of money received for the cream collected in a given
number of days. A creamery statement, such as that illustrated, gives infor-

mation which will make such comparisons possible.

PINE GROVE CREAMERY No, 10000.
DOVERS., ILL.

STATEMENT |
PTBRG NOs viecscc sees 1
Lbs. Cream

: November 6, 1918
To FIRST NATIONAL BANK

Nine swe ¢ eaten 12 /100 Dollars

To ther ovder of John Smith, Dovers, Ill.

aoe
See
»>* =

Pine Grove Creamery
Dovers, Ill.

For correction return

this statement Manager

|
|
|
J
; Pay—
]
|
|
I
|
J
H

\
The first item, “Test No.,” is simply a factory record and has no signifi-
cance to the cream shipper.
“Lbs. Fat” refers to the net weight of cream delivered.
“Test” refers to the percentage of butter fat in the cream delivered, as t
determined by the Babcock test. ‘ 6

CALCULATING THE PRICE

Multiplying the pounds of cream delivered by the test, or percentage of ara
fat, gives the pounds of butter fat. In the illustration above, 40 pounds oe
of cream testing 38 percent gives 15.2 pounds of butter fat. it

If the price paid for butter fat is 60 cents per pound, the total amount
due for the can of cream is found by multiplying the pounds of fat by the
price; for example, 15.2x$0.60 equals $0.12.

It is always well for a farmer selling cream to weigh his cream and to
test it if possible before shipping. :

| United States Boys’ Working Resve
fi Farm Craft Series

LESSON 11
SWINE *

_ ImportANce: From swine flesh we get the much- demanded —
Ward: bacon, hams, spare-ribs, pork chops, satisage, and salt pork.
he meat contains a large amount of fat which is “tried out” and

is then known as lard. The average consumption of pork per |

- person per year in the United States averages about seventy-five

- pounds. We export large quantities of pork to foreign countries ©
each year, and at present are producing about one half of the total
amount in the entire world. Hogs are found on nearly every farm
in the United States. They have been selected and developed for
an specific purpose—that of furnishing human food, although in

i

packing houses we find that some of the inedible portions of the.
hog have very definite uses and distinct values in the industries;
for example, bristles.

_ Terms To Denote Sex anp Ace: The female of any age is

4 called a sow, but if she is under a year old or has not produced off-

_ spring, she is called a gilt. A boar is a male of any age which has —

_ not been castrated or emasculated—an operation frequently spoken

99 66 ”

of as “altering,” “changing,” or “doctoring.” The castrated male
is regularly called a barrow, but if the male is castrated after it has
been used for breeding, or if it has developed the striking masculine
_ characteristics, such as a heavy head, shoulder, or sheath, or large
testicles and general roughness, it is called a stag. Young hogs of
either sex are ordinarily called pigs up to the time they weigh one
hundred and twenty-five pounds. Shote, or shoat, is a term applied —
to gilts or barrows weighing from seventy-five to two hundred
pe ounds, there being no definite line where one term ceases to apply
al nd the other begins. The term hog is correctly applied .0 mature — A
nin nals, when relgiting to swine of any age or either sex.

ve}
ed % ets ae esi Sh ye Dy) f r se iby
YP LE AIS RR) Cone BON tye atk ay Dean, RECTEAN BAGRe, Poe

Farrow1nc: When the sow gives birth to young it is called —
farrowing, and the pigs which are farrowed at that time—there —
may be from one to twenty, but normally from six to ten—are
spoken of collectively as her litter. Thus we may say that the sow
farrowed a litter of eight pigs.

Frereps: On account: of the single purpose for which the hog
has been developed, it is particularly efficient in converting grains
into edible meat. It has limitations, however. The hog cannot han-
dle bulky feeds, such as hay or silage, in very large quantities, al-
though he is especially fond of clover and alfalfa in small amounts
either as hay or pasture. The digestive tract is of small capacity
and it is consequently adapted to the use of the more concentrated
feeds like corn, oats, and the other grains and seeds, or any feed
which has a small amount of crude fiber. Garbage, house-slop, and
various other by-products are readily consumed by swine and
through them converted into valuable food for the human diet.*
The pig is a good scavenger. He will select food out of the manure
of other farm animals, especially cattle, and secures from that source
much food which is converted into pork rather than being wasted or
returned to the soil.

SUPPLEMENTING CorN: Corn is the principal feed for swine
especially in the corn-belt States, but to it we must add some other
feed to furnish a balanced ration, since corn is noticeably deficient’
in protein and minerals. Young pigs just weaned will starve on a
corn and water diet if allowed no other feed. Skim milk or butter—
milk—dairy by-products—are the best supplements to use with
corn. Tankage—digester tankage or meat meal, but not fertilizer
tankage-- ranks-second as a supplement to corn and is used in the
proportion of about one part to nine or ten parts of corn for pigs —
under one hundred pounds in weight, and one part to thirteen or
fifteen parts with shotes heavier than one hundred pounds. Other
feeds, such as linseed oil meal, middlings, soy beans, oats, barley,
wheat, rye and legume hay, or any kind of pasture, may be used
with corn in varying proportions with good results. Since hogs
have a limited capacity for handling roughage, they cannot con-
sume enough of even the best of pasture, like alfalfa, rape, or clover,
to balance the corn ration if they are given a full feed of corn. Thus ©
for best results with corn and pasture some other supplement rich
in protein should be used.

* A small amount of salt is good for hogs, but large amounts are fatal—
a fact to be remembered in feeding table or dairy. istape

Minerats: Very few combinations of feeds give the pig
enough mineral matter for proper growth and development. “Some
mixture, such as slack coal three parts, air-slacked lime or ground
limestone two parts, and common salt one part, should be kept in
troughs befpre the hogs at all times. They will grow more rapidly
and be less subject to disease if such ingredients are supplied along
with the grain ration.

Water: Hogs will drink large quantities of water in both sum-
mer and winter—more than they commonly get—and an abundance
| of clean water goes a long way towards keeping the hogs in a healthy
condition. The hog cannot sweat; therefore in hot weather he
needs to “wallow,” not for the mud but for the cooling effect of

the water:

Freepinc: The most common practice is to feed ear corn on
the ground or ‘feeding floor, and to mix the other ingredients with
water, pouring this slop mixture into the troughs. This is done
twice daily. The tendency now is to use methods which save labor,
and with that in view many are doing away with slop feeding and
use the tankage, mill-feeds, and other supplements dry. Hogs eat
dry feed almost, if not quite, as well as when it is mixed with water.

Many feeders are using self-feeders that hold a supply of grain
sufficient for several days, thus obviating the necessity of feeding
two or three times each day. When hogs are self-fed they gain
rapidly and are fattened for market at a rather early age, requiring
a minimum of labor but using about the same quantity of grain as
with hand-feeding.

SHELTER: Hogs are commonly housed in small, low buildings,
spoken of as “cots” or sheds. The prime requisites for a good
shelter are dryness and freedom from drafts. During the summer |
some sort of protection from the sun’s rays is needed. Shade trees
furnish the best means, but any other shelter, under which there is
a free circulation of air, will answer the purpose.

) GENERAL Hints: , Pigs should never be driven about the pens
faster than a slow walk. Keep the dog away from the pigs, for
he may chase and overheat them. If they start to run, get around
them as best you can, but don’t run them, for they easily become
overheated and may suddenly die from heat or from shock, and
excitement.

Pigs are stubborn, but two stubborn things together will never
make much progress. Therefore keep your temper when handling
hogs.

eek will do better :

a eed slaw! in which to ies and rest. They are naturally |
cleanest of all farm animals, being the only ones that will not *
ingly foul their own quarters. °

port it immediately to the owner. Timely action may save an entire
herd from contagious disease.

. Snout ; 8. Rump 14. Sheath
. Face 9, Ham : 15. Belly vt
a a ; to. Tail 16, Side

. Neck

he aad 12. Hoc . 18. ;
. Be . Dew claws - 19. Tusk iat
Pras ; = *

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United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 12
CARE OF FARM EQUIPMENT

A good many hundred dollars are invested in the buildings,
fences, and machinery of the farm. ‘These necessary adjuncts of
the business are exceedingly perishable, and the careless workman
will destroy more by his carelessness than he can produce by his
labor. The proper use and care of this equipment, therefore, is
one of the first obligations resting upon the helper.

Buitpincs.: Special care should be exercised not to drive against
) the corners of buildings or the sides of doorways. Manure should
’ not be allowed to pile up against the side.,of the barn. If necessary
make a guard of old boards. Windows should be protected against
breakage. Doors should either be shut or fastened open, not left
to be torn off the hinges br. swinging in the wind. We say of the
man who leaves doors open behind him that he must have been
brought up in a saw mill. There is no surer way to injure a horse
than to drive or lead him through partially opened doors or gates.
. It is only a question of time till one will close up with him, and
when it happens he will not back out, but will probably injure him-
self in trying to go ahvrd.

Fences AND Gates: Gates like doors should not be left to
swing. Presumably a gate is always to be closed.. Do not drive
against gate posts nor into fences in turning at the ends of rows.
Never hitch to a wire fence or a gate, for horses like to paw; and
do not hitch to a shade tree, for they like to gnaw bark and to
brouse twigs.

Do not climb over wire fences. If compelled to do so choose a
place next to a good post, and step close to the supports. . Never
pile anything against a fence, for it will surely push it over.

f * | ' , "
vary . Sst div oh »

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pattie

Pumps: Do not jerk ‘a “hand pump, ve t pump with a long, 4
steady stroke. Do not leave the windwill running needlessly i in ae

high wind.

Macuinery: The proper’ use and care of farm machinery
falls under a considerable number of definite heads that may be

enumerated as follows:
1. Know before starting to use a machine exactly what it is

designed to do, and how it is intended to work.

2. Never put a machine to a use for which it was not intended :
For example, never use a monkey wrench for a hammer; never use
the head of an axe to pound anything made of iron; and never use
a good mowing machine or the best scythe to cut weeds unless posi-

tively directed to do so. In that case, look out for snags, old iron, —

and fence or baling wire that may injure or destroy the knives.
3. Know when the tool is working properly, and if it is a

piece of geared machinery learn the peculiar sound it ought to make.

When it begins to make a different sound stop and hunt for trouble.

4. Learn to know all the places for oil, or for grease on every
machine you undertake -to use. Be sure to find all the places, and
be sure that the oil holes are open. Do not oil or grease a place not
intended for lubrication; for example, an ae part working
in the dust.

5. From time to time alate all running parts that collect gum
or worn-out grease. If they cannot be readily reached, a little kero-
sene will cut the old gum and clean the part fairly well.

6. Never drive a geared tool fasterythan intended. Therefore
do not trot the team with a mower, binder, drill, or even the disk
harrow. i

7. Keep all stationary parts tight, and all working parts snug

but not tight. If a piece of wood is bolted between two pieces of
iron, keep it well soaked with oil or the iron will eventually cut it
in two by repeated swelling and shrinking.

8. Tf a nut works loose, tae it entirely off, clean and oil the”

thread upon the bolt, and clean the bearing against which the nut
is to be screwed down, for sand or dirt left there will act as roller
bearings to loosen the nut again.

9. Do not let nuts become so tightly usted that they cannot be
removed. To prevent this, apply a little oil or kerosene occasionally.

10. Remember always that most bolts and nuts are right- ve

handed; that is, to turn a nut with the es of a watch is to
tighten it, and vice versa.

2

be — away.

To take off a stubborn nut it may be necessary to start it

Pane a Bela chisel. A glass stopper can be removed from a ground ~

glass neck by heating, and a plug or cap can be twisted loose by
_ doubling a stout string, beginning at the free ends and wrapping | a
it around to the left until only the loop remains. A stick run A
_ through this loop as a lever will loosen almost anything. i

SHARPENING TOOLS: Every cutting tool should be sharp, and a

wie each must be sharpened in a different way, the general principle a

he turning against the edge. The manner of holding must be learned ! iv
by observation.

a good edge. In general the grindstone or the emery wheel is made i.
to turn against the edge of the tool, else the edge will be “feathered” _ i
and rough. Touching special cases:

; ‘ spade, and on the side next to the handle in the case of the hoe.

a carelessly, as it is almost certain to be dulled. Protect the cutting

being not to cut away any more metal than is necessary to geta

1. Mower knives are generally sharpened by a:special emery ‘
wheel but the work may be done on the grindstone. In either case — :
be careful to get a true bevel, and do not sharpen the point of the .
sections more than is absolutely necessary. a a

2. The axe and the scythe are sharpened on the prindsaeel 7

3. The spade and the hoe are A eae with a flat file, doing 4
the sharpening on the front or hollowing side in the case of the —

“Precautions: Never strike an axe into the ground or drop it i,

edge of every tool, even the spade and the hoe, against unnecessary

surfaces as well as their edges protected. If at all exposed bs 4
_ weather they should be kept well oiled.

; spades, hoes, and shovels, should be well cleaned, whenever used in),
hat sticky soil, and immediately oiled. A flat brush with a dish of heavy —
_ oil is generally to be found prepared for this purpose. It not found,

abuse. Never lay a scythe upon the ground but always hang it i

up, lest people or animals run against it and get an ugly cut. M

Care oF Bricut Surraces: Cutting tools should have their Su

Plowshares, moldboards, and cultivator shovels, as well as i y

it might be well to ask for it.

Care or Harness: Lines should never be aitauie to drag upon,
pa: or get. under the horses’ ign Harness: shonla be occa~

sionally taken apart, cleaned with soap and warm water, oiled, and
carefully repaired where needed.

a re

Next only to the proper handling of horses, the helper will
endear himself to his employer more. by showing intelligent and
workmanlike care of equipment than by any other means, and this
easy road to the farmer’s good graces is heartily recommended.

>»)

| Unite States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm 1 Craft Series

LESSON 13
THE WAGON AND ITS PARTS

The wagons used on Illinois farms can be divided into two
genera types, namely, farm wagons and farm trucks.
Tue Wacon: The farm _wagon may have Nery wheels as

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Gs

; g but it is best adapted to the highway and for hauling to market
_ grain, hay, live stock, and other finished products.

THe Truck: The truck has smaller wheels—not over thirty-
% ‘SIX x inches 3 in diameter in front and forty inches behind—and hence

DETAILS OF A WAGON

Track: The “track” of a wagon, as marked in Fe I, is the
lateral distance between the centers of the wheels measured on the
ahs asi There are two standard widths for track; the wide track, |
which is five feet in width; and the narrow track, most generally
cd which measures four feet, six inches,

_ _Runnrnc Gear: The entire part of the wagon shown in Fig.
B is including the wheels, axlés, bolsters, and reach, is called the run-
ning gear. This is what in an automobile would be called the chassis.
_ With this running gear can be used a tight box for hauling grain
or other loose material, a hay tack, a hog rack, and various other yf

f
fi pes of special bodies. ish
: rings may be nd to Ret the box-on a wagon, but this i 1s

2

OY, | Rae) aay SN eh Se ea Pe SR v4
J on) 7
in b, rey, ’ A

In putting a hay rack on a wagon the reach is lengthened and
extra bolsters are put in to hold the rack up above the wheels.

In hilly countries brakes are necessary on the wheels, but in a
flat prairie country these are not used. | ;

Parts oF THE WaAcon: It is well for the student to familiarize

himself with the names of the parts of a wagon. This knowledge is
of importance because it will sometimes be necessary for the boy

Reach

Figure 1

working on the farm to describe a certain part, as when something
is broken or lost, and he will find this difficult if he does not know
the names. /

Fig. 2 shows the tongue and its attachments. It is often referred
to as the pole. Note that the wagon hammer which attaches the
doubletree to the wagon and through which all of the pulling force
is transmitted is also a wrench which fits the nuts on the axles.

Hammer Strap

Figure 2

-

Fig. 3 shows the parts which are used with the tongue. The

Pee

ih
on

neck yoke fits on the front end of the tongue and is also fastened _

to the hames of each horse. The neck yoke, therefore, supports the
front end of the tongue from the-horses’ necks and also guides the
wagon as the horses turn one way or the other. In hitching the

horses to the wagon always put on the neck yoke and slip its ring

2
{3

SS CALS aN nT ae ba Oia

¢

‘the, 2 Il. It may readily be seen that
if, with the end of the tongue lying on the ground, the harness
t were attached to the singletrees and the horses should suddenly

1

| ri a _
Jerrvle
oh ce nea Center Clip

igure 3

Bolster Plate

—

AS

=

King Bolt
Sandboard Plate

oe 4
_ become frightened, the situation would be dangerous. Always at-
ich the lines first, then the neck yoke, and last of all the tugs or

Fig. 4 shows.the details of the front part of the running gear.
Fig. 5 shows the corresponding details of the rear part. Fig. 6
shows details of the wheel. (Felloe is pronounced felly.)

Tire
‘Skeein Dox

_

Figure 6

Sepa ts 4

bP TRC be oo

—— ——_
‘ <a

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 14
CARE OF THE WAGON

The wagon like any other implement needs care if it is to do
its work and last well.

GREASING: The bearings between the skeins and skein boxes,
that is, the bearings upon which the wheels revolve, are the only
parts of a wagon which require frequent lubrication. This should
be attended to as often as necessary to keep the surfaces from wear-
ing bright. It is hard on the wagon and also much heavier pulling

_ for the horses if attention is not given to this point. A good grade

of axle grease is ordinarily used for the purpose, and usually ap-
plied with a wooden paddle.

Fig. 1 shows the common method of greasing the wagon. The
axle nut is taken off and the wheel slipped cautiously outward until
the skein is partly exposed, when grease, to the amount of two or
three tablespoonfuls, can be applied and the wheels slipped back
into place. This operation requires caution because of the danger
that the wheel will slip entirely off and let the axle fall to the
ground. Most farms, however, are equipped with wagon jacks with
which the weight of the wagon is lifted so that the wheel may be
taken entirely off, giving a better opportunity for proper cleaning
and oiling.

TURNING oR Backine: In turning or backing a wagon, great
care should be exercised that the angle of turn is not so sharp as
to throw undue strain upon the tongue, the reach, and the wheel.
This is one of the most common abuses to which a wagon is sub-
jected.

When a wagon with a box is turned, one of the front wheels
strikes the rub iron on the side of the box. If an attempt is made
to turn still shorter, a strain is not only thrown upon the wheel and
tongue, but the corner of the tire cuts into the lower corner of the
box, ultimately wearing the rub iron in two. With trucks in which

I

be somewhat eased, but there is an equal likelihood of brenicame
when ‘too short a turn is made.

CarE OF THE Fetrores: The paint quickly wears off the felloes
and they should be frequently oiled. Most farmers neglect this
precaution, and the result is that when the dry season comes the

Fig. 1.—Greasing the Wagon

tires become loose. Perhaps the boy can persuade the farmer to
supply a little linseed or crude oil for the purpose if he has not al- _
ready provided it. | .

Loose Tires: Never use a wagon with a loose tire, and as soon
as you observe such a tire report it. The wheel is one of the most
expensive parts of the wagon and is easily ruined when the tires

2
£4

. ‘ “se
¢ ee : : ? i
ieee Shar. (Ore) eee ee he

ae i ree hee Sal ¥ é
A loose tire not y ns that sand will ahs eae!

fit wvell even feiter setting, but an that the Epkes will soon be loos-
ened from the hub, ruining the wheels.

_ Temporary relief can be obtained by soaking the wheel in water
or in hot oil, or by wiring the tire on the felloe. These measures,
§ however, should be resorted to only in cases of extreme necessity.

If a tire should come off when the wagon is in use, stop immediately,
__ as a wheel in this condition will be quickly ruined.

SETTING: The only remedy for a loose tire is “setting,” a job
that is usually done by the blacksmith. To “set” the tire, it is re-
moved from the wheel by tapping the outside of the felloe with a
hammer until the tire gradually works off and comes away. It is
then heated and “upset,” that is, made smaller by a machine for
the purpose. Being swelled by the heat it can be easily put over
the wheel while hot and afterward “shrunk on” by cooling with
a water, which also prevents burning the wheel.

CARE OF THE Box: Fence posts, stone, manure, and such rough
or dirty material should never be put into the wagon box. Special
dump boards are kept on all farms for this rougher use of the

) wagon, and the box itself should be kept clean and whole for haul-

' __ ing grain.
ye When the box is removed from the running gear, it should, if
____ possible, be stored.under shelter to protect it from the effects of

the sun and the rain. If the wagon box must be left out of doors,
every possible precaution should be taken to preserve it. If it is
turned bottom up and with one end higher than the other, water will
drain off much better than if it is left flat.

As a wagon box is too heavy to be removed in one piece, the
tip-top and the top boxes are generally taken off separately. If
these parts are removed while assembled, they are likely to be ©
twisted out of shape or broken. It is much better to remove the
) . end gates, replacing the rod so that it will not be lost, and store
i, the parts flat.

Rivets, Botts, anD Rops: As with other farm implements, any
rivet or bolt on the wagon which comes loose should be tightened
immediately. There are no minor abuses that will cause more

rapid deterioration of a Boge than carelessness in attending to
these small details. “Do it now” is the motto to follow in the re-
pair of wagons as of other machinery.

POND 19 PR
etaitin,| om

ey R
Ua Aa
in
Hod

‘ A a

_ United States Boys’ Working Reserve
ee Farm Craft Series

LESSON 15
THE PLOW

pe The plow is universally recognized as the fundamental implement
for tillage of the soil. The hoe and the plow in very crude forms
were undoubtedly the first tools used by man for agricultural pur-

the city boy employed on a farm will be called upon to operate.

bi Goop Prowine: Good plowing is an art. The real plowman
who takes pride in his work is an artist, producing that which is
not only necessary but also beautiful to look upon—a perfectly
plowed field. He turns a straight furrow of uniform width and
depth, covering the trash, pulverizing the soil, and leaving the ends

| | regular.

. THe Warxkinc Pirow: The walking plow, turning a single nar-
row furrow and drawn by a two-horse team, was used almost
entirely until a few years ago, but in many sections it has now been
_ replaced by the larger riding piow, turning two or more furrows. It
is an advantage to have learned plowing with the walking plow
__ because in that way a man is more likely to understand and appre-
ciate the importance of proper plow adjustments. The more mod-
_ ern riding plows can be operated with fair success, even though not
_ properly adjusted, while this is impossible with the walking plow.

Layine Orr: In starting to plow a field the area is frequently
“laid off” in spaces or strips called “‘lands,”’ each of which is to be
completed separately. The city boy going to the farm will not be
. called upon to lay out a field for plowing, as this is a matter requir-
_ ing considerable experience and will be done by the owner or man-

Ay, : 2 ithe
_ to follow the furrow and to plow the field without troubling the

a really good plowman will require not only extreme care but much
practice, for good plowing is not easy. Ned
_ ADJUSTMENT OF THE PLow: Different types of plows have
varying sorts of adjustments which the boy must learn on the imple-
ment itself. As the owner decides upon the depth, so will he proba-
bly adju

Cent a

‘poses, and very probably the plow will be the first implement that -

_ ager. After the land is laid out, however, the boy should be able _

' farmer with anything beyond a little initial instruction. To become

st the plow for the new helper, and it is the boy’s job to

keep the adjustment as made; indeed, it is a good rule when a plo V
is once properly adjusted to “let it alone.” |

DertH: The depth at which the walking plow will run is regu-
lated by raising or lowering the hitch at the front end of the beam.
The depth at which the plowing should be done will yary from four
to eight or nine inches, depending upon the kind of soil, the crop
to be planted, and the previous treatment of the field. In general,
sod ground is plowed considerably deeper than stubble.

~~ ted ale

A Good Piece of Plowing

WiptH: To increase the width of the furrow move the hitch “
at the end of the beam away from the plowed land, and to decrease
it move the hitch toward the furrow. The maximum width of fur-
row which a plow will turn will depend upon the width of the plow |
bottom, and the plowman should never attempt a wider furrow,
for the result will be only to “cut and cover.” leaving a bad job to
be followed by a poor spot in the crop.

Batxs: When plowing, if for any reason the plow should jump
out of the furrow, do not continue, for that would leave an unplowed
spot or “balk.” It might be covered up by the soil from the next

fur | |
however, wo op pared to receive the seed and

would not produce its proportion of the coming crop. In such a
case, stop the team, pull the plow back, and start again.

_ TurnINnG a Corner: To turn a corner when plowing a field
with a walking plow, stop the implement so that the point is just.
at the end of the furrow slice. Then bring the horses around
through an angle of forty-five degrees, at the same time pulling the
_ plow back and over into the position to cut the desired width of
_ furrow. This method will turn all the soil with a minimum of
labor required in handling the plow.

Scourtnc: One of the most important things in proper plow-
ing is that the plow bottom should scour ; that is, that the soil should
‘not stick,-but should roll clean from the surface, leaving a bright,
smooth land polish. If the soil is of a type which does not scour

én

a tr A
aes |

ae

i

rn. 2 ney ee
oma ——

ee ae
Pi age

well, then before going to the field clean all grease or rust from the
surface of the bottom of the plow and polish it as bright as pos-
sible. If the trouble is encountered in the field, clean the surface
_ frequently until the trouble is remedied, that is, until the plow begins
to scour. A wooden paddle will be found very useful for this clean-
ing process.

When through using a plow, the surface of the moldboard should
be coated with axle grease or with some other rust preventive. This
will preserve it in proper condition for use the next time.

THE Larcer Prows: In using a sulky, gang, or tractor plow,
it is of particular importance that attention be given to the various
lever adjustments. These could be explained at great length, but

_ for-practical purposes the city boy going to the farm should give’

close attention to the instructions given him by the farm manager

_ and when in doubt he should ask for further information rather than
go ahead with the possibility of being in error.

or ae

| STEADY PLowinc: Sometimes an ambitious team on the plow
may walk faster than is desirable for good work and in that case

3

it should be held in to a steady pace. Plowing is a long and tedious ~
job which is accomplished not by sudden spurts nor by hurrying,
but by steady, careful work so accomplished that every square foot
of the field is well tilled and in condition to produce its part of the
crop. Rapid plowing is undesirable because it throws the soil out
of its normal position and tends-to leave the field undulating instead
of in continuous, uniform furrows.

SPECIAL PrEcAuUTIONS: Careless teamsters often leave the
breast straps hanging while working a team on the plow, harrow,
or other tongueless tool. When that is done the heavy iron snap
strikes the knee every time the horse steps, often making an ugly
sore. This is cruel heedlessness, and in all cases the breast strap .
should be snapped into the hame ring as if in actual use.

Riding Plow

United States Bose Metts Reserve
Farm Craft Series

fe ) LESSON 16
| THE MOWER

DMowing ; is a job that is almost certain to fall to the lot of the
_ boy who volunteers for farm work. This is not a difficult task, but —
one that requires a good deal of care.

Points Neepine Esrectan ATTENTION: 1. Drive carefully,so
that the sickle bar cuts a full swath, but do not let the inside shoe
run onto the uncut grass, thus leaving a strip that will not be cat
Do not let the horses step on the uncut grass.

el eo. In approaching a corner drive straight ahead until the sickle - i}
a is ‘hae out of the uncut grass. Then turn the team carefully |

os give the field a ees Sic Show interest in ae:
~ work by doing a neat job. if,

ith
Re.

_ -3..-«~Throw the mower out of gear every time you stop to clear
. or adjust the sickle. Failure to observe this precaution is responsible
ie tor many lingers cut off and some ankles wounded, for when the
Br machine is “in gear” a slight movement of one of the horses will

move the sickle enough to make an ugly cut. Never shift the gear 4
_ lever while the machine is in motion. 4

4. When working with the sickle always stand behind the sickle
_ bar; never in front. This is a case of safety first.

5. When you stop for any purpose during the trip across the =
_ field,-back the team a few inches before starting again, This will
: enable the sickle to get up motion before reaching the uncut grass.

6. The mower has many rapidly moving parts, and must be
oiled frequently. Be sure that the oil ducts are open so that the
can geet ome to the oe Le where it is needed. F olny ‘i

; aligning adjustment and then use it to secure lighter draft.

pitman bearings oO “¢ Aenly, and
oil more frequently. a

7. Keep the sickle sharp. ’

\

MOWER ADJUSTMENTS

The following suggestions will help to keep the mower in prop
adjustment for best work. Never attempt, however, to make radic

La

your employer’s consent.

ALIGNMENT: When the mower is in operation the knife ar
pitman should work in line; the machine is then said to be aligne
Due to strains, or to wear in the hinge between the cutter bar and

Vig. 1.—Nonalignment Causes Increased Drait

as shown by the string in Fig. 1. The power from the pitman mu tt
then .be transferred to the knife through an angle, and this. cause
friction on the inside shoe parts, with increased draft and greate:
wear. : .
A good imethod of testing for alignment is the string rnethad
lustrated in Fig. 1. The resistance on a cutter bar will cause
outer end to drop back an inch or so when the mower moves fo
ward at normal speed. Thus, when the machine is standing x“ :

cutter ian about an inch lead, and a six-foot bar, about one
one-half inches lead.

Many mowers are now equipped with ess aligning devi
The operator should inspect his machine carefully to locate

bee

rae
- La er

: greatest Breed when they hae ie most Derk to do, they should

“center”; that is, at the end of the instroke and outstroke the cen-

‘ter of each knife section should come to rest at the center of its
guard. If the knife does not center, as illustrated in Fig. 2, in-

creased draft, side-draft,
and poorer work will re-
sult, because one edge of
the section fails to play past
the edge of the guard suffi-
ciently to make a clean cut,
but pulls the grass off in-
stead. } \
Non-centering is caused
by carelessness in fitting a
Pig. 2It the Koife Ts OF Center, SiteDraft new pitman stick, by get-

ting the knife rib too long
when it is welded, or by the operator attempting to align the ma-
chine by shortening the drag-bar. Proper centering can be re-
established on most machines by moving the entire cutter bar to
the left or to the right, as the case may demand. In the case
illustrated in Fig. 2, the cutter bar should be forced to the right, or
the knives to the left. On most machines this can be done by
lengthening the drag-bar at the socket connection described above.
Some mowers carry other forms of centering devices, and operators
should locate such features.

SipE-Drart: Sharp scissors, properly adjusted, cut easily, but
if one loosens the screw that holds the blades together, no matter
how sharp the blades, they will spread sufficiently to wedge ma-
terial between them instead of cutting it. This wedging, crushing
action causes the scissors to work very much harder than when the
blades are held close together.

The cutter bar of a mower is nothing more or less than a series
of shears. The ledger plate in each guard and the corresponding
knife section are the blades in each pair of scissors, while the clip,
shown in Fig. 3, takes the place of the screw to hold these two
shearing plates in the proper relation to produce a cutting rather

than a wedging and crushing action. But, due to wear, the knife

sections begin to leave the ledger plates after the mower has been
some time in use. Thus the proper shearing action of the cutting

mechanism is destroyed; the grass is drawn in and wedged between

the cutting blades and, instead of being cut off easily, the stems
ia

a

4 + 3 Oe oe U 7 pa
: » eran a |

are crushed and pulled off as the cutter bar moves to the eran q
Fach of these uncut stems helps to pull back on’ the cutter bar,
causing increased draft.

Side-draft may be caused, too, by one or more guards being
bent up or down. When the mower leaves the factory, the guards
and the ledger plates are exactly in line, and the operator who
cares for light draft must
keep them in that relation.

Perhaps the best method
of aligning is as follows.
After the knife has been
Fig, a The Cuter Har Tp Simply q Series ot TemOves) Dace 3 eee

Do Good Work with Light Draft ‘ DIGEe of strap iron about

%x1%x15 inches on the
ledger plates and, using this piece as a straight edge, move it back
and forth over the plates, noting which are high and which are low.
Then drive a misplaced guard back into alignment by hitting it a
sharp hammer blow where its stock is thick. The. guards are
malleable. If a new guard with new ledger plate has been supplied
recently, it may set a little too high. In such case it is well to
place a piece of tin between the guard and cutter bar where the «
two are bolted together. .

Another common cause of side-draft is excessive wear on the
underside of the lips of the clips. The faces of the clips wear away
rapidly because there is considerable pressure upon them by the
knife sections, as the latter tend to spread from the ledger plates.

As the wear on these parts increases, the knife sections tend to raise
farther from the ledger plates, until finally the same conditions will
exist at every guard as exists in scissors when the screw is loosened.

P 3 LESSON 17
ae THE GAS ENGINE

Internal combustion engines produce power by burning an explosive
“mixture of fuel and air in a closed cylinder behind a piston. Gasoline and
_ kerosene are-the fuels usually used in farm engines. The force of the explo-
sion pushes the piston toward the open end of the cylinder and, by means
of a connecting rod between the piston and the crank, turns the crank-
' shaft of the engine. Since practically all farm engines run according to the
_ four-stroke cycle, and have poppet valves, only this type of engine his be
wy described.

: ESSENTIAL PARTS OF AN ENGINE

Inside of a straight, round cylinder is snugly fitted the piston. °(See
Fig. 1.) The piston is shaped like a straight-sided, flat-bottomed cup. To
make the piston a leak-proof fit in the cylinder, piston rings are provided in
grooves extending around the piston. These rings serve the same purpose
as the leather on the plunger of a tire pump. The piston pin is fastened cross-
wise in the piston and to it one end of the connecting rod is pivoted. The
other end of the connecting rod has a bearing by which it is attached to the
crank or crank pin. As the crank shaft is turned the piston moves to and
_ fro in the cylinder. The end of the cylinder further from the crank shaft is
a confined space called the combustion chamber, because in this space the
fuel mixture is burned. Opening into the combustion chamber is an inlet
_ passage through which the fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder. The
- exhaust passage is another opening for the release of the burned gases. Each
of these passages is closed by a, poppet valve, a round disk fitting tightly

against a circular valve seat. Each valve has a stem by which it is opened
and closed, and which guides it to its seat. Extending into the combustion
chamber is a spark plug (or an igniter) by which the fuel mixture is set on
fire or ignited at the proper instant. On the crankshaft is a gear which drives
the half-time gear. The half-time gear makes one turn while the crankshaft
makes two turns. The half-time gear turns a cam which, through a rod or
_lever, opens the exhaust valve at the proper time. The valve is closed by a
coiled spring around the stem. The inlet valve may be operated in the
same way, but on farm engines the inlet valve spring is often made very weak,
so that the valve can be opened by the suction of the piston. The ignition
device is also timed from the half-time gear.

CYCLE OF OPERATION

) Starting at the mner dead center (the position of the engine in which
_ the piston is pushed furthest into the cylinder), a half turn of the flywheel
P and crankshaft moves the piston to the open end of the cylinder and greatly
_ increases the space in the cylinder back of or above the piston. During
_ this piston movement the inlet, valve is open and the cylinder is sucked
my, full of fuel mixture.” The movement of the piston from one end of its
travel to the other is called a stroke. This is the first or suction stroke.
meetsee A, Fig. 2.)
ee? At the end of the suction stroke the inlet valve closes and the piston
- moves into the cylinder, crowding the fuel mixture into the combustion
_ chamber. This crowding of the mixture into a small space, called compression,
‘ raises its pressure and increases the power it gives when burned. Near
a the inner dead center the compressed gas is set on fire by an electric
ane Bt the ignition device, and burns so quickly as to be called an explo-

pp Pearson
4 ti pad tas Rap sy an f. \
; Male hele Perk liek? Dat) ie. : r 4 M
OT age oes nt a es WOE IAS Vie Pies f tg tt ted Vee Dick ht.

sion. The explosion produces a very high pressure against the piston. When
the spark occurs late, or past the dead center, it is said to be retarded.

When an engine is running at its regylar speed the spark should occur ©
slightly before the dead center so that the burning of the gas will be.com- —
plete before the next stroke begins. The spark when set to ignite before —
the dead center is said to be advanced. The amount of advance varies with i
different engines, but usually is between 19° and 20°. (See B, Fig. 2.)

=
S

SSSSSSSSSSS
Yo
%

GZ
WG

Fig. 1.—Construction of Single-Cylinder Vertical Engine

As soon as the piston has reached the inner dead center on the second or —
compression stroke it starts outward on the working stroke. Because of the
high pressure of the burned gases a strong force is exerted against the
piston and this increases the speed of the crankshaft and flywheels. Just
before the end of the working stroke the exhaust valve is opened and the ~
burned gases escape from the cylinder, making the report which is called
me SS of the engine. This is the third stroke of the cycle. (See C,

ig. 2. ah

i7

BN al ek ee i Oe ee A

moves inward, pushing out the burned gas remaining in the cylinder. (See
D, Fig. 2.) At the end of this stroke the exhaust valve closes and the
engine is ready to begin another suction stroke. This series of operations,
_ which is repeated over and over as long as the engine runs, is called a
cycle, and as it occupies four strokes of the piston it is a four-stroke cycle.
~This name is often shortened to four-cycle. It is because the four strokes

Ps: of the cycle occupy two revolutions of the crankshaft that the valves and -

: ignition are operated by the half-time gear. Because power is produced during
only one of the four strokes heavy flywheels are provided to steady the
-_ motion.

\ af CARBURETORS AND MIXING VALVES

The fuel mixture of which we have spoken is made by spraying gasoline
or kerosene into the stream of air as it is drawn into the cylinder by the
motion of the piston. In the suction feed fuel mixer the air inlet is made
rather small so that the suction in the passage will be strong enough to

.

INLET
cag

———»

5 ‘ WORKING STROKE EXHAUST STROKE
Fig. 2—Diagramh of Four-Stroke Cycle

lift the fuel from the tank to the spray nozzle. A check valve keeps the fuel
from running back to the tank between suction strokes. The amount of
fuel mixed with air is adjusted by a needle valve. (See a, Fig. 3.)
The needle valve of a simple mixer or carburetor should be set so that
, the engine gets enough fuel to run without missing explosions or back-
firing (a popping in the inlet pipe), but not enough to produce smoke from
the exhaust. Accurate adjustment of the needle valve cannot be made until

water in the fuel are the usual cause of mixer or carburetor trouble.
_ In the float feed carburetor a float in a cup is used to maintain the fuel
_fevel just below the outlet of the nozzle. The nozzle and the cup are con-
- nected so that the fuel level is the same in both. As fuel flows into the cup
the float rises, and when the level is high enough the float closes the valve
which admits fuel from the tank to the cup. Carburetors of this type may
be of complicated construction embodying a number of adjustments. When
so made they are usually arranged so that the adjustments need not be dis-
if turbed in the ordinary running of the engine. The simpler ones have a
a needle valve for the regulation of the fuel flow only. (See Fig. 3, b.)

3

fourth stroke the st valve remains open and the piston

an engine is warmed up to its normal temperature. Tiny .amounts of dirt or-

a’ is

Each cylinder charge ae fuel mixture must be lighte
compression stroke in order that it may explode and 1
lighting or ignition is done by electric sparks, which may be produ
either a low tension system or a high tension system. A low tension syste
has only one circuit, while a high tension system has two circuits. ph

Low tension battery ignition is used on many farm engines. A> batt. ter ery me

MIXTURE TO MIXTURE TO
CYLINDER CYLINDER

>

Fig. 3.—A: Simple Mixer with Suction Feed. B: Float Feed Carburetor

(usually five or six dry cells), a low tension spark coil (a coil of cbaeiae a
insulated copper wire wound around a bundle of iron wire), a make-ane
break igniter, and connecting wires make up this system. A switch is usuall
added for turning the ignition on and off. The igniter consists of a plat
which is bolted over an opening into the combustion chamber, and of tw
electrodes which extend through the plate. The stationary electrode is in
sulated with mica washers so ‘that current cannot pass from it to the sur-
rounding metal, and is clamped firmly in place. The movable electrode is free (

CONTACT POINTS

GROUNDED -
CONNECTION

DRY BATTERY SWITCH

Fig. 4.—Diagram of Low Tension Ignition System with Battery

to turn and on its inner end has an arm which may be turned into contact
with the stationary electrode. When the contact points of the electrodes come
together and “make” the circuit, a current flows from the battery through vane
the coil to the stationary electrode, then through the movable electrode to _
the metal of the engine, which is called grounding the current. The current rs
flows through the metal of the engine to another wire which carries it back Roe
to the other end of the battery, the switch often being connected into this mt)

wire. When the contact points separate, the circuit is “broken” and a spark
occurs between the contact points as they move apart. The movable electrode
is moved by suitable mechanism connecting it to ee halt ee ers (Se

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 18
THE GAS ENGINE—Continued

In place of the battery and coil an oscillating magneto is often used. It
is driven from the half-time gear and is located very close to the igniter, so
that the movable electrode may be operated by the magneto shait. By elim-
inating the battery and most of the connecting wires the use of an oscillating
magneto avoids most ignition troubles and provides a very reliable source
of current. (See Fig. 5.)

In high tension ignition, current of very high pressure or voltage jumps
from a well-insulated electrode to a grounded electrode, both of which are

y ¢ “ae ye ee
BS 5 RS

Fig. 5.—Oscillating Magneto Combined with Make-and-Break Igniter

stationary. These electrodes are made into a device called a spark plug.
The porcelain or mica insulation of a spark plug should be kept reasonably
clean from oil or soot. The spark points should be separated by the thick-
ness of a worn dime at the place they are closest together. (See Fig. 6.)

The high tension current may be delivered to the spark plug by a vibrating
coil in connection with a battery and timer. (See Fig. 6.) The battery cur-
rent flows from the battery through the primary winding and vibrator con-
tacts of the coil, thence by wire to the timer, which is simply a device for
making or closing the circuit at the proper instant and which is driven by
the half-time gear. Usually the current is grounded at the timer and flows
from the metal of the engine through a wire and switch back to the other

I

Eee Mae
which buzzes when oil is working. © The
of making a spark at the vibrator points, where the

DRY CELLS SWITCH

‘N
\
N

SS

T.

S
SANANINAAANNY

eee!

SSss5

SMISASS
RS AMI

—

SSS
So

VIBRATOR BLADE = GROUNDED
CYLINDER = CONNECTION ;
ADJUSTING SCREW SPARK PL
Vig. 6.—Left: High Tension Ignition with Battery and Vibrating Coil. Right; §
Rey of Spark Plug :
: PL=Porcelain Insulator G=Gasket ae
ity SB=Steel Body SP=Spark Points SG=Spark Gap

Da
tension current is produced in the secondary winding of the coil, and this hig

tension current is led by a well-insulated: wire or cable to the spark
where it makes a spark.

A very reliable source of high tension current is a high tension magn.
Between the ends or poles of a set of steel permanent magnets the space is
called a magnetic field because in this space magnetic forces are strong. —
iy é :

Vig. fiesta of High Tension Magneto

In the magnetic field is a rotor which, when turned, causes the magnetic
_ forces to flow first in one direction and then in the opposite direction throt
a coil or winding. If a winding is part of the rotor and turns with Uae
- whole is called an armature. The variation in strength and reversal,

inding generates a current
nsion magneto the winding
: arts, one of coarse wire calle primary winding, the other of
fine wire much longer called the secondary winding, the secondary being
connected to the primary so as to form a continuation of it. A pair of
contact points operated by a cam provide means for short circuiting the
primary winding. A condenser is connected between the contact points. As
the rotor or armature revolves, the primary winding is short circuited until
the current in it reaches its maximum. The cam then separates the contact
points, opening the primary circuit. As the primary current is suddenly
* _ stopped a high tension current is generated in the secondary winding and
conducted to a spark plug. The distributor is a device by which the high
tension current is directed in turn to the several spark plugs of multi-cylinder
engines. Magneto bearings need very little lubrication, and most magneto
‘ _ troubles are due to excessive oiling. Fig. 7 shows in diagram form the con-
"struction of a high tension magneto.

Pt © : agnetic forces
ynetic induction. In

LUBRICATION OF THE ENGINE

All working parts of the engine, where one piece of metal turns or slides
in contact with another, should be lubricated with suitable oil or grease.
aa The oil or grease forms a film which separates the parts enough to keep
_ them from wearing rapidly. The oil which lubricates the cylinder “and piston
also seals the joints between the piston rings and cylinder walls and prevents
leakage of gases past the piston. For the cylinder, only a gas engine cylinder
ors oil of suitable grade should be used. Common machine oil or steam cylinder
oil must not be used in a gas engine cylinder as either will cause damage or
trouble. Cylinder lubrication is very important and the feeding of oil to
the cylinder must be maintained all the time the engine is running. Grease
cups should be filled with clean cup grease or hard oil, never with any other

kind of grease. It :s just as important to keep dirt out of the bearings as
Dai to get oil into them.

7

MULTI-CYLINDER ENGINES

Engines often have two or more cylinders. So far as the cycle of opera-
tion is concerned each cylinder is a separate engine, but in construction

should be considered as an engine by ‘itself. If the wiring of an engine
having more than one cylinder is disconnected or removed, care must be
taken to put it back just as it was or some of .the cylinders, perhaps all of
them, will not get their sparks at the right time. The firing order of a
_ » four-cylinder engine is either 1-3-4-2 or 1-2-4-3. Fig. 8 shows a four-cylinder
vertical engine. '

STARTING AN ENGINE

# Attend to lubrication, putting a drop in every oil hole, turning down
| grease cups, and setting the cylinder oiler to dripping. Be sure that there is
_ fuel in the tank and sufficient water in the cooling system. Retard the

spark, to avoid danger of the engine starting in the wrong direction, or
H. kicking back.” Turn on the switch. If the gasoline needle was closed
_ when the engine was stopped, open it about two complete turns. If means
are provided for the purpose, reduce the size of the air inlet. The engine
_ should now start when the crank or wheel is turned in the direction in which

difficult to turn it past the compression stroke, look for means of releasing

_ part or all of the compression. A priming cock or valve is usually provided,

but sometimes an extra cam or roller is used by which the exhaust valve is
_ held open to relieve the compression. If any such device is used it should
be ‘closed as soon as the engine starts. Some engines may be started by
holding open the inlet or- exhaust valve while starting to turn the wheels.

some parts serve all cylinders. In timing the valves and spark each cylinder

the engine is made to run. If the engine is of such size as to make it

es

ey
4
a
cm
fee

The momentum of the turning wheels is then sufficient to overcome the —
compression when the valve is released. ,

As soon as the engine starts, open the air inlet to normal size; shut the —
priming cock or other compression release, and advance the spark to run-
ning position. Then if the needle valve has just been opened, adjust it as
directed under “CARBURETORS.” The operation of the cylinder oiler and
the cooling system should be watched from time to time while the engine runs.
In freezing weather the filling of the cooling system with water may be
eaeehie until the engine is running smoothly, but it should not be allowed
to get hot.

-
Fig. 8.—Four-Cylinder Tractor Engine. Arrows show direction of oil movement in lubri-
cating system ;

STOPPING AN ENGINE

If the engine has a simple mixer, close the needle valve. If a float feed
carburetor is used, do not disturb the needle valve or other adjustment.
Turn.off the ignition switch if one is provided. Stop the dripping of the
cylinder oiler. In cold weather drain the cooling system, being sure that no
water remains anywhere.

IMPORTANT POINTS.

To avoid serious damage to the engine it is necessary to make sure that
cylinder lubrication does not fail; that the cylinder and piston do not
become overheated through failure of the cooling system; and that no
bearing gets hot enough to smoke. Constant watch should be kept for
loose bolts, nuts, etc. If unusual sounds, such as knocking or pounding,
should develop, the engine should be stopped and its condition called’ to the
attention of the owner or manager.

4
18

; United States Boys’ Working Reserve
al : Farm Craft Series

LESSON 19
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND SUPPLIES *

Hanp Toots: Hand tools are common to every farm, and a
» little practice will make an operator proficient in their use.

_ The spade (56) has a steel blade 12 inches long and a wooden
4 handle. The acess is sharpened with the bastard file. The size of

é *
ia
‘
1

i h re
4 ‘
__ the spade is determined by the size of the blade. It should be kept
polished, as it will then turn the earth with less labor. This tool R
ae! be used in digging a hole for a fence post. 7

a ee

* Tilustrations flied unpublished material supplied by G. H. Radebaugh, a
enereity of Illinois. ft,

I “

grindstone and oilstone. It is used, as ey name re
trimming hedges. It is also used for cutting corn fodder, etc.
eid K e will be found on every farm. a prick

scythe stone. This puts what is called a wire ed on. the blade
_ The hoe (63) is used in the cultivation of cane, corn, sugar bee
and vegetables. The steel blade is about 514 inches across.
other hoes (64, 65, and 66) are used for cutting weeds and ’
miscellaneous hoeing operations. i
The hand cultivator (67) is very ‘useful in the garden,
principal use is to break the soil so that it will hold more moist ir
It is used with the same action as the hoe. ad
The three-tine hay fork (70) is used in the hay field; alse
handling feed in the stable. In many sections the fourtnee fork |
the more common. a
The spading fork (71) is a garden tool used for turning
the ground. After using this tool, all the earth should be removec
: and a light application of grease made to prevent rust. ‘
The wagon jack (73) is made from wood or steel. It is. u

to raise the wagon so that the wheel may be removed for greas
the axle.

Suppiies: Bolts are used where great strength is desired.
a bolt is used on woodwork, washers (go and 91) should bé plac
under the head and nut of the bolt. The machine bolts (88) ha
square, hectagon, or button heads. Carriage bolts (93) have a p
of the bolt body square near the head. This is to keep the bolt fr
turning when the nut is being tightened. The stove bolts (96)
sii flat or round heads, with a slot for the screw driver. As

‘ : ‘i They are of pra stove-bolt thread.

Preventing Rust: Rust is caused on iron or steel by oxidatio
due to the action of air and moisture. To dapat rust, the mos

Beh Bisile grease. Sometimes salty fats are used. This is ian pract ti
salt corrodes the metal. Another rust preventative, especia
Pas eat

parts of Pitcentine and fhaceeet oil may an be used. These appli-
cations may be readily removed by scraping and wiping.
To remove rust from steel, cover the metal with sweet oil, well
rubbed in. Forty-eight hours afterward rub with finely pulverized,
__unslaked lime. Then polish the surface with carborundum or emery
cloth. .
A Y Sharpening Tools: The dethod of sharpening a tool is de-
: termined by its hardness. Tools may be sharpened by forging, filing,

grinding, and whetting. Most hand tools are tempered so hard that
) a file will not cut them. The group of tools (63, 64, 65, 66) are of
_ fairly good steel and can be sharpened with the file. Axes, hatchets,
knives, etc., are all hard, and must be ground on the grindstone and
: brought to an edge with the oilstone.
F To properly sharpen tools requires experience. The beginner
__will encounter some difficulty in bringing a tool to a desired edge.
_ This is accomplished: first, by grinding, then by whetting on the
oilstone. In whetting, the motion may be back and forth or spiral.
_ The tool must be held steadily on the stone. The position of hold-

C don tl

"A FEW PRACTICAL DON'TS 'S FOR U SING’ TOO
Don’t say, “That’s good enough. as
Don’t use a file for a pinch bar.
Don’t use a monkeywrench for a hammer.
Don’t try to cover up your mistakes,
use a screw driver for a cold chisel.
t use a file without a handle.
t waste time by doing unnecessary work. Ae
t use a pipe wrench on nuts; it burrs up the corners. te
forget there is a right and wrong way to use the mon

t use an open wrench that is too large for the nut.

t use the axe for a sledge hammer.

t use the axe for a lifting bar. ae
use the pocket knife for a pry; it will snap the Moda
t use a spade for a crowbar; you may break the handl
’t forget that you turn the brace to the right when d

heles |

Don’t forget that pliers will not cut hardened steel wire.

ie Don’t forget that when you go on the farm and are asked t
a tool you should at least know what it looks like.

: | (Wnited States Boys’ Working Reserve
Ph aiieoy ~ Farm Craft Series

LESSON 20
ROPE AND ITS CARE

ee:

ay _ There are many uses on the farm for rope in sizes running
~ from a quarter inch to an inch, rarely larger, and the helper should
- know a few things about its care and use. Knots and splices are
treated in the two following lessons, but a few fundamental facts

¥ should be noted in advance.

Soa gee ae

Fig. -1.—Beginning

_ _TaxiNG Our THE Kinks: A new rope is “full of kinks,” that is,
_ it easily becomes partly knotted, will not run readily through pulleys,
_ and is harsh and unpleasant to handle. If it is laid for a few
_ thinutes in boiling water it will be greatly softened and the kinks will ©
a very soon work out. If this plan is followed, a new rope will at once
_ behave about as well as an old one.
Ks bess By . at

AES 2 ‘ Per an Tae
ON ao eG iar Owe tT ok RTA aS oe

vented by iene a knot, hen the end is — clumsy ne im)

wen

to thread through pulleys. The only proper way to protect th ,
of the rope is by wrapping or whipping?)

Fig, 2.—Step

d- wrapped tightly around

AN tf
re no space between

or more wraps have as peda (ite. 3); “pitthout putting | : :
i e mend th hrough the cere pull end A until the remainder of the loop ee

nd 2), the result tee a completed whip (Fig. 5). The last |
should be made at least a half inch from the end of the i

PROTECTION Mic aates Puttey Wear: A bad pulley will soon

ut out a rope which is worth more than many pulleys, and care.
P ssoutd always be exercised to insure that ropes run free over pulleys
Rend are not allowed to rub against corners or other sharp surfaces.

GENERAL Care: In general, ropes should be kept as clean. as

Py Pe ey) ey tee a ee ee at hd eT le

4 . United States Boys’ Working Reserve
ae, _ Farm Craft Series

LESSON 21
SOME USEFUL KNOTS

Every boy or man should know how to tie a knot that will hold. A
few of the simple knots that will be used almost every day on the farm are.
shown herewith.

Tue Square Knot: This is the most common knot for tying two abe
of rope together end to end. Fig. 1 shows clearly the way to make this knot.

Fig. 1.—Square Knot

WeaveEr’s Knot: The weaver’s knot, shown in Figs. 2 and 3, somewhat
similar to the square knot, is tied by throwing a bight AC in one end,
bringing end B through this bight at 1, and throwing a loop at D. As both

Fig. 2.—Weaver’s Knot
I

an opening, the weaver’s heen is the best ‘mitthod of fastenin ng thet
binder twine together.

Fig. 3.—Weaver’s Knot ey

BowLine Kwnor: ‘The bowline knot is one of the most useful to wie
as with it a loop that will not slip can be tied in.the end of a rope, and yet

in Figs. 4 to 7 inclusive. The important point to observe in tying this ets
is to see that end A (Fig. 4), is put through loop 1 from the same side as
rope C, in order to bind the knot together when A is brought around (

and back through loop 1. ane

| lig. 4.—Beginning
es Bowline

s 21

- Dovs.e Bowne: An effective way. to tie a knot in the middle of a
rope, which will not slip, is the double bowline method illustrated in Figs.
8 to 11 inclusive. Tie an ordinary overhand knot as B (Fig. 8), throw
bight A up to C, as shown in Fig. 9, and pull the two ropes at D down
to the position shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 7.—Completed
Bowline Knot

Vig. 8.—Beginning Fig. 9.—Step 2
Double Bowline Knot

3

Grain Sack Knor: A quick way to fasten grain sacks securely is shown |
in Figs. 12 and 13. Strictly speaking, no knot is tied, but by passing the ends
under the string, one part is made to bind the other. A little practice in

order to learn the proper procedure will enable anyone to tie sacks very
rapidly.

Fig. 11.—Completed
Double Bowline

=>"

:

Lis as

Fig. 12.—Beginning ‘ig, 13.—Completed
Grain Sack or Miller’s Knot

4
ai

Working Reserve
ft Series

(;
pad bed me
»

LESSON 22 a
SPLICING A ROPE ,.

There are several methods of splicing rope, the most common being the
short splice, a description of which follows: i,

“A ae lates pie : Bia asi,

Snort Spiice: To ‘make a ehort splice, iat the ends ( ‘ig ay
lay them together (Fig. 2), so that no two strands of the same rope lie next
to each other, that is, strand B is between strands E and F, strand A between 1
E and D, strand E between B and A, etc. The short splice is simply a
weaving of the ends over and under the strands of the rope, as shown am

Tig. 3.—Step 3

Fig. 4.—Step 4

.

Fig. 3. End B is put over E and under D, coming out at right angles to
the same. For the next step the two ropes are turned one-third of the
way around as indicated by the arrow (Fig. 3), and end A woven over .
strand D and under strand F and to the left of strand B, as shown ito
Fig. 4. Again, the rope is turned one-third of the way around in the 5

22

‘on top, ah 1, as*shown

¢ ts
7. aS

voven over F and und B, d to the left of end A, which

are previou y been put over trend: It will be noticed that in this weav-
ing, the end being worked goes over the strand which the end just previ-
ously used goes under. When all three strands have been woven: in once,

* Mt. mt a 4 ay
ey ; : se ps

a7 tes ‘
Se
St sere

a!

Fig. 5.—Step 5 ey

pra
a

a Seat tes =

sel
<x

a
» we

Fig. 6.—Step 6

as shown in Fig. 5, it is necessary, in order to have a good splice, to pull
them tight, as shown in Fig. 6, so that there is no slack at point G. Then
take ends D, E and F and weave them in exactly as was done with B, A
and C, except they are woven into the other rope, and pull them tight, which
wilt result in the partial splice shown in Fig. im

et i ae

lig. 8.—Completed

To obtain the completed splice shown in Fig. 8, each set of ends should
be woven under and over from 3 to 8 times, depending upon the size of
the rope.

Lenctu or Enps For Suort SPLicr

Diameter rope Length of ends Times to weave each end
WA ” 6” 3
oe “”
Y 8” 4
34" 10” o
I ” 12” 6
7 vA ” ta 6
I % 7 16” 8
4

22 rn:

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 23
PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED

‘The object in preparing the ground for seeding is to provide
the conditions necessary to the germination of the seed and to the
life of the seedling.

CoNDITIONS OF GERMINATION: ‘There are two conditions of
germination :

et Dledt

2. Moisture

lf seeds are moist but cold, they will rot and die. On the other
hand; if they are dry, whatever the temperature, they will lie
dormant; and if they dry out after they have sprouted, the young
plants will be killed. The farmer must depend upon the season for
the proper temperatures, but he must so prepare his seed bed as
to protect the young plants from drying out.

Ir THE FurRows WERE FLatT: One might think that after good
plowing the furrows would lie flat like books upon a table or like the
boards of the floor. If that were true, then all that would be needed
in preparing a seed bed would be to pulverize an inch or two of the
top. But the matter is not so simple as that.

How Furrows Acruatty Liz: Furrows do not lie flat. The
furrow has thickness as well as width, and on that account when
it rolls off the moldboard of the plow it tends to stand on edge, and
would stand exactly on edge if it were as thick as it is wide. But it
is only six to eight inches thick, while it is twelve to eighteen inches
in width, so that it tips over, /Japping upon the last furrow by about
its thickness. Hence the furrows of a plowed field lie the one upon
the other like the siding of a house, or like a series of books lying
upon the table with one edge of each resting upon its neighbor.

Tue Bottom or THE Furrow: Arrange some books as just
described and note that under each book is a triangular space as
thick as the neighboring book and running to a point. This gives
a good idea of what you would see if you could look under the fur-
rows of a plowed field. In practice, more or less soil rattles down
into these spaces, but they are never filled in plowing, and on sod
ground they are fully open.

DANGER FROM Vacant Spaces: If now the surface of the fie

up by washing in the soil from above. But this would wash out
many tender roots of the young plants and expose others to rapid

drying out as soon as the rain is over, for these spaces are, theo-

retically at least, from four to six inches deep. If all the roots are

exposed, of course the plant will die; if only a portion are killed, the

plant may not die but it will have a stunted growth. This is one
of the commonest causes of a “bad stand” in the fields of those
farmers who do not practice the best methods, and it is the reason
why the good farmer is very particular as to the fitting of the seed
bed.

FITTING THE UNDER SIDE OF THE FurRow: ‘These spaces under
the furrow must be filled up before it is worth while to pay much
attention to the surface of the field. No surface harrow will run
deep enough to do this work. Some farmers depend upon the roller

_ Fig. 1.—Graphic representation of the manner in which furrows overlap each other
with open spaces below. The filling of these spaces is the first step in fitting the seed bed.

to press the furrow down, but it is not a case of pressing down;
it is a case of filling up. Besides, any roller which a team can draw
in plowed ground will have little effect, especially upon sod. ‘The
best tool for this work is the disk harrow, set almost straight and

driven lengthwise of the furrow in the same direction in which the
plowing was done. The slicing effect of the disks will rapidly fill

any subsurface spaces, after which the soil will not be disturbed
by rains. It is then safe to prepare the surface for planting. Some
farmers even disk the land before plowing to make this work still
more effective.

Work Deceptive: The chances are about even that your

farmer may not do this job in the way described, for it is one of
the newer practices, the reason for which is evident to any one who
considers carefully what really happens in plowing.

Of course, you will follow directions and do the work as your

2
23 ‘ ia

1d
should be prepared and the seed should be sown or planted with —
these spaces left open, the first heavy rain would gradually fill them

Bi

employer desires it done, but one reason why some farmers will
not take pains to fit the bottom of the furrow as it ought to be fitted
is that the work which is actually being done in slicing the furrows
with a disk is owt of sight and does not seem to be getting ahead.
Many farmers want to “see the dirt move,’ and such will probably
use the roller, believing that they are actually pressing the furrows
down; or perhaps they may go at the surface at once, leaving the
bottoms of the furrows to take care of themselves. If your farmer
is of this kind, then do the best you can, even though you believe you
know a better way.

FINISHING THE SURFACE: When the spaces beneath the furrows
are well filled, which is usually accomplished by going once over the
field, sometimes “lapping half,” then the surface should be “finished”

&

r

a 2

Tig. 2.—Driving plan to avoid driving crosswise of the furrows in fitting the surface
seed bed with a floating harrow.

or prepared for seeding. This is done by the floating harrow—
made in various designs, but covering a wide space, often as muca
as twelve or sixteen feet—working the soil for fineness rather than
for depth.

How To Drive THE FLOATING Harrow: The surface cannot be
smoothly finished by continuing to drive lengthwise of the furrow,
as was done with the disk. To drive crosswise of the furrows,
however, would be to drive against the lap at least half the time,
and this should never be done until the furrows are well worked
down, for it will so loosen the edges as to injure the seed bed, and
in sod ground grass will grow up between the furrows.

23

LER Ath Ce eR MET eT

DRIVING DrAcon ae The best method of Avoidine ils
culty is to drive diagonally, or cornerwise, of the field. T here are
two ways of doing this:

1. Begin at one corner and drive across the corner at an angle
of about 45 degrees, backward and forward, until the field is cov-
ered. This method has its drawbacks because it is difficult to turn
squarely about with a wide harrow.

2. A better way is to begin at one corner of the field and drive
direct to the corner diagonally opposite, say, from A to C in a field
whose corners shall be lettered A, B, C, D. Then return and drive —
back to the starting point, down the opposite side, across the end,
and so on again and again. The short corner gradually lengthens (
and the long side grows shorter until soon you will be driving around
a rectangular block constantly growing longer on one side and
shorter on the other. The work is completed by a long “bout”
between corners B and D. The actual driving plan is shown in
Fig. 2.
Clearly, the field will be harrowed twice when it has been gone
over once by this method of driving, but it is better than “lapping
half,” because no turn is over 45 degrees—an angle that is easily
and quickly taken in driving; besides, in this way the driver is
always turning away from the fence. '

FINISHING THE SEED Bep: This surface work should be con-
tinued until a fine, even tilth is produced. In dry weather and on
clay land it is possible to overdo the fining process, for if clay is
too finely pulverized it will run together when it becomes wet and (
bake when it dries out again.

A few lumps on top of the ground are not bad, providing they
are really on the surface and not a part of the seed bed.

When plowing in extremely dry weather, land should be har-
rowed about as fast as it is plowed, partly because the lumps break
up easily when first plowed up, and partly because ground that is
harrowed will hold whatever moisture it has better than if it is left
to bake in the sun with lumps and spaces exposed to the drying air.

23

’

" it, ven bd
NN nh Merrett

aes 2.
a

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 24
CULTIVATION

As the preparation of the seed bed is done with a view to secur-
ing the conditions of germination, so should the after cultivation be
done with a view to securing and maintaining the conditions of
growth.

THE Conpit1ons or GrowtH: Now the absolute conditions of
growth are:

Dr) deat.

2. Moisture.

3. Plant food.

4. Sunlight.

It will be noted that the first two conditions are identical with
those of germination. To these must be added food, for plants
like animals must have the materials with which io build up their
tissues; and sunlight, for it is only in the presence of light that
plants can take in the carbon which comes from the air and which
is their principal food. ;

As in the case of germination, the season must be depended
upon to supply the heat, though good drainage will help. Plant food
is mainly a matter of fertile soil or of the addition of manures and
fertilizers, and yet, if weeds are allowed to flourish they will steal
the food that should go into the crops. They will also take the
moisture, and what is even worse than either, they will in many
cases overtop. the young seedling, shutting off the sunlight. To a
very considerable degree, therefore, we depend upon good cultiva-
tion to maintain the conditions of growth, chiefly, but not solely, by
controlling the weeds. .

Optects or Cuttivation: The direct objects of cultivation
are:
1. The control of weeds.
2. Aeration of the soil.
3. Conservation of moisture.
I

Control of Weeds: Weeds are the natural and ever-present
enemy of the crop. They are better rustlers than crops or they
would not be weeds. They are the greatest of all thieves, and strangle
where they cannot steal. If a young crop is to yield up both its
moisture and its food to some robustiouis weed and have its supply
of sunlight cut off as well, how can it thrive? The only answer is
that it cannot thrive, and the farmer who expects a crop must control
the weeds.

Of course the best way to kill weeds is by preventing as many
as possible from seeding, but even so there will be plenty for every
crop. Their seeds will germinate with those of the crop and the
two will come along together, the weed generally the faster of the
two, which means that one crop competes with many different kinds
of weeds.

The best time to kill weeds is when they have just sprouted.
They can be killed then by the millions, and before they have done
damage, by the simple process of stirring the soil; whereas, if left
to become firmly rooted they are much more difficult to uproot and
they have already done more or less damage. Early cultivation is
therefore the attempt of all good farmers.

But thorough cultivation is equally necessary, for if five or ten

percent of the weeds are missed, there will still be about as many

as could have stood the natural competition with each other, and
plenty enough will be left to ruin or at least greatly reduce the crop.
Right here the helper must understand that if the farmer loses ten
percent or even six percent of his crop he has lost all of his profit.
The cultivation therefore must be thorough as well as early.

Some weeds, like Canada thistle, quack grass, and morning glory,
maintain themselves by underground root stalks or bulbs, and are
much more difficult to keep out than are those which multiply by
seeds. But any weed is bad enough, and the helper must understand
that they are the farmer’s worst enemy and the principal cause for
cultivation.

Cultivation for Aeration: To insure a good growth of crops the
air must circulate freely in the soil, not only to supply the roots
with oxygen, but also to assist nitrification, which is one of the

bacterial processes necessary to produce the supply of nitrogen. In
loose soils cultivation would not be needed for the purpose of

aeration, but it is often essential in tight and stubborn clays.
Cultivation to Save Moisture: In rare cases and to some slight
extent, cultivation may save moisture by breaking up the crust that

4
BA

f

MY NAR eas | Fie tA be NAN fy ay » NT iets &

tends to form on clay soils after a rain. Cultivation for this purpose
should be very shallow, turning up as little of the soil as possible.

All Cultivation Bad for Crops: Cultivation for any purpose
whatever, if thorough enough to be effective, is bound to injure the
crops by cutting off a good many of the small roots on which the
life of the plants depends. Besides this, there will be some injury
by treading out and uprooting, especially in turning at the ends of
the rows. These injuries must all be reduced to a minimum, and
, plants which are accidentally covered up by cultivation should be
carefully uncovered.

Altogether, we may say that if seed should be planted in a loose
moist soil absolutely free from weeds, the farmer would do better
to keep entirely out of the field till harvest time. By this is meant
that when the farmer cultivates his crop he chooses between two
evils ; one, the injury, which may be kept small; the other, the weeds,
which if left alone would take the crop. Remembering all that is
involved, therefore, good workmanship in cultivation consists in
doing as thorough a job ag possible in killing weeds, with as little
injury as possible to the growing crop.

24a

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
| Farm Craft Series

LESSON 25
INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES

Weeds are not the only enemies of the crops which the farmer
raises. Many insects make their living at the expense of the farmer,
and several low forms of vegetable life are parasitic on some of the
most important crops.

INSECT ENEMIES

Manner or Insect Inyuries: There are three ways in which
insects may injure or destroy crops:

1. By gnawing their leaves to such an extent as to check the
growth and sometimes to.kill the crop. Examples: The army
worm, the canker worm, the striped beetle, and the potato bug,
more properly the potato beetle.

2. By sucking the juices of the plant. Examples: Plant lice
or aphids of any kind (especially the corn root louse), the chinch
bug of the wheat and corn fields, and the San Jose scale attacking
fruit trees.

3. By laying the egg in places where, after hatching, the young
larva works havoc. Examples: The curculio of the plum, the borer
of the peach tree, and the hessian fly at the base of the wheat stem.

_ Compatinc Insect Enemies: In general, insects do their prin-
cipal damage because of their immense numbers and inconceivably
rapid multiplication. For example, a single corn root louse, as
reported by Dr. Forbes, has been known to produce no fewer than
ninety-eight young during her lifetime, and sixteen generations have
been known in a'single season. At half the rate, Dr. Forbes com-
putes that this would make a solid column one acre square, and, if
it could stand without crushing, nearly four hundred miles high.
Fortunately natural causes intervene to prevent maximum reproduc-
tion, but even so mankind is constantly in danger of starvation by
his insect enemies. As one would suppose, the greatest protection
is in preventing so far as possible their multiplication, for when
once at work their control is costly and laborious, if indeed it 1s
possible. The best ways of combating insects are:

1. By birds, which live largely on insect life. This involves
killing all stray cats, which invariably live on birds, and such pets

uv

as have formed the bird-eating habit. Cats have been known to de-
stroy more than fifty birds apiece in one season. Without the birds,
mankind would soon be starved out by the insects, and any menace
to the birds should be effectively combated. It is extremely difficult
in the case of cats because of sentiment, but, even so, sentiment
must be rationalized. The unfortunate habit of abandoning kittens
by the roadside to hunt or starve has caused most districts to become
inhabited with thousands of practically wild cats which live almost
wholly upon birds. They are difficult to find because they hunt
mostly at night.

2. By poison foods, such as poisoned meal for army worms.

3. By poison sprays or powders, which are destructive of insects
that gnaw and chew the foliage.

4. By spray materials that kill by contact. These are used for
plant lice and, in general, for many insects that live by sucking
juices and cannot therefore be killed by poison.

5. By trapping and collecting, which is effective with insects
that travel, like the chinch bug and the grasshopper.

The method and the material will be supplied by the farmer.
The duty of the helper is to follow directions and do a good job,
with a full understanding of the importance of controlling insect
depredations at once—at once, for twenty-four hours may be too
late.

; FUNGOUS INJURIES

Fungous injuries are in general similar to those of insects that
gnaw the foliage or suck the juices of plants, in that they destroy
plant tissue or weaken the plants.

Fungi differ from insects in that they are plants instead of ani-

mals. Plants though they are, however, they elaborate no food of —

their own. They are therefore independent of sunlight. Pene-
trating into the very tissues of the host plant, these smuts, rusts and
molds live a wholly parasitic life and in general they are extremely
difficult to get at after they have entered the plant. Indeed, it is
often next to impossible to control some of them, as for example
the smut of corn.

TREATMENT

The attempt to control the depredations of insect and fungous
enemies has given rise to an elaborate system of treatment of various
kinds under the general head of spraying, a subject which will be
treated briefly in the next lesson.

The scab of potatoes and the smut of wheat, oats and barley are
treated by special methods briefly described as follows:

Potato Scape: If seed potatoes are soaked for one and a half
hours in water to which corrosive sublimate has been added in the
proportion of one ounce to eight gallons, the crop will be free from
scab, provided the potatoes are planted on land that has not pre-

(ae
26

—

viously

common use upon the hands, but it must be remembered

P »duced a crop of scabby tubers. This is a good disin-
fectant for

that corrosive sublimate is a dangerous poison.

Smut: Wheat, oats, and barley are all attacked by the smut
fungus, but if the seed be properly treated with formaldehyde (to
be had in almost any drug store) the crop will be clean. There are
two general methods: soaking and sprinkling.

The Soaking Method:
1. Provide one barrel or tank and two tubs or half barrels.

Make a two-inch hole through the side of each in such a way that —

the bottom of the hole will be level with the bottom of the tub. Tack
a small piece of wire screening inside the tubs over the holes in
order that the wheat may not run out when the plugs are removed.

Fig. 1.—The Soaking-Skimming Method Is the Most Satisfactory for the Prevention of
Stinking Smut of Wheat and Barley

2. Place one tub on a small table or pair of horses with the
plug directly above the other tub on the floor.

_ 3. Prepare the formaldehyde solution (one pint of formalin in
thirty-five gallons of water), in the third barrel or tank, and fill the
upper tub half or two-thirds full.*

4. Pour into this solution about a bushel of grain.

5. Stir the grain thoroughly so that all the smutted kernels may
rise to the top of the solution.

6. Skim off the smut balls and light kernels that float on the
surface.

*One pint of formalin in 20 gallons of water is sometimes used.
3

into the lower’ tub. ry he
8. Dump the grain on a clean floor or canvas. — we
po Sia Bari eve lower tub upon the table, add enough solution
replace that removed by the grain, and repeat the operation.
10. After dumping five or six batches in one pile, cover wit
canvas for two hours.
‘11. Uncover and spread out the grain so that it eal dry qviekly.

fl The Sprinkling Method:
eae Spread the grain to be treated on a clean floor or canvas.
ieae2. oprinkle with the formaldehyde solution (one pint of 40-
percent formaldehyde in 35 gallons of water) using approximately
one gallon to each bushel of grain.
3. Shovel the grain over several times to make sure that all the
kernels are wet.
4. Place the grain ina pile and cover with a canvas or tarpaute
for two hours. ‘
5. Spread out the grain so that it will dry quickly. .

A
yf

sy

>

_ Fig. 2.—Treating Seed by the Sprinkling Method Requires from Two-Thirds to One Gal
i of the Formaldehyde Solution to Each Bushel of Grain ;

i ‘ ‘United States Boys? Working Reserve a
i’ “ - Farm Craft Series | a

LESSON 26 a
SPRAY MIXTURES AND THEIR APPLICATION

A great many kinds of insects and fungous diseases may be controlled
by spraying. Each class of enemy, however, must be treated with the kind .
of spray material best suited to its control. It is not possible to kill sucking a
_ insects by the same treatment that would be effective against chewing insects, N
on account of the difference in their feeding habits.

KINDS OF SPRAY MATERIALS

StomacH Potsons: Stomach poisons used for the control of chewing
insects include arsenate of lead (in paste or powdered form), Paris green,
¥ and in some special cases, white hellebore. The active principle in arsenate
of lead and Paris green is arsenic. Since arsenate of lead paste is about
han 50 percent water, the dry or powdered form is twice as strong, pourfd for
‘ pound, as the paste. Paris green contains about four times as much arsenic —
as does the paste arsenate of lead. Smaller quantities of the stronger
_ poisons are used in making up spray mixtures. Arsenate of lead is less
a ~ likely to injure the plants than is Paris green, and a large quantity of :
actual arsenic may be used in this form without danger of foliage injury. “I
Paris green and arsenate of lead are mineral poisons and retain their .
- poisonous properties indefinitely, even though exposed to the air. White
-hellebore,-on the other hand, is a vegetable poison (being the ground root
of a plant), and it rapidly loses its poisonous properties when exposed to
the air. It is used particularly for spraying currant bushes for the control
of the currant worm, when the fruit is nearly ripe, and also for the control
of cabbage worms on cabbage that are nearly mature.
Conract InsecticipEs: These are used for the control of sucking insects.
_ They include a number of different mixtures, but the most effective ones
ie are lime sulfur solution and tobacco compounds. The lime sulfur is used
oe for the control of scale insects, and the tobacco compounds for the control
of aphids. -Persons having large commercial orchards provide themselves .
_ with the necessary equipment, and manufacture their own lime sulfur. How-
ever, unless large quantities are to be used, it is more convenient to pur-
chase the commercial lime sulfur solution, since no special equipment is bi:
needed to prepare this for spraying. Likewise, it is possible to make a ~
ny decoction of tobacco from tobacco stems or other tobacco refuse. How-
’ en the strength of the material made in this way is exceedingly variable, o
uch more certain and satisfactory results can be secured from epreyag ee

f Roa fixture. This is made from copper 2 eae Tay an

For some special purposes a dilute lime sulfur mixture is used as a f
P cide. This is the same material as is used for the control of scale ins

_ but as a fungicide it is used in much more dilute form. .

ae Caution: The precaution should be taken to place a POISON label
all packages or receptacles containing the supplies for making spray
terials. This is especially important in the case of dry arsenate of lea
since it is a white powder that might easily be mistaken for some ot
material.

Formutas: To make effective spray mixtures, the materials must” Te
Biised in the proper proportions. Some plants are easily injured if a mi
ture is slightly too strong. It is also true that the treatment of some et
mics requires stronger mixtures than are efficient against others. The
portions given in the following tables represent mixtures that will be e

if tive in the majority of cases. If a large amount of spraying is to be dor
if if is convenient to mix the material in fifty-gallon or barrel lots. For s
4 garden operations, however, a bucketful of material is often all that

4 he needed at a given time. The accompanying tables, therefoze, ee

i quantities for both fifty-gallon and for three-gallon lots.

Sromacn Poisons

e Barrel Lots:

{ BMPS ASEEON sie) Gorcts tye eed ate naan okie Nake ine Ne oz. to 50 gals.

4 Arsenate of lead (powder) 3:00.00... tec even - t lb. to 50 gals. wat
a Senate lotleade ((Daste)-< cn aa ccesdttemre eae te ie avkeee 2 Ib. to 50 gals. wat
‘e PONCE EDOTE NM... ol bv,. fle Wyte care prstela See ne 1 Ib. to 50 gals.

, + Bucket ors:

REPS VOC. uke lai cly a) bibia'att pueve ply Wel aan aaa V4 OZ. to 3 gals. wal
Arsenate of lead (powder) ...........¢. Nake I oz. to 3 gals.
Misensteror lead. (pastes Ore 222 iwi ab eet 2 oz. to 3 gals,
Wintte hellebore «:s 7h isn ecuie ls wavecde Vstatentas aes hea I oz. to 3 gals. w

Con’ract in SECTICIDES
Barrel Lots:

*Limé sulfur solution ............ Seis BN as 5 gal. to 45 gals.
PRIMA OTITC Stl LALC faye cls cae aieois din Seowstare tony diel 2/5 pt. to 50 gals. w

Bucket Lots:
a Pamessuirur solution ..7..200 20,0 faa eens TY qt. to 3 gales
. PO tatewentiate:. )\.'.y:x). doisleteahea sain acim 2/5 fluid oz. to 3 gals. w w

- Funcicipes
Barrel Lots:

i tis Spl Pa TAS OMT oisse W)s/arc be a apie
Bordeaux mixture:

1 Ey Aes PRE 8 s ?

Copper Sulfate steno).

Miraters: 410i /oe ot ap aueetians aie sss ota On

CE Fi 2 ba Sy Re a) Tet Oia k Oty. ) at ih aes
Wer tin eA i SPM es Wet Sak

: ra ame

Bucket Lots:

Mime saltuc solution... b. sees bi Ni) at) Ys qt. to 3 gals. water
Bordeaux mixture: 5

TITRE ME fia )c/a hala 6 cc cased Gite ORE EE sae AES Sed { OZ.

Meppes Sulfate .. ..4'c,cue oul e mevenMnee etter teks Wola bake 4A OZ.

\ AVA 12 Sle a Le aR Oe ks 1 er 3 gals.

HOW TO PREPARE THE MIXTURES FOR SPRAYING

ARSENATE oF LEAD AND Parts GreEN: To prepare either of these materials
for spraying, all that is necessary is to mix the material thoroughly with
the required quantity of water. However, in order that this may be done
readily, it is necessary first to mix the powder or paste with a small quantity
of water until a thin, smooth paste is obtained. This thin paste may then
be stirred into the full quantity of water and a uniform mixture secured.
When Paris green is used, a small quantity of slaked lime, representing
about double the weight of Paris green itself, is thoroughly mixed with the
Paris green in making up the paste before it is added to the full quantity
of water.

Lime SuLrur SoLuTION AND NICOTINE SULFATE: These are prepared for
spraying merely by measuring out the required quantity of solution, pouring
it into the required amount of water, and thoroughly stirring.

BorpEAuxX Mixture: The preparation of this spray is a somewhat more
elaborate process. The copper sulfate is purchased in crystal form and
must be dissolved in water before it can be used. The best method of
dissolving the copper sulfate is to suspend it in a cloth sack near the top
of a deep receptacle of water. Several hours are required to effect complete
solution. It is best to dissolve the copper sulfate in a definite quantity of
water so that the strength of the solution will be known; one pound of
copper sulfate to one gallon of water is the usual proportion. The copper
sulfate solution should be thoroughly stirred before any of it is measured out
for making Bordeaux mixture.

The lime used in making Bordeaux mixture should be fresh stone lime.
Dehydrated lime is not satisfactory. The lime should be carefully slaked
in a small quantity of water, care being taken, however, to add sufficient
water from time to time during the slaking process to prevent the lime
from burning. After the slaking process has been completed, the lime should
be diluted with water until one gallon of the mixture represents one pound
of lime.

The solution of copper sulfate and the slaked lime will keep indefinitely
provided they are covered to prevent evaporation of water. ‘Whenever it
is desired to make up a batch of Bordeaux mixture, all that is necessary is
to measure out the required quantity of copper sulfate solution and dilute
it to half the volume of the proposed quantity of Bordeaux mixture, and
also to measure out and dilute the proper quantity of lime in a like manner;
and then to pour the two dilute solutions together, stirring them thoroughly
as they are being poured into a third receptacle.

ComBinep Mixture: If chewing insects and fungous diseases both at-
tack plants at the same time, it is advisable to use a combined mixture of
Bordeaux and arsenate of lead or Paris green for the control of the two
enemies. In case the combined mixture is to be made, the arsenate of lead

3

= 1 at a Fe 7; Go 7° La get hb

or the Paris green is stirred into the diluted lime before it is combined with
the copper sulfate. Arsenate of lead may be combined also with dilute lime
sulfur solution if desired. .

MacHINERY FoR APPLYING SprAY Mrxtures: For applying spray mix-
tures to a few small plants in the home garden, no elaborate apparatus is
required. Even a whisk broom may be made to serve the purpose when the
material is to be applied to only a few small plants. An ordinary watering
can with a fine hose is also a satisfactory implement for applying spray
mixtures to low-growing plants. However, a watering can is rather wasteful
of material, and a more economical and uniform application may be made
by the use of some form of spray pump which will deliver the liquid with
more force. A compressed-air knapsack sprayer is very satisfactory for
applying spray materials to low plants in relatively small areas. For use
in market gardens and in plantations of trees, a barrel spray pump is more
satisfactory than a smaller outfit. For large areas of special crops, geared
power sprayers and gasoline power sprayers make more rapid work possible.

How to Spray: It is exceedingly important that*spraying be done very
thoroughly. The aim should be to cover all parts of the plant to be pro-
tected, with a thin, uniform application of spray material. Care should
be taken to avoid putting an excessive amount of material on any part of
the plant, as well as to avoid leaving any part of the plant unreached by
the spray. A uniform application can be made much more readily and
over-spraying avoided if a fine, rather than coarse, spray is used. A fine
spray is made by using a nozzle with a small orifice and using high pres-
sure. The person who holds the spray nozzle should keep it in motion
continuously rather than hold it steadily at any given point.

WueEn To Spray: It is also important that spraying be done at the right
time. In general it is better to spray before serious damage to the plants
has occurred, rather than after the insect or disease has gained headway.
In the case of insects or diseases which usually attack a given crop at a
certain season of the year, it is often possible to apply the spray before the
enemy is visible. This is true in spraying apples for the control of codling
moth and apple scab. It is also true, in general, for the control of many
fungous diseases, such as potato blight, leaf spot of tomatoes, and black
rot of grapes. In fact, effective control of fungous diseases. involves antici-
pating the attack and having the spray material on the plants before they
are attacked by the disease.

For the control of scale insects it is necessary to use so strong a mix-
ture that if it were applied to the plants while they were in foliage, it would
seriously injure them. Since the scale insects work upon the bark and are
present on the twigs during the dormant season, it is possible to kill them
by using a concentrated spray mixture applied while the trees are dormant.
Spraying for scale insects may therefore take place either late in the fall
after the foliage has dropped from the trees, or very early in the spring
before the season’s growth begins.

26

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
7 Farm Craft Series

LESSON 27
CULTIVATING CORN

It is an old saying that the time to begin cultivating corn is before
it is planted, which is one way of emphasizing the need of a
thoroughly prepared seed bed.

HARROWING

The weeds that infest the corn belt are rapidly growing species
and it is frequently unwise to wait to begin cultivation until the corn
is four or five inches tall, the height required for using the culti-
vator.

Accordingly it is a common practice to run a floating harrow of
the spike-toothed variety over the land as the corn is coming up,
without regard to the hills of corn except to keep the horses off the
rows. This work would seem to be ruinous to the crop, but as a
matter of fact the injury is slight, due to the fact that before corn
leaves show much above the ground the roots have already become
quite long and firmly established in the soil. The young corn plants
are therefore not easily uprooted either by the harrow or by the
wire-toothed weeder that is sometimes used. However that fact
furnishes no excuse for reckless driving.

CULTIVATION

The corn cultivator proper is driven down the row, cultivating
both sides at once. On some farms two-row cultivators are in use.

To handle the cultivator requires skill in driving and undivided
attention to business. A careless man or boy can cover up or plow
up a good many corn plants in the course of a day’s work, and every
plant thus destroyed means one ear less at harvest time. Since it
takes only one-hundred to one-hundred-and-twenty ears to make a
bushel, and there are two to four stalks in every hill, you can see
that with corn at a dollar and a half a bushel a few days’ careless
work on your part may cost your employer more than your entire
summer’s work.is worth to him. Not only does every corn plant
destroyed mean a loss to your employer, but it also means one ear
of corn less to convert into meat.

Corn is usually “checked,” that is, planted in hills, so that the

I
27

LCA) Mang He ane ie Rea Ae aes ee ae ce) act a ee ee
\ Gane a Ee ae % ehh? Oe 7. OMe :
h , 5 Ww ‘4 i

VA

rows run both ways across the field. The corn is first cultivated in

the same direction that it was planted. The second cultivation is
across the field, at right angles to the first. After the first two cul-
tivations all the ground in the field has been stirred except a small
spot a few inches square around each hill.

The weeds and grass in the hill must be killed while they are
small by covering them at the first two cultivations. Labor is so
scarce and high-priced in this country that it is not profitable to hoe
corn or pull the weeds from the hills. If they escape the cultivator
they will use much moisture and plant food that would otherwise be
‘used by the corn plant in the production of valuable grain. ‘

It takes a considerable degree of skill and care to cover the weeds
in the hill without covering the corn or digging it up. Even with
the best of care you will cover a corn plant occasionally. When this
happens, stop the team and uncover it carefully. Often this can be
done with a long stick and without getting off the cultivator seat.
Do not forget that if one hill in a hundred is covered up or cut out,
one percent of the crop is gone, and five or six percent represents
a very respectable profit.

ADJUSTING THE CULTIVATOR: Next to a careful operator, the
most important factor in good corn cultivation is a properly ad-
justed cultivator. Your employer will show you how to adjust the
particular kind of cultivator you are to use. The following direc-
tions should be studied carefully before you go to the farm, how-
ever, for if you are familiar with these general principles you will
“get the hang” of operating a cultivator much more quickly.

Kinps oF CULTIVATORS: Two common types of riding culti-
vators used in the corn belt are the surface, or “gopher blade” cul-
tivator, and the shovel cultivator.

Tue SurFAcE CuLttivAtor: The surface blade cultivator was
introduced for shallow cultivation and to prevent cutting roots. It
is a very successful implement when properly set and used under
the right soil conditions. It is not entirely satisfactory in stony
fields, in fields where the weed growth has reached considerable
height, or where the soil gets very hard and breaks up into clods.

The following points will help in adjusting the surface culti-
vator properly: .

1. If there is a difference between the inside and outside blades
in length or shape, care should be taken always to place the proper
set on the inside shanks. On all the old surface cultivators the top
edge of each inside blade tapers off toward the rear end, while the
edges of the outside blades run straight back, as shown in Fig. 1.
The sets can be distinguished in this way.

2. The shanks should be adjusted so that the inside blades are
about an inch higher than the outside blades.

3. The cutting edges of the inside blades should lie in the same
plane, those of the outside blades should lie in their plane, and these
two planes should be parallel.

4. The cutting edge of each inside blade should be parallel to —
the cutting edge of the corresponding outside blade. In other words,

2
27

atta Lill bits ee INA Glen Wine ed: Lich Bile
, eset yt

both cutting edges of either rig should form the same angle with the
row as shown in Fig. 2. On most surface cultivators the distance
between the front points of the inside blades should be about twenty-
two inches, while the distance between the rear points of the same
blades should be about four inches. After the inside blades have
been set in this way the outside blades can be set parallel to them.

Correct incorrect

Fig. 1.—Correct. and Incorrect Method of Setting the Blades

5. For average conditions each blade should be set at about
a forty-five degree angle with the surface, as shown at A and B in
Fig. 1. When the blades are set too flat, as at D, they lose suction;
if set too deep, as at C, they scrape and cause ridging, because the
soil cannot move smoothly over the blade and thus cannot leave the
proper blanket on the surface to produce a mulch and to close all
cracks.

Vig. 2.—Both Cutting Edges Should Form the Same Angle with the Row

THe RAKeEs: By all means use the rakes. Not only do they
level the surface and produce a finer mulch, but they also perform
the very important function of dragging weeds to the surface for
exposure to the sun.

As a rule, set the rakes about five inches apart at the rear, at
about a twenty-five degree angle with the surface, and low enough
to just drag the surface. If the rakes tend to hold the weeds and
drag them a considerable distance over the surface, they are set too
straight or too low.
27

If the soil is mellow and weedy and the weeds lodge over the
cutting edges of the blades, increase the depth slightly if possibie,
set the blades a little steeper, and raise the points slightly.

Tue SHoveLt CuttivaTor: The shovel cultivator can be used
under a much greater variety of conditions than the surface blade
machine, but it is apt to do more damage to the roots.

A cultivator shovel must be set at the proper angle to cause it
to. penetrate. A common angle is shown at C in Fig. 3. If diffi-
culty is experienced in getting a sharp shovel to penetrate, lessening
this angle, or causing the blade to run a little flatter, as at A in Fig.
3, will usually overcome the trouble. If the shovel is set too flat,
however, its penetrating ability will be greatly decreased. These
general rules hold for nearly all conditions, but just what angle is
best for any particular condition can be determined only by trial.
Failure to penetrate may also be due to too much tension in the lift-
ing springs.

Fig. 3.—Different Angles of Setting Shovels ;

If the operator desires as light draft as possible he should use
great care to secure the proper set of the shovels. If the shovels
are set a little flatter than necessary and thus have more suction
than is required, a greater force is needed to hold them at the proper
depth, and the draft may thus be increased. Shovels set too straight
and then forced into the ground will also cause increased draft.

In setting the shovels for light draft, however, one cannot en-
tirely disregard the way in which they handle the soil. Under given
soil conditions some shovels may make better pulverization when
set fairly steep, while others may leave the surface slightly smoother
when set a little flatter.

If the rig jumps, skips, or bobs along instead of taking to the
ground and working steadily, one or all of its shovels are probably
set too straight, provided of course that the shovels are in good
shape.

When all the shovels of one rig are set to throw the soil to or
from the row, the rig is bound to crowd sidewise. If the rigs crowd
together under these conditions the operator may have to hold them
apart with his legs, but if the rigs crowd out they can be held to-
gether with the spread arch or spread chain. If the main purpose is
simply to throw the soil to or from the row with the front shovels,
however, this rig crowding can be overcome by setting the rear
shovel in each rig to throw the soil in the opposite direction.

4
27

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 28
SHOCKING WHEAT AND OATS

By shocking is meant putting together bundles of small grain in groups of about a
dozen for the purpose of curing preparatory to threshing.

Oxyect: All small grain must stand in the field for a considerable number of days
in order to become dry enough for threshing or for stacking. During this time the grain
is exposed not only to sunshine but to wind and rain as well. It must therefore be kept
protected as much as possible from the wet, and by all means it must be kept off the

Fig. r—Setting the First Bundles. Note How Firmly They are Placed Together at the
Top. They Will Not Fall

ground, otherwise should the weather chance to be bad for a number of days it is certain
to sprout, greatly damaging’ its market value. Three things must be aimed at by a good
workman in shocking grain: First, a dozen bundles must be put together so that they will
stand up against any ordinary wind; second, they must shed rain; and third, the work must
be rapidly done.

x
28

Tue Lone SHocx: Many farmers shock grain, especially oats, in long shocks; that is,
they set up the bundles in long rows by pairs. The reason for choosing the long-shock
method is that it is rapid. However, the bundles are almost certain to push each other
over, and there is no method of capping to shed rain. In a rainy region the grain should
always be put into the round shock and capped, except only in those rare cases where the
winds are too severe.

Tue Rounp SHock: The advantage of the round shock is that it can be capped and
protected against rain, On the other hand, by most methods employed for this process
the time consumed for a good job is more than double that required for the long shock.
The method herein illustrated, however, is almost as rapid as the long-shock method and
vastly better for all kinds of small grains, unless it may be barley. Even oats are better
capped, because they shatter less in hauling and the quality of the grain is better.

ProcepurE: In the round shock ten bundles are ‘‘set up’ and two are used for caps.
There are many ways of assembling these ten bundles, most of them bad, either because the
bundles will not stand firmly, because they are set so closely together as to exclude all air,

‘ig. 2—Two Bundles Placed at Right Angles to the First Pair. They Support the First
Bundles Set Up

or because the process requires too much time. The particular method here shown,
though not commonly employed, is recommended for four reasons.

1. It makes the strongest shock known, because the bundles are braced in all directions.
It is the most rapid method known.

A few bad bundles do not destroy the shock.

4. Whereas in most methods of shocking only the best workman can be used at all,
by this method men may work either singly or in pairs, and one of the pair may be an
indifferent workman without injury to the quality of the work.

When working in pairs, the leading’ man should choose for the first two bundles
those which seem to be among the largest of the dozen. Tacing either east or west and
taking one bundle in each hand, holding the heads close together with the butts of the
bundles far apart, he should drive them firmly into the stubble, being sure that ‘they lean
squarely against cach other so that they will not shut by each other like a pair of
scissors. (See Fig. 1.)

If this first pair is properly set, the bundles will have an angle of about 45 degrees

2

& Wy

23

with the ground. The common failure is in getting them too straight. (These are bundl.s
1 and 1 in Fig. 5.) “

Next he should place a pair of bundles at right angles to the first pair, with’ heads
well together, and bearing on one of the bundles of pair number 1 at about the place of
the band. (See Fig. 2 and bundles 2 and 2-in Fig. 5.) If two men are working together
bundles 3 and 3 will be placed by the second man, These six bundles furnish the strength
of the shock because they brace in all directions, Four other bundles are next added—
two on either side. (See 4 and 4, and 5 and 5 in Fig. 5.) If there are any bad bundles
in this particular set, they should be reserved for this place in the shock, as they have
nothing to do with its essential structure, By bad bundles is meant those which are unusu-
ally short, fuzzy, or filled with weeds.

Cappinc: This shock is not quite round. If properly made it will be somewhat longer
north and south than it is east and west thus securing the best exposure to the sun.
The purpose in making it slightly oblong is to be sure of a good circulation of air. (See

the arrow in Fig. 5.) There ought always to be room here, as the farmer says, for the dog

to run through.

Fig. 3—Preparing the First Cap Bundle. This Bundle Should Protect the Top of the
Shock from the Weather

‘

Two of the best bundles have been saved for caps. By the best bundles we mean
those that have long straight straw and are well bound. These illustrations are faulty
becatise they were made in the winter with fuzzy bundles which had been stored for class
use. In actual practice the straw will be limber and tough, therefore easily “‘broken
over’ to make a cap. lf two men are at work the less skilled of the two should put on
the first cap, which according to the prevailing winds in most sections of the country
should be on the south side of the shock.

To prepare the first cap, take the bundle as shown in Fig. 3; one arm holds the
butt of the bundle against the body and the other hand and arm are used to break the
straw down above the band, dividing it equally right and left. When the top of the
hundle has been so divided, catch the butt with both hands, opening it well in equal halves.
Do not simply lay this cap on top of the shock, for unless well settled it is certain to
blow off. Drive it down into the heads of the bundles and do not be afraid to put a

\3
28 ¢

little weight upon the shock. If properly set the portion of this bundle near the bane —
will have an angle of not far trom 45 degrees. ; A F

The second bundle is prepared exactly the same as the first exrept that a few straws
at the top are left without breaking in order to lap over on top of the first bundle, making
a kind of ridge for the roof.

Ca

ae

Fig. 4—The Finished Shock. Both Cap Bundles in Place. This Shock Will Not Blow
Down, Observe the Air Passage in the Side of the Shock

FINISHING THE SHocK: The only additional point to bear in mind is that in placing
each cap the body of the workman should crowd the shock closely enough to bring in
the straggling heads and tuck them well under the caps. If care is taken in choosing
and placing the first two pairs of bundles, the shock will stand, and if long straw is chosen

lig. 5—Arrangement of Bundles in the Shock

for the caps, and if placed as directed, this shock will shed water and dry out rapidly
by the action of both sun and wind, There is no need of spending an inordinate amount
of time in doing this work. It requires precision in carrying out a well-defined system —
ef procedure; nothing more.

28

ie at oe on, © » AS eee

United States Boys’ Working Reserve
Farm Craft Series

LESSON 29
MARKET GARDENING

The food shortage in Europe will demand for some years to
come exports of meats and cereals from the United States. In
order that we may make generous contributions of those products,
vegetables should be more largely grown and used as substitutes for
meat and cereals. Market gardening requires the maximum amount
of labor for the area cultivated and this has been the limiting factor
in all the important gardening centers. Here is a great oppor-
tunity for the Boys’ Working Reserve.

Metuops: It is seldom that two market gardeners even in the
same community do things in exactly the same way. This makes
it necessary for student laborers to adapt themselves quickly and
willingly to the several methods that may be followed in a given
community. It is not a matter of executing plans in accordance
with your own ideas, but rather of conforming to the wishes of the
employer who is financing the proposition, and to this end certain
general points must be observed.

THoROUGHNESs is absolutely essential in the performance of all
garden work and many garden failures are due to lack of this one
element alone.

ORDER AND SYSTEM are at a premium in the vegetable garden.
They count for efficiency and invite favorable comments from em-
ployers. .

SPEED in an enterprise involving so much hand work as does
market gardening is of the utmost importance. The hands should
be trained to move with dexterity.

CArE oF Toots AND IMPLEMENTS: Tools are costly and difficult
to obtain. Leaving them in the field at the end of the day’s work
means that they may disappear. Besides, tools exposed to the
weather rust out faster than they wear out, and it takes only a few
moments to clean and scour the metal parts with a piece of burlap
and put the tool where it belongs. With small tools it is an advan-
tage for the workmen to retain the same ones day after day, a prac-
tice which operates as an incentive for keeping them in the best
possible condition. .

APPLYING MANurRE: When coarse stable manure is used it is
generally applied before the land is plowed. Fine, partly decayed
manure gives better results when spread after the land is plowed
and then thoroughly mixed with the soil by frequent harrowing.
When applying either coarse or fine stable manure, it should be dis-
tributed evenly and uniformly over the ground and not in lumps
or patches.

TitLtace: Most soils should never be plowed, harrowed, rolled
or cultivated when wet, for this is certain to injure their physical

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properties. A simple test is to squeeze in the hand as much so q
as can be conveniently held. If, after opening the hand, the soil ©
crumbles and falls apart, tillage may proceed without danger of
injury; if the soil particles remain intact and the ball of earth does

not break apart readily, no tillage of any kind should be undertaken ~
until-the ground is drier. The tillage of wet soil, unless it be sand

or muck, invariably results in the formation of lumps, and these
nay the land hard to work for several years and decrease crop
yields.

PLowrnc: ‘The most important of all the tillage operations is
plowing. It should be as deep as the character of the soil will per-.__
mit. The furrow slices should be of medium width and left on edge
as much as possible rather than in a perfectly flat position. Heavy
applications of manure, or a large amount of any kind of coarse
vegetable matter plowed under instead of between the furrows,
are likely to interfere with the upward movement of water in the soil.

HarrowincG: Whether seeds are to be sown or plants set, the
soil should be thoroughly pulverized, This is accomplished by har-
rowing repeatedly until the surface of the land is smooth and the
soil reduced to a fine state of division. Most market gardeners have
special disk harrows which are exceedingly valuable in the work of
leveling and pulverizing. Drags or floats made of heavy plank are
also used to a large extent for this purpose. .

SEED Sowinc: The requirements for germination are heat,
moisture, and oxygen. If the student gardener will keep these points ”
in mind, he will be careful to sow seeds under thé very best condi-. (
tions.

It is folly to sow seeds in lumpy, poorly prepared ground, because
the soil particles will not settle closely around the seed; under such
conditions an adequate supply of moisture cannot enter the seed,
unless there are frequent and profuse rains. Poorly prepared soils,
too, dry out very rapidly and thus prevent rapid growth of the
young plants.

It is important to avoid sowing more seed than the employer
considers necessary in order to obtain a good stand of plants. The
extravagant use of seed is not only wasteful, but it may necessitate
a large amount of work in thinning. At the same time we should be
careful to use enough seed.

The depth of covering is a matter which should have the most
careful consideration. Ordinarily the larger the seeds the greater ‘
should be the depth of covering. Again, the character of the soil and
the season of the year also have a bearing on this question. Seed-
lings are able to force their way through a much greater covering of
sandy soil than of stiff, tenacious clay.

Mechanical seed drills are employed almost entirely by com-
mercial growers. Whether these are used or the seed is sown by
hand, the rows should be as straight as they can be made. Straight
rows not only facilitate cultivation and reduce injury by the culti-
vator, but they enhance the appearance of the market garden, and all
of us would much rather work in an attractive garden than in on
showing crooked rows and haphazard methods. 42

Bas

BeBe ee ae ee ute al

As stated before, the soil particles should come into close contact
with the seed, and for this reason it is generally an advantage to
firm the soil over the seeds immediately after they have been sown.
This may be done by the use of the feet, or perhaps with the hoe
blade or other device.

TRANSPLANTING: Again, a fine, moist soil is essential to success-
ful transplanting, and the all important thing is to see that the soil
is brought into the closest contact with the roots. Some of the most
extensive growers use transplanting machines. They do the work
well and save labor. When machines are not used, furrows of the
proper depth are often made with small shovels attached to wheel
garden hoes or perhaps to horse-drawn implements. Trowels and
dibbers of various descriptions are in seneral use among gardeners.
As a rule, the opening in the soil is made with a dibber or trowel
in the right hand. The left hand sets the plant in the hole, generally
a little deeper than it stood in the seed bed, and holds it in place
while the right hand draws enough soil over the roots to hold the
plant erect. After both hands have been used to firm the soil about
the roots, the hole is filled, and, as you move along the row to set the
next plant, additional pressure is brought to bear on the soil over the
roots. If the soil is well supplied with moisture, watering after
transplanting will be unnecessary. As in the case of seed sowing,
we should also be careful to have the rows straight.

CuLTivaATION: All the crops grown by market gardeners require
more or less cultivation. The stirring of the soil hy any suitable tool
or implement conserves soil moisture, aerates the soil, modifies soil
temperature and destroys weeds. Cultivation should be frequent

- enough to maintain a surface mulch of very fine soil. Cultivators

with many small teeth are more effective for this purpose than are
those with a few large shovels. The ideal plan is to cultivate the
land after every rain, as soon as the ground becomes dry enough,
but gardeners are often so busy that this cannot be done. We should
bear in mind that the cultivation of wet soils is just as harmful to
their physical properties as plowing when they are wet.

The student workman should be cautious to cultivate with proper
care. It is an easy matter to run the wheel-hoe down the middle
of the space between the rows without stirring the ground near the
plants. This kind of cultivation will not have the approval of the
up-to-date grower. He will expect the cultivator to be run just as
close to the plants as is possible without damaging them. He will
likely be willing to sacrifice a few leaves or even an occasional plant
in order to have the ground practically all covered. Nor will he be
pleased if you barely scratch the surface of the soil. Here is an
Opportunity to use some muscle and to develop more muscle by fore-
ing the cultivator teeth into the soil to the proper depth. Your em-
ployer will tell you how he wants the ground cultivated for each
crop and at different stages of growth.

Horine: A certain amount of hoeing is required in all market
gardens and on all truck farms. It is work that requires thorough-
ness and patience. We will not attempt to describe the great variety
of hoes used by commniercia! growers. All of them have their special

3

uses. The most important thing to keep in mind in using any ki 1d
of a hoe is to see that you stir the ground not touched by the wheel-

hoe or horse cultivator. If we are not thorough and faithful in this

respect, weeds may spring up in great numbers on the missed area,

and the lack of thorough tillage will prevent the fullest development
of the crop under cultivation. .

Special skill may be developed in the use of the hoe. In the first
place we should select the right hoe for the particular piece of work
to be done. Then we should see that the blade is set at the proper
angle with the handle to suit the person who is to use the hoe. The

cutting edge should also be kept sharp by the frequent use of a

coarse file. Then study the effect of different movements of the hoe.
Note that it is wholly unnecessary to raise the blade to any great
height from the ground, as you would in the use of an axe ora
mattock. Also observe that a drawing motion of the blade is more
effective than a chopping motion.

WEEDING: There are various kinds of small weeding tools com-
monly called weeders. They are employed between small plants im
the rows, with such crops as onions, beets, carrots, etc. An immense
amount of time may be wasted in weeding. Unless the work is
done well it is hardly worth doing at all. Moreover, the hands must
move rapidly if much work is to be accomplished in a day.

THINNING: It is necessary when we get too thick a stand of
plants like beets, onions, carrots, radish, lettuce, etc., to thin them
out. The surplus plants may be pulled out or removed with the
hand weeder at the same time that young weeds are destroyed.’ We
should endeavor to get rid of the weakest plants, ‘and at the same
time strive for a uniform spacing of the plants.

SPRAYING: One of the essential operations of all well-managed
market gardens is spraying. Thoroughness of application is the
most important point for employees to keep in mind. Many a crop
has been lost from disease because all parts of the plant susceptible
to attack from disease germs have not been well covered with the
spray material. In most instances we should be careful to see that
the under surfaces of the leaves as well as the upper are fully coy-
ered with the spray. .

Harvestinc: A few don’ts are in order in this connection.
Don’t harvest a tomato or an ear of corn or anything else until it is
fully ready for market. Be alert and don’t miss specimens that have
reached the proper state of development and should be marketed.
Be careful and don’t bruise or damage the specimens that are being
harvested. Be speedy and don’t lag in gathering the crops, for the
season’s profits and the sustenance of our teeming city population
depend largely upon prompt harvesting.

PREPARATION FOR MArker: Attractiveness is the keynote to
the successful marketing of garden crops. If the vegetables look
well when they reach the market, they generally sell well. This
means that they must be clean, they must be carefully graded, and
they must be tastefully arranged in the packages. Student workmen
should vie with each other in their effort to prepare the best appear-
ing packages, and in the shortest possible time.

4
29

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