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Copyright N°

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

ives

1

FARM
DAIRYING

meeireatise of Dairy “Cattle, Their:-Feeding and: Care
and the Handling and Disposition of Dairy
Produce on the Farm.

By
©: ARSEN= MES. A.

Prcfessor of Dairy Husbandry and Director of Extension. Author
of “Laboratory Exercises in Farm Dairying,’ co-author of
“Dairy Technology’ and “Principles and Practice
of Buttermaking.” South Dakota State
College, Brookings, S. D.

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
NEW YORK
1919

Copyright 1919 by
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
All Rights Reserved

UCL

Printep In. U. S. A.

Ov.A559 205

To
Charles F. Curtis,
Dean and Director, Jowa State College
Hp Teacher, Advisor, Co-worker and Friend
This Book is Dedicated

PREFACE

N THIS BOOK, treating of farm dairying, the author
has endeavored to present the different phases of the
subject in logical sequence. Much study has been given

to dividing and systematizing the subject matter and to place
the information in as good pedagogical form as possible.

These essentials of farm dairying are the results of
many years of practical experience on dairy farms, results
of study and observations made in the United States and
in leading European dairy centers, results obtained from
teaching and experimenting at the college with which the
author has been connected, and results gathered from
leading authorities in this country.

I cannot express too much appreciation to my co-workers
for their help, and to the various college and experiment
station authorities for having supplied the opportunities
for securing this valuable information.

Though this book is published after the close of the war,
it contains much information from pre-war conditions.
The cost of feed and labor is much higher now than before
the war. The present high scale of prices is not sure to
continue, so the author believes that the pre-war data as
to prices is more serviceable than if attempts were made to
change so as to conform with present and maybe tempo-
rary high plane of prices.

The author has made it a point to discuss this subject
of farm dairying in such a way as to make the book valu-
able to the practical dairy farmer, as a text for students,
and as a convenient reference to anyone interested in the
important subject of farm dairying. It is hoped the book
will fill a need and give a real service in improving and
encouraging the dairy industry.

CG. LARSEN:

South Dakota State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts,
Brookings, South Dakota, July 12, 1919,

i:

i

ie

CONTENTS

CHAP Tikal

Chief Purposes of Dairy Farming . :

Statistics of dairy industry in United States.
Utilizing field crops for human foods.
Utilizing labor profitably.

Obtaining sure and quick returns.

Utilizing rough lands.

Retaining and increasing richness of land.

OID OT IR WP

Profits from power of reproduction.

CHAPTER-II
The Dairy Cow . : Ae a hoa

Desirable form of a good dairy cow.
Ability to consume and digest feed.
Ability to change feeds into dairy products.
a Large udder capacity.

b Blood circulation.

c Milk mirror.

Poise of dairy cow.

Ability to maintain life and health,
General form.

Score card for dairy cow.

Diagram naming parts of cow.

oo ps

Pete ores

CHAPTER
Beeeds ot Hairy Cattle <2 2

1. Development of breeds,
2. Breeds of dairy cattle.
a Ayrshire.
6 Guernsey.
c Jersey.
d Holstein-Friesian.
3. Summary of leading dairy breeds.
4, Less common dairy breeds.
a Brown Swiss.
b Dutch Belted.

@)
{e

yil

Reducing the marketing expense of field crops.

20

a0

Viil

ie

de

lig

CONTENTS

c Red Poll.

d Devon.

e Shorthorn.

f French-Canadian, Dexter and Kerry.
5. Table of number of registered cattle in United States.
6. Table of composition of milk from different breeds.

CEA PER i
Value of Individuals in a Dairy Herd F : 62

1. Economic value.
a Ability to convert feed into milk.
b Value of calf.
c Value of manure.
d Value of feeds consumed.
e Cost of labor.
f Beef value of cow.
g Interest and depreciation.
h General expenses.
a Service fee.
2. Esthetic value.
3. Outline for studying cost of milk production.

CHAPTER V

Determining the Production of Each Cow in the

Herd : 3 : : : : : 81

1. Appearance of cow.
a Form indicating production.
2. Weighing and testing the milk.
a Manner of obtaining records.
b Composite samples.
c Testing milk by Babcock method.
d Cow testing associations.
e Value of dairy herd records.
f Table of advanced registry requirements.

CHAPTERS VT
Increasing Production of Dairy Herd > aS

1. Improvement of present dairy herd.
a Cull poor cows.
b Good feed and care.
c Good management.
d Fall freshening of cows.
2. Improvement of future dairy herd.

CONTENTS 1X

a Purchasing of good cows.
b Using a good dairy sire.

c Value of good dairy sire.
d Paternal ancestors.

e Inbreeding.

f Keep herd sire separate from herd.
g Handling of cross sire.

h Do not change breeds.

7 Bull associations.

yj Value of pedigree.

k Maternal ancestors.

CHAPTER ¥iT

I. Raising the Dairy Cow ‘ : : A mene 5:

it:
2.

3.

Selecting right parents.

Feed and care of mother during pre-natal period.
a Effects of surroundings of cow on calf,

Feed and care of calf.

a Care of calf when first born.

b Place in which to keep calves.

¢ Teach calf to eat grain.

ad Amount of milk to feed.

e Measuring growth of calves.

f Changing to skimmilk.

g Composition of whole milk, skimmilk and whey.
h Substitutes for milk.

¢ Calf feeders.

f Diarrhea in calves.

k Factors affecting size of cow.

l Table giving birth weight of calves.

m Large cows vs. small cows.

CHAPTER <VIEIt

I. Feeding the Dairy Herd a Balanced Ration ee a ue:

i-

clare aL eh aa

Composition of feeds.

Minerals in a cow’s ration.

Salt for dairy cows.

Feed for milk production.

Feed for body maintenance.
Classification of feeds.
Calculation of balanced ration.
Feeding standards and their uses.

i

ile

1

CONTENTS

Chae imine ix

Feeding the Dairy Herd a Succulent Ration

ou 08 10

pee

Pasture grasses for cows.
Soiling crops.

Roots for dairy cows.
Mashes for dairy cows.
Silage for the dairy herd.
a Advantages of silage.
b Filling the silo.

c Composition of corn in different stages.
d Sealing the silo.

e Silage fermentation.

f Feeding silage.

Kinds of silos.

Water for the dairy cow.

CHAPTER X

Amount to Feed the Dairy Herd : ‘

Oo ys eto

Amount of rough feed.

Amount of concentrates to feed.
Grinding feed.

Variety of feeds important.
Calculating cost of ration.
Feeding for maximum production.

CHAPTER 2cf

Milking the Dairy Cow . : : :

ee

v9

Condition of cow.

a Structure of cow’s udder.

b Clean and healthy cows.

c Keep cow’s teats in good condition.
d Swollen udders.

Condition of milker.

a Clean and healthful milker.

b Manner of procedure in milking.

c Dry hand vs. wet hand milking.

d Milking the cow clean.

Condition of utensils.

a Clean and sanitary utensils.
Handling kicking cows.

Handling sucking cows.

Resting period for cows.
Lengthening of milking period.

Milk fever.

Handling of cow during freshening period,

es

206

218

CONTENTS 331

CHAPTER XIt

I. Methods of Milking . : : : : ae a0

i;
iT.

i.

Hand Milking.
Machine Milking.

Chief parts of milking machine.

Cost of operation.

Breaking cows to milking machine.

Difference in cows for milking machine.

Cows releasing milk slowly.

Start machine in early part of lactation period.
Symmetrical and well shaped udders important.
Select and breed right cows.

Operator should understand milk elaboration.
10. Fit milking machine to cow.

11. Milking machine surroundings not too cold.
12. Cow giving down milk before attachment is made.
13. Keeping milking machine sanitary.

14. Watch closely for abnormal milk.

(2 Se er ee a

Kinds of milking machines.

Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy.
Calfway.

Empire.

Perfection.

Sharples.

Waterloo Boy.

Hinman.

Disbrow.

Mehring.

Universal.

SRO OO Ee Sith = CO. 0S

ray

Chir Ie ks X1TT

I. Handling and Marketing Milk for Human Food 264

ie
2.
3

Composition of normal milk,

Bacteria in milk.

Direct consumption of milk.

a Healthful cows and sanitary surroundings,
b Cooling and aerating milk.

c¢ Ice on the dairy farm,

X11

CONTENTS

CHAPTER X1TV

I. Handling Milk for Dairy Products on the Farm

i

Making butter on the farm.

a Skim cream of proper richness.
b Keep separator in proper condition.
c Churn fresh creain.

d Churning temperature.

e Composition of butter.

f Coloring the butter.

g Washing the butter.

h Salting the butter.

1 Working the butter.

yj Packing and marketing.

k Difficult churning.

Marketing cream to be made into butter at factory.
i: Eecal) creamery.

2. Cream buying station.

3. Direct shipment of cream.
Making cheese on the farm.

. Coagulate with rennet.

. Cutting the curd.

. Heating the curd.

. Preparing the cheese for press.
. Pressing the cheese.

. Curing the cheese.

Making soft cheeses on the farm,
1. Cottage cheese.

2. Neufchatel cheese.

3. Pimento cheese.

4. Cream cheese.

5. Club: cheese.

Manner of disposal affects income.

Aopwnwore

APPENDIX

Appendix ‘ : ; 5 :

1:

CaS)

Armsby’s tables of requirements for production and
body maintenance.

Also table of dry matter, protein and net energy
requirements.

Haecker’s tables of requirements for milk produc-
tion, food maintenance and nutrients in a pound
of feeding stuffs.

Tables of organic and mineral analysis of foods.

273

304

Cite Re I
CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING

The purposes for which dairy farming is practiced vary
according to the conditions and natural surroundings, to the
degree of intensity, the extent to which it is followed,
and the inclination and character of the dairyman. There
are some who are engaged in dairy farming without having
any special purpose in view. It is invariably the aimless
dairy farmer who has proven a partial failure.

When properly practiced, dairy farming is full of merits,
and it is conducive to good economic results and to home
building. In spite of many misconceptions, wrong prac-
tices, and consequently, only partial results, the dairy busi-
ness has made good returns, and has been constantly
increasing in extent and in popularity.

The following table gives some idea of the extent to
which dairy farming is practiced in the United States :*

No. of Dairy Cows Value per Head Aggregate Value

U. S. Census, 1910 20,625,000 $35.29 $ 727,802,000
U. S. Census, 1914 20,737,000 53.94 1,118,487,000

The annual value of the dairy products in the United
States is about as follows:

Buiter, 1,619,415,263 Ibs. @ -$0:35__.-__-__ $566,795,342
Cheese, 320,532,181 Ibs. @ $0.25._________ 80,133,145
Moimensed: Amite 22 ee 11,888,792
Mirani SOc 1 GS ee es ee a 4,547,536
DMM eG eles tee Pages SV Ae eed = 217,512,586
Miiovtod: to. Calves. 2) 2 ss 39,C00,000
LSPS OLG | GL lle A pe ne a ae na 41,049,226
vent. taallion “calyes...22. =. 22. 100,000,000

Total value of dairy cow products______ $1,050,926,527

The chief purposes of dairy farming in the United States
may be classified as follows:

*Bulletin No, 177, B. C. E., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture_
1

2 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

1. To utilize field crops economically and to transform
them into the maximum of animal products to be used for
human foods and for human comforts.

2. To utilize labor profitably, especially during the slack
seasons.

3. To reduce marketing expenses of field crops by re-
ducing their bulk and weight.

4. To earn a sure income and obtain quick returns.

5. To make economical use of rough and otherwise waste
land.

6. To obtain profits from the cow’s power of reproduc-
tion.

Utilizing field crops for human foods.—Too often the
question of utilizing the field crops does not receive the
consideration which it deserves. A fundamental aim of
human efforts is to produce human foods and human com-
forts. Many of the field crops, especially the roughage,
cannot be used directly for human foods nor for human
comforts.

To produce and harvest crops is one phase of farming.
To utilize and market these crops in the most economical
manner is another. Both are important and _ inter-de-
pendent. It is said that the American farmer produces
more new wealth per capita than any other farmer. It is
generally conceded that the American farmer does not
market his field crops so economically as do farmers of
other countries. It is estimated that the American farmer
obtains on an average about fifty percent of what the con-
sumers have to pay for the articles produced on the farm.
According to the best data obtainable, the Danish farmer,
who probably employs the most efficient system of market-
ing in the world, secures about ninety percent of what the
consumers pay for the farm products. The Danish farmer
markets practically all of his field crops through the dairy
cow and through the hog and the chicken.

Some cofres market the bulk of their crops by hauling
them directly to market; others by having the horse trans-

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 3

form them into horse flesh; others by having the sheep
transform them into wool and mutton; others have the hog
transform them into pork and lard. Some again prefer to
have the steer change the field crops into beef, and others
have the dairy cow convert them into milk and butter fat.
Some practice a combination of all, emphasizing one or
more of these methods.

Under the widely different conditions existing in differ-
ent localities, each of the above-mentioned methods of mar-
keting field crops has its advantages and its disadvantages.
The Central West farmer prefers to practice a combination
of these methods. However, the profits accruing may be
increased by carefully studying various methods and
problems.

FIG. 1—The herdsman’s house and dairy barn at tne South Dakota
State College.

The right dairy cow, fed and cared for properly, will pro-
duce more healthful digestible human food from a given
amount of field crops than will any other farm animal.
This is a strong statement, but according to experimental
results and demonstrations, it is amply substantiated. The
following figures are given with the view of showing the
comparative economy of the different farm animals as
means of marketing the different field crops. - .

4 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

A reasonably good dairy cow, producing 40 pounds of
four percent milk per day, will consume about 11 pounds of
grain and 20 pounds of clover hay, or its equivalent in a
mixed and properly balanced ration. The 40 pounds of
milk contain the following amount of solids or dry matter,
of which practically all is digestible.

40 X .04 =1.6 pounds of butter fat.

40 X .035 — 1.4 pounds of protein (casein and albumen).
40 X .05 ==2.0 pounds of milk sugar.

40 X .007 — 0.3 pounds of ash.

5.3 pounds dry matter produced daily from above ration.

According to experiments, a little more than 96 percent
of the milk proteins are digestible, and a trifle less than 96
percent of the carbohydrates of the milk sugar are digest-
ible, and probably all of the butter fat is digestible. This
means that 97 percent, or 5.14 pounds of dry matter of the
daily milk produced by the dairy cow are digestible.

The ration fed to the cow contained about 9.9 pounds of
dry matter in grain and about 18 pounds of dry matter in
the hay. About 80 percent of the 9.9 pounds of dry mat-
ter in the grain, or 7.9 pounds, are digestible, and about 43
percent of the 18 pounds of dry matter in the clover hay, or
7.7 pounds, are digestible.

This dairy cow then consumes about 15.6 pounds of
digestible dry matter, and recovers from it in the milk 5.14
pounds of digestible milk solids. That is, the dairy cow
recovers about 33 percent of the digestible dry matter eaten,
as digestible milk solids for human foods.

The hog, while not capable of recovering so large a per-
centage of the consumed feed solids for human food as is
the dairy cow, ranks as one of the most economical animals.
This is especially true when hogs are kept in connection with
the dairy business. The by-products from the dairy, such *
as skim milk, buttermilk, and whey, when fed in connection
with grain, according to various investigators, give the
most economical gains, Henry of the Wisconsin station

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 5

found that on such a ration, properly proportioned, the
hog gains one pound of live weight from three pounds of
digestible dry matter.

According to Atwater, about 58 percent of the cured
pork is digestible fat, and about 8.1 percent is digestible pro-
tein. There would then be about fifty-eight hundredths of a
pound of fat and eight hundredths of a pound of protein, or
a total of sixty-six hundredths of a pound of digestible dry

FIG. 2—The value of skim milk and buttermilk per 100 pounds for hog
feeding is equal to five times the market price of hogs.
matter recovered by the hog from the three pounds of

digestible dry matter consumed. This equals 22 percent.

The third common animal extensively used for trans-
forming field crops into animal products is the steer.
According to various investigators, a thousand-pound steer
in the fattening lot consumes daily about 16 pounds of
grain and eight pounds of hay, or its equivalent. About 90
percent of each of these feeds is dry matter, or 14.4 pounds
in the grain and 7.2 pounds in the hay. About 80 percent

6 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

of the dry matter in the grain, or 11.52 pounds, is digestible
matter, and about 43 percent of the dry matter in the hay,
or 3.1 pounds. This makes a total of 14.6 pounds of digest-
ible dry matter consumed daily by the steer having the
above-mentioned weight. Results of several experiments
show that if a thousand-pound steer gains two pounds of
live weight per day, he is doing well. Atwater also found
that about 14.5 percent of beef is digestible fat and about
16 percent is digestible protein. The above-mentioned gain
contains three-tenths of a pound of digestible fat, and about
thirty-two hundredths of a pound of digestible protein. This
makes a total of sixty-two hundredths of a pound of digestible
dry matter recovered by the steer from 14.6 pounds of
digestible dry matter consumed. That is, he recovers about
4.2 percent for human food.

Then summarizing the comparative ability of each of
these three common farm animals to recover human foods
from the various field crops, we have the following:

The dairy cow recovers about 33 percent.
‘The hog recovers about 22 percent.
The steer recovers about 4.2 percent.

These results may range a little high for all of the above
animals, as the data have been obtained from work per-
formed at the different experiment stations. Under these
conditions, the animals undoubtedly receive better care than
is customary under average farm conditions. In addition,
the animals used were perhaps of better quality than used
under average farm conditions. However, great care has
been taken to keep the data comparatively correct. From
the above discussions, it will be noticed that there is a con-
siderable waste of dry matter attended with having the field
crops pass the roundabout way through the animal’s body
for human food. As population grows denser, the tendency
will be to utilize as much of the concentrates, or grain, as
can be used for human food directly, and to use the most
profitable farm animals.

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 7

Roughages, such as corn fodder, hay, and straw, cannot
directly be used as foods for people. To serve as such, they
must be converted into animal products. Here the dairy
cow excels. The hog, generally speaking, requires his food
principally in the form of concentrates. The tattening steer
needs a larger percentage of nutrients in the form of con-
centrates than does the dairy cow. Approximately speak-
ing, the fattening steer eats two pounds of grain to one
pound of hay, while the dairy cow reverses this ration to
one pound of grain to two pounds of hay, or the equivalent
in the form of other roughages.

The dairy cow has survived the most intensive farm con-
ditions in the world. Years ago, very little was known
about the chemistry of field crops and animal bodies, and
therefore no calculations such as those made above could be
made. Through actual practice and general observations,
the farmers learned that the dairy cow was the most
economical transformer of field crops. Where farms are
small, land expensive, prices of feed high, and the popula-
tion dense, as is the case in the best agricultural districts of
Europe and the United States, there the dairy cow is used
largely for the production of human foods and for human
comforts, from field crops.

Utilizing labor profitably.—The responsibility of eco-
nomically producing and marketing the world’s food supply
rests largely with the farmers. They stand at the source
of all foods. They co-operate with the natural resources
and with the elements to produce human food. Farm labor
is an important item in producing the world’s food supply.

In the temperate zone, especially in the central and cen-
tral northwest United States, the crop-growing seasons are
long enough to produce only one field crop each year. Con-
sequently, there are about six months each year which con-
stitute the growing season, and about six months when no
crops can be grown. To produce new wealth only during
half of each year is not good farm economics. In the
central northwest, labor is employed on the farm, especially

8 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

on those where live stock is not kept, at the rate of about
one man in the winter and two in the summer—in some
instances, three. This means that at least one able-bodied
man on each farm each fall is turned from a field of pro-
duction of new wealth into a field of non-production of new
wealth.

By practicing dairy farming to a greater extent, much of
this labor could be economically utilized during the slack
seasons. Our farms cculd be made factories for the con-
tinuous production of new wealth. ‘The crops could be

FIG. 3—A comfortable and convenient place for winter dairying.

produced during the summer; and during the winter, labor
and the dairy cow could profitably transform these field
crops mto concentrated expensive food products without
removing the fertility of the land.

The time of the year for the dairy work can be regulated.
Not so with any of the field crops. The time of freshen-
ing of a cow is within reasonable control of the owner. For
the average dairy farmer the fall-freshening cow is the most
profitable, The winter affords the most favorable condi-

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 9

tions for the farmer to get the best and most work out of
the dairy cow. ‘The labor is cheaper and more profitable.
The prices of dairy products are about a third higher. The
cow gives more milk during the year, and the fall calves are
easier to raise.

In addition, the dairy cow affords opportunities for the
various members of the family to partake in the work on the
farm. The work in the barn and the dairy is not heavy
work. It is work which requires attention and intelligence
—two important characteristics which we wish to stamp
upon every young person’s life. So the purpose of- the -
dairy cow in this connection is not only to use labor in a
profitable manner, but to aid and develop industrious,
attentive young people of regular habits.

The dairy cow has repeatedly demonstrated her ability to
make large returns for the labor exerted and for food con-
sumed. The dairy industry, though practiced only as a side
issue in many places, constitutes one of the principal re-
sources for taking care of the constant increase in the rural
population, and provides for this increase a profitable em-
ployment. By practicing the proper system of dairy farm-
ing, two men can obtain profitable employment on a farm
where formerly, under a system of grain farming, one man
did the work. Stating it in another way, by proper dairy
farming, eighty acres can be made to yield as much profit
as will a 1600-acre farm under the old system of grain
farming.

Obtaining sure and quick returns.—<As a safe invest-
ment, the dairy cow excels. The risk of growing a herd of
dairy cows is less than that involved in handling other kinds
of live stock. While there are diseases, and especially con-
tagious diseases, affecting dairy herds, the attentive dairy-
man keeps the herd and surroundings in such a condition
as to prevent and check any great losses from such sources.
The dairyman keeps in close touch with every individual
cow of the herd. The cows are taken into the barn, fed
and milked twice a day. If any one member of the herd

10 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

shows symptoms of sickness, such as lack of appetite, or a
lessened flow of milk, she can be attended to at once. It is
different with other classes of animals allowed to run, per-
haps for months, without receiving frequent attention.

The food which the dairy cow receives is transformed
into a separate product, removed from the cow twice every
day. If anything should happen to the dairy cow, no
accumulated lot of products representing several months
of labor and feeding would be lost. Only the machinery is
lost. With almost any other animal, the owner sustains a
loss of not only the
machinery used for
transforming the
feed, but also the
accrued products,
from months and
even years.

The, prod were
from the dairy cow
can be realized upon
at once. In? Ataee
the cow - products
are of such a perish-
able nature that it is
almost necessary to
market- then
once. This quick
FIG. 4—Corn on unmanured ground; yield 7 transformation of

tons per acre. These two fields of corn were the f ee d by the
grown on the same quarter section of land. 5

dairy cow, and the
ready cash sales of the dairy products, reduce the risk of
live stock farming to a minimum and supply the dairyman
with cash.

The dairy cow may also be considered a safety in crop
production. While it is not commendable to anticipate a
crop failure, the wise farmer does not rely entirely upon the
field crops for his income. Late spring, wet or dry seasons,

of | SEE BS Bee ss

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING Tet

hailstorms, injurious insects, and early frost are likely to
hinder the production of a mature field crop. The dairy-
man who, for instance, has a silo can utilize an immature
corn crop and have splendid feed for a dairy herd, while
otherwise it would be difficult, if not impossible, tc realize
on such a corn crop.

Utilizing rough lands.—In some states and in some
communities there
is much rough and
partially waste land
which cannot well
be tilled. Such land
imay be seeded to
Pemmanent tame
Pes tute, and ‘the
maximum _ returns
obtained by grazing
a herd of good dairy
cows upon it. This
is especially true
where the land is in-
clined to be low and
woody.

Pereaou sh ex-
tremely swampy
land is frequently
used for dairy cow
pasture, the writer
such use. Such land FIG. 5—Corn on manure ground; y’eld 14
may serve for sup- Ce as
plying feed for young stock, but for cows giving milk low
land pasture of this kind grows grass that is coarse and not
very appetizing. The cows should not wade around in
Swampy pastures, as their udders and teats are likely to
become dirty. In the spring, during the wet season, it may
be even difficult for the dairy cow to find a dry place on

12 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

which to lie down. In such low land, mosquitoes and other
insects are usually very troublesome, especially during the
middle of the summer. Outside of extremely low, swampy
ground, however, the dairy cow can economically utilize
rough land that cannot well be farmed.

Retaining and increasing richness of land.—Among the
various phases of agriculture, dairy farming stands un-
rivaled as the greatest upbuilder of the soil. This is evi-
denced in every dairy community.

The dairy farmer who transforms all of his feed into
dairy products removes very little fertility from his farm.
This is shown by the following table, compiled by Armsby:

Manurial Value of Farm Products

Pounds per ton Value per ton

Phos-

Nitrogen | phoric Potash | Total
acid

Meadow hay 20.42 8.20 1.06 5.10
Clover hay... 40.16 11.20 1.46 9.07
Rotatoes. oe. 7.01 3.20 46 1.87
Wheat bran . 49.15 54.60 1.14 137-311
Linseed meal 105.12 32.20 99 21.11
Cotton-

seed meal ...| 135.65 56.20 3 Is 28.16
Wiheatsncmee S759 15.80 ‘ 42 7.91
Oats snc ees 36.42 12.40 Pil 35 7.43
Gone ceeeine 33.06 11.80 62 30 6.75
Barleyanenna: 39.65 15.40 74 36 8.18
ING 10.20 3.40 73 12 2.09
Gheese.- 4700 90.60 23.00 .40 20 17.21
Buttert on oe 2.50 .76 Bi, 05 .50
Live cattle .. 53.20 37.20 04 14 11.78
Creams oa Tae 2034 als 14 1.41

*Calculated from South Dakota Station analyses.

The manurial value of $1000 worth of farm products
fluctuates with the market prices. For this reason, the price

is given in the following table, and represents about the
current price at the time of writing.

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 13

The manurial value of $1000 worth of each of the farm
products, calculated from the above table, is as follows:

Manurial value of $1000 Ww orth of clover hay @ $9 per ton___-$1007
cottonseed meal @ $30 per ton 904

‘“ ‘“c ‘“ “ “ Ww heat bran @ $20 per LONG Lhe 665
«“ oe . “meadow hay @ $8 per ton___-- 640
«“ cong ee f “linseed meal @ $40 per ton_--_- 552
‘“ “ “ sé sé oats @ 20 per LONE Ae eee ee, 371
‘c ‘“ “ “ a: corn @ $20 per LON Sar 2 337
‘“ eel Meee,” Te “ “batley-@ $26 per ton_2=2-.--»- 327
«“ a BO eae 2, wheat, (@vesepere boners a he 316
«“ EB cee “ — live cattle-@ $100 per ton_--___ 118
‘ ae Fh ge < = ‘potatoes i@: $20 per tone_—=- 93
“ spilgee. = as S Samilki@. Sesser tons 83
“ “ “ “ “6 cheese (@ $3 300: per TONES 220. Ss 5

‘“ “ “ “ “6 cream @ NSE 50 per CONE 2 = ie 9:4
«“ ea ee oF “7. batter (@ S50 per toms.2-- = 7

According to Cornell station, the different farm animals
per thousand pounds live weight produce the following
amount of manure, daily, having the composition shown in
the following table:

Amount and Composition of Manure

Analysis

Amount To Nitrogen Phos- | Potash Value

per day water phoric acid per ton
SHEED ic ass 34.1 59.52 768 ol 591 3.30
Galvess ve:08;5 67.8 Ute 497 eT, 53a 2.18
LOR Gere clave ez 83.6 74.13 840 -390 320 3.29
COWS cs ae 74.1 DLE 426 .290 440 2.02
FLOKSES =. 3. a) 48.8 48 69 490 .260 480 2.21

The cow, then, produces about 13.5 tons of manure per
year, which is ordinarily worth about $2 per ton, or $27
(value of nitrogen at 15 cents; phosphoric acid, 6 cents;
potash at 414 cents per pound). The above amount in-
cludes sufficient litter to keep the cow reasonably clean.
According to the Pennsylvania experiments, about 37 per-
cent of the above-mentioned manure voided is liquid, and
the remainder, or 63 percent, is dung.

The question of conserving the soil fertility cannot be too
strongly emphasized. The richness of the soil is a natural

14 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYINC.

heritage. Those who own the land do not own its natural
plant food supply. They are simply trustees, and. it is their
duty to retain and even increase the richness of the land.
The west and central west should profit by the mistakes
made in some of the older states. In the eastern part of
the United States, and in some parts of the south, artificial
fertilizers are used extensively. About $100,000,000 worth
of artificial fertilizers is used annually in the United States.

FIG. 6—Hauling liquid manure from a concrete liquid manure cistern.
(Courtesy Portland Cement Co.)

Artificial fertilizers may serve as stimulants for a short
time, but they are expensive, and unless used in large quanti-
ties, are not effective.

By practicing dairy farming, and by hauling manure on
the land, the productivity of the soil can be retained, be-
cause so little plant food is removed from the farm.

The richness of the land can even be increased, and usu-
ally is. The dairyman commonly buys some concentrated
feedstuffs, rich in protein, such as bran, linseed meal,

CHIEF. PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 15

gluten feeds, cottonseed meal, and other mill and brewery
by-products. These, in addition to the feeds raised on the
farm, are fed to the cows, and the manure returned to the
land. Considering also that the dairyman usually tills his
soil well, and that plant food elements are constantly set
free, dairy farming not only maintains, but increases the
productiveness of the land.

This is evidenced in practically all of the dairy localities
in the United States, at least all that the writer has visited.

Det EM RSM Os

FIG. 7—Showing litter treeck and carrier. (Courtesy Portland Cement Co.)

The European countries practicing dairy farming inten-
sively are prosperous, even in the face of high taxes, high
rent, high prices of feed, and high value of land. Denmark
was formerly a land of poverty. Since the daiiy business
gained a foothold, the masses are prosperous and well-to-do.
Under the present system of dairy farming the yield from
each acre has been doubled in about twenty years. The
dairy industry in Denmark did not begin to develop until
about 1883.

16 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

In the sections where the rainfall is low this question
of retaining the soil fertility by dairy farming is of special
importance. Dr. Widtsoe of the Utah station found that
corn grown on well-manured land required 612 pounds of
water to produce one pound of dry matter, while corn grown
on unmanured land required 908 pounds of water to pro-
duce one pound of dry matter.

Reducing the marketing expense of field crops.—The
average field crops, such as hay, straw, and grain, are-bulky
and heavy and expensive to market. Especially is this
true for those who live in the central west and northwest
states at long distances from central markets, and also for
those whose farms are located a long distance from railroad
stations. Many farmers are located from six to 15 miles

2... 38—Hauling the manure from the barn onto the field daily is probably
the best method of handling manure on the dairy farm.

from a shipping point. Such farmers cannot load and un-
load and make more than one trip each day. To haul a
load of hay or other feed to a railroad station will then cost
the value of a day’s wages, of team and man.

When this feed is loaded on the car at the lecal stagion,
then there is the expense of transportation to the central
market. From this territory to the Chicago market, the
average cost of transportation per 100 pounds is about 20
cents, or about $4 per ton.

During the winter months the dairy cow will eat about
three tons of hay and one ton of grain. To get this feed

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 17

from the farm to the Chicago market will cost about as
follows:

Hauling from farm to shipping point three loads of hay @ $4___$12

Hauling from farm to shipping point one load of grain @ $4____ 4
Transportation or freight on four tons of feed from shipping

MPMEEICE Mina Tarkett. (2) p42 22-2 Soh ee 16

Total cost of marketing feed-for one cow every year__---~-- $32

This cost has been calculated on the basis of carload
rates, and does not consider elevator charges, nor commis-
sion for handling and selling at local and central market
place.

One purpose of keeping the dairy cow is to reduce this
marketing expense. A fairly good dairy cow should be
able to change this feed into three hundred pounds of butter.

Cost of hauling 300 pounds of butter from farm to shipping

SET SSL (GE aie al SES Sn gle 2) et Se Pe ee a $3.00
Cost of transportation or freight on 300 pounds of butter to

Remtcol amatket at 50 ‘cents per 100 pounds__~—--_.--...~.-- 1.50

Morsicost-of marketing the butter. _2- 20.) _-i.1-2.2-22-- $4.50

The other products from the cow, namely, the skim milk,
the calf and the manure, remain on the farm.

A dairy cow thus reduces the cost of marketing field crops
from $32 to $4.50, a difference of $27.50. If the man main-
tains a herd of 15 cows, the total transportation expense
saved annually is equal to $412. This saving will, of course,
vary somewhat according to localities. The above figures
have been cited to illustrate the point that dairy cows will
reduce the cost of marketing field crops.

This decrease in transportation charges is due chiefly to
the fact that the dairy cow is especially well adapted to han-
dling bulky field crops. The dairy cow can utilize a larger
percent of the nutrients in the form of bulky and rough
feeds than can any other farm animal. The three tons of
hay and one ton of grain will occupy a space equal to about
1300 cubic feet. This much volume the cow will change

18 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

into about 300 pounds of the most concentrated human food
known. 7

These figures cannot be accurate for all cases and tomeam
conditions. However, they point with a great deal cf sig-
nificance to what the dairy cow is able to do in the way of
changing bulky and weighty field crops into concentrated
human fcods for which there is always a ready demand at
high prices.

One more factor should be considered in this connection.
Some of the dairy products produced are consumed in the
immediate locality, and do not need to be shipped at all.
They are used as human foods in the immediate community
where they are produced, while the field crops could not be
thus utilized and therefore need to be transported to the big
central markets if the farmer wishes to realize cash from
them.

Reproduction.—The above discussion has been confined
chiefly to the production only, to the turning of labor and
feeds into dairy products and money. Another very im-
portant purpose for which dairy cows are kept is to repro-
duce. ‘The better the cow and the better the sire, the more
valuable is this phase of the cow’s work. This work of re-
production is largely carried on at the same time that the
cow performs the remainder of her functions. One case is
on record where a calf sold for $106,000. In several in-
stances, one calf has sold for as high as $10,000. This may
be considered the maximum. The value of a cow’s off-
spring may be said to vary from $5 up.

The common value set on a calf does not justly measure
the value of a cow for reproduction. A calf has a certain
intrinsic market value, but in addition to this, an individual
of a large producing strain and of a family of good type, is
a carrier of valuable hereditary characteristics. The dairy
cow is a vehicle for carrying the combined characteristics
of her ancestors. This work of reproducing dairy qualities
is one which many dairymen overlook. These qualities
cannot be seen, cannot be handled, yet they form one of the

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAIRYING 19

most valuable purposes for which we keep the dairy cow.
This is especially true when the dairyman is trying to im-
prove his herd.

The informed, wide-awake dairy farmer highly values
this particular work of the dairy cow. As soon as farmers
in general realize the importance of this the improvement of
dairy cattle will go forward with astounding rapidity. At
the present time, one owner of a. dairy cow will concentrate
this force of transmitting desirable characteristics, and an-
other one working less intelligently will undo what has al-
ready been accomplished.

In some instances, cows are kept for the above chief pur-
poses. In addition, many farmers value a cow for what
she will bring after her dairy usefulness has ceased. Many
farmers practice keeping large cows, and sell them before
they are very old. Under such conditions, the value of the
cow for the block is considerable. Probably such cows will
net between $30 and $80 each.

CEA PERS tf
THE DAIRY COW

The dairy cow is the foundation of the dairy industry.
Without her, there would be no dairying. Upon the kind
of a dairy cow, to a very large extent, depends the amount
of profit obtained by the dairy farmer.

Strong statements have been made by breed enthusiasts
relative to the merits and demerits of certain breeds. The
writer’s experience with all of the leading dairy breeds has
taught him that it is not so much a question of what breed,
as it is a question of individuality and of strain within a
breed. There are many poor dairy cattle within any of the
breeds. The person who obtains individuals in a family of
large producers of Holstein cows will not want to part with
them. On the other hand, if he obtains individuals that do
not produce well, he naturally desires to make a change. It
is similar with the Guernsey breed; it is similar with Ayr-
shires ; and it is similar with Jerseys. The same thing holds
true with cattle belonging to the other breeds.

Desirable form of a good dairy cow.—There can be no
question that there is a relation existing between the form
of an animal and its functions. The chief work of the
dairy cow is to change field crops into dairy products and a
calf. This particular work the dairy cow has been. per-
forming for many generations and for many hundred years.
Asa result, the cow has acquired a form that closely relates
to her functions. This particular form has become hered-
itary. It has been thoroughly demonstrated that the ability
to produce milk and butter fat by a cow is an hereditary
characteristic, and that the form accompanying large pro-
duction is also hereditary.

This principle may be illustrated in the human family, for
instance, with a blacksmith. His right arm is more heavily

20

THE DAIRY COW pA

muscled and stronger than is the right arm of a person do-
ing other forms of work. If this man’s son is also a black-
smith, his right arm will be more heavily muscled and
stronger, and so on down the line of the descendants. Even-
tually, it will not be necessary for these descendants to be
blacksmiths in order to have strong right arms. It becomes
an acquired hereditary characteristic. It is similar with
dairy cows. They have been changing feeds into dairy
products for so many generations, that the form that relates
to milk production has become an acquired hereditary
characteristic. It is this hereditary form which indicates
large milk production and which we look for in picking a
good dairy cow. At the present time this study of relation
of form to function is by no means complete.

The important points to be considered in judging a dairy
cow may be classified under four main heads:

1. Is she capable of consuming and digesting large quan-
tities of feed, especially rough feeds, that is, has she a ca-
pacious and efficient digestive system?

2. Is she capable of converting these feeds into milk and
butter fat economically, that is, has she capacious and effi-
cient mammary organs, and the right dairy temperament ?

3. Is she capable of doing this work for a long time and
retaining good health, that is, has she a strong constitution?

4. Has she proper shape and symmetry? Under this
heading is included breed, type, size, color, etc.

Ability to Consume and Digest Feeds

A cow’s middle piece, or barrel, should have plenty of
capacity for handling and digesting large quantities of
rough feed. The barrel should be long, that is, the length
from the hips to the shoulders should be great. It should
also be deep, and wide. This does not mean that it should
be wide near the top line. On the contrary, the cow’s top
line should be narrow. The ribs should gradually spread
from the backbone in such a way as to give depth and
width of body. A cow having large barrel capacity will

22 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

have ribs that are wide and placed far apart. The length,
depth, and width of the barrel should be of such propor-
tions as to make that part of the cow’s body appear sym-
metrical.

In this connection it is well to examine the muzzle or
mouth of the cow. A peaked mouth does not indicate good
feeding quality in a cow. The muzzle should be wide and
of good size. This one point is probably of little impor-
tance by itself, but when considered with the other qualities
indicating large, efficient digestive capacity, it is a good
indication.

FIG. 9—-A ecw long and wide of barrel, but lacks depth of body. This cow
shows excellent capacity in front quarters.

The loin of a cow should be wide and reasonably level.
This adds strength to the back of the cow and indicates
strong kidneys. A sloping and narrow loin gives a bad
appearance to the cow.

Capacity is not the only important thing in connection
with the digestive system of the cow. She should also be
an efficient user of feeds. The cow. that can Weilizestne
largest percentage of the consumed feeds or nutrients, and
put it into the pail, is the most profitable.

A cow having efficient digestion usually has a skin of

THE DAIRY COW 23

good quality. The outside skin is a continuation of the
lining of the digestive tract. The lining of the digestive
tract contains the glands that secrete the pancreatic, gastric,
and salivary juices. If the lining of the digestive tract is of
good quality, more, and a better quality of digestive fluids
are secreted. In connection with judging the efficiency of
digestion, the quality of skin is of great importance. It
should be velvety, loose, mellow, and of medium thickness.

The covering of the skin should also be soft, short, and
downy. Hairs that are coarse, long, and stiff are not in-
dicative of efficient digestion.

LD eee ee Oe Tae

FIG. 10—A cow deep and wide of barrel, and showing good quality.

Most good dairy cows also have an oily skin. Sometimes
the secretion is yellow. In some breeds of cattle, especially
the Guernsey, this color of the secretion is of considerable
importance. It is generally considered that there is a rela-
tion between the color of the skin secretion and the color
of the milk. At any rate, a desirable skin should not be dry
and scaly. The secretion should be copious and a yellow
color is preferred.

24 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Ability to Change Feeds Into Dairy Products

Large udder capacity.—Large udder capacity is proba-
bly the most important point in a dairy cow. ‘The front
udder should extend well forward under the abdomen. The
hind udder should extend back and high up between two
flat thighs. This will give the udder great length. The
cow’s udder should also be wide. This necessitates that the
cow should be wide in the hind quarters and between the

FIG. 11—College Belle Wayne 98497, bred and owned by South Dakota
State College. This view was obtained when she produced 118 lbs. of
milk per day. Weight 1975 Its. Official records:
1 day, 126.7 Ibs. of milk. 7 days, 824 lbs. of milk, 35.5 lbs. butter.
30 days, 3338 lbs of milk, 146.6 lbs. butter.

thighs. If a cow’s udder is thus long and wide, there will
be large udder area attaching to the cow’s body.

wie cow’s udder should be of good quality. It must not
be fleshy and hard when empty. Immediately after milk-
ing, the cow’s udder should be soft, flabby and composed of
quantities of loose mellow skin and tissue.

The cow’s udder should also be of good shape. It should
have a wide and level underline, and symmetrical and well-

THE DAIRY COW 25

placed teats of reasonably good size. The cow’s udder
should not be pendulous in shape. The udder should be
held snugly up against the body of the cow. A low, pendu-
lous udder is common to some old cows. This shape of
udder does not necessarily indicate much ability to produce
milk.

When a cow is not giving milk, it is more difficult to judge
tae udder” Capacity.
In this case, one may
carctully «examine
the amount of loose
skin enveloping the
mammary gland and
the shape of the hind
@uareers. . Phe cow
should have a long
rimip.. “The «distance
from the hips to the
pin bones should be
Felatively great.
There is a co-relation
existing between the
length of a cow’s
rump and the length
oF a-cows udder.
Similarly, there is a2 |= Zi 7
co-relation existing FIG. 12—Col'ege Bel'e Wayne, when not
between the width of ae
a cow’s hind quarter and the width of a cow’s udder.

i

There is also a relation existing between the shape of a
cow’s hind quarter and the shape of her udder. If a cow is
drooping behind, and the pin bones and tail setting are much
lower than the hips, then the hind quarters of the cow’s
udder are much lower than the front quarters, and usually
such a cow lacks in front udder development. The rump
should not be depressed between hips and pin bones. The
hind quarters of a dairy cow should be level, wide and long.

26 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Blood circulation——The blood circulation of the dairy
cow is an important matter to consider. It is not sufficient
that the general blood circulation of the cow is good, but a
large percentage of the blood must be directed towards the
cow’s udder. The blood carries the raw material from
which the milk is manufactured. The mammary gland,
located in the cow’s udder, is the organ which constitutes
the machinery that makes the milk. Unless there is a large
supply of blood at the
seat of milk manufacture,
there can be no abun-
dance ‘of raw matefial
from which the milk can
be manufactured.

The mammary vem
or milk veins, as they are
often called, should be
large. These milk veins
are located on the under
part. of the “cows Wa:
domen, lying from the
udder to the heart. They
should be branching, es-
pecially near the udder
Most large producing
cows have crooked or
tortuous milk %veme:
Likewise, they have long
veins. Hence, when se-

FIG. 13—A cow having a narrow, rough lectins 4a dairy cow, a

and droopy rump. 5
person should look for
long milk veins extending well towards the foreflank before
they penetrate the abdominal wall, and for veins that are
large, crooked, and branching.

In this connection, one should remember that the size
varies with age. A young cow does not have as large milk
veins as an older cow. They will also vary according to

THE DAIRY COW 27

whether a cow is in milk or not. During the first portion
of the lactation period, the milk veins are larger than
towards the latter part, or when the cow is dry, or almost
dry.

At the end of the milk veins, or where they appear to end,
towards the anterior part of the cow’s body, there are spen-
ings through the abdominal wall. These are the openings
through which the
veins pass on their
way towards the heart.
These openings are
called the milk wells.
These milk wells
should be large and
they should be numer-
ous. On a good dairy
cow, there is usually
one large milk well,
and several small ones
@n ‘each side. Where
there are several small
milk wells in connec-
tion with the large
ones, the milk vein has
a corresponding num-
pel, G@r-extensions. It
Giipeteadily ~be seen
that milk wells which
are small and few in
number do not permit
a large flow of blood through them, even though the veins
are large. Therefore, large milk veins do not mean so much
as when both veins and milk wells are large.

Experiments conducted at the Oregon station show that
these exterior veins are not the only passages of the blood.
These veins were tied or completely shut off, yet the cow
continued to produce milk in almost normal quantity, Some

VIG. 14—A cow having a wide, level rump.

23 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

cows may have the important veins on the inside of the
body rather than where they may be seen.

The milk mirror, or escutcheon, has also been associated
with the blood circulation of a cow. By milk mirror is
meant the lay of the hair on the inner side of the thighs of
the cow. A ridge of hair extends from the upper hind part
of the cow’s thighs down well towards the hock, at which
place it usually ends ina twirl. This ridge results from the
lay of hair coming from the twist on the inner side of the
thigh meeting the lay of the hair from the outside of the
thigh. Most good
dairy cows have a
wide, long, 2and
well-defined milk
mirror.

Just what rela-
tion exists between
milk production and
the milk mirror is
not known def-
nitely. Some claim
that it is an indica-
tion of “the extra
; amount of blood
FIG. 15—Showing good shape and quality of | that is supplied to
udder, and also excellent mammary vein de- °
velopment. (Courtesy U. S. Dairy Division.) the hind quarters of

the cow. Most cows
give more milk from the hind quarters than they do from
the front quarters. Such cows usually have a good milk
mirror or escutcheon. There are some good judges of
dairy cows who refuse to recognize any definite relation
existing between the milk mirror and the production of the
cow. It is true that there are many good producing cows
that do not show much milk mirror.

This supposed relation of milk mirror to production was
investigated and advocated by a Frenchman whose name
was Guennon. His supposed discovery was carefully in-

THE DAIRY COW 29

vestigated by the French government, and the committee
having this in charge reported favorably. It is also stated
that a committee of experts representing the state of
Pennsylvania investigated this problem and also reported
favorably.

The writer can remember the time when it was difficult
for a bull to receive a premium at the big dairy cattle shows
in Denmark unless he had a prominent and well-defined
escutcheon. There was less importance attached to the
escutcheon of cows, but a dairy bull heading a herd and
regarded of high standard should possess a good milk
mirror. In connection with the other favorable qualities in-
dicating large production, a wide, well-defined escutcheon
is desirable. _

Poise or carriage.-—A cow that has good poise and car-
riage shows a healthful, bright, and lean appearance, when
in milk and on good feed. Such a cow has large, bright,
and prominent eyes. She has a refined feminine appear-
ance. Such a cow has ears of good quality—ears that are
well carried and even active.

A cow with good poise has a wide forehead, not too wide
in the poll. She is not coarse and heavy in the throat-
latch and the jaw bone. She has a prominent open-jointed
backbone that carries out straight at the tail setting.

The forehead and backbone contain the brain and spinal
cord respectively. These are the two chief parts of the
nervous system. The wide forehead, with the other quali-
ties mentioned above, indicates good brain capacity, and
similarly a prominent backbone indicates a large spinal
cord. Between each of the vertebre the nerves radiate out
to the various parts of the body. If the spinal column has
an open-jointed appearance and the cow has good control
over all of her movements, it indicates a free and certain
flow of nervous energy to the various parts of the cow’s
body.

There are some who think that a good dairy cow is very
nervous, ready to suffer a nervous collapse at any slight

30 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

excitement. This is contrary to the writer’s experience.
The largest and best producing cows with which the writer
has come in contact are the cows which show the least
nervousness. They are cows that seem to understand the
surroundings. They do not become excited over every little
unusual thing that happens.

Ability to Maintain Life and Health

To continuously change feeds into dairy products and to
raise a calf each year is hard work for a cow. In order to
stand this year after year, a cow must have a strong con-
stitution.

The strength of the constitution is judged chiefly from
the capacity of her front quarter. The thorax, or front
quarter, contains two of the most vital organs of the cow,
namely, the lungs and the heart. The lungs purify the
blood, and the heart pumps it to the different parts of the
body. Unless the cow has a large pair of lungs, and a
strong, capacious heart, the work of digestion and milk
secretion cannot be economically done.

The dairy cow should have a deep chest. Dhe else
should also have good width. This applies especially to the
lower part of the front quarter. A cow that is very narrow,
having the two front legs extend from the chest very close
together, usually has not a very large chest capacity. A cow
should also have a shoulder that is oblique. The shoulder
that is straight up and down does not give much length to
the front quarters, while if the shoulder slants back, the
cow usually has good chest capacity, lengthwise.

In addition, a cow should have a Full and large heart
girth. Many cows are notably weak in this place. Some
cows are very depressed in the crops, or back of the
shoulder near the top line. Some cows are also very
depressed in the fore flank, or back of the fore leg near
the underline. A contracted heart girth and a contracted
chest are indications of a weak constitution.

THE DAIRY COW 31

A cow having large lung and heart capacity usually has a
prominent windpipe, or trachea, and large nostrils. The
nostrils and the windpipe serve as inlets for the fresh air.
Unless these are large, the cow cannot take in large volumes
of fresh air, nor expel large volumes of impure air from the
lungs. These latter points should not be overlooked in
judging a cow.

A cow having a strong constitution usually has a large,
prominent navel. The size of the navel is considered an
indication of the manner in which the individual was fed
during the prenatal period. The navel is the place where
the umbilical cord was attached before the individual was
born. To what extent the size of the navel and the umbili-
cal cord are indications of how the individual was nourished
before birth is a question, but considering the fact that most
good dairy cows have a large navel, it is deemed of some
importance.

The general appearance of the cow should also be con-
sidered. A dairy cow which has small, depressed, elongated
eyes, and drooping ears, and a general sluggish expression
is not as a rule a cow with a strong constitution.

General Form

There is an old saying that “a chain is no stronger than
its weakest link.” This applies to a dairy cow. There is
no cow any stronger than her weakest part. We, therefore,
should look for symmetry of form. A symmetrical form is
also attractive and beautiful. There is no reason why
beauty cannot be combined with utility.

The various breed characteristics, such as size, color, etc.,
should be studied under this head.

The judging of dairy cows cannot be said to have been
entirely standardized. Gov. Hoard once said: “The inside
of a cow is a dark place.” The study already made shows
that the chief points referred to above are desirable and
indicative of large milk production.

The extent to which such points as the kind of escutcheon

32 LARSEN’S FARM ee

SOUTH DAKOTA STATE. COLLEGE
Department of Dairy Husbandry

Students’ Score Card—Dairy Cow
INV THe yess at ee ial ore arene eaters ae eusioresegerohelohe rues Pera OTTERS r SCORE

Female

SCORE OF POINTS

wy
Te ARLE Ye nO) CONSUMEAAND) DIG ES le HEED oe eo
(capacious and efficient digestive organs) 20 points! ‘¢ 9 eS
Chiefly indicated by: Pac on
1. Deep, wide and medium long barrel, ribs broad and ee
wide apart; broad, long, and not too sloping loins. . 12
2. Large, wide mouth, NOt Peake rise bie lshekenusersas 1
3. Loose, mellow, medium thick skin, yellow secre-
HON, INANE OMe, Enel Wines Songecoaameccosoondc0n N° 7
ik ABIMITY TO UCHANGE FEEDS INTO DAIRY,
PRODUCTS (dairy temperament) 50 points
ees indicate by:
Udder capacity. 39 points
(a) Front udder extending well forward and under
Filoyeloy cave NENA MGC ROTC aD Ome rrome am m0 Oke i
(b) Hind udder extending back and high up
[aeelvilate WluiedNGo— 55 5d0o40ebaecoodbowoune 7
(C)mUiddersmnotiileshivec eect no cai iciere henoaee 2
(d) Udder should be wide and level underneath and
four symmetrically placed teats of good size. .. 4
(e) Thighs should be flat and wide apart, giving a
TLOOMMV Ae Wal Stevec aint cuenttete iornetecs le arse sete tohetene 2
(f) Cow should be level over hips, rump and pin-
bones, and have a long, wide, rump.......... 8
2. Blood circulation 10 points
(a) Large, branching, crooked and long mammary
VC UMS ye a eer ee Sher aoe eehaee Siero Creeks 6
(b) Large and numerous milk wells.............. 3
(c) Long, wide spreading and well-defined es-
ANU NAN, Oye 0H NenmbbatOlen ys oadanegedadoodDac 1
3. Poise 10 points
(a) Wide forehead, not too heavy and coarse in
throat-latch. jaw bone and neck............. ?

(b) Lean, healthy, refined feminine appearance.
bright and full eyes, well carried ears, and good
bodyicanniage: ays cen eeks cate on eine 4

(c) Prominent, straight, open-iointed, backbone,
reasonably straight at tail setting, and narrow] |
Atwtnewiatihensm eae teenies lcciorehekccchererolanerstieretekers 4

III. ABILITY TO MAINTAIN LIFE AND HEALTH
(constitution) 15 points
Chiefly indicated by:
1. Deep and wide chest and spare shoulders........ 6
Ze Large nostrils, prominent windpipe, giving large
BAT Arnley oe an en Grenache tor elves epee rent ahs Riel ep aeesiea es Z
3. Full and large heart girth, full in foreflank, full in
crops and back of shoulders. giving large heart
CAP aCupynn Aiievaceye: Mave vere seve fodare renee Cavemereu nese gtee Oictehe Non ohieste 6
Arc ar & Guta viel seach oeteciler a reals Pan ora renene re erecta a ate cite ogets 1

IV. GENERAL FORM and Breed Characteristics 15 points
Chiefly indicated by:

EE be eee Ea Rta MEME RRA 5 OME RE Rog ea Sano Ie 6
DPA COLT wick mete toe o e A e Re ee oe 2
Bisse IOV MTU ERY. cie cits there aan tie aI eae ata Westra 7

THE DAIRY COW 33

and crooked and long milk veins indicate large milk produc-
tion is yet a question. Similarly, the extent to which the
copiousness and color of secretion and skin, color of base
of horns and hoofs, are indications of richness and color of
milk, and whether or not richness can be judged, are yet
questions.

The judging of cows should not be done entirely from a
standpoint of milk production. Beauty of form may be
combined with utility.

In Denmark, the following score card has been in use :*

Pitmmnand. sizes. A x eee 15 points
Miaity and ‘dairy temperament__2.— —.+--- 1e0 6
Remi Thies CMA LIGAOS oe ee i
arg 8 Bd OS es ae Fak eS
(Detailed information of ancestors_____-- 2)
(Premiums won by-ancestors_—_1_.___--_- 3)
(Importance of family breeding___-_---_-__- 3
(Detailed information as to milk and fat

j) POV ELBE 1 a 4)

“IS pe A ee DE Ne RE US 51 points

In Sweden, young bulls are judged by the use of the fol-
lowing score card:

LP Ch Se.y ee Se ee ah eee ee > a pomts
Pei OMANCeShOTS 3 8 Pee Bue eee
lorm, general appearance, and strength______ edi

i iret ree Or Se ees ee 9 points

The ability of a cow to produce milk and butter fat is
hereditary. On this account, it would seem reasonable that
a score card should give some weight to pedigree. In the
judging of grade or unimproved cows, there would proba-
bly be a lack of information of ancestors, and therefore
such a score card would be impracticable; but in the judg-
ing of pure-bred dairy cattle, it would seem practical and
advisable to give room for this important feature. Each
association of pure-bred dairy cattle now has a score card.

* Bulletin 129, U. S. Dept. of Agr. F. Rasmussen.

34

LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

None of these, so far as known, includes this important

feature.

Yet, when a person starts out to buy a pure-bred

animal of either sex, he puts a great deal of stress on the

production and the type of the near ancestors.

It would

seem that this feature deserves a place on the breed score

caras:

“oi iN WAN

1 wld Hh lig, Mt,
ae

I, \\

I
hie ‘Al te
H/. Mi

WN A 1D
in "l a
ee Un a) Ga log

\\
Mil f

iN at ty AN
(ye

sa (hh cis cvs

Au Wal

een ;

f

DIAGRAM OF Cow SHOWING POINTS TO BE OBSERVED IN
Jupcine Datry CattTLe (U. S. Farmers’ Bull. No. 106):

. Head.
Muzzle.

- Nostril.
Face.
Eye.
Forehead.
Horn.

© 00 IDR OV 09 DO ee

. Pelvie arch.
. Rump.

5 tholle

. Switch.

. Chest.

. Brisket.

. Dewlap.

. Shoulder.

. Elbow.

. Forearm.

. Knee.

. Ankle.

. Hoof.

. Heart girth.
, Side or barrel.

. Belly.

. Flank.

. Milk or mammary vein
. Fore udder.

. Hind udder.

> Tests:

. Upper thigh.

. Stifle.

5 Twist:

. Leg or gaskin.
- Hock.

. Shank.

. Dew claw.

. Milk well

CHAPTER If
BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE

Development of breeds.—The different stages from the
origin to the present development of our various breeds
are not well known, but in a general way they are. The
dairy cow is supposed to have descended from the native
wild cow of Europe (boss primeval). Nothing definitely
is known as to which species of the wild cattle our present
domesticated breeds are derived from.

Bete ate RA aL PB tae PU i OP LOI a

FIG. 16—The beef from the buffalo supplied food, and the hide was used

for comfort and protection by the Indians and early settlers.
By reason of environment, these native cows were divided
into two groups. Some of these lived in the mountains or
highlands, where feed was scarce and the atmosphere rare.
Under these natural surroundings, it was necessary for
them to traverse considerable rough land and “rustle” for
their feed. Individuals exposed to such environment for
35

36 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

many generations develop certain characteristics. They
became active, well-muscled, and rather small of build.
These qualities in time became acquired inherited char-
acteristics.

The cattle that went into the lowlands developed differ-
ently, and acquired different inherited characteristics. It
was not necessary for these cattle to “rustle” for their feed,
nor to climb hills and mountains. Feed was plentiful. As
a result, the native cattle in the lowlands developed greater

ps

FIG. 17—The Longhorn was an imvortant becf producing animal in the
early days of cattle ranging. (Courtesy of Prof. J. M. Ridgeway, Texas
Ag. College.)
size, more sluggishness, and less of the active charac-

teristics.

Later on, the efforts of nature were supplanted by the
efforts of man. The laws governing proper breeding and
selection were not well understood, but it did not take long
for observant persons to discover the general principle that
“like begets like,” and also that feeding had an important
effect on shaping the form and functions of cows.

The breeding of cattle for special purposes has continued.

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 37

It was not sufficient to obtain one breed of dairy cattle and
one breed of beef cattle, but there are now specialized
breeds within each of these classes. For instance, there are
breeds that are recognized as large milk producers, and
breeds that are recognized as producers of very rich milk.

We thus recognize several stages in the development of
the highly specialized dairy cow of today.

1. The effects due principally to natural surroundings
and conditions.

2. The formation of classes of cows that were large milk
producers, and classes of cows that were selected for beef,
neither of which were yet very good dairy nor very good
beef animals.

FIG. 18—The Whiteface or Hereford represents the improved type of range
cattle and in good demand for beef production. (Courtesy of Dakota Farmer.)

3. The development of our special purpose beef breeds
and special purpose dairy breeds.

4. The further tendency toward specialization within
breeds. The foundations of our present leading breeds. of
cattle in the United States have all been imported from
Europe.

38, LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Breeds of Dairy Cattle

As the principles of breeding and selection and their effects
upon shaping the productive tendencies of cows became
better understood, breeds of cattle for various purposes
became numerous.

In the past, all of our different breeds of cattle have been
classified into three groups:

1. Special purpose dairy breeds.

(a) Ayrshire (d) Holstein

(b) Guernsey (e) Brown Swiss

(ce) Jersey ({) Dutch Belted
2. Dual purpose.

(a) Milking Red Polls (b) Milking Shorthorns
3. Special purpose beef cattle.

(a) Shorthorn (d) Galloway

(b) Hereford (ec) Polled Durham

(c) Polled Angus

FIG. 19—Showing Praca Bergere 33074. She was Grand Champion
Guernsey cow at the 1917 National Dairy Show. Official test in 300 days
516 lbs. of fat. (Courtesy W. W. Marsh, Waterloo, Ia.)

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 39

This classification has not been entirely satisfactory.
rhere has been a tendency for several of the breeds to en-
jisx in the dual-purpose class.

Some of the breeders of beef cattle have found individ-
uals that have been fair milk producers, and have adver-
tised them as dual-purpose. There have also been some
dairy cattle breeders who have found considerable beef
value in their young stock and have listed their breed as
dual-purpose.

The general farmer in the central northwest naturally
thinks that if he can get the best milking qualities and also
the best beef qualities combined in the same animal, that
that is the breed to which he should tie.

What is a dual-purpose or two-purpose cow? The two
purposes for which the cow is kept are first, to produce
milk economically, and secondly, to produce a calf that will
feed with profit. This definition for a dual-purpose cow is
very general. If there was a true standard definition for a
dual-purpose cow there would not be-so much discussion
and even disputes on this particular point.

If a certain cow produces a calf that will net a profit of
$15 at the end of the year, and also a profit of $15 on the
milk produced, such a cow would be a dual-purpose cow. If
a cow nets $25 on the milk during the year, and $15 on the
calf, such a cow is pre-eminently a dairy cow, and should
not be called a dual-purpose cow. A cow that produces a
greater profit from the milk than from the calf during the
year is manifestly a dairy cow.

The purposes of every cow are to produce and to repro-
duce. The difference is only in the extent to which they
can produce milk economically, or produce a calf that will
feed economically.. The question of whether a cow is a
beef cow, dairy cow, or a dual-purpose cow, is, then, a ques-
tion of degree. So long as this is so, there will always be
discussions on this particular point.

40 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The ideal dual-purpose cow is the one that nets the same
amount of profit from the calf and the milk during the year.
Manifestly, it is almost impossible to produce or breed such
an anzmal. The cow may be said to be a factory in which
human food is manufactured from field crops. Every fac-
tory has a main product and also by-products. Milk is the
main product from the dairy cow. The calf and manure
are the by-products. .

It should be understood that these two functions of a
cow are here considered from the standpoint of producing
human food, not from the standpoint of producing breeding
animals.

Probably the greatest trouble with the above-mentioned
classification is that within one breed there are beef animals
that are never being milked and some dairy strains that are
milked regularly. Some breeders of the so-called dual-pur-
pose cattle adhere to the beef type, and do not milk the
cows. They foster the beef qualities in their breeding and
selection. Yet these cattle are advertised as dual-purpose.
This is clearly wrong. The average dairy farmer does not
always understand. He usually thinks that if an animal is
a pure-bred belonging to the particular dual-purpose breed
that animal contains the beef and also the milk qualities.
The following classification would be less misleading and
complex:

DAIRY BREEDS

1. Ayrshire 6. Dutch Belted

2. Guernsey 7. Dairy Shorthorns
Da.- Jiersey. 8. . Dairy Red? Palls
4. Holstein 9. Dairy Devons

5. Brown Swiss

A good milking Shorthorn cow or a good milking Red
Poll cow has a form similar to any other good milking
cow. The difference is chiefly in the size and the color.
The relation of form to function is very close.

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 41

BEEF BREEDS

1. Aberdeen-Angus 5. Red Polls

2. Galloway 6. Polled Durham
a. - Hereford 7. ~Devons

4. Shorthorn

Ayrshire.—The Ayrshire breed comprises cows of me-
dium size, giving a medium large quantity of milk and con-

iy

FIG. -20—Ayrshire bull, Imp. Howie’s Mint Master 15819.

Duke of Argyll 7493
First and medal at Lesmagow
also iat Hamilton. First at
JT-anark, also at Peebles, and
Carleton Steadfast 8806 first and gold medal as best
Wirst as.sa 2) yr: old animal in Ayrshire section
Castle Douglas { at Biggar

Snowdrop of Hillhouse 120721
9151 Ibs. milk of 3.7% fat in

Imp. Howle’s Mint Master 15819 38 weeks
Senior Champion Ayrshire Bull f
Brown Prince 5059

j Dai 91
eee Vatry Show ole First Lanark and West Linton
as yearling
Hillhouse Cherry ror J
19951

9161 Ibs. of 3.57% milk
in 46 weeks. Dam of Cherry 7th 14958
Hobsland Masterpiece.
1st and champion male
at Inverness Hightand
show

42 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

taining a medium percent of butter fat. The average weight
of an Ayrshire cow is about 1100 pounds, and the average
milk production is about 7000 pounds of milk, testing about
four percent of butter fat.

The color of the Ayrshire cow varies. Some are almost
white. The prevailing color is red and white.

FIG. 21—Ayrshire cow, Shewalton’s Mains Queen.
Ra thhill General Hunter |
68337” ,

Raithhill Look Up
**11538”" Raithhill Jean'e Ist
Shewatton’s Mains Queen “‘App. vol. 26, p. 454’’
(A. R. 1830)

pargenel Royal Kyle ‘‘5160”’
. Srother to Blossom 3rd of Bar-
Sieiamiae hes a 37965 ~ genoch ‘13074.’ Scotch rec-

ROE RE coe ord at 18 yrs: 9200 Ibs. milk
epee ee Ibs. milk, in 26 weeks’ testing 4.65%
10,197 Ibs. milk, 411.36 Ibs. fat | Slatehole Young I essy and the dam of Netherton
Great. breeding and show cow. “App. A., No. 1638” King Arthur, one of the great

Grand champion female at breeding sires of Scotland.

Nat. Dairy Show 1917 Slatehole Lessy

“App. B. No. 2116’’
As a rule, the Ayrshire cows have a deep, wide, wedge-
shaped body. The udder is large, square, and symmetrical,
almost ideal in shape. Sometimes the teats are short. This
has been one of the principal objections raised to this breed.

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 43

Progressive breeders, however, are endeavoring to over-
come this objection, and to a certain extent have succeeded.

The Ayrshire breed of cattle originated in the southwest-
ern part of Scotland in the county of Ayr. This native home
of this breed comprises areas of rough land. The climate
is rigorous and more severe than are the native homes of the
other three leading breeds of dairy cattle. Such conditions
are conducive to the development of good “rustling” quali-
ties. The Ayrshire breed ranks first among the dairy
breeds as to ability to “rustle” for feed.

At the present writing, the champion Ayrshire cow is
Lily of Willowmoor 22269, with a production of 22,596
pounds of milk containing 955.56 pounds of butter fat. She
is owned by J. W. Clise of Washington.

The Ayrshire breed association has its central office at
Brandon, Vermont, from which place additional informa-
tion regarding this breed may be obtained.

Table Showing Number of Cattle Reg’stercd in the Different Breeds Used
for Milk in the United States, to June 1, 1917.

Number registered

Breed

Males Females Total
SMSPTELAUNT® = RUG Reg vale GR gete ana ene eee oe ecw SI? oeceee ares Ze :
(CHERTSEY Os G Se See BIC Roe 42,280 70,910 113,190
LIGLSTIETIN Bigeelicho 2 one See ee 216,494 393,997 610.491
ETSOIP Sy cio tee et a cee 153,230 385,133 538,363
S Inet Una ey, Ae oe se en ere 497,000 738,000 1,235,000
LP eillkeva UD virile Se ae a 15,330 19,952 35,282
eeal TE SIDRSE A =. Ci ee ean: ee alg aes ae 32,207 46,590 78,797
PAVOWMEOWISS sce: © es oceans Me clslas Salas 6,074 8,727 14,801
EEE GSCV It eh ee en 514 899 1,413
BECAME CLEGG e5 shee seas. oko a ctsie Saree = 1,250 DAS) Zh Hi Al
HEC HIRG AMA Can) ois.0.s alessio dcilshertun abe ees 230 785 1,015
[Diemer gy ohio 6 Gene annie eee 42 210 252
LP CLIEIEOAs ware GRAAL eS ee aga 16 59 75

* Including beef and dairy.

44 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Guernsey.—This breed of cattle originated on the island
of Guernsey, one of the Channel island group, located off
the coast of France, in the English Channel. This island is
about seven by six miles, and has a population of about

ae pa

572 A. R.-

ae ae oe ees

FIG. 22—Guernsey bull, Imp. Masher’s Galore 8

Imp. Island Champ!on 6203 A.R,
24 registered daughters
J 14 registered sons
Imp. France’s Masher
7248 A. R. ‘\
28 registered Sl
avg. record 697 Ibs. Imp. LaBelle France 14454
butter fat. 1 registered son
Imp. Masher’s Galore 8572 14 registered sons 3 registered daughters

Dropped June 5, 1901
39 registered daughters, avg.
record over 621 lbs. butter fat

24 registered sons $. Viadim!r 655

ee (R. G. A. S. 3471
Pa S:)
D. Fanny cf the Dou!t 1692

thirty-five thousand inhabitants. Land on the island is very
valuable, and farming is carried on very intensively. By
reason of its location, the climate is uniform and mild.
Although Guernsey cows are not large, they are deep of
body, and have remarkable ability to transform feed into
dairy products economically. The average weight of the
Guernsey cow is about 1000 pounds. On an average, the

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 45

Guernsey cow produces about six thousand pounds of milk
testing about five percent of butter fat.

The products from this breed are very high in color. In
this respect the Guernsey cow excels all other breeds.

The color of the Guernsey cows also varies. As a rule,
it is fawn with white spots well distributed all over the body.
Some, however, have almost a light red color.

FIG. 23—Guernsey cow, Langwater Dairymaid 26377.

Daughters, 52 registered, 24 of
which have avg. record of
693 lbs. butter fat
Jethro Bass 11366 A. R.< Sons, 35 registered
29 registered daughters,

(oat King of the May 9001 A.R.

13 of which have avg.
record of 687 lbs. but-
ter fat Dolly Bloom 12770 A. R.
Sons, 39 registered. Record: 17,297.51 lbs. milk,
Langwater Dairymald 26377 836.21 lbs. butter fat
(A. R. 1460)
Record: 16,949.20 lbs. milk; :
812.66 Ibs, butter fat | May Day 1132 E. G. H. B.

Imp. Itchen Daisy III

L 15630 A. PF.

Record: 13,636.8 lbs. milk | Daisy’s Cem 3341 E. G. H. B.
714.1 lbs. butter fat

The present champion Guernsey cow is Murne Cowan

No. 19597. She produced in one year 24,008 pounds of

46 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

milk containing 1098.18 pounds of butter fat. She is owned
by Anna Dean Farm of Ohio.

Additional detailed information relative to this breed
may be obtained from the American Guernsey Cattle Club,
Peterboro, N. H.

Jersey breed.—The Jersey cattle came from the islan1
of Jersey. Although this island is the largest of the Chan-

FIG. 24—Jersey bu!l, Gamboge’s Vellum’s Majesty 123063.

I™p. Oxford Maiestv 174099

! Sire of 21 daughters and 7 sons

stat C mA
Julia’s Majesty 89717 4
Sire of 38 daughters in }
Re of Me
Lord Brookhill’s Juli!a 235177
Gamboge’s Vellum’s Majesty
123063
Dropped May 10, 1913 | Gambege’s Knieht %56%8
Sire of 42 daughters and 3 sons
[ in R. of M
Gamboge’s Vellum 257609

8300.1 lbs. milk, 452 Ibs.
fat on EB. of M: test

Vellum €th P. S. 9249 H. C.

nel island group, it is only about eleven by six miles. It
contains nearly sixty thousand inhabitants.

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 47

The climate, feed and surroundings on the island of Jer-
sey are much similar to those of the Guernsey island, though
the former is a little milder.

Although the natural conditions and surroundings of
these two Channel island breeds have been similar, there are

FIG. 25—Jersey cow, Oxford Majesty’s Gypsy 344076.

Royal Majesty 79313
Sire of 37 daughters and 5
sons in R. of M
Imp. Oxferd Majesty 4
134090
Sire of 21 daughters and
7 sons in R. of M. Oxford Lad’s Lucy 213913
Oxford Majesty’s Gyosy 344076
Dropped April 11, 1911; aa
950° Ibs.
Record: 9114.6 Ibs. milk, 543.02
lbs. butter fat

General Fox 2d P. S. 3309 H. C.
EN Gipsy Malden 345340
On I. of J.

some differences in the two breeds. The Jerseys, as a rule,
are solid of color, dark on the lower half of the body, and
gradually growing into a fawn near the back line. A few
of the Jersey cattle are broken in color, having white spots.
The individuals of the Jersey breed, as a rule, have a black

48 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

or dark switch and tongue. The individuals of this breed
are smaller than are the Guernseys. The average Jersey
cow weighs about 950 pounds.

There are two well-defined types of the Jersey; namely,
the American type, and the Island type. Those belonging
to the former are much larger and coarser than are those
belonging to the Island type. The Jersey cows belonging
to the Island type are fine-boned, thin-skinned, and not so
coarse as the American type.

The Jerseys, like their sister breed; give: rich milk, aver-
aging about five percent of butter fat. They produce on an
average close to six thousand pounds of milk in a year.
This particular breed has on various occasions demonstrated
its ability to produce butter fat economically. This was es-
pecially shown at the St. Louis World’s Exposition. In this
test, the Jersey breed won over all other breeds.

The cattle on the Guernsey and Jersey islands are all
pure-bred. Importatio.: of other cattle has been prohibited
for many years. ‘There are, however, two classes, the pedi-
greed stock and the foundation stock. Because importa-
tions are forbidden and because of strict sanitary laws, the
Channel island breeds are remarkably free from contagious
diseases.

The present champion Jersey cow is Vive La France
319619. She produced 14,925 pounds of milk and 1013.64
pounds of butter fat. She is owned by O. Pickard, Marion,
Oregon.

The main office of the American Jersey Cattle Club is at
324 West 23d Street, New York City, where further in-
formation regarding this breed may be obtained.

The Holstein-Friesian breed.—These cattle originated
in the province of Friesland in the country of Holland.
This part of Holland borders on the North Sea, and is low,
fertile land. Together with the skill of the breeder and
feeder, this natural environment has produced a breed of
cattle the individuals of which are large, deep of body, and
wide and open of form, The individuals of this breed are

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 49

the largest of any of the dairy breeds, and probably the
largest of any breed.

The Holstein-Friesian breed of cattle is one of the oldest.
It can be traced to about 400 B.C. This breed of cattle
has been known in Holland for many centuries for the large

FIG. 26—Holstein bull, King of the Pontiaes 39037. Sire of 235 A. R. O. cows
and 134 proven sons. /

Mancr Josephine De Kol 22779
6 ARO daughters
Manor Star’s Jose, 3%y. 20.90
Susie Josephine 3%y. 20.72
Pontiac Korndyke 259824 5 sons with ARO daughtors
145 ARO daughters
Pontiac Lady Korn-

dyke 38.93
Pontiac Pet 37.68 Belle Korndyke 13913
Pearl Neth. Korn- Record: 7 days, 509.80 Ibs.
dyke Sy Cay. milk, 25.77 lbs. butter
Pont. Clothilde De
King of the Pontiacs 39037 Kol 2d 37.21
Dropped March 5, 1905 Sadie Vale Korn-
Approx. weight 2500 Ibs. dyke 36.20
Sire of 2835 ARO daughters, 135} 101 sons with ARO
sons with ARO daughters daughters Hengerveld De Kol 23102
K.P. Pontiac Lass 44.18 116 ARO daughters, 10 with
K.P. Diona Pietertje 40.15 record above 30 Ibs., 68
K.P. Mercedes Prilly with records from 20 to 29.87
3 lay. 34.25 Pontiac Lunde WHenger-< 66 sons with ARO daughters
veld 51585
Record
7 ik 559.80 Ibs.
milk, 28.41 lbs. butter Lunde Beauty 34745

30 days, 2405.20 lbs. Record: 7 days, as 2 yr. old,
milk, 114.82 lbs. butter pee Ibs, milk, 11.84 Ibs.
utter

50 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

amount of milk produced, and for the large oxen obtained
from them.

The individuals of this breed have great capacity for uti-
lizing large quantities of rough feed, and transforming it
into large quantities of milk. The average annual produc-
tion of a Holstein cow is about eight thousand five hundred

FIG. 27—Holstein cow, Duchess Skylerk Ormsby 124514, world’s champion
cow. Year record 27,761.7 lbs. milk, 1506.36 Ibs. butter.

Sir Ormsby Hencerveld De
( Kol 31212
69 ARO daughters
4 4 with records from 30 to 35.56

Sir Ormsby Skvlark 470104 36 others from 20 to 29.28 Ibs.

11 ARO daughters

Duchess Skylark ee [
Ormsby E 2
Huftalc: Ben Son Skslark Mercedte De Kol 52644
Skylark 26.71 452.90 Ibs. milk
Eutals Parthenea Sen: 92.67 lbs. butter
Skylark ae A f
uehess, Sholacl Onnishy 1245144 Buffalo Posch Sky-
Dropped Oct. 31, 1908 lark 23.72
Approx. weight 1800 Ibs. Buffalo Banzie Sky- (2°ARO: dauenters. cp
Record: 27,761.70 lbs. milk lark 21.87 } Oakhurst Duch. Cloth
1506.36 Ibs. butter Alby. a cee mit
ie spe OF Het Oakhurct Duchess Milk 494.90
: Cloth'Ide 10698 Oakhurst Paladin, 2%4y. 13.78
breeds Record: 352 days [ a
15,764.60 Ibs. milk

ClothiIde Princess Oakhurst
640.00 lbs. butter 85252
Record: 7 davs
473.80 lbs. milk

16,86 lbs. butter

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 51

pounds of milk, testing about three and five-tenths percent
of butter fat. The Holstein-Friesian cows give the largest
flow of milk of any dairy cattle, but it contains a lower per-
cent of butter fat than the milk from any of the other dairy
breeds. The progressive breeders are now endeavoring to
improve this, and judging from the records in the advanced
registry, if this is a fair basis, the percent of fat is grad-
ually increasing.

The Holstein-Friesian cattle are black and white in color.
So far as known, there is no definite relation between color
and production. ‘The Holstein-Friesian breed of cattle has
been reared singularly free from fads and styles.

The breeders of Holstein cattle have been foremost in the
testing of cows for advanced registry. It was the first
breed association to start official testing. The rules by
which these tests are conducted are strict. The advanced
registry records have enabled the Holstein-Friesian Associ-
ation of America to show the productivity of the breed.
Perhaps the greatest usefulness of these records is that they
enable breeders to locate the best producers and families in
the breed. In this manner, breeders have been better able
to select good foundation stock. The observance of the
principle of hereditary connection with production is well
demonstrated in the Holstein-Friesian breed and also in the
other leading dairy breeds.

The calves from this breed are large. They frequently
weigh about one hundred pounds at time of birth. This
makes the Holstein calves very desirable for veal purposes.
The weight of a Holstein calf at time of birth exceeds that
of any other breed.

The champion cow of the Holstein breed, which is also
the world’s champion cow at the present writing, is Duchess
Skylark Ormsby, No. 124514, with a record of 27,761
pounds of milk containing 1205.09 pounds of fat. The
average test is 4.34 percent. This cow is owned by John
B. Irwin of Minnesota.

The head office of the Holstein-Friesian Association of

52 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

America is Brattleboro, Vermont, from which place addi-
tional information may be had.

Summary of four leading dairy breeds.—The dairy
farmer should endeavor to select the breed which he likes
the best. As arule, a man does not succeed with anything
he does not like.

Secondly, the kind of dairying and the market for the
dairy produce have a bearing upon the breed to select. For
instance, if rich and highly colored milk is desired, then
Guernseys or Jerseys should be selected. If milk of large
quantity and of less richness is desired, then the Holstein-
Friesian breed is most desirable.

Thirdly, if the dairyman desires to keep registered stock,
he should also be guided by the demand for young stock
from the particular breed in his locality.

Fourthly, the kind of land owned by the dairyman and
the kind of climate should have some bearing as to what
breed to select. If the climate is rigorous, the farm com-
posed of rough, low and half waste land, and the herd is
expected to face such conditions, then probably the Ayr-
shires would be most suitable.

As to hardiness and the ability to handle rough feeds, the
dairy breeds rank as follows: Ayrshire, Holstein, Guern-
sey, and Jersey. As to amount of milk, the different breeds
rank as follows: Holstein, Ayrshire, Guernsey, Jersey.
As to quality of milk, they rank as follows: Jersey, Guern-
sey, Ayrshire, and Holstein. As to color of milk, the Guern-
sey ranks first, then Jersey, Ayrshire, and Holstein. As to
size, the Holstein breed ranks first, Ayrshire second, Guern-
sey third, and Jersey fourth. There are profitable and
large producing individuals and strains in all of these
breeds, and there are also poor ones in all of the breeds. It
is of greatest importance to emphasize individuals or fam-
ilies within a breed. This is probably of greater impor-
tance than emphasizing breed. The fact that certain in-
dividuals belong to one of the above mentioned dairy breeds
is no assurance that they are profitable performers. Im-

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 53

proper selection within a breed has often discouraged dairy-
men with a certain breed of dairy cattle.

The less common dairy breeds.—Many dairy farmers of
the central west have inherited a certain liking for the
square, fat, and smooth cow. During the range period, and
during the immediate succeeding period, this type of cow
has been set up as an ideal. The lean type of dairy cow,
with a wedge-shaped body, does not always appeal to the
man who has been educated to the other type and has had
experience with it.

For this reason, many dairy farmers in the central west
select one of the breeds of cattle that has not been extremely
developed for dairy purposes. They feel that as land in-
creases in value and as farms become smaller and feed
higher in price, they need to have more than a calf from the
cow every year, hence they select one of the so-called dual-
purpose types. They get as much milk as they can from
these cows, and raise a calf on the skim milk. Those who
practice this method, as a rule, make more money from the
cows than do those who are not milking at all.. This pe-
riod apparently spans the range and the intensified farming
period. As the population increases, as farms become
smaller, and as land grows more expensive, less use is
made of the general-purpose cow.

Table Showing Composition of Milk from the Different Breeds

Total : Milk-
Breed solids Fat Proteins} sugar Ash
Pereent | Percent | Percent’) percent Percent

[NGGES NIKE) S76 Reno COE ORE 12.88 3.62 3.45 5.03 0.7
| SICIBA LO FeGSS oC Cn On ee 14.54 5.07 3.76 4.95 0.75
EMISEC IMac yon orice ve has ee a 1225 3.48 3.33 4.76 0.69
JSRSEI7 Ss Sen ie One ae 14.87 5.19 3.94 5.00 0.75
Any IOHOGENORIS.. 2262 500 ss o> 12.45 3.65 3227. 4.80 Ors
IL EVGT ahs 9 Sa Ie eee ee US. 4.15 3.76 5.07 0.76
Pee! LPI. ara ree eee ee ones 12.96 3.92 ney —
(EMR RIOR OINTS SP cls fv eveci<ccnts sie’ ois ees S27, 4.24
ete lmEvel GE. s <sics< eos aces cons 12.40 3.6
LOST 0S ote OCR Re eee! 13.70 4.7
| DSSS RETR oe Ola ce eee SEL 4.18

54 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The Brown Swiss breed of cattle came from Switzer-
land. This breed is famous as a producer of dairy prod-
ucts. Switzerland is the home of the famous Swiss or Em-
menthaler cheese. The Brown Swiss cattle are large. In
this respect they rank second only to Holsteins. They
carry considerable flesh. They are hardy, good feeders,
and worthy of replacing many of the poor scrub cows now
being milked.

The Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders’ Association is at Be-

FIG. 28—-Brown Swiss bull, Reuben 2927.

Junker 2365 (Imp.)
Six daughters in R. P.

Reuben 2927
Four daughters in R. P.
with average of 455.09

lbs. fat at an averave Reh 3456 (Imp.)
age of two years and Official record of 12,912.6 lbs.
Lot of Lake View 3950 three months milk and 456.06 lbs. fat
Dropped Feb. 24, 1912
Grand Champion bull at the Forestville Prince 2045
Iowa and Wisconsin State Two daughters in R. P.

Fairs 1917
Lottie G. D. 3530
Official records: 17,595.3
Ibs. milk, 664.25 Ibs. Lottie G. 3rd 2875
fat.
Ist prize at National
Dairy Show 1916

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 55

loit, Wisconsin, where additional information regarding
this breed may be obtained.

College Bravura 2d 2577, owned by Michigan Agricul-
tural College, Michigan, is the champion cow in this breed.
She produced in one year 19,460.6 pounds of milk and
798.16 pounds of butter fat.

FIG. 29—Brown Swiss cow, Lottie G. D. 3530.

Edgard 1817
One daughter in R. P.

Forestville Prince 2045
Two daughters in R. P.
College Bravura 2nd 2577
World’s record Brown Swiss

cow
Official record of 10,460.6 lbs.
Lottie G. D. 3530 ;
Official record of 17,595.3 Ibs. milk, 798.16 lbs. fat

milk, 664.25 Ibs. fat
Ist_ prize cow at Nationa The Kid 1477
Dairy Show 1916 One daughter in R. P

Lottie G. 3rd 2875

Lottle G. 1844

56 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The Dutch Belted cattle were imported from Holland.
Inthe United States they have not as yet distinguished them-
selves as very large milk and butter fat producers. These
cattle are not large of form. They have never gained much
of a foothold in this country. The white belt around their
body is typical, and when the whole herd is grazing, their
appearance is attractive.

The Dutch Belted Cattle Association has its headquar-
ters at Covert, Michigan.

FIG. 30—Dutch Belted cow, Fair Lily 965.

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE o7

The Red Poll breed of cattle is claimed to be the typical
general-purpose breed. The individuals of this breed are
smooth, and have a refined appearance. Some individ-
uals and strains are good dairy cows. Those who have
shown Red Poll cattle at our large state fairs in competi-
tion with the beef breeds have learned that the dairy type,
or dairy form, is not winning points in the beef cattle show
ring. As a consequence, some breeders have emphasized
beef qualities. The Red Polled cattle have the advantage of
being without horns. They are dark red in color and
were imported to the United States from England.

The Red Polled Cattle Club of America is at Gotham,

SS Se Sars

FIG. 31—Red Poll bull, Proctor Knott 12092.

Red Prince 2902
Champion of England for 3
years
Imp. Corporal 4313
5 A. R. daughters, avg.

record 423 lbs. butter Coronet II 5367
fat Average 9000 lbs. milk for 9
5 years —
Proctor Knott 12092 First prize London Dairy Show
apneare of age, weight 2050
Ss

Sire of J. D. Beauty 31725, Imp. Hesperus 1394

Champion Red Polled cow 3 A. R. dau
: : Feit ghters, avg. record
ee ee 88-5 Portia 8858 402 Ibs. butter fat
Ss. of butter fat 8000 Ths. milk 4.5% for

several years
Polly Il 1378
10,500 Ibs. milk in year

58 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Wisconsin, at which place further information regarding
this breed may be obtained.

The champion Red Poll cow is Jean DuLuth Beauty
331725, owned by Jean DuLuth Farm, Minnesota. She
produced in one year 20,280.6 pounds of milk, and 891.58
pounds of butter fat. |

epee is

FIG. 32—Red Poll cow, Jean Du Luth Pear 28991.

David 10242
Grand sire of 3 A. R. cows,

Cresco David 13445 ayg. 535.6 lbs. butter fat
3 A. R. daughters, avg.
record 535.6 lbs. »ut- Cresco Tip 4th 18104
ter fat Her sire and sire of her dam
Jean Du Luth Pear 28991 both sired A. BR. cows
Propped Nov. Js Peau
d: 16.589. s. milk,
mae Ory Ibs. butter fat. sor hie Come 4313
- , . R. daughters, avg. recor
Pores mcord tenes Eales Pear 24888 432 Ibs. butter fat

World’s Champion Red Polled Total for 6 consecutive

aie tka at yearly official tests: Peach 18801
Aaa Ce as oN es 2587.05 lbs. butter fat ~“Dam of Pattie, 435 lbs. butter
butter fet aaa? a “= Champion long distance fat; Pear, 603 lbs. butter fat

Red Polled cow
Record for one year
603.66 lbs. butter fat

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 59

The Devon breed of cattle came from England. The
individuals of this breed are dark red in color. They are
smooth and of good appearance, hardy, and of medium
size. It is one of the oldest of breeds. They are generally
recognized as more of a beef than a dairy breed. This
breed is not common in the United States. The American
Devon Cattle Club is at West Chester, Pennsylvania.

The Shorthorn breed of cattle is well represented in the
central west of the United States, and the Shorthorn blood
is found in most of the herds in the central west.

Two classes of Shorthurns are generally recognized:
namely, the dairy strain, which is often referred to as the
Bates, and the beef strain, frequently called the Cruick-

FIG. 33—Dairy Shorthorn bull, General Clay 255920.

Duke of Kirby !7th 160774

Imp. Duke Buttercup
169769

19 daughters in Record Duchess Butterfly
of Merit V.45-297E
General Clay 255920
30 daughters in Record of Cecil Palmer 133376 ,
Merit 9 daughters in Record of Merit
Mamle Clay 2d
V .48-342
13,232 lbs. milk in one Mamle Clay

year V.38-482

60 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

FIG. 34—Dairy Shorthorn cow, Mamie’s Minnie.

( Duke of Granville 1862990

Mamle’s Minnie 4
Record: 16,201.77 Ibs. milk,

; Cecil Palmer 133376
575.3 lbs. fat [ Mamie Clay 2d {

Mamie Clay

shank or the Scotch. While there are some good milking
Shorthorns among the Scotch, most of the best milking
Shorthorns are found within the Bates strain.

The milking Shorthorns are quite common in England,
and are used there extensively for dairy purposes. In that
country, breeders pay much attention to keeping up the
milking qualities. .

During the last two decades there has been a tendency to
use chiefly the beef type of the Shorthorns in the United
States. The Shorthorn Association of America has favored
the beef type rather than the dairy type of the Shorthorns.

Years ago there were more good milking Shorthorn cows
than there are today. The few herds of dairy Shorthorns
left in the United States have not been able to keep up the
milking characteristics of the breed.

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 6l

If this particular breed is going to be selected for milk
production, great care should be exercised in order to obtain
representatives of the milking Shorthorns.

Recently the Shorthorn Association of America organized
a register for dairy Shorthorns having produced a certain
amount of milk during a year.

On account of the great variation within the breed, it is
impossible to get an average size or an average production.

Their color is red, roan, white and red, and even pure
white.

The dairy Shorthorn cattle produce milk of average rich-
ness, containing about four percent of butter fat.

Further detailed information may be obtained from the
American Shorthorn Breeders’ Association, 13 Dexter Park
Avenue, Chicago, Illinois.

The American Dairy Shorthorn Cattle Club has its
central office at Burg Hill, Ohio.

The French-Canzdian, the Dexter, and the Kerry cattle
have not attained much of a foothold as yet in the United
States. The offices of the American Kerry and Dexter
Cattle Club are maintained at Columbus, Ohio.

The American French-Canadian Cattle Breeders’ Asso-
ciation has its headquarters at Milford, New York.

CHAPTER IV
VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD

Many factors enter into establishing the value of a dairy
cow. It is evident that a herd of dairy cows may be, as a
whole, valuable and profitable, and yet there may be indi-
viduals in that herd which are not profitable. The value of
each individual cow may vary according to who owns her,
or according to the skill applied in bringing out the best
qualities in her.

Certain qualities in a particular cow may appeal more
strongly to one person than they do to another. To facili-
tate the study of the value of a dairy cow, we may con-
veniently employ the following chief heads:

I. Economic value.

1. Ability to convert feed into milk and milk solids
profitably.
, Nalne-otsealt:
Value of manure.
. Value of feed consumed.
Number of years of profitable performance.
. Amount and distribution of labor.
. Beef value at end of dairy usefulness.
. Amount of investment in cow.
_ Amount of investment in barn and milk house,
milking machine, and other dairy utensils.
10. General expenses.
i. Atsthetic valtte.
1.. Appearance.
2. Disposition.

OMNAMARWN

62

VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 63

Economic Value

The financial and economic value of a dairy cow does not,
as a rule, receive the analytical study and attention which
its importance demands. Many cow keepers, as dairying is
now practiced, breed, feed, milk and care for cows continu-
ously without making any efforts towards ascertaining what
financial returns each cow in the herd is making. As a
consequence of this neglect, relatively few improvements
are being made in the productiveness of dairy cows, and
many dairy cows are kept at a very small profit and even at
a loss, and the dairy industry is thereby discouraged and
the mass of consumers complain of the high cost of dairy
products.

Ability to convert feed into milk and milk products.—
Milk is the most valuable product from the dairy cow.
Quality as well as quantity of milk should be considered.
Inasmuch as butter fat constitutes the most valuable com-
mercial constituent of milk, and since the rest of the milk
solids, protein, milk sugar, and minerals, are usually utilized
in the form of skim milk, the value in this discussion shall
be based upon the amount and value of butter fat and skim
milk.

The keeping of a dairy cow means the investment of a
certain amount of money. The profitableness of this invest-
ment is determined by the money the cow can return annu-
ally above the expense of feed, care, shelter, interest, depre-
ciation and risk. Some cows make no returns on the invest-
ment, many make small net returns, and some make large
annual net profits.

Granting that the owner gives good care and feed, the
amount of the net profit depends largely on the kind of a
cow. With few exceptions, it is reasonable to assume that
the different kinds of cows are to be found in all dairy
herds. This is, therefore, a large field in which to work for
the improvement of dairy herds.

64 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The following statement has been prepared from the
records of two cows under the author’s supervision. The
commercial or market value of these two cows is about one
hundred dollars and seventy dollars respectively.

COW NO. 1
Taye Oa tonsu@ eSilenacsrelctesisis $13.39 48) pounds of fat @ 30c..... $144.09
Silazvey2-Detons @ he ere scle 12.50 13,000 pounds of skim milk @
Grain mixture, 3750 pounds ZOCUDET. CWibs ecient 32.50
(DANG Ara oe en ale Sree 37.50 Cah oaiaie.0 a ininters cisco ee 10.00
Pasture, four months......... 4.09 10 tons of manure @ $1.50... 15.00
| GE atop ee AS nintiy Ciena OO eRe icone 25.00
Depreciation on cow per year
(eishtvears)) mamemorce cece s 9.40
Interest on $109 @ 8%....... 8.00
Interest on barn investment
($1000 for 30 cows)........ 2.66
Depreciation on barn per cow
DOM GV Cal si Malet eine teaae erehalouara se 1.60
Rik or insurance on barn.... 42
Rsk or insurance on cow.... 45
ServiCse lee eciys cre cesk a roe 2.00

General expenses (veterinary,
medicine, etce., bedding).... 5.00

Total expenses .........- $121.83
Motalenetasproiiters crises 19.67
$201.50 $201.50
COW NO. 2
Paya, U8 tons (sole wack ee $12.60 148 pounds fat @ 30c........ $44.40
Silage, 1.7 tons @ $5........ 8.50 3200 pounds skim milk @ 25c
Grain mixture, 1183 pounds DEL CW. c,cr0 acc crolesl cota eeene 8.00
(2) wal I Rea eee GF ane ee ERE Re 8 11.83 Galt. aces dee Faeroe eee 5.00
Pasture, four months ..0.- 0. 4.00 8 tons manure @ $1.50...... 12.0)
Mabon! Ker ace caine eee 25.00
Depreciation on cow per year
EMBNUSALENE))” soneoanoeoovoon 5.62
Interestion $70) (@ 896......-- 5.60
Interest on barn investment
($1000 for 30 cows)........ 2.66
De-reciation on barn per cow
OR ViESIl oct ia hoc uke telererareie ches 1.69
Rsk or insurance on barn.... 42
Risk or insurance on cows.... .30 ——
Service Leeman c crete oetactse ae. 00 $69.40
General expenses ..........-.+ 5.00 Total. Toss. -s.c:sevc'ec oie ce oe DS
‘Tataly expensesmeeeenene $85.13 $85.13

The value of the produce from dairy cows is difficult to
fix, as it varies under different conditions and in different
localities. This is especially true with reference to butter
fat. These two cows, the records of which appear in the
above tables, freshened in the fall, and the price received

VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 65

for the butter fat averaged a little more than thirty cents
per pound. The price used in making the above statement
is thirty cents, which represents the figure obtainable under
average conditions.

The average value of 25 cents per 100 pounds for skim
milk for feeding purposes is a conservative price. Accord-
ing to experimental evidence, for general feeding purposes
to calves and pigs on the farm, 100 pounds of skim milk
equals the value of one-half bushel of corn. For instance,
if the market value of corn per bushel is 50 cents, then 100
pounds of skim milk is worth 25 cents. Another rule for
obtaining the value of skim milk for feeding purposes is
that 100 pounds of skim milk equals five times the value of
one pound of hog, live weight. If hogs are worth eight
cents per pound, then 100 pounds of skim milk have a value
of 40 cents.

Skim milk fed to young pigs, or to chickens, may be
made to bring as much as 75 cents per 100 pounds. The
above price is considered to be the average value for feed-
ing ordinary calves and stock hogs on the farm.

Value of calf—The commercial value of the ordinary
grade calf from different cows is also d:fficult to determine.
The calves, be they male or female, from the poorest cows
in the herd are not worth more than they will bring for veal.
This is about eight cents per pound. Usually a calf cannot
be sold for veal until he is at least four weeks old. The
weight of a calf at this age varies a great deal, according to
parentage and according to the manner in which he has been
cared for. Probably the averaze weight is about one
hundred pounds. Sucha calf is then worth about $8.

The male calves from the good grade cows belong in the
same class. In some instances, the male calves from the
best cows and sired by pure-bred dairy sires are used as
herd headers. This is a mistake. If they are not raised as
steers, they should be sold as veal.

The female calves from the best producing cows and
sired by a good, pure-bred, well-selected sire are worth

66 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

considerably more for raising and for replacing other cows
in the dairy herd. Such a grade heifer may be worth
twenty dollars.

Granting that 50 percent of the calves are females, the
average value of the calves from the good grade dairy
cows, if properly sired, is about $10 when they are about
two weeks old. This is the value given in the above state-
ment, page 64.

It is apparent that pure-bred calves, especially when their
ancestors are large producers and of good type, are worth
a great deal more. Several cases are on record where one
pure-bred calf sold for as much as twenty thousand dollars.
The value of a calf, then, may be considered to vary be-
tween five dollars and the above.

Value of manure.—In the above statement, the value of
the manure has been fixed at one dollar and fifty cents per
ton. Calculating on the basis of the composition of cow
manure, and the value of artificial fertilizers, it is worth two
dollars per ton. The former price, however, has been set as
more nearly correct. There are always some leakages of
fertility which cannot be conserved and utilized. The total
quantity of manure voided by different cows varies accord-
ing to amount and quality of feed eaten and according to
completeness of digestion. In the above statement, the
quantity of manure voided by each of the two cows rep-
resents estimates based upon experiments conducted at the
Pennsylvania station.

Value of feed consumed.—The feed consumed by the two
cows referred to was carefully weighed, and the figures
showing the quantity of feed eaten are accurate to the
pound. The value given the grain and hay is also the price
actually paid. The value of silage, $5 per ton, is estimated.

The value of feed varies in different parts of the United
States. This is especially true with reference to the rough
feed, especially hay. The value of rough feed may even
vary greatly within one’ state. for instance, in western
South Dakota alfalfa hay for many years past has been

VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 67

selling for about $5 per ton in the stack and about $7 per
ton in bales, while in the eastern part of the state good
alfalfa hay sells for $10 to $15 per ton. The author has
observed that in the central northwest rough feeds are
relatively cheap—the price of hay usually ranging from $6
to $12 per ton. In the eastern part of the United States
hay frequently sells at from $12 to $20 per ton. This varia-
tion in price of feeds is an important item in considering the
cost of keeping a cow; and, therefore, in calculating the
profits from a cow it is clear that the greater the cost of
feed, the more the cow needs to produce, in order to be a
profitable animal. The feed cost represents about one-half
of the expenses of keeping a cow.

Special attention is directed to the figures in the above
statement showing comparative cost of keeping cows of dif-
ferent producing capacities. For instance, the cost of keep-
ing cow No. 2, which produced $69.40 worth of produce, is
$85.13, while the cost of keeping cow No. 1, producing
nearly three times the value of products ($201.50), is not
three times as great, as at first thought one might expect,
but is only $121.83. In other words, cow No. 1 produced
pieesO- worth of produce more than No, 2,-.and it cost
only $36.70 more to feed and care for this cow. It costs
more to feed a good cow than it does a poor one, but this
cost does not imcrease in proportion to the increase of
products. There is but one body to maintain in each case.
In one instance, there is a living machine with greater eff-
ciency and capacity. In the other case, this machine for
transforming feed into dairy products has less capacity and
efficiency. The food for body maintenance, or the food
that supplies the energy and keeps the, various organs of
the body in operation varies but little in different dairy
cows kept under similar conditions, while the portion of the
food used by the cow for production varies about in pro-
portion to the amount given by the cow.

The St. Louis World’s Fair cow demonstration test is
one of the largest and most authoritative public cow tests

68 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

of its kind that has been conducted. The test lasted one
hundred and twenty days. Twenty-five Jerseys, 15 Hol-
steins, five Brown Swiss, and 24 Shorthorns, a total of 69
picked cows, chosen according to dairy excellence and repre-
senting the different breeds, were entered in this test. This
test and others, demonstrational and experimental, show
results similar to those in the statements. It costs but little
more to feed a good cow than it does to feed a poor one.

In the St. Louis cow test, the difference in the cost of
feed consumed by the best and poorest Jersey cows was
$1.76. The difference in the value of dairy products from
the same cows was $29.17.

The difference in cost of feed consumed by the best and
poorest Brown Swiss cow was $1.28, while the difference
in the value of dairy products was $12.54.

The difference in the cost of feed between the best and
poorest Holstein-Friesian cows was $1.90, while the differ-
ence in value of dairy products from the same cows was

$36.09.

The difference in cost of feed between the poorest and
kect cows in the Shorthorn breed was $5.78. The difference
in value of dairy products from the same cows was $31.29.

These figures are not cited to show the difference in
breeds. There are factors which would affect the above
results. For instance, some of the cows might have been
on full feed previous to freshening, and therefore in good
flesh. It is evident that a cow in such condition, if of right
dairy temperament, would produce more dairy products
from less feed than would a cow which was just in ordinary
flesh at the time the test began. The data, however, uni-
formly shows how important it is to emphasize large pro-
duction of individual cows in the herd. |

The following table shows the highest and lowest pro-
ducer in three different herds of Jersey cows reported by
Prof. F. Rasmussen of the New Hampshire station in
Bulletin No. 2.

VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 6G

Cow Feed 100 Cost | Return for
Herd | No. | Milk Fat cost Profit lbs. 1 lb. $1.00
milk fat

A i! 12,275 | 463.5 $106.80 $119.00 $0.87 | $0.23 SI?

2 1,549 60.4 44.73 15.38 2.90 74 66

B 3 SIE oIM \esisyl Vey? 96.21 76.88 98 LT 1.80

4 3,824 | 155.3 69.28 alls 1.81 45 92

ce 5 8,410 | 307.3 83.58 65.11 99 Si 1.78

6 AER AS oT 73.83 16.44 E52 ay 122

Cow No. 1 equals seven like No. 6 in profit.
Cow No. 5 equals four like No. 6 ia profit.

Cost of labor.—The labor necessary to care for a dairy
herd properly is an important item of expense. The cost of
labor per cow varies according to the kind of dairy farming.

If dairying is carried on with a view to supplying milk
and cream for city use, or direct consumption, the cost of
labor is relatively great. When milk is produced under such
conditions, all surroundings must necessarily be kept up to
a high standard. The milk and cream produced for small
children and for the tables must be of the highest quality
possible. In fact, city ordinances and city inspectors often
make certain ideal conditions mandatory. For instance, the
stables must be washed out daily. The cows are tested once
each year for tuberculosis. The herd is examined about
every month by a veterinarian. No new cows are permitted
to be brought into the herd unless they are first tested for
tuberculosis, and have otherwise undergone a health ex-
amination. In connection with such a milk plant, the milk
is probably clarified. The milk is bottled and properly
cooled before delivery. In addition, it is necessary to pro-
duce a uniform supply of milk during the whole year.
Dairying in this case cannot be niched in with other farm
work. It can readily be seen that milk production under
such conditions requires more labor, and more costly labor,
than is necessary under any other system of dairy farming.

The cost of labor on the average dairy farm is much less.
There are many farms where the additional labor needed
for the cows costs no more than if no cows were kent.
Under such conditions, the cows are milked and cared for

70 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

in connection with other chores, in the morning before the
day’s work in the field is begun, and in the evening when the
work in the field is ended. In the past in the central north-
west, dairy farming has been carried on largely in accord-
ance with this system. This method of caring for the dairy
herd, however, is gradually changing. Farmers are realiz-
ing that to feed and care for the dairy herd is just as much
of a day-time business as to do any kind of field work. It
is the above system that has caused so much labor to be
dissatisfied with dairy farming. Much farm labor dis-
criminates against the farmer who has cows to milk. This
is not because the laborers do not like the work connected
with cows, so much as it is that the milking and other chores
are often imposed upon the help at the time of day when
other laborers on grain farms are entirely free from duties.
If business methods are applied in the selection and keep-
ing of dairy cows, a farmer can afford to pay for labor to
take care of the dairy herd during seasonable hours of the
day.

There are very few farmers in the central northwest who
keep more cows than can be taken care of with the normal
amount of help needed for running the farm. The prudent
dairy farmer plans on distributing the work on the farm
throughout the whole year. He does not aim to have his
cows freshen in the spring at the same time that his crops
are to be put in. He does not plan to have the little calves
to feed, and the cows to milk the greatest flow during the
summer months, when most of his work needs to be done
in the field. The wise dairy farmer plans to have his herd
of cows freshen in the fall. The-help needed fer crop pro-
duction during the summer can then be kept throughout the
winter months. If dairy farming is carried on by this
method, a good man, with reasonably handy and up-to-date
barn equipment can take care of about thirty cows. Such
a man receives about $50 per month. It may then be said
that under average farm conditions the expense of caring
for one cow per year is about $25, allowing $5 per year per

VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD ral

cow for extra labor. These are the figures used in obtain-
ing the data in the above statement.

Beef value of cow.—A healthy dairy cow having a
normal constitution always has two values, one for dairying,
and one for beef. The dairy value may be obtained day by
day and year by year. To realize on the beef, it is necessary
to slaughter the cow. When the dairy cow is young, after
her first freshening, she possesses the highest dairy value,
not because she is then the most profitable performer, but
because she has the best period of dairy usefulness before
her. It is generally recognized that a dairy cow is at her
best when she is about seven years old. The length of a
dairy cow’s usefulness varies with different cows. In the
herd of which the author has charge, there are cows that
are fifteen years old and have been profitable performers
for about thirteen years. This, however, does not repre-
sent the average. The average duration of a dairy cow’s
usefulness for dairy purposes is about eight years. It
probably is not wise to keep the average grade cow till she
is physically unable to perform dairy work. The last couple
of years of a dairy cow’s usefulness, her teeth and other
digestive organs are usually not efficient. Generally speak-
ing, it is well to dispose of a cow to the block while she is
still in good physical health. This may not apply to a good
pure-bred cow. The calf from such an individual would be
worth more than the cow would be for meat.

Considering, then, that eight years is the length of a cow’s
dairy usefulness, after about 10 years such a cow possesses
only a beef value. It therefore follows that the dairy value
decreases with age. The difference between the sum of the
dairy and beef value after her first freshening and the beef
value at the end of the cow’s dairy usefulness would repre-
sent the depreciation of the dairy cow in value. This depre-
ciation is distributed over eight years. Cow No. 2, which
has a beef and dairy market value of about $70 when young
and a beef value of $25 after her period of dairy usefulness
is over, depreciates $45 in eight years, or $5.62 a year.

72, LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Cow No. 1, which has a total commercial value of $100
when young and a beef value of $25 at the close of her
eight years of dairy usefulness, depreciates $75 in the eight
years, or $9.40 a year. In purchasing a dairy cow, this
question of depreciation in dairy value with age should be
considered. At times, the commercial value of a dairy cow
near the end of her dairy usefulness is high, and dairymen
can thus often obtain a good price for such individuals.
The beef value of a dairy cow varies considerably, accord-
ing to the size and the condition of the cow at time of sale.

Interest and depreciation.—The dairy farmer has con-
siderable capital invested in dairy cows and other dairy and
barn equipments. The use of money is worth a certain
amount, and in reckoning the cost of keeping cows, the
interest on the investment should be properly considered
and charged against the cow. The point may be raised that
if interest on cow investment has to be charged to the cost
of keeping, it is equally fair to include also the interest on
the investment in implements for the cultivation of crops.
Some authorities have considered the cost from this double
viewpoint.

As previously mentioned, the dairy cow is considered as
a means through which crops are marketed. Viewing the
subject from this standpoint, we see that only such things
as are essential in keeping, feeding and caring for the dairy
herd and milk should be included.

The money invested in the two cows referred to in the
above statement is $100 and $70 respectively. Strictly speak-
ing, the principal invested in each of the two cows decreases
only by $9.40 in the first instance and $5.62 in the second
per year. In the first instance the interest would therefore
decrease at the rate of 75 cents on the investment and in
the second at the rate of 45 cents per year. The expense of
keeping these two cows would be reduced by this sum each
year during the eight years. At the end cf the eight years,
the above value, plus depreciation and interest, should at

VALUE OF-INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 73

least equal the invested sum and carnings at eight percent
in any other investment.

It is essential to have suitable barn room for the dairy
herd. Therefore, the interest on barn investment and barn
depreciation should be charged against the cost of keeping
the cow. A suitable barn for 30 head, which would proba-
bly mean about 20 milk cows, with hay room above, can be
built for about $2000. It is fair to charge half of this
against the cows and the other half against the storage of
feed. The amount of barn investment chargeable against
each of the 30 head of cattle is $33.33. The annual interest
at eight percent equals $2.66.

Such a barn should last at least 20 years, and if properly
painted and kept in repair, should last longer than this.
Five percent annual depreciation should then be charged
against the cost of keeping the dairy cow, which would
amount to $1.€0 per cow per year.

There is also a certain risk involved, against which the
dairyman should be protected. Insurance may be carried
on the cows at the rate of $2.25 per $100 valuation for five
years, which would amount to 45 cents annually on cow
No. 1 and 30 cents on cow No. 2.

The rate of barn insurance is about $12.50 per $1000 for
three years, and would therefore amount to about 42 cents
per cow per year, which is also charged against keeping a
dairy cow.

General expenses.—In addition to the fixed charges,
there are a number of general expenses in connection with
running the dairy herd which are difficult to estimate
definitely. Usually there is some expense for veterinary
service and for medicine. There are general expenses for
yerishable utensils, such as pails, cans, and other sundries.

Bedding is another item which has not been considered in
the cost of keeping a cow. In South Dakota, conditions at
the present time are such that bedding can be obtained for
the hauling. This same condition probably prevails through-
out the entire west and northwest. On most farms there 13

74 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

plenty of straw which can be used for bedding which other-
wise would go to waste. It is, of course, different in the
eastern part of the United States, where it is necessary to
buy bedding.

Service fee—Maternity is the chief incentive to milk
production. It is, therefore, proper that the service fee
should be charged against the cow. In the middle west it
costs about $30 per year to feed a sire. If 20 calves are
sired annually, this would amount to $1.50 per calf, con-
sidering also interest on the investment in sire, the deprecia-
tion in value of the sire, the taxes, and the small percentage
of loss in calves, the total charge for service fee is placed
at $2 per cow per year.

These various items of expense vary under different con-
ditions and according to the kind of dairy cows kept. The
figures in the above statement and discussions refer to grade
dairy cows. Pure-bred and registered dairy herds are
necessarily more expensive to care for. There are more
records to be kept. The individuals in the herd are more
valuable and more money is invested. For this additional
labor and invested capital in pure-bred cattle the dairyman
receives higher prices for the calves. The average price
paid for a pure-bred calf up to one year old, coming from
high-producing ancestors, is approximately $100 to $200.
Some sell for a lower price. Others, again, sell for much
more.

The following data shows the fixed charges of keeping a
cow per year, from Bulletin No. 145, Massachusetts station,

by J. G. Lindsey:

1. Barn for housing cow and feed (per cow) ----~------ $75.00
Interest, taxes, depreciation, repairs and insurance,
§0% 2 eke nets eS ee = eee Sead
9 Waluiecof Cow... oe ee $75.00
Interest and. taxes, %%xL 32> ee 5.25
Depreciation; 15% 22 eee 11325
3. Value of barn tools, dairy implements, and the like;
Det COW soe ee ee ee $7.62

Interest and depreciation, 157%-_..----------------------=- 1.15

VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD L5

4. Value of perishable tools and supplies, per cow (cards,
. ~P . .
brushes, record sheets, soap, salt, ice, bedding, veterinary

SEPT aN ct Ge) ye APA Ser 8 ge ee Sr 9.00
pmeoss of pure-pred bull, per cows 2.) - 5-2 es et ce kk 4.00
mmdre ol cow aud milk for ole years.22 2 ~-.- 22-2224 35.00

$73.15

Prof. Lindsey found that it cost on an average $90.04 to
feed a dairy cow, 37.4 percent being the cost of grain and
62.6 percent the cost of roughage.

Fixed charges, other than feed, of keeping a dairy cow
per year, as reported by Trueman in Bulletin No. 73, Con-
necticut station, are as follows:

eee oe ONC: ViCdk ae: 2 ON 8 $ 5.00
Meee mI CT COW a- SS oe as Se ee 3.00
amonneh Veate per COW-~—.. 22. SA gah ee 33.60
Parecesc on money invested in cow and barn--_.222-.~<-.._.2- 6.75,
Me ORISGCONY. ANG) Ani. oP. oo Ao ree et 1.25
Suabseensmnecr cid [RN te Se a ee pe a 40
Meneerigion.or cow ‘(yearly ) =. 2.- 5-252 13.00

Light, heat, medicines, disinfectants, veterinary service, and ice 2.00

$65.00

The following is the fixed charge, not including feed, for
keeping a dairy cow one year, Bulletin No. 2, New Hamp-
shire station, by F. Rasmussen:

(DINE REL AU ee alee Se e ee es he en e $32.3
SULT TPT cE A eS ea vee oe, a oe oe $12.60
mandune milk and cleaning 1tensils.. 2 =o os 2.03
“SEE, NGPA Ma lea a a ee SE Oe a 17.00

Me ewer: Hike: oper) GOW <a oo See ata 2 oe Se Yt 7.18

CEL iS esta Ges cat ea a et ce Pa a ea 9.05
Marerest,Om pe0U0 Dan G5 oso ee os $100.00
eeneamo it ll dines= =o Be 15.90
iieteance “d-ave per yearecoo- 2 so te eon 5.00
Repairs and depreciation, 3% on total value________ 60.00

ioe Mmeniiy ONS OM ae 2 a $180.90

BOrone cow, per yeatiso 8-20 eee $9.05
Memon MeL COWL. 6822 ey he ee 8.91
Rememscinice ek oCOW ==. 5 os FE eS 3.79

Mite que mipelest: sNGr COW labo 2552 4220 i A ie Scec he 4.55

76 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Vetermany- services aud medicine, per cows." =e 87
Bedding per scow 2252.55 aes a ee 4.00

(About 18 bales shavings per cow per year__-----~- $5.30,

or about 200 bushels of sawdust @ 2 cents_---------- $4.00)
TeeWand. fuel sper“ cow 2222) ee eee ZAG.
Perishable. tools, utensils, amd: salt} per cow 25-42-2222 see 53
Expense-of cow testing, association, per cow_-2-=4 > 2s =o sve 1.40
Wotalexpenses-of one cow (per year. =. =- 222-22) 2 eee $74.70

Prof. Rasmussen found the cost of feed per cow to be
$73.03. Cottonseed meal is valued, at $32 to $36 per ton,
bran $27 to $30, gluten. $27 to $35, corn meal $22 to S33;
mixed feed $30 to $33, Ajax flakes $31 to $36, dried beet
pulp $27 to $28, timothy hay $15 to $20, mixed hay $15 to
$18 per ton.

Fixed charges, not including feed, of keeping a dairy cow
per year, according to Minkler, 1909 report of New Jersey
station, are as follows:

Labor -(one man. for 12 cows), at'$150. per day. 22 =a $43.00
Bedding (one bale shavings for 20 cows per day) ------------ 5.29
Sika Ress 3s Ss Ne ee en ee ee ee 5.00
Interest: 5% on $£00=( value. of cow) =< a eee 5.00
Depreciation in value:of-cow, 10%: per.cow 2.2 ee 5.00
Bull ($200 at 5%, $10; cost of keep, $50), per cow 222222 ees

Average per Cow per year =-22222.0 2 2 2 ee eee $70.22

Average per cow per day

From the above study one may conclude that the feed cost
represents about one-half of the expense of keeping a dairy
cow.

The late Director Voorhees of the New Jersey station
calculated the cost of keeping a cow from a different view-
point, as follows:

STATEMENT
Investment:
Farin: A00-acress 2 osu a ee $7,500
Dairy; bata. 325. csc e Se eee ee 1,000
Dairy’ NGusé 2. 34 ose ee ee 1,009

Dairy, Apparatus 2259229 ee 500

VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE DAIRY HERD 77

ety tools. and. (mplemients==_—. 2.222... sk 1,500
eer erm OU RRCe wreamiGy 7a et oe SW ee ek 1,5C0
eared). braved ya 22 3,C09
EO I a ae Re a A ee 100
$16,100
Annual running expenses:

Meiereto ten, @ S500) im barns2-.--2-5 2s $1,500
ate et) Gian anid, boy)! ta dairy = 20-222 08 APS 750
oni Ge eiety with teats). 228 220 ee 1,000
Mencectation im value of horses, 10% 2... 2-6... 150
Mencerianvon im value of cows, 10%... =) ee 310
Depreciation in value of tools, implements, etc_____--____ 200
Taxes, insurance, and depreciation in buildings__________ 150
idee OCONt Olt TOCM 2 oe. tn ee ed we 2 ee 1,720
$5,780

Paeerest OnyGapital (50. ete ee ee 805
otal annual expense, including interest... 2... $6,585

No charge was included for all feed that is produced
upon the farm, as this was accounted for by including the
expense of help and teams.

He figures that 7500 pounds of milk is the average annual
production of a dairy cow, and that 100 pounds of milk
cost $2.20, and a quart 4.83 cents. No charge is made for
supervision, the owner being considered a full hand.
According to this, the total income from the milk of the 40
cows would be $6750.

ZEsthetic Value

There are certain highly valued characteristics in a dairy
cow, indeed in any animal, aside from her ability to pro-
duce. These qualities are difficult to name and describe.
Cow owners usually have one or more cows in the herd
which they especially favor. They are the pets. They are,
many times, protected and cared for even in preference to
other cows which are more valuable producers. These
characteristics may be largely sentimental; they may refer
to her manner or ways, to her form, to her color, to her dis-
position, production, intelligence and general beauty.

78 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

In some instances, this value is so great that it cannot be
measured in terms of money. One cow of which the author
knows is a small, nervous, alert and bright-eyed cow. She
will fight any stranger who happens to walk into the yard.
Her keeper, or those who are acquainted with her, can do
almost anything with her. The owner takes a pride in this
fighting quality, and he will not set a sales price on her.

Other cows, again, are prized because of their gentleness.
A certain man owned three cows which were so gentle that
the children in the family used them as their playthings.
The pasture was near the house and the three boys would
ride them to and from pasture. The owner of these cows
was wealthy and they could not be bought for any reason-
able sum. Disposition in a cow often is of value.

In some instances, an unusual color, or some other
peculiarity, will appeal to the owner.

It is not necessarily the most beautiful and symmetrical
cow which has the greatest esthetic value. Frequently it
is the oldest and most homely cow on the place that is most
highly prized. Usually this is because there is some senti-
ment connected with her. Perhaps the cow was the first
one owned by the dairyman. Maybe she supplied the
family with milk and butter during specially hard times,
and maybe this particular cow is the foundation of the
owner’s present whole herd.

Undoubtedly the great majority of dairy farmers value
their cows according to what money they can make from
them. However, the esthetic value should not be cast
aside. Usually the economic and esthetic value go together.

THE DAIRY HERD

VALUE OF INDIVIDUALS IN

Cost of Keeping a Dairy Cow |
per Year in Different Sections of the United States

ey a Ed

Massa-
New chusetts
Tllinois Minnesota Oregon Washing- | Oklahoma} Montana ‘ 5; So. Dak
(Hepburn) (Peck) (Howard) ton (Fuller) (Martin) Cees Cin@ey? (Larsen)
(Nystrom) sen) No. 145
Including | Including
care of care of
Milk Milk
Approximate cost of labor. . $21.31 $22.20 $15.00 $36.00 $30.00 $35.00 $32.35 $32.35 $25.00
Cost of stabling, including in-
terest, taxes, insurance, re-
pairs, depreciation........... 7.81 baoe 3.00 7.50 9.00 3.00 9.05 7.50 4.68
None, due
to raise
Depreciation of cow.......... in price Ball, 4.00 10.00 8.00 8.00 8.91 11.25 9.00
Taxesvon cows... scene os 1.25 30 50 1.00 ifs) 25 4.55 5.25 30
Interest on cow investment. . 6.43 3.62 3.00 7.50 6.00 6.40
Be ull@senvice: enacts oes ci 1.00 2.00 1.00 5.00 3.00 2.50 3.79 4.00 2.00
1b {0 {o boy, see eee ee en eee 8.00 No record 1.00 4.00 2.00 50 4.00 10.15 2.00
Ice & heat
not
Veterinary, medicine, disin- included
fectants, light, heat, ice, etc... 2.69 2.86 5 6.00 2.00 2.00 4.97 5.00
ECG es snio eatin titers wie ane 76.18 33.03 35.50 65.00 $35 to $40 40.00 73.03 90.04 . 40.00
Horses ;
127,
Equipment
2.86
95.75
to
Mota lami retarcve mi cerdetalas trucks pei $128.81 $72.52 $100.75 $140.65 $94.38

COST of MILK (1 Gallon)

I

An outline for studying the cost of milk production for city supply, proposed by

the Maryland Counsel of Defense, Dr. A. F. Wood

s, chairman.

{ Cows in milk

Dairy ome
Land & Bldgs.

|
Equipment.. 4

PRODUCTION

| OPERA.
TION

Plant
Overheads..

Misc. Operat-
ing Costs...

Railroad
Motor-Truck
Producer’s

| Conveyance

TRANSPOR-
AUAITOINGS ser

Land

(
ae Pes Se Buildings

LANOW oS ooo to

{
( DISTRIBU- J
oe STON ese ace

TIONG Se

Plant
Overheads.

|

L Miscellaneous
80

Keed'se ic sien. |

Supplies. seer
OPERA- Office

Deve (C
Bulls

Ows

Land
Binulidimigsee ss ov

Coolers
Engines
Boilers

| [ Cans
Miscellaneous

( Grain
Roughage.....-
Miscellaneous

{ Supervision
Q

| Danglealbonener

Interest
Depreciation

Barn
Milk-house, etc.

Silos, etc.

( Milking machines

f Dry
\ Succulent

Milking

Feeding
Grooming
Cleaning stables
Miscellaneous

Repairs & Maintenance

Insurance
Taxes

Veterinary
Misc. Supplies
Delivery
Miscellaneous

Wagons
Horses

Equipment... Motor Vehicles

| Machinery

( Miscellaneous Supplies

Superintendence

Clerical
Salesmen
Skilled Labor
Unskilled ‘‘

Ice
Fuel
Bottles & Caps

| Miscellaneous

Interest
Depreciation

Insurance
Taxes

Repairs & Maintenance

{ Uncollectible bills

\OWieste rete:

DEDUCTIONS, Manure and Calves

CHAPTER. V

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH
COW IN THE HERD

From a business standpoint, the profitableness of a dairy
cow depends largely upon the amount of miik and the
amount of butter fat she produces. These, under average
farm conditions, may be determined in two ways:

1. By the appearance of the cow, or by judging the rela-
tion of form to function.

2. By weighing and testing the milk and keeping records
of the amount and kind of feed consumed.

Appearance of Cow

This method is by no means an accurate one for deter-
mining the production of a cow. At times, it is necessary,
however, to resort to it—for instance, if a cow is offered
for sale at a public auction, or any other place which does
not afford opportunities for weighing and testing the milk.
The owner’s word cannot always be relied upon as to a
cow’s production, records of production of cows in the
average dairy herds are not generally kept, many cow own-
ers do not have the proper conception of what constitutes a
profitable production, and some cow owners, in their en-
thusiasm for getting a good price for a cow, will call a poor
cow a good producer.

If the buyer understands the chief points of a dairy cow,
the points which indicate large, economical milk production,
and can thus couple his knowledge with the statements of
the seller, he is in a reasonably good position to select a
profitable dairy cow. By this method he is at least able to
distinguish a good cow from a poor one. He may not be
able to choose the best cow from several cows producing

ol

82 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

nearly an equal amount, but he can easily detect a large
producing cow from a small producer. The desirable form
of a dairy cow has been discussed in detail in connection
with the score card. The following brief review, however,
may not be out of place.

Form indicating production.—The profitable dairy cow
should be deep and wide of body. Especially should she
have a deep and wide barrel. She should be wide and level
in the hind quarters and broad and open of frame. This
gives the cow a wedge shape, which is important in a dairy
cow. The wedge shape so often referred to does not mean
that a dairy cow should be narrow in the front quarters.
She should have normal width and depth in front and
should be unusually wide behind. Indeed, it is highly im-
portant that a dairy cow should have abundant capacity in
the front quarters. Some of the most vital organs of the
cow, namely the heart and the lungs, are located here. A
cow should have a large and full heart girth, and be deep
and reasonably wide in the chest. A cow that is very nar-
row in the chest region, that is depressed in the crops and in
the fore flank back of the shoulder blade is, as a rule, not a
cow that possesses a strong constitution.

A deep, long and wide barrel, having an excellent cover-
ing, indicates capacity to hold, and efficiency to digest,
absorb, and assimilate feed. These are important requisites
in a dairy cow. To be able to digest and assimilate a large
amount of food is the first important requisite in the
formation of milk.

The skin should be loose and pliable. The hair, or cover-
ing, should be short, smooth and downy. This indicates good
blood circulation and ability to digest a large percentage of
the food consumed. The outside skin is an extension of
the lining of the digestive tract. This lining contains the
glands which secrete the digestive juices. It is on account
of this close relationship of the inside to the outside of a
cow that quality of skin is of so much importance.

The dairy cow must be able to carry these digested and

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 83

absorbed nutrients to the udder, or to the seat of milk manu-
facture. This ability is indicated by the size, branchiness,
length and course of the blood veins on the abdomen of the
cow. The size and number of milk wells and the kind and
distinctness of the escutcheon, or milk mirror, are also
important. The escutcheon should be wide and well defined.
The milk veins should be large, long, crooked and branch-
ing, especially near the udder, and the milk wells should be
large and numerous. Such veins and wells indicate that a
large amount of blood flows to the milk secreting glands.
The blood carries the raw material from which the gland
manufactures the milk.

Probably the most important point of all in the form of
a good dairy cow is a large, wide and long udder of good
quality and shape. The mammary gland, or the machinery
for the manufacture of milk, is located in the udder. The
greater the capacity of the udder, the more machinery, or
the more gland capacity for milk production, there is likely
to be. The udders should be wide and long, extending well
forward under the abdomen, and well back up between two
flat and well separated thighs. The udder should be wide
and level on the bottom and the teats pointing straight
downward. The teats should not be too small. They
should be evenly placed and not too close together. The
udder should be of good quality. A fleshy, hard udder may
be large when empty. Such an udder does not indicate
milk production capacity. Besides, a fleshy udder is pre-
disposed to inflammatory diseases.

The dairy cow should be symmetrical of build. She
should have a clean-cut feminine appearance, large, bright
eyes, broad forehead, slightly dished face, large nostrils
and muzzle, an intelligent and lively appearing head set
on a thin and medium long neck. A dairy cow should
have a straight, prominent and open jointed backbone. The
loins should not be drooping. They should be wide and
reasonably level.

Briefly speaking, these are the essential points indicating

84 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

capacity to produce a large quantity of milk. This form,
however, does not necessarily indicate high quality, or rich-
ness of milk. This latter is much more difficult, in fact
impossible, to ascertain by the appearance of the dairy
cow. A copious yellow skin secretion and an udder having
considerable substance without being fleshy are said to in-
dicate richness of milk. This secretion is most apparent
on the inside of the ear and at the end of the tail bone.
This yellow color is also apparent on the covering of the
udder. A yellow or amber-colored hoof and horn are re-
garded by some to be indicative of yellow milk and of rich
milk. A soft downy hair covering the udder is also said
to indicate richness of milk. On some cows this deep
yellow color and yellow secretion are apparent on the
surface of the skin all over the cow.

To what extent these latter points can be accepted as a
guide as to the color or richness of milk, the author is not
prepared to state. It has been said that the breeders of
Jersey and Guernsey cattle in their respective homes have
used these points as guides or indications in selecting
foundation or breeding stock to procure richness of milk.
It is well known that these breeds as handed down to us
excel in producing rich milk, rich not only in percent of
butter fat, but also in total solids.

Weighing and Testing Milk from Each Cow

The only absolutely reliable method by which the pro-
duction of every cow in the herd can be ascertained is to
weigh and test the milk. No dairyman should fail to keep
records of every member of the dairy herd. From observa-
tions this method of keeping track of cows is gaining very
rapidly. At first many dairy farmers objected to this
method because of the additional detailed thoughts and
attention. The amount of work ard time necessary for
making these records is slight, and still there are dary
farmers dependent upon the cows for their total income
who do not realize the importance of record keeping. This

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 85

matter of weighing and testing the milk is a business propo-
sition, and should receive the careful attention of every man
who markets his field crops through the dairy cow.

Manner of obtaining records.—Both to weigh and to test
the milk from every cow after each milking would be
laborious for the average dairy farmer. This method is
not recommended except in case of official testing for ad-
vanced registry, and in connection with experiment station
work. Various experiments show that daily weighing and
intermittent testing give about ninety-eight percent accurate
results.

The various breed associations accept tests from cows if
the milk is weighed daily; and weighed, sampled and tested
two days out of each month. The weighing, sampling and
testing during these two days is to be done by a man ap-
pointed by the state experiment station. The weighing of
the milk during the remainder of the month is done by the
owner or the milker. No composite samples during these
two days are accepted. Each milking must be sampled and
tested separately. The results from such weighing and
testing are termed semi-official tests. Such a test is usually
made of pure-bred and registered cows only.

Another method of testing cows is for the owner to
weigh the milk daily from each cow. One day out of each
month samples are taken from each cow’s milk in the
herd, and tested for percent of butter fat. The daily
weighing is done by the owner or by the milker. The sam-
pling and testing during the month maybe done bythe owner
or the milker, or it may be done by some other person who is
not directly interested in the herd. From a public stand-
point, the latter would be the most authentic. However,
the sampling and testing that are done by the owner are
also reliable. No owner would seek to deceive himself or
anybody else. If such were attempted, the very purpose
of the weighing and sampling would be defeated.

The sampling and testing of the milk from each cow
may be done after each milking, or a composite sample

86 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

made up from each of the milkings during a day may be
taken. In the latter case, it is necessary to test only one
sample from each cow, while in the former case there
would be as many samples to test as there are milkings
from each cow. The composite sample method does away
with considerable work. In case the tester is not expe-
rienced in handling details, it may also do away with mis-
takes. The composite sample method is the simplest.

Even though the time required for the daily weighing of
the milk from each cow is small, there are still some who
do not like to apply themselves to that extent in obtaining
records from the dairy herd. For this reason efforts have
been made to simplify the weighing, sampling, testing and
record-keeping still more.

A very simple and yet satisfactory way to obtain records
is to weigh, sample and test the milk from each cow only
during one day out of each month. This is as simple a
method as could possibly be practiced. If the cows are in
normal condition during that one day in each month, this
method gives reasonably accurate results. The method has
the drawback that if some conditions should make the cow
abnormal and the quantity and quality of milk given by
the cow should not be normal, the results would not be ac-
curate. On the average dairy farm, however, where heavy
feeding is not done and the surroundings and conditions
are quite uniform from day to day, this method of obtain-
ing records of the dairy herd is simple and gives reasonably
good satisfaction.

The following is a copy of a record sheet for this method
of weighing and testing:

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 87

Daily Milk Records for the Month of 191
Name of cow
Date Lbs. Lbs. lGbse Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
1 A. M.
Peet
2 A.M
P. M.
3 A.M
ees
8) A.M
P.M.
30 A.M
P. M.
31 A.M
P.M.
Total Miik
% Fat
Lbs. fat
Value of
products
Cost of
feed

Income above
feed cost

88 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Name of Cow Name of Cow Name of Cow

Total
Milk Lbs.
Total
Milk Lbs.

bo) ee

Milk Lbs.
Total
Milk Lbs.
Milk Lbs.

se | | ee | | | CI

Oct. I

Nov. 3

Dec. 1

Janel

Feb. 1

Mar. 1

Apr. 1

May 1

June 1

July 1

Aug. 1

Sep. 1

ro] yl >] ol ele) ele) >) et] lp] mol >] me] Ploy) ml el Po
ees) =P Rai seiesectesae| ley) a) bale ol

Total for year
Value of products

Value of feed

Income above feed cost

89

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW

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90 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Composite samples.—The composite samples should be
carefully taken and carefully kept. The person who does
this work should be careful to obtain first a sample repre-
senting the average quality from the whole milking. This
is accomplished by thoroughly mixing the milk from each
cow just before sampling. Secondly, the sampler should
be careful to obtain a proportionate part of
each milking so that when all of the
samples from each milking are added to-
gether in one bottle they represent the aver-
age quality of the milk produced in all of
the milkings, whether the sample is taken
for two consecutive days or for one day.

FIG. 36—Enclosed hand tester.

A proportionate sample may be obtained
FIG. 35—The by using a sampling tube, and in this con-

use of the scales ; : ;
and the Bab- nection a milk pail should be used that has

feo gut wes the same diameter from top to bottom. It
of , secertaining _~ can readily be seen that if such a sample
wpe on tube is used, and it is inserted to the bottom

of the milk each time, the amount obtained
is in proportion to the amount of milk given by the cow.
For instance, if a cow gives 40 pounds of milk in the morn-
ing and only 20 pounds of milk in the evening, the sample
taken for the composite bottle should be twice as large in

the morning as it is in the evening.

‘sjonpoad Aarep Sut}se} S}USPN}IS—LE OTA

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW

91

92 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Another method by which a proportionate composite
sample may be obtained is to use a graduated measure. If
a cow gives 20 pounds of milk to a milking, 20 cubic centi-
meters may be taken out for the composite sample. If
a cow gives 30 pounds of milk, 30 cubic centimeters may
be taken for the composite sample. This method is prac-
ticable when the diameter of the milk pail is not uniform.

Some have persisted in obtaining samples of each milk-
ing for the composite bottle by using a small dipper. By
the use of a dipper one cannot judge as to the exact amount
that should be obtained. Yet in many instances, the dipper
method of obtaining samples gives accurate results. This
is due to the fact that with some cows there is, practically
speaking, no variation in the quantity of milk given from
one milking to another, and there may not be any varia-
tion in the quality. If the quality of the milk is the same
from one milking to another, or if the quantity of milk is
the same from one milking to another, no attention need
be given to obtaining a proportionate sample. Experience
has amply shown, however, that both the quantity and the
quality of milk from a cow usually vary considerably from
one milking to another. The safest way, then, for obtain-
ing correct composite samples is to be careful, first, to
obtain a sample that represents the average quality by
thoroughly mixing the milk, and, secondly, to obtain a
proportionate part of each milking. ;

The effect of not obtaining a proportionate sample may
be illustrated as follows: Supposing a cow gives in the
morning 40 pounds of milk testing 3.2 percent. Then in
the evening she gives 30 pounds of milk testing 4 percent.

30 X 4.0 = 1.2 pounds butter fat.
40 X 3.2 = 1.28 pounds butter fat.

70 3.6 2.48 pounds butter fat.

In case an equal amount, for instance, taken with a
dipper, had been obtained for the composite sample from
these two milkings, the average test for this particular

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 93

month and for this particular cow would be the average of
the above two tests on page 92, or 3.6 percent.

By obtaining a proportionate sample of each milking,
the test obtained would be the true average of the two
milkings, or the same as is obtained by adding the fat to-
gether and also the milk, and then dividing the fat by the
milk and multiplying by 100. In this case, which is the cor-
rect method, the average test for this cow’s milk would
be 3.5 percent. This makes a difference of about 0.1 per-
cent. In some instances the difference between the morn-
ing and night milkings is considerab'y greater. The greater
such difference in quantity and quality, the greater the
probability of obtaining errors in connection with sampling
of milk from cows.

If the composite sample represents milk from one day’s
sampling and the testing is done at once, then it is not
necessary to add a preservative to the composite sample
bottles.

In case that the composite sample represents the milk
from two or more days’ samplings, a preservative should
be added.

Corrosive sublimate tablets and potassium bichromate are
convenient and efficient preservatives to add. Indeed, any
preservative, added in small amount, that is convenient and
efficient may be used. Any of these preservatives is poi-
sonous, and the samples should, therefore, be properly
guarded. Corrosive sublimate tablets may be obtained at
a nominal cost from any of the creamery supply houses.
They are colored pink, so there is little danger that these
samples will be mistaken for normal milk.

There should be as many composite sample bottles as
there are cows whose milk is to be sampled. These bottles
may be conveniently placed on a shelf in the milk or weigh-
ing room, or in some other convenient place near the place
of weighing and sampling. These bottles should be labeled
or numbered to correspond with each cow in the herd.
The samples should be tightly covered to prevent evapora-

94. LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

tion of moisture. Each time the milk sample is added, the
composite bottle should be given a rotary motion. This
mixes the preservative with the milk. It also mixes the
newly added milk with that already in the bottle.

When this composite sample from consecutive milkings
has been obtained, it should be tested as soon as con-
venient. The longer the testing is delayed, the more the
sample is likely to dry out, and the more difficult it will
be to get it properly mixed, before the sample for the Bab-
cock test is measured out. If the cream has risen and a
ring adheres to the inside of the bottle, the sample should
be placed in warm water. This will loosen the cream
adhering to the bottle. |

Testing the samples for fat.—After being assured that
the milk is thoroughly mixed, the sample, 17.6 cubic centi-
meters, is measured out with a pipette and transferred into
the testing bottle. To this is added 17.5 cubic centimeters
of commercial sulphuric acid having a specific gravity of
1.82. This acid is slowly and carefully added, then mixed
at once with the milk. The acid digests all the milk solids
except the butter fat. The amount of acid varies some
according to the temperature of the milk and acid, com-
position of the milk, and the strength of the acid. As soon
as the acid and milk have been thoroughly mixed the color
of the mixture should be dark coffee.

The bottles containing this milk and acid mixture are
then whirled for five minutes in the centrifuge; then filled
with hot soft water to the base of the neck, and whirled
again for two minutes. The machine is again stopped and
the bottles filled with soft hot water to such a point in the
neck as to permit of convenient reading of the fat. The
bottles are then whirled one minute more.

The measuring of the butter fat is usually accomplished
by using a pair of dividers. One point of the dividers is
fixed at the bottom and the other one at the top of the fat
column. The operator then carefully removes the dividers,
placing the lower point of the dividers at the zero mark,

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 95

the upper part of the dividers reaching up on the scale
showing the percent and fraction of a percent of butter
fat the milk contains. There are 10 main divisions on the
‘scale, and each one is equal to one percent. Each whole
percent is subdivided into five parts, making each sub-
division equal to 0.2 percent. The fat column is read from
the bottom to the top of the meniscus.

Care should be taken that the test is read at once a‘ter
whirling before the fat coo!s and congeals.

In cold weather the last whirling should be short, other-
wise the thin column of fat is likely to chill. The testing
should not be done in a cold room. How-
ever, should it be necessary to test in a cold
room, hot water may be added to the tester,
and the hand machine may also be thor-
oughly heated by placing it on the stove
before the testing operation is begun.

For rules governing the testing of cows
for advanced registry the readers are re-
' ferred to pamphlets published by the vari-
ous dairy cattle breeders’ associations.
These are sent free of charge upon request.

To determine the profit derived from
each cow, itis necessary to weigh the feed
each cow consumes. The grain at least
should be weighed. This will be referred
to again under the feeding of a dairy cow.

Cow testing associations—No matter
how simple the method of obtaining records
of cows, some labor and attention to
details are necessary. Many farmers—
object to the weighing and testing of the cade eB Aa
milk on this account. To minimize this from bottom of
work, to put it into the hands of a special- ty “Suann’
ist, to have it done systematically, and as '"™ “ % B.
cheaply as possible, cow testing associations have been
organized.

95 ’ LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Cow testing associations originated in Denmark. In this
little country there are now over 500 associations working
successfully. Fach one consists of a variable number of
dairy farmers living in one community. These dairy farm-
ers go together to form an association, governed by ru'es
and by-laws on which they mutually agree. The off.cers of
the association hire a man to travel from place to place
to weigh and test the milk produced by each cow in the
various herds, and also to weigh the feed consumed by
each cow in the various herds, and make detailed records
of same. This official tester usually tests the cows in on
herd only, each day. If there are two small herds close
together, he may weigh and test the milk for two farmers

Pen

FIG. 39—Cow tester and his outfit. Davenport, Ia., cow testing association.
(Courtesy Hoard’s Dairyman.)

in one day. It is, therefore, evident that there is room
for only about 25 different farmers in one cow testing

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 97

association, since there are about 26 working days in each
month.

When the tester has obtained records from one farmer’s
herd, he is taken to the next dairy farmer, and so on till
he has made a complete circuit of all of the members. The
following month this same circuit is made, and so on for
every month.

In some instances this cow tester has a conveyance of his
own. In other instances each farmer agrees to take him
feeene next place.

The first cow testing association was organized in 1895,
near Askov, Denmark. The cow testing associations in
the United States are modeled after those in that country,
although conditions in the United States are different from
those in Denmark. The United States is a very large
country, representing many different conditions under
which dairy farming is carried on. For these reasons,
the manner of carrying out the work of a cow testing as-
sociation varies somewhat in the United States. Three
hundred and forty-six cow testing associations are now
working successfully in the United States, and new ones
are constantly being formed. Wisconsin leads with 51.

The first cow testing association in the United States was
organized near Fremont, Michigan, in 1905.

Probably most of the cow testing associations in this
country are self-supporting. The average cost to the dairy
farmers to have their cows tested through a cow testing
association is about $1.50 per cow each year. The cost
varies with the number of cows in the association and the
cost to maintain a man and officers to operate it. Where
conditions are very favorable, the cost per cow does not
execedr oi pict year.

In portions of the central and northwestern United States,
where dairy farming is not carricd on intensively, a flat
rate has been found to work more successfully than a cer-
tain charge per cow. The author now speaks especially of

98 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

South Dakota conditions. Where a certain charge is made
per cow, there is a tendency for the owner to agree to put
into his herd more cows than he actua‘ly tests. Towards
the end of the year he may sell one or more of the cows
entered, and some of the cows he intended to enter in the
association are not tested at all. Such a dairy farmer nat-
urally wishes to get out of paying for some of the cows
entered. By paying so much per head, the money is not
usually paid up at the time the association is started. This
makes it rather difficult to finance the association.

If the flat rate method is used, there is little difficulty
in continuing the association and in getting the proper finan-
cial support. At the time the association is organzied the
owner’s note is taken for the full amount. Arrangements
can usually be made with the local banker to cash these
notes at any time. No note should be accepted that is not
good at the bank. The flat rate may not be more than $20.
Under South Dakota conditions $25 to $40 per dairy farmer
is needed. If there are about 26 members in the association
this levy will bring an annual income of $650 to $1040. This
amount is necessary to conduct the association. Usually the
tester receives from $50 to $80 per month and expenses
while on the route testing.

Experience has shown that the farmers do not like to
consume time to take the tester from one place to an-
other. Better results are obtained by equipping the man
with horse and buggy. The farmers do not object to feed-
ing the horse, but in many instances they dislike to be
troubled with having to transfer the tester and his outfit.

At the close of the year this tester, on the basis of the
data obtained, sums up the production of each cow, and the
food consumed by each cow. These results are recorded
in permanent books. The monthly production, consump-
tion of food, and profit or loss from each cow, together
with other data for the year, may be obtained from these
records at any time. Debit and credit sides are kept for

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 99

each cow, and the difference between the two determines
whether the cow had been kept at a loss or at a profit.
The number of cow testing associations in the United
States by states on July Ist, 1916, is shown in the follow-
ing table (Dairy Division, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture) :

Years.

Name of state |
1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 |1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914] 1915 | 1916 | 1917

Michigan...... 1 + 2 5 re ae: 4 4 3 3} 19 15
Maine. ah A leer eke 4 3 6 5 4 5 8 11 5
New York. . 5 ey eel Nace | 1 3 9 18 Al 29 35 47 43
Vermont... =| estrone ee eras 2 8 10 11 We, 28 33 33 47
Nae ccs. 2 5 4 8 if 8 13 23 39
California... 5 A | en) 1 3 2 4 4 5 tf 9 15
NAMSCEMSIN sere is wierte eves abelian. scl OD. 0 1) 8 11 24 37 51 81
RA EOEAS ART Are Philo acstots [tee aie eco. 1 0) 0 0 3 2 3 4 4
COU EFPZVG (0198 A ek [EM i ees! [a ere (eae 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 3
= eae 1 1 2 2 7 14 19 24
hio . : 1 0 0 1 4 5 ZY 3)
Maryland.. ee, 1 3 3 2 4 7 8
Illinois. . ey eee Se ee ieee elle esl epee shes 4 3 2 Uf 3 3 U7,
ieectdns. <2. bares |s....|. 0. 1 3 1 0) 0 1 re 18
WEES LAM TIL met colle. ccowalllgreea cel ls xtseeet' | p aaeere 3 7 10 9 11 22 26
Meri amIpSHITE ace. alin coe sills we aeeifiets @ ccc |'s sere 1 1 1 4 8 11 12
ORRSEG Tike Pe ce eRe loco e [ROGER | eee eetanerte 1 1 1 7 11 15 17
ATR cae oe ects vlevorearailic sane 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
RP CUES ESI | ices erect Noceiacci|'s otover [svSieur 2 2 2 3 0 4 4
Wer error Ren ester Perey celts sets (seroared(s srmnells 2 2 2 0 0 2 4
NE PVEISTIB 0.26 co ooh REAEN LEE CIC] SRC nT (ORE a [PPO Bri ky one 1 1 1 1 4
aclianeee te tee iee inn Lees Wena elinkiee olseare Pees 2 2 3 7 9
I eSiTnSy oe: Got6l I ceeaiel Fete leeee eae (alee mee lememerariae [eae 1 1 0 1 1
RoLSS yeni ere Pacer en Nene eet Ine kollel eee NOS ose 2 2 1 2 5
REM nSE Vm [eaten Cara skaltce rosie = os Ses wer cles coke [arog ores jp) 3 4 8
WES EMV A PUM erat ens hoe ew ails tiscod|erse « «seas. 1 1 3 1
Connecticut...].. 1 3 6 3
N. Carolina. . 2 0 0 0
Louisana. . 1 0) 0 0
South Dakota. 1 1 3 3
Nevada... : et 1 0) 1
Arizona. . Ie 2 2
Rhode Island. . 2 2
Delaware.. ent Nf gl Vo Ea ee WR ae i (oR Le Aes Dee (PRA ae 2 3
eC cern og Ree pme fet te et ab | gee 2 1
INTIS TSYON g Ger Al | Sees Se ese (Geet (GRNC IOI [ceehStistes| Paneer ces earn! [ceed (Bee age eee 1 0
iY SNIVEDIGUE Scop anl Lata chan hetse pect! Reba Secaicel [ese pete [joes ales Sun met I eae | tc ete [ee OR Pee 1 2
TSR EEGR EB Sod eS a | OA | OARS [cee |e Ae] Pr (ee (eee | eee 1 8
New Mexico:.. 20... !e<8 a FPA eda Une | a stad ores alten: ar 1
icererti er eens | ee et eee [eee a | hetere lle ewe oa cent tn choke tall rents nll}. scarce: lie eue ve, Silica Seetwne 1
LE) ee ae 4 6 25 40 | 64 82 1 100 1 163 | 211 | 346 | 459

Value of dairy herd records.—The first and chief value
accruing from keeping records of milk and butter fat pro-
duced and food consumed by each cow is that it shows
which cows are good producers and which are poor pro-
ducers. The poor cows can then be culled out and the
female offspring from only the good cows can be retained.

100 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

This record keeping is then a basic guide to intelligent,

successful breeding and selection.

Secondly, by means of these records the owner is enabled
to obtain higher prices for his young stock. He can point

FIG. 40—The poorest producing cow in the
Black Hils cow testing association, South Dakota.
Milk 293 lbs., fat 88 Ibs.

out the superior-
ity of Cer eam
animals of, ihe
herd and the in-
feriority @e
others, and there-
by demonstrate
to the prospective
btiyer the value
of a good dairy
cow and the im-
portance of se-
lecting good pro-
ducing parents

and ancestors. In this manner the breeder is able to obtain
a large price for his good young stock. There is a great
demand for female offspring from cows having good records.

FIG. 41—The highest producing cow in the Black Hills cow

testing association, South Dakota. Milk 7129 lbs., fat 330 lbs.
Thirdly, the feeder is able to feed the various individuals
in the herd properly. If no records were kept of the
produce, there is a strong probability that all of the cows

DETERMINING THE PRODUCTION OF EACH COW 101

in the herd would be fed nearly alike. By keeping records,
each cow can be fed grain to correspond to the amount of
milk and fat produced.

Fourthly, the feeder is able to detect the approach of
sickness of the cow. When sickness approaches, the cow
will show it first in a decrease in the amount of milk given.
She may also show it in a loss of appetite. Oftentimes it
means much to be able to detect a sickness at the beginning.
It may often prevent prolonged sickness and even the loss
of the animal. If a disease is attended to in time, it is much
easier to cure than if it is allowed to develop.

Fifthly, the owner is enabled to judge the work of the
milker. Large variations in the amount of milk from one
milking to another indicate irregularities of the milker or
of the cow.

Besides, there is the personal satisfaction of knowing
what each cow in the herd is doing. System in any work
is not only remunerative and convenient, but it is satisfying.

ADVANCED REGISTRY REQUIREMENTS (ibs.)

Table showing advanced registry requirements for the different breeds of dairy
cattle. (lbs.)

Ayrshire Brown Swiss |Cuern’y Holstein Jersey

CHAPTER WI
INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD

When the owner has tested the cows in the herd and gets
the data systematically recorded, he is in a position to
improve effectively and systematically the production, and
therefore, the profitableness of his herd.

The improvement of the dairy herd may conveniently be
divided into two heads.

1. Improvement of present dairy herd.

(a) Culling of poor cows.
(b) Keeping up good feed and care.

2. Improvement.of the future dairy herd.

(a) By buying good cows.
(b) By raising good cows.

Improvement of Present Dairy Herd

Cull poor cows.—The author thoroughly believes in
giving every cow an opportunity to prove herself worthy of
at least paying for her feed and care. This, many cows do
not do.

For various reasons some cows may not be economical
producers one year and yet the following year and succeed-
ing years they prove to be profitable animals. For instance,
some heifers are not large producers. They develop late,
but after they have had two or three calves they become
excellent cows. Others, again, will do well during the first
year and then during the second lactation period they be-
come poor producers. It is not uncommon at all for heifers
to have an off year after the second freshening. This may
be due to a change of teeth, causing their appetite to be
poor. It may be due to overworking the heifer during her
first lactation period, and it may be due to incidental and
uncertain causes.

102

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 103

To illustrate the importance of culling out poor cows,
suppose a man owns 10 cows, and it costs $40 to keep each
cow a year, or $400 to keep the whole herd a year. By
ceeping such rec-
ords as_ previ-
ously referred to,
it is found that
four of, these
cows show a
gross income of
Soo per year, Or
a loss per cow of
$5. These cows
would cause a
Fos sy thet» OF
apout $20). By
culling out these
four unprofitable cows, the $20 annual loss would be in-
creasing the profits of the remaining six cows. The total
profit would then be $420 from six cows instead of $400
from 10 cows.

This would equal
an annual profit
per cow of $/0
after culling, in-
stead of an an-
Midna Verage
profit per cow of
$40 before cull-
ing. A few poor
cows reduce the
profits from the
good cows. AS a FIG. 43—Scrub cow, No. 9, one year later. Note
rule, - the dairy improved condition. (Ia. Exp. Sta.)
farmer should fatten and sell such poor cows to the butcher,
or dispose of them to one who does not milk or who raises
cattle for beef purposes.

FIG. 42—A scrub cow, No. 9, in poor condition.

104 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Good feed and care.—As will be discussed more in
detail later, a dairy cow uses her feed for two principal
purposes: first, to maintain the body, and secondly, for
milk production. In some instances, cows do not receive it
regularly and the feeds are not properly balanced.

In some cases, the dairy herd is not properly cared for.
At times the dairy herd is forced to “rustle” for feed in
the snowy cornstalk field during the co'd weather. In
other instances, they are compelled to go into hilly and
rough-land pastures where it is necessary for them to
“rustle” a great deal in order to obtain feed. Under such
circumstances cows do not receive enough nourishment to
maintain the body and produce milk a'so.

Some cows are forced to drink ice cold water and to
remain out of doors a good share of the time during
extremely cold weather.

It has been demonstrated under practical farm condi-
tions, and also in various experiment stations, that the kind
of care and feed received has much to do with the amount
of production, as well as with economical production from
the dairy herd.

At the Cornell station (Bull. 222) Prof. Wing found
that a properly selected ration improved the yield of milk
and butter fat from a herd of cows about 50 percent over
the production of these same cows kept on a farm during
the preceding year.

At the Maryland station this point was carefully studied.
Two lots of cows were used in the experiment. There were
eight cows in each lot. One lot was fed grain throughout
the year, while the other lot was not fed any grain at ail
during pasture season. The object was to feed one lot well
and the other lot sparingly. During the experimental pericd
the grain-fed lot produced 27 percent more milk than did
the lot that received no grain. During the following season,
when both lots were treated in the same manner, the lot that
received grain during the previous season produced 16
percent more milk than did the other lot. This increase in

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 105

production was laid to the extra feed these cows received
during the previous season.

The lowa station found that good feed and care improve
the milk production of common cows 59 percent, and fat
production about
54 percent. These
and many other
examples amply
show the impor-
fance. of} ¢ ood
feeds and, ‘care.

Theraver asc
cow ut iaezes
about one-half
for milk produc-
Hone UbHidesteed

FIG. 44--Scrub cow No. 6. Production 2742.1 lks. j y 4
milk, 131.04 Ibs. of fat. (a. Exp. Sta. Bull, No. 188.) 1S Cut down, it

can eadily-be
seen that this will be at the expense of milk production
chiefly. If this scantiness of feed is prolonged, or if the
feed shortage is cut down still more, eventually the cow will
be=eetting no
more feed than is
needed for main-.,
taining the body,
and very little or
no milk will be
produced by the
cow. Every cow
has a certain abil-
ity to transform

feeds into dairy |& : ae: :
products profit- FIG. 45—Scrub eow No. 6 three months later.

: Production milk 5556, fat 244.79. (Ia. Exp. Sta.)
moby.” Every
owner should carefully study the characteristics of each
cow so as to find tlie limits of a cow’s ability to convert feeds
into dairy products profitably. It is with the cow as it is

106 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

with almost any other machine. A threshing machine has a
limit to its ability. It is of no use to keep the threshing
machine running at full speed without feeding it what it will
properly handle. On the other hand, one must be careful
not to overfeed it.

Good management.—The production of the present
dairy herd may be materially increased by proper manage-
ment and greatly decreased by improper management.

It is important that dairy cows freshen regularly, and
that the proper time is allowed for each lactation period.
A cow should freshen regularly each year. The length of
time may vary some according to the individual cow. A
cow probably should not be mated till about two or three
months after freshening. No one can have a cow freshen
exactly once each year, but on an average, throughout a
cow’s life, one calf each year gives the best results.

It is usually considered economical to give about six
weeks’ rest previous to freshening. While a cow during
these six weeks is not producing any profit, it is generally
considered that she will develop a stronger calf, that she
will accumulate considerable strength, and store up a
dynamic force for milk production to repay amply for let-
ting her be dry that length of time.

Fall freshening.—The annual production of a dairy cow
may be improved by having her freshen in the fall instead
of in the spring. This is in no way due to the cow, but is
due to seasonal conditions and surroundings that exist in
most parts of the United States. According to the author’s
investigations, under the average farm conditions, the aver-
age dairy cow will produce about 20 percent more milk and
butter fat when freshening in the fall than she will when
freshening in the spring. Some cows will increase the pro-
duction by fall freshening considerably more than this.

Most cows are kept in pasture during the summer, and
most cows on the average dairy farm freshen during the
spring. During the early spring months, when the cow is

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 107

fresh, the pastures as a rule contain plenty of feed, and
cows will give the maximum flow of milk. Later pastures
dry up, and heat and mosquitoes and flies make the cows
uncomfortable. As a consequence, the mi‘k flow from the
dairy cow freshening in the spring gradually decreases.
Such a cow goes dry early, or gives very little milk when
fall or winter conditions begin.

A cow that freshens in the fall will yield a normal'y good
flow of milk under winter conditions. When spring comes
and the cow is turned on grass, the flow of milk is materi-
_ally increased.

It will thus be seen that fall freshening lengthens the
lactation period and causes a uniformly large flow of milk
throughout a greater period than if the cow freshened in
the spring.

Second, better labor at less wage may be had during the
winter months. Raising the crops during the summer and
having the cows convert these crops into dairy and animal
products during the winter enables the farmer to keep his
help busy throughout the year and to make the farm a
factory for producing new wealth the full year.

Third, the price of dairy products is usual'y considerably
higher during the winter months. The farmer should aim
to produce the greatest bulk when prices are the highest.
Usually butter fat is one-third higher during the winter
months.

Fourth, the calves dropped in the fall are easier tc raise
than are those born in the spring. Fall calves do well under
proper winter feed and care. When spring comes, they are
from six to eight months old and may then be weaned and
turned to pasture with the other young stock. Calves
dropped in the spring need to be kept in or near the barn
during the summer. During this time it is more difficult to
keep the milk of uniform quality and the heat and flies are
likely to bother the young calves considerably.

~

108 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Improvement of Future Dairy Herd

There are two methods by which the future dairy herd
may be improved in production. One is to buy good cows,
and the other is to raise them. Which one of these methods
is followed, or whether a combination of these two methods
is followed, depends somewhat on conditions, and whether
a person wishes to grow into the business.

Buy good cows.—If a person wishes to go into the dairy
business quicker than he can by raising a herd, the buying
of good dairy cows is probably the only way to start.

This method involves considerable capital. The owner
of a good dairy cow is loath to sell her unless he receives
an unusually high price for her. However, good cows are
occasionally offered for sale at a reasonable price, and the
alert dairyman, especially if he ts a good judge of cows, can
usually pick up a few profitable dairy cows in almost any
neighborhood, especially if he lives in a community where
dairying has been practiced for some time. A good grade
dairy cow considered to be a profitable producer is now
selling at a price of about $100.

It can readily be seen that this method is applicable to
only a few. There would not be enough good cows to go
around, if all farmers should wish to practice this method
of improving the dairy herds.

One point on which every purchaser of dairy cows should
be careful is the danger of buying animals having some
contagious disease. Tuberculosis, abortion, skin diseases,
and other diseases of more or less significance, may be
easily brought into his otherwise healthy herd. It is true
that a buyer can purchase subject to inspection, but even
then he may import animals with contagious diseases.
Diseases may be present in an incipient or beginning stage
and in a latent condition. If one resorts to buying dairy
cows, he should be careful to obtain good cows, and not buy
dairy cows just because they are colored like cattle belong-
ing to some of the leading dairy breeds,

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 109

The author has known instances where there has been
considerable sentiment for the purchase of dairy cattle.
Some local stock buyer or local speculator goes east into the
dairy districts and picks up culls of dairy-bred animals.
In some instances, they are taken out of the stockyards of
smaller towns in the dairy districts. Such animals can usu-
ally be bought cheap. While they may be colored like dairy
cattle, they are generally poor producers.

At times representatives of a certain group of purchasers
have been sent into dairy districts. These men may or may
not know what constitutes a good dairy cow. They are
men who probably have never had anything to do with
dairy animals. They are good, substantial, reliable men,
but outside of that, they know little about the dairy busi-
ness. Such men are not likely to get the best dairy cow
value for the money invested.

Again, dairy cows are selected by capable, disinterested
men such as the local county agricultural agent. Such a
person knows the different herds in a particular community.
He is probably a man who has had considerable training in
the judging of cows. Such a man is, or should be, capable
of selecting the best dairy cows in a community, whether it
be locally, or away from home.

As a rule, it is not a good plan to buy full aged cows.
Few dairymen will sell a distinctly good cow in her prime
of life. The purchase of good young cows or heifers,
properly bred and reared, at a reasonable price, is a good
investment.

Using a good dairy sire—Every good producing family
of cows owes its good dairy characteristics to two things:
first, to heredity, and secondly, to good feed and care. Both
factors are important, but since it is impossible with the
best of feed and care to make an ordinary cow without
dairy inheritance a large producing animal, it is evident
that the right blood is even of greater importance than is
the care and feed. There must be a natural predisposition
in the animal to convert feed economically into milk and

110 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

butter fat. A cow is a vehicle for carrying the combined
characteristics of the ancestors, be they good or bad, desir-
able or undesirable. What is not in the ancestors of the
individual cannot come out in the descendants. True it is
that occasionally there are individual large producing cows
coming from ancestors not noted for their large production.
This is due to the law of natural variation. Such cases are
exceptions and not the rule. The dairy farmer who desires
large and profitable producing cows cannot afford to follow

FIG. 46—Scrub dam “Laura.”” Record 3427 lbs. milk and 147.4 lbs. fat in
259 days. Weight 1320 lbs. (So. Dak. Exp. Sta.)

a method which is not reasonably sure to increase the pro-
duction of his future dairy herd.

The statement has often been made that the sire is half
of the herd. This applies especially when the future herd
is kept in mind. For the present herd, the one great func-
tion of the sire is to cause the cows to freshen. For the
future herd, his duty is to improve the offspring in type and
production and to unify the type.

Considering that the sire is pure-bred, of good type, and

INCREASING FRODUCTION OF DAIRY II=RD | Eas |

that he comes from a long line of high-producing ancestors,
he should have more than half of the effect on the offspring.
The common grade cows offer but little resistance to
improvement by the use of a pure-bred dairy sire.

It is now well known that the milking qualities of the
female are hereditary, even as much as is the color. It is

FIG. 47—Holstein daughter cf “Leura.” P-cord (241 Ibs. milk and 230
lbs. fat in 291 day;. Weight 1380 lbs.

Johanna Aaggie Sarcastic Lad

Aagn'e Cornucopia Jo-< 5 ARO daughters
hanna Lad 32554
Se anaes Aaggie Cornucenla Pauline
48426
A world’s recor xr. old and
: inn mature cow-—34.52 Ibs. but-
ee See ee ter, 659.2 Ibs. milk
6 ARO daughters _
1 over 29 Ibs. butter in 7 days
2 sons with ARO daughters ora’ Ward Plebe 3136!
: : A aughters
paaor “above cow \ Small Hope’s Plebe 79930
Record: 707.6 lbs. milk.
30.8 lbs. butter in 7 \Small Hope’s Netherland 32622
days 17.5 lbs. butter in 7 days
2597 Ibs. milk. 120.6 Ibs.

butter in 30 days

also well known that the ability to produce milk and butter
fat can be transmitted through the male as well as through
the female. According to data given by Dean Davenport
of Illinois, the sire is even stronger than is the dam to

j12 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

transmit the milk production to the female offspring. This
is probably accounted for by the fact that the male is
usually better and more carefully selected as to the right
blood or as to dairy inheritance.

FIG. 48—Jersey daughter of “Laura.” Reeord 3947 lbs. milk, 178 Ibs.
fat in 305 days. Weight 1090 Ibs.

Loretta’s King rf St. Lamber?t’s
King
INO} Sh ine He ehse

Loretta’s King 65050

Loretta D. 141708
Champion at World’s Fair, St.

Louis
61.9 lbs. milk in 1 day; 9214.7
Loretta’s Dakota mie 81092 Ibs. milk, 490.12 lbs. butter
Dropped Dec. 12, 1907 in 187 days

Sire of above cow

Pestcr Mar‘aold 59121
INO: ins Rate
Hector’s Fairy Belle
179909

Record as 3 yr. old:

18.62 lbs. butter in 7 Fairy Bellanna 145668
days Record as 3 yr. old: 19 Ibs.
Private test: 20.3 Ibs. butter, 7 days

Yearly record 10,027 ins. As a mature cow, 35% ihs.
milk, 681.1 Ibs. butter milk and 22229 5) bsheeittes:
Held record for Jersey 7 days
with second calf, 724
Ibs. butter

The chief functions of a dairy sire may be summarized
as follows:

INCREASING TRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 113

1. To cause cows to freshen. It is well known that
freshening causes a cow to renew her flow of milk. Ma-
ternity is the chief cause of milk formation. In the past,
many sires have been kept for this one purpose alone.

2. To perpetuate its kind without regard to quality.
Some people in the past have thought that a cow is a cow,
and that a calf is acalf. Very little weight has been given
to the kind of a sire, thinking that one sire will cause a cow
to conceive just as well as any other one.

3. To improve the production of the offspring. This
applies to the male calves as well as to the greater amount
of milk and butter fat obtained from the female offspring.

oes a ss is x

¥1G. 49—A well-selected dairy sire for such a dairy herd will prove of
great value.

4. To improve and unify the type, size and markin7s.
There is no reason why beauty and utility cannot be com-
bined. There is no reason why the individuals in the herd
cannot be of uniform size, or cannot be of the same color.
Such a herd imparts evidence of having been intelligently
produced. Such a herd appears well to the stranger, who
may be a buyer. When it comes to the selling of such a
herd, the demand will be great and the price will be corre-
spondingly high.

The improvement of the herd by the elimination of

114 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

impure blood, from the standpoint of breeding and by con-
tinuing with a pure-bred sire belonging to a certain breed,
is fundamental to increased production.

From the standpoint of production and from the stand-
point of appearance, the females having four or more
crosses of pure-bred blood are as good as is a pure-bred
registered cow. Except ina few of the new cattle organiza-
tions, a high grade cannot be registered.

Value of a good dairy sire.—It is difficult to calculate
the value of a good dairy sire as compared with that of a
poor one. The following method, proposed by Prof. Fraser
of Illinois, may serve to show that a good prepotent dairy
sire is a good investment for the dairyman, even though the

initial cost seems a little high.

Scrub Pure-bred
s.re sire

btiial cost ot (sires: 222 2 ens Rs $25 $125
NiatekeStyat, O03 VCans 2. Ne Bud ee 6 30
Cost-ciskeepingy 3 -years~at, $40: 2 so ee re ee 120 120
otal expense tor. S-yeares! soso eee $151 $275
Estimated value atvend of S%yeans-2<2-22 22) sel 54 54
Total cost of providing sire for three crops of calves $97 221

Granting that the average herd numbers 20 cows, there
would be 60 calves during three years. The cost of provid-
ing a scrub sire for 60 calves would be $1.62 ($97 + €0).

The cost of providing a good pure-bred dairy sire for
each calf is $3.68 ($221 ~ $60).

Thus far, the cost of providing a pure-bred sire for each
calf is $2.05 greater than the cost of providing a commen
grade sire for each calf. The maxim that “Some hold the
penny so close to the eye that the dollar cannot be seen in
the distance,” applies here. The economy of providing a
good dairy sire is not realized until the female calves
freshen. The male calves can easily be disposed of at a
good price. So it is not considered advisable to limit the
cost of providing a good sire to the females alone.

If a pure-bred sire has been properly selected, h2 should
increase the production of the heifer-offspring over that of

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 115

the dam by not less than 20 percent. In some instances,
experimental data shows that the sire may increase the pro-
duction of the heifer-offspring over that of the dam’s by
100 percent. As the herd is graded up, it is evident that
the percentage of increase in production decreases. The
poorer, or less the production of the dam, the greater will
be the percentage of increase in production of the female
offspring. This does not mean that one should select poor
producing cows with which to mate the pure-bred sire.
wrimem stated in percent, however, @ greater relative m-
creased production is usually obtained from low-producing
cows.

Paternal ancestors.—There seems to be no definite knowl-
edge as to which one of the parents is the most prepotent in
the transmission of the dairy characteristics. This depends
more on the individual inbred characteristics than it does
on sex. Generally speaking, the individual representing the
largest production of the female ancestors, and dairy pre-
potency of male ancestors, is the most powerful in the
transmission of dairy characteristics. From these stand-
points, pure-bred dairy sires have been better selected than
cows. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that the males
are of greatest importance. Considering the great inNuence
of the sire upon both the production and type of the future
herd, great care should be exercised in the selection of the
herd buil.

A tried dairy sire that is known to have sired uniformly
large producing cows is very desirable. Many times an
axed herd bull is discarded too early.

In most instances the herd bull is selected while young.
It is in this connection that it is important to select
ancestors, especially near ancestors of large production and
of good type.

The dairy prepotency of the bull, undoubtedly, not only

epends on the productiveness of the ancestors, but also on
the skill with which the blood has been combined, whether
the individual has been inbred or line-bred, or whether

LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

116

‘ulei} Adiep evyoOYeq YING B UO poeuUIe[dxo st etIs AIVp poos we pue

Moo Aqlep poos eB JO on{TeA 9UT—O0E “OIA

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD Li7

there have been continuous indiscriminate out-crosses in the
pedigree. Theoretically, the closer an individual is inbred,
the more prepotent he is. This prepotency is manifested in
transmitting poor qualities as well as good qualities. In-
breeding fixes both good and bad characteristics. For this
reason, inbreeding is dangerous to the inexperienced
breeder. To the skillful and judicious breeder, inbreedinz
is a valuable aid to attain certain characteristics in the
offspring.

In the summer of 1908 the author began a breeding
experiment with six common grade cows. These six cows
were mixtures of Shorthorn, Hereford and unknown scrub.
One probably had some Red Polled blood in her. She was
a natural muley. The original plan was to mate these six
cows to a pure-bred Holstein sire for three successive years,
and retain all of the female offspring, and follow this up
with Holstein blood by mating all of these and the other
female descendants to a Holstein sire.

During the succeeding three years, the plan was to mate
these same cows to a pure-bred Jersey sire and save the
female offspring, and mate them and their descendants to
pure-bred Jersey sires.

During the third three-year period these same original
scrub cows were to be mated to a pure-bred Guernsey sire,
the female offspring retained, and they and their descend-
ants mated to a Guernsey bull.

During the fourth three-year period these same orig’nal
scrub cows were to be mated to a pure-bred Ayrshire sive
and the females and their descendants retained and mated
to an Ayrshire bull. All records of production of dairy
products and calves and consumption of feeds were kept.

At the present writing, these experiments have been con-
tinued until 1919, or about 11 years.

Because several of the first calves dropped by both the
first and second generations were males, this experiment is
not so far along as it should have been. In fact, so many

118 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

male calves have been dropped by some cows that it was
inadvisable to retain them.

Some very interesting results, however, have been ob-
tained by the use of a Holstein sire, and also by the use of
a Jersey sire. The following data shows the improvement
of the daughters over the dams by mating these scrub cows
to a pure-bred Holstein bull.

Number

of days Lbs. % Lbs.
Name of cow in milk milk ie fat
Daisy (Unimproved dam) TE 3209.6 4.23 135.79
Floss (Half Holstein daughter) 237 5895.4 Beg 228225
Increase of daughter over dam ye ¥. 2685.8 ets 87.44
Muley (Unimproved dam) 237 4uU9U.7 4.28 175.05

Muley 2d (Half Holstein daughter) Dinh 6090.2 3.66 222.88
Increase of daughter over dam sees 1999.5 bel bie 47 &3

The above data has been calculated for each cow from an
equal number of days. The grade cows had the shortest
lactation period, not because they were bred earlier, but
because of their natural inclination to go dry early.

If the above data had been calculated from the amount of
milk produced in a given lactation period, the difference in
the production of the dam and the daughter would be still
greater. The lactation periods have been reduced to the
length of the shortest one, which was that of Daisy.

Similar results have been obtained at other experiment
stations. At the Iowa station (Bull. 165), the average
results show that the first generation heifers from scrub
cows by a pure-bred Holstein sire gave an increase of
2314.5 pounds, or 71 percent in milk, and 67.15 pounds, or
42 percent increase in fat.

The first generation of the Jersey grades showed an
increase of 205.6 pounds, or six percent more milk, end
32.9 pounds, or 20 percent more fat. The average age of
these Jersey grade heifers was 2%4 years. The average age
of the Holstein heifers above mentioned was 314 years.

One Guernsey grade heifer improved the milk produc-
tion over that of the dam by 3451 pounds, or 131 percent of

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 119

the milk, and 179.22 pounds of fat, or 136 percent. The
average age of this heifer was three years. The average
records of the other three Guernsey grades were not quite
equal to those of their dams.

At the Ohio station (Cir. No. 135) one Holstein-Friesian
bull increased the average production of his seven daugh-
ters 1299 pounds of milk and 40 pounds of butter fat per
year above that of the dams. In this same bulletin it is also
reported that one
Jersey sire de-
creased the aver-
age production of
his 11 daughters
over 700 pounds
of milk and over
45 pounds of but-
fee tat per year
under that of the
dams. This par-
ticular instance is vee
a good example FIG. 51—Scrub cow No. 56. Av. production 3874.6

: Ibs. milk, 1927 lbs. fat. (Ia. Exp. Sta.)

of the great im-

portance of using care in selecting a pure-bred herd sire.
It is not all pure-bred animals that will increase the pro-
duction of the herd, nor can it be said that one breed is
stronger in this respect than another. The success of
grading up a common herd of cows lies in the selection of a
prepotent sire of strong individuality, and steeped in milk
and butter fat heredity.

Inbreeding.—The extent to which inbreeding, that is,
mating of close relatives, should be followed cannot well be
told by anyone unless the animals in question are known.
Nearly all successful breeders have practiced inbreeding
more or less. Too close inbreeding cannot be generally
recommended; yet, in some instances, it brings the very
best of results.

120 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Too much inbreeding may lessen prolificacy. It may
weaken the constitution of the offspring. It may affect the
nervous energy. It may dwarf the size, and it may produce
abnormalities in the offspring. All of these things the
author has seen result from close inbreeding.

On the other hand, if the owner desires to stamp and
retain certain characteristics in his herd there is no surer
way of doing it than to practice inbreeding. Inbreeding
makes inheritance of characteristics more certain. The
breeder should remember that undesirable as well as desir-
able characteristics are fixed by inbreeding.

The author believes that line breeding should be practiced
in every herd, providing the breeder is sure that the type
and production
are whatme
should seek to
develop in his
herd.

Keep bull
separate from
herd.—It is im-
portant that the
service bull be
kept in g@o'Ond
cond i trom
FIG. 52—Half blood Holstein cow No. 77, Out of Otherwise strong
scrub cow No. 56. Av. production 6955 Ibs. milk, and h e al t hy

266.25 Ibs. fat.
calves cannot be
expected. Many times the herd bull is permitted to run
with the herd, even from the time he is young.

A herd bull running with the herd is exposed to too heavy
service. If the bull is kept up, this can be regulated. One
good service is just as good and even better than several,
and it is not so exhausting to the sire. This is of special
importance during the years when he is growing.

If the herd sire runs with the herd, it is difficult for the
owner to keep track of the service date. This is especially

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 121

true with the heifers or the young stock that do not come
up to the barn regularly to be milked.

When the herd bull runs with the herd, the bull himself
is exposed to danger. He may crawl through the fences
into the neighbor’s herd. This may injure him. Besides,
he may cause inconvenience and trouble by teaching other
animals in the pasture to break through the fence. This
may also be an imposition on the neighbors.

When the herd bull runs with the herd he is also moze
dangerous. It is true that some herd bulls are very gentle,
but any bull is likely to become cross when some of the cows
eke mo heat.

The safest and best way is to keep the bull in an enclosure
and under control. |

Care should be taken, however, to exercise the bull
and to give him good care. It is wrong to put the bull into
a small box stall in some rear part of the barn and give him
little attention. }

The herd bull should be the pride of the herd. The man-
ner in which he is kept is often indicative of how the rest
of the herd is handled and cared for. 3

There are various forms of bull pens. In some instances,
there is a small open yard in connection with the box stall.
The door between the open yard and the box stall may be
closed and opened at will. This is a good way of keeping
the herd bull. }

The author has always kept the bulls in separate box
stalls. A door leads from the box stall into the pasture.
This pasture is long and narrow, rather than square. A
heavy, high woven wire fence encloses this pasture.

Two or more bulls are usually let out together. Such a
pasture provides good exercise and also good pasturage
during the pasture season. During the winter it gives them
plenty of room for exercise.

This method of keeping the bulls probably could not be
used if they were exceedingly cross. No bulls of atiy breed
are allowed to retain their horns in the herd supervised by

i2Z2 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

the author. This dehorning of dairy bulls is not approved
by all dairymen, however. Some maintain that it lessens
their dairy prepotency.

Some keep bulls in a box stall and lead them out for
exercise daily. In some instances, a sweep is made. The
bull is tied to one end of the horizontal pole. This is one
of the best ways of exercising a bull that has to be tied.

Another way is to have a strong wire strung from one
post to another. The bull is then tied to a heavy ring that
slides from one end of this horizontal wire to the other.

Some use a tread power. Besides giving the bull exer-
cise, this method furnishes cheap power.

The method of giving a bull exercise varies according to
the bull and according to conditions on the farm. It is
important, however, that the herd bull should not be
allowed to stand tied up inside of a barn any length of
time, Such a bull is not, as a rule, an active and? sure
breeder. He is not handled much and he may become cross.

The box stall should be substantially boarded on the sides
toa height of about 5 feet. On the top of this, there should
be a heavy iron net frame. This permits the bull to look out.
A bull entirely shut off from the rest of the barn 1s likely
to be uneasy. Some have perpendicular iron bars about 4
inches apart around the sides of the whole stall. If a bul
has horns, he is likely to put them in between the bars and
break the ends of the horns off. This is the only objection
to such a stall. A stall having iron bars on all sides admits
the best circulation of the air and it permits the bull to
have a free view.

Bulls that are inclined to grow fleshy and sluggish, and
do not exercise much of their own accord, should be forced
to take a reasonable amount of exercise. Some do this by
working them on the tread power. Others teach them to
work in the harness, and others lead them around a littte
every day.

Handling a cross bull—Many times a vicious bull has
the very best of breeding and is strongly prepotent. It

INCREASING [PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 123

therefore pays to retain and care for such a bull, even
though some extra care is necessary. The owner of such
a bull should not take any chances of being injured by him.

There are very few bulls that will willfully injure the
regular attendant. A bull soon learns to know his master
and caretaker. Some caretakers handle bulls in a way that
brings out the worst there is in them, while others are kind,
yet firm. Such a caretaker as the latter is usually safe with
pepo... “However, it does-not pay to take any risk. -The
caretaker should watch a bull closely, and never allow him
to get the advantage.

Some cross bulls are quieted by blindfolding them.

A cross bull often does not permit anyone to catch his
ring. A man with a long hook can usually get hold of the
ting from the sides of the box stall. If he cannot, then it
may be necessary to keep the bull tied all the time.

Ii ts not advisable to tie the bull in the ring alone. He
may break the ring, elongate the nose, or pull the nose out
entirely. A cross bull with the muscle of the nose pulled
out is very difficult to handle.

A heavy halter, or a strong neck strap, should be used
for tying, in addition to the ring. The halter rope should
be tied shorter than is the rope in the ring. Some keep the
bulls tied by using a heavy strap around the neck. Some
tie them to a heavy perpendicular post placed in the center
of the box’ stall, the’ top fastened to the ceiling and the
bottom set in the ground. The ropes or chains are fastened
to a ring sliding up and down the post.

A herd bull in heavy service should be fed grain. A
ration composed of six parts of oats, two parts of barley
or speltz, two parts of bran, one part of oil meal, together
with good upland wild hay, makes a good ration. In case
alfalfa hay is used for roughage, two parts of corn may be
added to the above-mentioned ration, or the barley increased
to three parts instead of one part. All of the grain should
be ground.

124 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The author has not had much success in feeding silage to
the bulls in heavy service. In every instance they have be-
come sluggish and very slow for service. There are some,
however, who recommend giving bulls silage.

Do not change breeds.—T’o change breeds every now
and then is a poor practice. A number of dairy farmers
are of the opinion that if two different breeds are crossed,
the progeny will inherit only the good qualities from each.

FIG. 53—Breeding crate. This crate is made entirely of 2x4 and
2x12 pieces. The bottom pieces are 9 feet long; the width be-
tween planks is 2 feet; the height at the front is 20 to 24 inches;
the length from rear to center post is 414 feet; and the height of
the center post should be from 3 to 314 feet. (Courtesy of Ohio
Exp. Sta.)
For instance, if Jerseys and Holsteins are crossed, some
people think the offspring will produce the large flow of
milk usually given by the Holsteins and the richness usu-
ally given by the Jersey cow. Such a result may follow.
Usually, however, when two different breeds are crossed,
the offspring represents about an average of the two. The
succeeding generations, however, are more indefinite. The
blood line has been broken, and there will be little unity and

definiteness in the type and little utility in the offspring.

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 125

The author refers now especially to grades on one side and
a pure-bred sire on the other.

It is not an uncommon thing for the dairy farmer to use
a Holstein sire for two or three years in order to obtain a
large flow of milk and size in the herd. At the end of this
period, he may change his mind and use a Guernsey in order
to obtain richer and more yellow milk. Perhaps he will
change his mind again and purchase a pure-bred Ayrshire
sire in order to introduce rustling qualities in the offspring.
It is such changes that are not desirable.

Great care should be taken to get good type, and indi-
viduals that are good producers and that belong to a good
producing family or strain. If a pure-bred sire of such
characteristics is obtained, there is little occasion to change
breeds. It means that he should use greater care in select-
ing the right strain and type.

Bull association.—The cost of a good pure-bred sire
coming from large producing ancestors is one of the draw-
backs and objections that hinder many farmers from
improving and unifying their dairy herds. Some pay from
$100 to $500 for a dairy herd sire. Such a sire is used, as
a rule, only about three years in one herd unless the herd is
large enough for using two sires.

To obviate this expense of purchasing a herd header
every three years, breed associations have been formed.

A breed association consists of a number of farmers who
meet and mutually agree to purchase several pure-bred
dairy sires of one particular breed. Usually the number of
sires purchased is three. It is the number of cows on which
the breed association is based, rather than on the number of
farmers.

In Michigan, Wisconsin and other states, community
breeding has been practiced considerably. Community co-
operation of this kind is made up of breeding circuits. A
breeding circuit may be formed from three different units,
each unit containing the number of cows which one bull

€an serve, This number may be from 30 to GO cows. If

125 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

half of the herd is mated one part of the season and the
other half another, a bull can serve even more than this
number. Several farmers may own these 40 cows and that
one bull, or one farmer may own them himself. There are
instances where one farmer has a herd of only about 15
cows and is willing to buy a bull for his own use rather
than to co-operate with the neighbors. There may be three
units of, say, 50 cows each. A bull is provided for each of
these separate units in the circuit. At the end of the first
three years the bulls are exchanged again. At the end of
these nine years the bulls have gone the complete circuit.

Bull A Bull B Bull C

First three syears. 2. 2-2 40 cows 40 cows 40 cows
Bull C Bull A Bull B
Second three years____-_- 40 cows 40 cows 40 cows
Bull B Bull C Bull A
Third three yearse=.22 =). 40 cows 40 cows 40 cows

The above illustration shows how this change occurs.
This method of community breeding not only obviates the
buying of a new bull each three years, but it gives the
farmers belonging to the circuit an opportunity to see what
kind of heifers each one of these bulls will sire. Many
times good bulls have been disposed of too early.

This method of improving the dairy herds is econom-
ical, and it is very practicable. It is basic to the improve-
ment of the dairy industry. It is a plan which deserves
much greater use than is practiced at present.

Value of pedigree—Too much emphasis may be placed
on the pedigree. An animal should not be selected from
the pedigree alone. The form, size and poise of the animal
must be emphasized also.

The value of a pedigree may be said to depend on sev-
eral things. It depends, first, upon the honesty of the
breeder and of the employees, and upon the system and
correctness with which the records of the individuals in
the herd are kept. Though ru'es regarding registration
and performance of cows in the herd are very strict, a

INCREASING PRODUCTION CF DAIRY HERD 127

dishonest breeder and a dishonest employee may evade at
least some of them. Besides, carelessness and lack of cor-
rect record keeping may cause mistakes.

Statement showing Growth of Co-operative Bull Associations in the
United States to July 1, 1916. (Dairy Division, U. S. Dept. Agri.)

State IOS 1 1909" 1 TOTO. | 1911. 592 yy 1913 1915 916

Michigan al 4 if 6

Minnesota | 1 1

North
Dakota

Maryland 1 1 1 1 1

Vermont 1 1 1

Wisconsin 1 1 1

Connecti-
cut

Maine

Oregon

Oklahoma

Iowa

South

Carolina

Massa-
husetts
North ;

Carolina

Tllinois

Tota! 27
Second, it depends upon the qualities of the ancestors,
especially the near ancestors. This refers to uniformity
of good type or form, to uniformity of large economic
production of females, and ability of mates to sire numer-
ous offspring of uniformly good type and production.

128 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The value of a pedigree depends, thirdly, upon the man-
ner in which excellence has been combined in the pedigree.
Numerous outcrosses of blood foreign to the dominant
type and strain do not add strength to a pedigree.

Fourth, it depends upon the healthfulness and longevity
of the various animals in the pedigree.

There are two kinds of pedigrees in use: The tabulated
and the extended. The tabulated is used nearly altogether
by the dairy cattle breeding associations. It gives equal
weight to each animal in the pedigree. The extended
pedigree gives names of only the dams on the mother’s
side. The names of all of these. females are given, back
to the imported cow.

The following illustrates the tabulated form of pedigree:

Sex : Paternal great grandsire
Paternal grand sire
f Sire

Name and number of 4

Paternal great grand dam

Paternal great grand sire
Paternal grand dam
| Paternal great grand dam

individual

Dateldropped ase { Maternal great grand sire
G@olouetn Pete one | Maternal grand sire

Summary of ancestors = | Maternal great grand dam
OO CeCe OO OCOD O OnOat nil) OnOne ~ Jam

Name and address of { Maternal great grand sire
breeder Maternal grand dam {

| Maternal great grand dam

The defects in the extended pedigree shown on following
page are apparent. There is no room for stating milk and
butter fat performances nor achievements in the show ring.
In addition, this pedigree mentions only the dams on the
mother’s side.

The American Shorthorn Breeders’ Association uses this
form of pedigree. It is combined with the registration cer-
tificate. Formerly only the males were numbered. In re-
cent years the females have also been numbered. This
enables a person, by the aid of the herd books, to make out a
tabulated pedigree with greater ease.

129

DAIRY HERD

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF

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130 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

If the preceding extended pedigree were tabulated it
would appear as follows :—

Henry Clay 3d | Geta A Soe
354074

© ‘0: Ue: jelroLeyeuslic, 0 eae) eile

College Silver 2d
149371

eoe etree tee eevee

Maternal ancestors.—The above discussion in this chap-
ter refers chiefly to the importance of selecting a pure-bred
and prepotent sire. It is equally important to provide good
producing and good typed maternal ancestors, although it is
widely believed that the sire’s prepotency is the stronger, yet
no one knows absolutely which one of the parents is the more
prepotent in the transmission of the dairy characteristics.
Generally speaking, the individual that is of purest blood
and that represents the largest amount of large producing
blood in the near ancestors is the most powerful in the
transmission of dairy characteristics. Results of experi-
ments clearly demonstrate that it is important that the
maternal dam and dam’s near ancestors should also be good
individuals as to both type and production.

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 131

One unimproved cow in the South Dakota state college
dairy herd produced 175 pounds of butter fat in one year.
The daughter produced 310 pounds. Another unimproved
cow produced 152 pounds of butter fat in one year and her
daughter produced 232 pounds. Other results indicate that
the greater the production of the dam, the surer and greater
will be the production of the offspring.

With this view, heifer calves from the best producing
cows should be saved and used as members of the herd.
In many instances the members of the average herd are
not large producing cows. Every farmer, however, has
some cows that are better than others. Some farmers have

FIG. 54—A cow thet has been rrepared for en advance) recistry test. She
has been dry for several months, and heavily fed to get her in good flesh.
in the herd several individuals of one family. Perhaps it
is mother, daughter and granddaughter that are better pro-
ducers than any of the remainder of the herd. Efforts
should be made to raise the heifer calves of such a family
of cows.

132 LARSEN’S FARM DAILRYING

It is evident that in the average grade dairy herd it is
difficult to trace the producing ability of the maternal
ancestors for several generations. Records have not al-
ways been kept, and the ownership frequently changes, so
that the selection on the maternal side must often be made
from the knowledge of only one generation. If no heifer
calf is selected to be a member of the future herd without
first applying the rule that the dam must be a large pro-
ducing cow, one big step has been taken towards building
up a profitable dairy herd.

In the breeding and raising of pure-bred dairy cattle,
the rules should be made to read that darns in the first
three generations must be large producers. Pure-bred reg-
istered cattle have a known pedigree. The owners of the
animals are also known, and in many instances the in-

FIG. 5414—A herd of unimproved cows used for dairy purposes in a new
country.

dividuals are in the advanced registry. From these sources,
knowledge of the producing ability of the near ancestors
can be ascertained.

In examining the records of cows, the amount of milk
and butter fat produced and the circumstances under
which the records were made should be examined and
carefully considered. Especially is this important if the
production represents short-time tests. Experiments, as
well as practical results, have amply demonstrated the fact

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF DAIRY HERD 133

that the percent of fat in milk for short periods can be
increased beyond normal. If a seven-day official test record
of a Holstein cow, for instance, shows 350 pounds of milk
containing 21 pounds of butter fat, this should be regarded
as an abnormal test. The milk in this instance contained
six percent of fat, which is not normal to this particular
breed of cattle, whereas a production of 600 pounds of
milk and 21 pounds of butter fat would represent a normal
richness of milk for this breed. The latter cow, if of
good form, would be a much more desirable cow to select
as a foundation cow than would the first mentioned. In
examining the records of cows from any of the breeds, one
should examine, in so far as possible, with the view of find-
ing out whether the production was made with normal feed
and the cow in normal condition.

CEALP a ov ail

RAISING THE DAIRY COW

There is no subject so important to the dairy farmer as
is the proper raising of the dairy cow. Upon this depends,
to a large extent, the profitableness of the future herd.
The important steps in the raising of the future dairy cow
are fundamental in character.

These steps are chiefly three:

1. Selecting the right parents.

2. Caring for mother during pre-natal period.

3. Caring for calf after birth, or during the
post-natal period till first freshening.

Selecting Right Parents

Every calf has a right to be well born. Probably the
best way to acomplish this is to see that the right parents
are selected. Both the male and the female parents must
be healthy. The lifé germ must be active and in even
way normal.

The importance and the manner of selecting the parents
of a calf have been discussed in the previous chapter.

Feed and Care During Pre-Natal Period

Relatively little is known about the external factors
which affect the growth of the calf during the pre-natal
period. The gestation period, or the period during which
the cow carries the calf, is about 275 days. The Wemem
of this period varies a little. Usually a young, healthy cow
requires the least time for developing a calf. An aged cow
usually carries her calf a few days aver time.) ae mae
calf is usually carried a few days longer than is a female
calf.

In some cases there is an inclination for the dairy
farmer to think that if a cow does not milk she ought not

134

RAISING THE DAIRY COW 135

to be fed. This is especially true in the section where
dairy farming is carried on only as a side line. The dry
cows, or the cows carrying their calves, are at times turned
out to “rustle” their own feed in the cornstalk field, and
on the meadows, and to secure all the additional roughage
they need from the straw pile. The author has personally
seen dry cows receiving no shelter at all except an old
straw pile during very cold winter weather. If such cows
are to freshen in the spring, they come out of the winter
in a very poor physical condition. In some instances such
cows are so weak after freshening that they are unable
farstand on their feet.

While it may be helpful, from certain standpoints, for
iaevanimal to be out im the fresh air, this manner of: pro-
cedure certainly is not conducive to the production of a
strong, healthy calf.

A cow while carrying the calf should be fed a good and
properly selected ration. It is usually considered that a
mother should receive a ration medium rich in protein.
A palatable feed balanced to about one part of protein to
seven parts of carbohydrates gives good results. Someone
has stated that “a bushel of corn given to a cow previous
to freshening is worth two bushels after freshening.” This
statement is probably not true literally. It is, however,
certain that a good healthy dairy cow will store up extra
body flesh during the period that she is not in milk, and if
she is the right sort of a dairy cow, this extra body flesh
will be converted into milk after freshening.

A cow that is fed a ration rich in fat and heat producing
substances and becomes very fleshy during the gestation
period often drops a very small and weak calf. This ex-
tremely fleshy condition of a cow should be avoided.

E‘tect of surroundings of cow on calf.—lIt is very diffi-
cult to state definitely just what effects, if any, the sur-
roundings of the pregnant cow have on the calf. It is
generally believed that the nervous temperament of the
calf and even the appearance may be affected during the

136 TARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

pre-natal period through the cow. The Bible states,
Genesis 30-37, that Jacob was to receive all the speckled
and streaked stock as his hire. In order to increase these
in number, he peeled the bark off of sticks and put them
into the watering troughs. It also states that he put these
partially barked limbs into the watering troughs, when tue
best and strongest females came to drink. This method,
the Bible states, resulted in Jacob becoming the owner,
first, of many cattle, and, secondly, of the strongest and
best stock.

The author knows an intelligent and judicious dairyman
who believes that in order to develop a good dairy heifer
it is important that the cow, during the gestation period,
come into the barn, and that she have the opportunity of
seeing the milking utensils and of seeing the other cows
milked. He believes that such surroundings will have a
favorable effect upon the dairy qualities of the calf not yet
born.

The surroundings of the cow should be of such a nature
that the cow is kept quiet. It is a well-known fact that
an excited cow and a cow with a bad disposition usually
gives birth to a calf of a similar nature. It is’ possible that
this quality is not inherited from occasional excitement,
and at the same time there can be no question as to the
importance of keeping the mother in surroundings that
tend to develop quietness rather than excitedness.

The extent to which feed, surroundings and disposition
of the mother affect the calf during the pre-natal period,
no one can sa}. It is, however, certain that nothing harm-
ful can come from providing the most favorable condi-
tions in these respects for the mother during the gestation
period, while decidedly unfavorable results may follow
careless methods in caring for the cow during the calf’s
pre-natal period.

Feed and Care of Calf

Under some dairy farm conditions few or no calves are

raised. In case the milk is sold at from 8 cents to 15 cents

RAISING THE DAIRY COW 137

per quart for direct consumption, it can readily be seen that
as few calves as possible are raised on milk. Under such
conditions only a very select few of the heifer calves are
raised. In some instances the calves, male and female, are
sold, or given away, as soon after birth as the mothers’ milk
can be sold, usually when about a week old.

In districts where market milk is produced and con-
densed milk, milk powder and cheese are made from the
milk, relatively little importance is attached to the raising
of calves. Usually so large a price is obtained for the
milk that the dairy farmer considers that it does not pay
to raise the calves, and that it is better for him to milk
the cow as long as she will milk and then buy another to
replace her when she goes dry.

It is true that there are substitutes for milk that can be
used. However, nothing has been discovered that will
produce such good, healthy-looking calves during the first
week as will mother’s milk. If calves are raised on one
or more of the various kinds of substitutes, considerable
trouble and attention are necessary, and for a time at
least the calves will be more or less scrawny.

It can readily be seen that if very many dairy farmers
would follow the policy of no calf raising, there would
soon be a shortage of good dairy cows. In fact, this short-
age is apparent now. This is evident by the high price
paid for good young healthy and properly bred dairy cows,
and the high price that is being paid for them as compared
with their value a few years ago. Every dairy farmer,
even though he sells his milk at a good price, should ar-
range to breed and raise at least enough heifers to replace
the cows in his own herd. He is sure of better bred cows,
better individuals, and good healthy stock. If he purchases
his cows, he runs considerable risk.

Care of calf when first born.—lIf{ the mother has been
in good physical condition, and she freshens in a normal
manner, the calf should be normal at time of birth. If
the presentation of the calf is normal, little help need be

138 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

given. The normal delivery of a calf is front feet first
and the nose and head resting between the two front legs.
In case of.a heifer, and with some cows, it is desirable and
even necessary to assist in the deltvery of the calf by gently
pulling on the calf’s front legs.

There is some difference in opinion as to whether a calf
should be taken away from its mother at once after birth
or whether it should be permitted to remain with its
mother for some time. There are some who do not even
put a cow into a stall by herself during freshening. She
is left in the stanchion in the barn. Under such conditions
the mother scarcely has a chance even to see the calf.

The author believes that every cow should have an op-
portunity, not only to see the calf, but to lick the calf.
At times the calf is weak when first born. Such a calf
benefits by being handled. The mother’s licking is the
best sort of handling. There are some who remove the
calf at once, and in case of weakness will take a whisk of
straw and thoroughly rub the calf. If the mother licks
the calf, this rubbing is not necessary. Should a calf be
so weak as to not breathe well, the attendant may gently
open the mouth of the calf and blow into the calf’s mouth.
He may also take hold of the front legs and gently pull
them apart and then let them come together again. At
times this will aid the calf in respiration.

With a normal calf it is not necessary to do anything
except to put it to its mother’s head.

With normal freshening, it is not necessary to do any-
thing with the navel of the calf. In case there is any
danger of calf cholera or white scours, or in case the
owner wishes to be sure to prevent it, he should paint the
cord at the place of breaking with tincture of iodine, or
disinfect it in a 214 percent solution of carbolic acid. Un-
der normal conditions, however, the navel will heal itself.

For some time the author used to turn the cows loose
in a box stall before freshening. Now he puts a halter
on the cow and ties her to the manger during the freshen-

RAISING THE DAIRY COW 139

ing time. At times a cow running loose in a box stall
will lie down with the hind quarters up against the corner
of the stall, or very close to the wall. This may interfere
with giving the cow the proper help in case it is necessary,
and it may interfere with proper delivery of the calf. If
the cow is tied in the stall, one is always sure of plenty of
room behind the cow.

The length of the time that the calf should remain with
its mother varies with the different dairy farmers. It
cannot be said that there is any definite time when the
calf should be taken away. The author practices leaving
the calf with its mother until the milk is in condition to
be used. This length of time varies some according to
the condition of the cow; usually it is about three days.
During these first days a cow is not giving her full flow
of milk. This first milk is essential for the calf, whether
he is allowed to remain with his mother or whether he is
fed from the pail.

With the ordinary unimproved cow, it is probably not
necessary to milk the cow during these first few days.
Few of the common cows give more milk than the calf
will take. With the improved dairy cow, the herdsman
should see that the cow is milked regularly, during the
time that the calf is with the dam, as well as after the calf
is taken from the dam.

In case the cow is troubled with a swollen udder it may
be advisable to leave the calf with its mother a little while
longer.

Some object to leaving the calf with its mother because
she usually longs for the calf after it is taken away, and
may even refuse to give down her milk for some time
after the calf has been removed. This is especially so in
case of a heifer. However, the author has never found
any difficulty in this connection.

The leaving of the calf with its mother is consoling
and comforting to the cow, She is feverish and needs

140 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

the calf for a few days. Besides, it gives the calf a good
Start in lite:

The care of the cow during the freshening period will
be considered under a separate head in connection with
feeding the cow.

Place in which to keep calves.—It is important that
the dairy farmers have a good place in which to keep the
calves. By this the author does not mean that every
dairy farmer should have an especially bui!t calf barn
artificially heated. Such comforts are often given to calves
raised by breeders of pure-bred cattle. Calves raised un-
der such conditions, of course, appear slick, and are well
as long as they are in such surroundings. Calves raised
under such conditions, however, will have a setback when
finally they are sold and put into surroundings and con-
ditions such as the average dairy farmer has.

There is, however, a general neglect on the part of the
dairy farmer in providing a suitable place in which to
keep calves. There is a tendency for the average farmer
to put the calves into any part of the barn that is handy.
The author has personally seen little calves put into a dark,
unventilated small place cut out of the side of a haymow
near the center of the barn. Such a place is unsanitary
and unfit for calves.

The author has also seen little calves put into one large
pen, even one having modern calf equipments, in one cor-
ner of the main barn in which all of the cows were kept.
Every night this barn was very close and warm. During
the time the cows were out and when the barn was being
cleaned the temperature was very low.

Under such conditions calves are likely to take cold.
The calf stalls should be separate from the remainder of
the barn. Preferably they should be on the south side of
the barn. There should be plenty of sunlight and good
ventilation. The stall should be kept dry and well bedded.

There should be several small stalls rather than one
large one. This prevents bunching and crowding during

RAISING THE DAIRY COW 141

feeding, it enables the attendant to keep the stalls and
the calves dry and clean, and it enables the herdsman to
separate the calves according to size and sex.

In front of the calf stalls there should be feeding
mangers and stanchions. Under no circumstances should
there be more calves in the pen than there are stanchions.
When feeding time comes each calf should be fastened in
the stanchion. He should remain there during feeding and
a short time after feeding.

bain? co

FIG. 55—Homemade stanchions for feeding calves in pasture.
(Courtesy Kansas Exp. Sta.)

If the calves are permitted to get loose at once after
feeding, especially if there are a good many calves in one
stall, there is a tendency for them to suck each other’s
ears, navels and scrotums. This should be prevented, and
usually is, if the calves are allowed to remain in the
stanchions 10 or 15 minutes after each feeding. It is a
good plan to feed them fresh grain at once after feeding
the milk.

Teach calf to eat grain early.—F very calf should be
taught to eat grain as early as possible. This may be done

142 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

in several ways. A good way is to put the small calves
together in one or two pens. There should not be more
than six calves in one pen. A smaller number is better.
Some keep individual pens, which, from the standpoint of
the breeder, «1s:the best: From the standpoint of@tie
average dairy farmer, probably the keeping of three or four
calves together is just as practicable. The smallest and
youngest calves are first put together in one pen and the
second largest size in another pen, the third largest size
in still another one, and so on. When the calves reach a
certain age, it is mecessary to separate the male calves
from the females.

In the pen where the little calves are there should be
one calf that knows how to eat grain. Little calves are
imitators. When they see the older calves eating grain
the little ones will often begin to eat when only a few
days old.

Another way to teach a calf to eat grain is to hold a
handful of feed up to his mouth immediately after he is
through drinking milk. Some of this feed will adhere to
his moist mouth. The calf instinctively licks the grain off,
and in that way gets started to eat grain early.

A calf should be used to eating grain when about two
weeks old. Many calves will not eat more grain than they
need until they are six months old. Ordinarily a calf will
not eat more than three pounds of grain a day until after
he is past six months of age. This is none too much for
a calf of that age. When young a calf will not eat more
than about one pound of grain a day.

Care should be taken not to spill milk in the manger.
Care should also be taken that the grain is freshly sup-
plied and that the manger is kept clean and fresh.

Amount of milk to feed—Granting that the calf is
permitted to remain with its mother for about three days,
the feeding from pails begins at this point. The first day
the calf will probably not drink more than about two

RAISING THE DAIRY COW 143

é me is
HEEL
BEER ENG

150 Days of =

te
ay EP er ee

at tt ee
ee EEE

: =o
Aa 2
: sagna) soma! ios

180 Days

FIG. 56—lIllustrating growth of a calf during 30-day periods.
(Purdue Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 193.)

144 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

quarts of milk, or about four pounds. It is important that
the mother’s milk be fed so long as he receives whole milk.

The author practices feeding calves whole milk about
three weeks. In some instances the change from whole
milk to skim milk is begun after two weeks. This depends
somewhat on the condition of the calf. In some instances
the change from whole milk to skim milk does not occur
till the calf is even four or five weeks old. Generally
speaking, Holstein calves are able to go on skim milk
quicker than are Jerseys and Guernseys. Granting that
during the first three weeks the calf is fed whole milk, and
that on an average he receives about eight pounds daily,
during the latter part of the three weeks he will probably
drink 10 pounds daily. This amount of milk will grad-
ually increase from four pounds the first day to 10 pounds
the latter part of the three-week period. A specially large
calf may need an average of 10 pounds a day during the
three weeks.

This means that the calf will drink about 170 pounds
of whole milk during the first three weeks. A large calf
will drink about 210 pounds of whole milk during the
same time.

The changing from whole milk to skim milk should not
take place till the calves know how to eat grain, be this
when the ca'f is two weeks old or when he is four weeks
old. The change from whole milk should be gradual and
should extend over a period of about one week. During
this time the calves should be watched carefully. Special
efforts should be made to have the skim milk sweet, fresh
and of proper temperature. The amount of skim milk
to feed varies according to the size of the calf and his con-
dition. The average healthy calf will consume on an aver-
age about two gallons of milk per day, or about 16 pounds.
When first put on skim milk, he should not receive over 10
or 12 pounds daily, gradually increasing it to 18 or 20
pounds.

RAISING TIIE DAIRY COW 145

A calf may profitably be fed skim milk until he is a year
old, if the owner has plenty of skim milk on hand. The
calf should in any case receive skim milk till he is six
months old. After this time he will thrive well without
milk provided he has grain and plenty of roughage. A
calf may get along without milk earlier than this. The
author has raised calves that received no milk after they
were three months old. Such calves, however, receive a
considerable setback until they get used to being without
milk.

The feed prices charged in making the calculations as
shown in table below, are as follows: Whole milk, $2 per
100 pounds; skim milk, 25 cents per 100 pounds; hay, $12
per ton; silage, $4 per ton; and grain, $30 per ton

*Table Showing Cost of Growing Dairy Heifers to Two Years of Age.

Barn Net
Tent, Value cost
re)

oO

of first ance, | manure] heifer
Cow year inter- pro- to two
est duced years
and of age
taxes
Guresmsey2o2 6660s $24.41 $4 $5 $63.29
IGA cae 28.62 + 65.28

WHolsteint =). saecea< as 28:22

ry

—— ef es

~ *3torrs Agricultural Station Bulletin No. 63.

Changing to skim milk.—The time during which the
calf is changed from its mother’s milk to skim milk is the
critical period in the life of a calf. This is so, not because
of any serious danger if proper care is taken, but because
there are several factors which affect the calf that are not
properly observed.

In the first place, skim milk is not as nutritious as is
whole milk. The whole milk contains the butter fat. Be-
sides, whole milk is mother’s milk. While, chemically
speaking, there may be no difference between mother’s milk
and some other cow’s milk, there is probably a force in

146 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

mother’s milk that is of value to the calf. The following
table shows the composition of whole milk and skim miik
and whey, the three products that are many times used
for feeding calves.

Water Fat Milk-sugar Casein Albumen Ach
Yo % % % % %
Whole milk..| 87.10 | 3.90.|- 4.75 | 300 | 040° "ieauoun
Skimmilk.... . : Holl 5) 3.00 0.60 0.89
Whey 0 5.09 0.30 0.70 0.70) 5

In order to supplement the butter fat, the calf should
know how to eat grain. The author never makes the
change from whole milk to skim milk until the calf is thor-
oughly familiar with eating grain. From the standpoint
of nutrition, it is not necessary to add any substitutes to
the skim milk. The author has at different times fed the
various substitutes in the skim milk, but has never had as
good success as when the calves themselves eat grain out
of the manger in addition to the skim milk.

Calves cannot all be put on skim milk at the same time.
A calf that is a little backward does not handle feed well
and should not be changed from whole milk to skim milk
until he is in the very best of physical condition.

Probably one reason why little calves do not do well
on skim milk is that this kind of milk is not always kept in
as good condition as is the whole milk. When whole milk
is fed it is usually given at once after milking, while fresh
and free from contamination. When skim milk is fed, it
may be contaminated to a greater or less degree with
undesirable germs. On the average farm the chance of
contamination is great. The separator is not always in
as good and sanitary a condition as it might be 7 one
skim milk may have been contaminated from other cows’
milk in the herd. When separated all milk is usually put
together. Besides, the skim milk may not be of so uniform
a temperature. The skim milk may be allowed to stand
around for some time and ferment before it is fed.

RAISING THE DAIRY COW 147

Usually if a calf is fed skim milk when about three
weeks old, if he knows how to eat grain, and the milk is
fed fresh at the right temperature, little trouble is encoun-
tered in making this change.

Substitutes for milk.—There are conditions, such as
usually prevail in cheese-making districts, when it is almost
an economical necessity to avoid feeding either whole milk
or skim milk to the calves. Several proprietary mixtures
have been manufactured, which, when mixed with a certain
amount of water, are considered to take the place of milk
for calf feeding and even for feeding pigs. Several ex-
periment stations have experimented with this. Some
have been found fairly good. The mixture with which the
Pennsylvania station (Bull. No. 60) obtained the best re-
sults was Hayward’s calf meal. The contents of this mix-
ture are as follows: Wheat flour, 30 pounds ; cocoanut meal,
25 pounds; nutrium, 20 pounds; linseed meal, 10 pounds;
and dried blood, 2 pounds.

The following shows the proportion of the ingredients
used with the different calf meals with which Dr. Lindsey
experimented (Bull. 164, Massachusetts station) :

LInpDsEY’s CALF MEAL J

10 pounds fine corn meal, 5 pounds glucose sugar,
10 pounds flour middlings, 1 pound salt.
15 pounds flaxseed meal, Cost, 3.2 cents per pound.

10 pounds cheap flour,
Linpsey’s CALF MEAL II

25 pounds ground oat flakes, 2 pounds glucose sugar,

15 pounds flaxseed meal, 1 pound salt.

8 pounds cheap flour, Cost, 3.7 cents per pound.
LinpsEY’s CatF Meat III

8 pounds fine corn meal, 7 pounds glucose sugar,

10 pounds flour middlings, 1% pound salt.

14% pounds flaxseed meal, Cost, 3.4 cents per pound.

10 pounds cheap flour,
LINDSEY’s CALF MEAL V

22 pounds ground oat flakes, 1%4 pounds blood flour,
10 pounds flaxseed meal, YZ pound bicarbonate of potash,
5 pounds flour middlings, Y% pound salt.

11 pounds fine corn meal, Cost, 3.3 cents per pound,

148 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

LINDSEY’s CALF MEAL VI

35 pounds ground oat flakes, 14 pound bicarbonate of potash,
1214 pounds barley malt, pound salt.
114 pounds blood flour, Cost, 3.3 cents per pound.

Os

In most instances the above were fed in connection with
skim milk.

The following table gives a summary of the leading
calf meals:

Kind of Ration Number| Days Daily Total Cost of
of in gain food food per
calves trial (ibs. ) cost pound of

gain (cents)

Skimmilk in large supply, ordi-

nary grains and hay........ 10 235 1.22 $22.08 fe
Skimmilk and Harare’ s Calf

Meal (lindsey)ix:. <6 sacc 2. 2 173 1.23 20.44 9.6
Whole milk and Hayward’s Calf

Meali(Havyaward)sennceueaen: Wy 102 1.18 11.34 9.6
Skimmilk and Schumacher’s

Calf Meal (Lindsey)........ 3 150 1.00 Ww 7 8.2

Whole milk and Schumacher’s
Calf Meal as per directions

(Wie) eres ea etre eet 10 132 1.19 13.16 8.5
Giiailic and Blatchford’s Calf
Meali(sindsey is cmirre ees ee 1* a0 18S * ates cere
Whole milk and Blatchford’s
Calf Wieali@Ving) ee eee 4 150 ABH ses 13.5
Whole and skimmilk and Bib-
ae s Cream Equivalent (Lind-
Br Tera Oren ee tale Sete eect 3 148 eo 13.08 715
Whole and skimmilk and Lind-
Seyosumealilcer weenie 2 147 97 14.54 10.4
Whole and skimmilk and Lind-
Sey, Smeal Wl sos Pee eres 3 183 1.04 14.68 7.6
Whole and skimmilk and Lind-
Sevres imealellinn wate nae 1 148 1.70 15.24 6.1
Whole and skimmilk and Lind-
sey-semealel Vins Ac. cuistee oe 1 148 1.50 14.49 6.5
Whole and skimmilk and Lind-
Sey Sime align wee eee 4 164 1.25 5 sh2 7.6
Whole and skimmilk and Lind-
Seyas meal iViliy. we wrensihs oectee 3 SY 1.35 16.54 7.6

Average (calf-meal calves). 48 139 IZ 13.90 9.07

*Not included in the average.

If a calf is raised with the minimum amount of milk, it is
probably best to feed the mother’s milk and to feed as little
whole milk as the calf will get along with, and begin to sub-
stitute calf meal as early as is possible. The time when a

RAISING THE DAIRY COW 149

calf can get along without milk at all varies with different
individuals and with different breeds. The author’s ex-
perience has been that Holstein calves get along without
milk quicker than do Jersey calves, for instance. The
physical condition of the calf also has much to do with
determining just when a calf can get along without milk.
A calf should have milk for at least two or three weeks.

The composition of these different calf meals is given as follows:

Extract

Water Ash Fibre | Protein | matter Fat
Hayward’s (not analyzed)| ..... ae eae Oa | Perea | ee
Sehwmacher’s.. cc. %00 <5 « 9.34 222 LS 17.15 62.29 7.48
BLAECHPOF’S:., ...0 6 ste ee ee 10.42 alls: 6.03 24.91 48.56 4.95
EDV ie Soares sie oo Siviele’s's oie 7.99 6.23 4.90 16.78 49.68 14.42
AGU SEY A500 clo crore vie se «= 7.37 3.30 2.78 14.98 58.99 12.58
HOTS YASUE a. cers oc vein’ 7.34 3.50 2.93 20.89 56.34 9.00
Lindsey’ SRV este cage ene a 6.84 3.55 2.34 17.08 57.64 12.55
WantdseyasaV seas cs ee os 7.34 3.50 2.14 16.29 65.27 5.46
Clover eat Calf Meal. 10.78 4.43 S59 25.31 48.53 5.40
Ryde’s Cream Calf Meal.| 11.30 4.67 4.50 23.82 51.03 4.68
SUS hee a COE 10.33 4.36 Bie Dea 50.51 Se

After this time, with careful feeding and care, he can get
along without milk, but it will be at the expense of the
growth of the calf and the appearance of the calf. The
person who expects to raise a good heifer calf to take a
future place in the dairy herd should not be too stingy
with the whole milk, even though he is getting a good price
for it when sold in the market. The extra growth and
appearance resulting from being fed whole milk will more
than make up for the milk she drinks.

A good calf meal is two pounds of sifted ground oats,
two pounds of finely ground corn meal, and one pound of
flaxseed.

Calf feeders—Calf feeders have been advertised and
sold. These usually consist of a rubber nipple attached to
a container of some kind. The milk is put into the con-
tainer and the calf sucks the milk from it through the rub-
ber nipple. It is claimed that the calf does not drink his
milk so rapidly and that slow drinking is desirable for
proper digestion of the milk. It is probable that the calf

150 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRVING

drinking out of a pail may drink milk more rapidly than is
good for him. He may gulp in a quantity of air. Aside
from this, there are probably no bad effects from pail drink-
ing, providing the amount of milk and the sanitary condi-
tion of the pail are properly guarded.

Diarrhea in ca‘f.—Diarrhea or scours in calves is proba-
bly one of the worst maladies affecting young calves.

There are two kinds of scours:

1. White scours or calf cholera. This is a germ disease.
No one knows for sure the nature of the germ that causes
the difficulty. Dr. Williams of Cornell University is of the
opinion that there is a relation existing between the germs
that cause abortion and those that cause white scours (Cor-
nell University Cir. No. 4).

This disease usually shows itself in calves when they are
very young, only a few days old. It is claimed that the germ
that causes white scours enters the calf’s system through
the navel at the time of birth, or immediately thereafter. A
calf affected with white scours is very weak. White, foamy
feces ooze from the rectum. In a short time the calf’s eyes
begin to look dull and glassy. The disease is fatal in most
cases. There is no effective remedy known. The calf is
young, and its system cannot stand treatment and medicines.

To prevent white scours, disinfect thoroughly the barn
and the stall in which the calf is put. A 2% percent solution
of carbolic acid for disinfecting the cow and the calf is
recommended. A five percent solution may be used for
disinfecting the barn and the outside of the cow. Some
recommend painting the navel of the calf with tincture of
iodine at once after birth.

In case there is much trouble with calf cholera in the
herd, and the cow freshens in the spring, a good plan is to
let the cow freshen in a small pasture near the barn.

Thorough disinfection of the navel of the calf, the cow
and the whole barn, is the best preventive. This is a case
where prevention is better than cure.

2. Scours due to indigestion. There are many causes of

RAISING THE DAIRY COW je |

this form of scours. It may start from a slight derange-
ment of the digestive system. If observed and taken in
time, it is not dangerous, especially if the calf is not too
young.

Many times scours start at the time that the calf is
changed from whole to skim milk.

At times it is caused by feeding cold and warm milk
alternately. Uniform temperature of milk is important.

Scours may be caused by keeping the calves in a pen that
is wet underneath, or wet above. It is easy for calves to
catch cold, if the rain leaks through the roof and gets the
calves partially wet. A dry, clean, well-bedded place should
be provided.

Scours in calves may be caused by a change of tempera-
ture in the room. There are times when little calves are
kept in a barn that is warm at night and cold in the day-
time. Variation in temperature is very detrimental to
calves. A uniform temperature, even though cold, is more
healthful than is a temperature that varies daily.

Calves may obtain indigestion and scours by sucking each
other, especially by sucking each other’s navels. Some male
calves excrete urine when other calves suck.

The above are some of the chief factors that are likely to
cause indigestion and scours in calves. ©

Many remedies for diarrhea or calf scours have been used
and suggested. The digestive disturbances are due chiefly
to the action of undesirable germs in the digestive tract, and
also to giving the calf too much to eat during the time of
sickness. To remedy the scours, reduce the amount of feed,
and secondly, give medicine that will rid the digestive tract
of those abnormal fermentations, without poisoning the
calf. If the calf has had the disease for some time, and the
disease has obtained a firm hold, then first give the calf a
physic. Castor oil is highly recommended for this. Give
from one to three ounces of this, depending on the age and
condition of the calf. This castor oil should be given in
about one-half to one pint of milk. If the calf will not

152 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

drink it, give itas a drench. Allow about six to eight hours
for this to do its work. Then give one teaspoonful of a
mixture of one part of salol and two parts of subnitrate of
bismuth. Give this with one-half pint of milk, or place it
on the tongue of the calf and wash it down with milk. This
is known as the Wisconsin remedy for scours.

The formaldehyde treatment is recommended by the
South Carolina station. It is given by mixing one-half
ounce of formalin with 1514 ounces of water. Use one
teaspoonful of this mixture for each pint of milk fed to
the calf.

One successful dairy farmer highly recommends the
following simple remedy: Put one teaspoonful of allspice
in one pint of hot water. Allow it to steep and give the
calf the tea six hours apart. Feed no milk until the calf
improves.

Do not dope a calf with too much medicine. Give him a
dry and clean bed, iresh pure water to drink, a stalljin
which there is no draft, but plenty of fresh air and light,
and reduce his feed as soon as the scours are noticed. If
taken in time, these precautions are usually sufficient to cure
ordinary scours.

The author has had more trouble from constipation than
he has had with scours. If calves are fed regularly and
properly, and kept in a dry place, well lighted and well
ventilated, and of reasonably warm temperature, there will
be very little trouble from scours, but there may be trouble
from constipation. Constipation will kill the calf quicker
than will a case of scours.

The calves should be watched carefully. When a calf is
constipated, give him a rectal injection with warm soft
water containing some good soap in solution. This in most
cases will cause movement of the bowels. If the calf still
continues to be constipated, give him about two tablespoon-
fuls of castor oil in a pint of milk. The attendant shou'd
watch that the constipation does not return after the calf
has been purged with the castor oil.

RAISING THE DAIRY COW 153

Factors affecting size of cow.—It is important to
develop the natural size of the individual. Every individual
has a natural limit to which it will grow if properly cared
for. If an individual does not reach this limit, through
lack of proper feed and care during either its pre-natal or
post-natal period, the cow will not have reached its proper
point of maximum utility. The chief factors which affect
the size of an individual are as follows:

1. Kind of parents. Size is one of the qualities that are
hereditary. It is similar to milk and butter fat, color, and
any other of the characteristics that are hereditary. If all
of the near ancestors are of large size, the calf should inherit
this quality.

2. Birth weight of calves. The weight of a calf when
born depends on the breed as well as on the individual or
strain within the Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire,
Shorthorn and any other breeds of cattle. In practically
all cases, the calves that were large at birth were propor-
tionately large at maturity. The author has seen pure-bred
Holstein calves weigh 120 pounds at birth and some that
weighed only 70 pounds.

Some individual mothers naturally nourish the fetus well
during the gestation period, while others are more inclined
to put the feed on their own back. Real fleshy cows many
times drop very small calves. The feed and care received
during the gestation period also affect the size of the calf.

The comparative birth weight of the calves from the
different breeds is as follows :*

Average of Both Sexes

Breed No. of | Av. Wt.] Av. Wt.] Av. Wt.| Wt. of Wt of Calf
Calves fof Males of of calf Dam |to Wt. of Dam
Pounds | Females] Pounds | Pounds Percent
Pounds
ENSEY cons aeiks nw 119 58 49 55 900 6.11
MER HSCY 3.3.5.5... 5 68 71 996 Holts:
PRESUME. ciao s sae' - 34 Th 74 76 976 7.79
Holstein. 24 6: s%)s2% 104 85 89 1,153 el
Brown Swiss....... 5 107 90 100 p23 8.90
Dairy Shorthorn... 6.08

* Henry and Morrison

154 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

3. Whether the mother is mature or,not. A heifer im
variably drops calves that are smaller in size than calves
dropped by the same cow when mature. This difference in
the size of calves varies, and in most cases it varies in pro-
portion to the size of the mother. In the smaller breeds of
cattle, such as the Guernsey and the Jersey, this difference
in the size of calves when dropped is not so great. It is
seldom more than from four to 10 pounds. With the breeds
composed of larger individuals, this difference is greater.
For instance, a Holstein heifer’s calf will weigh about 85
pounds. The same cow when mature will produce calves
that weigh about 100 pounds. Lack of size at birth due to
age of mothers is usually regained as the individual grows
to maturity.

4. -Feed and care. This is one of the very important
factors to observe in developing an individual to its natural
and maximum size. Especially is this true when the indi-
vidual is young. An individual stunted from babyhood will
never recover entirely. A stunted colt is ewe-necked. This
abnormal form is seldom overcome, even though the indi-
vidual is well fed later. It is similar with the calf. Tt is
then very important that an individual during growing
years should be fed and cared for in such a way as to have
constant and uniform normal growth.

There was a time when it was thought that a calf should
be kept lean and partially starved while young in order to
develop into a large producing cow. It was thought that if
a heifer calf was blocky and showed signs of beefiness, she
was developing the habit of laying on meat, and that when
such a female freshened, she would retain that character-
istic and would not properly convert feed into dairy
products.

The production of milk and butter fat is much deeper
rooted than this. The author has raised calves that were
large, blocky and fat while young, but as soon as they fresh-
ened, this was milked off, and they assumed a lean condi-
tion. The ability to produce milk and butter fat cannot be

RAISING THE DAIRY COW £55

changed to this extent within the time of the life of a calf.
If the proper milk and fat heredity is in the blood of the
calf, there is no danger in keeping the heifer calf in good
flesh.

5. Time of mating. This is another one of the very im-
portant factors affecting the size of the individual. Proba-
bly there is no one factor that so saps the vitality and the
strength from an immatured animal as does early mother-
hood.

Relation of Weteht of Cows to Production (Prof. Woll)

age Fat Fat
Breed and Weight No. | body | pro- Cost Net Feed | pro- | Value
- of | weight} duced | of feed | returns | units | duced Jof pro-
Cows] lbs. lbs. Ibs. | ducts
HOLSTEINS:
900 tbs. and under... 5 880 | 415.2 | $89.05 | $47.26 | 7895 | 5.26 | $1.73
901-1000 Ibs... 0... 12 948 | 481.7] 92.95 63.91 | 7865 | 6.12 2.00
1001-1100 Ibs........ 20 1083 | 479.3 87.76 69.02 } 7550 } 6.35 | -2.08
POI M200Nbs-. oo. 42 1181 | 479.4] 87.69 70.47 | 7665 | 6.26 2.06
1201-1300 tbs........ 25 1274 | 529.3 94.44 77.98 | 8145 | 6.49 212
1301-1400 Ibs........ 25 1380 | 524.5 91.31 80.25 | 8002 | 6.55 2.14
1401 lbs. and over...| 16 1556 | 566.6} 96.60 88.01 | 8364 | 6.77 Dep Ay
GUERNSEYS:
900 tbs. and under...| 39 849 | 382.0} 65.71 53.38 | 6082 | 6.28 1.96
901-1000 tbs......... 49 956 | 420.0] 69.82 61.31 | 6273 | 6.70 2.09
1001-1100 Ibs........ 26 1066 | 438.4] 74.39 622 SP at Girl 6s55 2.04
1101-1200 4bs........ 15 LSS A SOOn a7 ai7 (OIE ARGOLT Tees 2.04
1201 lbs. and over... 6 1292 | 440.8} 88.57 49.41 | 7366 | 5.98 1.87
JERSEYS:
900 ibs. and under...| 43 842 | 346.3 52.10 55.76 | 5432 | 6.37 1.99
SOI=1000 Ibs: ...5.% -. 21 945 | 376.0] 56.75 60.01 | 5666 | 6.64 2.06
1001-1100 Ibs........ f 1057 | 393.0} 50.56 PANGS PESATAL | TELS Desit
1101 Ibs. and over.... 4 1200 | 419.0} 59.03 72.27 | 6027 | 6.95 2.18
ALL BREEDS:
900 tbs. and under...| 87 847 | 366.2] 60.32 54.20 | 5866 | 6.24 1.95
901-1000 Ibs......... 82 952 | 417.8] 69.86 61.36 | 6351 | 6.58 2.07
1001-1100 Ibs........ 53 1071 | 447.8] 76.28 66.28 | 6858 | 6.55 2.09
1101-1200 4bs........] 60 1175 | 477.7) 82.81 UPD | SEN EA EES Dae
T20I=13004 bss... .... 31 PSG e062 9ilesil 72.01 | 7875 | 6.43 2.03
1301-1400 'bs....... 26 1379 | 525.8] 92.15 79.64 | 8051 | 6.53 DANG!
1401 Ibs. and over. 16 1556 } 566.6 96.60 88.01 | 8364 | 6.77 ISI

mating, chiefly for two reasons. The first is that the calf
should be getting into the habit of changing feed into milk
early in life. The mammary gland should have an oppor-
tunity to develop early, by producing large amounts of milk
and butter fat. Secondly, early mating has been recom-

156 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

mended so as not to have the heifer loafing about too long
without paying for her feed.

Large cows vs. small cows.—There are large cows
within a breed and there are also small ones. There have
been claims made pro and con as to the profitableness of
small cows versus large cows. Usually these discussions
have arisen over individuals within the different breeds.

According to the author’s experience, large cows of a
certain breed are usually larger producers, and more profit-
able producers, than are the small cows within the same
breed.

However, all large cows within a breed are not large pro-
ducers; neither are all small cows small producers. Indi-
viduality is an important factor.

GEAP TEAR VIAL

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED
RATION

Two things are of paramount importance to the dairy
farmer. First, the amount and kind of feed that goes into
the cow; secondly, the amount and kind of returns that
come from her. The feeding of the dairy herd so as to get
the maximum returns at the least cost is one of the big
problems confronting every dairyman.

The question of economic feeding of the dairy cow may
be studied under the following chief heads:

1. Balanced Ration.

2. Succulent Feed.

3. Amount of Feed.

4. Cost of Feed.

Much experimental and investigational work has been
conducted with the view of determining just the kind of a
balanced ration that will suit each individual cow.

A dairy cow uses her food for several Pasco

1. For milk production.

2. For body purposes.
(a) In case of immature cows for body growth.
(b) In some instances for increase in body weight.
(c) Incase of pregnancy for development of the fetus.
(d) To keep up body temperature and energy require-

ments.

(e) To maintain the body.

To supply these needs, the cow must have the various
food constituents in proper amounts, and the ratio of one
constituent to the other should vary according to the needs
of the individual cow.

Composition of feeds.—AlIl feeds are composed of water
and dry matter. The percentage of each varies greatly.

157

158 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Not all of the dry matter is digestible. The digestibility of
the different feeds also varies greatly. The digestible part
of the dry matter is usually referred to as nutrients. They
are usually put into three classes :

iP rote:

2. Carbohydrates (including chiefly starch, sugar and
cellulose).

3. Pat. on ether extract:

Protein is essential for milk production. It cannot be
replaced by any other nutrient. It is, therefore, important
that a dairy cow receives enough protein for milk and
muscle production, and probably also for stimulating milk
production.

Fat and carbohydrates may take each other’s place.
These are the chief sources of energy, fat and heat. For
these purposes fat is two and one-fourth times as valuable
as carbohydrates. Before the fat, or ether extract, can be
considered in the same class as the carbohydrates, it should
be first multiplied by the factor two and one-fourth.

If an excess of protein is fed, the surplus may be used
by the body for the production of energy, but protein is too
expensive to be used for this purpose; hence an excess of
protein should not be fed. At the same time there must be
enough protein in the ration to supply the needs of the cow.

Minerals in a cow’s ration.—Minerals are necessary in
feeding a dairy cow, but most feeds contain plenty of
minerals to supply the various needs. There are, however,
some feeds that are quite low in their ash content. The dry
matter of good pasture grass contains about three percent
of total minerals. The kind of minerals which a feed con-
tains is of as much importance as the total amount. A table
in the Appendix gives the composition of the total ash of
some of the feeds.

Much important work on the functions of minerals in
connection with feeding live stock has been done by Dr.
Forbes and his associates at the Ohio station. According
to their experiments, when a cow is giving a large flow of

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 159

milk there is a loss from the body of calcium, magnesium,
and phosphorus; that is, a negative balance resulted. When
these minerals were added to the food separately, even then,
a negative balance resulted, with the single exception of
phosphorus. By feeding phosphorus a positive balance was
obtained.

Feeds such as corn, wheat, rye, kaffir grain, feterita grain,
kaohang grain, and sorghum grain are low in total minerals ;
while feeds such as wheat bran, linseed oil meal, cottonseed
meal, oats, malt sprouts, mangel-wurzel, alfalfa hay, and
cowpea hay are all high in total minerals. In addition, it
will be noticed that these feeds also run relatively high in
calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. By studying the table
in the Appendix, it will be seen that practically all of the
feeds that are high in protein contain a relatively high
percentage of minerals. It is not at all improbable that
some of the good results obtained in feeding heavy protein
rations to a dairy cow are due to the high percentage of
minerals which these feeds contain.

In a paper prepared by Miss J. M. Hoover of the Idaho
station, it is stated that a cow fed a ration lacking in calcium
collapsed and died. It was also stated that pigs fed a ration
lacking in phosphorus became very drowsy. One of them
slept itself to death. The others, when fed sufficient phos-
phorus, again became active and normal.

There is some evidence which indicates that a lack of the
proper kinds and amount of minerals in a cow’s feed may
produce abortion.

Cows which have completed large yearly records at times
become lame, out of shape, and crippled in other ways.
This may be due to the continuous drain of minerals from
the body.

Feeding salt.—All vegetable eating animals require some
salt in addition to the other minerals in the feed. This point
has been thoroughly proven. It is not at all improbable
that for large producing cows it will also be necessary to

160 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

supply additional calcium, phosphorus and magnesium, in
addition to that contained in some of the common feeds.

Vegetable matter contains considerable potassium. The
supposition is that this element, when taken into the body
of the cow, robs the system of the sodium chloride, or the
salt. This theory is strengthened by the fact that meat eat-
ing animals do not crave salt. Meat is notably low in
potassium.

Dr. Babcock of the Wisconsin station carried on an ex-
periment with the view of ascertaining the results of not
feeding salt to a dairy cow. The cows which received no
salt became weak, poor of flesh, and rough of hair. The
cows receiving salt and otherwise on the same feed remained
in good condition. The cows that did not receive any salt
in the ration greatly craved this substance. From this ex-
periment Dr. Babcock concluded that three-fourths of an
ounce of salt should be fed daily to a dairy cow per 1000
pounds of live weight, and in addition six-tenths of an
ounce for each 20 pounds of milk produced.

It has been quite customary to feed salt in limited
amounts once or twice per month to the herd. This is not
sufficient. By this system, the larger and stronger animals
in the herd probably eat more than they should have at one
time, and the young stock and more timid members of the
herd do not receive enough. Too much salt at one time will
in most cases produce scours or other digestive disturbances,
The salt should be fed in such a manner and in such quanti-
ties as to give all of the animals in the herd free access to
salt at all times. This applies to calves and young stock as
well as to the cows in milk.

This salt for the herd may be fed in a long water-tight
trough, raised about two feet above the ground and placed
on solid posts. If the trough is not water-tight, there is too
much waste of salt. During a heavy rain it will dissolve in
the water and leak away. All calf pens and box stalls
should be provided with special salt boxes, so as to give the
animals free access to it at all times.

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 161

Rock salt placed in the yards and in the pasture is not
alone sufficient. Pieces of rock salt are desirable in addi-
tion to barrel salt. When cows are full of feed, they often
get much consolation from licking a piece of rock salt.

Cows which stay in the stanchion for any length of time
may have some small salt brickettes fastened on the
stanchion frame in front. These salt brickettes are not
nearly so hard as is rock salt.

For milk production.—The amount and percent of the
total food consumed in milk production varies with the
individual cow, with the amount of milk given, and with
the richness of the milk. A small cow giving a large amount
of rich milk evidently uses a relatively large percentage of
feed for milk production. A large cow giving a small
amount of milk uses a less percentage of the consumed
nutrients for milk. Some cows will use only about 30 per-
cent of the consumed feed for milk, while others will use
as much as 70 percent of the consumed nutrients for milk.
The average dairy cow uses about one-half of the consumed
feed for milk, and the other half for body purposes.

The more milk a cow produces, the narrower nutritive
ratio she needs. In other words, the more milk the cow
produces, the more protein in relation to the other nutrients
the ration must contain. This is true in respect to the
relative amount as well as to the total amount.

The nutritive ratio needed for milk production alone is
about one pound of protein to four pounds of carbohy-
drates, or carbohydrate equivalent. The ration needed for
body maintenance is about one pound of protein to eight
pounds of carbohydrates. Assuming that a cow uses about
one-half of the feed for the body and the other half for
milk production, the theoretical nutritive ratio for the
average dairy cow should be about one pound of protein to
six pounds of carbohydrates (1:6). This, however, varies
according to the individuality of the different cows. The
feeder must carefully study the cows and should then feed
them according to their individual characteristics. The

162 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

feeder must not only know the different adaptations and
characteristics of the cows, but he must also be thoroughly
familiar with the different kinds of feeds. He should know
the general chemical composition, the general physical
characteristics, and the general physiological effects of the
different feeds.

For body purposes.—The amount and percentage of the
food consumed, which is used by the cow for the various
body purposes, depends much on how the cow is handled.

If a cow must walk a mile or more to and from pasture
every morning and night, this will require considerable
extra energy, and energy comes from food.

If a cow 1s forced to grind her own grain, or to eat coarse,
unpalatable foods, much energy will be required for masti-
cation and digestion. This will also be a drain on the food
eaten to supply the body.

) AL Tht ore
. a IRA wer

FIG. 57—These cows were in the cornstalks when the temperature was
20 degrees F. below zero.

If a cow is compelled to stand out-of-doors in cold
weather, 20 or 30 degrees below zero, and probably “rustle”
her own food in the cornstalk field, much heat from the body
will escape. This would be an additional factor influencing
the amount and kind of feed needed to maintain the normal
body temperature of the dairy cow.

Likewise, if a cow is compelled to drink ice cold water,
as discussed under a separate head, more feed will be re-

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 163

quired to produce the extra heat needed for warming the
water.

A cow developing a calf, or fetus, uses some of the con-
sumed feeds for this purpose, although experiments by Prof.
Eckles of the Missouri station indicate that this required
amount for developing the calf is so small that from an
experimental point of view it could scarcely be determined.
One thing is ‘sure, that something cannot be produced from
nothing. A calf weighs about 80 pounds when born. This

*s . se : :
ae, ge i s & eS... : we"

FIG. 58—This harn, though inexpensive, is comfortable and convenient. It
shelters a herd of excellent pure-bred dairy cattle.

body would represent, approximately speaking, 30 to 40

pounds of dry matter which can have its source only in

feeds given the cow.

Most of the food used by the body of the cow undoubt-
edly goes to maintain and support the work of the various
organs. A cow producing a large amount of milk and
butter fat works hard. Her lungs must breathe, her heart
must beat, her digestive organs must perform constantly,
and the various parts of the body flesh must be maintained
at all times.

164 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Young cows need food not only for maintaining the body,
but also for growth. Some matured cows gain in flesh.
This also would require additional food for body purposes.

Classification of the chief feeds.—Generally speaking,
al feeds may be classified under two heads:

1. The principal feeds rich in protein, or in the chief
muscle and milk producing substances are as follows:

Concentrates: Oats, bran, linseed meal, gluten feeds,
malt sprouts, brewers’ grain, buckwheat middlings and bran,
cottonseed meal, cake, and feed, beans, peas, distillers’
grain, dried blood, and tankage. ;

Roughage: Alfalfa hay, clover hay, pea hay, bean hay,
green oats, grass, green clover, and green alfalfa.

2. The chief feeds rich in carbohydrates and fats, or in
the fat, heat, and energy producing substances are:

Concentrates: Corn, barley, emmer, rye, wheat, hominy,
buckwheat, kaffir grain, milo grain, feterita grain, kaoliang
grain, broom corn seed, millet seed, sorghum grain, and
molasses.

Roughage: Timothy hay, millet hay, prairie hay, corn
fodder, corn silage, milo maize, kaffir corn, kaoliang, cane,
timothy grass, and the various straws.

The above comprise only the chief feeds in use. The
composition table in the Appendix is more complete.

The authcr has seen many dairy cows receive no other
feed than a few ears of corn twice each day and all of the
prairie hay they would eat. From the above classification
it will be seen that both of these feeds belong to the group
of feeds rich in fat, heat, and energy producing substances.
Such a ration will not contain enough protein to yield a
maximum amount of milk. Probably the cow in time and
to some extent may adapt herself to such a ration. It is
necessary, however, for a cow fed on such a ration to con-
sume too much fat and carbohydrates in order to obtain
enough protein to satisfy the demand of the system, and,

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 165

secondly, the amount of milk from a given amount of feed
is reduced.

A person selects or balances his own ration at the tab!=.
He makes his own selection according to the craving of the
system. A dairy cow is usually tied and her ration is
measured or weighed out for her. She must take what is
given her or go without feed. She seldom has the oppor-
tunity to make her own selection according to the natural
craving of her system.

The need of a properly balanced ration is apparent to
every individual. He knows that in cold weather the sys-

FIG. 59—This field produced three tons of alfaifa hay per acre. The dairy
farmer should grow his protein feeds.
tem demands foods rich in fat, sugar, and starch, or foods
that produce an abundance of heat and energy. During
hot weather a person’s demand is rather for chicken, beef-
steak and cool drinks, or foods that produce muscle and
energy, and less fat and heat. This illustrates that the
system needs foods that are adapted to the work and the
conditions. It is similar with the dairy cow.
Calculation of balanced rations by use of feeding
standards.—A vast amount of investigational work has

166 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

been done in the United States with a view of obtaining a
feeding standard suitable for dairy cows. Several standards
have been proposed. They are almost as numerous as are
the investigators. ‘There are no conflicts among the investi-
gators as to the principles involved, but the data varies. This
difference in results is, undoubtedly, due first to a variation
in the adaptation and individual characteristics of the cows
used in the different experiments; secondly, to the differ-
ent climatic and other conditions surrounding the cows;
and thirdly, to the different physical characteristics of the
feeds and to the composition of the feeds grown under
widely different conditions. No one feeding standard will
be equally accurate under all conditions and with different

cows. At the same time, feeding standards are very helpful
to the inexperienced feeder and helpful in formulating trial
rations for cows.

During the last few years, experiments have been con-
ducted and are now in progress which show that there is a
difference in the efficiency of the same kind of constituents
in the different feeds.*

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 167

For instance Professors Hart and Humphrey of the Wis-
consin station report that in experiments with dairy cows
they found that the proteins of milk have an efficiency of
60 percent for milk production. The proteins of corn have
an efficiency of only 40, and the proteins of wheat have an
efficiency of 35 percent. The nutritive ratio of the ration;
fed in this experiment was 1:8. During these experimenis,
the protein of milk was the only one which showed a posi-
tive balance; that is, the cows in the experiments produced
less protein in the milk and other products than was given
to them in the ration. The cows utilized a portion of the
protein for their body. These particular experiments open
up an entirely new and important field in the selection of
feeds for dairy cows.

Prof. Haecker, of the University of Minnesota, finds
that a dairy cow needs seven one-hundredths of a pound of
protein, seven-tenths of a pound of carbohydrates and one
one-hundredth of a pound of fat to maintain 100 pounds of
live weight. From this data the required maintenance ration
for any size cow may be calculated.

This standard also provides definitely the amount of each
nutrient for each pound of milk of different richness. The
average richness of cow’s milk is about four percent butter
fat. The required nutrients to produce one pound of milk
are: 0.0457 of a pound of protein, 0.214 of a pound of
Garbohydrates, and 0.0159 of a pound of fat. If the
nutrients required to produce one pound of milk containing
four percent of butter fat are known, then it is plain that the
amount of nutrients for any number of pounds of four
percent milk can be calculated.

Example.—Calculate a ration for a cow weighing 1200
pounds and producing 40 pounds of four percent milk. (See
table in Appendix. )

* L. Mendell and F. B. Osborn, Yale.
* Hart and McCollum, Wisconsin station.

168 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Lbs. Lbs.
Protein Carbo-
hydrates
Nutrients for maintaining 100 pounds of live weight. 0.07
Nutrients for maintaining 1200 pounds of live weight Oe :
.046

Nutrients for one pound of four percent milk....... 0)
Nutrients for 40 pounds of four percent milk........ :

Total nutrients for maintainance and for milk.......| 2.70

The following ration will be needed to supply these nu-
trient requirements: (See table in Appendix.)

Lbs. eps Lbs.

protein carbohydrates fat

15 pounds of alfalfa hay containing 1.650 5.940 0.180
35 z “silage Se 0.315 3.955 0.245
3 s “ground corn ‘< 0.237 2.000 0.129
6 iS y oats a 0.552 2.840 0.252
2 - + brat z 0.258 0.800 0.068
ACOLM NUttients. 2S 2 2 ee 3.012 15.535 0.874

The nutrients in the above ration are not exactly the same
as the requirements. The protein is a little in excess. The
carbohydrates are lacking a little but there is an excess of
fat. The latter is two and one-fourth times as valuable as
the carbohydrates and is therefore carbohydrate equivalent.
A small excess of protein may also be used for energy. The
ration should contain enough protein. So far as is known,
the carbohydrates and fats cannot take the place of protein,
but protein may take the place of carbohydrates.

The nutritive ratio of the above ration is 1: 5.8.

This nutritive ratio is calculated as follows: Multiply
the fat by 2.25 to convert the fat into carbohydrate equiv-
alent. Then add this product to the carbyhydrates. Divide
this sum by the protein and the quotient represents the
pounds of carbohydrate equivalent to one pound of pro-
tein in the ration.

0.87421, equals 1.9665 ; 1.9665 plus 15.535 equals 17.50.

17.5--3 equals 5.83.

The nutritive ratio of this ration is therefore, 1: 5.83.

When the carbohydrates or the second number is large,
the nutritive ratio is wide, when it is small or below six

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A BALANCED RATION 169

the ration is said to be narrow. The more milk a cow gives,
the narrower the ration or the more protein in proportion
to carbohydrates is required. The table in the Appendix
gives the data for calculating rations for any kind of a cow
according to the Haecker standard.

The Armsby feeding standard is based upon more recent
investigation.* This feeding standard expresses the nu-
trients in feeds as digestible true protein and net energy
value. The latter is expressed in therms. One therm is equal
to 1000 large calories. One calorie is the amount of heat re-_
quired to raise one kilogram of water one degree Centi-
grade, or about the heat required to raise one pound of
water four degrees Fahrenheit. The protein is pure protein
and does not include the amides.

According to the Armsby standard, to maintain a 1200-
pound cow a day requires six-tenths of a pound of pro-
tein and seven therms. To produce one pound of milk con-
taining four percent of butter fat and 13 percent of total
solids requires 0.049 of a pound of digestible protein and
0.27 of a therm. If a ration is calculated according to this
standard, for a cow of similar weight and production as
was used in connection with the Haecker standard, the
following ration would be required for body maintenance:

Protein Therms

For body maintenance 1200 pounds live weight____ 0.6 7.0
fon 40 pounds of four percent milk... .-.+_-____. 1.96 10.8
Total required for maintenance and milk_________ 2.56 17.8

Using the same kind of feed and the same amount of
each kind as in the previous examples the ration stands
as follows:

* Bulletin 114, Pennsylvania station.
2 Bulletin’ 459° BG. A. I. U.S, Dept. of Agri.

170 LARSEN’S DAIRY FARMING

Protein Carbohydrates

fs poundsrot saltalia hay. - S230 1.06 5.13
35 i “corm silage’ 2222. 5008 2 0.21 5.56
3 ee MSO “COM wooo 0.21 2.67
6 Sonera 4 alsa set Paes 0.52 4.05
2 bg Spawlleaks pha paso 2 eee, 0.22 1.06

‘Lotalwin, trial: rations 2225 22 2's 222 18.47

It will be noticed that the above ration is exactly like the
one provided according to the Haecker standard. Compar-
ing the total amount of protein and net energy with the re-
quirements according to the Armsby standard the above
ration lacks about three-tenths of a pound of protein, and
contains a little more than a therm too much net energy
value. To remedy this some of the corn is subtracted and
some linseed meal added. We then have the following which
provides about the nutrients required by the Armsby stand-
ard for a cow weighing 1200 pounds and giving 40 pounds
of four percent milk daily:

Protein Therms

i poundsrat. altalia hays 2-2-5 seer 1.06 sls
35 . = Cons Stlage ou sos Ante 0.21 5.56
2 it <2 STOUNG sCOPi. 22s oa ee 0.14 78
6 mS o 21 OatSh 22 20s ee 0.52 4.05
2 = * Swheatiprams <.-oae 0.22 1.06
ipound-of linseed meal (O; P2222 0:28 0.89

PD otal ee oe Se ee 2.43 18.47

All tables needed in connection with the Armsby feeding
standard may be found in the Appendix.

In connection with feeding standards it should be stated
that an ideal and final ration cannot be calculated for a cow.
The feeder must understand his cows and his feeds, and
feed accordingly. A calculated ration is at best only a trial
ration.

CHAPTER IX.

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT
FEED

A succulent feed is one that contains a large percentage
of water combined in a natural way in the food. A succulent
feed of some kind is important for the best health of the
cow and for maximum economic milk production. A dairy
cow needs more water than probably any other animal. |

When this water, or a large portion of it, is combined
with the feed the entering of it into the body is gradual, and
it is continuous with the eating. It can readily be seen that
when water is thus taken with the food the consistency of
the food when masticated is more uniform. The movement
through the digestive tract is more regular. It is laxative
in character, and the mastication or bringing the food into
condition for digestion is more perfect.

When no succulent feed is fed, the dry feed and the water
go into the body separately and at irregular intervals. This
means an irregular tax upon the digestive organs of the
cow. It means greater energy requirements in mastication.
Undoubtedly, a feeder can successfully feed a dairy cow
her dry feed and water separately, but it requires more
skill and attention on the part of the feeder. With the ir-
regular attention given to the dairy cows on many farms,
succulency in the ration is of special importance.

Pasture Grasses

The ideal succulent feed is, undoubtedly, good pasture
grass. The degree of succulency of grasses varies with the
season. In early spring pasture grasses contain from
65 to 80 percent of water. Later in the summer the water
in the various pasture grasses decreases to about 55 to 65
percent.

UTt

172 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Another noticeable thing about these grasses is that the
further they grow towards maturity the wider their nu-
tritive ratio or the more carbohydrates in relation to the
protein do they contain. Blue grass, before heading, has
a nutritive ratio of 1:3.3, when headed out 1:6.5, and
after bloom it is 1:12. Likewise with alfalfa before bloom
its nutritive ratio is 1:2.3, in bloom 1: 3.5, and after bloom
i signi: 0:

The advantages of good pasture are apparent when the
cows are turned from dry winter feed on to pasture in the
spring. The milk flow increases. The cow sheds the old coat
of hair. The vigor and brightness of the whole herd are
improved, and their general physical being and poise are
bettered.

For at least the Northwest, or the central Northwest,
there are several things that militate against the complete
success of pasture for dairy cows. In the first place, pasture
on high price farming land is not conducive to highest re-
turns. It requires about two acres to produce enough pas-
ture for one cow for the whole season (about five months).
If these two acres were plowed up and put into corn for
silage, at least 20 tons of corn fodder could be produced.
This when made into silage contains enough dry matter and
nutrient equivalents to feed one cow for about 18 months;
whereas, if left in pasture the two acres will provide only
enough feed for one cow for about five months.

Then again, pasture cannot be depended upon every sea-
son. For about two months in the early summer, pastures
are first class. After that drought often sets in, and feed
becomes short. The weather is hot, and flies and mosquitoes
are troublesome. As a result the cows decrease in the milk
flow and often lose much in body flesh during the latter
part of the pasture season.

When these conditions obtain, then the pasture should be
supplemented with other feeds, or a system of partial soil-
ing should be adopted. In the “Corn Belt’ pastures are
usually supplemented with green corn. Some feed green al-

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 173

falfa or green sweet clover. The best supplement to pasture,
and the cheapest and the handiest and the most-healthful te
feed, is silage.

The question has often been raised, “Should a dairy cow
be fed grain in connection with pasture?’ So long as the
cows are doing just ordinary work, or so long as economic
production only is sought, it does not pay to feed expensive
grain in connection with good pasture. If maximum pro-
duction is desired, at any cost, and the cows are large pro-
ducers, then a proper selection of grain should be fed in
connection with the pasture.

Cows should not be turned out to pasture too early in the
spring. The weather at times is cold and wet. The cows
may thus suffer cold, especially during nights.

In the spring the pasture ground is many times wet and
soggy, and the tramping of the cows will spoil much of the
grass and make the ground rough.

So early in the spring grass is scant and many times
weeds are plentiful. The latter usually make-an earlier
start than does the grass. Qn the prairie, or native sod,
wild onion and garlic appear early in the spring. These
weeds, when eaten by the cows, taint the milk very badly.

It is a recognized fact that a plant grows from the top as
well as from the roots. If the cows are turned on the grass
very early, they keep the grass down and prevent its proper
growth.

If the grass is not allowed to make some extra growth
during the spring, when conditions are most favorable,
there will be no reserve food for later in the season, when
conditions for the growth are less favorable.

Also a cow turned out very early in the spring, before
there is much grass, loses her appetite for dry feed, and
there is not enough feed in the pasture. When she gets a
taste of grass, then her appetite for it becomes persistent.
It is also thought that a cow’s teeth are affected by grass so
that she cannot bear to chew hay and other dry feeds.

174 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Soiling Crops

Pasture is not the only summer feed that is succulent.
Various crops may be sown, cut green, and fed to the cows.
This green feed may be cut, hauled, and fed to the cows
in the barn. By this system the cows are kept in the barn
during the feeding, and let out for exercise only. This
involves considerable labor. It is difficult to keep the cows
and barn clean. Green feed is laxative, and cows on green
feed do not eat much hay. The green feed also attracts
many flies into the barn. Considering these things, this

manner of feeding soiling crops to the herd of dairy cows
is rather impracticable, except when practiced in a small
way or where labor is plentiful.

The cows may also be kept in the yard and the soiling
crop be fed in a rack. Each morning a load of this green
feed is cut and hauled and put into the rack. The cows thus
have free access to it and at the same time are kept in the
fresh air and in a dry, well-drained yard. No additional

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 175

labor is required after the feed is once placed in the rack.
For a complete system of soiling this is regarded as the
most practicable one.

A partial system of soiling is often practiced. Green
crops are fed only when the feed in the pasture becomes
short. By this system the green crop, usually corn, 1s
scattered oh the ground and the cattle pick it up from there.
Some of the feed is wasted, but feeding in this manner does
away with the labor involved in pitching it into the hay-
rack, and where the corn is close to the pasture it does away
with the labor of loading the feed into the wagon.

FIG. 62—-This lot of nine cows was fed Sealing Grups in the hayrack during
a whole summer.

In Denmark, where soiling crops are used extensively,
the cows are tethered in long rows in the field. In some
instances the cows will be moved forward every couple of
hours. They are thus permitted to eat the crop from the
ground themselves. In other places the soiling crop is cut
with a scythe or mowing machine and some of the feed is
placed in front of each cow. The common soiling crop used
in Denmark is a mixture of oats and buckwheat, or oats and
field peas.

The author carried on an experiment one summer with
27 cows, divided into three lots. Nine were fed the green

176 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

crop in the barn, nine were fed in a hayrack in the open
yard, and nine were kept ina pasture. The green crops fed
were a mixture of oats and peas, green alfalfa, and corn.
Only the first and second crops of the alfalfa were used.
The third alfalfa crop was too light, necessitating too much
labor, especially considering that when the third crop of
alfalfa is ready to cut, the corn crop is just in the right
condition for this purpose. The cows fed in the rack in the
lot did the best and made the most economic production.

The amount of green feed that a cow will eat depends
much on the cow and also on the crop. Generally speaking,
a mature cow will eat about 110 pounds of green feed per
day.

The table below shows the average production of the
green feeds raised on the South Dakota state college dairy
farm. For soiling purposes a system of oats and Canadian
field peas, alfalfa, and corn is best. The first ‘crop
alfalfa is ready to use about Jinme 10. The latter pariwet
June, the mixture of oats and peas may be cut and fed. By
seeding this crop about two weeks apart, the oats and pea
crop can be used for a considerable time and still remain at

Green yield Dry matter Digestible
Crop per acre, lbs. per acre, lbs. (D. M.) per Date harvested
acre, lbs.
Oats and peas . 30,829 6,722 4,253 June 25 and later
followed by
TING Coe 7,940 2,190 E22 Sept. 10) Feommes
Total per acre
oats, peas anc
mouilletay sce. 38,760 8,912 5,465
Gorne yen eacr 25,540 5,593 3,754 Aug. 20 and later
Alfalfa
IIS GRO saacn- 10,580 2,647 P15 June 15 and later
THN ee Mines alec 9,760 2,444 1,382 iullyie See be
2G Ba parte Ost 5,080 1,265 Hi Sept: 5 mae ss
Total per acre
Otmallitaliiayeeme 25,42) 6,356 3.468

the right stage of maturity. If there is an excess of this
crop, it can be cut for hay or left for maturity. This crop,
if not too heavy and tangled, may be cut with a self-binder.
If the bundles are not tied too tight and too large, they will

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED Wa

dry out in the shock, and it makes the very best of hay for
winter feeding. The second crop of alfalfa may be used
after about July 10. After the middle of August the corn
crop may be used until about the middle of September,
sometimes longer, depending on the frost.

The yield reported in the table above is probably greater
than can be expected from average land. The land on the
college dairy farm is rich and in a high state of fertility.

On account of dry weather during the month of July,
the millet crop failed once in four years. The data in the
table, therefore, represent the average of only three years.
The remainder of the table gives the average for four
successive years.

The oats and peas were taken off the land for soiling
crops or for silage, or for hay, about July first. This same
ground was then thoroughly disked and seeded with millet.
In this manner two crops of green feeds were obtained
from the same ground. The latter crop was usually cut for
hay about September 10, or about the time that frost usually
appears.

In accordance with this yield, one acre will produce
enough feed in the form of soiling crops for two cows for
about 4% months. The greatest drawback to the general
use of soiling crops is probably the extra labor involved.
Its chief advantages are large yield (which means a saving
of land or the keeping of more cows) and cleaning the land
of weeds.

At the Wisconsin station, it has been proven that one
acre used for soiling crops is equal in ability to produce
food to 2% acres of pasture.

Roots

-For winter feeding there is probably no succulent feed
better than roots. If a cow is on full feed for maximum
production, roots of some kind are almost indispensable.

Roots, however, are expensive to raise. Much labor is
necessary in weeding them and hoeing them, and this labor

178 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

comes during the part of the sunimer when the average
farmer is busiest with the other field crops.

Many dairy farms do not have a suitable place in which
to store roots so as to keep them from spoiling and at the
same time to protect them from frost.

A cellar under the barn, or bins in the center of the barn,
where the temperature does not vary too much, and does
not go below freezing, are suitable for storing roots.

In spite of these disadvantages, every cow owner should
plan to raise a small patch of roots each year, even if not
more than can be used for test cows and for cows that may
become ill and lack in appetite.

The author has raised and fed mangel-wurzels, sugar
mangel-wurzels, carrots and turnips. Of all these, he pre-
fers the mangel-wurzels. A larger and surer yield is ob-
tained if properly tended. In average years the yield of
mangel-wurzels should be about 22 to 30 tons per acre.
These roots are also easily harvested. The long taproot
characteristic of the other kinds is not present in the mangel-
wurzels. A large percentage of these roots grow above
ground and they can be pulled out by hand without the use
of a digger or plow.

When Hester Aaltje Korndyke made the world’s seven-
day record for production, 621 pounds of milk and 37.4
pounds of butter fat, she consumed daily about 130 pounds
of roots. This may be regarded as about the maximum
amount of roots that a cow can consume per day. A good
feed of roots per day is about 50 pounds.

When roots are fed to individual cows on heavy feed for
maximum production they are usually sliced lengthwise and
the grain poured over the roots. When fed to the herd,
they may be given whole. Cows soon learn to eat them
that way. Some dairy farmers put them into a wooden
box and cut them with an S-shaped knife. The resulting
pieces are of different shapes and sizes. In some instances
pieces of roots will lodge in the gullet or throat of the cows

and choke them.

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 179

In such cases it is necessary to remove the lodged piece
of root. At times it may be dislodged by gently manipulat-
ing the throat on the outside with the hands. If this does
not remove the root, take a piece of one-inch rope, untwist
about one inch at the end and tie a piece of cord around it
about one inch from the end, so as to form a soft tuft at
the end. Then insert the end of the rope into the gullet and
gently work it until the piece of root is dislodged. Some
have accomplished the same by the use of a broom handle,
but the rope is flexible, safe, and much easier on the cow.

Special root slicing machines are now on the market.
These machines are rapid and efficient. They can be pur-
chased at a reasonable price. Where roots are fed regularly
on a large scale, it pays to have one of these machines.

Mashes

According to the previous definition of a succulent feed,
mashes cannot be regarded as succulent feeds. Neverthe-
less, they will be briefly considered here. The author has,
as a rule, not practiced feeding grain in the form of mash,
yet with some cows mashes are very successful. It is not
all cows that like to eat grain in this form, but usually they
learn to like it. Aged cows with poor teeth can usually be
made to improve in production by being fed grain in the
form of a mash. Such cows also keep up their flesh better,
a fact which shows that they digest the grain better in that
form than when dry.

A mash is prepared by first weighing out the proper
amount of grain in a water-tight container and then pouring
scalding hot water over it. Enough water is added to
moisten all of the grain and enough more so that some water
is standing on top. This moistened or scalded grain is then
left to steep 10 or 12 hours, or until the next feeding time,
when it is fed. New feed is then prepared again.

In the absence of any strictly succulent teed, with an
aged cow, and one that likes it, and with an individual that
warrants the extra labor, such a grain mash is desirable.

180 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Wet brewers’ grain is a good milk-producing feed, but it
must be fed fresh. It should not be hauled and piled up
any length of time before it is fed. Brewers’ grain kept in
this condition will soon sour and spoil. When fed in a
spoiled condition it taints the milk. It also produces a
strong undesirable odor around the premises.

Dried beet pulp is used very extensively by dairy farmers.
This is a by-product of the sugar beet factories. When
this dry beet pulp has been steeped in water for a short
time it is a splendid feed. Use one part of dried pulp to
four parts of water. Cold water is generally used. Allow
it to stand until the pulp is entirely saturated before feed-
ing. This latter feed, as with most mashes, cows usually
have to learn to like. When they once learn to cate aitey
become very fond of it. Dried beet pulp is laxative in its
erect.

It is important that all mashes be made up daily. Do not
allow them to stand around and ferment, and do not mix
them in an old dirty container.

Silage

For a full-year, and one year after anothers tence
nothing that can take the place of silage as an economic,
handy, and-healthful succulent feed. As a feed) vevaee
serves the cow in much the same way as canned fruit and
vegetables serve the household. Practically any of the
coarse feeds may be cut and stored in the silo. A silo, then,
is a container and preserver of moist rough feed. This con-
tainer keeps stored feed from coming in contact with the
air, and thus preserves it.

The feed stored in the silo is called silage. Vhictteea
usually consists of crops harvested and cut just previous
to maturity, while still green. However, it should be under-
stood that rough dry feeds may also be stored in the form
of silage by adding the proper amount of water.

It should also be understood that it is not absolutely
necessary to cut the green crops into small particles in order

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 181

to obtain silage. The author saw a whole field of barley
struck by a hailstorm just previous to maturity. What
remained was cut and all of it was raked up and put into a
pit silo without being cut in pieces. This made useful feed.
It is also possible to pack corn bundles into a silo and have
them keep without running them through a silage cutter.
Green corn bundles have been stacked outdoors and good
ss silage resulted. However, much of the
(eer | corn fodder spoils. Except in emergencies,
sobs M however, the crop for silage should be cut.
sare Chief advantages of
SRT, silage-—The chief ad-
vantages of silage for
the dairy farmer are:

l.. The crop 1¢@@ahe
Silo “is, SUTE:. Suen a
crop is not seriously
injured by late spring,
early tall) storms, ior
by wet or dry seasons.

2: All of, sthiesceorn
plant stored as silage
Re sc economy of ‘silaze in a 1S. Utilized. Abenmt 62

ration for dairy cows. (Ohio Exp. Sta.) percent of the full
value of the corn is in the ear and about 38 percent is in the
stalk and leaves. Without the silo, most of this latter is
wasted. Considering the succulency, the increased digesti-
bility, and palatability, some authorities have stated that the
cornstalks in the silage equal the ears in the crib for feeding
purposes. The silo puts rough feeds into a form which
cows and young stock can handle most economically.

3. More feed can be raised to the acre in the form of
silage. This is true in the first place because corn intended
for the silo can be planted thickly on rich or well-manured
ground. If the land is not weedy the corn can be drilled
in, and thus yield on an average from 1% to two tons more
feed per acre than would otherwise be the case. In the

| (Butler produced
|fromt dollars

Ni

WLS Te

16 § ibs. Mixed Hay

(ay ea ay Ee

eG ie S
A 9 a

SA | 511 AGE-GRAIN yy
e FOR
DAIRY COWS

AVERAGE DAIL
RATION
Consumed byeach cow
fed the special grain ration

AVERAGE DAILY
RATION

Consumed by each cow

fed the silage ration

182 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

second place, a larger variety of corn, though not of the
extremely large kind, can be planted. On the South Dakota
state college dairy farm the average tonnage per acre for
the last five years is about 12 tons. The highest yield ever
produced was on a heavily manured five-acre patch, which
yielded 17 tons of silage corn per acre. The crop was so heavy
that the cornbinder could not cut it without much bother.

4. Feed in the form of silage can be stored in less space
than can any other form of roughage. Approximately
speaking, one ton of hay occupies 400 cubic feet of space.
A ton of silage occupies only about 50 cubic feet, or an
eighth as much space. In this connection it should be
stated that a given volume of silage contains less dry matter
than does an equal volume of hay. Comparing the two on
a basis of dry matter, about twice as much feed can be
stored in the form of silage as in the form of hay in a given
space. A ton of hay, occupying about 400 cubic feet of
space, contains about 1800 pounds of dry matter. Eight
tons of silage,occupying about an equal space,contains about
3200 pounds of dry matter, or very nearly twice the amount
that is stored in the form of hay in a similar amount of
space.

5. Silage furnishes a succulent feed that may be used any
time during the year. This is of special value in connection
with the dairy herd. Silage is of special value as a winter
feed and during the late summer as a supplement to pasture.
One may stop feeding it any time, or begin feeding it any
time. Silage may be kept over from one season to another,
and from one year to another, making it valuable as a hold-
over feed from a season of large crops to a season of small
crops.

6. Corn to be put into the silo may be taken off from the
ground early in the fall, thus clearing the land and putting it
in good shape to be plowed and prepared for a succeeding
crop. In this connection it might be stated that some ex-
periments tend to show that the vitality of the weed seeds

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 183

is destroyed in the silo. This, however, has not been com-
pletely proven.

7. Silage is healthful and palatable. If it is in good con-
dition, and properly fed, it is a regulator as well as a nour-
ishing food. Malnutrition is minimized in a herd receiving
silage as compared with a herd receiving dry feed entirely.
Silage is appetizing toa cow. Young stock receiving silage
will consume considerable good straw. When no silage is
fed, cattle eat very little straw without being starved to it.
For dairy cows, alfalfa hay and corn silage make almost an
ideal combination of rough feed.

It has been stated at times that silage rots the teeth of a_
cow and wears out a cow’s digestive organs. The writer has
fed corn silage to the South Dakota state college dairy herd
for 12 consecutive years, and throughout the whole year,
the herd having no pasture. The aged cows in the herd are
today in at least as good condition as are other cows of
similar age in this community that have had no silage.

It is entirely probable that aside from the nutrients, the
lactic acid and other fermentative products have very
desirable effects on the digestion, absorption, and assimila-
tion of the food of a cow. Normal corn silage contains
about 114 percent of acid. A cow eating about 35 pounds
of silage per day consumes about eight ounces of pure acid
daily. Undoubtedly, this acts as a subduing force to un-
desirable fermentation in the digestive tract.

Filling the silo—During the last 10 years tne writer has
been experimenting with the use of the different crops for
silage. The following crops have been grown, stored as
silage, and fed to the dairy herd: Various kinds of dent
corn, dent corn seeded together with soy beans and cowpeas,
kaffir corn, milo maize, amber cane, Sudan grass, and a
mixture of oats and Canadian field peas. Without going
into detail in respect to results, it may be stated that the best
success was obtained with the dent corn. Of the various
kinds of dent corn tried, a variety known as the Climax,
grown to maturity in the southern part of the state of South

b)

SENS FARM DAIRYING

LAR

184

‘peoy JUeTNoONS B se Avot

oY} JNOYSNOIY, OSB[IS poJ SI JT “eanjsed ou sey ploy ATITP oBSa][oo OUT, “esis Jo su0y

OcPp ynogqe ploy sojis Jo spuly JUSTVYIp osey], “uLeq AILep dd9[[09 O}EYS BYOYeVd YINOG 3X} 42 sos 9yy sul[[1y—FP9 “OLA

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 185

Dakota, has proven to be the heaviest and most consistent
yielder. In most seasons this corn will mature in this
latitude.

Of the various other crops grown, milo maize and kaffir
corn proved to be second best. These crops are especially
suitable in the semi-arid sections. None of the cane varie-
ties produce as palatable silage, nor do they produce as
heavy a yield as the corn.

The mixture of oats and field peas in favorable seasons
yields very heavily. If this crop is not hauled at once after
cutting, while green and tender, it does not cut well in the.

FIG. 65—Cutting the corn with a corn binder. One man and team cut about
eight acres in one day.

silage cutter. Unless the knives are very sharp, there is a
tendency for this crop to be cut too long, and for it to wind
around the knives and various axles while the cuttine
machine is in operation. It is almost impossible to feed it
so that the cutting box is full all the time. When the
cutting box is not full, then there is a tendency for the
knives to pull it out and not cut it.

186 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Neither did the author have good success in seeding cow-
peas and soy beans with the corn. It was dificult to ob-
tain a stand with the soy beans and cowpeas, and these
crops grew so low that it was difficult to cut them and re-
tain them in the bundle with the cornbinder. In a lower
altitude and in a latitude further south these crops may
grow well in connection with corn.

The corn is harvested with the ordinary cornbinder. The
bundles should be tied small, so they will pass through the
cutter without being separated and so they can be easily
handled.

The corn bundles should be hauled on low trucks having
a flat rack, to do away with too much lifting.

If the cornfield is close to the silo, the following filling
crew works economically :

4 teams and men for hauling corn fodder to the cutter.

2 men in the field, besides the drivers, for pitching

bundles.

1 man to help the drivers to unload at the silage cutter.

1 man spreading the cut silage with a distributer and

packing the silage in the silo.

1 man to look after the running of the gasoline engine

and the cutter.

Iman to teed the cutter:

Such a crew will cut about 80 tons of silage per day, and
it may cut as much as 100 tons.

The engine should be of ample power, about 15 to 20
horse power. The cutter should be of sufficient capacity
to handle a whole bundle at a time. It is better to under-
feed a large cutter than it is to overfeed a small one.

The corn should not be cut until it has grown to maturity.
This does not mean that it should be dried up before it is
cut. The best stage at which to cut the corn is when the
lower part of the stalk and leaves have begun to wilt and
turn dry. When that happens, then no more food passes
into the cornstalk from the roots. At this stage, usually
about a third to a half of the kernels have dented. The corn

187

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED

a %; Pit ie i
FIG. 66—Hauling corn fodder on a low wagon from the field to be cut for silage.

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LARSEN’S FARM

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DAIRYING

should have enough of
the natural water in it
to. pack and ferniest
without the addition of
extraneous water. It
must not be “cotmaee
green that the “silage
will not hold its own
juice. From the above-
mentioned data one can
easily calculate the cost
of filling the silo.

The accompanying
table of analyses, taken
from Bulletin. 175e%Gn
the Indiana station, will
show the development
of the corn plant from
the time it comestaae
until maturity.

A machine has now
been manufactured
which husks and sepa-
rates the corn ears, and
cuts only the fodder for
silage.

Many silos are now
refilled late in the fall
with dry corn fodder or
corn fodder cured am
the shock in the field
When such dry corn
fodder is put into the
silo, considerable water
must be added. =e
amount of water needed
is about equal to the

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 189

amount of corn fodder cut. For each ton of corn fodder,
use about 250 gallons of water. When frost does not inter-
fere, the best way of adding the water is to let a continuous
stream run into the space where the fan operates. This dis-
tributes the water evenly. Pack the silage thoroughly in
the silo.

Sealing the silo—One or two days after the silo has
been filled, the contents will have settled considerably. The
finer the silage has been cut, and the more carefully it has
been distributed and packed, |
the less settling there will be.
If possible, the filling ma-
chinery should be left in
place or brought back so
that the silo can be refilled.

During the first week
after filling, someone should
make it a point to go into the
silo every day and_thor-
oughly tramp the = silage
down, otherwise the silage
in the lower part of the sito
will settle and leave the top
part open or porous. ‘This
admits air into the surface
silage and causes it to spoil.
It is a good plan to wet the
surface of the silage every
day when the tramping is
done. This will help to pack the top of the silage and
exclude air from it.

FIG. 67—Filling a 300-ton silo.

Some prefer to seal the silo by running a load of straw
through the cutter the last thing. This cut straw is dis-
tributed over the surface, moistened, and tramped down
thoroughly.

When a silo is opened, the spoiled silage should be hauled

190 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

to some place where the cattle cannot obtain access to it.
Moldy and spoiled silage is likely to poison the cows.

Silage fermentation—During the first 10 or 12 days
fermentative and chemical changes take place. When the
oxygen contained in the cut corn fodder is used, the de-
composition or changes practically stop. When silage 1s
first put into the silo there is a development of carbonic acid
gas. This gas is heavier than air. In concentrated form it
is poisonous. A partially filled and closed up silo may con-
tain enough of this gas to be dangerous. A partially filled
pit silo is more dangerous in this respect.

The temperature of the silage is slightly increased during
the first few days. The rise in temperature, however, is not
so great as is generally supposed. In the top portion, which
is exposed to air, the rise in temperature is great. The
highest temperature recorded in this part of the silage is

ja degrees F.

During the winters of 1912 and 1913, the author and
D. H. Bailey, dairy chemist, made temperature observations
in the different parts of the silage. Maximum and mini-
mum thermometers were placed in the silage directly in the
center and 2 feet from the edge. Vertically, these self-
recording thermometers were placed 3 feet from the top,
in the middle of the silage, and 3 feet from the bottom. In
addition, two self-recording thermometers were put in the

eee

3 ft. from top Center (Vertically) 3 ft. from bottom
Silo A

2 ft. from 2 ft. from 2 {teatro

Center edge Center edge Center edge
“Max.} Min. ~Max.}] Min.| Max.| Min. “Max.| Min. | Max.| Min.! Max.] Min.
Cc F. F. F. F. F. F. F, 1% F. F. Wa F.

e-

ment. | 100:5t 62:0} 106.5! 61.5 | 77:7 | 37.7 | 77.2.| 36.0 | 79:0:|. 32.5 | S625 esaue

Tile | 196.0] 47.0 | 125.*| 30.0 | 84.5 | 53.5 | 83.0] 72.5 | 84.0] 38.0] 83.0 | 49.0

Wood | No observations made

Staves (Fed out early) 94.0 | 50.0 | 94.2 | 58.0 | 69.0 | 40.0 } 72.0 | 36.0
Aver-
age
of all
silos 103.3] 54.5 1115.7] 45.7 | 85.4 | 47.1 5525) tO oes

* Silage partially spoiled due to air pocket.

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 191

silage at different places—one near the top in the silage that
spoils, and one deeper in the silo where the silage does not
spoil. These self-recording thermometers were placed in
boxes in the silage at the time the silos were filled. This
was done to protect them from being broken. The self-
recording thermometers would record for seven days with-
out being wound. The results of these self-record!ng ther-
moometers are not considered complete, and on account of
rust interfering with their proper working, the results are
not considered sufficiently accurate for publication.

The results from the maximum and minimum self-
recording thermometers are considered normal, and are
published in the preceding table.

These observations were taken in three kinds of silos:
Monolithic, wood stave, and double hollow tile block. The
above data represents the average of all silos.

The by-products formed during these changes of the
silage are chiefly lactic acid, acetic acid, and alcohol. The
amount of alcohol in the silage varies between one-tenth
percent and four-tenths percent of the weight of the silage.
This is equivalent to about five-tenths percent of the silage
juice.

This formation of alcohol comes about in connection with
the production of acid from the sugar. The sugar is first
broken up into simpler sugars, such as glucose. These are
then changed into acids, alcohol, and gas. The amount of
suvar in the plant may be increased or may be formed from
starch to some extent, but most of the sugar is contained in
the plant at the time it is put into the silo. This amount is
greatest when the plant is green. The further the plant
develops into maturity, the less sugar there is in it. On this
account, corn silage cut late does not become so sour.

The alcohol formed is mostly changed into acetic acid
after the silage has been kept a while.

In addition, a variety of aromatic substances is formed.
These various juices in the silage come about chiefly during

192 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

the first four or five days. At the end,of 10 or 12 days7iige
changes are practically complete.

Enzymes, bacteria, and yeasts are the joint causal agents
responsible for the changes occurring in silage. Bacteria
are the chief agents in the formation of lactic acid from
sugar. The small amount of alcohol found in silage results
in part from the action of yeasts and also to the enzymes
present in the plant.

Feeding the silage.—Silage is pre-eminently a feed for
dairy cows and young cattle. It may be fed in the barn, in
mangers, in sheds,
and in- trougliseeus
the open. Silage is
easily handled. The
customary way of
feeding is to load it
into a cart which
can be wheeled in
the feeding alley in
front of the=cawe

The average cow
will eat about from
30 to 45 pounds of
silage per day. This
means about half a

FIG. €8—This silo was built in 1894 to preserve
feed for a herd of Red Poll cattle. This was ton for each mature

probably the driest year ever seen in the west.
cow per montm

This is a fair calculation on which to base the size of silo
and area of corn needed for silage.

During the last 10 years the South Dakota state college
dairy herd, under the supervision of the author, has been
fed silage constantly. The cows in milk receive their silage
in the barn during the whole year. During the summer the
dry cows and young stock are fed their silage in a manger
running the full length of a shed directly in front of the
silos. The rack in the exercise yard always contains plenty
of good hay. The South Dakota state college dairy farm

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 193

now produces no other feeds than corn for silage and alfalfa
for hay. About one acre of mangel-wurzel roots is raised
each year. These are fed chiefly to test cows.

The author once practiced feeding silage to all animals in
the dairy herd, but he has now discontinued feeding it to
service bulls and young calves. Experience has taught that
bulls fed heavily on silage become sluggish and slow breed-
ers. Calves should appear smooth, bright, and have glossy
hair. Such a condition does not result from feeding young
calves silage. After they are past six months of age silage
seems to affect them favorably if fed in moderate amount,
and if they receive additional grain.

In the Northwest, and during the latter part of the
winter, considerable trouble is encountered with frozen
silage. The common idea prevails that the kind of material
from which the silo is built and the manner of construction
of the silo have marked effects on the amount of frosted
silage. From experiments with practically all of the leading
types of silos, it is safe to say that there is not much differ-
ence in the amount of frozen silage. The silage will freeze
some in all of the silos in this latitude. Silage freezes from
the top as well as from the sides. During the latter part of
the winter the silage will freeze from 6 inches to 2 feet from
the outer edze. Silos placed to the northwest of the barn
will have the silave frosted more than those placed on the
south side of the barn. The silage on the north and north-
west sides of the silo will also freeze more than will the
silage on the protected south side. In a silo of small
diameter the silage freezes more than in one of larger
diameter.

A small amount of frozen silage will not injure the cow,
but ii she is forced to eat too much of it at one time
digestive troubles may result. Bloat quite commonly results
from eating too much frozen silage.

The only silo in which silage does not freeze in this lati-
tude is the pit silo.

194 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

To have the minimum amount of frozen silage, the center
of the silage should be kept high and the outer part low.
The surface should be convex instead of concave. Load the
feed cart from the center every day. Then with a sharp
spade or similar instrument proceed to take off a couple of
inches of the frozen silage and throw it into a pile in the
center. The lower part of this frozen silage will thaw and
the top part will serve as a protection against additional
freezing. Next feeding time load from the center again
and then take off some more frozen silage, and so on.

FIG. 69—Filling a pit silo in western South Dakota.

Some feeders avoid the frosted silage and continue to
feed from the non-frozen portion. This results in a wall
of frosted silage near the circumference of the silo. In the
fore part of the winter this wall of frozen silage is thin, but
as the winter continues the frost intensifies, the heat result-
ing from fermentation and chemical changes has been ex-
hausted, and this wall of frozen silage becomes much
thicker. This method leaves a bowl-shaped hole in the
center and much frozen silage near the outside. When

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 195

warm weather begins, the silage thaws and pulls away from
the silo walls. Air gets into it from all sides and it spoils
so rapidly that it cannot be fed while in good condition.

Silage should preferably be fed just after milking, in
order to avoid saturating the barn with silage odors during
milking time. If silage is fed before milking, the barn
showd be thoroughly aired again before milking begins.
Milk readily absorbs foreign odors present in the barn
atmosphere.

There was a time when it was thought that silage fed to
cows produced silage-tainted milk, no matter how it was

Proper wey lo-
Kecp S1lage
on lg

eS.
g E aoe
ZA ZZ
= ZZ OP pL rae

——
————

FIGS. 70 and 71—Impro»er and proper way to
keep silage on top to minimize frosted silage.

fed. There appears to be very little foundation for this
belief. If spoiled or partially spoiled silage is fed to milch
cows, no doubt the milk becomes tainted.

Kinds of silos——There are many different forms of silos
and so many different kinds of materials used in silo con-

196 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

struction that it will not be practicable in this connection to
make an extended study of them nor of all the details of
construction.

Briefly it may be stated that the round silo is now con-
sidered to be the best. The square or rectangular was used
considerably at one time. In this latter form of silo, the
silage in the corners usually spoils. It was also found diff-
cult to keep this form of silage from spreading.

Silos are built from wood put together in different ways,
from concrete, hollow tile blocks, brick, ordinary rock, lath
and plaster, and metal. Any material which will keep air-
tight, stand the pressure, resist the action of silage acids,
and in some measure resist the cold, is suitable.

FIG. 72—It is ineonvenient to feed corn from the stack, though it gives
better results than to turn the cows into the field of cornstalks.

Silos of the different construction materials, eight leading
types, have been built at the South Dakota station (mono-
lithic, double hollow tile block, vitrified tile block, concrete
anchor block, concrete stave, concrete interlocking, solid
blocks, wood stave, and wood silos made from studdings
boarded up horizontally inside and outside) with a view of
ascertaining comparative efficiency and cost. From a stand-
point of keeping silage, no difference could be observed in

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 197

the different kinds of silos. The silage has kept well in all
of them. Although some of these silos have been in us2
only three winters, and some as long as ten successive
winters, from numerous observations it is clear that a
great deal of latitude can be exercised in the selection of
silo construction material. The manner and thoroughness
cf construction and quality of construction material are
two factors of greater importance than is the kind of
material.

Conditions such as the price of lumber, proximity to a
brick or tile factory, nearness to suitable gravel, price of

*

of silos and silage told to the people of South Dakota
from a special train.

FIG. 73—The benefits
cement, suitable help and permanency desired in silo, all
have a bearing in deciding what kind of construction
material to use.

In case a permanent silo is desired, the monolithic type is
probably the cheapest, if cement can be bought at a reason-
able price, if one has access to good gravel and if proper
reinforcement is used. If one is located not too far from a
tile and brick yard, so that the freight is not too high, such
a silo of these materials is very useful.

198 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

If a renter desires to build a silo, and wishes to take it
with him when his lease expires, then probably a wooden
silo is best. The latter kind must be anchored to a good
concrete foundation and be stayed by means of guy wires
at the top to make it safe during dry and windy weather.
Wooden silos do not hold their shape so well and do not
last so long as do the permanent types of silos.

Table Showing Capacity of Round Silos in Tons.

Inside Diameter of Silo.

Inside
height of

The type of silo that has come into general and success-
ful use in the semi-arid sections, and on high locations, is
the pit silo. In areas where the ground water line is high,
and where seepage water is likely to interfere, the pit silo
is not practicable.

Among the advantages of the pit silo, the first is cheap-
ness. It can be made with home labor. Aside from the

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 199

labor involved, there is a required cash outlay of only about
forty dollars. Secondly, the pit silo prevents frozen silage
entirely. Thirdly, it does not dry out or blow down when
empty.

Among the disadvantages of this type, the first is that
considerable labor is involved in getting the silage out. This
is not of sufficient weight to be considered a drawback. The
first 12 feet of silage can be thrown out by the use of a
pitchfork. The remainder has to be hoisted out. For a
small herd the silage may be carried out in baskets; for a
large herd a hoisting device should be used. This latter may
consist of a block and tackle, with the rope fastened to the
top part of the silo cover directly above the center of the
silo. A box of suitable size is fastened to the hook of the
tackle. The hoisting may be done by hand or by a windlass
fastened to the side of the covering, or by the use of a horse.
Second, carbonic acid gas is likely to accumulate in a pit
silo and thus render it dangerous. The time when a pit
silo is dangerous is when it is being filled and is partly full.
At this time precautions should be exercised. The air in
the partly filled silo should be stirred up before anyone
enters it. A candle may be lowered to test whether there
is enough oxygen left to burn. If the silo has been filled
and the silage is romoved daily, there is very little danger in
connection with an excess of carbonic acid gas.

Water for the Dairy Cow

The dairy cow needs a larger amount of water than
probably any other domestic animal. The amount she
drinks daily will vary according to the size, according to the
milk she gives, according to the temperature and humidity
of surroundings, according to the amount of exercise,
according to the degree of dryness of the feed consumed,
and according to the amount of protein consumed in relation
to other nutrients.

The chief functions of water in a dairy cow’s ration may
be said to be as follows:

200 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

1. Water dissolves nutrients. No foods can be utilized
by the system of the cow until they have been brought into
complete solution. In accomplishing this, water plays an
important part. The more food consumed, the more water
a cow requires.

2. Water is a medium for distributing the food to the
different parts of the body. Water may serve both as a
direct and as an indirect transferring agency. For instance,
when food is maSticated, saliva is mixed with it. Saliva
contains about 90 percent of water. Again, water when
mixed with food in the digestive tract serves as a direct
medium for transferring food.

3. Water is used as a vehicle for transferring waste and
poisonous products from the system. This process of
elimination is carried on through the skin, through the kid-
neys, through the digestive tract, and through the respira-
tory organs. In all of these instances, water plays an im-
portant part. In an animal such as the dairy cow, that
consumes a relatively large amount of protein, water is of
special importance. Urea is one of the soluble poisonous
products resulting from a heavy protein ration. With the
aid of water and proper circulation, the kidneys are able
to rid the system of this particular substance.

During the winter, under average barn conditions, about
12 percent of the total water drunk by the cow is eliminated
through the skin. During the summer about 27 percent of
the water drunk is etannaied through the skin. About 13
percent of the water drunk in the winter passes through the
kidneys in the form of urine. A little more than half, or
about 56 percent of the water drunk, is eliminated in the
feces. All of the excretory agencies need a constant water
supply to perform their work of eliminating waste and
poisonous matter from the body.*

4. A dairy cow uses water for the manufacture of milk.
This latter product contains about 87 percent of water. In

* Bulletin No. 175, “The Role of Water in a Dairy Cow’s Ration,”
South Dakota station.

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 201

the experiments conducted at the South Dakota station, the
average cows in the experiment used about 15 percent of
the water drunk for milk purposes. This percentage and
distribution of water in the system of the cow vary accord-
ing to the amount of milk given.

The portion of the water drunk by the cow eliminated
through the urine, through the skin, and used for milk
production, evidently must first enter into the circulation of
the cow. The water in the feces probably never serves the
system of the cow except as a food solvent, as a transfer-
ring medium, and for regulating the consistency of the

FIG. 74—A stream of pure running water is a great asset to a herd of dairy
COWS in pascure.

contents of the digestive tract. This does not refer to the
water that may enter the digestive tract in connection with
secretory or excretory products.

The sources of the water for a cow are as follows: 1. The
water that she drinks, which constitutes the largest per-
centage. 2. The water that is present in all foods, even the
dry hay and grain containing at least 10 percent of water,
and the succulent feeds much more. 3. The water that
results from metabolism within the cow. According to
investigations by Dr. Babcock of the Wisconsin station,
metabolic water results to the extent of 55.5 percent of the
cellulose or starch, 60 percent of the dextrose, a little less

202 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

than 100 percent of the fat, and 60 to 65 percent of the
protein digested. In accordance with this, the average cow
is supplied with about one gallon of metabolic water daily.
Cows in an experiment at the South Dakota station drank
about 75 pounds of water daily, obtained about 19.2 pounds
from the feed consumed—17.5 from silage and 0.7 pound
from the grain, one pound from the hay—and about eight
pounds of metabolic water. The total water then used
daily on an average by each of these cows was 102 pounds.
The cows in the experiment were just common cows, pro-
ducing about two gallons of milk daily.

FIG. 75—In the semi-arid sections dams are constructed to hold water for the
dairy herd.

5. Water regulates the body temperature. That there is
evaporation from the body, as well as from breathing, is
evident from what has already been said. During hot
weather the evaporation of water from the body is about
twice as great as in cold weather. The rate of respiration
is undoubtedly also greater during the summer. The
greater the evaporation of moisture from the body, the
greater the amount of heat removed from the body.

Considering, then, the important functions of water, it is
clear that a dairy cow should be supplied with plenty of
fresh, pure water at all times, or be watered at least twice
per day.

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 203

According to recent investigations, it appears that the
water should not be given immediately before or imme-
diately after the cow has eaten a heavy feed. An excess of
water at these times may interfere with the proper diges-
tion, especially of the crude fiber. Stale and putrid water
should not be allowed the dairy cow. Water of this quality
is not at all uncommon in some pastures during the latter
part of the summer. When such water is drunk, the milk
becomes tainted; besides, cows standing around in such
water are likely to get their udders soiled. Through this
medium the milk is likely to become infected with abnormal
and harmful bacteria. Milk from such cows is also likely to
contain filth.

The question has often been raised, “Can disease-produc-
ing germs be transmitted to the milk from the water the
cow drinks?” It is generally admitted that germs cannot
pass from the digestive tract through the absorption system
and through the circulation to the mammary gland of a
healthy cow. On the other hand, disease-producing germs
in a cow’s drinking water may infect the milk by direct
means. They may get into the milk from the outside of the
cow’s udder, or from utensils that have been rinsed in this
impure water.

For some time it was generally believed that alkali water
drunk by dairy cows produced what was known as “alkali
disease.” Experiments have conclusively shown that this
disease cannot be produced by feeding strong alkali water.
In addition, it was found that cows may become accustomed
to the use of alkali water which ordinarily is considered too
strong to drink.*

The drinking water for a dairy cow has often been neg-
lected. Some cows are forced to drink ice-cold water.
Many milch cows have been turned out on very cold days
and forced to sip the ice-cold water from between particles
of ice. Ice-cold water in the stomach, and a temperature
of perhaps 20 to 30 degrees below zero surrounding their

* South Dakota station Bulletins No. 132 and 147.

204 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

bodies, certainly impose a great tax on a dairy cow. Much
heat is necessary to warm this water, and to maintain
normal body temperature amid such surroundings. The
source of this heat is in the feed.

1 pound of corn contains about 1300 calories of heat.

1 calorie equals the heat necessary to raise 1 kilogram of
water 1° C. or 1 pound of water 4° F.

1300 calories, therefore, will heat 1300 pounds of water
4° F.

1300 calories will raise 5200 pounds of water 1° F.
(1300 x 4).

1300 calories, or 1 pound of corn, will heat 74 pounds of
water irom 32 10 102° FF. or 70° (4200 == ae

The feeds digested by the cow cannot be entirely oxidized
in the digestive tract of the cow. Therefore more than one
pound of corn would be required to heat the water drunk
daily by a cow from freezing point to body temperature.

According to King of the Wisconsin station, the heat in
one pound of beef fat is required every 3.8 davs to warm
the drinking water to body temperature; if the water
is warmed to /0 degrees, the heat in one pound of beef fat
will heat the water 7.4 days to body temperature, or practi-
cally twice as long a time.

It is wrong to use dairy cows for stoves to heat drinking
water and cold air, and to use expensive feeds for fuel.
The water for the dairy cow should at least not be ice-cold.
The temperature should be raised to about 60 degrees. A
tank heater is desirable for this purpose, of which there are
many forms. If a small boiler is used in the dairy, a steam
pipe extended to the water tank is an easy way of taking the
chill out of the water.

Neither should a herd of good dairy cows be compelled
to go out on cold and frosty days to be watered. Arrange-
ments should be made to water cows inside. Some use the
individual trough in front of each stanchion. By this sys-
tem, the cows have water before them constantly. In many
barns, however, the water in the troughs and pipes would

FEEDING THE DAIRY HERD A SUCCULENT FEED 205

freeze. Furthermore, dust and particles of feed are likely
to settle into these individual drinking fountains, and in
addition they are an extra expense.

A continuous concrete manger having a drain at one end
has proven to be a successful method of supplying water for
the herd. Some have
objected to this system
on the ground that it
was not sanitary, on
account of the water
running from one cow
to the other. Yet this
is the system the au-
thor has used during
the winters for many
years, and he can find
no valid fault with it.

Some dairy farmers
have constructed a
water tank inside of
the barn and the cows
are let loose, a couple
at the time, twice a
day, to be watered.

For supplying water
eee see =| in the pasture during
ee ee Ber the summer good ‘run

herd. It also affords fire protection. ning water is the best.
Cows should not be compelled to walk too far for the water
in hot weather. A self-adjusting running windmill and a
good well in the pasture will also take care of the water
supply for the herd.

Cows should never be permitted to crowd each other
around the water tank. This is not an uncommon cause of
abortion in cows.

CHAPTER UX
AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD

The average dairy cow should have all she can eat of one
of the rough feeds. The amount of concentrates should be
regulated. The nutrients in the form of rough feeds are
less expensive than are the nutrients in the concentrates.

The amount of a given feed that a cow will eat is, of
course, limited. It is limited first by the capacity of the
cow, which varies with different individuals; and secondly,
by the palatability of the different feeds. There can be no
question but that there is a relation between palatability and
digestibility of foods.

A dairy cow from which economic production is desired
should always have feeds that are in good condition. Feeds
that have been damaged during harvesting by rain, by too
much sun exposure, or by being allowed to overripen, or
that have become musty in storage, or that have been picked
over by rodents, are not suitable for a dairy cow.

Amount of roughage.—From the standpoint of profit-
able milk production, a dairy cow should receive as much
rough feed as she can handle. The nutrients in the form of
alfalfa hay and silage are under most conditions much the
cheapest. This is especially true in the central Northwest.

Some cows have a greater capacity for utilizing nu‘rients
in this form, while others can handle nutrients best in the
form of concentrates. Some rough feed or bulk is impor-
tant for all dairy cows and all ruminants. The amount of
dry matter that there should be in a dairy cow’s ration usu-
ally varies between 20 to 30 pounds, 25 pounds being about
the average.

When a cow is not giving more than about two gallons of
milk daily, and if she is a capacious cow, she can consume

206

AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD 207

all of the required nutrients in the form of silage and
alfalfa or clover hay.

From the standpoint of maximum production, without
considering the cost of the ration, the individual cow must
be studied more closely. A large producing cow, expected
to make a maximum record, should have most of the nutri-
ents in the form of concentrates. Some large producing
cows, if fed large quantities of silage and hay, will not be
able to consume and digest enough nutrients. Some cows
will do better if the concentrates are increased and the
amount of rough feeds is limited. |

The dairy farmer should make it a point to raise his own
rough feeds, and especially to raise alfalfa and clover hay
to supply the protein. The following statements, based on
yields on the South Dakota state college dairy farm, are
intended to show the comparative amount of digestive
nutrients that can be raised on an acre of land from some
of the different crops.

TABLE SHOWING COMPARATIVE YIELD OF COMMON FEED CROPS.

Pounds of digestible
Crop Yield per acre Percent digestible nutrients on one
nutrients acre
Wonmesilare., |. 64 < 12.0 tons 7 4012
ltalfaehay=..5 33. .'5« BES mar: ll 3876
ENS ep Sear ene rene 60.0 bu. .70 1344
Baile yess Soin elev ADON* fey 1592

Cows fed relatively heavily on rough feeds seem to last
longer. Their organs of digestion are not easily impaired.
Cows that have been crowded for any length of time with
grain, especially when feeding a narrow ration or a ration
rich in protein, are likely to be useful for only a limited
time. The continued heavy feeding of a protein ration seems
to injure the procreative organs, and they are likely to
become non-breeders.

This barrenness in heavily fed cows has been due in some
instances to not mating them until after they are eight and
even 10 months along in the lactation period. This latter is
done to obtain maximum production in yearly and longer
tests,

208 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

If a heavy grain ration is fed to a cow for any length of
time, special efforts should be made not to have it too com-
pact. Ground corn alone is considered a very compact feed.
Feeds that have the consistency of flour, such as cottonseed
meal, are also difficult to digest. Ground oats and barley
are of medium compactness, and a mixture of bran and
ground oats constitutes a light and fluffy grain ration. A
certain amount of bulk is important in both grain and
roughage.

Amount of concentrates.—It is especially in connection
with feeding grain that both skill and economy need be
exercised.

Some cows are well balanced and their ability to handle
feed corresponds with their natural ability to transform it
into milk.

Other cows have greater ability to consume and handle
feeds, but very little ability to convert them into milk.

Still other cows again have dainty appetites and little
ability to consume feeds, but have an unusual ability for
converting whatever feeds they do consume into dairy
products.

The cows belonging to the first-mentioned class are rela-
tively easy to feed. Those of the second class may easily
be fed grain without obtaining proper returns. The cows of
the third class usually make good returns, but considerable
skill is required in making up a ration to get them to eat as
much as they can convert into milk. Such a cow usually
does not put on much flesh.

The balanced cow, or the one belonging to the first-men-
tioned class, is the kind that every dairy farmer likes to
develop and likes to feed. The feeder should watch the
milk produced in relation to the amount of grain fed. The
grain ration should be gradually increased. So long as the
increase in milk production is sufficient to pay for the in-
creased amount of grain, the dairy farmer is safe in con-
tinuing to increase the cow’s grain ration,

/f

AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HEREC 20°

The limit of the cow’s ability to convert this feed into
milk will soon be reached. When this occurs, it is impor-
tant that the grain ration be no longer increased. If it is,
then the cow may put it on herself in increased weight, or
she may not make use of it at all, or it may injure the cow’s
health, and make her stale. If this happens, then she loses
her appetite. She has been overfed.

The point where a cow will no longer return sufficient
milk to pay for the increased feed is usually reached when
she is getting one pound of grain for each three or four
pounds of milk produced, or when she is fed as many
pounds of grain daily as she produces pounds of butter fat

\ per week.

With the average dairy herd, there is greater danger of
loss from underfeeding than there is from overfeeding.
This point may be illustrated in this manner. Suppose that
a cow ison full feed. Forty percent of this feed is used for
body maintenance and €0 percent for milk. This cow is at
her maximum. Now again, suppose that this ration is re-
duced by 10 percent. This decrease of feed will make itself
felt chiefly in less milk, but also in a reduction of body
weight. The instinct for milk production in a cow is s9
strong that for a time she will draw from her own body for
milk production. If this decreased ration continues, the
cow will soon reach a point where there is no more body
surplus from which to draw. Then the amount of milk
yielded will be decreased about 10 percent, or the same
percentage by which the feed was reduced.

The amount of grain each cow receives should be definitely
known. This grain may be weighed separately, or a mix-
ture of grain may be made and then weighed and measured
out for each cow. When a number of different grains are
fed and there is a large herd, the former method is too slow.
A basic mixture of grain can be fed to all of the cows. The
few large producing cows needing an increased amount of
special grains may then easily be fed them in addition. A
good basic mixture to feed the average dairy herd receivinz

210 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

corn silage and alfalfa hay or clover hay as rough feed, is as
follows:

Srepinid seo, <a 2 ee 25 percent
Grrenintel oatse ss an 2s pe So ee ae Mh 55 ge
WNileat Shiai: mes She ey ae ee ee RE ee 20 xe

For large producing cows add about two to four pounds
of linseed meal per day.

For cows receiving corn silage and prairie hay, or broom
grass hay, or timothy hay for roughage, the following basic
grain ration is suitable:

Ground: "Oatene ts ey ee genes 45 percent
Ground barley sor spelt = 12 a ee 20 zs
Wile ot Shea = uno) oe eee es et eee 20
ieiiseeds simen lth a eee a eee at a 15 rs

The feeder must mix his grain ration to suit the cow and
the conditions, always keeping in mind these points: 1. Suffi-
cient nutrients of the right kind. 2. Proper bulk and con-
sistency. 3. Variety. 4. Physical effects of the qatom
5. Cost of nutrients in the different feeds. 6. Palatability.

Grinding grain.—The grain when fed should be in the
best possible condition to be masticated and digested by the
cow. The teeth and the stomach are usually the first
organs to be worn out by a dairy cow. This is especially
true of a cow’s teeth. Grinding the grain for a dairy cow
saves the teeth and the stomach. With a steer that is to be
marketed when about three years of age, this consideration
does not apply so much; neither does it apply to a young
calf that changes his teeth.

Much energy is required for grinding the feed. This is
true whether it is done by the cow or by a grinding machine.
The latter is by far the cheapest and also most efficient
apparatus for grinding grain. The extra amount of energy
required for masticating unground grain should be turned
into milk or into useful body purposes.

In addition, much waste results from feeding a dairy cow
whole grain. As much as 24 percent of the whole grain fed
to a cow may pass through the digestive tract unmasticated

AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD yAGI

and undigested. In connection with cattle feeding, hogs
pick up this waste, but hogs should not be allowed to follow
up a herd of dairy cows. Calves have great ability to
masticate and digest whole grain. The author has never
observed whole grain pass through the digestive tract of
calves.

Occasionally the corn in the silage will pass through the
digestive tract of a cow without being masticated or
digested. This is one reason why the corn shou!'d not be
allowed to overripen or become hard before the silage corn
is harvested. This passing of whole grain through a cow is
also more frequent when there is a large proportion of
kernels to stalk in the silage.

Variety.—It is possible to obtain a balanced ration for
a cow from alfalfa hay and corn. This would be a simple
ration to feed, but it lacks variety. Several different kinds
of grain biend together better in the process of digestion.
Cows like a variety better than a ration composed of a single
kind of grain, and attractiveness of a ration for a cow is
important.

It is also possible that some grains may contain substances
which, when mixed with substances in other feeds, are
desirable. It has been amply proven that the ordinary com-
position of grain (protein, carbohydrates, fats, minerals)
does not tell the whole story in connection with the constitu-
ents of feeds. It has already been shown that there are
several kinds of proteins and that the crude protein in a
certain feed is made up of several nitrogenous bodies.
Likewise the ether extract, carbohydrates, and fats in the
different feeds may differ greatly. Decomposition and
synthetic changes in the digestive tract may proceed more
favorably when a variety of feeds is given.

Order of feeding.—In European dairy countries the
order and time of winter feeding are regular. For instance,
in Denmark the feeding starts early in the morning, or when
the milking begins. Usually the cows are first fed rye
straw, then barley straw, and then oats straw. In the rota-

Ze LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

tion of crops, clover is usually seeded with oats. Th’s
makes the oats straw contain considerable clover, a com-
bination liked by the cows. When these straws have been
eaten, the mangers are cleaned and the excess straw, if any,
is used for bedding. Then the cows are fed some of the
chaff from the threshing of the different crops. The grain
is weighed out for each cow and usually put on the top of
the chaff. When this is eaten, the mangers are thoroughly
cleaned and the cows are watered (usually from the
mangers). The excess of water is drained away. At this
point the roots are usually fed. The cows are then fed
hay. While the cows are eating hay they are usually cur-
ried. Then the various alleys are swept and the bedding
under each cow is adjusted. All of this is usually completed
by about 10 o’clock in the forenoon.

The cows are then allowed to rest until about two o’clock
in the afternoon. Where the milking is done three times a
day, the cows are disturbed long enough to be milked at
noon.

Beginning about two o’clock in the afternoon, this same
order of feeding is again started, except that the rye straw is
omitted as the first feed, and usually is given the last thing
in the evening after milking, which is about eight o’clock
at night.

This system cannot well be followed under conditions in
the United States. Labor is more expensive and feeding
must be done in the simplest way possible. It is, neverthe-
less, important that winter feeding of a herd of dairy cows
be carried out with regularity. The method followed must
be governed by local conditions and cannot be prescribed.

The method followed by the author is as follows: Begin-
ning in the morning, push the excess hay left in the feeding
alley up close to the cows. This can be done w:thout st'r-
ring up any dust. The milking is then done while the cows
are munching on this hay. Then the cows are fed their
silage and the grain on top of it. The cows ave rest'nz and

AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD 213

digesting this feed while the men obtain their breakfast.
Then the mangers are swept and the cows are watered. A
liberal amount of hay is then fed.

In cold and stormy weather the cows are kept in the barn
all day. In reasonably favorable weather the cows are let
out in a yard sheltered by means of a shed opening to the
south, having a manger in front. This manger always has
plenty of hay init. In addition, a large hayrack in the yard
is kept filled with hay.

While the cows are out during the middle of the day, the
silage and the grain on top of it are put into the manger.
The cows are let in about three o’clock in the afternoon.
When the cows are in place, the alleys are swept and doors
and windows opened to eliminate silage odors and dust that
may be in the barn. The milking in the afternoon bezias
about 4.30 o’clock. Nothing is fed during the milking
period or just previous. Just after milking, the cows are
given plenty of hay for the night. In case the cows are not
let out in the yard during the day, they are watered the
second time just before they are fed silage and grain.

Some herdsmen having cows on large production tests
make it a habit to feed the cows each time they are being
milked. When cows get into this habit, they naturally ex-
pect their feed when the milking is done. It is, however, not
necessary and probably not important thus to feed a cow
when she is being milked. This is probably done largely for
convenience. Such a cow is usually milked four times a day
and these milking periods naturally constitute convenient
times for feeding. The point to be emphasized is to prac-
tice regularity of feeding and to feed the feeds about in the
same order daily. A cow should not be fed grain early in
the morning one day and late the next day.

Cost of Ration

There are some qualities of feeds on which a money value

214 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

cannot well be set. For instance, the author has practiced
feeding some linseed meal daily to all large producing cows,
no matter what the cost has been. This was done on account
of favorable physical effects of this feed.

The condition of the feed and the palatability of it are
other factors on which no definite money value can be given.
Nevertheless, they are factors of importance and factors
that influence the value of a particular feed.

The comparative value of the different feeds in respect
to the amount of digestible nutrients, or in respect to the
amount of protein and net energy may be calculated.

Example: A dairy farmer feeds alfalfa hay and silage
for roughages, and for concentrates he has on hand plenty
of corn, barley, and oats—in fact, so much on hand that it
is necessary to sell some. Suppose that the price of corn is
86 cents per bushel. The problem for such a dairy farmer
will be, which of these grains should be sold and which
should be fed to the cows? Calculated according to the
digestible nutrients, the comparative value would be as
follows:
100pounds of corn contains:

($1.45 per 100 poms)

Protein

eae ee a cris nutritive value per pound. $1.45 +85.7=1.70 cents
4

Total nutrients 85.7

100 pounds of barley contains:
($1.25 per 100 pounds)
Protein U5
Faraexoy ps nutritive value per pound. $1.25 +79.4=1.57 cents
Total nutrients 79.4
100 pounds of oats contains:
($1.25 per 100 pon
Protein
Free o) 521 nutritive value per pound. $1.25 +70.4=1.77 cents

Total nutrients 70.4

It will be seen from the above that one pound of digestible
nutrients in the corn is worth 1.7 cents, in the barley 1.57
cents and in the oats 1.77 cents. From the standpoint of
contained nutrients, this would make the barley the cheapest
feed, the corn the second cheapest, and oats the most
expensive.

AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD 215

Considering that corn and oats are very nearly equal in
value from the standpoint of nutrients contained, and con-
sidering that oats is such a splendid feed for a dairy cow, it
would probably be advisable to retain the oats and corn and
dispose of the barley. There is something about oats as a
feed that gives life and bloom to an animal which a feed lke
corn does not possess.

If a person had prairie hay for roughage instead of
alfalfa hay, then it would be a question largely of purchas-
ing protein in the cheapest form in order to balance the
ration. The comparative value of protein in these differ-
ent feeds may be calculated in the same manner as illus-
trated above with the digestible nutrients. That is, the value
per 100 pounds of feed may be divided by the percentage
of digestible protein. The quotient would represent the
comparative price per pound of protein of the different
feeds.

According to the above method, the value of 100 pounds
of digestible nutrients in the form of hay and other rouch
feeds will be found to be relatively too low. A pound of
digestible nutrients in the form of rough feed dogs not con-
tain so much net energy as does a pound of digestible
nutrients in the form of concentrates fed in proper form.
The cow must expend considerably more energy in masti-
cating and digesting rough feeds than in preparing the con-
centrates for absorption by the system.

The comparative food value of the different feeds may
also be calculated by using the Armsby data, for instance,
with the same feeds and prices used above, corn at $1 45 per
100 pounds, barley at $1.25 per 100, and oats at $1.25 per
100.

100 pounds of corn contains 89.16 therms $1.45 +89.16=1.62 cents per therm
Higa barley “© 89.94 * $1.25 +89.94=139 “ “« «
fae! 3% ease 6756. -* WIS. 67. 56=1085 6
By this method it will be seen that the same relative
values of these feeds are obtained as when calculated on

the basis of total digestible nutrients.

216 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The total digestible nutrients in feeds furnish probably
the most accurate value of different feeds. At least this
appears correct so long as the Armsby net energy determina-
tions of all the feeds have not been completed.

Feeding for maximum records.—When a maximum
production from a dairy cow is expected, no emphasis is
laid on the cost of the ration and on the amount and cost of
the labor. It is not a case of economic production so much
as of maximum production.

The things mentioned previously in connection with feed-
ing the dairy cow need to be emphasized to a still greater
extent. The variety of grains fed is usually greater in
number, and greater care is used in selecting the most palat-
able feeds. The palatability of the ration is of special im-
portance when a cow is on heavy feed. Her appetite is not
usually so keen. In order to find out which feeds such a
cow likes best, the author provides a long feed box with
several compartments in it. At first, when the cow is put
on the heavy feed, the different grains are fed in this box
separately. By watching the cow, one can soon learn which
feeds she likes best and which feeds have little or no attrac-
tion for her. It is usually safe to make up the ration chiefly
from the feeds which she craves the most.

Cows on production tests are usually fed the salt in the
erain.- Dr: Babcock’s rule is to feed an ounce of Ssaleene
each 20 pounds of milk produced, and in addition an ounce
for each 1000 pounds of live weight. In addition to ths,
the cows should have free access to salt at all times, and
free access to pure, clean water.

The author also practices feeding two kinds of hay. Well-
cured alfalfa hay and wild hay both are kept before the
cow.

If silage is fed, it should not be given in large quantities,
usually not over 30 pounds per day; but it is important that
the cow receive a good heavy ration of some kind of roots,
sliced for the convenience of the cow, if the silage is con-
siderably lessened.

AMOUNT TO FEED THE DAIRY HERD Pale

It will be noticed that the feed provided is to obtain the
maximum normal production. Some cow owners do not
feed cows on test a full ration. This is claimed to produce
a higher percent of fat in the milk; that is, more of the body
fat goes into the milk when the cow is compelled to draw
upon her own body. However, by this system the milk
yield is usually low.

A cow on official test may be kept in a well-bedded box
stall. Hot weather is a poor time in which to make a large
official record. Spring and fall are usually the most
suitable.

A cow on such heavy feed should be very carefully
watched. The caretaker should see that the bowel move-
ment is regular and of proper consistency.

The cow’s appetite must be kept keen at all times during
the test. If the cow should become constipated and stale,
reduce the grain ration at once and give the cow a rectal
injection. A mild laxative should also be given.. This may
consist of a pint of raw linseed oil or a pound of epsom
salts, dissolved in a pint of water. Great care should be
taken when drenches are given that they do not settle on
the lungs.

CHAPTER Xt
MILKING THE DAIRY COW

Milking a cow requires good judgment, skill, and a sym-
pathetic attitude on the part of the milker, and, above all,
it requires a high regard for proper sanitation. In coun-
tries where dairying is carried on intensively, the process
of milking is emphasized. For instance, in Denmark the
different agricultural schools have given a special milking
course, with a view of acquainting all milkers with the im-
portance of skill, system, and the proper methods of pro-
cedure. Prizes are offered to those who qualify as the
best milkers. This stimulates interest and those who thus
excel as milkers are able to command a very high salary.

Condition of Cow

The Structure of a Cow’s Udder.—A cow’s udder is
divided into two halves longitudinally. The left and right
halves are entirely separated by a membrane which attaches
to the twist behind and on the lower part of the abdomen
in front of the udder. This serves as a complete partition
between the right and left halves, and in addition helps to
carry and support the cow’s udder.

Each one of these halves is again partially divided into a
front and hind quarter.

The mammary gland is a secretory gland. Milk is
secreted in a manner similar to the secretion of the saliva
in the mouth and of the gastric and pancreatic juices in the
digestive tract. The raw material is carried by the blood
to the mammary gland. This gland manufactures these
raw products into milk. The mammary gland is located in
the upper part of the cow’s udder. It is composed of an
aggregation of little sack-like bodies. Each of these sack-
like bodies has a duct leading from it. These numerous

218

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 219

small ducts join together and form larger ducts, which ter-
minate in the lower part of the cow’s udder in what 1s
known as the milk cistern. The above-mentioned sack-like
bodies are known as gland-lobules. Some call them ulti-
mate follicles. On the inside of these gland-lobules are a
number of still smaller bodies, which are known as alveoli.
The alveoli constitute the real machinery for the manufac-
ture of the milk. The gland in each quarter of a cow’s
udder has been likened to an inverted cluster of grapes.
The stems leading to the grapes are likened to the milk
ducts, the grapes or the fruits to the gland-lobules, and the
seeds of the grapes to the alveoll.

At each place where these ducts branch and rebranch,
there is a muscle over which the cow has complete control.
She can open and close them at will. It is a well-known
fact that some cows, under excitement or because of some
other provocation, will hold up their milk. For a schematic
cross-sectional view of a cow’s udder, see figure 81.

Clean and Healthy Cows.—Considering that the natural
ability of a cow to produce milk has been much increased,
and since a high-producing cow is a specially developed
being, one might expect more or less trouble in keeping the
cow’s udder in perfect condition at all times. If this
secretory organ becomes abnormal in any way, it stands to
reason that the milk will not be normal. It is the business
of the milker to watch carefully that normal milk is at all
times produced. In case of any unhealthy condition of the
cow the milk should not be used.

As has been previously stated, certain feeds, such as wild
onion, garlic, or decayed food of any kind, will taint the
milk. Such tainted milk is not the result of any malady of
the cow’s udder. The purity of a cow’s milk is naturally
well guarded. Nature intended to protect in every way
possible this natural food supply. Digestive derangements,
if prolonged, will cause milk of abnorma! quality. Some
cows’ milk is abnormal during the cestrual period.

The milker should be careful that the cow herself is clean

220 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

at the time of milking. Clean milk cannot be produced
from cows that are covered with manure on the sides and
thighs. If a cow’s udder and teats are soiled, and if her
sides and thighs are dirty, she must be cleaned before milk-
ing. Ordinarily, wiping the sides and udder with a damp
cloth is sufficient. This cloth may be moistened occa-
sionally in a disinfectant solution. In case that the cow’s
udder is very soiled, it should be washed with a cloth in
lukewarm water and dried before milking.

Dirt that falls from the cow into the milk causes troub‘e
in two ways. First, it imparts a bad cowy flavor to the
milk, and, secondly, there are many undesirable germs that
accompany the dirt. These germs or bacteria multiply and
develop in the milk and cream and produce foul smellinz
gases and other undesirable by-products.

aap Bee

FIG. 77—A concrete sanitary and sheltered cow yard.
(Universal Portland Cement Co.)

Clean healthy cows fed on good wholesome feeds are
requisites to sanitary milk production.

Keep Cow’s Teats in Good Condition.—Chapped teats
are quite common. This at times comes about from fre-
quent washing in hard cold water without properly drying
afterwards. It may also result from the cow’s wading
about in ponds of stagnant water. Use warm soft water

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 2A\,

with a little disinfectant in it, for washing cow’s udder and
teats, and afterwards carefully dry them with a clean linen
cloth. When they have been carefully dried apply a little
vaseline or a salve which has been made up from three
Patis of lard and one part of turpentine.~ The latter is
desirable for sore teats of all kinds.

Sore teats from barb wire cuts is another common ail-
ment. This trouble is not common on farms where woven
wire fences are used and where cattle are not pastured
much. Such a wound usually heals very slowly. This is
due to the fact that every time the cow is milked, the wound
is usually reopened. The milker should make a special
effort to allow the healing to continue. Mechanical milk-
ing is much easier on such a cow than is hand milking.
When such a wound is cut, it should at once be thoroughly
washed out with a disinfectant. Then apply a salve. One
of the ordinary carbolic acid salves, vaseline, and the tur-
pentine salve, described above, are all suitable. The writer
has seen ordinary lubricating oil and ordinary axle grease
used with success. They keep the germs and dirt away
and protect the open sore from coming in direct contact
with the air.

In some instances the cut is so deep as to cause the milk
to flow through on the side of the teat. The raw wound
may be healed, but it is difficult to get the parts to grow
together so as to close the opening entirely while the cow
is giving milk. If the cow does not give much milk, it is
best to dry her up. In case that she cannot be dried up
before the wound heals, the sore may be repaired after the
cow dries up. This is done by recutting the skin next to
the opening. A sterile milking tube is inserted through t*.2
regular canal of the teat. Then put rubber bands aroun 1
the wound and teat just tight enough to hold the wound
together. Be sure that the wound is thoroughly disinfect: |
before the rubber bands draw it together. In a short time
the opening will close together completely. Then the milk-
ing tube may be taken out. Leave the rubber bands on till

222 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

the wound has completely grown together and there is no
more danger of its separating.

The most serious and most painful teat wounds resu't
from a cow’s stepping on her own teats. This happens wich
cows having pendulous udders and long teats. It usual’y
happens when a cow gets up in her stall after having laid
down.

At times one cow will step on another cow’s teats. This
usually occurs in the stall, especially where cows are
crowded closely together in the barn.

When cows are thus crowded closely together and where
there is no post or partition of any kind between the cows
they are likely to injure each other’s udders seriously.
When cows are lying down in their stalls with their feet
towards each other, one or both may stretch and push the
hind feet against the udder of the cow lying next to her. A
post or partition coming within a foot of the gutter pre-
vents this danger.

Cow pox is another common cause of sore teats. This is
contagious. The disease shows itself in numerous little
water blisters on different parts of the teat. The disease
is not serious, but causes considerable inconvenience to the
milker and to the cow. The disease usually has to run its
course. It lasts about ten days. The milker should be
very careful not to carry the disease from one cow to an-
other. He should carefully wash his hands in a disin-
fectant solution after milking affected cows. It is also a
good plan to milk such cows last.

The cow should be milked gently, so as not to rupture
the little blisters until skin has formed underneath and they
dry up of their own accord. Apply freely the vaseline or
the turpentine and lard salve mentioned above.

Sore teats at times result from internal growths. Little
lumps are formed on one side of the canal or opening in
the teat. These at times may become so serious as to com-
‘pletely obstruct the passage of the milk. If the trouble
is not removed, the quarter itself will soon become swollen

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 225

and sore. Sometimes such growths in the center of the
teat are very difficult to handle. About the best way to
treat such a cow is to disinfect thoroughly a milking tube
and insert it into the teat. Allow the tube to remain until
the growth has ceased, and even until it has disappeared,
when the milking tube may be removed. The use of a teat
slitter or bistoury is not advisable except in cas2 of neces-
sity. Making an open wound internally simply makes ad-
ditional trouble.

Another cause of sore teats is warts. These are es-
pecially troublesome if they are large and numerous. A
good way to eliminate long warts is to take a thread soaked
in a sterile solution and wrap it tightly around the base of
the wart. In a short time the wart drops off. When this
happens, the sore is entirely healed. The wart may be
clipped off with a pair of sharp scissors, but this leaves a
very tender sore on the teat. In case an open sore results,
always apply a disinfectant and cover the wound with a
salve.

Hard milking cows are objected to by most milkers. To
some extent this condition may be improved by inserting a
teat expander in the end of the teat. The same thing may
be accomplished with a small smooth wooden plug crowded
into the end of the teat and made to stretch the sphincter
muscle. Whatever is inserted should be very thoroughly
sterilized first. If the cow is not a desirable dairy animal,
it is advisable to eliminate her from the herd. At least, it
is not a good plan to perpetuate her blood and raise her
heifer calves for future cows.

At times and immediately after freshening, the opening
of the teat is clogged. This is not serious, and may be
remedied by inserting a sterile silver milk tube. Usually
this trouble is only temporary. It is due to some gelatinous
substance that has dried at the opening of the teat.

On the other hand, there are some cows that are so easy
to milk that the milk leaks away between milkings, or it
begins to run away as soon as milking time approaches.

224 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Such cows should be milked first. There is no known per-
manent remedy. It is a natural condition resulting from
the sphincter muscle, at the end of the teat, being loosely
drawn. Occasionally this condition results from cows
having had the end of one or more teats injured. A I ttle
collodion applied to the opening immediately after milking
may prevent the leakage.

Swollen udders.—At the time of freshening nearly all
udders are swollen more or less. This is natural and to b2
expected. This natural swelling at the time of freshening
usually disappears in a few days. A cow should not be
fed too heavily on grain at this time, and should not be
permitted to lie down on cold, damp ground.

The common and troublesome swelling of a cow’s udder
is due to garget or mammites. It is a disease and icvem-
tagious. A streptococcic type of bacteria is the cause. The
garget may attack the whole udder of a cow, but usual y
Ofie quarter is affected at a time. The affected portionpanr
the udder becomes swollen, very hard, and feverish.

A gargety udder is very tender, and the milker should
use patience and care. The milk at such a time is usually
stringy, and it may be bloody. Such milk should be dis-
carded.

A cow in this condition should be milked out several
times a day. After each milking make a hot application of
some kind. During fall and spring when the flies do not
trouble, the warm milk from the cow may be applied and
the udder bathed thoroughly in it. Hot water, containinz
considerable salt so as to form a strong brine, may also be
applied as hot as the cow can stand it. The care‘aker
should not be in a hurry, even if the process lasts 10 or 15
minutes. After the affected portion of the udder Fas b-en
thoroughly soaked, then with a dry linen cloth carefully and
gently rub it dry. Then apply salve made up as follows:

2 parts of melted lard.
1 part spirits of turpentine.
1 part fluid extract of belladonna.

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 225

Another good salve that is highly recommended is made

up of:
1 part fluid extract of pokeroot.
1 part fluid extract of belladonna leaves.
6 parts lard or sweet oil.

In most serious cases it may be necessary to apply a hot
poultice. This may be made up of bread and milk. The
best kind of a poultice to apply is made up of antiphleges-
tine, or from any of the pastes made up chiefly of kaoline.
Before the latter poultice is applied, clip off all hairs from
the cow’s udder, then warm the antiphlegistine and put it
on a cloth. The whole is bandaged against the affected
part of the udder. The cow with a large swollen udder
should always have an udder support on her. It may be
made from a piece of good cloth or may be purchased
already made.

A cow having a serious case of garget should be given a
good physic. From one pound to two pounds of epsom salts
may be given her as a drench. Some recommend giving
the cow affected with garget one ounce of saltpeter per day.

Catarrh of the udder is another common disease affecting
cows. This usually affects the inside membrane of the
milk ducts. It is difficult to cure. With some cows the
disease is chronic in nature. Hot applications are the best
known remedies.

Condition of Milker

Clean and healthful milker.—Usually too little precau-
tion is taken in order to keep milkers clean and neat during
milking. Under average farm conditions it is probably not
practical to advise wearing white suits, but the person
should at least have on clean overalls and clothing that is
not worn while doing other kinds of work. When produc-
ing milk for direct human food the milker should wear
a clean white suit.

The milker should have clean hands and be prepared in
every way to keep the milk perfectly sanitary.

226 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

It is very important that the milker is healthy and es-
pecially that he does not have any of the common con-
tagious diseases.

Manner of procedure.—The cow is usually milked from
the right side; but cows may be accustomed to being milked
from both sides. Where one milker has a large number of
cows to be milked, it is not at all uncommon for a mlker
not to change position. That is, the milker gets in between
two cows and stays there until both cows have been milked.
This will necessitate milking one cow on the right side and
the other one on the left. It is probably best, however, to
make it a rule to milk all cows only from the right side.

The milker should at all times approach the cow gently.
Do not in any way scare or make her nervous.

Frequently the two front quarters are milked first. This
provides more room for milking the hind quarters. There
are milkers who prefer to milk the whole half on the side
of the milker first. There are times when leaving the hind
quarters to the last, the unmilked portion of the udder be-
comes so distended and the teats so short that the milking
is made much harder. The plan followed by most milkers
is first to milk most of the milk from the teats that milk
easiest. If the two front teats are easier to milk, then it is
natural for the milker to empty them first. A portion of the
milk from the hind quarter can in this manner be drawn
through the front teats. Whatever method of procedure is
followed, plan to make it uniform each time of milking.

The most common and probably best way is for the
milker to hold the pail between the knees. There are now
special milking stools, a portion of which is made to ho!d
the pail. The rapid milker usually does not want to be
bothered with any of the patent milking stools. A piece of
board nailed horizontally on top of a vertical piece of two
by two of proper height to suit the particular milker is
usually the best kind of a stool. Some milkers strap t™ese
stools to the body so the milker never needs to take hold of
it and never needs to handle the stool with the hands.

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 227

Dry hand milking vs. wet hand milking.—There are
many milkers who claim that they could not milk at all if
they had to milk with dry hands. This is a mistake. Wet
hand milking is only a bad, insanitary habit. The author
used to think that wetting the hands and teats was neces-
sary to successful hand milking. Milking one winter in an
open shed where the temperature often was 20 degrees be-
low zero completely converted him to milking with dry
hands. This is much more sanitary and just as convenient.

If one is so addicted to wet hand milking that he cannot
quit, then keep a small supply of vaseline or turpentine
salveon hand. A° small pinch of this salve for each
cow serves a much better purpose than wetting the hands
with milk, and in addition, it helps to keep the teats in good
condition.

Milking the cow clean.—It is important that no milk be
left in the cow’s udder after each milking. If the milker
habitually leaves some milk, the cow is likely to go dry
earlier than she otherwise would. Moreover, the last milk
in the cow’s udder is the richest. It contains as high as 10
to 12 percent of butter fat, while the first part milked con-
tains only a fraction of a percent. The author knows of
farmers who have advised the hired man to milk only as
much as can be milked quickly. “Do not waste your time
stripping the cows. Let the calves do that.” Milking the
cow by the combined efforts of the calf and the hired man
is a very poor plan. One or the other should do it, and the
owner should see that it is done well. So much milk moy
be left in the cow’s udder that it will cause abnormal m1i‘k
and diseased udders. The latter is a frequent result of
indifferent and careless milking.

Condition of Utensils

Clean and sanitary utensils—No one should use in-
sanitary pails, cans, or separators. Everybody should have
the desire to keep everything connected with human foods
tidy and clean. The word “clean” does not have the same

228 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

meaning to everybody. What is clean to one person may
be dirty to another.

We say that the barn is clean, yet we wou'd hesitate to
work in the barn with our best clothes on. We say that
the floor is clean, yet if some food from the table should
fall from the floor, we would hesitate to eat it. We say
that our plates from which we eat our meals are clean, yet a
surgeon would not lay his instruments on them without
sterilizing them before an operation, fearing that some un-
desirable germs would be present. To produce clean milk
and to keep it from spoiling, it is important that the pails,
the cans, and other utensils be well cleaned and sterilized
after each using.

All utensils should be washed with a stiff brush in warm
water containing some washing powder. Do not use a rag.
Then each part should be rinsed in boiling water. It is just
as effective, even more so, to sterilize them over a jet of
steam.

All milk should be strained through an efficient and
sanitary strainer into a clean bright can.

If there is steam ob-
tainable, all utensils
should be steamed just
before milking begins.
Various. experiments
show that no matter how
well the utensils have
been cleaned) mam,
germs or bacteria lodge
on them between the
cleaning and milking.
Boiling hot water may
mil take the place of @steam.
FIG. 78—Bacterial Securth from hair of Rinse the utensils off in
cow. (T. H. Lund, Guelph Ag. College.) it thoroughly just before
milking begins. A milk pail having a small top or opening
should always be used. This greatly reduces the number of

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 229

germs that enter the milk from barn dust and from the side
and udder of the cow.

Kicking cows.—Usually when cows kick during milking
there is some cause for it. Most heifers will kick more cr
less when first milked. This is natural and usually it is
nct a vicious kick. The prudent milker uses care and gen-
tleness. After the heifer has been milked a few times and
if the udder is not diseased, she soon learns that she is re-
lieved each time and that it is to her benefit.

Occasionally cows are found that are chronic kickers.
The simplest way to deal with such individuals is to dispose
of them for the block at the opportune time. Urtil such a
time the hind legs may be tied with a strap just above the
Rocks. There is an anti-kicking device on the market
which works effectively. It consists of two wide iron
hooks connected with a short chain. This chain may b2
lengthened and shortened to suit the individual cow. The
two wide hooks fit on the hind legs just above the hock
joints.

Sucking cows.—There are cows which suck themselves.
Such a cow is not worth much for dairy purposes. It is
usually not worth the trouble to provide means that will
prevent sucking. If it is a valuable breeding animal, the
self-sucking habit may be prevented by putting a halter on
her, and a surcingle around her heart girth. Then tie a
staff on her, reaching from the halter to the surcingle on the
side of her body. Some use a halter havirg long sharp
prongs extending out from the nose band. Others slit the
tongue part way, and others put a bull ring in the nose and
suspend a second one from this.

Trouble also results from individuals of the herd su-king
each other. Recently weaned calves are usually the per-
petrators.” A halter having enongh sharp ‘prongs on the
nose strap is usually sufficient to prevent this. If the habit
continues, stich animals should be kept separate, or else
sold off from the herd entirely.

Milking previous to freshening.—Many dairy farmers

230 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

insist upon milking cows just previous to freshening. The
udder many times becomes quite distended. This swelling
of the udder is not always due to the presence of milk.
Many times it is due to standing in a crowded stall and lying
down on hard, cold surfaces. Repeatedly, the author has
taken cows with such distended udders from the stall and
put them into a well-bedded, roomy box stall, whereupon
the swelling invariably goes down. Milking a cow will not
help this kind of swelling very much. The owner or care-
taker should be careful that the swelling is due to milk
before any milking is done.

Generally speaking, a cow should not be milked before
freshening. This first milk nature intended that the calf
should have. Milking just previous to freshening is not
normal, either for the cow or the calf.

There are instances where it is advisable to milk a cow
before she freshens, but do not begin until it is necessary
and until the cow shows signs of freshening within a short
(salen

The swelling of the cow’s udder alone is not a definite
indication that she is going to freshen. The surest indica-
tion that freshening time is approaching is when the muscles
extending from the tail bone to the pin bone on each side of
the tail head begin to loosen. When they loosen to such an
extent that one can scarcely feel that there are muscles, then
the cow will usually freshen within twelve hours.

Resting period for the cow.—From a practical as well
as experimental standpoint, it has been demonstrated that
a cow that has from four to six weeks’ rest each year will do
better than will a cow that milks continuously from one
freshening to the other. A few insist on giving cows a
longer resting period than this. Some of the breeders of
pure-bred cattle who expect to make maximum production
with the cows let them go dry a much longer time than this.

It is certain that when a cow milks clear up to the time of
freshening she starts out afterwards at a much lower level
of production. If she is given a rest she will more than

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 231

make up for the amount she lost during the period she was
dry.

As previously mentioned, the cow should be well fed
during this resting period, even though she is not giving any
nilk. It does not hurt to permit a cow to lay on flesh during
this time. If she is the right kind of a dairy cow, she will
milk it off after freshening. It has been demonstrated by
many practical men, and substantiated experimentally by
Prof. C. H. Eckles of the Missouri station, that shortly
after freshening most cows produce a higher percentage of
fat in the milk than they do later on. In other words, a |
cow in good condition will milk off her surplus flesh during
the first few weeks and months after freshening.

It is also considered that this resting period enables the
cow to nourish the calf, or fetus, better than if she were
compelled to give milk also.

There are a few cows so persistent in milk production
that it is difficult to dry them up. When the time comes to
dry up a cow, take away her grain ration and give her only
hay, wild hay or timothy hay. Milk her only once a day
for about one week, then milk her only every other day,
then only every three days. Do not use this milk from the
latter milking. So long as the cow is milked once a day the
milk is normal. When the cow g'ves only about 10 pounds
of milk per day the milking can be omitted entire'y. Watch
the udder carefully and see that it does not harden and
swell. When the cow is dried up, it may then be a good
plan to milk out some of the abnormal milk in the udder.
It does not hurt to leave milk in the cow’s udder so long as
the udder does not become diseased. The system will absorb
what is therein. After the cow is dry, begin to give her
some grain again.

Lengthening milking period.—The author is not pre-
pared to say that the persistency of milk production may be
increased by lengthening the lactation period of a cow. He
has, however, observed that a cow may develop the habit of
giving milk only a short time. It seems reasonable that if

232 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRVING

a cow’s milking period can be made habitually shorter, it
may also be lengthened. The author makes a practice of
not mating the heifers too early after the first freshening.
He believes that a heifer should milk at least ten months the
first lactation period.

It is difficult to prove this point experimentally, as no
one can say definitely whether the results of such an ex-
periment may not be due merely to the individuality of the
animal.

Milk fever.—Milk fever is a disease which used to be
dreaded very much. It usually attacks the largest produc-
ing cows in the herd. So far as known, it never attacks
heifers. It is usually mature and aged cows that contract
the disease.

Milk fever generally occurs the first few days after fresh-
ening, though the disease may occur several weeks after it.
The author has known cows that had milk fever twice after
freshening. The first signs of milk fever are usually partial
paralysis of the limbs and a worried look in the eye of the
cow. The cow trembles. She is unable to control her hind
quarters. Finally she loses control of her muscles entirely
and is unable to get up.

Milk fever used to be fatal in nearly every instance.
Then Prof. Schmidt of Denmark discovered the potassium
iodide method of treatment. This is said to have saved
about 60 percent of the milk fever cases that were treated.
Later Prof. Anderson, also from Denmark, discovered the
air treatment for milk fever. This latter method consists
of injecting sterile air into the cow’s udder. Usually the
cow is first milked out. Then with a special pump sterile
air is pumped into the cow’s udder until it is full and dis-
tended. Then a band is tied around the ends of the teats
so the air does not escape. With hard milking cows this
latter is not necessary. The udder is then gently massaged.
In a few hours the cow usually recovers. The author has
not experienced a single case where this treatment has
failed to perfect a cure.

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 25a

In the absence of the special pumps, an ordinary bicycle
pump may be used. The author has used this several times
with good success. An ordinary quill may be used as a
connection between the pump and the cow’s udder. By this
method the air is not sterilized, and such air may cause in-
fection of the cow’s udder; hence it should be used only in
cases of necessity.

Keep air in the cow’s udder after she improves and is
able to stand on her feet. It is well to pump up the udder
two or three times. It is one of the simplest and surest
remedies for an otherwise very serious disease. |

To prevent milk fever, avoid feeding the cow heavily on
grain immediately before and immediately after freshening.
The flow of milk should be brought on gradually.

Some recommend not drawing all of the milk from the
cow’s udder immediately before and immediately after
freshening. Milk out only about one-half of the milk at
first, just enough to release the distended udder. Then
next time draw out about three-fourths of the milk. It is
claimed that this is nature’s method and that a cow treated
in this manner is not so likely to contract milk fever.

Handling the cow at freshening time.—Freshening time
is a time when great care is necessary. It is usually the
time when cows receive setbacks. If a cow does not do
well during the freshening period, she is not likely to do
well as a producer during the whole lactation period. The
herdsman’s skill and ability are usually tested to the maxi-
mum during this time, and it might be stated that it is usu-
ally at this stage that the inexperienced herdsmen make
their failures.

The risks of the freshening period may be greatly reduced
by attention, care, and good judgment on the part of the
herdsman.

When possible, the cow should be put into a box stall
previous to freshening, sufficiently early so that she may
become accustomed to the new surroundings: It is not
absolutely necessary that a cow have a box stall. A cow

234 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

may be heavily bedded and allowed to freshen in her regular
stall in the barn, and the calf removed at once. This latter
method is used almost entirely in Denmark. To remove the
cow to a box stall is, however, strongly to be recommended.
When the cow is ready to freshen, and especially at night,
it is a good plan to put a halter on her and tie her to the
manger in the box stall. If a cow is allowed to run loose,
she may get the rear part of her body into such a position
against the wall as seriously to interfere with the delivery
of the calf. Besides, she may lie down in a part of the stall
where it is impossible for the attendant to give her the
necessary assistance. Most heifers need help.

As has been previously stated, the normal position of the
calf is fore feet first and the nose resting between the knees
and the forehead uppermost. The attendant should not be
too hasty in assisting the cow. Most mature cows in good
condition will freshen without any assistance. With heifers
it is different. A rope tied around the fore legs of the calf
will enable the attendant to assist. The attendant should
not pull on the calf except when the cow assists by
straining.

In case of abnormal position of the calf, the attendant
should endeavor to get him into proper position to be born.
If both legs are not out, the calf should be pushed back a
trifle so that both feet will come first. This is especially
true in case a calf is born backwards. At times calves can-
not be delivered in this latter position. If this be the case,
then the calf should be pushed back and turned around into
the normal position.

In another connection the author has pointed out that it
is usually best to leave the calf with its mother two or three
days. It calms her and it is good for the calf. The cow
should be milked in addition. Some prefer to take the calf
away. They claim that a heifer will not long for her calf
so much, and that she comes to her milk much quicker if
the calf is not allowed to be with her. The method may be
considered optional with the individual herdsman. The

MILKING THE DAIRY COW 255

author prefers to leave the calf with its mother two or
three days. The mother’s milk cannot be used anyhow for
about this length of time, and it gives the calf a splendid
start.

Under normal conditions, the cow should clean a few
hours after freshening. If the afterbirth does not come
within 24 hours, it should be removed. Any herdsman
should be able to do this successfully. He should sze that
his nails are trimmed and hands cleaned very thoroughly
and disinfected. The hand is gently inserted for the
purpose of removing the afterbirth.

When the afterbirth has been removed, then irrigate the
cow with a mild disinfectant. From one to two ounces of
salt in one gallon of boiled water, cooled to 100 degrees F.,
makes a splendid douche for the vaginal tract.

CHAPTER Xit
METHODS OF MILKING

The milking of cows may be done in two ways, by hand
and by machine.

Hand Milking

Discussions in the previous chapter refer to hand milk-
ing. ‘There is much difference in hand milkers. Some can
milk rapidly without causing discomfort to the cow. Others,
again, will cause discomfort to the cow no matter how
slowly they milk. The hand milker must be able to under-
stand the cow and to adjust himself to her.

The hands and fingers must be used in such a way as to
imitate nature’s way as closely as possible. The upper part
of the hand or the thumb and forefinger should close around
the teat. Then the other fingers should close gradually as
the milk is pressed out. The milker should avoid pressing
against the teat with the end of the fingers and the nails.

FIG. 79—Cows standing in the gutter with their hind feet are difficult
to keep clean.

236

METHODS OF MILKING OF

An average good hand milker will milk about eight cows
per hour. A professional hand milker, or one who does
nothing else, will easily milk 10 cows per hour. In larze
dairies, where such a man is employed, the milker usually
has to milk 25 cows twice daily. Such a man is usually
paid about $40 a month, board and lodging. Counting
board and lodging worth $20 a month, this would mean a
cost of 8 cents per cow for milking alone, or about the value
of a quart of milk.

oll

cams ag 90t %

On dairy farms where special milkers are employed, the
milking is usually begun at 12 o’clock midnight and 12
o’clock at noon, or soon thereafter, as it is necessary to get
the milk to the consumers early in the morning and early in
the evening. This insures fresh milk to the consumers ct
all times.

As soon as possible after the milk has been drawn, it is
aerated, cooled, bottled, and delivered. In some instances
the milk is also clarified and pasteurized.. On the average
dairy farm the milking should be done at seasonable hours
of the day.

238 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Machine Milking

On large dairy farms machine milking has become quite
common. It is generally considered that when a person has
20 cows with good udders and teats, has a reasonably good
barn, has the facilities for handling the milking machine,
and a steady, interested, and intelligent operator, the milk-
ing machine can be economically operated.

Chief parts of the milking machine.——One of the chief
parts of a milking machine is the pail and the pulsator. The
pail is usually conical in shape, wide at the bottom and rela-
tively narrow at the top. It is somewhat heavier in
structure than the average tin pail. This is necessary to
withstand the greater outside air pressure when the machine
is in operation. The partial vacuum within the pail when
the machine is in operation is about one-half an atmosphere,
or nearly 71%4 pounds. This latter is equal to 15 inches on
the gage which comes with the milking machine outfit.
The pail capacity is also larger than that of the ordinary
pail.

The cover fits on the top of the pail like a lid. A rubber
ring acts as a cushion between the top of the pail and the
under part of the cover. As soon as a vacuum is created
in the pail, the cover is tightly drawn against the edge of
the pail, making it air-tight. When the suction in the pail
is relieved, the cover, with all of its attachments, can easily
be removed.

Most of the milking machines have the pulsator attached
directly to the top of the cover, thus making the cover an
important part of the milking machine. The chief duty of
the pulsator is to cause alternate suction and release. The
first pulsators used on milking machines were put on the
pipe line. This did not work very successfully. The later
pulsators operate by vacuum and not by pressure.

Teat cups and rubber tubing constitute the real milking
device. The teat cup is one of the important parts of the
milking machine. The teat cups in the different machines

METHODS OF MILKING 239

vary a great deal. Some of the machines have a straight,
hard, conical-shaped cup. Others have a straight cup with
a rubber sleeve extending through the cup and an air space
cushion between this rubber sleeve and the outside of the
cup. Others again have cups made entirely of rubber which
collapses on one side. Other machines have cups made
entirely of glass. Some have the universal teat cups, or just
one size for all cows. Other machines have different cups
for different sized teats.

Rubber tubing connects the cups with the inlet to the pail.
There are thus two inlets through the cover of the double
unit machines, or the machines that milk two cows into one
pail. In addition, there is a heavy rubber tubing connecting
the milking machine to the vacuum pipe running in front of
the cow. This piece of rubber tubing, of necessity, must be
stiffer and heavier than the other tubing, so as to pa? it
from collapsing.

The vacuum iron pipes running in front of the cows are
usually one-inch pipes, and are connected with the vacuum
tank and pump in the power room. Some of the milking
machines have no pipe line at all. A small pump, which
supplies the right amount of vacuum and relief, is fastened
‘and operated near the cow.

On the vacuum pipe in the barn there are a gage and a
safety valve. The safety valve can be set to admit air into
the system whenever a certain vacuum has been obtained.
This obviates the danger of applying too much suction on
the teat cups. Nearly all of the machines operate with from
15 to 17 inches of vacuum, or about one-half atmosphere.

The vacuum tank is placed between the vacuum pump
and the vacuum pipes. This tank serves two chief purposes:
to make suction more uniform and to act as a vacuum supply
tank. If there was no larger supply of vacuum than just
what was stored in the pipe line, then the vacuum would
go down too low whenever the cups were taken off or put
on, or in case one of the teat cups should happen to fall of.

The vacuum.pump is one of the necessary parts of the

240 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

milking machine. The style of pump varies a great deal.
Some use the rotary pump. Others use the pump having
the up and down stroke. This pump is in operation all the
time while the milking is being done.

It is necessary to have power of some kind. The amount
of necessary power depends upon the number of units or
milking machines in use. A two horse power engine is
plenty large enough for two double units or for milking four
cows at a time. Usually it is best to purchase a larger
engine—one that may be used for grinding and other pur-
poses as well. It is, however, not economical to run too
large an engine for pulling so light a load.

In case electricity 1s available, a small moter is miaas
desirable. This gives steady power.

The cost of a milking machine outfit varies. A double
unit, or one pail with all of its attachments, costs about $125.
The piping and the pump cost in addition about $75. A
person should have at least two double units or three single
units. Such an outfit costs, then, on the averageva litle
more than $300 without power. The price varies some-
what according to the kind of machine installed.

The cost of operation.—With such an outfit, one
operator should be able to milk on the average about 20
cows per hour. If a man is employed to do nothing e!se but
the milking, and if he milks the same length of time as is
required by hand milking, as discussed in a previous para-
graph, he should be able to milk about 50 cows in 2% hours.
If the milker is paid the same as-m the case of hand muilk=
ing, about $60 per month, the cost of milking for labor
per cow per day would be 4 cents, which means that the
cost of the labor has been cut in two. The interest on the
investment and the repairs in case of machine milking also
have to be considered. Counting the interest, repairs, depre-
ciation, washing and disinfectant at $150 a year, the added
cost per cow per day would be about | cent, or a total of
5 cents per cow per day to get the milking done by machine,

METHODS OF MILKING 241

while it costs about 8 cents per cow per day to get it done
by hand.

Breaking cows to milking machine.—The author has ex-
perimented with eleven different types of milking machines
and used them on Ayrshires, Guernseys, Jerseys, Holsteins,
Shorthorns, and grades. In about seven years only one cow
has been found which could not be broken to the milking
machine. She was a grade Hereford. One milking
machine expert stated that in all of his experience he has
never seen a cow like her. It was not the action of the tect
cups that excited her, but the clicking noise of the pulsator
at her side. This annoyed her greatly. She has been in
this herd continuously and she still objects just as seriously
as ever to the use of the milking machine.

All of the other cows in the herd took readily to the
milking machine. Heifers are even more easily broken to
the milking machine than they are to hand milking.

The cows that give
the most milk; 4hat
have square, symmetri-
cal udders held close to

faaep the body, seem to be
best “adapted: to “the
Extraction, milking machine.

It is best not to at-

FIG. 81—Shows cross section of cow’s udder tach the machine at

and illustrates the three proce.ses that must
function together during milking. once. Allow the cow

Be SN

E . < Secretion

to’ get -used to the
clicking noise of the machine. When she gets used to this
a little, then gently rub the cow’s udder and get her to give
down the milk. Then attach the machine. Do not leave
the machine on the cow too long at first. It is better to
leave a little more of the stripping to be done by hand than
would regularly be the case.
Difference in cows for machine milking.—No two cows
milk exactly the same. Even within one breed there is
much difference in the manner in which the cows milk,

242 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

This difference has been noticed by a!l hand milkers. Each
cow must, therefore, be handled and milked differently. If
all of the cows were handled and milked al’ke by machines,
mechanical milking could not be said to be a success, but by
understanding individual cows and adjusting the milkinz
machine in accordance with the characteristics of the cow,
there will be very few cows that cannot be milked success-
fully with a milking machine. The difference in the suita-
bility of cows to be milked mechanically was once broug’t
to the mind of the author very forcibly. A certain person

TIG. 82—These two large producing cows were milked with a mechanical
milker during five consecutive lactation periods.

purchased a milking machine. It was operated only a short
time when its use was discontinued. This same machine
was then purchased second-hand by another man. He was
very successful from the beginning, and continued to be suc-
cessful. In fact, he was so successful with it that he later
purchased an additional unit. Another dairy farmer, who
owned a herd of pure-bred dairy cattle, also purchased a
milking machine. The herdsman used it for a few months
and then quit. This same machine was purchased by an-
other dairy farmer, also owning a herd of pure-bred dairy

METHODS OF MILKING 243

cattle, and he was successful with it. The difference must
lie either in the cows or in the man who operates tie
machine.

There is much difference in the nervous temperament of
cows. Some cows are quiet and appear never to be excited.
They pay little attention to whether they are milked by
hand or whether they are milked by machine. Other cows,
again, are sensitive. This is true if milked by hand or by
machine. A few cows in a herd may at first refuse to give
down their milk completely. However, if the machine is
operated by the regular attendant, and the cow is properly
prepared, then the cows that will not milk well from the
first are few in number. In fact, it may be said that they
are limited to some few that give only a very small amount
of milk and are very nervous.

Machine milking should not ke forced too fast. Allow
the cow a reasonable amount of time to get adjusted to the
new method of milking. Immediately after freshening, or
when cows are first taken from the calf, some cows give
down their milk reluctantly. Excitement of any kind is
likely to cause the cow to hold up the milk, whether milked
-ty hand or by machine. Due consideration should be given
cows in this condition. It is not advisable to start the milk-
ing machine too.soon after freshening. At this time the
milk from one or more of the quarters is likely to be
abnormal.

Cows releasing milk slowly—Some cows give down
their milk very slowly. They may be grouped under three
heads:

First, some cows do not readily give down their milk
when milking begins; while others give down their milk as
soon as the milker approaches them, or as soon as the milk-
ing machinery begins to operate. This rapidity of giving
down the milk may, in some instances, be a habit of the
cow. The writer, however, is led to believe that the manner
of giving down the milk is natural and, therefore. is an
inherited characteristic.

244 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Second, some cows give down their milk very slowly, or
little by little. Usually cows belonging to this class are not
heavy milkers, and such cows do not milk well with milk-
ing machines. This slowness of releasing the milk may be
due to two things. It may be due to simple inability to let
_down the milk readily. The milk ducts may not be suffi-
ciently large to allow the milk to come down rapidly from
the upper part of the udder. This is a natural characteristic
and cannot be changed. Or it may be due to the cow’s will-
fully holding up her milk and releasing it only at intervals
or in jets.

Whether this slow release of milk is voluntary or in-
voluntary, it seriously interferes with the operation of the
milking machine.

Third, there are some cows that readily give down from
one-half. to three-fourths of the milk. The remainder is
released very slowly and is often held up entirely by the
cow when milked by machine. Such cows show a large
percentage of milk in the form of strippings. If such cows
are given time to release the milk fully before the machine
is attached, and the work of the machine is not forced in the
last stage of milking, this form of slow milking can be
perceptibly helped.

Start machine in the early part of the lactation periol.—
Some cows milk well by machine throughout the whole lac-
tation period, while others respond quickly and read ly to
the milking machine only during the first part of the milk-
ing period and during the last part they are irregular. This
is true when milked by hand and true when milked by
machine. ‘The hand milker, however, can adjust the milk-
ing to the cow. He knows exactly when the slowness of
giving down the milk begins. The adjustment of the work-
ing of the milking machine to suit such a cow is not so easy.

Generally speaking, the latter part of the lactation period
is not a good time in which to introduce the milking
machine. Some of the cows are likely to hold up their milk

METHODS OF MILKING 245

often enough and long enough to cause the cow to dry
earlier than she otherwise should.

It is the different kinds of slow-milking milkers that are
likely to cause most of the troubles encountered with milk-
ing machines. Those who have milked by hand know that
about a pint of milk can be drawn from all cows. It is not
necessary to wait for a cow to give down this milk. It is
stored in the milk cistern in the lower parts of the cow’s
udder. A cow has no control over this. The obtaining of
this milk is mechanical. It would be an easy matter to make
a milking machine successful if all of the milk from a cow
were drawn in a similar manner. It would simply be a
matter of extraction of milk from the cow’s udder. In this
respect practically all of the milking machines, at least those
in use in the experiments, have wonderful adaptability.

There are three processes involved during milking which
must function harmoniously together: the secretion, the
release, and the extraction.

When the first part of the milk has been drawn, the hand
milker must wait until the cow releases or gives down her
milk. Then the hand milker proceeds to milk two teats. In
a short time there is no more milk. The hand milker then
changes the operation to the other two tests. When there
is no more milk in these, he returns to the first two, and so
on until the cow is dry.

The milking machine is unable to do this changing from
one-half to the other half of the udder, and to stop milking
and wait for more milk. The milking operation is continu-
ous. The machine is not conscious of the time when the
milk supply runs low. Unless the milk has been released
by the cow, it is not in the lower part of the udder to be
drawn by the milking machine.

If no milk is released by the cow, the suction and
pulsation of the machine are applied to the internal udder
tissue of the cow instead of to the milk. When this happens
there is much danger of the cow’s willfully holding back,
and she does not give down or release her milk normally.

246 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The internal part of the cow’s udder at this stage of milking
is to some extent sensitive to this action of the muiuiking
machine. Some cows show signs of opposition and even
discomfort by drawing up the stomach. When such a con-
dition is reached, the milking machine and cow are working
at cross purposes and not harmoniously. The cow holds up
her milk and the machine continues to draw. This condi-
tion the operator should seek to avoid if he expects the
milking machine to work successfully.

There is a difference between the action of the milking
machine on cows that are holding up their milk, on cows
that are entirely dry, and on cows that are partially milked.

Holding up of the milk and letting down only a small
amount of it at a time interfere with the proper working of
the milking machine. The applied vacuum from the ma-
chine is constant. As soon as the cow begins to release, the
vacuum extends on up into the milk ducts and draws the
mill quicker than it can be released. This the cow cannot
stand, and when it occurs she immediately shuts off the milk
supply to prevent the vacuum from going further into the
milk ducts.

The cow that is entirely milked dry has closed all of the
avenues leading to the mammary gland. These are closed
continuously and there is no chance for the vacuum to act
on any other parts of the udder than on the inside of the
teat and milk cistern. With the amount of vacuum gener-
ally used (15 inches), few cows object to this.

At times one portion of a cow’s udder is milked out
quicker than the rest. It often happens that a cow has small
front quarters. They contain less milk and are, therefore,
milked out the quickest. This rapidity of milking the less
capacious quarters of the udder is increased by the weight
of the teat cups being largely on the quarter held up the
highest. The cow may be giving down her milk rapidly
and completely, and the milking machine doing good work
until the front quarters are empty. When this happens,
then the vacuum begins to extend up into the teats and

METHODS OF MILKING 247

even into the gland proper. The cow objects to this. She
immediately shuts off the passage ways. The cow cannot
shut off one or two quarters and release the others. As a
consequence a portion of the cow’s udder is milked out
entirely dry and the other portion is not. It is up to the
operator to see that such cows are properly stripped out.

Symmetrical and well-shaped udders important.—The
milking machines have a very wide range of adaptability for
milking cows having unevenly shaped udders and teats of
different sizes. However, if the udders of a few cows in
the herd are abnormal, the required adjustments will .
probably be so numerous that machine milking will be more
or less discouraging. Some herds contain cows whose hind
udders hang low and the front udders high, or vice versa.
The portion of the udder that hangs high carries the great-
est part of the weight of the teat cups. As has been pre-
viously mentioned, weight applied to the teat cups causes
the cow to milk out quicker. This means that one portion
of the udder will milk out quicker than the other. At times
such uneven milking may cause the teat cups to fall off.
The skin of the empty part of the udder may fold. Air
may be let in and in this way the cups may be released. It
is evident that the length of the rubber tubes could be
adjusted so that the weight on the four unevenly placed
teats would be the same, but this would mean a change of
tubes and cups every time such a cow is milked.

There are also cows having teats of uneven size and
shape, and teats of poor quality for a milking machine.
While it is true that there are very few cows having such
abnormally shaped teats that the machine cannot milk them,
with the aid of the right sort of an operator, it is also true
that cows having well-shaped and medium-sized teats are
easier to milk by machine and the teat cups are much easier
to attach properly.

When teats are of proper size and shape, the milking
machine gets a stronger and better hold, and there is less
danger of having sore teats.

248 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Occasionally the teats on machine-milked cows become
hard, red, feverish, and a trifle swollen at the end. This
soreness probably is due to a congestion of the blood caused
by the steady suction. The soreness usually gradually dis-
appears and will do so without necessitating the removal of
the milking machine. It is possible that the quality of the
teat may be a partial cause of this trouble. Some teats are
soft and of very fine texture, while others are coarser in
the make-up and are able to stand the constant wear of the
milking machines.

In the average herd, there is only a small percentage of
cows with such undesirable udders and teats. The p:udent
milking machine operator will cull such cows from the herd
as soon as he can consistently do so. Such cows usually are
not desirable to perpetuate in the herd anyhow.

From a commercial standpoint, the success of a milking
machine is judged not so much by the large number of cows
that milk well with it, as the small number of cows in the
herd which cause the difficulties. If three or four cows in
a certain herd appear to give a full flow of milk at one milk-
ing and a small flow at another, or if the teat cups fall off
from one or more of the cows, or if one or more of the
cows have caked udders, or if some of the teats are hard and
sore at the end, or if the cows go dry three or four months
previous to freshening, the milking machine is likely to be
blamed.

Select and breed right cows.—If the milking machine is
going to be a potent and stable factor in dairy farmirg in
the future, dairy farmers must make an effort to select and
breed cows that readily give down the milk, that have
square, symmetrical udders held up close to the body, and
that have teats of proper size and shape.

No heifers should be raised from cows that have un-
desirable udders.

The most important point in this connection is to use great
care in selecting the herd bull. The wise dairyman will
select a bull that comes from large producing ancestors, that

METHODS OF MILKING 249

is pure of blood, and of good type. In addition, the female
ancestors should have had well-shaped mammary organs
and should have milked well. The male ancestors should be
known to have daughters having milking characteristics
that are suitable for mechanical milking. A tried sire,
known to put good mammary organs on his daughters, is a
good acquisition in a herd.

By thus applying care in this selection and breeding in the
herd, in a short time none of the cows will be left that cause
the chief difficulties in the successful operation of the
milking machine.

Operator should understand principles and manner of
milk elaboration.—The operator of a milking machine co-
ordinates the machine and the cow. In order to do this, he
should thoroughly understand the milking machine and each
cow in the herd. Does she milk easily or with difficulty?
Does she give her milk down only after an interval, or
immediately after the milking machine is attached? Does
she give down milk slowly, or quickly? Does she milk out
well, or is there much stripping to be done? These are
some of the things the operator must understand. He
should have a complete conception of the manner in which
the milk comes from each of the cows in the herd.

When a cow is being milked, three processes occur: The
first is the secretion of the milk. This occurs within the
mammary gland. It is in progress all the time. It is a
natural function and an involuntary act. It cannot be con-
trolled by the cow nor by the milking machine operator.
This secretion of milk is closely connected with the nervous
system of the cow. Through the nervous system, both the
cow and the machine operator may affect, though not con-
trol, the secretion of milk. Probably an occasional or tem-
porary excitement of the cow will not affect the milk
secretion or work of the machine, but should this provoca-
tion continue, the production of the cow and the success of
the milking machine would, without doubt, be hindered.

The second process is the release of the milk. This is a

250 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

very important part for the user of the milking machine to
understand. The flow of the milk from the upper part of
the udder to the lower part is controlled by the cow. The
manufacture or secretion of the milk organs in the mam-
mary gland occurs chiefly in the upper part of the cow’s
udder. The cistern or the milk reservoir is in the lower
part of the cow’s udder, or just above the teats. These
extreme lower and upper parts of the cow’s udder are con-
nected by means of a complex system of tubes and vacuoles.
These serve to conduct and store the milk within the cow’s
udder. These milk ducts branch and rebranch. The open-
ing and closing of these tubes or ducts are controlled by
most cows.

If the milking machine in any way produces discomfort
to the cow, she is likely to hold up her milk. A cow having
a very distended udder, or giving a large flow of milk, is
not likely to do this, but 1f the discomfort of the machine is
greater to the cow than the discomfort of retaining the milk,
then the cow is likely to hold up her milk entirely or to give
the milk little by little. This will either cause much strip-
ping by hand, or if the stripping is not done, it will tend te
dry up the cow early and may even cause diseased udders.

The third process is the extraction of the milk from the
cow. Aside from the small amount of milk (about one pint)
stored in the milk cistern, the machine cannot extract the
remainder of the milk without the aid of the cow. Some
have used the milking machine as though milking was only
a question of extraction. If this were the only point to
consider, the milking machine would be almost perfect. The
use of milking machines has in a measure given the public
the impression that extraction of the milk is all there is to
a successful operation of a mechanical milker. The rane
of mechanical adaptability of the milking machines for ex-
traction of milk from different cows is certainly great.
Nevertheless, the cow is a living individual, and the milking
machine cannot be attached and the milk drawn out as
though she were some inanimate object.

METHODS OF MILKING 255

In the beginning of the lactation period all cows are more
nearly alike than at other times. The further the cows
advance in the milking period, the greater the difficulties as
to the manner of milking will be. It is especially with cows
far advanced in the lactation period that the milking ma-
chine operator must learn to make the milking machine do
good work throughout the year, and one year after the
other. |

Fit milking machine to cow.—The milking machine
operator must not be in too big a hurry to attach the milking
machine. Some cows give down the milk immediately, but
others do not. Some cows will give down their milk as
soon as the milking machinery begins to move. Others
give down their milk as soon as the milk pail is at their side,
and with still others the operator must coax by massaging
and gently working with the udder.

The operator should slightly moisten the teats and bring
them into normal condition. On cold, wet days, the teats
will be wrinkled and
short. Beforé the
cups are attached, the
teais*, Shon a) * pe
brought into normal
shape. The operator
should see that the
teat cups get a proper
grip on the teats.

Cows should be
made to give down
milk before machine
is attached. — The

| n operator can easily

ee eens tell when ‘a cow has

into normal shape. given down the milk.

The teats and lower part of the udder will become warm

and the teats fill full. Take time and prepare the cow
properly before the machine is attached.

252 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The operator should see that the teat cups properly fit the
cow. Some of the machines have the universal teat cup.
It has a wide range of adaptability. Other machines have
different sized cups to fit cows having teats of different
sizes. The milking machine operator should also understand
how to regulate the
pulsation to suit the
individual cow. The
rate of speed of the
pulsator varies with
the “di fterent ma-
chines, _ “Hy em the
length of the suction
and the length of re-
lease in the pulsator
varies. = Pchjes € ithe
operator should un-

derstand how to ad- J ka

1 = FIG. 84—Showing condition of teats of the
just so as to make the same cow, Fig. 83, when ready to have teat

machine do more effi- cups attached.

cient work without discomfort to the cow. A short, rapid
pulsation is not suitable for a cow with long teats that is a
hard milker. On the other hand, a long, slow pulsation is
not conducive to rapid milking if the cow has short teats
and is an easy milker. No rules can be laid down for this.
The operator must use his own judgment.

Milking machine surroundings should not be too cold.
On farms where dairying is made a specialty, conditions
are usually favorable for obtaining good results with the
milking machine. The milking machine may be operated in
any kind of a barn or shed, but in cold weather open and
cold barns may cause so many little troubles that the person
is likely to become discouraged with the work of the milking
machine. Under such conditions, also, the cows sometimes
shrink and are reluctant to let down their milk. The
pulsator does not work well in frosty surroundings. The

METHODS OF MILKING 253

moisture in the connectors and in the vacuum pipes freezes.
The moist rubber tubes and teat cups may become icy when
removed from the disinfectant solution and also after
rinsing in water. The disinfectant solution is also likely
to freeze. This latter, at least in part, may be prevented by
adding salt to form a brine. A reasonably warm barn is
one of the prerequisites for the most successful and agree-
able use of the milking machine.

It is also a great advantage to have heating facilities for
conveniently obtaining hot water for cleaning the parts of
the milking machine, and even steam for sterilizing and
cleaning the pails. A five horse power submerged flue
upright boiler in the wash room near the milk room is a
very handy and valuable adjunct to the dairy. If the
machine and the different parts have to be taken to the
house each time to be cleaned and sterilized, it makes
considerable bother.

Keep milking machine sanitary.—The sanitary aspect
cannot be neglected in any phase of the dairy business.
Milk decomposes readily. Any portion not removed from
the rubber tubes, cups, and other parts of the milking
machine, and allowed to remain in them for any length of
time, is sure to bring about insanitary conditions.

The milking machine is very efficient in excluding all
kinds of visible dirt. The sediment from the udder, sides
of the cow, and barn surroundings, at times seen in hand-
drawn milk, has no chance to gain access to milk drawn by
the milking machine. However, special care needs to be
used in order to keep strictly sanitary the teat cups, tubing,
and pails. If this is not done, the bacterial content of the
milk will run very high.

That these different parts of the milking machine are a
constant source of germs is clearly seen from the following
figures: The average number of germs per cubic centimeter
in the milk drawn from the first cow milked with the ma-
chine, although kept sanitary, was 5325. The average
number of germs in a cubic centimeter of milk from the

254 LARSEN’S FARM DAiRYING

second cow, drawn by the same maciine, was 3017, and
from the third cow, milked by the same machine, the
number per cubic centimeter was 3012.

The different parts of the machine were kept in a sani-
tary condition; otherwise the germ content would have run
extremely high with the first cow. The pail, rubber tub:s,
and all cups were thoroughly cleaned and scalded. Th2
tubing and cups were kept in a disinfectant solution between
milkings. The milk pail, after being cleaned, rinsed, and
steamed, was kept in the milk room in an inverted position
on a shelf between milkings.

The above data shows that even though great care is
taken, the tubing and pails are a source of germs in the
milk. Where certified milk is desired, the pail should be
thoroughly steamed just previous to milking.

A practical way of keeping a milking machine sanitary is
to rinse it thoroughly after milking is completed, before the
milk dries on to the different parts. This is accomplished
by having a vacuum connection in the wash room, and then
attaching the machine to the vacuum pipe. Then insert the
teat cups in the rinse water and slowly raise them up and
down. This causes the rinse water to gush back and forth
and wash off the remainder of the milk. Then take the
machine apart, and with special brushes these parts are
cleaned in lukewarm water containing some washing pow-
der. Then rinse these different parts in clean water and
transfer them into the disinfectant solution.

There are several disinfectants from which such a solu-
tion may be made up. The author has experimented with
a large number of them and has come to the conclusion
that for cheapness, simplicity, and effectiveness, all con-
sidered, there is nothing better than ordinary lime. It
excels as a deodorizer. It freshens and sweetens the differ-
ent parts of the milking machine. The ordinary limate
purchased in paper sacks has proven handy and efficient.
With this it is easy to make up a uniform and fresh solu-
tion. A new solution should be made up not less than

METHODS OF MILKING 255

once each week. In the summer time it should be made up
twice each week. A two percent solution by weight is suit-
able. A solution stronger than this does no harm. Do not
put any of the milking machine parts into this dis:nfecta~t
until they have been thoroughly freed from all milk
particles and other organic matter.

The pail and other parts of the milking machine should
be washed and steamed out, and kept as is recommended
for other forms of milking utensils.

The vacuum pipes should also be carefully looked after.
These should be washed out as often as is necessary; usu-
ally once a month is sufficient. If the milker allows the
pail to get too full of milk, some of the milk and foam will
be drawn into the pipes. Then the cleaning should be done
frequently. Considerable moisture, however, evaporates
from the milk and condenses in the vacuum pipes. In addi-
tion, dust and foreign substances will accumulate. This
will cause foulness in the vacuum pipes, even though no
milk gained access to them. Wash out the vacuum pipes at
least once a month. Where no vacuum pipes are employed,
the pump should be kept strictly sanitary.

Watch closely for abnormal milk.—In connection with
obtaining sanitary milk from a mechanical milker. the
operator should carefully watch that none of the cows pro-
duce abnormal milk. There are times when a cow’s udder
will give milk that is not normal and sanitary. If care is
not exercised, such milk will gain entrance to the pail. If
a cow’s udder is gargety and swollen, take no chances; milk
the cow by hand. The appearance of stringy, lumpy,
colored, abnormal milk cannot be blamed to the milking
machine. Such abnormalities are likely to occur with the
individual cows, whether milked by hand or machine. It is
the duty of the operator to be on the watch for difficulties
of this kind.

Kinds of Milking Machines

There are now many different types of milking machines
manufactured, and on the market. Only the chief ones, the

256 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

ones with which the author has had considerable experience,
and the ones manufactured and sold in the United States,
will be considered in this connection.

Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy milker (B. L. K.).—The
B. L. K. milker operates from a vacuum pipe line—usually
installed on the stanchion frame. The vacuum is supplied
by a two-cylinder vertical pump driven from a counter
shaft. Two gages are used to indicate the amount of suc-
tion. These are located at convenient places for reading
and at some distance apart on the vacuum pipe line. One
gage is of the mercury column type. The other ome usea
dial indicator. A vacuum of about 15 inches is used. The
uniformity of the vacuum is regulated by a weighted valve.
This valve can be set so that the vacuum does not go above
the regulated amount. Connection cocks to the pipe line
are fastened between each pair of cows. The pipe line is
installed so that it has a drop of 50 inches in 50 linear feet.
A drain cock is put in on the lowest point to allow drainage
of moisture collecting in the pipes.

The milker proper consists of a 28-quart pail of non-
corrosive material. The pail has a partition in the center so
that the milk from the two
cows milked into the same
pail may be kept separate.
The pail cover contains the
pulsating device and trap
valve. The vacuum is trans-
mitted from the stanchion
cock through a %-inch heavy
rubber tube to the trap valve.
This latter prevents any sub-
stance from: the pipe: line
entering the pail. The pul-
sating device controls the
gcen of the suction upon the FIG. 85 — Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy
cow's udder. It is ‘so. ar- milking machine.

METHODS OF MILKING 257

tanged that the suction is applied intermittently. The
speed of pulsation is controlled by a thumb screw, which
governs the amount of vacuum entering the pulsating
mechanism. The speed of this pulsator that is most efficient
for milking the average cow is about sixty times per minute.
The moving parts are enclosed in a metal dome and are thus
protected from accidental injury. A single rubber tube,
with a cluster of four teat cups at one end, leads from the
pail to the cow.

The teat cups are of the single compartment metal type,
with a rubber disc mouthpiece, which serves to hold the
cup in place and forms a close, yet not a binding connection
with the teat. Several sizes of teat cups are furnished with
the machine to fit different cows.

The air that enters the milk tube to relieve the suction is
filtered through absorbent cotton.

The Calfway milker.—This machine operates with
vacuum in a manner similar to the machines described
above. A rotary pump is used instead of the vertical pump.
This machine is operated with about 17 inches of vacuum.
The vacuum pipe is also
supplied with a safety
valve and a vacuum dial
indicator.

The pulsator is lo-
cated on the top of the
pail cover. The average
speed of the pulsator
fore this: “machme 1s
about 65 pulsations per
maimiites,.. Uhis scat be
regulated to suit the
cow. The teat cup is
made of rubber. : The
outer wall of the teat

Ss aes ss cup is rigid on one side
FIG. 86—The Calfway milking machine. 4y flexible on the

258 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

opposite. The inner wall, or sleeve, is a continuation of the
outer. It is made of thinner material and is flexible
throughout. The inner part of the teat cup, or sleeve, is
open at the lower end to admit the passage of the milk.
When suction is applied to the cups, the flexible side of the
outer wall bends in and exerts a slight squeeze on the side
of the teat. This is known as the collapsible teat cup.
Several sizes of teat cups are manufactured to fit different
cows. This machine is not now placed on the market.

The Empire milking machine—This milking machine
operates from a vacuum pipe line in a manner similar to the
two machines described above. The pipe line is supplied
with a safety valve and a dial vacuum indicator. This
machine is operated with about 15 inches of vacuum. Two
cows are milked into one machine at one time.

The Empire mechanical milker has the Universal teat
cup—one size cup for all cows. This teat cup has two walls.
The outer wall is made
of rigid metal. The in-
ner wall is made of thin,
flexible rubber. The
space between the two
walls is air-tight, and is
connected to the pul-
sator by a separate tube.
When the cup is placed
on the teat and the suc-
tion turned on, the rub-
ber sleeve, or inner wall,
collapses. This practi-
cally shuts off the suc-
tion on the side of the
teat. By the mechanical
action of the pulsator —_——z :
the suction is released FIG. 87—The Empire milking machine.
on the teat and applied to the space between the wails. The
shifting of the vacuum in this manner continues, due to te

METHODS OF MILKING 259

action of the pulsator. About 50 pulsations per minute is
the most efficient speed. This varies some, according to the
ease with which the cow milks.

The Perfection milker—Vacuum is supplied to this
machine in a similar manner as described above. About 15
inches of vacuum is applied. This machine milks two cows
into one machine at a time.

This machine uses the Universal teat cup, or the same
size cup for all cows. The teat cups are of the double wall
type. The inner wall is
made of thin’ rubber,
and the outer wall is
made. ef ‘metal ~The
space between these two
walls is air-tight, except
the tube inlets. Two
rubber tubes lead from
the vacuum pipe to th:
milker. One conveys
the suction to the teat
and returns the milk to
: tie pail. They “orher
FIG: 8C—The [Pecrfection milking machinc. conveys the suction to
the space between the outer and inner walls of the teat cup.
When suction is applied to the teat, or center of the cup, the
inner wall, or rubber, inflates inwardly. When the suction
is applied to the space between the walls, the rubber inflates
in the opposite direction and releases the teat. This
alternate action is controlled by the pulsator. The force of
the suction and the length of the squeeze stroke may be
regulated independently by a set of needle valves; that is,
there is a dual control—one of the suction and one of the
release.

The Sharples milker.—This mechanical milker employs
a double system of pipes. A vacuum pipe carries a s*milar
amount of vacuum as described with the above machines,

260 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

15 inches, and also an air pressure pipe. The amount of
air carried in the pressure pipe is seven pounds.

The pulsator is located on the pipe line. It is a horizontal
tilting cylinder. It is detachable and independent of any of
the other parts of the milk- |
ing machine. This pul-
sator also has a dual con-
tro the tenet or whe
release and suction is not
nme © es sa ti by-ine ‘same:
Fifty-five pulsations per
minute is the most satis-
factory speed with the
average cow. With a cow
that milks easily, the suc-
tion and release should be
om, equal duration. ~ With
a hard milker, the force of |
the suction should be ap= FIG. 89—The Sharples milking
plied longer than the time me
of release. The Sharples has the Universal teat cio. tas
of similar structure as
are the other Universal
cups. The inner wall
consists of rubber and
the outer is made or
metal. This machine is
of the single unit type;
that is, only one cow is
milked into one pail at
a time.

The Waterloo Boy
milker.—Only one pipe
line is used with this
machine. About 15
— inches of vacuum is car-
FIG. 90—The Waterloo Boy milking 3 : .

ried. © The ~stctionaas

machine.

METHODS OF MILKING 261

applied directly to the teat in regular intermittent strokes—
similar to the Empire and B. L. K. The speed of pulsation
is about 55 strokes per minute and may be regulated by a
thumb screw. There is no dual control of the pulsator.
The suction and release are of equal duration.

The teat cups are of the single compartment type, fitted
with a rubber disc mouthpiece for retaining the cups in
place. Various sizes of cups are used. Cups made of glass
are manufactured for this machine.

The Hinman milker.—This machine operates with direct
intermittent suction. The suction is obtained directly from .
a small independent pump near the cows. There is no
vacuum pipe line in connection with this machine. Each
machine in operation is independent of every other machine.
The small pumps are so made
that 15 inches of vacuum are
applied to the teat at every
stroke. By opening the pit
cocks in the pump, this vacuum
may be lowered to about 12
inches. The speed of pulsation
is determined for all machines
by the speed of the driving
shaft. This speed is constant
and is from 45 to 50 strokes per
minute. When the suction is
lowered by the back stroke of
the pump, the weight’ of the
ee Phomen milking — milk opens the #favity valve and

allows the milk to drop into the
pail. The valve chamber is situated in the pail cover. There
is no vacuum in the pail. On this account, and on account
of only one cow being milked into one machine, the pails
are much lighter.

The teat cups are of the single compartment, cone-shaped
type, with a retaining rubber disc mouthpiece. Various
sized cups are manufactured to fit teats of different cows.

262 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

The Disbrow milker—This machine works without a
vacuum pipe line—similar to the Hinman. Practically the

only difference is that
this machine milks only
‘wo, teats ata time. “It
has. 2 double sactine
pump. The milk is first
drawn from two quarters
of the cow and then from
the other two quarters,
and continues to alter-
nate in this manner till
the cow is milked.

The Mehring milker.

—This particular ma-
chine is operated by foot
power. It is intended for
use in small herds only.
The pumping device and

FIG. 93—-The Universal milking machine.

FIG. 92—The Di:brow miiking machine.

attachments are all con-
tained within one unit,
which is carried from
one pair of cows to the
other. It milks two
cows at a time awd
milks directly into a pail
hung on the pump. The
amount of vacuum may
be varied according to
the rapidity with which
the operator works it.
The Universal milk-
er.—This is one of the
latest milking machines.
It is operated by vacuum
similarly as the other
pipe line machines, and

METHODS OF MILKING 253

about the same amount of vacuum is used, viz., 15 inches.
This machine alternates the suction from two quarters to
the other two. The milk is drawn from two teats at a
time. The attachment of the cups determines which two
teats are milked together at a time. The release is simi-
larly alternated.

CHAPTER XIII
HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK FOR

DIRECT HUMAN FOOD

Composition of normal milk.—The average composition
of cows’ milk is as follows:

Wiaibe fii geer ash tes fe ee Le ee 87.2 percent
Leif: Sea Gee Rte ety Ae ae, cae sae BO Soe as ati 3.8 e
Proteids -> 3.5: percent
Gaseitiecs a2 cena Rik Lea tee oe 3.0 a
AB UN RAG? se Sa ask ee Se 0.5 i
MSIE Steir cs Se ee eee eee 4.8 oe
SID) eee RO Bac Pe ek a ee 0.7 *
i GC’ 3 AEN a Weg ante Sees ee, FT TENE 100 i:

The composition of cows’ milk varies. Two factors that
cause variation are the breed of the cow and the individu-

ality of the cow. These have been discussed in chapters
III and IV.

A third factor is the length of time between milkings.
The more nearly the time is equalized, the more uniform
will be the quality of the milk. Intervals between milkings
are not always of the same length. After the long intervals
the cows give milk containing a smaller percentage of fat
than after short intervals. The distention of the cow’s
udder, due to the large amount of milk, has a retarding in-
fluence on the activity of the fat-secreting cells. It is also
possible that when this distention reaches a certain point
there is a reabsorption of the milk by the blood. Even if
the intervals between milkings were exactly the same, the
milk from the morning milking will usually contain a
slightly smaller percentage of fat than that from the eve-
ning milking. It appears that the greater activity in the

264

HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK 265

fresh air and sunshine of the cow during the day has some
influence on making the milk a trifle richer.

Fourth, the manner of milking affects the richness. It is
a well-known fact that the milk drawn at the different milk-
ing stages does not have the same composition. The very
first milk contains less than one percent of butter fat. The
very last milk may contain 10 and even 12 percent of butter
fat. The milk ranges between these two extremes in com-
position. It can, therefore, readily be seen that the milker
who can milk so as to obtain all of the strippings will get
richer milk from the same cow than will one who either .
neglects to milk the cow properly or who causes such dis-
comfort to the cow that she does not give down the milk
completely.

The Hegelund method of milking consists of gently lift-
ing and massaging each quarter of the cow’s udder in the
latter stage of the milking process. The University of Wis-
consin conducted some experiments and found that the
quantity of fat was increased by 9.2 percent, and the amount
of milk was increased by 4.5 percent.

‘With the average cow, the author does not believe it will
pay to strip the cow too long, nor will it pay with average
cows and under average conditions to manipulate the cow’s
udder according to the Hegelund method, in order to obtain
this rather small increment in milk and butter fat. An
experienced milker is able to get all of the milk by the
ordinary process of milking. Some cows, however, require
that the udder be manipulated in the latter stage of milking
in order to obtain all of the milk.

Fifth, the environment may affect the richness of the
milk. Generally speaking, any unfavorable environment
which will cause the cow to give a smaller flow of milk will
usually cause the milk to be a trifle richer than usual. If
these unfavorable conditions continue for any length of
time, then the percentage of fat will go down to normal. It
should be stated, however, that such occasional unfavorable
surroundings do not cause the richness of the milk to in-

266 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

crease to such a proportion as to make up for the decrease
in the milk flow. Cows exposed to a cold day, for instance,
will lessen the flow of milk considerably, but the percentage
of fat is usually increased a trifle. If the unfavorable
environment continues, then the percent of fat will soon
become normal.

Sixth, the condition of the cow is another factor that
affects the richness of milk. A cow freshening in a fat con-
dition nearly always gives richer milk shortly after freshen-
ing than the same cow would if she was in poor condition or
lacking in body flesh. When the surplus body fat has been
milked off, the milk becomes normal in richness.

So far as known now, no kind of normal food will cause
the milk to increase in richness, if the cow has once reached
the normal and natural condition. This is contrary to the
general belief. Many practical farmers hold the idea that
if a cow is well fed she will give richer milk than if she is
poorly fed. A cow well fed will give a greater amount of
butter fat than will one that is poorly fed. One must be
careful to distinguish between percent of fat and amount of
fat. A cow well fed will give a larger flow of milk of
normal richness and therefore a larger amount of fat.

Seventh, the stage of the lactation period affects the rich-
ness of the milk. When a cow has given milk about two
months, her milk is normal in respect to richness. If
properly and normally fed, she will give a uniform flow for
another two or three months. If she is then in calf, the
flow of milk will gradually decrease until her resting period.
This latter begins about six weeks before freshening. With
this gradual decrease in the amount of milk there is a small
and gradual increase in the percentage of butter fat in the
milk. A cow giving milk testing normally 31% percent
butter fat will produce milk that tests four percent butter
fat and even a little more towards the latter part of her
milking period.

Bacteria in milk—No matter how much care is exer-
cised in the production of the milk, some germs will gain

HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK 267

access to it. The fore milk, or the first milk drawn, con-
tains some bacteria while it is still in the cow’s udder. They
enter through the opening of the teat. These bacteria find
ideal conditions for multiplying. The temperature is suit-
able, there is plenty of feed and plenty of moisture. When
certified milk is produced, this fore milk is drawn into a
separate container and is not mixed with the remainder of
the milk. By this method the bacterial count of the milk is
materially reduced. Certified milk must not contain over
10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.

The remainder of the milk from a healthy cow’s udder
contains practically no germs. This milk, however, cannot
be exposed to the air and handled in utensils under practical
conditions without a large number of germs getting into it.

It may be said that if these germs are of the harmless
kind their presence in the milk makes very little difference,
since germs are present everywhere anyhow and we con-
sume them by the thousands in practically all other foods.
From the standpoint of affecting a grown person’s health,
the presence of non-pathogenic germs in the milk is not of
‘ great importance.

The presence of bacteria in the milk will, however, at the
proper temperature cause the characteristics of the milk to
be changed. At temperatures between 60 and 90 degrees
bacteria multiply very rapidly in milk. They feed upon the
sugar of milk and change it into lactic acid chiefly. This
causes the milk to sour and coagulate. Some species of
bacteria feed upon the protein of the milk and produce un-
desirable taints and gases. Other species attack the butter
fat and produce rancidity. These things the different
species of bacteria accomplish in milk if they have both
time and suitable temperature.

Such fermentation in milk may be checked, first, by ex-
cluding as many bacteria as possible from entering the milk
by strictly sanitary methods; secondly, by heating the milk
to a temperature of 140 to 185 degrees; and thirdly, by
cooling milk below 50 degrees. Cooling the mi!k does not

268 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

kill bacteria. It merely renders them inactive. The method
of handling the milk after it has been drawn will depend on
how it is to be marketed. In the eastern part of the United
States, and near the large cities, the milk produced is gener-
ally sold to serve as a direct food for people. In the central
West and Northwest the milk produced is chiefly used for
the manufacture of butter, cheese, condensed milk and
powdered milk. The by-products are fed chiefly to calves
and pigs.
The following outline illustrates the various common uses
to which whole milk is put.
I. Handling and marketing milk for direct human food.
1. Wholesale in bulk.
2. Delivered and retailed direct to consumer.
3. Used in home.
Il. Making butter on the farm.
1. Skimming cream of medium thickness.
2. Keeping separator in good condition.
3. Churning fresh cream. |
4. Washing the butter.
3. Salting the butter.
6. Working the butter.
7. Packing and marketing butter.
8. Difficult churning.
Hil. Selling the cream to be made into Duiter gag ae
eey.
1. Local creamery.
2. Cream buying station.
3. Direct shipping to central plant.
IV. Making cheese on the farm.
. Coagulating with rennet.
» Cutting the. cugd.
. Heating the curd.
. Preparing cheese for press.
. Pressing the cheese.
. Curing cheese.
anner of disposal affects income.

ile ha ae are ote

NG

HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK 269

Direct Consumption

Cooling and aerating the milk—No matter for what
purpose the milk is produced, it should be clean and whole-

Sea peeaine ee TIP
om Retrigerater 2 4

y as ee a ee,
\ ce ka
4 mame
Ay (EIB,
Nei: ; ZZ iN
ik : gy. Y
Af 8) | Ae
al \ Uj, S|

FIG. 94—Official square cooling tank.
(Neb. Sta. circular No. 3.)

ii : C My i YU NYUA

some in every respect. When the milk Y Y
is for direct use, whether for the home,
or for the retailer, or for the customers
direct, the milk should be cooled and (4. H Prangten, my.

\\
vm

FIG. 95—An _ elevator
and cooling well.

‘ . Exp.
aerated at once after it has been milked.

The sooner it is cooled after milking, the better, and the
lower the temperature to which it is cooled without freezing,
the better. The animal heat should not be permitted to re-
main in the milk any length of time. A piece of meat which
has been covered and has not had the animal heat taken out
shortly after the butchering will have an objectionable
flavor. A can of milk covered and left warm will have a
smothered flavor, to which most milk consumers object.
It is important that the milk should be cooled to below 50
degrees. On the average dairy farm, water alone will not

Z70 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

cool milk lower than to about this temperature. When ice
or mechanical refrigeration is obtainable, the milk should

FIG. 96—The manufacture of sanitary ice in cans. This method is useful
on'y in a cold winter climate. (So. Dak. Sta.)

be cooled to 40 degrees. When the milk is to be so!d for

direct use, it should be cooled by running over a cooler and

aerator. Special cooling apparatuses are now on the market.

FIG. 97—A covered ice pit. It is an inexpensive way of keeping
ice on the farm.

The ice-cold water or brine circulates on the inside of the
cooler and the milk flows over the cold surface of the cooler
in a thin sheet. The cooling and aerating should be done in

HANDLING AND MARKETING MILK 2/1

a pure and well-ventilated atmosphere. If these processes
are properly done, many of the taints, if any are in the
ee milk, will be elim-
inated and _ the
temperature low-
ered’. toy such san
CSve mt as £0
check the growth
of the bacteria;
and if the milk is
cooled to a tem-
perature as low
as 40 degrees the
growth of all
germs is practi-
cally stopped.

Tf the amount
of milk produced
is small, and the
farmer does not
have facilities for
such a method of

FIG. 98—A method of cooling and aerating milk. ;
(U. S. Dairy Division.) cooling, the cans

of milk may be placed in cold water as soon as possible after
milking. A stream of cold water should be pumped through
the tank and the milk cooled thoroughly. The milk should
be kept at this low temperature until it reaches its
destination.

This keeping of milk in cold water should be practiced in
winter as well as in the summer. During the winter, the
cans of. milk should be submerged in the water to such an
extent that the level of the water in the cooling tank is above
the level of the milk inside of the can. This will prevent
the milk from freezing.

When the dairyman is ready to deliver the milk in the
summer he should cover the outside of the can with a wet

PAD LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

blanket and leave it in that condition while en route. If the
cans of milk are to be shipped by train, special can covers
are now obtainable which tend to keep the milk from being
warmed too rapidly. In the winter time a dry blanket
should be put around the can while en route to prevent the
milk from freezing.

FIG. 99—After returning from the milk route on a cold morning.

Milk produced, handled, and kept in this manner will be
in good condition for home use, for delivering to the re-
tailer, and for being bottled and delivered directly to the
consumer.

If the milk is to be manufactured into factory cheese, in‘o
condensed milk, or into powdered milk, without beinz
skimmed or modified in any way, then the above discussion
of handling milk also applies.

CHAPTER XLV:

HANDLING MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED
INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS ON THE FARM

Making Butter on the Farm

Skim cream of medium richness.—l{ the milk is to be
manufactured into butter, the milk cannot be handled in the
same manner as where it is intended for direct use. There
is a tendency at the present time to not manufacture the
milk into any dairy products on the farm, and an increased
tendency towards selling the milk or the cream in the
unchanged form.

However, there is still much farm butter manufactured,
and it is highly important that this butter should be of the
‘very best quality.

When the milk is to be made into butter, it should be
skimmed at once after milking, while the milk is still warm.
Trom the standpoint of the flavor of butter, richness of
cream is not an important factor. From the standpoint of
vorkmanship of butter, it is of considerable importance.
Cream may be so rich and so thick and viscous that it will
not agitate in the churn without warming to such a tempera-
ture that the churned butter will be too soft, and thus con-
tain too much of the buttermilk constituents. Too thin
cream should also be discouraged. When very thin, the
butter will not gather on churning. If it does not gather,
there is likely to be a big loss of butter fat in the butter.
The butter granules will “break” in small shot-like forms.

During the summer, cream should contain from 35 to 40
percent of butter fat. During the winter, the proper rich-
ness is between 30 and 35 percent of butter fat.

Practically every cream separator has a device on the

273

274 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

bowl which serves as a regulator of the richness and which
influences the relative amount of cream and skim milk
discharged from the separator. In most cases this device
takes the form of a cream screw. Turning it towards the
center of the separator bowl will make the cream richer.
Turning it away from the center will make the cream less

FIG. 100—Shows butter lost in skim milk from one cow by different methods
of skimming. (Purdue Exp. Sta.)

rich.. In a few machines this device takes the form of 4
skim milk screw. The method of regulating the richness
of cream then works just in the opposite direction. When
richer cream is desired, then the milk screw is turned so as
to bring the skim milk outlet nearer to the surface of the
bowl. If thinner and therefore relatively more cream is
wanted, then the screw is turned in, or nearer the center of
the bowl.

The amount of whole milk which runs through the
separator affects the richness and relative amount of cream
and skim milk. The greater the inflow of whole milk to
the separator the thinner cream will be obtained. If the
flow is diminished, then richer cream and relatively less of
it is obtained. This is due principally to the fact that the
skim milk outlet has a limited capacity. If the inlet is in-
creased, it can readily be seen that the increased discharge
must take place through the cream outlet.

The speed of the separator is an additional factor which

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 275

influences the richness of the cream and, therefore, also the
relative amount of cream and skim milk. The slower the
bowl revolves, the smaller the proportionate amount of
skim milk discharged, and consequently if the inlet is con-
stant, more and thinner cream will be the result. In this
connection:; . it
should be stated
that the eff-
ciency of skim-
ming depends
to a large ex-.
tent“ 1p on. the
Spree dy andr at
Attempts are
Ma derato. de-
crease the per-
centage of fat
and increase the
Anno time — of
cream by low-
4 ering the speed,
FIG. 101—An inexpensive method of cooling and [t0O much fat

aerating milk. (U.S. Dairy Division.) will be left in
the skim milk. The thoroughness of skimming depends
very much on the speed. Every separator has a speed at
which it works best. This speed varies with different
separators. It is important that the speed of the cream
separator be uniform both from the standpoint of getting
thorough skimming and also from the standpoint of getting
a uniform richness of cream.

Electric or gasoline power is more conducive to uniform
speed of the separator than is hand power. There is an in-
creasing tendency to use gasoline and electric power for
running the separator.

The temperature of milk slightly affects the richness of
cream. When milk is first drawn, the temperature is about

276 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

100 degrees Fahrenheit. At this temperature it is more
fluid and a trifle more of it will run through the separator in
a given time than when it becomes colder. This slightly
lowers the percent of fat in the cream. The cream outlet of
some separators will clog when the temperature reaches
about 50 degrees. When this point is reached, then the per-
cent of fat in the cream is slightly increased. It is impor-
tant that the milk be skimmed at once after milking, while
the milk is warm, or that it be warmed to about 100 degrees
before it is skimmed.

The percent of fat in the milk affects the richness of the
cream skimmed. On the average farm, this one factor is
not likely to vary much from day to day if the cream is
always from the same herd and skimmed in the same
separator. Milk from the same herd will be almost of uni-
form richness from day to day. There will, however, be
some difference in the richness of the milk from one season
to another, even though the milk comes from the same herd.
The percent of fat in the cream is in direct proportion to the
fat in the milk separated.* For instance, the milk may test
four percent of fat and the resulting cream contain 30 per-
cent of fat; but if the percent of fat in the milk was in-
creased to five percent, then the percent of fat in the cream
from the same separator would be increased to 37 percent
(43,9 2: 30; x<= 37-5 percent).

The richness of the cream fram a farm sepatatopeaise
depends on the amount of flush water used. The last act in
skimming is usually to flush the bowl with a dipperful of
clean water. The chances are that this amount of flush
water is uniform, whether 100 pounds of milk are skimmed
or whether 200 pounds of milk are skimmed. The effect of
this flush water on the richness of the cream will be more
marked from one season to the other than it will from day
to day. The amount of cream skimmed is fairly uniform
from day to day, but it usually varies more from one season
to the other.

* Bulletin No. 94, Missouri station.

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 277

There is much discussion over the test of the cream. It
is important that all producers understand that cream varies
from day to day, due to the above-mentioned factors.

Keep separator in good condition.—Generally speaking,
too little importance is attached to the efficiency of the farm
separator. At times cream separators are not put on a level
and solid foundation. This is very important.

Secondly, cream separators are not always kept clean and
well oiled. The bowl bearings in time will become gummed

FIG. 102—A home sterilizer. (U. S. Dairy Division.)

up. This will cause the cream separator to run heavily and
make the bowl wobble. By flushing the bearings at least
once a week with kerosene, this gum will be removed. The
separator should be well oiled daily, both previous to and
during the separation. Do not use too heavy lubricating oil.

The separator must be kept scrupulously clean. It is a
well-known fact that at the close of the skimming process
there is always a thick, heavy substance adhering to the
bowl wall, In addition there will be some slush left in the

27S LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

bowl. If this is not removed, it may become unevenly dis-
tributed in the bowl, and therefore cause the bowl to run
unevenly when it gets up to speed. A very small un-
balancing of the bowl when standing still will greatly un-
balance the bowl when full speed is reached. The smooth
running of a cream separator is one of the first essentials.
If a machine runs roughly, there will not be good separation,
and it is more or less dangerous to run it. The bow! itself
is likely to jump out or burst. The causes for unsteadiness
in running are many. Usually it is due to the machine not
standing level, to dents on any parts of the bowl, to using
dirty and worn out bearings, and to improper balancing of
the internal contriv-
ances of the bowl, to
lack of cleanliness of
the bowl, or to a bent or
sprung spindle.

Churn fresh cream.—
As soon as the cream
has been separated, cool
to as low a temperature
as is possible without
freezing. The cooling
of “cream. is done in
much the same way as
is the cooling of milk
already described.

Never mix warm and
cold cream. Before the
fresh, warm cream 1s 7 : ——_____

5 sf FIG. 103—A sanitary hand churn mad2
mixed with the _ cool from glazed earthenware.
cream it should be thor-
oughly cooled. Old cream is sure to have an old, stale
flavor. In spite of the cleanliness with which it has been
produced, and the coldness in which it has been kept, some
germs will develop in the cream and cause abnormal flavors.

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 279

The fresher the cream is, the better the chances for a good-
flavored cream from which to churn butter. The dairy farm
that has the largest number of cows or the greatest amount
of cream usually has the best cream and makes the best
butter. This is due chiefly to the fact that the churning is
done oftener. Cream should be churned at least twice a
week to make the best butter.

There are some who believe that cream must be sour
before it will churn. Sour cream is not necessary. This
idea of sour cream has
probably come from
creameries. In butter
factories, the cream is
usually pasteurized and
ripened with a good
Starter, DePOre it 4s
churned. This is done
with a view to control-
ling the kind of fermen-
tation in the cream. On
the -farm: if is more
difficult thus to control
the fermentation. For
the average small dairy
farmer it is not prac-
ticable to use starters
and ripen cream, as is
done in the creameries.
Under the average farm
conditions it is best to
control the germs in the cream by exclusion, by retarding
the growth by cooling, and by churning before the cream
gets old.

Churning temperature—When the cream is ready to
churn, gradually increase the temperature of the cream to
the point of churning. This churning temperature varies

FIG. i104—A small combined farm churn.

280 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

in different localities and according to local conditions. The
warmer the cream, up to a certain limit, the quicker it will
churn. The cooler the cream, the longer the time required
for churning. The length of time required for churning
should be between 30 minutes and an hour. If the cream is
too warm, and it churns too quickly, the butter will “break”
in soft masses. When it is in this condition it is impossible
to wash out the buttermilk constituents. This is the chief
trouble with farm butter. Most farm butter is churned at
too high a temperature. Such butter also contains too much
water. According to the law, butter cannot contain more
than 16 percent of water. The average composition of
butter is about as follows:

NG tra ee ss ee oe ee 84 percent
NG 2) cele eens Om ree New cagiie kya. Clee. ES | Passer 0 13 a
Silt: perso od Sw Ee ang tl Re ee eis 2 y
Cnn Stes a ee Lee i be on ns ree Ce ih
otal Sect et Le oe ee eee 100 .

During the winter months the churning temperature is
about 60 degrees. During the summer months the churn-
ing temperature is about 55 degrees. The churning tempera-
ture depends on the solidity of the butter fat at a given
temperature. This hardness and softness of the butter fat
varies according to the kind of feed, the stage in the lacta-
tion period, the breed, and the individuality of the animal.*
These details will not be considered in this connection. The
lower the temperature at which the churning can be done,
the more complete it will be, or the less butter fat there
will be left in the buttermilk.

Coloring the butter—In order to maintain uniform
color of the butter during the different seasons of the year,
some artificial color should be added at certain times. When
the cows are first put on grass no color should be added
before churning. The “June” color is the standard for

* “Principles and Practice of Buttermaking,” by McKay and
Larsen.

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 281

butter. During the winter, when the cows are on dry feed,
the most color is needed. The amount of color varies then
with the time of the year and with the strength of the color.
The dairy farmer should use his own judgment in this
respect. It is not desirable that butter should be colored so
much that it is almost red. Usually the amount of color
varies from a drop to half a teaspoonful to each gallon of
cream containing 35 percent of butter fat. The color of
the butter must be uniform throughout, and every lot
churned should have the same color.

Bi: od

Buttermilk strainer. 2. Butter ladle. 3. Butter tamper.
Butter pound printer.

Wl

FIG. 105—1.

Washing the butter.—During the last part of the churn-
ing period the operator should carefully watch the progress
of the gathering of the butter. The cream should be
churned sufficiently long to obtain a complete churning. If
the churn is stopped too soon, too much butter fat will re-
main in the buttermilk. On the other hand, if the churnine
is carried too far, the butter granules will gather into
lumps, which is also undesirable. Stop the churn when th:
butter granules are still separate and of the size of corn
kernels. At this stage the butter granules cover the whole
surface of the buttermilk and are of a clear, bright color.

When this stage is reached, then drain the buttermilk
away through the drainhole of the churn. The buttermilk
should be strained through a sieve. Allow the butter to

282 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

drain for about five minutes. Then rinse the inside of the
churn and the butter with a dipperful or two of clean cold
water and allow it to drain.

Put the drain plug into the churn and add about three-
fourths as much wash water as there was cream in the
churn. The wash water should be pure and it should be
about the same temperature as is the buttermilk. If only a
small amount of wash water is used, the butter particles
tend to gather and the buttermilk is not washed away. There
should be enough wash water added to float the butter in
the churn.

The temperature of the wash water may be varied some
to control the degree of firmness in the butter. If the Lutter
is a little soft, the temperature of the wash water may be
several degrees lower than that of the buttermilk. On the
other hand, if the butter is a little too firm, the temperature
of the wash water may be increased a few degrees higher
than that of the buttermilk. The range of variation should
not be more than about five degrees. Sudden and extreme
variations in the temperature of the wash water from that
of the butter cause salvy butter.

After the proper amount of wash water has been added,
then rotate the churn about a half dozen revolutions. Then
drain this water away and add a second portion of clean
wash water. Rotate the churn another half dozen revolu-
tions and drain this second set of wash water away.

If the buttermilk is not properly removed, the butter will
become mottled and streaky after salting, and it is also
likely to become rancid in a short time.

Salting butter.—In order to obtain uniform salting, the
moisture should be well drained from the butter. The
butter should be salted while still in the churn. The amount
of salt to add depends upon the consumer. At any rate
there should not be more added than will completely dis-
solve in the butter. The amount of salt to add will vary
from one-fourth of an ounce to one ounce per pound of
butter. If the butter has been reasonably well drained be-

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 283

fore the salt is added, one-half an ounce per pound of butter
is about the right amount to add. The proper amount of
salt must be regulated by the person who does the churning
and who understands the local conditions. The salt used
must be of the best quality of butter salt. Salt that has been
allowed to harden will not easily dissolve in the butter.
Such salt, too much salt, and lack of proper distribution
will cause “gritty” butter. Most consumers object to this
condition.

When the proper amount of salt has been weighed out,
distribute it over the surface of the butter in the churn.
Then put on the cover and slowly rotate the churn. If the
butter has been properly handled up to this stage, the flaky
butter granules will still be partially separated, so that when
the churn is rotated the salt will mix with the butter
particles. Slow rotation of the churn will also cause the
butter to gather. In that way the salt is first mixed with
the butter, and it is properly incorporated with the butter
particles.

Working the butter—The butter should be carefully
worked; first, to gather the butter; second, to express the
excess of brine; and third, to distribute uniformly the brine
and salt in the butter. This latter point is quite important.
If there is an excess of undissolved salt in some parts of
the butter, it is likely to be mottled. If there is more brine
in one part of the butter than in the other, the butter will
be streaky. Mottled butter and streaky butter are unsightly
and unfit for good markets.

Small dairy farm churns are now made in which butter
can be worked. These combined churns are advantageous
in several ways. They are handy and save time. The but-
ter is not exposed to room temperature. This is a special
advantage during hot weather. These combined churns are
also more sanitary. Flies and dust of the room can easily
be excluded from the churn. Where the butter has to be
taken out in the room on an open butterworker, there is
greater danger of getting the butter contaminated.

284 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Where dairy butter is made regularly, the small hand
churns are generally used. Such churns do not permit of
working the butter within the churn. After the salt has
been mixed with the butter it should be removed to a small
table butterworker. A hand lever worker serves the
purpose. Butter should never be handled directly with the
hands. Small ladles are made with which to handle the
butter, and can be purchased cheaply.

Packing and marketing butter.—It is important that
butter be put in neat, attractive packages. Butter should

FIG. 106—1. Pound print of butter. 2. Five-pound box made of wood.
3. Five-pound box made of paraffined paper. 4. Five-pound container made
of earthenware.
not be rolled up in rags. Such wrapping is not sanitary.
The butter is exposed to air and therefore will not keep
well, and such butter does not appeal to the best class of
butter consumers. The glazed earthen jar furnishes the
best receptacle for small lots of farm butter. This jar is
easy to clean and the butter keeps well in it. The chief
objections that could be raised to it are that it is heavy and

breaks easily.

There are now on the market small paraffined paper
boxes that are very desirable for holding butter. These
paper boxes are single containers. When a five-pound box
of butter is sold, the box is not returned, while the glazed
earthen jars are returnable.

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 285

When butter is made in large quantities on the farm, and
it is to be transported by rail, a small wooden tub is probably
best for packing. Wooden tubs should not be used unless
they are well cleaned and then soaked over night in strong
brine. Such tubs should also be lined with parchment paper
before butter is packed in them. Unless butter is made on
a large scale, wooden tubs should not be used. The glazed
earthen jars, or the single container paraffined paper boxes
are made in different sizes to suit the needs of the consumer
and the convenience of the dairy farmer.

_ The butter should be firmly tamped into the jar. Fill the
jars a little more than full, and with a wet, clean cord cut
the top of the butter off even with the edge of the jar.
When this excess of butter has been removed, the surface is
smooth and level. Then cover the surface with a circular,
which is a piece of parchment paper that exactly fits the top
of the jar. On the top of the circular scatter a little salt.
Then sprinkle this with water, and with the flat palm of the
hand spread the brine evenly on the surface. In addition, a
‘piece of paper is put on top of the jar and tied with a cord,
and the edges are neatly trimmed off with a pair of scissors.
The jar of butter is now ready for the market.

Difficult churning.—There are a number of factors
which affect the churning qualities of the cream. Most
difficult churnings are due to one or more of these.

First, if the temperature of the cream is too low, the fat
globules are so firm that they do not adhere to form butter
on being agitated. As has been previously mentioned, the
cream should be properly tempered. Too cold and too rich
cream will incorporate air and hold it. This causes the
cream to foam and adhere to the side of the churn without
agitating.

Second, if the cream is very thin, it churns with difficulty.
Cream for buttermaking should contain at least 20 percent
pt butter fat.

Third, the fullness of the churn affects the amount of
agitation of the cream by churning. If there is too much

286 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

cream in the churn, there is no room for the cream to agi-
tate. If there is just a small amount of cream in the churn,
then most of it will adhere to the sides of the churn. The
churn should be from one-half to three-fourths full of
cream.

Fourth, a too slow or too fast speed of the churn may
cause trouble. The former allows the cream to flow around
the sides of the churn without agitating. The latter gener-
ates centrifugal force so that the cream does not agitate
at all.

Fifth, the acidity, or degree of sourness of the cream, is
an important factor. Sweet cream is more viscous than is
sour cream, and therefore does not churn so easily. How-
ever, if the temperature and richness of the cream are right,
no difficult churning will result from sweet cream.

Sixth, the fat globules in the -milk from different
breeds are not of the same size. The fat globules in
Jersey and Guernsey milk are large, while the fat globules
in the Holstein milk are small. When other conditions are
alike, the latter cream churns with more difficulty. The
size of the fat globules is also affected by the period of
lactation. In the early part of the milking period the fat
g’obules are larger than in the latter part of the lactation
period.

There are times of tr¢ vear when practically all of the
cows in a herd are almost dry. At such a time difficult
churning is likely to occur. |

Seventh, certain feeds, such as grass, silage, and other
succulent feeds, tend to produce a softer butter, while dry
feeds, exclusively, tend to produce butter fat of greater
firmness. This is one reason why the churning temperature
is usually higher in the winter than it is during the summer.
Cottonseed meal is known definitely to produce harder
butter.

Eighth, occasionally difficult churning is due to certain
abnormal germs that gain access to the cream. When this
is the cause, then the cream assumes a soapy consistency.

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 287

This is the worst form of difficult churning to overcome.
Scrupulous cleanliness, and disinfection of the stable, the
utensils, and all surroundings are the only practical
remedies.

Cream to Be Made Into Butter at Factory

To make the butter on the farm involves considerable
labor. Under average farm conditions it is also difficult to
obtain a uniform high quality of butter. If there are very
many dairy farmers in one community making farm butter,
there will not be a local market for it. These different small
lots of farm butters cannot be shipped and sold advan-
tageously. To overcome these difficulties the different dairy
farmers take their milk or cream to a central place to be
churned into butter.

The skimming and handling of the cream discussed under
the heading “Making Butter on the Farm” applies also to
cream to be sent to the factory.

Cold, fresh, sweet and pure cream are important quali-
ties, no matter where the cream is made into butter.

Local creamery.—The local creamery may be privately
owned or it may be owned by the dairy farmers co-opera-
tively. It furnishes an excellent market for cream. <A local
creamery, to be real successful, should make not less than
about 100,000 pounds of butter per year. In communities
where farmers will work together, a co-operative creamery
is the most ideal form. It places the churn close to the cow.
The farmers do business with themselves. They receive all
the money there is in the cream, minus the cost of manufac-
ture, and there is no danger of loss through financial irre-
sponsibility.

The good and well-managed co-operative creameries have
demonstrated that they can pay a very high average price
for butter fat.

Through the local creamery organization the farmers
may co-operate in many other ways, such as cow testing

LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

‘oxBeyT Tee[O—LOL “DI

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 289

associations, bull associations, purchase and exchange of
feeds, salt, coal, stock and other commodities.

A prosperous farmers’ co-operative creamery is an asset
to any community.

Cream buying station—The cream buying station has
become very common in the central West. This method of

FIG. 108—The finished article. The most concentrated and valuable food
known.

handling cream is not the most economic. If one agent

handled all of the cream in a community, the cost of

handling the cream and of setting a price on it could be

reduced. Instead, the cream business usually is split up

among several buyers.

Including the commission, drayage, rental, acid, other
supplies and equipment, it costs about 3 to 4 cents per pound
of butter fat to thus buy and concentrate the cream.

Besides, the cream is often held at the cream station.
When purchased, the cream may be several days old. The
cream buyer is not often equipped with cooling facilities,

290 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

[very hour such cream is kept causes it to deteriorate.
From some of the places, cream can be shipped only once
each day.

These cream buyers test the cream as soon as delivered
and pay cash for the butter fat. This is an inducement to
se'l for a little less price per pound of butter fat.

i
hehe oun we
- \ A

FIG. 109—A cream buying station.

In some localities farmers have their own co-operative
cream buying station. The cream from all of the farmers
is then sold to the creamery that bids the highest price.

Direct shipment of cream.—By this system, the business
between the central creamery and the dairy farmer is car-
ried on by mail. The creamery usually sends out quotations
on butter fat, net at the factory. The dairy farmer can
then decide for himself whether he will ship the cream
direct to the factory, or whether he will sell it to the local
cream buyer. If the cream is shipped, the central creamery
weighs and tests the cream, and then returns the empty can,
and the check is sent by mail.

Some dairy farmers would rather see the cream weighed
and tested. This is undoubtedly the chief reason why the
direct shipping has not taken the place of the cream buying

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 291

station. Theoretically, the direct sh‘pper should be able to
obtain more for the cream than does the one who sells to
the buying station.

™“

Mak:ng Cheese on the Farm

For cheese making it is extremely important that the
milk be produced under the most sanitary conditions, and
that it be cooled as low as possible without freezing at once

FIG. 110—A ferryboat carrying much cream from one side of Missouri
river.

after it is milked. These methods have been described in a
previous chapter.

It is also important that the milk be made into cheese at
least once each day. It is best if the cheese can be made at
once after milking.

Coagulate milk with rennet.—A regular cheese vat,
having a water jacket for heating and cooling the milk, is
the best container of the milk. Such a vat is not always
obtainable on the farm. A clean, sanitary tub, or even a
wash boiler, may be used. The milk should all be strained
through two thicknesses of; cheesecloth as it is poured into
the cheese tub.

292 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Then bring the whole amount of milk to a temperature
of 85 degrees. If the milk is heated on a stove, great care

FIG. 111—A large central creamery.

should be taken not to heat too rapidly, nor to too high a
temperature. A good way is to warm just a small amount
and then mix it
with the whole.
Nopart of «the
milk should be
brea ped 1 O. a
higher tempera-
Tune. whe ml p10
degrees. A higher
temperature than
this will interfere
with the proper
curdling of the
milk. If the milk
from a whole day |) :
is ma de into FIG. 112—A vat in which the milk for cheese can be
cheese, it iS suffi- tempered to the proper degree.

ciently ripe to “set” as soon as the proper temperature
has been obtained. On the other hand, if the milk is made

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 293

into cheese shortly after milking, the milk should stand not
less than an hour at 86 degrees IF. to ripen before the rennet
is added. In case this cannot be done, a small amount of good
sour milk, buttermilk, or whey, may be mixed with the milk
from which the cheese is to be made. Do not add more
| than two percent,
or more than two
pounds, of the good
sour milk to each
100 pounds of
cheese milk.
ie next step is
to. add the~ color:
Butter color will not
do. < It mitist **be
cheesey colar.” Phe
amount to add
Varies with ‘the
"PIG. 113—1. Shot-gun can. 2. Milk and cream strength of the color

stirrer. 3. Dairy thermometer. 4. Graduate for and with the de-
measuring rennet and color.

mands of the mar-
ket. The cheese should not be red, nor should it be white.
A medium yellow color is liked by most cheese consumers.
Add from one-half to one teaspoonful (1-16 to 1g ounce) to
each 100 pounds of milk, and mix thoroughly.

The amount of rennet to add also varies with many con-
ditions, the chief of which are the acidity of the milk, the
strength of the rennet, and the temperature of the milk.
The amount of rennet added should be such that the milk
curdles in from 20 to 30 minutes. This amount will be
about one ounce to 250 pounds of milk.

When the rennet has been measured out, it should be
mixed with about 40 times the amount of cold water. When
ready to add the diluted rennet, stir the milk. This is done
so that the rennet will be completely mixed before it has a
chance to act on any one part of the milk. Continue to stir

294, LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

the milk for about two minutes. Do not disturb the milk
while it is coagulating.

Cutting the curd.—The curd should not be cut till it is
reasonably solid. To test when it is ready, insert the fore
finger into the curdled milk at an angle of 45 degrees, then
slowly lift the finger straight up. If the curd splits
smoothly over the finger, it is ready to cut; while if it breaks
into small pieces and is ragged, it is too soft to cut.

Usually the time required for the curd to set, from the
time the rennet is added, is from three-fourths to one hour.
About 20 minutes is required for the milk to curdle. Fully
as much time will be required for the curd to set before it
is ready to cut.

Special cheese knives are made for cutting the curd into
small squares. For making cheese on a small scale on the
farm these are not necessary. A homemade, long-bladed
wooden knife may be used. The curd should be cut length-
wise and crosswise into small cubes. A wire toaster is a
convenient tool for completing the cutting of the curd into
cubes not over half an inch in diameter. The particles
should be as uniform in size as is possible in order to obtain
an even “cook,” or heating.

Heating the curd.—The curd is gradually heated to expel
the moisture and to make the curd firm. At this stage there
will be considerable whey. Dip some out and heat it to a
temperature of 135 degrees. Then gradually pour it back
and mix it very gently with the contents of the vat. Do not
allow the curd to mat. Keep the particles separate by gentle
stirring. If roughly handled, while the curd particles are
soft, much of the fat will be lost in the whey.

Pour in only enough hot whey to raise the temperature
of the whole three or four degrees, then gently stir for five
minutes. Add hot whey again to increase the temperature
three or four degrees more, and stir five minutes. Continue
this until the temperature has reached about 100 degrees.
It will thus require about 30 to 40 minutes to bring the
temperature from 86 to 100 degrees. Allow the curd to

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 295

remain at this temperature till it is “cooked” through.
When this is done, the curd is so hard that when a handful
of it is squeezed, and when the grip again is released, the
curd particles will not stick together.

After the curd has reached this stage, allow it to remain
in the whey for 30 to 45 minutes more. This is done to
develop acid in the curd. In the manufacture of cheddar
cheese in the factory, the whey is drawn and the curd is
piled to develop the proper amount of acid. On the farm
this method is hardly practicable. There is a slight danger
of overcooking the curd by the modified method.

The curd thus left in the whey should be closely watched
so that it does not get too much acid, A curd that has
developed too much acid produces a dry cheese, lacking in
flavor. A cheese that contains too little acid is likely to
develop gas when put into the curing room. The curd may
be tested occasionally on a piece of hot iron. When it
strings about half an inch, then draw the whey from the
curd.

While the curd is developing acid in the whey, it must not
be allowed to mat. Stir it just enough to keep it from
matting.

When the proper amount of acid has been developed,
then drain off the whey. The curd should be gently stirred
to aid in getting the whey effectively drained away from it.

Preparing the cheese for the press.—When the curd is
ripened as mentioned above, “the milling process,” or sub-
dividing the curd is done away with. The curd is ready for
the salting as soon as it has been well stirred and the whey
is thoroughly drained off.

About one pound of salt should be added to the curd for
each 300 pounds of milk used. The amount of salt the
maker should regulate according to the quality of cheese he
wishes to make. Too much salt makes the cheese too dry
and retards the curing. Too little salt causes the cheese to
ripen too fast. The salt should be thoroughly mixed with
the curd to secure uniform distribution.

296 “LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

If cheese is regularly made on the farm, special hoops
should be purchased. The Young America hoop is probably
of most suitable size for farm cheeses. These hoops make
a cheese that is 7
inches in diameter.
The height is vari-
able. The most suit-
able weight to make
a Young America
cheese is about 10
pounds. If a cheese
is made only now
and then, a hoop

may be made from FIG. 114—A cheese hoop for making “Young
a small tin pail hav- eae ee

ing straight sides and a diameter of about 7 to 8 inches.
There is no objection to a hoop of greater diameter. If
such a hoop is used, holes should be made in the end to
permit draining of the whey during pressing.

The hoops should first be thoroughly cleaned. Then place
some cheesecloth within the hoop. Make the folds as
smooth as possible. The curd is then placed in the hoop.
Special hoop liners, or bandages, and circles shou!d be pur-
chased if the hoops of regular sizes are used.

Care should be taken to keep the curd warm. Do not
expose it too much to the cold air. Cold curd will not unite
when put into the press.

When the curd has been placed in the hoop, then put the
follower (circular board) on and place it in the press.

Pressing the cheese.—If much cheese is made on the
farm, one of the regular cheese presses should be pur-
chased. If only a small amount is made, a homemade press
will serve the purpose. A press such as is illustrated will
do the work. An old wagon tongue will serve the purpose
of the lever. One end may be fastened to the side of a

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 297

building with a strong set of hinges, or it may be inserted
under a block of wood fastened to the wall.

In pressing the cheese in such a press, care should be
taken to keep the lever level, otherwise the cheese will not
be regular in shape.

When the cheese is first put into the press, very little
pressure should be applied. The weight should be close to
the cheese. The pressure is gradually increased by moving
the weight toward the end of the lever. In case the curd
should be a little cold, greater pressure should be applied
when the curd is first put into the press. A final pressure.
of about 500 to 800 pounds should be applied to the cheese.
This does not mean that the weight should be that heavy.

When the cheese has been in press for one hour, it should
be turned, and the bandage or lining should be adjusted. If
the cheese does not unite well, apply a little warm water.
In another two hours turn the cheese again. The cheese
should be in press not less than 24 hours. In case the cheese
does not unite well in pressing, it may be soaked in warm
water while still in the bandages, then put back in the press.

The composition of American Cheddar cheese is as

follows:
Witter es eae te 2 Se ok Dee 34.4 percent
Gasehiin, sa eset, Pt. 2 ne ea oe 26.4 3

FIG, 115—Illustration of a simple homemade cheese press.

298 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Curing the cheese.—So far, the cheese is only half made.
The curing is a very important part of cheese making. The
temperature and humidity of the curing room should both
be under reasonable control. The curing room must not be

gs iat

FIG. 113—A successful farmers’ co-operative cheese factory.

too dry. This will cause the cheese to dry too quickly, and
to crack. There should not be a draft in the curing room,
yet there should be ventilation.

If the curing room is too dry, the floor of the room may
be sprinkled with water or a wet sheet may be hung up in
the room.

If it is desired to have the cheese cure quickly, then the
temperature may be kept at about 70 degrees. The best
cheese, however, is obtained from slow curing in a cold
room. A temperature between 50 and 60 degrees produces
good results.

A cellar is probably the best available place for a curing
room on the farm.

MILK TO BE MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 299

When the cheeses are first put in the curing room on the
farm, they should be turned daily; and during the ripening
process, should they become moldy on the surface, the
cheese and shelving should be washed thoroughly with a
strong salt brine.

Making Soft Cheeses on the Farm

Numerous kinds of soft cheeses can be made successfully
on the farm, such as cottage, neufchatel, pimento, cream
and club. These are much easier to make under farm con-
ditions than the cheddar type above described.

Cottage cheese.—FEither skim milk or buttermilk may
be used for making cottage cheese. Skim milk is used most.

The sweet skim milk is brought to a temperature of be-
tween 70 to 75 degrees. About an ounce (two tablespoon-
fuls) of good, clean starter (sour milk or buttermilk) is
added for every gallon of milk, and then stirred well. Then
add rennet at the rate of one ounce of rennet to each thou-
. sand pounds of milk. The rennet should previously be
diluted with cold water (half an ounce of rennet to a pint
of water).

Set the milk away to curdle, cover it with a clean cloth to
prevent dust from entering and also to aid in maintaining
the desired temperature, 70 to 75 degrees. About 12 to 24
hours will be required to complete the curdling properly.

When the curd has become reasonably firm, it may be
broken up by means of gentle stirring. Should the curd he
too soft to separate from the whey, the temperature may be
raised to about 85 to 95 degrees. Do not warm too much.
This will make the curd hard and granular. The cheese
should remain soft to be most palatable.

Then remove the cheese to a double cheesecloth, and hang
it up to drain. Six to eight hours’ time will be required for
piers.

When the loose whey has drained away, add and mix salt
at the rate of from one to 14 ounces to five pounds of curd.

300 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

Some also add caraway seed to give flavor. Some like rich
cottage cheese, In that case cream is mixed with it. This
results in a smoother, richer, and more palatable cottage
cheese, but more expensive.

From 15 to 20 pounds of cottage cheese is obtained from
100 pounds of milk.

Buttermilk is also used for cottage cheese. In order to
separate the curd from buttermilk, it is necessary to heat it
to a temperature of about 120 degrees for about two hours.
This is necessary on account of the softness and fineness of
the buttermilk curd. Otherwise, the process of manufacture
is the same as when sour milk is used.

This cheese may be marketed in one-pound paper con-
tainers made for this purpose, or it may be packed into
glazed earthen jars. During the summer restaurants sell
and serve considerable cottage cheese. Cottage cheese is
used for sandwiches, it is eaten directly with cream, salt and
pepper, and it is used for salads.

Cottage cheese may also be made in the same manner
from naturally soured milk without any rennet. In that
case, it is necessary to warm the milk to about 90 degrees
to separate the whey from the curd.

Neufchatel cheese.—Fresh, clean, and sweet whole milk _
is tempered to 70 to 72 degrees. To every gallon of milk
add one-fourth to one-half ounce (one to two tablespoon-
fuls) of clean, sour buttermilk, or clabbered milk, and stir
thoroughly. Then add four or five drops of rennet (diluted
in about one ounce of cold water) to every gallon of milk,
and stir thoroughly. If rennet tablets (junket tablets) are
used, figure each tablet being equal in strength to 20 drops
of rennet. “The water in which the vessel of milk is set
should be from 70 to 72 degrees. Cover the milk with a
cloth and allow it to stand until the curd has coagulated
firmly. This will require from 14 to 18 hours. Then care-
fully transfer the curd to a cotton cloth, using a small
dipper. As far as possible, avoid breaking up the curd. A
convenient method for holding the strainer cloth is to fasten

MILK MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 301

the cheesecloth across the top of a wash boiler or tub, using
clothes pins to hold the cloth strainer firmly at the edge.

Occasionally scrape down the curd to the center of the
cloth with a case knife. This prevents the drying of the
curd around the sides. When the curd begins to become
firm, and most of the whey is drained, the cloth is folded
together in a tight ball and the draining is continued.

At intervals unfold the cloth and scrape the dry curd from
the surface. Salt to suit the taste, or at the rate of two to
2% ounces to 10 pounds of curd, and the cheese is ready
EG 115€,

From 100 pounds of milk 18 to 20 pounds of Neufchatel
cheese can be made.

Neufchatel curd may serve as the foundation for several
other kinds of soft cheeses.

Pimento cheese.—The curd is handled as described
above in making Neufchatel cheese. The only difference is
that the latter is not colored; while for the pimento cheese,
cheese color should be added to the milk at the rate of one-
‘sixteenth ounce, or about one-half teaspoonful to each 10
gallons of milk. This will be equal to from six to eight
drops for each gallon of milk.

The pimentos (red peppers) are ground fine in a meat
grinder, and worked into the curd at the rate of one ounce
of pimento to each pound of curd. A small amount of
cayenne pepper is also added at the same time.

Cream cheese.—Cream cheese may be made from cream
containing from 10 to 12 percent of butter fat in much the
same way as the Neufchatel curd, by adding and mixing
well-ripened or sour cream. Add enough of the sour cream
to the curd to give it the desired creamy consistency. Add
salt at the rate of one ounce to five pounds of curd, or to
suit the taste.

Club cheese.—First remove the rind from well-made ard
well-cured cheddar, or ordinary hard cheese. Slice this
cheese and run it through a meat grinder. To each pound
of ground cheddar cheese, add about two ounces of fresh

302 LARSEN’S FARM DAIRYING

butter.’ Mix the cheese and butter thoroughly, and then run
the mixture through the meat grinder to secure a homogene-
ous mixture.

The cheese is ready for use immediately. It should be
packed, in small, air-tight jars or glasses. Club cheese is
very nutritious and palatable.

Manner of Disposal Affects Income

One hundred pounds of four percent milk equals about
47 quarts. Each quart, when delivered, brings a gross in-
come of about 8 cents per quart. The 47 quarts, or 100
pounds, therefore, would amount to $3.76 when sold for
direct use. The expense of delivering and bottling must be
considered in this connection. The cost of distribution from
the farm about equals the cost of production.

If the 100 pounds of four percent milk were made into
butter, the following income may be expected:

40 pounds. of butter @ $0.35...202 2222! oo ee $1.56
(4 pounds of butter fat plus 1-6 overrun es 4.7 pounds of
butter )

86 pounds of skim milk @ $0.30 per ewt.....-__._ 22 ee 26
9 poutids of buttermilk @ $0.30 per ewt: —.2__= 2-2-2 03
otal sneOme 2422225 ato $1.85

If the 100 pounds of four percent milk were made into
cheese, the products would bring about the following
income :

10 pounds of cheese @ W025 0.2.5 =. ee 2.50
90 pounds of whey @ $0.20 per cwt. _-__-----__-__ 18
otal income 2222 20. = So ee $2.68

Soft cheeses of the various kinds, such as cream, cottage,
or brick cheese, may be successfully made on the farm. A
larger yield may be contained than from cheddar, but the
soft cheese does not keep so well. It demands an immedi-
ate and steady market.

MILK MANUFACTURED INTO DAIRY PRODUCTS 303

The foregoing illustrations have been cited to show that
the manner of marketing milk has an important bearing
upon the amount of income. .

The making of ice cream and various other kinds of
cheese and by-products will not be discussed in this connec-
tion. For the making of ice cream and for other uses of
milk and cream, the reader is referred to “Dairy Tech-
nology,” by Larsen and White.

APPENDIX

304

APPENDIX

305

Armsby’s requirements for milk production in addition to maintenance:

For 1 pound of milk testing 2.5 percent
For 1 pound of milk testing 3.0 percent

For 1 pound of milk testing 3.5 percent.......

For 1 pound of milk testing 4.0 percent

For 1 pound of milk testing 4.5 percent.......
For 1 pound of milk testing 5.0 percent.......

For 1 pound of milk testing 5.5 percent

For 1 pound of milk testing 6.0 percent.......
For 1 pound of milk testing 6.5 percent.......

For 1 pound of milk testing 7.0 percent

Lbs. Therms
True Protein Net Energy
-041 19
.043 aL
045 24
049 Pil
.052 29
055 =o
058 34
061 36
064 3,
GE8 Al

Armsby’s standard for maintenance requirements for cows:

Live Weight in Pounds Digestible Protein in Pounds

Therms Net Energy

750

859

950
1050
1150
1250
1350
1450
1550
1650

306 APPENDIX

The Armsby table of dry matter, digestible protein, and net energy
values in 100 lbs. of various feeding stuffs:

—_

Brewensweraims==—cdnieda sana eine: 92.
Brewers eralns=—wete se. se coe ee 24.
Buckwheat middilings::.).....55.50) 65: 88.
Cottonseedbmeal ian sian Doe on 91.
Distillenesenais=dnied asses eee
Princisn llyaconnsss jan eee Oe en ie Osr
PTINCUO Atay cee conch rae ee ee O8F
Gluten teed hy cee tt a et eo ee eee 91.

Glatenemeal==Chicagossseee eee 90.
Icinseedemieal: oldl process .4 0.200 4. 90.
Linseed meal, new process............. 90.
Mialtispromts).r incline ao om laine Saere oe 89.
IReyeubainy wars straty Alt Sor ee Cite eae 88.
Suganibeet) pulps fresh. eee ce 10.
Sugaribeetapulpsrdnied ses eee ciel O37
Wile atibinann ano sce te cook cas sae et venche ate 88.

tw
Mw
w
rs
NI
n
Ne)
iss)

$5615 84. 20

Therms
Total dry Digestible | Net energy
Fceling stuffs matter protein value
Green fodder and silage: Pounds Pounds Pounds
A Gall tee Bree aie cere ee eee RT Be 8.2 2.50 12.45
Clover; Crimson... 0. ee cece wes Bate 19° 1 2eN9 11.30
Clover snedity Aa aeajr cee sansk tone, ae 292. 221 16.17
Cormtodder, eneen assess seen LONG. 41 12.44
Corn SVaceney ho ely ore eee Pe 2556 eZ 16.56
TUuneamante hase sneer ere 28.9 ile elel 14.76
AP Canta acs area cal he ek wands 14.3 2.16 11.43
Ry esiGddersnmas ao ctoccece oe oe e 23.4 1.44 11.63
MaimMOthy sees ck ute ene te Rie 38.4 1.04 19.08
Hay and dry coarse fodder:
NU Pall almtr ciyes oer greek ee ona aca atleneite maS ten sis ra: 91.6 6.93 34.41
Glovetahiany hedinticd, = Sai Ne cima hae sens 84.7 5.41 34.74
Sovyabeanuhayrwnnn& Vance acc eensar 88.7 7.68 38.65
Cow phashvayr eve ets h ihis s eneoe aisibw area 89.3 8.57 42.76
Goxniforagesticld-curedi ae anaes oe 57.8 2o13 S053
Coun StOMET eras eee ss oh oa ae i eee 59.5 1.80 26.53
ting ariamehay eee wea.ta cytes neebeaec neha ser OTS 3.00 44.03
Oavinaiyeice tation eee es 84.0 ASS) 36.97
MLAHLOE YAMA: sio)h sis een Stake, 6 pi set Ress anlnalee 86.8 2.05 33.56
Straws:
Oatistrawas tshirt aee ee i ee 90.8 1.09 eel
IR Giecet awk eke chet nic eee ae cee ae 90.4 63 20. 87
Wiheatistuaw sos aa cease on ae mee 90.4 37 16.56
Roots and tubers:
Carrots ese ec ere eee lave Tet eee: 11.4 Sh0/ 7.82
INuamig elise stetareravevatsrccss stoke cteimea oatorersia craters OFT 14 4.62
pO atOe Srrgasratic a crstow Senaiianstok Gress aioe tee 21.1 45 18.05
Rutabapasmrteewrscaes meen ee ee 11.4 88 8.00
MGUIETAN Os er Mrs Meiers hasta ck tei c me hue ee 9.4 22 5.74
Grains: :
Barleyar icant tte oe ee er eae 89.1 8.37 80.75
i Soya elke Attias Ay ea ige PERS IRCSES rn Peete aR mR 89.1 6.79 88. 84
G@orn-and-cob aneale: 44. 45550545 55-58 84.9 4.53 72.05
OAS i teats a ts aoe eR tes 89.0 8. 36 66.27
ReawmMealy cnt Su. teeter ce 89.5 16877 (HS
Rview. ist eon ee ade 88.4 Sol2 81.72
Wihte@aitersset ot tect orale tort nacts aie 89.5 8.90 82.63
By-products:
0 9)
3 4
2
8
0
2
9
.8
5
8
1
8
2
1
6
1
at)

APPENDIX

307

Haecker’s feeding standard of requirements for milk production:

Crude Protein | Carbohydrates | Ether Extract
For each pound of 3.0% milk...... . 042 189 0133
For each pound of 3.5% milk...... 045 s2lh 0149
For each pound of 4.C% milk...... .048 HS 0164
For each pound of 4.5% milk...... 051 5253 0179
For each pound of 5.0% milk...... 054 S| 0191
For each pound of 5.5% milk...... 057 . 289 0204
For each pound of 6.0% milk...... 060 . 307 0216
For each pound cf 6.5% milk...... 063 Boe) .0229
For each pound of 7.0% milk...... 066 341 0242
Haecker’s standard of food for maintenance:
Protein | Carbohydrates Fat
Weight Pounds Pounds - Pounds Pounds
7/50). <5 SOG ORO oe ieee says) Sue 08
RUMI ES cts SeuiRiai's c dcnere Seis, osteoma s S595 5 .08
250). 5 Otherness Se ero tees .665 6.65 .09
EROS raie cvaertecets ccc hue esse 8 wiereiare 135 135 .10
HOLS RereRes yale elo stbitewtua sa esepacseaone . 805 8.05 sili!
L2SQ). : SERS ele TOS OOo OO IGE .875 8.75 A
1502 Gage pelo Soa eee Se 945 9.45 A3
Mets OMe bet sc oiake Sasevs 3 G,aabsiencc sm iehet sieves © 1.015 10.15 .14
Re a trate recta olcvecs lamers eereo,'eveya, ove; 1.085 10.85 “AS
1.154 11.54 . 16

308

Haecker’s table of nutrients in a pound of feeding stuffs:

Concentrates:

Glitenstecds <5: foe
Oilfrmiealr sd cision oe oes

Cotton, ise NVies ee

Roughage, cured:
Hoddertcorns tee ree

Soyalbeanvoeesuioac coer

Roughage, green:
Hodder conmntcew ache

Rotator con ates eaten ce =

IMeamively: sa Sat cactce cre
Murnip sce a acciopoussaret erase

APPENDIX

Protein

Carbohydrates

Ww
=)
ne)

APPENDIX
* ORGANIC AND MINERAL ANALYSES OF FOODS—

o

os -

— a 5 u

: ey > ee : 2

Description FA F “ : % x e

a co Seog a Fs

= aS Faas es) O
Pins Less Calis fc teats eray ied omctet a eo eed 12.31 10.31 69.59 1.54 2.82
Wikeattours op.ctssc tabs cies 13.92 9.74 74.67 1.25 25
WHIEeR Dread. + minimis sir ore 34.62 9.22 53.58 1.19 28
vie attab alti. tiers cco rel evaye es bia aes, ote-s 10.02 15.75 55.30 4.26 8.62
Wiheatamiddlinese 2. . ie ea. s1s lors cee 11.02 18.84 54.94 lal 5.97
WRI E ACEP enI aids cok secn a5 0 terra 8.50 29.44 44.37 10.07 2.91
Rd recitee CEM 4. bevy. noche nie, «1 worake 8.42 80.88 Or15 65 19
Wedidor Hours wereceaces coe ss on) L052 18.50 58.20 5.87 3.19
COSTE See CS RReR OPN a ae 14.24 8.69 69.11 4.03 242
Connemeal bolted: < «si. sc cos sn 13252 $52 72.96 Be27 1.04
(CUS iNTR) | SSI eee 11.00 5.25 66.26 3.10 13.21
ECM BEGINING, « cyo\s!ove ier e gee ale aie 11.90 6.88 78.77 1.46 46
Gleibemieedic ci. 6. ore cas o's ole ss 7.99 27.50 48.86 3.64 8.83
Wistiler-sierains, COrn:.- + fs 5 .<- ots. 32.06 Bee 8.90 12.43
MOrerillers) Eras, TYE.-.*. «2 «dacs « 8.33 29.25 36.93 6.76 15.34
IBME WEE Ss S6AUNSS sole nee os op -0)b ee 6.88 19.69 50.18 5.74 14.76
IEUIPESDNOIUESS ses. <i. sis aly bis avehetee 7.46 24.75 45.43 2.10 14.46
MOPARS Bev ictn ted (2 ionsvsne¥oicroraiges'eXe. ones 8.89 10.88 60.09 4.28 12.48
CAG TECOGMO Sc rtore hve a o1s «sibs one. chne 11.89 19.56 70.91 3.58 1.88
EPEC ee ote aSi Save lore. Goo ae alert 7 10.15 6.48 82.26 36 47
perce MEO LIC t ya sskens aie oo bis 6s evere<s ile ile 12.48 54.29 LL AZA 3.20
PMNS ERE sy tiers ifetstel oe fe sie eve covaeese 85.25 24 13252 10 63
PEATE SMEL ELEC 3: oo gece 's.c0e: 6's 3 wb eeste oo8 > 24.53 2.78 66.67 1.26 1.61
ERC R IIe eirayis a ol clcte o/s -claievt Sin os 72.63 1 aa 24.79 36 .29
(DTS 6 CCTs a ae eer 15.44 226 77.44 91 232
LSINS Slag Se ee eee eee 87.29 1.64 9.41 33 79
CANE BETES = ae eee rege 93.05 1.16 4.80 25 31
FADE TEOMS WEEE: 5... cc oe css oo doce oes 73.34 1.28 23235 WS, 80
EGRECDEOSEWIDIEC S 5c css obec oe o's 2 Ss 82.42 1.97 14.57 09 29
MAEDA ZEl ols ouura ec ps aus eis 88.54 1.68 7.69 11 80
PEERPULD OTIC s...... creis ecw cee one» O55 8.25 59.29 sili 19.25
(COP SREES? Ee SASS a ae HDL 13.00 40.74 3.06 28.87
SGP 2ST aE et a rs a 10.61 17.09 36.57 2.47 25.59
(CE) Ye) 01 10.62 PDS 33.64 3.03 19.70
PRUE MAMET re beds bie Giss was om es 7.42 14.41 40.44 1.87 29.48
Nod he a 8.06 5.34 |- 48.13 2.29 32.98
NLU 22 TG SS le 4.89 6.00 47.56 2.89 33.06
OTE ACS eo 6.96 5.48 46.88 1239 32.77
PANES ENV ANY. 35 5c o's e.cc0 bo eis ble at - 8.21 9.10 40.97 2.89 34.01
RICE GEA W oe oi verse ete 6 oe.% 1ewiece & 5.48 ie) 45.13 Ione 42.48
Avsehe recta eho tte 15.29 1.88 77.34 aS. .89
PIMMMISECUIES PPahe eo, cae: ove! afore. « aleve oes 8.63 39.41 22.54 19.27 5.09
BREMGCMIGA TIS roc sc bees als 53 Wie Pens: 14.49 DDS S313 eae 4.60
oS Tie eae eee 14.24 22.14 52.94 1.33 5.66
eames TOASted....-.00..-.. 1 «+. GA 27.41 Wes 47.95 2.14
Wieecd oiliieal, ...04.. 05 66 ste oe 10.34 35.51 30.91 6.24 11.20
Mottonseed meal....5:.:..5-..5-. 8.58 35.88 30.27 Te 705
iC oc Sa ec Ip ee Sa 90.41 Sl Say 1S (i ok oe
RM seta C6 ha a aiel's 3¥s-s 93.96 79 4.69 01 Iran [Sacre peae

METEO eng stare esd ore cc varalsi< aos. shes 61.67 | 7 for LS a (ee 29.26

PME cee LiF gets Fp 40 wl he * Tae, 12393 ele oo see aan State
Mermkcare .GISeSter....6 02.6 eee oo 9.06 SRS OF Alten ee 9.29 4.36
BARI ODEUL OUL Mencia chal Sneed tenance pel @ecduate vi: outeceecr | a uetes
MMA SWAILE S28, <,fashavare sa. uss mote 78.82 AIG | oe bee 21) ie ae ees
=itack: albumen .............8 19.76 B23 ve eee MOP Wie eee

NOTE: The high protein contents of soy bean hay and cowpea hay as above re-
ported are due in part to the facts that these samples were a little less advanced in
maturity than as usually cut for hay and were dried inthelaboratory without loss of parts.

310 APPENDIX
CEREAL PRODUCTS—PARTS PER 100 OF FRESH SUBSTANCE

=| 7)

E 5 Fa

3 re a rs)

a7) & v ae

<s = 5 a,

ey iS $3 s =

< rw a S A

1.64 529 .03
165 .050 sll

tea .102 381
€.6 1-320 201
4.12 1.021 165
4.71 .295 fou
Rig .007 .028
Baye. .380 .660
1.21 340 .026
69 .166 .098
1.18 365 .OO00
53 a3) .000
3.18 .250 424
1.38 013 .142
3.39 041 .071
5) laa 259
5.70 PZ aS 1.350
3.38 419 .168
1.18 254 .058
28 .036 .029
folks) iW isi7/ .110
27 .118 .010
DAS 1.017 034
80 353 .066
62 564 .097
55 .183 .012
50 173 .002
84 O22 .016
67 SRR 031
1.18 444 .082
2.91 .314 .167
6.76 1.701 .062
7.67 1.586 .130
10.76 .780 .646
6.38 .770 453
3220 564 aol 7
5.60 12973 094
6.52 1.718 061
4.82 1.290 129
3.45 796 224
4.23 ily 114
5.06 1.913 343
Shiite 1.186 074
3.69 1.403 162
2.47 059 548
5.80 1.098 253
6.98 1.656 259
69 122 047
56 .167 028
92 239 082
93 055 104
U5: Sal 547 1.664
phere .065 091
1.00 SAY) 290
4.14 .240 1.247

*Bulletin 255. Ohio Experiment Station.

INDEX

Page
A

Advanced registry requirements. 101
Ancestors; effect of on production

STNG EVDO. 6 e cicic.ctas-a « s LOO: LS.
WITARLEEIAL cc fecrale 5 Sree etd ool aise Miele 130

Armsby’s table, digestible pro-
tech’ and’ net enevizy. =. ...2- 305
GEVyIMAather Oo =) ces eas tp aeiglet 305

requirements for production
and maintenance ......... 305

As oe’ations, bull, number’ in
Winited States ..c:.:-... 125, 127

cow testing, number in
e) Pieited JStates. ¢ és icicws 3 95,. 99
ASG SIT UNM COLO: no: oc. 2,0-0%q els wiaveie's «\s 6 41
eddress of Freed ‘secretary... 43
CUARMEEDID COW -o.34 ie ce ala se 43
GESCMESMION OF % o.45 4 6%) s oie sre 41

number registered in United
OAR RAs ots ojaiet ors Siplors ers wis ene 43

B

IBSGuSTIAI IN, MAL 5. sc ecsis gos 02" 266
Blood, circulation of, in cow.... 5
reggae VAvrsintteen .c5 scl. cs ase sie 41
SEOWGE S OWAEAT 0 aes ve eee ay!

com~ositicn of milk from
AMMeTON batt hse siniore sig beams 53
MTV CALLS y.6'. bSiere 2 oe 34, 38, 40
development. of -.. 2.6... 586:- 35
RESON es oleic cro tens ase Sieis ake: ete Misre 59
WGI He alo os isree 3 peciele bauer a 61
Hutch Belted: 6 ncn. se. see 55
effect of environments on.. 35
French-Canadian ........... 61
MCV TISE VE atte Rass Die aie At
Ho'stem-"riesian G.2.....2 5 3
MGVSOV Me .cccisioxevetoxs 2 Sera 45
| STATS pre ee IER en gee 61
Iléss common dairy.<......... 3

number registered in United
SGT em nacarshe. cute cigiahese: Saa. ftiiane 43
MG CPE Oia rts < erantis oacmartermnye 51
SELOEUHOEN: — chris coreyetacccinta sito 59
summary of leading dairy... 52
Grown, Swiss Cattle... .cowe es oe. 54
eddre.s of breed secretary.. 54
LHAMPIOMNCOW «isis wale erties 55
GESCEIPLIGI~ Obes sis epsheene-wic!s oes 54

number registered in United
RS TAECR pao crews ane See Ges ks 43

Bull associations, number in
RGM DES ee ets ners oe a teuebeeberer te ie ail
Burrel!-Lawrence-Kennedy milker 256

Page

Butter colorin® Of j..c08 s+ <6 <8 25 280

COMPOSIGIONN. cheats cae wets cise 280
making of on farm and

CLEATMOCES. = eects how ats ase 273, 287
packing and marketing..... 284
SAGs Oe oct sce cect teen ea ond 282
WVCIS ATONE iy ase ccciea ca ee came te 281
WORKINGS a rcciaierevs wovetar hae eNAanre 283

C
Calfway milk machine........... 257
Calves, amount of milk to feed to 142
bitth, weicht <of-=+ ...casc eu « 153
changing to skim milk..... 145
cost) :of. ‘taisine. fei eee 145
effect of surroundings of

MOGNEE ON. ciaea s ceebeen co ace 135
fecd and care during pre-natal

POTIOMGS achiisn cates heran ree 34
fe2d and care from time of

inthis to 3 stots eta oe neeieta Coes: 135
FECH OTS apes apie elo e om eka 149
measuring growth .......... 143
milk substitutes, calf meals,

Bie rey sc ee scorerels6 Gig estate e 147
place in which to keep...... 140
SCOUnS, remedy LOM... rs. 6 151

white and common ....... 150
stanchions for, during feed-

“ha htae aa eh eee See eee 141
tesching to eat grain....... 141
Valilectols «6, oiaiors See aie ss seoneiel siete s 65

Cattle, number of different breeds

rezistered. in U.-S. ...45.- 43

Cheese, making of, on the farm 231
COLLAGE) ~ fre csi ncaie cos oreke oleae Fave <c 299
Sta OE 3 eee gop ener eer Rote 299
Churninge, dificult, .......< 0.5. 285
fresh «Crear ChOl ae-c.515 seit sien 278
teMBeratyives < sce. cee ss & 0 PATE
Club cheese; makine sor... .--. 301
Coagulating milk for cheese.... 294
Colorine buliher™ cc so: oe ocr = 2 oe 289
Composite samples of milk..... 99
Composition of average butter.. 2890
averaze normal milk........ 254
corn in different growing

SAGES icicle eislaeciotaleirNeiielsieie 188

TECUR A ciclo ik vis mabalo len eue ee es ee 157

milk from different breeds... 53
milk—whole, skimmed and
whey ies
Constitution of dairy cow....... 30
Cocling milk, importance of..... 259

dll

312 INDEX
Page Page
Cost, caleulating, of ration for Cows, “poise of cae. se nese 29
GatEy COW. occ s <iere axel laie eels 214 profitable users: of field crops
mille “productionm® 2. je aenee 64 2. Dison
by different authorities 74, 79 profits from power of re-
outline "of (stildys sss ose. 80 production’ Geenesenmee cee slic:
operating milking machine purchase of good dairy...... 108
Vide Jorenorol ieab li suavers 4 Aiea 6 A 240 raising a good dairy cow... 134
raisine a dairy heifer. .2.... 145 record of each cow in herd
‘Cows, amount of manure from.. 13 64, 79, 84
basics Hationss sore soeeceeers 210 relation of form to function
beef value after dairy useful- 21, .81
TESS ey ee ee ee: 19, TL release of milk by....,..... 243
breaking to milking machine 241 resting period: off =e naennee 230
reeds: Of =o ae ee ee 34 retain and increase _ pro-
breedine crate 2.6..60feens 124 tion. of “land. -j.0s cee 12
brings sure and quick returns 9 roots for “dairy... .--o-eeeee aber,
calculating cost of raton f-r 214 salt“in’ ration... .ceeee eee 159
ealculetion of balanced rat’on 165 score card for judging...... 32
care of, during fresheninz select and breed for milking
IBS BIB) machine 3.2055. eee 248
Carairotitoatsesri eee eee 229 selection of .........+....-. 19
eondition of, affecting rie?- silage foY . 622i HES 189
BLES Oe art ei a ea 2-1 soiline “crops «fo! shinee 174
constitution) iol) saa. aces ee 25) structure of udder.....,.. 1 218
SUlline GES MOO focce whee. 102 succulent feed for Mace eeverieee rae! B70
desirable format... .c..6.02- 20 testing associations and num-
determining production of.. 81 ber in United States ..95, 99
diagram, naming parts of.. 34 uses rough land profitably.. 11
difference in, for machine utilizing labor’... 242 t
PRUs se As mae a ees 241 variety of feeds for......... 211
effect of good feed and eare 104 water for, and functions of
effect of size on production 155 water for ....... see ev enaeens pate 199
effect of surroundings of, on weighing and testing milk
BREA ee RE Oe 135 from each .....++++.++-- 84
factors affecting Se i eo a 153 Crate, breeding weet eect ease 124
factors governing value of.. 62 Cream cheese, making Of iene 301
fall freshening most profit- Cream, buying stations: Ofaeeeeee 289
Pee ae RU Gece ma , 106 direct shipment of....... ae 290
feed and care during gesta- freshness of, for butter im-
LION PELIOUS aaieeiiseieearecrt 134 _pbortant .......... wo seiere ieee 278
feeding for maximum pro- richness of to skim, and se
GiUChione ee oo eet: 216 factors affecting ......... 273
fittine mi’king machine to.. 251 Creamery, local tee eee eee eee PASTS
function of feeds for........ 161 Crops, doubled in Denmark by _
general exvenses in keeping 73 dairy, farming eee 15
general form: Of. .2cin. 5/534 31 percent recovered by cow, hog
handling of kicking and and Steer, ...cinee een Aa. 5
SULCICLIN Goes ce ons clckora cr aoketenaro ns 229 soiling, for sows .......... 174
imoaromrte. ofl wclcan and Curing cheese. tasseicin 5 ar eens: reramene 298
healthy Nd oe _. 219 Cutting thelcurd eee Pics Owe 294
increasing production of: 102
interest and depreciation. . Te D
FUSING Ol CAA ce, conse histo 20
larze producers most profit- Dairy cow (see Cows)... 5-. eee £0
UD Griect ac cnopth a, ob whatateroeuae cane = 645 °=67 Dairy products, amount and value
lengthening of milk period... 231 of In’ United States s-eece 1
MASHES LOT jane vite ees ees 179 Gizestibility of @ .4.e25 see 4
medium for marketing a Deiryivrg, reduces expense of m r-
GLOPS' Sieh ids Son hero eee 63 ketine” field Jcrovss sce 15
milk fever and treatment ” 939 winter most profitable ..70, 1035
millkeine Of jicewsiem sioner oes 218 Devon ‘cattle 2.22 fies 59
minerals in, ration for...... 153 addre-s of breed secretary.. 61
number of in United States 1 Geserintion! Of. 41.2 erates 56
order of feedine =. :2. 22... eal Dexter. cattle 22: ¢.23 ioe 61
pasture rasses*’for.....3.-. Lil address of breed sccretary.. 61

INDEX a3
Page Page
Dexter cattle, number rezi-tered HMolstein-Friesian, champion cow 51
iIne-United’ Statest ws. 2 43 desermtion- iO oo: seek e ee be 43
Wiumenit churning? ..lsin.es c< + + 285 number registered in the
Disbrow milking machine....... 262 Umited States *io.0 5.166 a: = 40
Wroeh: belheds Cattle ceue-s..0<6< 56
“address of breed secretary... 56 I
MESCHIPELONG Of .c sis coinitinataes 56
number registered in United Iee on the dairy farm...... grave), QO
States) csmnice wa wees Seciecs Inbreeding; eltect Of. -.ctas 5. om «ie 119
E A
Empire milking machine ,...... 258 Jerseys Cattle: So eee ase oe 46
JENS (GAH TE (C) ee Se da a ee ed 28 address of breed secretary... 48
champion (cow. scenes ances 48
F aesctription (Of >. 2a. s<isso. 4b
number’ registered in the
Feeding, amount end quality of mnited “States: so, cectecate sc 43
mukeforycolvesi. sect si. 142
amount of concentrates...... 208 K
amount of roughage........ 206
basic Die Os) Seema cine 210 RGELY VCaAthlae oecinke cacecen aaee 5 al
for maximum ae ae 216 - address of breed secretary... fl
Mrashesias +25). Geers Sm. Se ess 179 number’ registered in the
eRIrEl kta Rely eve doen ole Sicdoae inde ancien 211 Wnited States’ +. sme see tae 43
Rasture.crasses —. 55c. SPs Sk.. alia ;
MOOUS wore. eisai stake Stes 177 L
Bea gy i oe ik cooe oe lobe wo aeeete: onds 180; 192
Siandards<ot- 50. s a.e te 163, 170 Tabor) utilization of .-.52.)2.+ - 1
AIG LY ta OLA masieit js cate ck nenete are Zit Lactation, when to start milking
Fertilizers, artificial, amount usel Machine cisn oe eae a Pee!
im Wimited States= 5 ai... 3. 14
French-Canadian cattle ........ 61 M
eddress of bre71 secretary.. 61
number registered in United : sea - ;
ee a eh es ag. SCHBNG, sol bine Vere Seca
chief parts of milking ma-
G CHING? tateeke Lo Sassen his hone 238
fwemanew Cattle... 65 oT SsS. we os 44 eee epee ee 252
address of bree! secretary.. 46 cost of operating Ss Sa AG
champion ROWE Boe ae ee are 45 depending on manner of re-
PES ETO: OL 1c dhetncrecil tye =e 44 leasing inill..\...2..06. . 243
number registered in United difference in cows eee Pe 241
tAHES me set octets teased ae bee 44 imporatnce of cow giving
ilonyaateycanil ie) eh me ean eye ee Aa!
i keep sanitary .ce eo ee 253
machine milking and _ ab-
Haecker’s table, requirements for normal milking = ......«. 254
milk, production and main- milk elaboration and opera-
[HEsmah OV Gs yep eee ee 307 COIS oes eens 241, 249
of nutrients in a pound of relatiom toi GOW? jc ees seit 251
RE COMTOE MLE L ots crcyaie ae.clenia 308 select and breed right cows
ENerraedepet Wat SUI so feos ccs cea caret bee 235 5 oy ae RRC ete anid tear 248
Heating the curd for cheese.... 294 stage of lactation period for
Herd, dairy, improvement of by Staring. ee weene eee 244
MEG Ol eSILCS) os. cece ts ooleus a 109 symmetrical and wall shaped
hereditary, a factor in build- WAGES LOT ces. eyaeoeee ee 247
Fae he A See SD a en eet 115 Management, effect of good herd 106
keep sire sevarate from..... 120 Manure, amount produced by cow 13
Here‘litary, a factor in builcing composition of from farm
PATENT ete ous,'c cvoue te orecate vavehate a 115 AMIMIAIS eye pacer s)diors Pe bs
Hinman milking machine....... ail Waller Ok ticacnie lemons eee 66
Holste*n-Fries‘2an cattle ........ ; velue of, for farm products 12
address of breed secretary 51 MWarketime putter” .25-«. +5 <6 (ves BOS

314 INDEX
Page Page
Marketing butter, methods of P
affecting income ...... svar. Che ;
Mashes for dairy cows...... ie STG Packing; butter) 2... oanen eee 284
Mehring milking machine....... 262 Pasture grasses for cows ...... nba
Milk, amount of and quality of Pedigree, extended and tabulated 129
fO¥ CAVES ams wos a 142 value Of «1.1... sess eee eee 126
ae composition of..... 264 pore oa ue ae teen. ae
BOCTCTIAS. tandrattysscitond cokers ree 266 : e, ma OL... see
corbpcsite samples of........ 90 Pressing cheese. 324.5 2.2 eee 295
composition of, from different Production, effect of ancestors
DRECUSH part aie ccna ome ae 53 Pe ee oe 109, 115
composition of, whole, form of cow indicating. aA ye ey)
skimmed and whey....... 146 Increasing of Cairy herd.... 102
condition of cow affecting
MIGUNESE MOG To 54 ne Boe an 231 Q
experiments at Oregon Sta-
RIOM Stace scene ecthete sti tobe ai PAL : .
factors affecting richness of 264 Quabity;,. importance: (Gh aaa
DOSES = 6.64 eee 263, 272
fever, treatment and preven-
TION Weetctanrter tele hoe se eter ote 232
LOM HOULLET celta cele. tte 273 R
TOE CHEESE cet rcreie ines oho Casein 291
handling and_ marketing.... 264 Records, keeving for each cow
handling of, for dairy prod- z 64. 79, 84
UWICTS cata etcecsale evens eteneree ale Se 273 tables: for. .:2 eee iy .86, 89
ge ae of cooling ‘and sacs value of. dairy,-herd ....... . 99
TS PS AEE SE EH : ed: Poll. cattle l. ic: ace 57
Deane us at Ta RE. 64 bt ates of breed secretary... 57
’ F-4 [u) i WL, sae) coy mie caer eieatieel 58
fferent authorities ...... ian 9 devon ae >| ee ee 57
ssa eee cost of by outline ae number registered in United
UUY ccc cer ce es ees ane States. 2.0 scsc oo 43
sere dene ape and moa, eas Beunet connulate milk with.... 201
tee ee eee © Yr dair rE
skimmed for calves ........ 145 ee asa
substitutes fore iss oe cose 147
table for records ........ be 89 Ss
testing by Babcock method. 94
VEINS se eee ewes eee eee sees 26 Salt for dairy cows...........-. 159
weighing and testing from Salting butter. 54s. snee eee 282
Wie: COW -secereeececeees ie Sanitary condition of milking
MAAC TRNGS (8 3 cisigin's 8 nin ols ao sin iets a/o'e = machine |. ...(ssis1 eee 253
completeness: Of 2.0.6.5 aes 227 Score card me sie Bam lecae Cee 32
ee eee naee sees a Secours in calves, white and com-
m OL ats \ekss=1° MON (oss @ Aas Sea eee 150
in sanitary utensils ........ 227 Separator, condition sof... ...s 277
machines, kinds of .....238, 255 Sharples miking machine....... 259
manner of, affecting richness 265 Shorthorn catt’e ................ 59
oe Be eroceiire waytele cine aoe address of ‘breed secretary... 61
MMELHOUS) OL Ves eee lelele aieleialociic ddres dai Shortho
period, lengthening of ...... 231 a cate taki - ss Ve oe : pie 61
Minerals, in cow’s ration........ 158 description of .............. 59
in foods elaieeree alee elevele len biets hie 309 number registered in the
United States4- eee ee 43
Silage; ‘advantage! of... -2- oe 180
N composition of corn for..... 188
fermentation .of one 190
~ * FYOZEN .eis0-o Ce Oe eee 195
Neufchatel cheese, making of.... 300 harvesting... 183
sealing. .-0)s, dish ace eee 189
Silos; “kinds of!) Jy... cae 195
0 table showine capacity of... 198
Sire, function of good dairy.... 112
Organic and mineral analysis of handling: of icross==.en eee 122,
FOOUS' U ccistcneherers ee eiece000, OLU keep separate from herd.... 120

INDEX ais
Page Page
Sire, use of = ecbhoahecele sialeaisss eve oF U
value o OGG” GAINY se bs cies 1 2 ; d
Soiling crops ald aed methods Udder, capacity and quality of.. 24
hi toeding otk cook ao 174 Structure! Ofessts i smisisis'e ae 218
‘atisties, amount and value in treatment of swollen........ 224
Tinited States “20. .23..23: 1 well shaped for machine
TUN Senta aoe ee 247
Universal milking machine...... 262
T Utensils, clean and sanitary..... 227
a1zible, digestible protein and net — Vv
CROCE aie sina are bc neresee - 806
CUI TNA GLOE 8 fresco isve re tera sober 3056 Value, economic and esthetie of
nutrients in a pound of feed- COW feet ronians eA gtarccs outers 62
AMES EUS 2 Se ae SA eet 308 of good dairy sife........... 114
crganic and mineral analys‘s Ofepedigrée soc. ee ee 126
DE tOOOS tos, ee ot oh havens © 309, 310
requirements of milk pro- W
duction and maintenance... 307 7
requirements for maintenance Water for dairy cows.......... 199
and) production 22.2.3... 305 warming for dairy herd..... 204
femperature, for churning cream 279 Waterloo Boy milking machine.. 260
Mestine. association 33-... 0.5. 2. .:. 95 Washing sof butter..-e. aac cee 281
Testing associations, number of Weight, calves of different breeds
: each in United States.... 99 Bb DIBbN, oe as cote re coc eas 53
milk by Babcock method.... 94 Winter dairying ....25.6c8-«- 70, 106

Workinge“of butter w...2....0..¢ 283

we, e.

.

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NAME

ee
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