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MUCK MANUAL

FOB

FARMERS

A TREATISE ON THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS;

THE CHEMISTRY OF MANURES; INCLUDING ALSO THE SUBJECTS

OF COMPOSTS, ARTIFICIAL MANURES AND IRRIGATION.

BY SAMUEL L. I)ANA.

•'It is usual to help the ground with muck, and likewise to recomfort with muck,
put to the roots ; but to water it with muck-water, which is like to be more forci-
ble, is not practiced."— Bacoit.

FOURTH EDITION,
With a new Chapter on Bones and Saperphoaphatea.

NEW YORK:
C. M. SAXTON & COMPANY

AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHERS

1856.

• -•- • •

c^.~H^ >^^

^h^.^'^

^.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by S. L. Dana, in the

Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of New York.

TO THE

CITIZENS OF LOWELL,

THXSE PAGES, THE PITH OF EIGHT LECTUKES ON THB
CHEMISTRY OF SOIL AND MANURE,

DELIVERED BY THEIR REQUEST,

mvz aaesiJectfullg finscrfbcTr,
BY IHE AUTHOR.

678993

The dedication of tMs volume sliows its origin and
object. The Author is not an agriculturist, he does
not assume the name even of agricultural chemist.
Practical chemistry is his profession, and has been for
some thirty years. During the greatest portion of
this time he has been attached as chemist to the Print-
works of the Merrimack Manufacturing Company, in
Lowell. While pursuing there, during the years 1835,
'36, and '37, researches on the action of cow-dung in
calico dyeing, he pushed his inquiries, as a recreation
during his few leisure hours, into the nature and action
of manures and of soil.

Conversation on these matters with the geological
surveyor, and with the agricultural commissioner of
Massachusetts, led to a correspondence between the
parties, which partly appeared in the published reports
on the geology and agriculture of Massachusetts. This

(5)

VI PREFACE.

induced some zealous and active citizens of Lowell, to
ask me to deliver a course of lectures on agricultural
chemistry. My reading on that subject had been very-
limited; yet, willing to contribute my mite to so
good a cause, and to embody my own notions on this
subject, notes for the lectures were prepared week by
week as they were delivered; and urged to their pub-
lication, the notes were thrown into chapters and sec-
tions, and so the book appeared at last, divested of
the colloquial style befitting the lecture room, and so
much condensed as to be scarcely recognizable as lec-
tures. The work was favorably received at home
and abroad; where a considerable portion was re-
printed. It has passed through several editions, each
being enlarged by the addition of new matter, to keep
pace with the times. To the present edition is added
an entire new chapter on bones, and superphosphates
of lime and alkalies. Should another edition be called
for, I trust it will be then and there shown in a new
chapter on the analysis of the mineral part of soil,
that, agriculture in demanding of chemistry any real
practical result from such analyses of soils beyond
this, their great uniformity of composition, is asking

PREFACE. Vll

an impossibility. That is my opinion. Not so with the
vegetable part of soil. I have endeavored in the fol-
lowing pages to set forth the high importance of deter-
mining the state and condition of this ; to show that
its presence in soil is of the utmost consequence, and
that, without it, full crops are not to be raised. This
is my conviction.

One word respecting the title of my book. It is
my own. I have neither begged, borrowed, or stolen
it. That last has been done by an English Author,
who seems to be ashamed not of the act, but of the
name he has filched from me, and so eases his con-
science by apologizing for his "homely title."

I shall not discredit my child by being ashamed of
his name. It was good at the christening, and I trust
■ will be thought respectable in manhood.

S. L. D.

Lowell, June Ist, 1865.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

GKOiiOGT OF Son. Page 17

Objects of agricultural chemistry ; objects and nature of agricultural geology ;
definition of the terms, primary and secondary ; rocks have one common origin ;
the terms primary and secondary soil are useless ; rocks and soil are to be classed
by their origin and distribution ; in their origin all rocks are igneous or by fire ;
chemical constitution of all rocks similar ; there is one rock and one soil ; chem-
ical constitution of rocks does not affect the vegetation over them ; geographical
distribution of plants ; the laws which govern it ; rocks do not form the soil
which covers them ; general uniformity of chemical composition of foil ; proofs
of general uniformity of composition ; from Massachusetts soil, 146 specimens,
and from various parts of the world, 267 specimens ; remarks on soil analyses,
all are imperfrct approximations only to truth ; the largest portion of soil, least
liable to be affected by different modes of analysis ; by any mode, soil divides
itself into two portions — soluble and insoluble ; several elements in soil often
educed by analysis, which should be included in the insoluble portion of soil ;
carbonate of lime, too often a product, not an educt of analysis ; potash and
soda of soil to be considered generally as combined with the organic matter ;
clay, iron, magnesia to be included in the insoluble ingredients ; plaster, phos-
phate of lime, or bone-dust in the soluble ingredients of soil ; division of ele-
ments of soil into soluble, insoluble, and salts of lime ; table of analyses of 413
soils from all parts of the world ; principles deduced from this table and its re-
salts ; rule for calculating the amount per acre from results per 100 parts of
soil ; analyses of vine grown on soils formed from different geological districts.

CHAPTER II.

CHKsncAL CoNsrrnmoN of Rocks and Soim • . . 38

Different views taken of rocks by geologists, mineralogists and chemists ; farmer
takes only the chemical view ; nature of agricultural mineralogy ; farmer must
understand the results of the analysis of minerals ; division of the thirteen sub-

{9\

I CONTENTS.

stances forming rocks, into silicates, metalloid compounds, salts,— explanation of
these terms ; chemistry of soil ; chemical notation ; the three laws of affinity
explained ; constitution of simple minerals composing rocks ; rocks are masses
of silicates ; the whole is dived into three classes only.

CHAPTER III.

Of the Elements of Soil, their Properties and Chemical Action 52

The common properties of the bases of silicates ; characters of the class metal-
loid compounds ; particular description of silicon, or the base of flinty earth ;
composition of granite and the soil which it forms ; quantity of alkalies in bar-
ren plains; all soil contains lime, alkali, &c., — enough for any crop grown on
it ; action of air and moisture upon soil, produces salts ; origin of sulphate and
phosphate of lime in soil ; all soil contains these substances.

CHAPTER IV.

Of TBS Organic CoNSTrrcrENTS of Son, 64

Number of substances forming plants ; what the organic constituents of soil are ;
they are formed by the action of the living plant; plants draw^ their inorganic
constituents ready formed from the soil ; two great divisions of the elements of
soil into the organic and inorganic ; soil composed of either division alone, bar-
ren ; of the laws of substitution and replacement, which affect agriculture,
organic matter in soil must be undergoing change ; fertility depends on chemi-
cally induced motion ; of decay and putrefaction ; difference of products of
putrefaction in free or confined air ; in free air, products are water, carbonic
acid, and ammonia : in confined air, besides these, various compounds of sul-
phur, phosphorus, and carbon, with hydrogen ; products vary according as the
decaying body is on the soil, in the soil, or in the subsoil ; hydrogen always in
excess ; importance of this principle ; decay always results in a substance
termed geine ; this is a generic name including several products ; at least seven
well-defined substances found in geine, viz. : ulmin and ulmic acid, humin and
humic, geic, crenic and apocrenic acids ; division of these forms of geine into
the hydrogen, oxygen, and neutral groups ; of the order of the products of de-
composition, of decaying matter in soil ; ultimate products are carbonic acid
and water ; crenic and apocrenic acid when pure contain no nitrogen ; no
ground for division of forms of geine into nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous ; all
forms may contain nitrogen as ammonia ; geine divided into soluble and insol-
uble ; characters of the two classes ; how distinguished by their relation to acids;
the organic acid seldom found free in soil ; several bases may be found in com-
bination with one acid forming soluble salts, which contribute to the growth of
plants ; detailed account of crenic and apocrenic acids ; two constant sources
of reproduction of these acids ; of the formation of nitric acid, and nitrates and

CONTENTS. XI

apocrenates in soil, by transformations of geine ; crenic and apocrenic acids
mutually convertible ; all the transformations of geine, worthy of study ; geine
is essential to agriculture, Appendix to Chap. iv. p. 100 ; of the chemical his-
tory of geine and recent researches of Mulder on this subject ; reasons why geine
is essential may be deduced from Mulder's researches.

CHAPTER V.

Of the McTUAi Acnox of thk Organic and Inorganic Elkmknts of Soil . . . 101
Theoretical and practical farmers both aim at the same object ; the action of the
elements of soil to be considered in two ways — 1st, the mutual chemical action
of the organic and morganic parts — 2d, the influence of growing plants on this
action ; of the importance of salts to this action ; of the action of carbonic acid
and the carbonates upon the silicates of soil ; of the modification produced upon
this action by the presence of life ; of catalysis or the action of presence, by
yrhich life acts ; of the action of mineral manures in agriculture ; their earthy or
alkaline part always acts one way ; their acid part produces differences of ac-
tion ; illustration and explanation of the action of salts or mineral manures ; of
the action of nitre ,* of lime ; of ashes ; of the composition of leached and
unleached ashes.

CHAPTER VI.

Manurb , 131

Manures contain all the elements which plants want— are divided into three
classes ; choice and determination of a standard of value for manures ; nitro-
gen, geine, and kind of salts determine the value of manure ; pure cow-dung
the type of ail other manures ; its composition and analysis ; yearly produce of
salts and geine by one cow ; the action of manure referred to the joint effect of
al! its components ; its action due chiefly to its ammonia ; origin of this in dung ;
of the composition and value of horse-dung; fermented horse-dung less valuable
than cow-dung ; reasons why ; mode of making good yard manure from horse
stable-dung ; of yard 'manure ; importance of kind of litter ; relative value of
different straws ; fermentation and age ; its effects on value of yard manure ;
long and short, or strong and fat muck ; loss of bulk by age ; statement of com-
position of yard manure ; its amount of nitrogen and ammonia ; comparative
weights of equal bulks of ox and horse manure ; drainings of manure heaps ;
their composition and value ; of the composition and value of human excrement ;
analyses of human excrement by Berzelius, and by Fleitmann ; great amount of
phosphates found by the last-named chemist ; night-soil, what ; its quality ; how
affected by its source ; of hog-manure ; sheep-manure ; of the quantity of manure
from 1000 sheep daily ; table of composition of ashes of the excrements of pig,
cow, sheep, and horse ; relative effect of these manures, and of night-soil ; on
what it chiefly depends ; nitrogen expresses the true value of manure : circum-

Xll CONTENTS.

stances which limit and modify this principle ; stale in which nitrogen should ex-
ist in manure, to become a measure of its value ; nitrogen must exist as ammo-
nia, or in a combination which readily permits the formation of ammonia : in
salts, the ease with which nitrogen is given up by different salts containing it, af-
fects their value ; time an element in determining value of manure ; in organic
matter, nitrogen effective in proportion to rapidity of decay ; distinction to be
noted in salts, between the action of the base, and a nitrogenous acid combined
with it ; influence of pure salts of ammonia ; their value is almost in direct ratio
to their nitrogen, modified by ease of decomposition ; proofs from Kuhlman's ex-
periments ; 100 parts nitrogen in manure, whatever its origin, produces in like
circumstances like effects ; influence of moist and dry seasons on manure ; am-
monia in manure is ordinarily in the state of carbonate ; comparative effects of
carbonate and sulphate of ammonia, used as manure ; Jacquemart's experiments
with these salts ; proof of the principle that nitrogen determines the value of
manure, drawn from effect of nitrate of soda ; nitrogen enables plants to grow
more in given time ; general account of its effects in agriculture ; of gadou or
Flanders' manure, mode of preparing ; its value and effects ; poudrette, what it
is ; preparation of ; description of the process for preparing poudrette in France,
the birth-place of this manufacture ; suggestions for making poudrette near all
large cities and towns ; " animalized black," what ; cost and value of poudrette ;
of the composition and effects of guano ; its actual money value to the farmer ;
of the value of the droppings of domestic fowls ; of the composition of fish, flesh,
fowl, gristle, skin, sinews, &c. ; they all afford mineral, vegetable and animal
salts; of the composition of the great bulk of animal bodies, fibrine, albumen,
caserne ; vegetables afford similar products ; these similar and identical products
form proteine ; of its composition and value as a manure ; of the value of sinews,
gristle, skin, hair, horns, nails, wool, and feathers ; all animal and vegetable
products form two classes, that which does and that which does not contain nitro-
gen ; of the composition and value of bones as a manure ; of fats and oils ; of
soot ; of spent lye ; of artificial spent lye ; of liquid animal manures ; of the pe(;u-
liar principle which gives them their value ; its analysis, composition and action ;
of the analysis of cattle urine — its value as a manure ; urine of the horse, sheep,
and hog ; of human urine— its value and composition.

CHAPTER VII.

Artifictal Manures, and Irrigation, 208

Of the nature, analysis and composition of peat, swamp-muck and pond mud ; what
is wanting to give these the value of cow-dung is alkali ; of the relative value of
ammonia, potash, soda, and ashes, which may be used for this purpose ; of the
quantity in which these may be added to a cord of peat ; of the compost of peat
Avith animal manure ; of the various substances used for forming artificial ma-
nure with p«at, and their relative value ; of the use of peat recently in France ;
use of dried peat and ammoniacal salts ; its value compared with poudrette ; of
gas liquor and peat ; mode of forming gas or peat poudrette at gas works ; of
composts without peat or stable manure ; of Jauffret's principles of composting •

CONTENTS. Xlll

of the value of different straws for this purpose ; of the principles of irrigation ; of
the action of pure and impure water ; of tlie composition of the deposits from
freshets ; the nature, action, and value of rain and snow, in agriculture ; " snow
the poor man's manure," — how far this is true ; of paring and burning ; of turn-
ing in green and dry crops.

CHAPTER VIII.

Phtsical Pbopkrths of Soil, 242

Great differences in soil depend upon physical not upon chemical properties ; physi-
sical properties independent of chemical constitution ; opinion of Liebig on this
subject ; physical characters of soil are dependent on its relation to heat, moist-
ure, consistency, and electrical state ; in all these relations, geine acts the chief
part ; of the quantity of water produced by the decomposition and waste of geine ;
the amount evaporated per acre from this source ; the quantity evaporated from
woodland, exceeds the amount of rain which falls ; of the waste of geine caused
by this evaporation of water ; of the proportion of carbon which is derived from
the soil, and from the air by forest trees.

CHAPTER IX.

BoNBS, Superphosphate OF Limb, AND rrs Preparation, 261

Of the composition of bones ; consist of an animal and of a mineral part ; bones
act as forcing vegetation or as developing and forming seed ; the first depends on
the fermentation of the animal part of bone, producing ammonia ; the second
action depends on the mineral part of bone ; bones seed formers, or root, leaf,
and stem formers ; bones to be studied as entire, or partially, or wholly deprived
of their gelatinous parts ; composition of entire bone ; no practical use to be
made of bone by the farmer, till the bone is reduced to powder ; of the composi-
tion of bone partially deprived of its animal parts ; how this is to be effected ; of
boiling and steaming bones ; how such bones are best used ; of bone ash, or bone
deprived of all its animal matter ; of sugar-house refuse, and animal black ; of
the treatment of l>one8 and bone ash by acids, as oil of vitriol, to produce super-
phosphate of lime ; no solution of bone in this case, is rather a pap-forming pro-
cess ; explanation and illustration of the process ; account of the properties of
phosphoric acid ; final result of the action of oil of vitriol on bones, in the right
proportion, is the formation of plaster, and superphosphate of lime with free oil
of vitriol ; of the quantity of oil of vitriol required by raw bones ; by bones
partly cooked ; by bone ash ; of the composition of superphosphate of lime ; of
its solubility in water ; of the process to be followed to prepare superphosphate
of lime, and of the cost of that product ; it should contain all the phosphoric acid
of bone in a soluble state ; great importance of this point ; how best effected ;
phoiiphoric acid must hot be free ; soluble alkaline phosphatfts most de.'*irable for

XIV CONTENTS.

the farmer ; recipes for forming such salts ; how these are to be used ; of their
effects, and of their general application ; of the effects of nitrogenous compounds
mixed with alkaline phosphates ; of the mixture of nitrates with alkaline phos-
phates ; and their cost ; recommendation of trial of mixture of superphosphates
and of fov/1 droppings.

Appendix, 269

Ikdex, 285

MUCK MANUAL.

m

MUCK M^NUA.L.

CHAPTER I.

GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

1. Agricultural chemistry aims to explain all the actions
of earth, air, and water, upon plants. It refers to all their
chemical relations, to the geology, mineralogy and chem*
istry of soil.

2. Agricultural geology explains the relations which soil
bears to plants, and the manner in which that affects vege-
tation.

3. Agricultural geology confines itself to facts. It digs
into the earth, observes what composes that. Conversant
only with facts, or logical deductions from these, it leaves
to geology proper, the vast mass of observations, supported
by the highest modern science, which teaches the origin,
mode of formation, original condition of our globe, and the
successive changes which it has undergone.

4. The terms, primary and secondary, used by geologists,
are almost parts of common language, — yet need to be ex-
plained to the farmer.

5. Large tracts of all extensive countries are composed
of rocks of a granitic texture. This needs no definition.
Such rocks having been observed to underlay all others, in
the scale of rocks composing the earth's crust, were called
primary. It was supposed that these were first formed.
Out of the ruins of these, no matter when or how ruined,

(17)

18 . GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

other rocks have been made, called secondary. The ruins
of the primary rocks have been transported by water, and
then gradually deposited layer upon layer. Under immense
pressure, these layers of mud, sand, fine gravel, rolled
stones, &c., have been hardened into solid rock, and have
formed sandstones, slates, or even rocks presenting the
crystalline structure or texture of granite, by the action of
heat, which the facts of modern geology teach exists in the
interior of our globe.

6. This internal heat is supposed to be the cause of volca-
noes, and the primary rocks to have been the ejections under
circumstances unknown, of the melted mass of the globe ;
ejections similar in kind to those of modern lava, but greater
in degree.

7. Intermediate between modern lava and primitive rocks,
and actually passing into either, is a large class of ancient
volcanic rocks, called trappean ; such are basalt, trap, green-
stone and highly crystalline porphyry.

8. However named and classed are the rocks of the
earth's surface, they have had one common origin, the molten
matter of the globe. Hence, having a common origin, their
ultimate chemical constituents are similar. If granitic rocks
have a certain chemical constitution, then sandstone, slate,
&c., having been formed from worn-out and worn-down
granitic rocks, have a constitution chemically like them.

9. To the agriculturist, the terms primary and secondary
are unnecessary. Equally so are all distinctions of soil
based on these terms.

10. Soil is the loose material covering rocks, and it is
supposed to have been formed from their decay. Both are
to be classed by their origin. The origin of rocks refers not
only to the mode of their first formation, but to their subse-
quent arrangement. The origin of all rocks, geology

GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 19

teaches, is from the molten matter of the globe. These
have been afterwards, in some cases, removed by water, and
in part remodified by heat (5). Referring rocks to their
origin, they are divisible into two great classes.

1st. Those formed by fire.

2d. Those formed by water.

11. This division relates both to the origin and distribu-
tion. In their origin all rocks are truly igneous, or from fire.
In their distribution they are aqueous, or by water. This is
the only division necessary to the farmer. It is the division
taught and demanded by agricultural geology.

12. The first class includes all the highly crystalline rocks,
granite, gneiss, sienite, greenstone, porphyry ; it includes,
also, basalt and lava. The products of volcanoes, whether
ancient or modern, agricultural geology places in the same
class, including thus all that portion which forms the largest
part of the earth's surface.

13. The second class includes sand, clay, gravel, rounded
and rolled stones of all sizes, pudding-stone, conglomerates,
sandstones, slates. When these various substances are
examined, a large part of sand is found to be composed
essentially of the ingredients of the igneous rocks. This is
true, also, of sandstone, slate, of conglomerates, of bowlders.

14. There is a large deposit, or formation, in some dis-
tricts, composed almost wholly of some of the chemical
constituents of the igneous rocks, united to air. The con-
stituents are lime and magnesia ; the air is carbonic acid,
forming, by their union, carbonates of lime and magnesia.
Marble, limestone, chalk, belong to this formation. These
are not to be ranked as original igneous products subse-
quently distributed by "water. The lime, originally a part of
igneous rocks, has been separated and combined with air, by
animals or plants, by a living process called secretion. The

20 GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

modern production of carbonate of lime is still going on,
under the forms of shells and corals. Though belonging to
neither division, the subject will be simplified by referring
limestone to the second class of rocks ; but it is truly a salt,
and it will be discussed hereafter.

15. The chemical constitution of all rocks is similar. If
rocks are divided into two classes, the first composed of
those usually called primary, such as granite, gneiss, mica-
slate, porphyry ; and the second class, composed of rocks
usually called trappean, as basalt, green-stone, trap, then the
great difference in their chemical constitution is this :

The first or granitic class, contains about 20 per cent,
more of silex, and from 3 to 7 per cent, less of lime and
magnesia and iron, than the second or trappean class.

16. If the language of geology is borrowed, and rocks
which present the appearance of layers, or a " stratified
structure," are divided into two classes, fossiliferous and non-
fossiliferous, or those which do, and those which do not
contain remains of animals or plants, it will be found, that
the fossiliferous are neither granitic nor trappean, yet are
they to be classed with the last, agreeing with these, in con-
taining less silica, and more lime, magnesia, and alumina.

17. The stratified, non-fossiliferous rocks agree in chemical
composition with the granitic, and the fossiliferous with the
trappean and volcanic.

18. The trappean and fossiliferous contain the most lime
and magnesia ; the granitic and non-fossiliferous, the most
silex. The great difference in chemical composition between
the two classes, is produced by lime and magnesia, two sub-
stances which, more than all others, have been thought to
influence the character of soil.

19. The amount of this difference is about from 3 to 7
per cent. ; yet notwithstanding this, the general chemical

GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 21

constitution of all rocks approaches so nearly to similarity,
that this may be laid down as the first principle in agricultural
chemistry, that there is one rock, consequently one soil.

20. To the farmer all soil is primary. The question then
arises, How do rocks and soil affect vegetation 1 As a con-
sequence of the first proposition, it may be laid down as the
second principle of agricultural chemistry, rocks do not

AFFECT THE VEGETATION WHICH COVERS THEM.

21. This is opposed to the geological doctrine of the
times, and may seem to be opposed to the statement in
section 18. The difference there stated may be thought to
produce corresponding effects in vegetation. This would be
true if rocks exerted any influence on soils, due to their
chemical constitution. A survey of the geographical distri-
bution of plants, used for food, will show that the common
doctriniB of the chemical influence of rocks on vegetation is
not so well supported as to be considered an established
principle. It is not intended to deny that rocks do, by their
physical condition, aff*ect vegetation. Unless it is shown
that their physical state depends upon their chemical consti-
tution, the second principle must be admitted as a general
truth.

It has been distinctly avowed by Johnston in his " Lec-
tures," since the appearance of the first edition of these
pages, ** that where the soil forms only a surface layer of
considerable depth of transported materials, it may have no
relation whatever, either in mineralogical characters or in
chemical constitution, to the immediately subjacent rocks."

This is the general disposition of soil. It is admitted by
the author above quoted, that, in Great Britain, in some
counties, and in nearly all the coal-fields, " the general char-
acter and capabilities of the soil have no relation whatever
to the rocks on which the loose materials immediately rest."

22 GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

A distinguished authority in our country, Prof. Norton, of
Yale, formerly the pupil and assistant of Prof. Johnston,
speaking of very fertile soils, says that these always con-
tain " appreciable quantities of some ten or twelve sub-
stances. It makes no difference from whence you bring
such a soil, from what part of the world it comes, it will
invariably contain these elements in greater or less quantity."
(Agr. Address, Northampton, 1849.) Fertile soils are not
confined to particular rock formations; they are found
overlying all formations, — they are so independent of the
rock beneath, that they invariably contain similar elements.
Though it may seem premature to place before all who may
read this work the results of analysis, before they have
become familiar with chemical names ; yet those here used
are so common, that the proof adduced may not be misun-
derstood.

The analysis of the ashes of plants grown on different
geological formations, in soil which is stated to have pro-
ceeded from the decomposition of the underlying rock,
proves how little dependent is the plant on the chemical con-
stitution of the soil. The ashes of the grape-vine, grown on
four different soils, afforded,

I. II. III. rv.

Potash, 34.13 24.93 26.41 37.482

Soda, 7.59 7.00 8.57 1.336

Common salt, . . . 0.83 0.58 0.41 1.614

Lime, 30.28 35.94 31.78 34.344

Magnesia, 4.66 7.12 9.16 1.055

Phosphate of lime, 15.694

Sulphate of lime, . . 4.55 4.02 4.13 6.186

Peroxide of iron, . . 0.16 0.24 0.19 1 -564 ^ ^^^J^J^f^J^

Phosphoric acid, . . 16.35 19.55 16.87

Silica, 1.45 0.62 2.48 0.725

GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 23

In No. 4, all the phosphoric acid is included in the phos-
phate of lime, and iron. This analysis is by Crasso, the
others by Hruschauer.

No. 1 was grown on soil formed from the debris of
quartzose rocks, by the decomposition of gneiss, mica-schist,
clay-slate, chlorite, hornblende, quartz, and a little lime.

No. 2, from soil formed of decomposed limestone, variety-
called transition.

No. 3, from soil formed of decomposed mica-slate.

No. 4, " " " *' " porphyry.

It is evident, that where the soil has not proceeded from
geological drift, as in No. 1, widely different geological
formations affi)rd all the mineral elements of plants.

22. The plants used for food are cultivated on e very-
variety of rock foundation which the earth presents. Their
cultivation is limited neither by granitic nor trappean, by
fossiliferous or non-fossiliferous rocks. Their product varies
not more on different than on the same geological formation.
Everywhere, over every variety of rock, the cultivation of
the food-bearing plants repays the labor of the farmer.

23. Surveying Massachusetts, it is evident the grain crops
are not influenced by the peculiar rock formations over
which they are grown ; for in this State, with the exception
of modern volcanic rocks, all the various formations which
the earth presents are found. Yet no difference in the
quality and quantity of crops of rye, oats, barley, wheat,
Indian corn, is found, which can be attributed to different
geological tracts.

24. All plants have a natural limit, a peculiar region, in
which, unaided by the human,race, they flourish and spread
spontaneously. The smaller the limit of this natural boun-
dary, the more difficult is the cultivation of the plant, yet we
find that the natural boundary is passed, and so plants come

24 GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

to live in an artificial region. There is a natural, and there
is an artificial " habitat " or region ; and this last is either
horticultural, or agricultural. The first is unlimited, the
second is limited by the great external circumstances of
temperature and moisture.

25. The extreme north and south limits, which bound
the cultivation of the food-bearing plants, are determined
wholly by physical, physiological, and social causes. Tem-
perature is the great agent which limits the agricultural
" habitat " of the grain-bearing plants.

26. The distribution of plants is governed by the two fol-
lowing laws :

1st. The polar agricultural limits are bounded by lines
passing through places of equal summer heat.

2d. The equatorial limits, by lines of equal winter heat.

These lines are called respectively, isotheral, and isochi-
menal. They by no means coincide. They often cut each
other at right angles, and generally, from about the 45th
degree north latitude, they are parallel neither to one
another, nor to the latitude. They are often highly curved.

And now for the proof of these general laws. Beginning
with barley, the grain which has been cultivated the farthest
north, its fields are found in the extremity of Scotland, in
the Orkneys and Shetland Isles, 61 degrees N. ; in the
Faroe Islands, between 61 and 62^ degrees N. ; in Western
Lapland, near North Cape, in latitude of 70 degrees ; on the
borders of the White Sea, in Western Russia, between 67
and 68 degrees, and near to Archangel, in Eastern Russia,
about QQ degrees ; in Central Siberia, the limit of barley is
between 58 and 59 degreei N. There are no extended
observations of the temperature of the northern portions of
our own continent, and therefore the limit of barley in
Northern America is left undefined. But its European line

^ GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 25

■wilJ probably define that which will limit grain cultivation
in America.

Tracing a line through the points above named, it is the
northern boundary of all the cereals, or grains. A little
beyond this line is the boundary of the potato, and the belt
between the two is remarkable. It is the zone between
agriculture, and fishing, and hunting ; between races of men,
subsisting on animal and on vegetable diet, and those whose
chief food is animal. The northern cultivation of barley is
bounded, if its course be traced, by a very curved line. Is
this determined by geological causes, or do causes purely
physical erect a barrier to its further northward advance 1
The answer will be found in tracing the temperature of the
seasons of the different places, through which the limit of the
northern cultivation of barley passes. It will be evident
that the line of this limit is isotheral, for the mean tempera-
ture, Fahrenheit, is as follows:

Latitude.

Faroe Isles, . . . 61°— 62°
W. Lapland, . . . 70**
Russia, at the mouth of

the White Sea, . 66°— GS

Year
+45°

+33°8
-1-32^

Temperature of the

npoi

Wi
-f 39°
4- 21°2

+ 10°2— 8"8

inter. | Pummer.

1-510
k6°2

-HG°3

Casting the eye on this table, it is evident that the annual
and the winter temperature have little influence on the barley
limit, and that a mean summer temperature from 46*^ to 47°
is the only indispensable physical condition to the cultivation
of barley. On the Atlantic islands, a mean temperature
from 3 to 4 degrees higher is necessary, which compensates
for excessive humidity. It is remarkable, that all the cereals
have failed in Iceland, though its mean temperature is above
that necessary for barley. Nor is this owing to its geologi-
cal structure. In that it agrees with the fertile shores of
the Mediterranean. It is volcanic. So far as nitrogen, car-
2

26

GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

bonic acid, and ammonia, may be supposed to be evolved
from the earth, and to contribute to the growth of grain,
Iceland should equal fertile Italy. But such is not the fact,
and it goes to prove that rocks affect very little the crops
grown over them, even when the great physical element,
temperature, is as high as is necessary. That grains fail in
Iceland, is due to the excessively tempestuous rains -^vith
which that country is visited. If then the limit of barley is
defined by an isotheral line of 46^ degrees in Europe, that
will also limit its cultivation in America. So far as obser-
vation has extended, this is true, and the line of boundary is
equally curved, and winding. If a similar table for the limit
of wheat is constructed, by drawing a line through the most
northern places, where this grain has been cultivated, the
physical conditions essential to its cultivation will be found
as follows:

Latitude.

Scotland, (Inverness) 68°

Norway, (Drontheim) 64°

Sweden, 62°

St. Petersburgh, . . 60°25

Mean Temperature, Fahrenheit, of the

Year.

-|-46o3

+3905

+39°5

+38°

Summer.

+57°3
+59°
+59°
+60°8

Winter.

+36°5
+23°5
+2305
+15°6

North latitude 64 degrees appears, then, to be the utmost
limit of wheat. It is evident by inspection, that this is not
determined by the cold of winter ; for spring wheat would
not be affected by it ; and even if sown in autumn, in these
far northern regions, the seeds would be effectually pre-
served from the rigors of winter, by that thick mantle of
snow which becomes thicker and more lasting towards the
north. The temperature of the air exerts no influence on
seeds of plants buried under snow. Nor does the mean
temperature of the year exert any effect ; it is seen ranging
9 degrees, while the summer temperature varies only 3^
degrees. The summer temperature alone defines the limit

GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 27

of northern wheat cultivation, and this is an isotheral line
of 57.4 degrees. Yet it is found that there are places
where, as iu Russia, the mean of spring and autumn, both
depending on that of winter in part, are too low to allow
wheat to be raised under this line of 57.4 degrees. In
truth, the relation of climate to cultivation cannot be accu-
rately determined without observations on the mean tem-
perature of the days which elapse between sowing and
harvest, and to this point the philosophic farmer should
direct his attention. In our country, the isotheral line of
57.4 degrees, starting from Labrador, 51 degrees, and pass-
ing between Hudson's Bay and Lakes Superior and Huron,
50 degrees, then turns north and approaches 58 degrees. At
Cumberland House, 54 degrees north, Capt. Franklin
found fields of barley, wheat, Indian corn. When the line
approaches the Pacific Ocean, it turns more southerly to
compensate the increasing humidity. As the limits of barley
mark the boundary between the races of shepherds and
hunters and fishers, and thus presents itself in a moral
view, so the limit of wheat becomes interesting, from coin-
ciding in some parts with that of fruit trees, as apples and
pears, and also with that of the oak. The whole aspect, not
only of agriculture, but also of the orchard and forest,
changes at once on approaching the isotheral line of 57.4
degrees, the northern limit of wheat. It would be easy to
extend these remarks to rye, still the staple food of a large
part of the population of Europe, and to oats, little used for
food for man out of the " land o' cakes," yet growing in
Norway, as high as latitude 65 degrees. Each of these
grains has a distinct isotheral line parallel to that of wheat
and barley. Indian corn and the potato have each its
isotheral line. Turning to the equatorial limits of the grains
it will be found, that extreme heat arrests their cultivation.

28 GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

Observations in these regions, and experiments performed
by profound vegetable physiologists, confirm this statement.
They have proved that the seeds of the food-bearing plants,
even after germination has begun, can support greater de-
grees of drought and heat, than ever occur in the hottest
climates. The grains all germinate in the soil of a temper-
ature from 104 to 105 degrees, and require at least from
116 to 120 degrees to arrest this process. Barley ceases to
germinate at the lowest temperature. After barley, follows
wheat, then rye. Indian corn endures the highest heat, viz.,
120 degrees, before its germination is arrested. The grains
flourish under a mean annual temperature of from 77 to 80^
degrees. Defining their equatorial limits, they are bounded
not by lines of equal summer, but equal winter tempera-
ture; the reverse of their polar limits. Hence, climate
always determines the sowing season. In Bengal, wheat,
barley, oats, are sown in October, and harvested in March
and April, while rice and maize are sown in May, to be har-
vested in October. It is this line of equal winter tempera-
ture, or rather that of the coolest months, which allows the
grains to be cultivated in many places within the torrid zone,
and the line of 68 to 70 degrees Fah., which constitutes the
tropical limit of wheat culture, varies between 20 and 23
degrees of latitude. The other grains enduring from 5 to 7
degrees lower temperature, are found in higher latitudes.

27. The wide belt of our globe, comprised wnthin these
limits, extending from 20 to 70 degrees north latitude, pre-
sents every variety of geological structure ; yet nowhere,
in all this space, is the quantity or quality of crops affected
by the chemical nature of the underlying rocks.

28. A similar principle governs the growth and cultiva-
tion of the grain-bearing plants on mountains. Their limits
are found at heights w^hich correspond to the latitude which

GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 29

marks the isotheral line. In the Swiss Alps, the grains

cease growing at the following heights :

Wheat at 3400 feet, corresponding to lat. 64 degrees.
Oats " 3500 " " " 65 "

Rye " 4600 " " " 67 "

Barley " 4800 " " " 70

This shows a beautiful correspondence between latitude

and altitude, and leads a step farther in the proof of this

principle, that rocks do not affect the vegetation which covers

them.

29. The space which has thus been surveyed, presents,
amid great variety of rocks, a singular similarity in chem-
ical composition of the soil. 'J'hese facts lead to the third
principle of agricultural chemistry, rocks have not formed

THE SOIL WHICH IMMEDIATELY COVERS THEM.

30. Everywhere, with the exception of the tops of some ,
mountains, the rocks of the globe are covered, from a few'
inches, to some hundred feet in depth, with gravel, sand,
clay, rolled stones, sometimes alternately with each other,
sometimes in confused heaps. The best attested and most
universally admitted fact of geology, is, that the loose
materials of our globe have been transported, from a few, to
many hundred miles from their original situation. With a
few exceptions, the soil, which now covers rocks, has been
derived from places distant, and from rocks distinct, from
those on which it now reposes. This is peculiarly true of
soil on limestone districts, which does not contain more lime
than the soil reposing on granite.

31. Transportation of soil is a fact so well established,
that it needs only to be mentioned. There has been a uni-
versal mingling of the loose material, soil, derived from
worn-down and mingled rocks.

32. The same uniformity of chemical composition charac-

80 GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

terizes soil, which characterized rocks ; that is, great similar-
ity, but not identity, and it is on limited patches only, that
soil partakes decidedly of the character of the underlying
rocks.

33. The extensive analyses of soil, executed by the geo-
logical surveyor of Massachusetts, taken from every variety
of rock formation, present a remarkable uniformity, both of
chemical constitution, and mineral oglcal composition of the
earthy ingredients. In one hundred and forty-six soils of
Massachusetts, the combinations of lime, clay, iron, &;c.,
estimated as in the state of bone-dust, are per 100

parts, 0.859

Similar matters in the state of plaster are per 100

parts, 1.823

The surveyor suggests the subtraction of -J from the amount
representing matters allied to bone-dust, to reduce that to
pure bone-earth. A less amount should be allowed in
the matters allied to plaster. If 31 per cent, be deducted
from the sum of the plaster and bone-dust, the result is
1.851.

Lime, in the state of marble or limestone, was found in
fourteen of one hundred and forty-six soils. Except in
limestone regions, the natural existence of lime in the state
of marble or chalk in soil is very questionable. Adding its
average amount as found in the soil of Massachusetts, viz.,
0.916, the result is, — lime in various forms, — 2.047, fine
earthy matter insoluble in weak acids, 89.305. What is
true of the soil of Massachutetts is true of all soil — great
similarity of its mineral constituents, both in kind and pro-
portion. This is the truth, deducible from the average re-
sults of analyses of soil from various parts of the world.
But it may be said that the above numbers have been
deduced from the results of the examination of a very lim-

GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 31

ited portion of our country ; that the analyses have been
conducted hy a new process ; that the soil examined rests
chiefly on granitic rocks, and has been thence derived. Had
the field been wider, or the process different, the results
would have been different.

All analysts, from the earliest times, have found a very
large per centage of soil insoluble in acid or alkali. The
object of chemists has been, by the aid of water and weak
acids, by the gentlest means to separate the elements
of soil. Others have used fiercer means, and have attacked
the insoluble portion of soil, by means common to the
analysis of intractable stones, by fusion with alkali, followed
by treatment with acid. By either mode the mineral part
of soil is separated into two general divisions, into soluble
and insoluble portions.

This is to be observed of all soil analyses, by whomsoever
or howsoever made, that while all are imperfect approxima-
tions only, to truth, yet the insoluble ingredients are the
substances which from their chemical constitution are least
affected by the various modifications to which soil analyses
have been subjected. Whatever modes may have been
used, in all, the insoluble substances make up the great bulk
of soil presented in the per centage result, as, "silica,
silicious residuum, sand and clay, insoluble mineral matter,
fine earthy matter, sandy residuum."

In the analytical results, alumina, or clay, oxide of iron,
or iron rust, and magnesia, are frequently stated in separate
amounts. These substances have been educed by analysis
from their combinations, yet are they for the most part a
portion of the insoluble compounds variously designated
above, and should be included in that class. The " alumin-
ous residuum," or clay, is certainly an earthy compound
only.

82 GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

Lime generally exists in the state of plaster, or bone-dust,
or sometimes as limestone. In truly calcareous or limy soil,
lime may form several per cents. But such soils are the
exception, not the rule, of the earth's covering. It is soil,
in its universal features, to which attention is here directed.
Lime has been very often, perhaps generally, separated from
its earthy combinations, and has been separately stated as
carbonate of lime in soil ; as such it has been too often a
product, not an educt of analysis.

So, too, of potash and soda, when these exist in other
forms than as common salts, they are usually in soil in com-
bination with its vegetable matter, and are to be considered
with that element.

These considerations authorize the inclusion of clay, iron
and magnesia in the insoluble division of soil, while the
bone-dust and plaster naturally existing and soluble by the
aid of natural water, or more easily by rain water, are to be
included in the soluble portion.

Bearing this division in mind, let the examination of soil
be extended to other districts of our country, w^ here the soil
resting on an immense field of limestone, underlaid by the
rocks which were referred to (16) as fossil iferous, has been
examined by the process applied to Massachusetts soils — yet
with such modification as to procure a portion of clay, iron
and magnesia separately from the insoluble substances.

Fifteen soils, from Wisconsin and Iowa, gave per 100
parts —

Insoluble in weak acid, ..... 82.500

Clay, iron, magnesia, 5.600

Adding these, the sum is . , . . . 88.100
Lime in various forms of limestone and plaster, 1.860
The soil of these immense regions shows not so intimate

GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 83

a relation to the underlying rock as do the soils of New
England. These western soils are convincing proof of the
third principle (29).

But the same proof of the independence of soil and of its
uniform composition, is afforded by the results of the exam-
ination of the continental European soils. Forty -eight soils,
from Germany, Holland, Belgium, Hungary, Bohemia, by a
process very different from either of those which had been
used in the analyses above stated, by an acute and intricate
mode of operation afforded

Insoluble, 87.053

Soluble clay, iron, magnesia, . . . 5.853

92.906
Lime in various forms, — as plaster, bone-dust, lime-

' 1.860

M^uue, .....

Taking these several results, we have

. . x.ouw

Soils. Insoluble.

Forms of lime.

146 Massachusetts, . . 89.305

2.047

15 Wisconsin and Iowa, . 88.100

1.860

48 European, . . . -92.906

1.860

209 3)270.311 3)5.767

Mean, .... 90.103 1.922

Excluding that form of lime whose existence as limestone
naturally in Massachusetts soil is very questionable, the lime
in her soil would be represented by 1.851. The average of
the forms of lime would then be in the above 209 soils,
1.857, which is only 0.006 more than that of Massachusetts,
while the insoluble portion of her soil is actually very near
the mean of the whole. "^

But if the comparison is to be made with other soils^-'the
2*

84: GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

limestone is to be retained. Other soils have this element
included in the result of their analyses; and it is with the
like exceptions, as liable to be there misplaced as in the soils
of Massachusetts. Retaining, therefore, all the lime, a still
wider examination will show the great uniformity in chem-
ical composition of all soil.

The results may be tabulated as follows, dividing, as has
been explained, all soil into insoluble, soluble, and forms of
'lime. The soluble includes clay, iron, magnesia, the forms
of lime, plaster, bone-dust and limestone.

GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

a »^ i-i &3Kioii-'>-' OS MH--»K)o«i-'i->MwI<>.o.^2^

iNo. of Soils
1 Examined.

C. T. Jackson

C. T. Jackson,

0. T. Jackson, ;
Hitchcock, .
Whittlesey & Randall,

D. D. Owen, .
C. T. Jackson,
Silliman, Jr., .
Muller, .
Laugier,
Plagne, .
Sprengel,
Sumner,

Payen, . . .

Hermann,

Piddington, .
Piddington, .
Davy, .
Playfair,
Fownes,

Fownes,

Spencer,
Sprengel,

Hitchcock, .

3
n

2.

f

a
p

1

Maine,

Rhode Island

New Hampshire, ....'.
Illinois and Ohio,

Mississippi, alluvial, 100 m. above N. OrlennR.

Mud of the Nile,

Mud of the Rhine, in freshet, .

Senegal,

Coromandel, sandy and mixed soils,

Java, .

Batavia, .......

Russia (Tschornoizem), its best black and

most fertile soil,

Southern Russia, and common to Siberia and
parts of Hungary, ....

Chinese tea soil,

Assam tea soil,

English soils, highly cultivated,
" " Sutton, in Norfolk, .
** " clay soils, from new red sand-
stone, ....
" ** valley of Thames, Battersea

mould

" Yorkshire, lower magnesian limestone,
Germany, Holland, Belgium, Hungary, Bohe-
mia,

From all the various formatioasin Massachu-

r

p

p

E.

p
g

75.960
82.720
87.953
83.060
86.430
82.500
81 400
47.390
17.050
83.400
73.000
67.660
43.

79.295

85.660
76.000
84.880
85.466
81.400

64.800

54.800
80.

87.063
89.305

Insoluble
Soil.

7.700
5.874
6.981

.730
5.600
7.000
33.300
73.250
4.860
17.

26.202
22.300

11.540

18.000
1^500
7200
8.920

•23.600

20.200
10.075

5.853

Soluble Soil.

to

2

bo coi»i. k) tot-' iu bo w bbbooisi-'libo'i-'

Lime m form
of bone-dust,
pla8ter,chalk
or carl)onate.

If

II

1

1.78 as carbonate of lime, 0.60
phosphate, 2.32 sulphate of lime.

S86 of these soils soluble in weak
acid.

Carbonate of lime.

Carbonate of lime.

0.60 dissolves in water.
0.80 dissolves in water.

8 soils have carb. sulph. and phost.:
of lime The Hverape of the earb. In
thesM ic 5 209. The average of the salph.
and phost. is .933.

36

GEOLOGY OF SOIL.

The whole number of soils comprised in the above table
is 413.

Insoluble.

Deducting the 146 soils of Massachusetts, \ -, »oo

the remaining 267 give an average of J ;

By adding the soiuble and insoluble, the \

result is, / 87 33

while 146 Massachusetts soils contain 89.30°

The sum of the whole 413,
And the average is

176.642

Soluble.

Salts of lime.

15.604

2.075

2.047
4.122

2.061

This examination proves that the 146 soils of Massachusetts
represent very fairly the average mineral composition of the
soil of the globe.

The results of chemical analysis stated per cent, to two or
three places of decimals, give the farmer no idea of the
quantity of any element in an acre, at the usual depth of
cultivation. A simple rule will make this amount evident.

The weight of a cubic foot of dried soil is as follows :

Silicious sand, . . . . 111.3 pounds.

Calcareous sand,
Sandy clay, .
Loamy clay,
Stiff clay,
Slaty marl,
Fertile mould,
Common arable soil, ,

113.6

97.8
88.5
80.3
112.

68.7
84.5

The average is 94.58, whiclj in the ordinary wet state be-
comes 126.6. Multiply 43560 by the weight of a cubic foot
of soil, and divide the product by 12, the quotient is the
number of pounds per acre at one inch deep.

Eead the results of analyses stated in 100 parts, deci-
mally, as whole numbers, and consider each ingredient as so
many pounds in every 100,000 lbs. of soil.

Multiply any ingredient by the number of pounds in one

GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 37

inch deep, and cut off the five right-hand figures; the
remainder is the number of pounds of that ingredient per
acre, at one inch deep.

Let it be required to know how many pounds of salts of
lime are contained in eight inches deep of a soil which
weighs 126.6 pounds per cubic foot, and contains 2.047 of
salts of lime in 100 parts.

43560 X 126.6 = 5514696 pounds per acre one fool deep.
5514696 -f- 12 = 459558 pounds " «' one inch deep.
459558 X 2.047 = 940776636.
Cutting off five figures, leaves 9407 pounds at one inch deep.
8

75256 ♦* al eight inches deep.

It is to be remembered that this immense quantity is that
contained only in the finer portions of the soil ; there yet
remain about eighty parts in every hundred of soil as unde-
composed silicates, ready to yield their lime to the wants of
agriculture.

Tried by the above rule, the smallest quantities which the
chemist obtains in his analysis become tons per acre, and
that which is too small to be weighed by any balance, the
" trace " only of an element rises to an amount which aston-
ishes by its magnitude.

CHAPTER II.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF ROCKS, AND SOIL.

34. The geologist, the mineralogist, the chemist, each
views rocks with a different eye. The geologist regards
the rocky mass; the mineralogist, the simple minerals com-
posing the rock ; the chemist, the simple elements which
compose the minerals.

35. Elements are substances which have not as yet been
proved to be compound, as oxygen and hydrogen among the
gases, or iron or lead among metals. Minerals are called
siniple which have certain definite, external, physical char-
acters, though they may be composed of several elements.
Rocks are called compound, which consist of several simple
minerals, as granite, which consists of quartz, felspar, and
mica.

36. The only point of view which the farmer takes, is
that of the chemist ; his pole-star is '* fruit and progress ;"
and his philosophy, guided by this, teaches the nature and
mode of action of the several elements of minerals. With-
out a knowledge of the chemical constitution of minerals,
the science which classifies and labels these is useless. The
mineralogist merely names his mineral, labels it, and places
it in his cabinet ; yet a farmer must know a few of these
names, and talk to the mineralogist in terms which he can
understand. lie must give to the assemblage of elements
which composes a mineral, that name which the mineral©-

(38

CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 39

gist bestows on the assemblage of external characters, which
determines the species.

37. The mineralogy of agriculture is no more than this,
that the farmer be able ever to connect with a certain name
a certain chemical composition. Hearing mica (which is
isinglass) named, he immediately connects with that, the
chemical properties which belong to the species, as he would
connect with the term isinglass, the physical properties of
that substance ; such as transparency, divisibility into thin
plates, which are flexible and elastic.

38. The amount of this mineralogical knowledge is very
limited. Seven simple minerals compose all rocks, viz. :
quartz, mica, felspar, hornblende, talc, serpentine, carbonate
of lime. Other minerals are found in rocks, but these seven
compose all those termed geological formations, and v/hich
form the crust of the globe.

39. The chemical constitution of rocks, the nature, prop-
erties and relations of their elements, prove to be of the
highest value, when it is known that the elements of these
seven minerals are also the earthy part or ashes of all
plants. The farmer should therefore be so far a chemist as
to understand the results to which the analysis of minerals
conducts.

40. The number of elements which chemistry has detected
is sixty-two ; probably sixty-three. All are either metallic
or unmetallic. Of these some are gaseous, others earthy,
others combustible. The last are also called metalloids, by
which term they are designated in these pages.

Of the simple or elementary bodies, thirteen chiefly
compose all rocks, and the mineral portion of soil. Six of
this number are unmetallic and seven are metallic sub-
stances.

40 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL.

The unmetallic are : The metallic are;

1. Oxygen, 1. Potassium.

2. Hydrogen. 2. Sodium.

3. Silicon. 3. Calcium.

4. Carbon. 4. Magnesium.

5. Sulphur. 5. Aluminium.

6. Phosphorus. 6. Ferrum.

7. Manganesium.

Restricting the term metalloids to the 3d, 4th, 5th and
6th unmetallic substances in the above list, the other two
stand out distinctly, separated by their want of properties
common to the remainder. They stand each alone, being
wholly unlike each other. These are oxygen and hydrogen,
known in their uncombined or tree state only as gases, whose
union produces water. It is as a part of water that hydrogen
enters into the composition of rocks. It is comparatively of
little importance.

Not so with oxygen. No other known substance has such
a wide range of affinities. Its combinations produce a
change of properties in the several elements above enumer-
ated, whose names end in um, by which these are converted
into substances whose common name reveals their well-
known characters.

41. With the metalloids, oxygen forms acids, and with
the metals, oxides or earths, rarely acids.
OXYGEN,

wiih silicon forms silicic acidfwith potassium forms potash,

carbon " carbonic " *' sodium " soda,

sulphur " sulphuric " " calcium " lime,

phosphorus " phosphoric " " magnesium " magnesia.

'' aluminium " alumina, or clay

earth.
' ferrum " iron oxyde or rust.

' manganesium " manganese oxide.

42. The oxides or earths are termed bases. Potash, soda,
lime, magnesia, are termed alkaline bases; the others,
metallic bases. Acids and bases unite and form salts in

CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 41

rocks or soils. Metalloids also unite with metals and form
a class of compounds of great importance in agriculture.
These may be termed metalloid compounds when speaking
of such agriculturally.

43. It is seen, therefore, that the elements composing
rocks are reduced to salts and metalloid compounds.

But the peculiar character of tbs salts formed by silicic
acid, will be easier understood by separating these from the
others, and studying them under the name of silicates.
These form the great bulk of the earth's crust. The distiu-
guishing character of the silicic acid salts is either a crystal-
line appearance, with the transparency and lustre of glass,
united to the hardness of flint, or opacity, with the stony
and earthy look and common characters of mineral sub-
stances composing rocks. The compounds of silicic acid
would be hardly recognized as salts in the common and pop-
ular sense of that term, with which is associated the ideas of
softness and solubility. In the opinion of some chemists of
the highest authority, silicon, or silicium as they term it, is a
metal. Its combination with oxygen produces an acid.
Hence, perhaps, its salts derive their peculiarity. Silicic
acid is a metallic acid, which forms with bases, silicates ;
these are generally insoluble in water, or soluble by the aid
of an excess of alkali. Carbonic, sulphuric, and phosphoric
acids are metalloid acids, which form with bases, salts, in the
usual sense of the term. Nor is silicium, if a metal, the
only one of the class which acts as an acid, combined with
oxygen. Alumina acts so occasionally, so does manganese,
so does iron.

44. The elements of water being included in silicates
and salts, all the substances which compose rocks may be
divided into three sections; a. silicates, b. salts, c. metalloid
compounds.

42 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL.

45. The elements which compose silicates may be enumer-
ated in pairs, as a help to the memory —

The alkalies — potash and soda.

" alkaline earths — lime and magnesia.

" metallic acids or earths — silex and alumina.
2 alkalies, 2 alkaline earths, 2 metallic acids. The last have
all the characters of earths, and silica, whose acid proper-
ties were first noticed by Smithson, was and is still called
the earth of flints, while alumina is known as the earth of
clay.

46. The terms, salt, silicate, and metalloid compound may
need a further explanation. Pearlashes and vinegar, are
well-known substances. One is an alkali, the other an acid.
Pearlash has the alkaline properties of a bitter, burning
taste, the power of changing vegetable blues to green, and
pinks to blues. Vinegar has the acid property of sour
taste, of causing a hissing or effervescence, when poured on
pearlash. This action ceasing, there are neither acid taste
nor alkaline properties. The characters of the vinegar and
pearlash have disappeared. These substances have united ;
they have formed a new substance called a salt. Their
properties are neutralized, and lost in the salt. This is no
longer either pearlash or vinegar.

47. The fact to be observed in the action (46) is, that an
acid and alkali mutually neutralize each other. The vinegar
is said, in this case, in common language, to "kill" the
pearlash. So soda, potash, lime, magnesia, iron, and man-
ganese would all be killed or neutralized by vinegar ; they
would all be dissolved by it, and lose their distinguishing
characters. In either case, a neutral salt w^ould be formed.
Such a class of salts is termed acetates, being formed of
alkalies, alkaline earths, or metallic oxides united with acetic
acid.

CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 43

48. Silex or silica, or the earth of flints, as it has been
called, is in its pure state a perfectly white, insipid, tasteless
powder. In various combinations of minerals', it unites with
the bases (41), forming neutral salts, termed silicates, from
the silicic acid. Thus is formed, as in the case of vinegar, or
acetic acid (47), a large class in which are found silicates of
soda, of potash, of lime, of magnesia, of alumina, of iron,
and of manganese. This class forms the great bulk of all
rocks and soil.

49. The seven substances last mentioned (42) are all
metals united to oxygen. They are metallic oxides. If the
oxygen is removed, and replaced by carbon, sulphur, phos-
phorus or silicon, combinations are formed, called sulphur-
ets, carburets, phosphurets, siliciurets.

50. Metalloid compounds are combinations of metalloids
with metals, in their pure, or unoxidated state.

51. Salts are combinations of metalloids with oxygen,
and the metals in their rusted or oxidated state.

52. The formation of carbonic, sulphuric, phosphoric acids,
has been explained (41). When these acids unite to the
bases, salts are formed, called carbonates, sulphates, phos-
phates.

53. Hence, when a substance is named, for example, sul-
phate of lime, a definite idea of the nature of this is con-
veyed. It is, on the principles stated, at once known to be
a salt, that is a sulphate, that is, sulphur and oxygen united
to lime. So, too, phosphate of lime is seen to be a salt of
lime.

54. If the thirteen elements which enter into the compo-
sition of rocks, had each an equal tendency to unite with the
other ; or, in other words, if their affinities were mutual,
then there would be as many different combinations as it
would be possible to form with thirteen different substances-

4-i CHEMISTRY OF SOIL.

If these com'bined in all proportions, then the possible num-
ber of combinations would be infinite.

55. This can never be. Affinity is not equally powerful.
There is election or choice among the particles of inanimate
matter. When the Creator impressed this property upon
matter, He also limited its combinations. He assigned to
each element power to combine with other elements, only in
fixed, definite, invariable proportions. He gave to each its
form, weight, and measure. And thus were limited the
number of combinations, and the proportions fixed, in which
these combinations should ever, from the dawning, to the
end of time, occur. The Genius of modern chemistry has
taught that all bodies combine only by infinitely small par-
ticles. Holding her balance over invisible elements, she has
tauofht that each can be weinjhed.

It is the relative, not the absolute weight, which chemistry
determines. The mode maybe thus illustrated: "Take 9
lbs. of water, pass its steam over a known weight of pure
iron turnings, heated red hot in an earthen tube. No steam
escapes from the tube, only air which may be inflamed and
burned. It is hydrogen gas, one of the constituents of water.

That liquid has been decomposed. What has become of
its oxygen ? It has united with, and oxidated the iron.
What proportion of the 9 lbs. of water did it form ? 8-9ths.
If the iron is weighed, it will be found heavier in proportion
of 8 lbs. for every 9 lbs. of water evaporated and decom-
posed. Whatever is the proportion of water used, 8-9lhs
are oxygen. Deducting from the 9 lbs. of water, 8 oxygen,
the balance 1 is hydrogen. These are respectively the
weights of their combining proportions. Chemical theory
supposes combination occurs, only by the ultimate, indivisi-
ble particles or atoms of matter. Hence, the combining
number is the relative weight of these atoms, referred to

CHEMISTKY OF SOIL. 45

some one as unity. In these pages, hydrogen is considered
as 1, or unity. As the atoms may be thus expressed by
numbers, it is customary, in referring to chemical compounds,
to speak only of the number of atoms, in which each ele-
ment enters into their composition. The modern system of
chemical notation, substitutes for the name of the elements
its first, or two first letters, and writes after it the number
of atoms, existing in any compound, as the powers of roots
are expressed arithmetically by exponents. Where only
single atoms combine, their exponents are omitted. Thus,
H is hydrogen, O is oxygen ; then water is H O, that is one
atom each of hydrogen and oxygen. C is carbon, O
oxygen ; then C O'^ is carbonic acid, that is, 1 carbon and
two of oxygen. The combining number of carbon is 6, and
of oxygen 8, then 1 carbon = 6, and 2 oxygen (8 x 2) = 16.
Then the atomic number of carbonic acid is 22, (6 -f 16 = 22.
One little conversant with chemistry is apt to confound the
combining number with the number of atoms, especially
when the first is called " atomic number." A distinction is
to be here remembered, the atomic number is one thing, the
number of atoms another. When it is said, that water is
composed of 8 parts of oxygen to 1 part of hydrogen, by
weight, an ultimate fact only is expressed. When it is said
that water is composed of an atom of oxygen united to an
atom of hydrogen, we express a theoretical opinion. The
difficulty lies, in understanding how water can be both a
combination of 1 to 1, and of 1 to 8 ; that 9 of water can
yet be only composed of 1 to 1. This discrepancy vanishes,
where the distinction is remembered, between the combining
or atomic number, and the number of atoms. Water is an
example, where single atoms are united. But cases contin-
ually occur where the combining number of one body unites
to more than one combining proportion of another. In this

46 CHKMlSTIiY OF SOIL.

case, as the atoms are indivisible, combination can occur
only, by twice, thrice, &c., the quantity of that of the first
compound ; for instance, 1 carbon may be combined with 1
oxygen, forming oxide of carbon, or with 2 of oxygen, and
form carbonic acid. There is, and can be no intermediate
step. Having determined the combining atomic number uf
oxygen, that of all other bodies may be found by determin-
ing how much of each is necessary exactly to unite with 8
of oxygen. For instance, the iron used in the experiment
of decomposing water, increases in weight; if it is all
equally oxidated, it is found to increase 8 lbs. for every 28
lbs. of iron used. If, therefore, 28 lbs. of iron are used, and
9 lbs. of water, the iron may be wholly oxidated by the 8
lbs. of oxygen of the water. Deducting this from the total
w^eight of the oxide of iron, 36 lbs., the balance is the com-
bining or atomic weight of iron. The sum of 8 -f 28 = 36 is
therefore the atomic weight of oxide of iron. The atomic
weight of all compounds is the sum of the atomic weight of
their constituents. The number of atoms in any compound,
whose proportional constituents by weight are given, is
found by dividing each by its respective atomic weight. For
instance, the composition of carbonic acid above, gives in 22
parts, 6 of carbon, and 16 of oxygen. Each divided by its
atomic weight, gives 1 carbon, 2 of oxygen, == 22 of car-
bonic acid. So in a compound of several elements, having
their proportions per cent, given, each divided by its atomic
number, gives the relative proportion of the atoms. These
reduced to simplest terms, and affixed to the letters or sym-
bols of the elements, constitute what is called the chemical
formula of this compound.

Three laws discovered by multiplied observation, con-
firmed by repeated experiments, govern all chemical science.
These laws are :

CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 47

1st. Bodies combine only in definite proportion.
2d. " " " multiple proportion.

3d. *' " " equivalent proportion.

These are the laws of chemical combination. The atomic
theory attempts to, and does account for them. Once admit
the principle that bodies combine only by indivisible atoms,
these laws follow as consequences. If bodies only unite by
atoms, atom to atom, their composition must be definite. If
a body unites an atom to two or more of another, then as
atoms are indivisible, the second, or other added portion,
must be a multiple of the first, by a whole number. When
bodies unite in proportions which imply half atoms, it is
because union has occurred between tw^o atoms of one, and
three atoms of another, as iron may unite with oxygen so as
to be seemingly a compound of 1 iron to 1^ oxygen. Truly
this is a compound of 2 iron to 3 oxygen. Alumina always
oxidates itself in this proportion, but it will simplify our
views to consider it as uniting atom to atom. Again, if
bodies unite only by atoms, the atom of one may be
replaced by that of another; or, which is the same thing,
the combining proportion of one may replace the combining
proportion of another, for they are equivalent to each other.
One body may be thus successively united to others, in
doses which represent their atomic weights.

56. Calculating on this fixed principle, that the combining
weight of any substance is the quantity necessary to unite
■with 8 of oxygen, it is found, that the proportions in which
the bases of silicates combine, are

8 oxygen, 8 silicon =16 silica,

8 " 10 aluminum == 18 alumina,
8 " 20 calcium = 28 lime,

8 " 12 magnesium = 20 magnesia,
8 " 40 potassium == 48 potash,

48 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL.

8 oxygen, 24 sodium = 32 soda,

8 " 28 iron = 36 oxide of iron,

8 " 28 manganese ==• 36 oxide of manganese.
When any of these oxidated substances unite to an acid, it
is only in these proportions. The numbers are equivalents
— that is, 48 of potash are equal in saturating power, to 32
of soda, or 28 of lime. All equivalents, entering into the
composition of soil, contain the same quantity of oxygen.
Hence, if from each of the above numbers in the third
column, 8, the constant quantity, is deducted, the remainder
represents the equivalent of the respective pure metals,
which chemists represent by the termination in um or iam;
and hence are formed, potassium, sodium, &c. (40), (41).

57. The equivalent of sulphur is 16, adding 3 oxygen =•
24 parts, sulphuric acid is formed = 40.

The equivalent of phosphorus is 32, adding 5 oxygen ==
40 parts, phosphoric acid is formed. The equivalent of car-
bon is 6, adding 2 oxygen ==<= 16 parts, carbonic acid is
formed.

Hence, the equi-ralents of these acids are 40, 72, 22, num-
bers produced by adding the proportions of oxygen to the
respective bodies. These acids combine, in their above
equivalent proportions, with the bases of silicates, forming
neutral salts, or with two or more proportions of acid form
super-salts, or with a larger portion of base, form sub-salts,
and thus form fixed and invariable compounds. Sulphate of
lime is, therefore, in proportion of 28 of lime to 40 of acid.
Carbonate of lime, 28 of lime to 22 of acid. Phosphate of
lime has a larger proportion of base, 3 parts or 84 of lime
to 72 of acid ; this is bone earth, so called ; and the equiva-
lent of each of these salts is the number produced, by add-
ing that of the lime to that of the acid.

58. If sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, are united to

CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 49

the bases (40), combination can take place only in the
equivalent proportions. It is thus evident, that soil, con-
sisting of silicates, metalloid compounds, and salts, is a fixed,
unvarying, chemical combination of these substances, though
mixed in proportions, somewhat varied by local causes, yet
presenting, in the mass, a great similarity of composition.
When the subject of the composition of the vegetable por-
tion of soil is discussed, the value of a slight knowledge of
chemical notation and of combining proportions, will be
manifest. It is not to be neglected, however unconnected it
may seem with practical farming. The doctrine of chemical
equivalents is important to the farmer, even if he pursues it
no farther than to understand and remember the combining
proportions of a few substances, known to him only by
name ; such are the common acids, oil of vitriol, aquafortis,
spirits of salt, or sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids ; the
usual alkalies, ammonia, potash, soda, lime ; acids and bases,
which combine only in their equivalents. It is sometimes
remarked, in agricultural experiments with different salts,
that equal quantities, if correct comparative trials are to be
made, should be used. The doctrine of equivalents teaches
not an equal, but an equivalent portion — that is, 28 of lime
are equal to 48 of pure potash^i It may assist the memory
here, and furnish a good " rule of thumb," to recollect, that
the three alkalies, ammonia, soda, potash, are to each other,
as 17 : 32 : 48, or as 1 : 2 : 3, nearly. When the subject
of manures is considered, the doctrine of equivalents will
be found important, in determining their relative value.
Though the numbers here used are those of some chemists
of high authority, they are not all universally admitted.
They have the convenience of being small whole numbers.
They are readily retained in the memory, and simplify the
jubject, by freeing the calculation from multiplication and

60

CHEMISTRY OF SOIL.

division of fractional equivalent numbers. They are easily
apprehended, and, for all practical agricultural purposes,
correct.

59. Viewed by the light of chemistry, rocks are masses
of silicates. The simple minerals composing rocks are truly
only silicates in fixed proportions. The simple minerals are
quartz, felspar, mica, hornblende, talc, serpentine. Their
comDOsition is presented in the following

TABLE OF CONSTITUTION

OF SIMPLE

MINERALS.

Felspar,

H

m

66.T5

50.82

40.06

45.69

68.2

43 07

c

S
s

<

If

12.00
9.86
4:60

water.
12.75

.5

B

111

^ c to

17 50
21.33
22.40
12.18

1.26
"is! 83

18.79
33.2
40 37

.75

9.08
1.79
732
4.6

i.u|

Mica, eray ••...... .

" brown,

Hornblende, including trap rocks
Talc,

Serpentine,

0.25

0 50

In each the silex acts as an acid. This is not only the
most constant, but the most abundant ingredient of rocks.
Next is alumina. The average quantity of these elements
in the most important rocks, is silica 62.79, alumina 25.15
per cent.

60. In each simple mineral, the bases (41 ) being combined
with silica, a compound, or silicate is formed. In this case,
the few simple minerals forming rocks, may be arranged in
three classes, and it will be perceived that, notwithstanding
their great variety of external appearance, their ultimate
chemical composition resolves itself into classes of double,
or simple silicates, in which silicate of alumina is united with
potash, or lime, or with magnesia, forming thus three classes
only of simple minerals, which compose rocks and soil.

1st. Silicate of alumina and potash forms felspar and
mica.

chemistry'of soil. 5t

2(3. Silicates of alumina and lime with magnesia form
hornblende.

3d. Silicate of magnesia forms serpentine and talc ; and
silica almost pure, is quartz.

61. The iron and manganese in the table (59), are re-
garded as accidental mixtures of silicates of these metals.
Silicate of soda is often present in place of potash, and this
constitutes an extensive variety of the felspar family.

CHAPTER III.

OF THE MINERAL ELEMENTS OF SOIL, THEIR PROPERTIES, AND
CHEMICAL ACTION.

62. The bases of the silicates have common properties,
which are :

1st. Alkaline. Whatever may be our idea of the effect
of an alkali, as exhibited by potash or soda, the same in
kind, but in degree less, is exhibited by lime, magnesia, and
alumina. Placing potash as the type of alkaline power, the
same power in a decreasing order is found in lime, magne-
sia, and alumina.

2d. They are, most of them, soluble in water. Potash
stands here also first, and the solubility decreases in Time,
magnesia, and totally disappears in alumina. This may
have some connection with the fact, that, widely diffused as
it is in all soil, it is very seldom found in plants.

3d. They exhibit great affinity for carbonic acid. The
order of affinity is potash, soda, lime, magnesia ; alumina,
if it possesses it at all, exhibits it only feebly. The alkalies
form soluble, and the alkaline earths, and alumina insoluble
compounds with carbonic acid.

4th. They have all great affinity for water, combining
with it, and forming what are called hydrates. Potash parts
not with this chemically combined water, by any heat which
has been produced ; lime and magnesia give up their water
readily, at a red heat : alumina requires, for this purpose, a

PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. ' 53

full white lieat. This is the only case where alumina stands
next to potash.

5th. They are all fusible, in the order of potash, limft,
magnesia, alumina.

6th. They have already been described as definite combi-
nations of metals and oxygen (56). The same law governs
their combinations with water. Such compounds are termed
hydrates, from ^^udor,'^ water. Water is a compound of
eight parts of oxygen, and one part of hydrogen, forming
one part of water, whose equivalent is 9. Taking the num-
ber representing the base (56), or rather the basic oxide,
the equivalents of the hydrates are obtained by adding to
each, 1 part = 9 of water. Thus —

Potash, 48 united with 9 water, forms 57 caustic potash.

Soda,

32

tt

9

«'

u 41

t(

soda.

Ijrae,

28

u

9

•'

" 37

(«

slacked lime.

Magnesia, 20 " 9 " "29 " magnesia.

63. The same law pervades all these various combinations.
There are strong resemblances in the alkaline family, which
show their relation, yet each is marked with its individual
peculiarities. Alumina stands alone, and seems a natural
link, connecting the silicates with the metalloids.

64. The gradual passage of the characters of the metallic
elements of the silicates, into that of the metalloids, is to be
observed. The first show alkaline powers by combining
with oxygen. Exhibited in the highest degree by potash,
and lowest in alumina, which shows both alkaline and acid
properties. By the last, it is allied to silicon, sulphur, phos-
phorus, carbon. The three last are so well known that they
need only to be mentioned.

65. The metalloids have common properties.

1st. They all combine with the pure base of silicates (46),
and form siliciurets, phosphurets, carburets, sulphurets.
Thus are formed carburet of iron, or plumbago, sulphuret

54 ' PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL.

of iron, or iron pyrites, sulphuret of potassium, or liver of
sulphur.

2d. Tiiey chemically combine with each other. Thus are
formed sulphuret of carbon, and sulphuret of silicon.

3d. They all form acids, by combining with oxygen.
Thus are formed sulphuric, carbonic, phosphoric, silicic
acids (41).

66. While the metals combine with oxygen only in one
proportion, to form alkalies, producing it always, for each,
of one uniform strength, the metalloids combine with differ-
ent proportions, and form acids of different strength. The
rule followed in naming the acids, is, first, that each is called
after the substance forming it, the metalloid having ous
added to it to designate the weaker, and 2c, to designate the
stronger acid ; thus :

Sulphur 16+2 oxygen == 16 is sulphurous acid.
" 16 + 3 " = 24 is sulphuric acid.

So are formed phosphorus and phosphoric acids. Silicon
forms but one acid, the silicic. It is the only member of its
class which requires a detailed notice of its properties.

Q7. Silicon, the base of the earth usually called silex or
silica, forms, next to oxygen, the largest part of all rocks
and soil. It has been already noticed (64), how the earthy
character gradually increased from potash to alumina ; and
how this last connected itself with the metalloids, and in the
first member of this series, the earthy character appears
fully developed when united with oxygen. It is the earth
of flints, it is pure rock crystal, it is common quartz, agate,
and calcedony, and cornelian. All these are silicon acidified
by oxygen, hence called silicic acid. It is this which forms,
with potash, the bard coat of the polishing rush, the outer
covering of the stalks of grasses. Wheat, rye, oats, barley,
owe their support to this covering of silica. It cases the

PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OP SOIL. 55

bamboo and rattan with an armor of flint, from which may
be struck sparks. Entering into the composition of all soil,
and hard and unyielding as it appears, forming not only the
solid rock, but the delicate flower, which that supports;
forming combinations with the metals of soil whose gradual
decomposition is the birth of fertility, silicon demands a
detail of its properties, commensurate with the high func-
tions it performs.

68. Silicon, in the purest state yet obtained, is a dull
brown powder, soiling the fingers. It dissolves in fluoric
acid, and in caustic potash. Heated in air or oxygen gas, it
burns vividly, and is partly converted into silica. Heated
in a closed crucible, it shrinks very much, but does not
vaporize. Heat has altered all its properties. It has be-
come a deep chocolate color. It sinks in oil of vitriol, one
of the heaviest of fluids ; it will dissolve in no acid, except
a mixture of nitric and fluoric ; caustic alkali has no action
on it, nor will it burn in the intensest flame of air or oxygen
gas. No other simple substance is so changed by heat.
The only substance exhibiting analogous properties, is
carbon.

Silicon burns in vapor of sulphur, and forms sulphuret of
silicon. This easily dissolves in water, sulphuretted hydro-
gen escapes, and silica remains in solution. These are facts
of the highest importance in agriculture.

69. Whether heated or not, silicon is oxidated when heated
with dry potash, and converted into silicic acid. In its pure
state, this is a rough, gritty, tasteless powder. When
heated, it runs like red-hot ashes, and the lightest puff" blows
it away. It is not melted in the strongest heat of a wind
furnace. Silicic acid exists in two states, soluble or insolu-
ble in water. It is perfectly insoluble, after having been
heated red-hot. Sulphuret of silicon, as has been noticed

56 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL.

(68), dissolves in water, and gives silica, in solution. If this
is evaporated, a jelly-like, sizj mass is obtained, which' may
be again dissolved in water. Acid, added to the solution,
when evaporating, renders silica insoluble. Alkalies, boiled
with insoluble silica, render it soluble, no change occurring
in the alkali. These singular changes are due, probably, to
a new arrangement of the particles of silica, produced by
that power called catalysis^ or the action of presence, that
is, by the presence of a third body, taking no part itself
in the action, but simply influencing the changes which
occur.

70. Soluble silica exists in some minerals, and is produced
when a silicate is melted with an alkali, and dissolved in
dilute acid. It is in consequence of this ready solubility of
silica, that a small quantity is contained in all natural
waters; associated with alkaline carbonates in mineral
springs, it is often an abundant product.

71. The general properties which silicic acid exhibits in
its combinations, are these :

1st. All its compounds, with excess of alkali, are caustic,
and soluble in water. Those with an excess of silica, are
mild and insoluble. Glass is an example of the last, and so
are the rocks. Green bottle glass is but a fused rock, a
mixture of silicates of potash, soda, alumina, lime, magnesia,
and iron. These are the silicates which have been already
enumerated (60), as composing rocks ; and the amount and
origin of these several elements of soil can now be con-
veniently understood. This is practical ground, and shows
the value of chemical analysis of rocks. Whatever opinion
respecting their origin is adopted, and whether or not granite
is supposed to have produced the soil above it, or that it is
only overlaid by granite drift, it is evident, from the table
(59), that all granite rocks contain lime and alkali. These

ALKALIES IN SOIL. 6?

will be ill proportion to the mica and felspar, for granite
(35) is composed of these and quartz,

72. The composition of granite, composed of two-fifths
quartz, two-fifths felspar, and one-fifth mica, is in every 100
parts, —

Silex, 74.84

Alumina, 12.80

Potash, 7.48

Magnesia 99

Lime, .37

Oxide of Iron, ^ 1.93

Oxide of Manganese, .12

In every 100 lbs. of granite, 7|- lbs. of potash, and f lb.
of lime. Difier, as opinions may, about the how, and the
why, of the operation of lime and alkali, it is evident, that
unexhausted and exhaustless stores of these substances are
already in barren pine plains.

73. Let it be supposed that these are formed of the drift
of granite, composed as stated (72), and the amount per
acre of lime and alkali, taking the soil only six inches deep,
would be as follows : The cubic foot of such soil weighs
about 90 lbs. or at six inches deep, 45 lbs. The acre at this
depth contains 21,780 cubic feet, which will afford 3626 lbs.
of lime, and 73,311 lbs. of potash, or nearly a ton and a>
half of lime, and thirty -six tons of potash.

74. The lime in such a soil would be enough to supply
that contained in a crop of rye, at 20 bushels per acre, for
7400 years; for at 20 bushels per acre, and at 50 lbs. per
bushel, each acre would afford 1000 lbs. of grain, which
contain nearly ^ lb. of lime, or 0.49 (Schroeder), dividing
3626 by this, the quotient 7400 is the number of years the
lime would supply the grain. Wheat will not differ much
from rye, and if the time is diminished, by the amount of

3*

68 ALKALIES m SOIL.

lime contained in the straw, it will be seen that the actual
amount of lime and potash, in what is called poor soil, will
hardly begin to diminish at the end of a long lease, cropping
every year 30 bushels of wheat. Allowing thus, for exam
pie, the proportion of straw which such a crop would afford,
to be about 5000 lbs., and this is not far from the truth, the
straw gives 4.40 of its weight of ashes, or 220 lbs., of which
one-fifth is soluble in water, and one-half of that dissolved
is potash. The spent ashes, or that part not soluble in
water, contains 5.80 per cent, of lime. On these data, an
acre of wheat straw, or 2^ tons, will give 220 lbs. of ashes,
containing 22 lbs. of potash, and 10 lbs. of lime. The
potash will last at this rate for the straw, over 3000 years !
It will be hereafter shown, that when the lime fails, the crop
will not.

Since the first edition of this work appeared, numerous
ash analyses of rye have been made by the first chemists
and analysts of the day. Calculating the lime in rye on the
average of these results, 1000 lbs. of grain would give 23
lbs. of ashes. Of this amount, 1.145 lb. is lime; and even
at this rate the grain of 20 bushels of rye per year, from an
acre, would exhaust the soil of lime in the first six inches
from the surface, only in 3166 years. Allowing 4000 lbs.
•of straw annually, the lime in this is 11.25 lbs., equal to 322
annual crops, or the lime would last for the grain and straw
293 years.

75. Were similar calculations extended to soil supposed to
be formed of any other rock, the amount of lime and alkali
would still be seen to be almost inexhaustible. And whether
rocks be supposed or not, to form the soil over them, it may
be established, as the fourth leading principle of agricultural
chemistry, that soils contain enough of all the mineral

ELEMENTS, TO GROW ANY CROP.

ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 59

76. These elements do not exist in soil, free ; they exist
as silicates, or salts, compounds regulated by the unbending
laws of affinity, and fixed as are the laws of gravitation.
The decompounding of these combinations, or the gradual
decay of rocks and soil, takes place also by similar laws.
Gradually acted upon by the carbonic acid of the air, the
agency of growing plants, the action of various salts, formed
by metalloids in atmospheric exposure, the silicates yield to
new affinities. The alkalies, freed partially or entirely from
the embrace of silica, dissolve, and are borne seaward ; the
silica itself is dissolved by the water used for drink ; the
insoluble alumina, still combined with a portion of potash
and silica, remains, forming the great mass of clays, or
mixed with granitic sand, forms loam.

77. Felspar, mica, hornblende, are constantly acted upon
by air and moisture. This action is chemical. It is twofold.
1st. The action of the carbonic acid of the air, or of carbon-
ates, upon silicates. The potash, or alkaline part of the sili-
cate is by this means separated. The mineral, no longer
held by the bond which had united its components, falls into
dust. The silica, lime, alumina, magnesia, thus form the
finer portions of soil. In obedience to a well-established
fact in chemistry, the seemingly insoluble silica, and alum-
ina, and magnesia, in the very moment of their disunion, are
each soluble in water. They may then bs taken up by
plants, or dissolved by various acids found in the soil, form
salts.

78. The second mode of action, of air and moisture, is
upon the sulphurets, the phosphurets, and siliciurets. The
action of air upon all these is, to oxidate, both the metallic
and the unmetallic element. In a word, the metalloid com-
pounds, by air and moisture, become salts ; the unmetallic
part becoming acid, and the base an oxide, which combine.

60 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL,

79. The fact most important to the farmer in these changes
is, that these compounds are continually, in' all soil, becoming
salts. Whenever iron pyrites, or sulphuret of iron, is
fuiind, and it is very widely diffused, exposure to air and
moisture acidifies the sulphur, it forms oil of vitriol, or sul-
phuric acid. This immediately combines with iron, and
forms copperas, or sulphate of iron, or with alumina, form-
ing alum, or with lime, forming plaster of Paris, or with
magnesia, forming Epsom salts; all these are salts, and
liable to be decomposed by any free ali^ali which may be
produced by the decomposition of silicates.

80. Among the most abundant salts in soil, arising frongi
the actions (79), are those which are very insoluble in water,
and not liable, therefore, to be drained off, when not required
by plants. These are sulphate of lime, and phosphates of
lime, and of alumina, and iron. The sulphate of lime is
partially soluble, and hence, is found in all river and spring
water ; but phosphates are more" insoluble, and are always
found in soil.

81. That sulphate of lime might possibly exist in soil, has
been admitted by all who understood the actions (79), and
adding to this the fact of the gradual decomposition of the
silicates by carbonic acid, the function of sulphate of lime in
soil was easily admitted. The double silicates of lime and
potash are universally diffused, and in the order of affinities
sulphates of alkalies and of lime result.

82. It is not so easily understood how phosphate of lime
should exist in soil. The true source, both of sulphate and
phosphate of lime, and of the solubility of silica is yet to be
detected by exact chemical analysis. It is to be looked for
in the sulphurets and phosphurets of silicon, which probably
exist in rocks. The action of sulphuret of iron, as explained,
^ould demand its universal diffusion,' to account for the

ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 61

presence of sulphate of lime. Sulphuret of iron must either
now exist, or have ages ago existed, as widely diffused as the
silicates. But though common in rocks, its presence as a
sulphuret will not account for the quantity of sulphate of
lime found in soil. Vast quantities of this salt are annually
borne off in crops ; whi-Je at the same time, a large portion
of that hardest, and, as is generally supposed, utterly insol-
uble earth, silex, is withdrawn by every plant which grows.
How is this rendered soluble ?

83. This question may be answered, if it be admitted
that a portion of the silica of rocks exists as a sulphuret of
silicon. The action of air and moisture upon this will be
understood by reference to section 68, where it is stated
that sulphuret of silicon is decomposed by water. ,The sul-
phur, in this case, is evolved as sulphuretted hydrogen- gas,
the filica deposited, and in this state is abundantly soluble in
water. The sulphuretted hydrogen would act on the lime of
the silicates, and gradually sulphate of lime would be
formed. Here is an abundant source, not only of the solu-
bility of silica, a point always of difficult explanation in
vegetable physiology, but also of the production of sulphate
of lime.

84. Similar remarks are applicable to the presence of the
phosphates of lime, and iron, and alumina in soil. Phos-
phate of lime is not a very abundant ingredient in rocks,
except in certain localities ; yet its occurrence is too rare to
account for the vast amount of phosphate of lime in soil.
The phosphorus possibly exists in combination with silicon,
as phosphuret of silicon. The effect of air and moisture on
this has already been explained, and accounts for the pro-
duction of phosphates in soil. Similar remarks are'applica-
ble to the source of the chlorides or muriates ; for instance,
common salt in the potash of commerce. May not their

62 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL.

source be in chloride of silicon ? These are conjectures, but
conjectures only, because, refined as modern chemical analy-
sis is, it may not be so delicate as to detect the possible
combinations, which nature presents in silicates. What is
the source of that phosphoric odor, produced by the friction
of fragments of pure quartz on each other 1 If not due
wholly to electrical excitement, may it- not arise from the
presence of phosphoric elements'? The elements are Pro-
tean, and assume new dresses, by the very processes adopted
to unfold them. Whatever may be their origin, their con-
stant presence leads to this fifth principle of agricultural
chemistry, all soil contains sulphate and phosphate of

LIME.

85. This principle is of the highest importance in agricul-
ture. The author of these pages stated the fact to the Geo-
logical Surveyor of Massachusetts, in 1837, and it was pub-
lished in his report. Slowly admitted at first, the fact that
phosphates exist in all soil, has been established by the
widest observations. Its proofs are both chemical and agri-
cultural. The chemical proof is found in the extensive anal-
yses of soil contained in various Geological Reports, espe-
cially those of Massachusetts, published within a few years.
Since the first edition of this work, phosphoric acid has been
found in basaltic and hornblende rocks.

86. The agricultural proof may be stated in a few words.
The bones of all graminivorous animals contain about half
their weight of phosphate of lime. It can be derived only
from their food, and that only from the soil. Hence the
soil contains phosphoric acid in some chemical combination.
Secondly, the actual result of chemical analysis confirms
this statement. Beets, carrots, beans, peas, potatoes, aspara-
gus, cabbage, afford phosphates of lime, magnesia, and pot-
ash. Indian corn, rice, wheat, barley, oats, all contain nota-

ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 63

ble portions of sulphate and phosphate of lime, not only in
the grain, but in the straw. Smut and ergot show free
phosphoric acid. Cotton gives 1 per cent, of ashes, of which
0.17 are phosphates of lifiie and magnesia. The cotton con-
sumed weekly, in the Lowell Mills, is 400,000 lbs., contain-
ing 680 lbs. of phosphate of lime, and this would furnish
the bone-earth for the bones of seventeen horses, allowing 90
lbs. to each skeleton, of which 40 lbs. would consist of pho.s-
phate of lime. That beautiful yellow powder, shed by pine
forests, the pollen of its flowers, wafted about in clouds, and
descending with the rain, covering the surface of water with
its sulphur-like film, is composed of 6 per cent, of phosphates
of lime and potash. The ashes of all wood contain sulphate
and phosphate of lime. Garget contains in its leaves beau-
tiful crystals of phosphate of lime and ammonia; and every
exact analysis of the ashes of trees, shrubs and plants of
every kind, cultivated or wild, shows the presence of phos-
phoric acid

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL.

87. The mineral elements of soil become part of plants.
Under the influence of the mysterious principle of life, they
no longer obey the chemical laws, but are parts of a living
structure. Life suspends all chemical laws. It organizes
inorganic matter. To what laws obedient, to what purposes
subservient, are the elements of soil during the brief moment
in which they are endowed with life, it is not intended to
inquire. Plants, by their living power, select from the sixty-
two elementary substances, sixteen or perhaps eighteen. Of
these, four exist as airs or gases in their uncombined state,
viz. : oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine ; seven are
bases, and four metalloids, described (41). These fifteen
elements, alumina excepted, are generally constant constitu-
ents of plants. Iodine, once supposed peculiar to marine
vegetation, has very recently been found in land plants.
Bromine is also found in seaweed, and fluorine has occasion-
ally been found in the ashes of rye.

88. Every plant does not, nor does every part of the
same plant contain the same elements ; but similar parts of
the sanie plant, at the same age, probably contain the same
elements, united in definite proportions. Whenever plants
die, their elements are again subject to the laws of aflinity,
and during the decay of vegetables, they return to the
earth not only those substances which the plants had taken

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. 65

from the soil, but also those which have been elaborated by
their living structure. The former are silicates and salts, or
the inorganic elements ; the latter are the organic parts of
soil.

In the first edition of this work, chlorine was not enumer-
ated as an element of plants. Its presence in them was
considered accidental, because its source had not been de-
tected in the rocks, from whose ruins soil has been formed.
Dr. A. A. Hayes has detected alkaline chlorides in the pri-
mary rocks of Vermont. The possible existence of chloride
of silicon has been noticed. If this is not the source of the
chlorine of plants, that may be supposed to be evaporated
as a chloride from the ocean, and consequently to exist in
that state, dissolved in air. If derived from this salt in soil,
then that is extraneous. Its origin was suggested to be
oceanic. An examination of the rain-water, of each fall,
during the year 1842, in Lowell, has shown that this sugges-
tion is correct. Probably muriates are universally contained
in rain-water. As, therefore, common salt, the chlorine and
soda of plants is derived by evaporation from sea-water,
then as sulphate of lime has been detected in snow and hail,
it becomes a question, whether other inorganic salts of
plants may not have a similar origin, and exist dissolved
in air.

Continued examination of rain water has shown that all
the mineral elements of plants are traceable in it.

89. It is thus seen, that soil presents itself in a new view.
Soil consists of two grand divisions of elements. Inorganic
and organic. The inorganic are wholly mineral, they are
the products of the chemical action of the metallic, or unme-
tallic elements of rocks. They existed before plants or ani-
mals. Life has not called them into existence, nor created
them out of simple elements. Organic elements are the

66 ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL.

product of substances once endowed with life. This power
influences the elements, recombines them in forms so essen-
tially connected with life, that they are, with few exceptions,
produced only by a living process. They are the products
of living organs, hence termed organic ; and when formed,
are subject to chemical laws. The number of elements in
the inorganic parts of soil is twelve. Oxygen, sulphur,
phosphorus, carbon, silicon, and the metals, potassium,
sodium, calcium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, and manga-
nese (56). The number of elements in organic parts of
soil, does not exceed four, viz. : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon,
and nitrogen.

90. The great difference between these two divisions is
this, that while the inorganic are simple combinations of two
elementary substances, the organic are combinations of
three or four elements, but never less than three. These
are variously combined. They have formed the great body
of vegetable products ; continually changing, the mere ab-
straction of a part of one of their elements forms a new
product. The three elements (89), exist generally in such
proportion, that the oxygen and hydrogen would, by their
union, produce water, without excess of either element,
while the carbon would thus be liberated. It would be
found free were it not also acted upon by air and moisture,
and changed to carbonic acid. There is not oxygen enough
in the organic part to convert the carbon into carbonic acid,
and the hydrogen into water. They are constantly changing,
assuming new forms. This susceptibility of change is the
foundation of tillage.

91. The relation of agriculture to silicates and salts, and
to the composition of plants, which has been alluded to (89),
is of the highest interest. As silicates and salts compose
all the earthy ingredients of soil, so are they equally con-

ORGANIC ELEMENTS OP SOIL. 67

stant in plants. The deduction to be drawn from this is,
the sixth principle of agricultural chemistry, soil, consisting

CHIEFLY OF ONE SILICATE, OR SALT, IS ALWAYS BARREN.

92. It is not probable that soil thus chemically constituted,
exists. Admitting such to occur, even then, when dressed
with the food of plants^ it would not be fertile. The want
of a mixture of earthy ingredients, which are as essential to
the growth of plants as are air and moisture, would effect-
ually prevent the growth of crops. Only a portion of the
elements thus essential to plants exists in them in that
state in which they exist in soil. The silica, and potash,
and lime, exist in plants as in soil, as silicate of potash, and
sulphates and phosphates of lime and potash. When the
ashes of plants are examined, we find carbonates of bases
which did not exist as such in the soil. A large portion of
carbonates of lime and potash is found in ashes.

93. The origin of these is to be sought in acids which, by
heat, produce carbonic acid. This is the effect of heat upon
all salts formed of vegetable acids. Such are tartaric,
malic, citric, oxalic, and acetic acids. The inorganic ele-
ments of plants exist in combination chiefly with organic or
vegetable acids. Each plant forms acids, in definite quan-
tity, proportionate to the size, age, and part of the plants ;
the acid being constant, the bases to saturate them will be
equally constant.

94. A beautiful chemical law governs this saturation of
the vegetable acids. It is the law of substitution, analo-
gous in part to the law of isomorphism, or the law of simi-
lar forms ; it is perhaps connected with that, so that the
elements of isomorphous groups only can be substituted for
one another. In minerals which are crystallized it was for-
merly thought that similarity of external form indicated
identitv of chemical composition. Later observation has

68 LAW OF SUBSTITUTION.

established the fact, that minerals and salts exist, with per-
fect similarity of external form, yet of totally different
chemical constitution. Tor example, the alumina in alum
may be replaced by oxide of iron. The form will not be
changed, but all its chemical properties and relations are
destroyed. This is called an isomorphous replacement of
one element for another, which produces a like form. The
law of this substitution is, that the body replacing another,
must be, not an equal, but an equivalent proportion (56) ;
that is, replaced by a proportion containing the same quan-
tity of oxygen. Replacement retains the form, not the
properties of the displaced body. Substitution may retain
the form, but always the properties and functions of the ele-
ment whose place is thus occupied. Like replacement, sub-
stitution occurs in equivalent proportions.

95. The relation between agriculture and this law is so
wisely and beneficially ordained, that it might well be called
a law of compensation, by the Natural Theologian. It is a
well-established fact, that plants growing on soil containing
a due mixture of earthy ingredients, always select a due
proportion of each, according to their functions ; yet, if to
such soil an excess of either of the alkalies, or of the alka-
line earths is given, an excess of potash, soda, lime, magne-
sia, may be taken up by the plants, to the exclusion of the
usual proportion of another ; hence, it may be established
as the seventh principle in Agricultural Chemistry, one base

MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR ANOTHER, IN AN EQUIVALENT PRO-
PORTION.

96-. This is a very important law in the agricultural rela-
tions of the inorganic parts of soil. Whatever may be the
office performed by these, in the living structure, none is
of higher value than this, that they may be thus substituted,
the one for the other. It is a fact of the highest practical

LAW OF SUBSTITUTION. 69

value. Its value will be perceived when it is considered
that if soil containing originally all the elements essential to
a crop becomes exhausted of one, yet another may be sub-
stituted, which, combining with the organic acid of the
plant, enables this to perform and perfect all its functions.
If a crop fails, this is often charged upon the deficiency of
lime in the soil. It has been already shown that this is
quite impossible, yet granting it true, so long as the law of
substitution exists, so long may potash, soda, magnesia, that
is, ashes, supply the place of lime.

Ashes are the product of combustion, or its equivalent,
decaying and mouldering vegetable matter.

97. Substitutions in plants, relate chiefly to the bases
combined with the vegetable or organic acids. The mineral
or inorganic acids exist already saturated in the soil, as sul-
phates, phosphates, or muriates.

It has been observed, however, in recent investigations,
that phosphoric acid is not always united to the same num-
ber of equivalents of base, in the ashes of seeds ; all the
leguminous seeds have three of fixed base, to one of phos-
phoric acid, while the cereal grains contain two of base to
one of acid. The quantity of oxygen contained in the bases
of these seeds is so nearly alike, that Drs. Will and Frese-
nius think that the law of substitution applies to the phos-
phates.

98. In consequence of the law of substitution, the oxygen
in the bases of organic acid salts is a constant quantity,
although ashes of the same plant may, by analysis, show a
great diversity of composition ; this can arise only from the
fact that the organic acids exist probably in a definite pro-
portion in each family of plants. The acids are formed by
the essential vital functions of the plant. To the perfection
of this process the silicates and salts of the soil are not less

70 ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL.

necessary than is life to the vegetable ; but though one ele-
ment may be substituted for another, yet no one element
may supply the place of all others. This is a problem yet
to be solved. Nor may any possible mixture of mere sili-
cates and salts give fertility to a barren soil. Fertility
depends on the presence in soil, of matter, which has already
formed a part of a living structure, or the organic elements
of soil. This matter must be undergoing chemical change.
Change implies motion, motion induces motion in the sur
rounding elements. Without this chemically induced
motion, there is no fertility.

99. The inorganic elements are simple combinations; the
organic are simple in number, but wonderfully complex in
their combinations. It is an established fact that all com-
plex compounds are unstable. They are prone to form new
combinations. The more complex, the easier decomposed
is any compound. The more complex, the more liable to
decomposition. Hence, the moment life departs, the plant
or animal speedily undergoes new changes; its elements,
which life had organized, obey now, not the law of life, but
the laws of chemistry. The solids and fluids of a living
body, when life ceases, escaping in part as air or gas, leave
in a solid form, a substance, differing equally from any living
organic product, and from inorganic elements. The product
of the spontaneous decomposition of organic substances still
may exhibit the character which distinguishes this division,
viz. : complexity, great susceptibility and ease of decompo-
sition. This is a great practical agricultural fact. When
decomposition ceases in organic matter, the result is barren-
ness.

100. In the products of the decomposition of organic
bodies, a variety is formed, differing according to the circum-
stances, and the time and progress of decay. However

ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 71

varied, there are constant products of organic decomposition
in soil, which are ever the result of that process in or upon
the earth. These products are termed Geine. This term
designates a class of chemical compounds, allied by similar-
ity of constitution and properties. Oe is the Greek for
earth, and the suffix tnc, is in conformity to chemical names
given to those vegetable or other organic products, whose
independent existence has been determined ; for example,
quinine, morphine, &c.

It is necessary to note the difference in the products of
putrefjiction in free or confined air.

In free air, the chief products are water, carbonic acid
and ammonia. In confined air, the carbon not obtaining
oxygen enough to be wholly converted into carbonic acid,
combines with a smaller quantity and forms carbonic oxide.
The hydrogen, deprived of oxygen sufficient for its total
conversion into water, combines with carbon, and thus pro-
duces marsh gas, or light carburetted hydrogen, the gas of
street lights, while another portion of hydrogen combines
with the sulphur and phosphorus of the decaying body, and
forms those airs so offensive in putrefaction, sulphuretted
and phosphuretted hydrogen gases.

In all the transformations of organic matter in soil, there
is ever produced an excess of hydrogen. This is a highly-
important fact.

A principle is here to be stated and remembered. Hy-
drogen, at the instant of becoming free, in the act of being
born, in its nascent state, as it is called, in warm and moist
air, unites with nitrogen. This union produces ammonia.
The nitrogen of putrefying bodies is thus removed as ammo-
nia. Thus are removed all the nitrogen, and a portion of
the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen of the decaying organic
body. There remain the several forms of geine.

72 ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL.

These details may be tabulated, and thus the products of
putrefaction being seen at a glance, may be readily sealed on
the memory.

PUTREFACTION PRODUCES IN
Free air, Confined air,

Water, Water,

Carbonic acid, Carbonic oxide,

Ammonia. Carburetted hydrogen.

Sulphuretted hydrogen,

Phosphuretted hydrogen,

Ammonia,

Geine.

In soil, the air being partly free, partly confined, all the
above products may be found. These vary, therefore,
according as the putrefying body may be on the soil, in the
soil, or in the subsoil.

101. There are at least seven well-defined substances in-
cluded in the class geine. Two of these are indifferent in their
relations, viz. : ulmin and humin ; five exhibit acid proper-
ties, these are the ulmic, humic, geic, crenic, and apocrenic
acids. These seven substances are compounds of carbon,
with oxygen and hydrogen, in proportions just sufficient to
form water, or compounds having either the hydrogen or
the oxygen in excess. They may be therefore grouped in
three sections.

1st. Carbon and water form humin and humic acid.

2d. Carbon and water with hydrogen in excess, form
ulmin and ulmic acid.

3d. Carbon and water with oxygen in excess, form geic,
crenic, and apocrenic acids.

These may be termed the neutral, the hydrogen, and the
oxygen groups.

The first products of decay are ulmin and ulmic acid. By
the continued absorption of oxygen from the air, humic acid

ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 78

and humln, geic, apocrenic, and crenic acids are formed in
the order in which they have been named. Each is derived
from the substance immediately preceding it in the Jist.

The ultimate product of their decay is carbonic acid and
watei*.

The acids of geine easily and rapidly absorb ammonia
and water. They also chemically combine with water and
ammonia.

They are seldom found free in soil, ana so energetic is
the affinity between crenic and apocrenic acid and ammonia,
that these have been considered as essentially different from
ulmic, humic and geic acids. These contain carbon, hydro-
gen and oxygen, while crenic and apocrenic acid were sup-
posed to contain in addition, nitrogen. Hence, a distinction
was pointed out in the last edition of this work, in which
geine was divided into nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous.

The progress of discovery has shown that crenic and apo-
crenic acid may be derived from geic acid, free from nitrogen.

102. Still there are wide differences in the relations of
these several substances. The most easily marked charac-
teristic is, that some are easily, others difficultly soluble in
water, and others are insoluble in this element.

The relations of the acids and neutral substances of geine
to alkalies, is also remarkable. All the geine acids readily
dissolve in carbonated or caustic alkali ; in either of which
the neutral geine substances are wholly insoluble.

Of the dissolved acids, thfee are precipitable and two not
precipitable by acids. Hence, we have two divisions of
geine founded on their relations to alkali and water; 1st,
.soluble, and 2d, insoluble. The insoluble substances are
ulmin and humin. The soluble substances are all acid, and
these may be still further distinguished by their relations to
acid.

4

74 ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL.

Eirst. Those which are soluble and precipitable by acid,
viz. : ulmic, humic, geic acids.

Secondly. Those which are not precipitated by acid, viz. :
crenic and apocrenic acids.

In conseq^uence of the ammoniacal combinations with the
acids, these are usually found in water drained from soil.
Hence, long before the existence of crenic and apocrenic
acid was suspected, the substance given up by soil to water
was called extract of mould ; the substance dissolved by
alkali was called humic acid, from humus, the Latin for soil,
or mould. These several substances are convertible. The
insoluble becomes soluble, the difficultly soluble in water
becomes easily soluble by air and moisture. Ulmic, humic,
and geic acids are seldom, and crenic and apocrenic acids are
never found free in soil. Hence, in soil, no less than five
separate and distinct salts of any one base may be found,
but generally the salts are chemical combinations of several
bases with each acid, which compound salts are soluble,
though singly some may be insoluble in water. These
compound salts minister to vegetation in various ways.

103. Great diiference of opinion has prevailed respecting
the real constitution and uses of the substances of the class
geine. It is practically useful to discuss the question,
whether plants draw their carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitro-
gen, from the air, or from the soil. The nourishment drawn
from air, depends on the great physical elements, air, tempe-
rature, moisture. Agriculture may not control these. It
can palliate them only by controlling that within its power,
the state of the soil. With all above ground, the farmer
has little concern. If plants are nourished chiefly from the
air, it is evident that the farmer is concerned only to pro-
duce that state of the development of the organs of plants,
best adapted to the aspiration of the aerial elements. This

GEINE. 75

state IS influenced chiefly by the soil. There is the farmer's
true field of action.

104. Differ as opinions may about the ultimate chemical
constitution, and the mode of action of geine, whether by
being taken up as a solution of geine, and of its compounds
with the earths and metals, called geine compounds, or only
as a source of carbonic acid, the great practical lesson of all
agricultural experience teaches that geine is essential to the
growth and perfection of seed, that without geine crops are
not raised. Geine is as essential to plants as is food to ani-
mals. So far as nourishment is derived from the soil, geine
is the food of plants. It may be laid down as the eighth
principle of agricultural chemistry, geine, in some form, is

ESSENTIAL TO AGRICULTURE.

105. In all its forms, it is agriculturally one and the same
thing. They are all included in the terms humus, or mould,
or geine. Geine, in its agricultural sense, is a generic term.
It includes all the decomposed organic matter of the soil. It
concerns the farmer less to know the ultimate chemical con-
stitution, than it does the practical, agricultural value of a
class of compounds termed geine. Restricting that term to
the definite compound which chemists have called humic
acid, an account of its relations will convey a full idea of
whatever other organic compounds are found in soil.

In describing geine thus specifically, the properties of the
whole class are described under its generic name.

106. It has been stated already, that geine is the product
of decomposition of bodies once endowed with life. For
the present purpose, it may be considered as the result of
vegetable decomposition.

107. Life, and the manner how plants grow, may not be
understood. Growth is a living process. Decay is a chemi-
cal process. Its laws are not only understood, but its pro-

76 GEINE.

ducts may be limited, controlled, hastened. Decay is fer-
mentation, and this, marked by its several stages, ends in
putrefaction. Putrefaction is the silent and onward march
of decay. Its goal is geine.

108. If dry vegetable matters are soaked in water that is
soon discolored, a product of decomposition is obtained ; its
peculiar character is solubility in water. This solution,
being exposed to air, soon becomes filled with little flocks,
which gradually subside. This sediment is still a very little
soluble in water, but so very sparingly that it may be said
to be insoluble. If the sediment is exposed a little time to
air it regains the property of solubility in water, is easily
dissolved in part, by potash lye, or any alkaline lye, whether
caustic or mild.

109. The original brown solution may be considered as
extract of mould. The sediment as a compound of the
several acids of geine and carbonaceous mould. These are
either soluble or insoluble in water or alkali ; and hence,
geine is divided into soluble and insoluble. The soluble is
dissolved by water, by alcohol, by alkalies. The insoluble
cannot be dissolved by any of these agents, nor by acids.
The properties of geine, in water and alkali, or its behavior,
as it is termed, is of the highest importance to the farmer,
and are to be considered in detail.

110. The first and earliest product of decay, is that which
is so easily soluble in water (108). If it could be at once
seized upon, it would be, doubtless, a perfectly colorless
solution, but it changes to a brownish color by exposure to
air. This character is very common in solutions of organic
matter. It is due in this case to the formation of the
insoluble state.

111. If a little alum is dissolved in the watery solution of
geine, and then a few drops of spirits of hartshorn, or sal

• GEINE. 77

volatile, or as it is termed by chemists, water of ammonia,
are added, the earth alumina will be let loose from the
alum, and it will immediately combine with, and precipitate
the geine, that is, little flocks fall down gradually in the
liquor. Hence is derived an important character. Geine
has a great affinity for alumina. If lime had been added to
the solution of geine, the same effect would have followed.
The same effect would be produced by magnesia, by oxide
of iron, and by manganese.

112. Alumina, lime, magnesia, oxides of iron, and manga-
nese, will, therefore, in soil, immediately seize upon any sol-
uble geine, and, forming compounds with it, detain it there.
The air and water will have now little action upon it.

113. But supposing that none of these elements (112) are
present in soil, the fact stated (110) shows that all soluble
geine, or solution of extract in water, soon passes to a mix-
ture of soluble and insoluble, forming a dark brown powder.
This is thus withdrawn, deep in the soil, from the immediate
action of the air, and undergoes no further change. It may
remain unchanged an indefinite time. If ploughed up,
exposed anyhow to the action of air or moisture, it again
becomes partly soluble in water, and exhibits its former
characters, viz. : great affinity for earths and metallic oxides.
In this state it is vegetable mould.

114. Vegetable mould, then, is a mixture of the organic
and inorganic elements of soil. It is a compound of soluble
geine with earths and metals, mixed with soluble and insol-
uble geine. It is a chemical compound of organic with
inorganic parts of soil, mixed with a large portion of free
organic matter.

115. The inorganic elements of mould are, 1st. The bases
found in the soil, produced by the decomposition of silicates,
as lime, potash, soda, magnesia, alumina, iron, <fec. 2dly.

78 GEATES. '

Those which already had existed in plants, combined with
vegetable acids. These last, by decomposition, escape as
carbonic acid, or in acid vapors and water, while the bases,
or earths and oxides with which they were combined,
remain, and are immediately seized upon by the forming
geine ; while the uncombined geine passes to the state of a
brown coal-like powder.

116. The properties of this brown powder of mould are,
1st. Partial solubility in water. Cold water dissolves only
about one twenty -five-hundredth part of its weight, hot
water a little more. 2d. It is a perfectly neutral substance,
exhibiting neither acid, nor alkaline properties, but all alka-
lies develop it in acid properties. In this state it is termed
geic or humic acid. It is evident, therefore, that geic or
humic acid can never exist free in soil, so long as free bases
are there present, as lime, alumina, iron, &c. It is produced
by the action of alkaline bases, and immediately combines
with them, forming salts, which are termed geates.

117. A third property of the brown powder of mould is,
that after alkalies have acted on it, and developed acid prop'
erties, its solubility in water is considerably increased, while
it continues in a moist state. If dried, in this acid state,, it
becomes almost insoluble in water.

118. The geates found in soil have the following charac-
ters : 1st. All the alkaline geates are very soluble in water.
The solution is of a brown color, according to its strength,
from a light brown to a deep coffee color, or almost black ;
acids precipitate this solution, and the geine falls in light
brown flocks, exceedingly bulky. This precipitate may be
washed in water, rendered a little acid; but simple water,
in consequence of the great solubility of geine, developed
by its combination with alkali, will dissolve nearly all the
precipitate.

GEATES. 79

2d. Lime water, added to a solution of an alkaline geate,
forms a precipitate of geate of lime. It is to be observed,
that a cautious and gradual addition of lime water forms a
precipitate, which immediately re-dissolves. This is soluble
geate of lime. It requires 2000 parts of water to dissolve
it, being a very little more soluble than geine itself and only
half as soluble as lime alone. *An excess of lime water pre-

E*^ cipitates all the geine as insoluble geate of lime. The prop-
erties of this insoluble geate of lime, are,

119. 1st. Almost perfect insolubility in water and alka-
lies.

2d. Decomposable by alkalies.

120. Geate of magnesia is easily soluble in water. It is
the most soluble of all the earthy geates. It requires only
160 parts of water to dissolve one of geate of magnesia.
It is decomposable by alkalies, and then both acid and base
are dissolved. The geates of lime and magnesia, when
exposed to air, absorb carbonic acid ; a salt is formed, con-
taining an excess of geine, that is, the carbonic acid unites
with a part of the lime. These super-geates, as they are
termed, are always much more soluble than the neutral
geates.

121. Geate of alumina is soluble in water, and in alkali,
"without decomposition. It requires 4200 parts of water to
dissolve it, but is abundantly soluble in alkali.

122. Geate of iron requires 2300 parts of water to dis-
solve it. Like geate of alumina, it dissolves easily in alka-
line carbonates.

123. Geate of manganese requires 1450 parts of water to
dissolve it, and though soluble in ammonia, is insoluble jn
potash or soda.

124. The properties of the geates are of the highest prac-
tical importance. The tRree earths, lime, magnesia, and

80 GEATES.

alumina, are universal constituents of soil, and the two first
are constantly present in plants. In their relation to geine,
these all combine with that, they all form soluVjle compounds
in the moist state, but after' having been thoroughly dried,
these geates are insoluble, even sun baking diminishes their
solubility. In this dried state, they are earthy powders, and
have long been mistaken for earthy portions of soil. The
fact that lime and magnesia form super-salts (120), may
help to explain why the free use of lime may often require
a long time to develop any beneficial efiects. At first, its
action renders the geine insoluble ; and it is only when, by
exposure, the lime is changed in part to a carbonate, and
thus rendered inert, that a super-geate of lime, which is very
soluble, forms and begins to show its effects upon vegetation.
The easy decomposition of geate of lime, by alkaline car-
bonates, teaches also, that if to geate of lime is added an
alkaline carbonate, the geine may be dissoluble, and brought
into use. It is probable, that when land has been over-
limed, the evil can be corrected only by the use of ashes.
The carbonate of lime will act on the silicates, as will be
hereafter shown.

125. The properties and relations of geine with water, are
also of the highest agricultural value (116). The great in-
solubility shows at once how small must be the amount of
this portion of soil, which can be ever removed by drainage
or filtration, by flood, or rain, and that, in the practice of
irrigation, very little eflfect can be due to the solvent power
of water on geine. Its almost total insolubility, seems a
wise provision of a far-reaching Providence, that an element
of soil, which has been and can be produced by the decay
of organic bodies only, and chiefly by plants on the earth's
surface, should not be borne away by the first falling
shower, *

CRENIC AND APOCRENIC ACID. 81

126. Not less important to the farmer are the relations of
geine to alkalies, its solubility is wonderfully increased by
their action ; this is a most valuable, because available prop-
erty ; it allows the farmer to bring into use, by the applica-
tion of alkalies, the geine, which, in its insoluble state, is
quite valueless. This remarkable property is not confined
to that portion of geine which, it may be supposed, is chem-
ically combined with alkali. Alkali, by the mere action of
presence, by its catalytic action, which will be hereafter ex-
plained, renders an indefinite, but large quantity of geine
soluble in water. This is a principle of high practical value,
and were the results of the principles detailed in the fore-
going pages to terminate in this fact, that alone rightly pon-
dered, would account for a vast number of facts in vegetable
physiology, and lead to new views in the pursuit of agricul-
ture, not less important than practical.

The organic matter of soil contains within itself the ele-
ment of its own partial solution, that is, ammonia. This is
generally combined, as has been shown (101), with crenic
and apocrenic acids. Of the seven organic matters found in
soil, these acids compose the smallest proportion. Their
importance, however, is in the inverse ratio to their quan-
tity. Their properties require a distinct account, allied as
they are, for the most part, to those of the other geine acids.

Crenic and apocrenic acids are many -based acids ; that is,
they saturate several proportions of one base, or one pro-
portion of several bases at once.

Crenic acid saturates four, and apocrenic acid five equiva-
lents of bases. Compound salts are thus formed by these
acids, with the various alkaline, earthy and metallic bases
found in the soil. Thus, one proportion of apocrenic acid
may be found with one of ammonia, one of potash, one of
lime, one of iron, one of magnesia. These, by their union,
4* :3f

82 SOURCES OF APOCRENATES.

though in part insoluble, form a compound soluble salt.
These double salts are, therefore, those which the plants
chiefly abstract from the soil. Hence, that there may be, as
there must be in fertile soil, a continued supply of these
salts, nature has provided constant sources of their repro-
duction. The sources are two-fold. This is a point of too
much importance to be passed by without fuller elucidation.

It has been stated (100) that the union of hydrogen and
nitrogen forms ammonia. This alkali, by the action of the
oxygen of the air, becomes nitric acid. These are the facts.
Ammonia in air, in contact with porous or decaying matters,
becomes aqua fortis. Moist decaying substances induce the
nitrogen of air inclosed in their pores, to become first ammo-
nia, and then an acid. There is then a constant formation
more or less, according to circumstances, of nitric acid in
the transformation of geine. What now becomes of this
nitric acid? It forms either nitrates or apocrenates.

If abundant alkaline bases are present, as potash, soda,
lime, magnesia, the nitric acid unites with these, one or all
according to quantity and varieties of saltpetre — that is,
nitrates result. If alkaline bases are absent, then nitric acid
converts humic acid into apocrenic acid and ammonia, itself
furnishing the nitrogen for that alkaline base. The kind of
change need not be detailed, or here illustrated. It is enough
to state, that nitric acid and humic acid, by their mutual
reactions, produce apocrenate of ammonia, water, and car-
bonic acid. This is one source of the reproduction of apo-
crenate.

A second source is found in an abundance of decay-
ing organic matter in soil. Ammonia is here copiously
produced, but not a corresponding proportion of nitric acid,
for the oxygen of the air essential to this change, is seized
by the carbon and hydrogen of decaying matter.

FORMATION OF NITRATES. 83

Where then there is abundance of organic matter without
alkaline bases, there is also fully evolved ammonia and
apocrenic acid, and apocrenates result. Where, on the con-
trary, little organic matter and abundance of alkaline bases
are present, there the ammonia, both of the air and of the
decaying body, is converted to nitric acid, and nitrates re-
sult. If the nitric acid which is produced, meets with humate
of ammonia, the acid is decomposed into apocrenic and
ammonia, while the ammonia of the humate is transferred
to other portions of geine acid, always forming in the soil.

The crenic and apocrenic acid are mutually convertible,
but with very different results. Freely exposed to air, oxy-
gen is absorbed by crenic acid ; apocrenic acid and water
result. While apocrenic acid by nitric acid is changed to
crenic and carbonic acid.

All these changes are worthy of study. The ultimate re-
sults of all are the formation of water and carbonic acid.
The intermediate products are ammonia and nitrates, and
soluble salts of the bases in soil, essential to the growth of
plants.

Here then is at once opened to view the necessity of the
presence of geine in soil. No practical farmer ever had
other opinion than this, that decaying vegetable matter in
soil, matter in an active state of decay, is essential to a
good crop. It is the experience of ages, the result of observ-
ation and experiment from the remotest times. Though, in
the conflict of opinion, attempts have been made to set aside
this experience and practice, it may be assumed that science
has now shown the specific grounds of this universal belief

127. Hitherto the action of geine on soil only, has been
considered, and its chemical composition pointed out, suf-
ficiently for all practical purposes. The chemical proportion
of the elements of geine is unconnected with the practical

84 GEINE IN POOR SOIL.

question, how far it is essential to plants. The fact that the
most barren soil contains these elements in vast quantity,
that exhausted land is nearly equally rich in these, as is the
highly-productive, has been overlooked. The amount of
nitrogen in geine, even in exhausted soil, is sufficient to sup-
ply that element to several crops of grain. The amount of
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, in a poor, sandy,
barren soil, has been proved, by chemical analysis, to be
not less than thirty -four tons per acre, taking the soil at only
a foot in depth. If the light of modern chemistry shall
hereafter teach that these are never taken from the geine of
soil, it will teach also what the true action of geine is. If
no approach to the solution of this important question has
yet been made, still, the absolute necessity of geine in soil is
admitted by all practical men.

Some further attempt to explain this subject will be made
in the next chapter, and the following appendix may be
omitted by those to whom practical results are of more
value than philosophy. It is hoped, however, that the new
and important analyses, contained in this appendix, will
amply repay the labor of studying their results, for the first
time laid before the American farmer, in the second edition
of this work.

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV.

HISTORY OP GKINE.

Some account of the chemical history of a substance which
has caused no little discussion in late agricultural reports
and publications, may not be here misplaced. It may tend
to soften the doubts of those who are, and with reason apt
to mistrust the utility of a substance, upon whose chemical
nature there is such an apparent difference of opinion. If
farmers are to wait till doctors agree, there will be no har-
vest. Happily this discussion is in nowise connected with
the practical application of geine. It is a difference about
names, not things. In 1797, Vauquelin, a distinguished
French chemist, gave an account of a substance which had
exuded from the bark of an elm tree. It was a shining,
brittle, black substance, insoluble in alcohol, soluble in hot
water, with a brown color, and contained potash.

In 1802, Klaproth, a Swedish analyst, received from
Palermo a specimen of this elm gum, and found it con-
tained a portion of resinous matter, and confirmed Vauque-
lin's observations. In 1810, Berzelius, the most acute
chemist of the age, in experimenting on the barks of various
trees, noticed products similar to the elm gum, particularly
in pine bark, Peruvian bark, and especially in the elm,
whose properties will be presently mentioned ; but he not
only gave these products no name, but pointed out marked
differences between them. The substance found in pine is

(86)

86 HISTORY OF GEINE.

allied to what is called pectic acid, that in Peruvian bark
approaches starch, while that from the elm is only a variety
of vegetable mucilage.

In 1812, James Smithson, an English chemist, and the
munificent founder of the " histitute " which bears his name,
gave to the Royal Society of London an account of his ex-
periments on elm gum, which he had received from the same
place and person who originally sent the article to Klaproth.
Smithson thought the substance more allied to extractive
matter, than to resin, and noticed that it contained 20 per
cent, of potash. A similar substance obtained from the
exudation of an English elm, contained a larger per centage
of potash, but no trace of this new substance was detected
in elm sap.

In 1813, Dr. Thomas Thomson, the Coryphaeus of British
chemists, experimented on this elm gum in its several varie-
ties, and embracing the prevalent opinion of its distinct
nature, not, however, because prevalent, but from his own
researches, erected it into a distinct vegetable principle,
under the name of ulmin, from ulmus, the Latin for elm.
He confounded under this name the several products noticed
by Berzelius, in bark ; and hence, thinks there are several
varieties of this substance, though Berzelius does not counte-
nance this idea. Thomson was the first who ever procured
ulmin pure, but this was not the elm mucilage, but the
extractive matter, and he thus gave the name ulmin to the
apotheme of Berzelius.

Not long after this name had become the property of
chemists, Braconnot found, in experimenting on the action
of alkali on woody fibre, that a substance was produced
analogous to elm gum and the varieties of ulmin, and, in
1830, BouUay noticed that ulmin had acid properties, and
gave to it the name of ulmic acid.

HISTORY OF GEIXE. 87

The properties and relations of ulmin and of ulmic acid,
now engaged the attention of many expert chemists. It was
found to be the product of a great many vegetable decompo-
sitions by various agents, by alkali, by acids, earths, oxides,
by fire, by water. All these hasten the process of decay.
As a general law, it may be stated that all substances oxi-
dating, and gently acting on organic matter, produce ulmin.
Hence, it was found in a vast variety of substances, and
even cast-iron was found to contain about 2 per cent, of a
compound so analogous to ulmin, that it is so called. But,
above all, it was found to be the great product of spontane-
ous decay of plants, and hence existed abundantly in peat
and soil. Sprengel, directing his attention particularly to
its existence in soil before that form of it was universally
allowed to be identical with ulmin and ulmic acid, bestowed
on it the name of humic acid, from the Latin, kumtLS, or
mould. Sprengel investigated minutely the various salts of
this substance, and first endeavored to determine its chemi-
cal constituents.

Boullay soon followed in the same path of investigation,
and with almost similar results. There were marked differ-
ences between all the forms yet observed, that is, between
elm gum of Palermo, the product of bark, the artificial
ulmin of Braconnot, and that of soil. A multitude of dif-
ferent but analogous substances were confounded under a
common name, which began to be applied to the matter of
all vegetables, which, after having been treated with alcohol
and water, yielded to alkali a solution precipitable in brown
flocks, by an acid. Under these circumstances, Berzelius
objected to the term altogether, and if there is a substance
to which he would apply the name ulmin, it is to the mucil-
age of elm. As this has been the source of no small confu-
sion, an account of it may be here introduced. Elm bark

88 HISTORY OF GEINE.

is treated with alcohol. The tincture is evaporated dry, and
the extract treated with water, which dissolves a brown ex-
tractive matter, leaves an insoluble residue, which being
treated with ether, leaves a small quantity of a brownish
matter, analogous to the extractive of chemists, or the
brown apotheme of Berzelius. The sap of elm contains
acetate and carbonate of potash. Here, then, are all the
elements of elm gum, as examined by Vauquelin, Klaproth,
Smithson, Thomson. Not only the elm, but other trees,
under diseased action, exude these matters, and under the
influence of air, and the potash, the diseased exudation from
the elm bark is changed to true ulmic acid, which unites
with the potash, and both with the mucilage. The mucilage
may, by processes not here necessary to be detailed, be pro-
cured pure, as a hard, opaque, colorless, insipid, and inodor-
ous gum. It moistens easily, swells in water, becoming a
semi-transparent mucilage. It is insoluble in alkali, affords
no ammonia by dry distillation. Boiled with alkaline lye,
it affords a clear mucilaginous liquor, which browns by being
exposed to air. If this lye or solution is exactly neutralized
by acetic acid, lime water and salts of lime produce no pre-
cipitate in it, and it is only rendered slightly tm'bid by sul-
phuric, nitric and muriatic acids. It is not precipitated by
acetate of lead, nor by sulphate of iron. With alcohol and
sub-acetate of lead it affords a mucilaginous precipitate. It
is evident that it differs widely from artificial ulmin, and
from ulmin of soil, and, therefore, when Berzelius turned his
attention to' that, having advised the abandonment of the
name ulmin, as inapplicable to any one substance, he
bestowed on the ulmin of soil the name of geine, from the
Greek ge, earth. If a distinction is therefore to be main-
tained, it may be said that ulmin is the product of life ;
geine, of decay.

HISTORY OF QEINE. 89

The mass of matter called mould or humus, has many
analogies with the artificial ulmin of authors, but taken as a
whole, there are decided differences. These were noticed by
Berzelius, and hence he divided, in an edition of his chemist-
ry (French translation of 1832), the constituents of the
organic part of mould or humus, into,

1st. Extract of mould. 2d. Geine. 3d. Carbonaceous
mould, or coal of humus, as it is often termed. He noticed
that these mutually passed into each other. This shows a
great similarity if not identity of chemical constituents.
He did not pretend to determine that, but by his citing, in
order to determine the elements of his No. 2, or geine, the
analysis by Sprengel of humic acid, and of that of ulmic
acid by Boullay, it is evident that he considered his geine
identical with their humic and ulmic acids ; but still he con-
sidered new researches to be necessary to determine accu-
rately the composition of either. Later experiments have
proved the perfect identity of geine, and of humic acid, and
hence, Berzelius has withdrawn the name geine, and returned
to that of humic acid, the usual term applied to the organic
acid of soil. He could not, consistently, have gone back a
step further, and substituted ulmin for geine, particularly
after he was violently attacked by Raspail, for abandoning
that ancient and much abused name.

The great distinction pointed out by Berzelius, in his three
varieties of mould, was founded on their solubility or insol-
ubility, by water and by alkalies. The author of these
pages, while engaged in researches upon the action of mor-
dants, and of cow-dung, in calico printing, began in 1833,
before he had met with the work of Berzelius, had also
noticed this marked distinction, and several other new and
important facts, relating to what he then called, from its
analogies, ulmin. For all practical purposes, the distinction

90

HISTORY OF GEINE.

was enough. When, a few years after, his attention was
accidentally called to soil, the name of Berzelius, geine, was
given by him to the whole organic matter of mould, or
humus, and that matter was also, as a convenient practical
division, separated into soluble and inscluble, including the
various geic salts which he detected in soil. In the edition
of Berzelius above cited, two other organic compounds are
noticed, as being among the general products of putrefaction,
traces of which Berzelius noticed in soil. These were called
crenic and apocrenic acids, from " krene" Greek, for foun-
tain, having been first detected in spring water.

The presence of nitrogen was detected by Berzelius, in
crenic and apocrenic acid. This sufficiently distinguished
them from geine, extract of, and carbonaceous mould. Though
these acids were detected after the name of geine had been
applied, yet the presence of nitrogen in these, would at
once have led Berzelius to examine geine anew, if he had
any suspicion that it contained that element, or that he had
mistaken the chemical nature of that substance. Unless we
suppose, with Raspail, that nitrogen in these acids exists and
acts only as he supposes it does in gluten, as an accident, or
as an ammoniacal salt, it cannot be supposed that geine and
these acids are identical, or can ever pass into each other.
Nor has the progress of chemical discovery led to the aban-
donment of geine as a distinct principle. The whole doc-
trine of naming the elements of soil may be tabulated.

THB ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF MOULD, OR HUMUS, BY BERZEUUS'S MKTHOD.

1832.

1. Extract of mould,

2. Geine,.

3. Carbonaceous mould,

4. Crenic acid,

5. Apocrenic acid,

1840.
1. Extract of mould.

2. Huraic acid.

Humin, .
Crenic a
Apocrenic aci

4. Crenic acid, 1

id.;

Vegetable extract of

authors, apotheme of

Berzelius.
Uimic of Boullay and

others, saccliulmic of

Lie big.

Ulmin of authors, sac-
cliulmin of Liebig. *

Admitted by most au-
thors.

HISTORY OF GEINE. 91

It becomes, therefore, a question, whether the term geine
is not the only proper term to be retained, applicable to the
various forms found in soil ; and its distinction into soluble
and insoluble, well founded for all practical purposes. This
question may be answered by a reference to the analysis of
geine. It includes not only that, so called in 1832 by Ber-
zelius, the equivalent of which, by the table, is ulmic and
humic acid, but also all the forms. On this subject, during
the imperfect state of organic analysis ten years ago, there
may have been room for doubt ; especially when the most
consummate organic analyst of the age, Liebig, asserts that
it is exceedingly difficult to estimate quantities less than one
half per cent. Even now, when the results of the most ex-
pert analysts have thrown a shade of doubt over the deter-
mination of the true proportion of carbon in carbonic acid, a
proportion for so many years considered one of the best
established facts of chemistry, it may be doubted whether
later analyses of geine approach nearer practical truth than
those executed almost in the infancy of the science. The
constitution of geine, as determined by Boullay and Mala-
guti, admitted by all to be worthy of confidence, is thus
stated : —

Carbon.

Hydrogen.

Oxygen.

P. Boullay, (Thomson)

56.7

4.8

38.50

" Jr. (Lassaigne)

57.64

4.70

37.56

Malaguti, (Dumas)

57.48

4.76

37.06

Average, 57.30 4.75 37.70

But it may be said that these refer only to the artificial
productions. These may be quite other compounds from
that found in the soil. Let the analysis of geine of soil, as
determined by the latest researches, answer such objection.

During the last two or three years. Muldei in whose ana-

92 HISTORY OF GEINK.

lytical tact chemists generally place the utmost confidence,
has examined the various forms of geine. He has now pub-
lished the elaborate results of his long labor. The follow-
ing sketch of these, which shed such a new light over this
complicated subject, is chiefly drawn from Berzelius's Report
for 1841, in which he speaks of them in high praise. While
it will be seen that Mulder refers to the various forms of
geine, under names used by Berzelius, he confirms the fact
that their great difference depends upon their being soluble
or insoluble in alkalies, and has added a crowd of new facts,
which connect all the forms in a beautiful and consistent
manner. Malaguti had procured, by boiling sugar with
dilute acid, ulmic acid in distinct crystals. By long boiling
in water, it is converted into ulmin, losing its solubility in
alkali without any change of composition.

Stein had already, by repeating the experiments of Mala-
guti, arrived at products whose analytical results differed from
Malaguti's. Mulder, repeating the process of boiling sugar
■with weak acid, and examining the product, has confirmed
Stein's results, and also what has been advanced, that the
forms of geine thus produced are, as Malaguti had observed,
identical in composition; and has shown that the various
forms depend on the circumstances of the manipulation.

The catalytic action of weak acid, boiled upon sugar, pro-
duces first ulmin, and ulmic acid. It is remarkable that these
products are not formed in vacuo. This is due, not to the
want of oxygen, but to the want of pressure. Boiled, under
the pressure of hydrogen, or nitrogen gas, ulmin and its
acid are produced. The products formed from sugar and
weak acids, in a vacuum, are humin, and humic acid. Ulmin,
and ulmic acid, are therefore the primary products of this
action in air or under pressure. If these are separated and
again boiled with weak acid, in contact with air, they are

HISTORY OF GEINE. 98

changed into humin, and humic acid. These are therefore
secondary products. Humin, and humic acid, are produced
directly, by allowing a free and abundant access of air.
Ulmin, and ulmic acid, are then rapidly transformed to
humin, and humic acid. Strong acid also hastens this trans-
formation, but at the same time changes humic acid to
humin. Formic acid is always produced, and distils off
during the process ; and also two other new acids. The
discoverer of one, was Peligot, in 1828, which Mulder now
calls glucio acid, and he himself has added another, produced
from this, which is called apoglucic acid. Passing over
these, it is difficult to procure the other acids and neutral
bodies free from mixture. Whatever may be the quantity
of sugar, or the circumstances of the manipulation, it is im-
possible to convert more than one-fifth of the sugar into
ulmin, and humin, and humic and ulmic acids. The other
four-fifths are changed into formic, glucic, and apoglucic
acids.

Having effected the change of one-fifth of the sugar, the
ulmic and humic acids are separated from ulmin and humin
by potash. Ammonia cannot be used for this purpose.
The reason will appear in the sequel. Having separated
the several substances, their analysis presents the following
results. The proportion per cent, the author has deduced
for the greater part from Mulder's formulae. What a chem-
ical formula is, will be readily understood from (55). A
formula is merely the true expression of an analysis by the
number of combining proportions. It presents to the eye at
once the constitution of any compound, and affords a readier
mode of comparing several bodies like -constituted, than
does the proportion per 100 parts. That is added for those
whose taste may have led them to omit the details (55).

But it may here be stated that C stands for carbon, H

94 HISTORY OF GEINE.

hydrogen, O oxygen, Am. ammonia, a compound of 3 hydro-
gen and 1 nitrogen; and Aq. stands for water (aqua), a
compound of one of hydrogen and 1 of oxygen ; 2 aq. is 2
water.

TABLE OF COMPOSITION OF ULMIN, ETC.

Per 100 parts.

Formulai.

Carbon.

Hydrogen.

Oxygen.

Ulmin,

0*0 W 0'*

65.30

4.30

30.40

Ulmic acid,

(MO H'4 0^^

68.95

4.23

26.82

Humin,

Q40 H'« 0^5

64.67

4.32

31.01

Humic acid,

Q40 1^12 Q^

69.25

3.42

27:33

It is thus seen that ulmic and humic acids differ from
ulmin and humin, by containing, the first, two, and the
second, three, atoms of the elements of water less than the
neutral bodies from which they are formed. The ulmic and
humic acids above, are supposed to be perfectly dry. Each
may combine with a definite proportion of water, forming
hydrated acids. In this case they contain the same absolute
and relative number of the same elements as do ulmin and
humin. They are thus said to be isomeric with them. The
composition of the hydrated acids is —

Ulmic, C*' H^* O^* -1- 2 aqua or 2 hydrogen and 2 oxygen.
Humic, 0° H^^ 0'« + 3 aqua or 3 " "3 "

These acids combine with bases. If these acids are dis-
solved by ammonia, and precipitated by an acid, they fall
combined with ammonia. Ulmate of ammonia, precipitated
by metallic salts, forms double salts of ammonia and a
metallic oxide. The composition of these salts of ammonia

HISTORY OF GEINE. 95

Ulmate of ammonia, C*** H'* O'' -f ammonia -f 2 aqua.
Humate " C*" H^'^ O" + ammonia + 3 aqua.

Or, per cent. Carb. Hyd. Oxy. Nitro^.

Ulmate of ammonia, 64.75 5.06 26.22 3.97.
Humate " 64.58 4.22 27.46 3.74.

Mulder, having thus shovm the composition of these arti-
ficial products, proceeds to trace similar natural products in
peat, decayed wood, and soil. Here his labors have a direct
bearing on agriculture. He points out their relation with
those above in so clear and masterly a manner, that it is
impossible not to believe that, in agriculture, the artificial
and natural products would produce like effects. In the
natural formation of these substances, Mulder remarks,
generally, that, during decay, without free access of air,
ulmin and ulmic acid are formed, as in peat of a brown color,
while, as in black peats with free access of air, humin and
humic acids are produced from the primary products. This
agrees with his experiments in air, and a vacuum. Peat, of
a brown color, having been treated with alcohol, to remove
all resinous matter, was then treated with carbonate of soda.
All the soluble matter was thus extracted, that is, the ulmic
acid. The insoluble geine is ulmin. The soluble, precipi-
tated, has all the characters of the ulmic acid of sugar. It
difi*ers only in this, it may not be heated above 284° Fah-
renheit, without decomposition, and then produces formic
acid and water. Sugar-ulmic acid undergoes this change at
383° F. Humic acid was prepared by a similar process,
from black peat. It has all the external characters of sugar-
humic acid. It diflfers by containing ammonia. Its soda
solution, precipitated by muriatic acid, gave a precipitate
containing one atom of humic acid, to one atom of ammonia.
It loses no water at 284° F. ; at about 365° F. it evolves

06 HISTORY OF GEINE.

ammonia; at 383° F. acetic acid. Humic acid was also
prepared from the black mould of an old white willow, by
a similar process as above. It suffers no change below 302°
r., and at 325° it evolves water and acetic acid. Digested
with caustic potash, it evolves ammonia. Continuing this
digestion for twelve hours, and then precipitating the humic
acid, it is found converted into'ulmate of ammonia, with two
portions of acid. It is a biulmate of ammonia, similar to
that from peat. If digested with carbonate of soda, the
product then is biulmate of ammonia, like that from sugar.
Soil was treated by Mulder, first, with boiling alcohol, then
with water, then with carbonate of soda, and the acids pre-
cipitated as usual, by muriatic acid. These precipitates were
with difficulty obtained pure. They were repeatedly washed
in cold water, dried, and again treated with alcohol, to
remove every trace of crenic and apocrenic acid. These
being removed, the precipitates were again dried, as in fact
were all the products above described at 284° F. They
were then analyzed. It is remarkable that all these pro-
ducts are ammoniacal combinations. It is a combination,
not as a salt, in which case the geine of soil would be at once
soluble in water, but a compound of humin and ulmin, or
of their acids with ammonia, probably like the compounds
of ammonia with sulphates and other salts. The whole may
be best presented in a table, and that these natural may be
at once compared with the artificial products, these are also
included.

HISTORY OF GEINE.

97

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HISTORY OF GEINE.

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HISTORY OF GEINE. 99

These are beauLiful and valuable results. Executed by
one of the great masters in organic analysis, they show a
wonderful coincidence between the artificial and natural
products. This has a direct connection with agriculture.
The source of the nitrogen of plants depends upon these
compounds of ammonia with the geine of soil. The compo-
sition of that substance shows that, by making it soluble, the
farmer commands the same beneficial effects which may be
produced by nitre. But the researches of Mulder do not
terminate with the analyses. He has examined the com-
pounds which these forms of geine produce with other acids,
particularly with muriatic and nitric. The compound of
nitric and humic acids is called nitro-humic acid ; ulmin and
ulmic, humin and humic acid are decomposed by weak nitric
acid. They are converted by gentle heat immediately into
a rust-colored powder, and by prolonged action evolve oxalic
and formic acids and nitrate of ammonia. Nitro-humic
acid, the rusty brown powder above, is soluble in water.
Alkalies evolve ammonia from it. Late researches have
shown that this compound is apocrenate of ammonia.

It is highly probable that this product is connected with the
action of nitrates, or saltpetre in agriculture. All these
products, observes Berzelius, are connected by an unknown
thread. These black and almost insoluble acids, have a
very weak saturating power, in comparison with their oxy-
gen. This last exceeds that of the base, by 10, 12, or 14
times. Hence, Berzelius suggests that all these organic acids
may have a composition analogous to sulpho-benzoic acid.

Notwithstanding the objections raised by Berzelius,
founded upon a want of correspondence between the oxygen
and saturating power of some of these forms of geine, they
are probably modifications of one principle, differing not so
much in their physical properties as do fibrine, albumen, and

100 HISTORY OF GEINE.

caseine, or flesh, white of egg, and curd of milk. These are
identical in composition, modifications of a common princi-
ciple to which the name, proteine, is given by Mulder, its
discoverer. It is not among the least curious of his results
that proteine is^ by weak acids, changed into humate of
ammonia, its acid being perfectly identical with that from
sugar. In 1838, Prof. Plitchcock, in his report, published
the following extract from one of the author's letters, when
speaking of geine as the product chiefly of vegetable matter,
it was added : " Animal substances aflbrd a similar product,
containing nitrogen." The author supposed at that time that
the nitrogen in geine was of animal origin ; but since it has
been proved that proteine is derived from vegetables, the
results of its decomposition by Mulder, leave no doubt that
the proteine of vegetables is the source of the ammoniacal
compounds of geine found in soil. That neither Mulder nor
Berzelius have the slightest doubt that these ammoniacal
compounds are wholly distinct from crenic and apocrenic
acid, is evident from the care of Mulder to separate these
last from the soil, and from the total silence of Berzelius
respecting any mistake he may have been supposed to com-
mit, by confounding geine with them.

It will be seen from the account of Mulder's researches,
that geine is produced chiefly from the decay of woody
fibre. All its forms are thence derived. It is from woody
fibre, by the absorption of oxygen, by the access of air and
moisture, that ulmic acid is first formed, and from this, by
absorption of another portion of oxygen proceeds humic
acid, and thus also, from this last again comes geic acid, and
thence crenic, which by still a further change becomes apo-
crenic acid. All these transformations are continually occur-
ring in soil. These occur not without the production of car-
bonic acid, water and ammonia.

CHAPTER V.

OF THE MUTUAL ACTION OF THE ORGANIC AND INORGANIC
ELEMENTS OF SOIL.

128. In agriculture, little and seemingly unimportant dis-
coveries are valuable. Nothing is to be despised, which
may lead to a rational and true theory of agriculture ; this
only can lead to successful practice. Practice, founded on
sound principles, can be taught only by a knowledge of the
manner how the elements of soil affect each other, and veg-
etation. This knowledge cannot be obtained without the
application of theoretical opinions. The opinions of merely
scientific men, may be wholly theoretical ; but what is
science 1

It is, -says Davy, " refined common sense, the substitution
of rational practice, for unsound prejudice."

In no department of human industry is there so great a
demand for the union of theory and practice, as in agricul-
ture. The book farmer and the practical farmer, must now
shake hands. They have been too long wrestling, and trying
to get each other down, at arm's length, and now grappling
in side hug, they find the closer the embrace, the longer
they stand. So it should be ; theory and practice should
mutually support each other.

129. The theoretical and the practical farmer aim at one
common object. The latter is employing certain means to
effect certain ends ; the former unfolds the laws of nature,

(101)

•102 ACTlOi^- OF. ELEMENTS OF SOIL.

which limit and control the operations which are performed
to effect that end. Theory may teach a rational and success-
ful practice; this last may lead to a rational theory. But
without a knowledge of the elements of soil, and of their
mutual action, which is to be learned from chemistry only,
the practical application of science to agriculture is but the
dream of enthusiasts.

130. How do the elements of soil act? The answer
involves two important considerations. 1st. The mutual
chemical action of the elements of soil, their organic and
inorganic parts on each other ; and 2d. This action, as influ-
enced and modified by the presence of living, growing
plants.

131. The elements of soil are silicates, salts and geine.
The silicates, as such, have no tendency to react on each
other. These are gradually decomposed by the action of
the air. The great agent in this action is its carbonic acid,
which gradually combines with the alkaline base of the sili-
cates, and the potash and soda are converted into soluble
salts, while the silex and alumina remain.

132. The result of this action is, that the land becomes
gradually more clayey and tenacious; while the alkaline
bases, carried away by drainage or filtration, enter brooks
and rivers, and are finally found in sea water. The potash
of the ocean arises from the decomposition of rocks and soil.
This action, though very marked on felspar, is comparatively
nothing except on the naked and exposed surface of rocks.
Soil suffers but little from this cause. The silicates of soil
may be considered as stationary.

133. Let the class, salts, be now introduced into the soil ;
of these the earthy carbonates only act upon silicates by
mutual decomposition. The silicic acid acts on the lime,
forming silicate of lime, while the carbonic acid, now let

ACTION OF CARBONATES IN SOIL. 103

loose, acts as such upon other silicates, and eliminates or
frees the alkaline bases. Let it be supposed that there is
clay, or silicate of potash and alumina in the soil. Let car-
bonate of lime, that is marble, or air-slacked lime, shells,
&c., be added to the soil. The result is, that slowly but
surely, chemical action takes place, the silicic acid pulling
one away and the carbonic acid another, the lime is changed
to silicate of lime, and the carbonic acid escapes, and now in
its turn acts upon silicates as did carbonic acid of air. The
alumina remains, the soil becomes more clayey. Thus sands
by liming are amended.

134. This principle, of the action of carbonates, unravels
the agency of a vast variety of substances, which appear to
be very inert and inefficient. It must be remembered, that
the action of silicates and salts is alone under consideration,
uninfluenced by the presence of geine or plants. That action
in its simplest form constitutes the following, which may be
laid down as the ninth principle of agricultural chemistry,

CARBONIC ACID, AND THE CARBONATES, DECOMPOSE THE
EARTHr, ALKALINE, AND METALLIC SILICATES OF SOIL.

135. The result of this action is, that the potash, soda,
lime, magnesia, alumina, and metallic oxides are set free,
and where silicate of alumina exists, the soil becomes more
clayey, while the carbonic acid again acts upon silicates ot
alkalies and forms carbonates of alkalies. A clue is thus
given to the action of peat ashes, or coal ashes in amending
a sandy soil. These ashes act by their carbonate of lime as
above stated, freeing the alkali of the silicate of potash.

136. Hitherto, the action of the inorganic elements has
been explained, uninfluenced by the organic or by geine.
Referring to the properties of this substance, it will be recol-
lected, that it is soluble or insoluble, that it combines with
alkalies, earths, and metals. It exerts a twofold action. 1st.

lOi ACTION OF CARBONATES IN SOIL.

The geine combines with the potash, soda, lime, alumina,
magnesia, which have been let loose by the action of carbonic
acid, and of carbonates, and forms geic salts or geates,
while the carbonic acid which may be let loose from any
carbonate of lime, acting upon these geic salts, forms super-
geates, which readily dissolve. It is thus evident, that geine
exerts an important and powerful influence upon soil. It is
the agent, prepared by nature, to dissolve the earthy con-
stituents of soil, rendering them so soluble, that they become
fit for food, or constituents of plants.

2d. The free alkalies, produced as has been described by
the influence of carbonic acid, and carbonates, act on geine.
They render this soluble. The curious and important fact,
that a small quantity of alkali renders an indefinite quantity
of geine soluble, has been noticed (117); and it may now
be added, that probably all the alkaline earths, and oxide of
iron and manganese, possess this power of converting vege-
table fibre into geine. This eflect has long been known to
be produced by potash and lime. These hasten decay ; and
next in power to lime, in this singular process, is alumina,
then oxide of iron, in passing from a lower to a higher state
of oxidation.

137. This remarkable process, this power, energy, func-
tion, influence, property, called by whatsoever name it may
be, which is thus exerted, by the elements of silicates upon
vegetable fibre, and insoluble geine ; and the power of
developing acid properties in that principle, is intimately
connected with the action of growing plants upon soil. The
joint eff*ect of organic and inorganic elements of soil and
plants may be better understood by adverting to the proba-
ble cause of this property of earths, alkalies and oxides ;
though in the present state of science, this cause may be
apprehended only by giving it a name, which arranges only

105

many facts under one view. The cause of this effect of alka-
lies upon geine, is to be sought in that power which has been
denominated catalysis, and which French authors designate
as the action of presence ; that is, the mere presence of a
body influences the nature of a second body, so as wholly to
change its properties. It causes the elements of organic com-
pounds to enter into new arrangements, by which they pro-
duce a totally different substance. The catalytic body, the
present body, the changing body itself, suffers no change,
except, perhaps, in some cases of ferments, whose activity
depends upon their being in a state of decomposition, while
the changed body loses nothing of its substance. It often
gains oxygen and hydrogen, or the elements of water. For
example, starch is converted into sugar by oil of vitriol.
The acid suffers no change. It acts by catalysis, and converts
the starch to sugar, simply by the addition of water, or its
elements. So the peculiar principle found near the eye of
the potato, converts starch first into gum, called dextrine,
and then converts this into sugar of starch. So malt, by its
gluten, converts starch into sugar in the process of brewing
beer. But the effect of this action may not be confined to
organic compounds only. It has lately been extended, by
an acute German chemist, to all chemical changes ; and it
has been maintained that all chemical decomposition takes
place in obedience only to a third substance, acting by its
presence. Hence, this extension of the principle, will allow
the decomposition of the mineral elements of soil, to be
attributed to the catalytic action of the plant.

138. Having considered the action of the organic and
inorganic elements of soil upon each other, it is seen, that
though great, this action would be but very little in centuries.
'J'he geine itself would be dissipated in air, were it not that,
by I his provision, it is combined with the earthy part of the
5*

106 CATALYSIS OF LIFE.

soil, and there retained for the use of plants, which may grow
*iear it.

139. Let plants be grown in the soil, whose action has
been considered. This introduces life into the process, and
it gives life to all around it. It is not pretended to explain
what the action of life is. It has many relations with chem-
ical processes. By the refined chemistry of the present day,
many products are formed, which have been usually, and in
fact, are now considered products of living action only ; the
peculiar product of life, urea, is formed artificially ; so of
other products, and out of carbon, nitrogen, and water, niay
be formed as many, and as complex products as are ever
elaborated by a living process; yet life is not a chemical
process, and were it attempted to explain how, out of the
four simple elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro-
gen, all the variety of vegetable products are formed, it
might be said that life is a catalytic power. The vital prin-
ciple by its presence, impresses the same power on the food
we take, that the peculiar principle in malt and in potato,
called diastase, impresses on starch. It merely, by its pres-
ence, gives to the elements power to enter into new combi-
nations, and then these combinations occur in obedience only
to the well-known, established, eternal laws of chemical
affinity.

140. So, too, the presence of a growing plant, of the root,
of a seed, where life is, impresses on the soil, both on the
organic and inorganic elements, power to enter into new
arrangements. The soil, then, is not external to the plants ;
so far as life is concerned, it is as much internal as if the
plant had a mouth and stomach, through and into which the
soil might be fed.

141. Call this power life, electricity, galvanism, or by any
other name, still the great fact, that the mere presence of a

ACTION OF SALTS OR MINERAL MANURES. 107

living, growing plant in soil, in one year effects a greater
amount of its decomposition, than all atmospheric influences,
in many years, is one of the very highest interest, in a prac-
tical view. It is, perhaps, of more value than all the other
actions which have been considered.

142. It is this decomposing action of living plants, on the
inorganic elements of soil, which affords a reasonable expla-
nation of the action of salts in agriculture. The catalytic
power of life dissociates the elements of salts. They enter
into new combinations. The base and the acid are separated
by the action of the living plant.

143. On no subject in agriculture are opinions more
divided, than on the manner how salts or mineral manures
act. Their amount in soil is small. That is soon exhausted.
They cannot be artificially supplied, in excess, without induc-
ing very serious injury, and, in fact, often produce barren-
ness ; yet are often decidedly beneficial. It is not less diffi-
cult to account for the good, than for bad effects of salts.
Among all the variety of substances acting as salts, a dis-
tinct theory is generally framed and adopted for each. If
any attempt has been made to arrange all the facts relating
to this subject, it has ended in this, that they are stimulants.
They are to the plants what condiments are to the food of
man. This may do very well as an illustration, and the
author has elsewhere said, that *' the soil is the plate, the
geine the food, the salt the seasoning."

144. This leads to no practical result, except it be this,
that if salts are seasoning, like the seasoning of our food,
they must be used sparingly. Some general law is wanting,
which shall at once account for the effects of salts, and while
it points out how so very minute a portion as the four-hun-
dredth part of one per cent, of the soil produces unquestion-
ably good effects, one per cent, will be injurious. Some

108 ACTION OF SALTS.

general principle is wanted, which will enable the farmer to
say what the action of a salt will be ; and whether he may
apply one, or less than one per cent, of it, without risking
his crop.

145. Such a general principle can be deduced from the
known chemical action of the elements of soil, aided by the
living plants, upon each other. It is this tenth principle of
agricultural chemistry, the base of all salts acts ever the

SAME IN agriculture. PECULIARITY OF ACTION DEPENDS ON
THE ACID OF THE SALT.

146. Forget, reader, all other principles which have been
presented to you. Banish from your mind, if you will, all
that has been said, on the origin and nature of soil. Put it
down, all, all to the account of book farming. Let it be
branded all as theory, and that too as the worst of theories,
theory fruitless, a goodly blossom bearing no fruit, a Dead
Sea apple ; but do not condemn the principle now enunciated.
Let that stand alone, by itself, for itself In all its length
and breadth, it is the great practical principle of agricultural
chemistry. It opens veins rich in results, more precious
than mines of gold.

147. The action of salts in agriculture, is to be regarded
in a twofold light. First, a large proportion of salts is found
in plants, composed of alkalies and alkaline bases of earths,
united to a mineral acid, such as sulphuric, muriatic, phos-
phoric. These salts are taken up by the roots of plants
when dissolved in water, and thus form a constituent of veg-
etables. Secondly, a large quantity of alkali and alkaline
earths is united in plants, with a vegetable acid. In this
case the salts of the soil have been decomposed by the
living plant. What is the consequence ? The base, if
alkali, lime, alumina, magnesia, iron, acts upon geine, ren-
dering that soluble, and it is then taken up as such, or it

ACTION OF SALTS. 109

forms an alkaline or earthy, or metallic geate, which, enter-
ing the plant as such, is there decomposed by the vegetable
acid produced in the living plant ; while the acid of the salt
thus let loose in the soil, acting on the silicates, forms new
salts, which, in their turn, play a similar part to that pro-
duced by the original salt.

148. The effect of this action of salts is, that they contin-
ually reproduce themselves. The effect may be illustrated
by yeast, which added to dough, begets a new portion of
the fermenting principle, which again added to new dough,
still begets new leaven, and this without end. It is not to
be understood, from this illustration, that the action of salts
is fermentation.

149. But let this action be farther illustrated; suppose
there is added a salt, composed of muriatic acid and soda,
that is common salt, to the soil. By the action of the living
plant, this is decomposed. Its soda, or base, then acts on
geine. If this has been long in an insoluble and perfectly
useless condition, it is now rendered soluble, and hence
supplies plants with food. A very marked and decided effect
is perceived from applying a small quantity per acre, of a
salt, which certainly of itself contains no nutriment for
plants.

150. The effects here produced, may be due to the small
quantity of alkali, acting on an indefinite quantity of geine ;
but the effect so often observed, of the minute quantity of
salts, say one-hundredth of one per cent, of the soil, seems
hardly compatible with the explanation. So far as it goes,
this is its action ; but very probably the quantity of alkali
in the salt sown, is taken up as a geic salt, and immediately
carried into the plants. The base then is withdrawn, yet the
action continues. It continues through the whole time the
fruit is forming. Some other source, therefore, of the per-

110 ACTION OF SALTS.

manence of this action must be sought. That is due to the
acid constituent of the salt. That, when the plant decom-
posed the salts, was let loose, and now acts on the silicates
of the soil. It decomposes these, uniting first with the alka-
lies, and thus reproducing itself. It is again decomposed by
the growing plant. The same round of action continues.
Suppose all this had been witnessed on a worn-out, almost
barren field. It is concluded at once, that there is some
peculiar virtue in the salt applied, that it is of itself food, or
manure; whereas the whole action is in obedience to a gene-
ral law applicable to all salts.

151. Suppose plaster or gypsum has been applied; the
effects of a bushel of plaster per acre, or even the one four-
hundredth part of one per cent, of the soil, produces effects
on alluvial land, which shows its good results, as far as eye
can reach. It seems almost incredible that so minute a
portion of a mineral can act at all, yet how beautifully is
this result explained, by the principle that plants decompose,
first, this salt; the lime, for plaster is a sulphate of lime,
then acts on geine, which is thus rendered soluble ; while the
acid, the oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid, immediately acts on
silicates. If silicates of alkali exist in the soil, we have now
changed sulphate of lime for an alkaline sulphate, and if
silicate of lime is also present, the potash or alkali, having
been exhausted, plaster of Paris is formed anew. So long
as there is in the soil organic matter, this action continues,
and will continue till the plant has gradually withdrawn for
its own. use, the acid of the salt which was introduced.

152. Fertility depends wholly on salts and geine. With-
out the last there is no fruit formed ; without the salts the
geine is locked up, is insoluble. Consider now the applica-
tion of this principle, that the base of the salts acts always
in one uniform way, its action is wholly upon geine ; that

ACTION OF SALTS. Ill

the acid of salts acts upon silicates. Apply this principle to
all mineral manures, as they are called. They are all con-
nected by one common mode of action of their base.
There is no speculation, there is no mystery, as to the mode
how they act. The effect produced by such wonderfully
minute quantities is no longer astonishing. It is no more
wonderful than that leaven should make dough rise ; it is
even less mysterious.

153. Apply this principle to acids, which have sometimes
been used. Sprinkle a small portion of oil of vitriol on the
soil ; supposing no free base present, the silicates are decom-
posed by the oil of vitriol, and sulphates of alkalies, and
alkaline earths are formed. These new formed salts are, in
their turn, decomposed by the living plants ; and the action
on geine commences, as has been explained.

154. Consider how salts and geine are linked. It is at
once seen how essential to the action of salts is the presence
of organic matter, or geine in the soil. It is the want of a*
principle like that which has been stated, which has led to a
waste of time and money, in applying mineral manures to
worn-out and barren soil. Whereas, the principle (145)
leads to the application of both salts and geine. The salts
alone would be useless. Their first effect in either case,
would be the same on silicates ; but with geine, this action,
like fermentation, goes on, begetting new salts ; without it,
this action ceases after the first chemical changes have occur-
red. In the first case, it goes on. In the second, it stops.

155. Salts without geine, act only on silicates of Xhe soil.
If, now, these silicates contain any portion of aqueous rock
(11), they usually contain also distinct traces of organic
matter. This matter is due, for the most part, to the geine,
held in solution in the water, from which the rocks were
deposited. It is certainly within the bounds, not only of a

112 ACTION OF SALTS.

chemical possibility, but of a high degree of probability, that
the carbon, under the influence of growing plants, may unite
with oxygen or hydrogen, that is, with the elements of
water, and form thus food for plants. Hence, on such soil,
the mere application of salts, or of mineral manures, has
produced, yea, and does produce, marked and wonderful
effects. This would be the effect of salts, applied to soil
produced by the decomposition of slate ; even gneiss soil,
which occurs occasionally in extensive patches, would be
benefited, but much less by such application. But such soil
forms an exception, both to the general law which has beeti
stated, of the uniformity of mineral composition, and to the
necessity of applying salts and geine in conjunction. These
remarks may explain a seemingly possible anomaly to the
principle, that the base of all salts acts in one uniform man-
ner upon geine, and that peculiarities of action depend on
the acid of the salt. The effects of the first part of this
proposition (145), have been explained; the effect of the
second, is now to be considered.

156. Perhaps no principle in agriculture is better estab-
lished than that an excess of any salt in the usual accepta-
tion of that term, is a cause of barrenness. Yet it is quite
as well established that the quantity of different salts admits
of some latitude, and that some salts do produce better
results than others. Referring to the acid constituents of
these salts, it will be found that some acids are organic.
They consist of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, all which, under
the influence of the living plant, may be dissociated, and
their elements form geine. Other acids consist of oxygen
and nitrogen, essential constituents of plants ; others consist
of chlorine ; others of sulphur and oxygen, and others of
carbon and oxygen. In other words, the acids are composed
of elements which form food for plants, or of elements

ACTION OF SALTS. 113

which enter, in a small proportion only, into the composition
of plants.

157. In the first case, the salts admit of a larger quantity
being applied, than in the second. By the first, plants are
fed, by the second, they are poisoned ; for the base of all
salts acting as has been explained, the acid is eliminated ; if
this is set free in large quantities, and its elements can be
taken up and converted by the plant, well, good effects
follow ; if, on the other hand, the elements of the acid are
such as the plant does not demand, they act like poison on
the animal economy.

158. Let salts be divided, on this principle of the peculi-
arity of action depending upon the acid of the salts, into two
classes; the first nourishing, the second poisoning plants.
The first class contains, a. carbonates, b. nitrates, c. phos-
phates.

159. The action of the first class is to be studied under its
three divisions, (a. 158), Carbonates. These include a
very large portion of all salts used in agriculture. It
includes limestone (14), marble, old mortar, shells, shell
marl. In all these cases, the base or lime let loose by the
action of the living plant, acts at once, as caustic lime upon
insoluble geine, and unconverted vegetable fibre, changing
these into soluble vegetable food ; while the carbonic acid
acts immediately upon silicates, decomposing these, and
upon thegeates in the soil, converting these into super-geates.
Carbonates of alkalies, as ashes, &;c., act at once. They are
soluble, their alkali acts immediately upon the geine. Their
carbonic acid acts upon silicates and geine. Immediate and
decided good effects follow their application ; while carbon-
ate of lime acts slower. It often requires many years to
bring out the good effects of carbonate of lime, and though
ultimately these effects, it is believed, have never failed of

114 ACTION OF SALTS.

being witnessed ; yet so slowly, that its use has been often
condemned. The principle which is here discussed, may
account for this apparent discrepancy. Suppose a barren,
worn-out, exhausted soil, containing yet, a portion of insolu-
ble geine and decayed vegetable matter, between the state
of wood and insoluble geine, or even a portion of undecayed
dead wood. It seems too unpromising to give it manure ;
little of that is to be spared, and that is bestowed upon
better land. If this is in a country where lime is cheap, that
is purchased, and freely applied, as it is in England, at the
rate of about a cask to the rod. Even in this case no
change is produced, the soil is as unproductive as ever. The
experiment has failed, and is charged to book farming.

160. The properties of lime, and geine, are here to be
remembered. Lime in excess, renders geine insoluble,
granting it to have been in a soluble state. Lime changes
vegetable fibre into soluble geine, but being applied in
excess, it forms an insoluble salt. Now, by the supposition,
there was no great excess of vegetable matter, and the lime
rendering only a small portion of that soluble, is itself, then,
always in excess, and though it converts, it at the same time
locks up that geine which it had converted. The reasoning
will hold good, whether a cask to the acre, or a cask to the
rod, has been applied.

16L The lime has been, perhaps, in a caustic state, fresh
from the kiln, and as soon as it falls into powder it is spread
and covered in. It is greedy of carbonic acid ; so long as it
remains caustic, it absorbs this gas, and slowly becomes car-
bonate of lime. It is now like shell marl, clam, oyster and
muscle shells. The mode of reasoning applies to all these
forms. Slowly, but surely, it may not be for some years, a
gradual improvement in the limed soil of the exhausted field
is perceived. The carbonate of lime begins to act on the

ACTION OF SALTS. 115

silicates ; and the alkalies of the silicates are eliminated.
These solve or decompose the geine and geates, which the
lime had locked up; at the same time the silicic acid acts on
the ca.rbonate of lime, volumes of carbonic acid are let loose.
The carbonic acid itself reacts on silicates, eliminating afresh
portion of alkali, and upon the geates, converting these into
super-geates. A round of change goes on, till perhaps every
particle of vegetable food is withdrawn ; crops are no longer
raised. Having witnessed, though slow to believe it, good
effects from liming, the farmer again applies it to the ex-
hausted field ; but no good effects can now follow, unless
manure or decayed vegetable matter is also applied. This
may be furnished in two ways, either artificially or naturally,
that is, by allowing the scanty crop of all sorts of weeds,
grass, mullein, &c., to decay on the soil where it grew. But
this subject will be considered in another place.

162. It has been attempted to show how the contradictory
and anomalous effects of lime are explicable, on the princi-
ple (145) ; and here the general theory of the action of lime
may be adverted to, much of which has been anticipated.
Lime is a general term, it includes all forms of calcareous
matter. It is the lime, the base of the salts which acts, and
that always, as lime, no matter how it is applied ; whether
as marble, as marl, shells, air-slacked lime, bones or plaster.
In a restricted and usual acceptation of the term, lime refers
only to that which has been burned, or stone lime. Its
action is threefold, each distinct, first, as a neutralizer —
secondly, a decomposer — thirdly, a converter.

1st. Wherever free acids exist in soil, lime acts as a neu-
tralizer. It has been asserted, on undoubted authority, that
occasionally free phosphoric, muriatic, geic, acetic, and malic
acids exist in soil.

2d. Soil may contain abundant geates, particularly geate

116 ACTION OF SALTS.

of alumina, the least of all demanded oy plants. Long
formed and sun-baked, they are scarcely acted on by rain or
dew, and are almost useless. Here, lime, by decomposing
these earthy and metallic geates, forms a combination
which, in its nascent state, is readily dissolved. If the car-
bonate of lime acts better than the hydrate, it is because,
following a well-known law, double decomposition is easier
than single. If any acid geine exists in the soil, or any free
acids, carbonic acid is then liberated, it acts on the geate of
lime, super-geates result, and these are easily soluble.

3d. The great use of lime is as a converter, turning solid
and insoluble geine, even solid vegetable fibre, into soluble
vegetable food. Here is the point, where philosophy seems
to give the choice, to refer this action to one of the numer-
ous cas'es of catalytic change, which are every day becoming
more and more familiar ; or to explain the whole process by
referring it to saponification. This word is used as convey-
ing at once what is meant, but it is not meant to say that
the product of lime and vegetable matter is soap. The
action of lime on geine may be similar to its action on oil
and fat. It is well-established that animal and vegetable oils
and fiits are converted into acids by the action of alkalies,
earths, oxides, and even by vegetable fibre itself. The gen-
eral law is, that whenever a substance capable of uniting
with the acid of fat or oil, is placed in contact with fat or
oil, it determines the production of acid. Now, it has been
shown that alkali produces a similar change on geine, it de-
velops acid properties. If alkali has converted vegetable oil
and geine into acid, it is a reason why a similar action may
be produced by all those substances which act thus on oil.
Hence lime, earths, and metallic oxides, convert geine .into
acid ; as fast as this takes place, so fast it becomes soluble.
Then, too, the long action of air on insoluble geine render-

ACTION OF SALTS. 117

ing it soluble, is it not analogous to the action of air on oils ?
Both evolve, in this case, vast volumes of carbonic acid, the
oil becomes gelatinous and soluble in alkali ; does not a sim-
ilar change occur in geine ? It is possible that during the
action of lime on geine, a soluble substance may be pro-
duced, bearing the same relation to this process that gly-
cerine does to saponification. These views need to be
followed out experimentally, and may be possibly hereafter
considered.

163. In the acid soil, lime acts to eliminate carbonic acid,
which then acts on silicates and geine, as has been explained.
All fat acids, or fats and oils, act in the same way upon sili-
cates, partly by their own acid properties, and partly by the
evolution of carbonic acid gas, which is evolved during their
conversion into the acid state. The quantity of carbonate
of lime which may be applied is unlimited, and the quantity
of alkali depends on the presence of insoluble geine. The
more abundant is the last, the more freely may alkalies be
applied. The carbonates include ashes of all kinds, and
agriculturally viewed, all kinds of lime, for the quick soon
becomes mild. The value of ashes in agriculture, depends
upon its being a combination of salts derived from plants,
all of which have a powerful and decidedly beneficial effect.
The question is often asked. What is the relative value of
spent or leeched and unleeched ashes 1 It may be answered
by reference to the analysis of ashes.

Burning reduces organic substance to two classes, ashes
and volatile salts. The last are found in soot. The ashes
are formed of salts and silicates. These vary in quantity
and quality, not only in different plants, but, as is well known,
in different parts of the same plant. Let us take oak, beech,
basswood, birch, as the types of the composition of hard

118

ACTION OF SALTS.

wood ashes ; yellow pine — (pinus abies) — as the type of soft
wood ashes ; and wheat straw as the type of the ashes of the
grasses.

The average quantity of ashes from 100 parts of dry oak,
beech, birch, &c., is 2.87. Ashes are divided imperfectly by
the simple process of leeching, into two parts, one soluble,
and the other insoluble in water. 100 parts of hard wood
ashes would afford, of soluble, 13.57 ; of insoluble, 86.43
parts, if perfectly separated.

100 parts of the soluble contain :

Carbonic acid, . . , .' .

22.70

Sulphuric acid, '.....

6.43

Muriatic acid,

"l.82

Silex,

.95

Potash and soda,

67.96

100 parts of ike insoluble contain ,

99.86

Carbonic acid, . . . .

. 35.83

Phosphoric acid, .

Silex,

. 3.40
. 4.27

Oxide of iron.

.50

Oxide of manganese,

Magnesia,

Lime,

. 1.10

. . 4.55

. 50.35

100.

Pine — (pinus abies) — 100 parts of dry wood afford only
.83 lb. of ashes ; of which 100 parts afford of soluble, 50 ;
of insoluble, 50.

ACTION OF SALTS.

100 parts of the soluble contain :

119

Carbonic acid, ....

. 13.50

Sulphuric acid, . , .
Silex,

. 6.90
. 2.

Potash and soda, ....
Water,

. 69.70
. 7.90

100 parts of the insoluble contain :

100.

Carbonic acid,

. 21.50

Phosphoric acid,

Silex,

. 1.80
. 13.

Magnesia,

Oxide of iron,

. 8.70
22.30

Oxide of manganese,

Lime, .

5.50
27.20

100.

A bushel of common hard wood ashes weighs about 50
lbs. ; 6.75 lbs. are soluble in water, and consist of

Potash and soda, .... 4.605 pounds.

Sulphuric acid, 0.433 "

Muriatic acid, ...... 0.122 **

Carbonic acid, 1.530 '*

Silica, 0.060 "

6.750

43.25 lbs. are insoluble in water, and consist of

Carbonic acid, 15.59 pounds.

Phosphoric acid, • • . . 1.47 "

no

ACTION OF SALTS.

Silica,

.

1.84 pounds.

Lime, . . .

• •

. 21.77 "

Magnesia, .

.

. 1.96 "

Oxide of iron, .

.

. 0.21 "

Oxide of manganese, .

•

. 0.41 «
43.25 "

It is evident from these tables that the common opinion
of the inferiority of pine ashes is unfounded. Though pine
yields less weight of ash than hard wood, in proportion of
.83 to 2.87, yet, in equal weights, pine ash affords four times
more alkali than the ash of hard wood.

50 lbs. hard ash yields 6.75 lbs. soluble, of which 4.60
lbs. are alkalies.

50 lbs. soft ash yields 25 lbs. soluble, of which 17.42 lbs.
are alkalies.

Wheat straw — 100 parts yield 4.40 lbs. of ashes; 100
parts of which afford, of soluble, 19; of insoluble, 81.

100 parts of ike soluble contain :

Sulphuric acid, 0.2

Muriatic acid, 13.

Silex, 85.6

Potash and soda, 50.

100 parts of the insoluble contain :

Phosphoric acid, 1.20

Silex, 75.

Oxide of iron, 2.50

Lime, ....... 5.80

Charcoal, 15.50

The above tables of wood and straw ashes are calculated
on the analyses of Berthier. The elements are stated singly,
because we have thus, at one view, the amount of each, and

ACTION OF SALTS.

121

it is the base chiefly which acts. The agricultural value of
ashes may be determined by reference to these tables. In
what state these elements may be combined in plants, we
can only determine theoretically. Thus, the phosphoric acid,
by its affinities, would be united in the hard woods as above,
with the lime and iron, forming in each 100 parts of the
insoluble portion of ashes, phosphate of lime, 5.40; phos-
phate of iron, 1.86.

The average composition of the ashes of hemlock, spruce,
chestnut, white elm, black birch, black cherry, and red beech,
calculated on the analyses of Prof. Empaons, is as follows :

Potash, . . . .

12.032

Soda,

8.642

Qrtlii niA

Common salt, .
Chlorine, .

0.050
. 0.120

in water,

. 25.218

Sulphuric acid, .

4.374 ^

Carbonate of lime, .

45.834 ^

18.566
. 3.390

Phosphates of lime, mag

nesia, and iron.
Silica,

insoluble
in water.

. 73.111

Magnesia,

. 5.321 ^

98.329

98.329

Coal and moisture, .

1.671

100.000

In the leach tub, the separation into soluble and insoluble
would take place as above.

The composition of the insoluble part of ashes gives nearly
the constituents of leached ashes. If the soapboiler's pro-
cess was as perfect as that which the chemist employs, still
his leached ashes would show more lime than the above
6

i^f^-'Sfiif. .7/^^.^

122

ACTION OF SALTS.

tables, because he always employs a portion of lime to make
his lye caustic. This is a variable portion ; whatever it is,
it adds so much to the value of the leached ashes. Besides,
the soap-maker always leaves a portion of alkali, which is
combined with the silex. Exposure to air decomposes this,
and then the alkali can be extracted by water. This is one
great source of the active power of leached ashes.

164. A bushel of good ashes contains about 4^ lbs. of real
potash. In leaching ashes, generally about one pound of
lime is added to each bushel of ashes, and as it loses no bulk
during the operation, a cord of leached ashes contains about
the following proportions, allowing the usual proportion of
potash to be leached out, or 4 lbs. per bushel : —

Phosphoric acid, 147 lbs,

184 "

21 "

41 "

196 "

1657 "

2277 "

50 "

Silex,

Oxide of iron.

Oxide of manganese.

Magnesia,

Carbonic acid.

Lime, including that added in leaching,

Potash, combined with silica.

Combining the phosphoric acid with lime to form bone dust,
and converting the remainder of the lime into carbonate, a
cord of leached ashes contains :

319 lbs.

Potash,

50 "

Magnesia, .

Silica,

Oxide of iron, ,

. 196 "

184 "

. 21 "

Oxide of manganese, ,
Carbonate of lime, ,

41 "
3766 "

4577 «

ACTION OF SALTS.

123

A cord weighs about 9000 lbs.,

and hence one half the
weight is water.

Spreugel has determined the components in 100,000
pounds of dry leached ashes thus :

Silica, .

35.000

or per C(

3rd wet

1575.00

lb

Caustic lime, .,

35.010

u

u

1575.45

a

Magnesia,

2.330

u

((

104.85

((

Alumina .

1.500

((

u

67.50

u

Oxide of iron, .

1.700

u

u

76.50

a

Oxide of manganese,

1.840

11

(t

82.80

((

Potash as silicate.

0.500

a

((

22.50

u

Soda as silicate.

0.180

»4

u

08.10

u

Sulphuric acid,

0.190

((

((

08.55

((

Phosphoric acid,

3.500

u

((

157.50

((

Common salt, .

0.090

u

a

004.05

(fr

Carbonates of lime

and magnesia.

18.160

u

((

817.20

((

100.000

4500.

Calculating from Sprengel's numbers the proportions for
2500 lbs. in a cord wet from the soap boiler, the result is
expressed above in the right-hand column. Reducing some
of these to phosphate and carbonate of lime the result is per
cord :

Phosphate of lime or bone dust, . 340 lbs.
Carbonate of lime, . . . 3302 "

Spent ashes, therefore, belong to the class of carbonates.

Peat ashes abound in carbonate, sulphate, and especially
phosphate of lime. Free alkali may be always traced in
peat ashes ; but alkali exists in it, rather as a silicate, as in
leached ashes. Anthracite coal ashes contain in 100 parts :

124

ACTION OF SALTS.

White Ash.

Fed Ash.

Matter insoluble in acids,

. 88.68

85.65

Soluble silica.

. 0.09

1.24

Alumina,

. 3.36

. 4.24

Iron,

. 4.03

5.83

Lime, .

. 2.11

0.16

Magnesia,

. 0.19

2.01

Soda, .

. 0.22

0.16

Potash, .

. 0.16

0.11

Phosphoric acid,

. 0.20

0.27

Sulphuric acid.

. 0.86

. 0.43

Chlorine,

. 0i)9

. 0.01

Prcf. J. P. Norton.

One hundred pounds of anthracite coal ashes contain :

White Ash.

Red Ash.

Soluble in water, .

. 3.47

. 3.35

Soluble in acids.

. 7.50

,

. ^8.00

Hence, from 4 to 8 pounds in every 100 are valuable to
the farmer ; but the ashes are not worth the carting to any
great distance. Indeed, it is seen that the composition of
anthracite ashes is very nearly that of soil deprived of its
geine.

165. It may be here rem.arked in relation to silicate of pot-
ash, that this substance forms a greater part of the residuum
produced in the conversion of pot into pearl ashes, for the
purposes of glass manufactures, &c. This residuum has been
used with the most signal success, when mixed in the pro-
portion of a barrel of this material with ten horse-cart loads
of soil alone. (See Colman's Fourth Report on the Agricul-
ture of Massachusetts, p. 344.) The silicate of potash, act-
ing entirely by its conversion into carbonate of potash, is
properly considered in the class of carbonates.

ACTTOX OF SALTS. 125

166. The second class of salts belonging to the first divi-
sion, or nourishers (b. 158), are the nitrates, including not
only saltpetre, both East Indian and South American, or
nitrate of potash and nitrate of soda, but also all composts
of lime, alkali, and animal matter. The last produces am-
monia, which, without the alkali, would act on geine and
render that soluble. Ammonia, by the mere act of presence,
hastens decay ; but without the influence of lime, or alkali,
ammonia is changed to nitrate of ammonia (126), for this
base, by the oxygen of the air, is changed into aquafortis, or
nitric acid. While a portion of acid and base are present,
they unite and form a salt. A portion of ammonia is thus
continually withdrawn. If lime or alkali is present, the
nitric acid unites with these, leaving the ammonia to act on
geine.

167. Thus, in a compost of animal matter without alkaline
bases, all the geine has not been rendered soluble, as is
usually supposed, by the action of ammonia. Before the
full action of that element has been exerted on the organic
matter, it has been converted into a nitrate. But if the
lime exceeds that which the nitric acid can saturate, then the
soluble geine is seized upon and becomes inert. Nitrates
act under the influence of the growing plant ; the base let
loose, acts on geine; the acid is decomposed, and its nitro-
gen given up to the plant, becomes one of their essential ele-
ments. The elements of nitrate of ammonia are all taken
up, both acid and base. If there are any salts which can be
called vegetable food, they are the nitrates. The organic
constituents of plants are hydrogen and oxygen, carbon and
nitrogen. By their union, the two first form water ; the two
middle carbonic acid ; the first and last ammonia. Water,
ammonia, and carbonic acid, then, or their elements, com-
pose the organic part of all plants. Water and carbon exist

126 ACTION OF SALTS.

in geine, and nitrogen in its ammonia compounds. Geine
thus contains the elements of water, ammonia, and carbonic
acid, or the whole organic food of plants. The nitrogen,
also, exists in the air. It forms 80 per cent, of it. In this
state it cannot be assimilated by the plant till that has put
forth its leaves. Its only source for the roots and for the
germinating seed, is that arising, either from the geine, or
from ammonia evolved by the fermenting dung, or from
nitrates. In either case, whether the nitrogen arises from
the geine or from the nitrates, decomposition takes place by
the action of the living plant.

168. Under this view, nitre is found to be one of the most
active, bland, and beneficial salts. Nitre consists of an
alkali, and an acid composed of one part of nitrogen to five
of oxygen. The plant decomposes these. The disposition
of the alkali, or of the base, has been already considered.
What becomes of its acid 1 That, too, is slowly decomposed.
What becomes of its elements ? Tiie one part of nitrogen
is taken up by the living plant, or it may, under the com-
bined influences to which it is now subjected, be in part re-
converted into ammonia, by the hydrogen of the geine, and
so act on that as alkali. What becomes of its five parts of
oxygen ? The answer is full of the highest interest. It is a
key, unlocking the chambers of mystery. The oxygen acts,
first, on the geine of the soil, and secondly, on the sili-
cates. And first,' on geine ; let it be supposed that this is
wholly insoluble, perfectly inert. It has been already said
that air converts this into soluble geine. This action de-
pends on the oxygen of the air acting on the carbon, by
which carbonic acid is formed ; the geine is thus rendered
soluble, while the carbonic acid escaping, acts on the sili-
cates of the soil, and these are thus decomposed. There is
no mystery now in the action of saltpetre, or nitrates of

ACTION OF SALTS. 127

alkalies. The immediate effects are due to the liberated
alkali, acting on the geine. Its permanent effect, for experi-
ence has proved permanency of effect, due to nitrates, is
owing to the liberation of an immense dose of oxygen which
is produced from the gradual decomposition of the acid.
Now, the insoluble geine condenses this in its pores, like
charcoal. This condensation, like that of gas by charcoal,
produces heat ; it is like fermenting manure, while the con-
densed oxygen acts slowly on the geine, and forms carbonic
acid. It has upon the geine, buried in the soil, the same
effect that tillage would have, rendering it soluble, with this
additional advantage, that its carbonic acid, instead of es-
caping, acts on the silicates. New portions of alkali are
thus liberated, supplying for years that which was first
applied as a part of saltpetre. The nitrates, then, hold the
very first place among salts in agriculture.

169. The third class (c. 158) of the nourishers are the
phosphates. This class includes bones, horns, nails, hoofs,
claws, and a large portion of the salts found in the liquid
excretions of animals. These act much like nitre, the acid
forming a constituent of the plants. It is not probable that
the acid in this class is decomposed. It has not yet been
proved that carbonates and nitrates exist, already formed,
except in a very few plants. The quantity of salts which
may be applied, will be greater for the carbonates, less for
the nitrates, and least for the phosphates. The quantity of
any salt which may be used, will, after the largest amount
which can be safely employed has been ascertained, depend
upon the farmer's ability to produce it. Carbonate of lime
may be used to any extent, according to the farmer's idea
of its value. Carbonates of alkali may be used with benefit.
The largest quantity which has been known to be used with-
out injury, has been 53 bushels of ashes per acre, which are

128 ACTION OF SALTS.

equal to 240 lbs. of potash. The quantity of a carbonate of
alkali which may be used, will be stated more fully here-
after. It is not the object of this work to state quantities to
be used, so much as to point out the principles on which
salts act. The quantities used must be determined by
experiment, and perhaps when the largest amount, which has
been stated, is taken for a new starting point, the ultimate
quantity will be found limited only by the geine in the soil,
or applied in conjunction with the salt.

170. If we now turn to the other division of salts (158),
the poisons, that is, those whose acid forms but a small por-
tion of the elements of plants, we find there two classes :
First, sulphates, as plaster, copperas, Glauber's salts, all of
which, in small quantities, are beneficial.

Secondly, muriates or chlorides, as they are strictly call-
ed, as common salt, muriate of lime, bittern, spent lye from
soap-works. An explanation, which attributes the action of
sulphate of lime or plaster, to its power of decomposing and
fixing in soil, carbonate of ammonia ought to show, 1st, the
actual presence of that salt in air ; 2d, that sulphate of am-
monia is not decomposed by the resulting carbonate of lime
in the cold ; 3d, that common salt would, in equivalent
quantity with plaster, produce equally good effects. It
never has, and therefore this explanation is not correct.
Common salt has been found beneficial when applied at the
rate of 30 bushels per acre ; and at 14 bushels per acre, was
found to produce effect, next best to 53 bushels of ashes per
acre, but quicklime at 26 bushels per acre on the same land,
produced no good result.

171. In all this action of salts, it is seen that the presence
of life seems almost essential. Whatever the vital princi-
ple may be, it may be best represented as analogous to elec-
tricity and galvanism. In this point of view, the salts pre-

ACTION OF SALTS.

1^9

sent themselves in a new relation, in which, alone, they may-
be said to be stimulants or excitants. Plants and soil act,
it may be supposed, for illustration, by forming galvanic
batteries, or piles with each other. The most active element
in the pile, is the growing plant. It is an acknowledged fact,
that chemical action, if not the source, is ever attended by
electrical effects. An acid, in contact with an alkali, or
metal, always produces chemical action ; but the silicates of
the soil are already combinations of acid and metals ; hence,
as such, they have no tendency to act on each other. If
there be added to these a salt or an acid, chemical action,
decomposition begins. The electricity is, we may say,
excited by salts ; they are in this sense, and in no other,
excitants or stimulants. The very first act of vegetation,
the germination of seeds, induces this electric action, this
decomposition of the elements of soil. Germination pro-
duces carbonic acid, by decomposing water. This has been
so abundantly proved, by late experiments in France, that it
appears to be a good argument against the theory, that the
only action of humus is its production of carbonic acid, to
supply the wants of the plant, before nature has clothed it
with those organs of aspiration, the leaves, by which the
carbonic acid is withdrawn from the air. It seems hardly
probable that nature should require the presence of humus
or geine, merely as a laboratory of carbonic acid, to supply
the wants of the young plant. The very first act of life in a
seed is to evolve carbonic acid, by its carbon combining
with oxygen of air, and its second act is to decompose
water. Its oxygen combines with the carbon of the seed ;
a single bean produces many times its bulk of carbonic acid
gas, and in the soil would surround itself with an atmosphere
of carbonic acid. This evolved, begins its action upon the
silicates. The living seed begins the electric action, and the
6*

180 ACTION OF SALTS.

plants exert and keep up this influence. Salts act in a simi-
lar way, but above all, over all, influencing all, is the living
plant. This electric action induced, extends to undetern:iined
distances ; hence there is a transfer, as is usual in all cases
of galvanic decomposition, of substances remote from the
plant, to its root, where they are taken up. It is not the
potash and lime, &c., immediately in contact with the root,
which alone supplies the plant, but under the galvanic influ-
ence, an undetermined portion of soil is decomposed. This
decomposing agency of plants wholly destroys all confidence
in experiments, undertaken to prove that pure water alone
can nourish plants. The containing vessel, that is the vessel
in which the experiment is made, is itself always decom-
posed. If, to guard against an error, glass is used, it has
already been shown that this is only a combination of sili-
cates, and these will be transferred from the glass to the
plant.

By the experiments of Weigmann and Polstorff*, it ap-
pears that plants constantly discharge, while growing, car-
bonic acid from their roots. This acid decomposed the
silicates in a soil, which had resisted the action of nitro-
muriatic acid. It eliminated elements from supposed pure
quartz, whose existence there had been proved in no other
mode.

CHAPTER VI.

MANURE.

172. The true farmer, no less a sage than the ancient
orator, who gave to action, the first, second, and third place
in eloquence, will answer, if it is asked him, what is his first
requisite? Manure. What second"? Manure. What
third 1 Manure. These answers are to be united. Action
and manure are the first and last requisites in agriculture;
and in the attempt to show what is the last, and how it acts,
will be offered every inducement to action.

173. Manures are compounds of geine and salts. They
of course contain the whole elements of fertility. Having
discussed the nature and mode of action of salts, and of
geine, the way is prepared for the discussion of manures.
The proportion in which these elements exist in manures is
now to be examined.

174. The immense variety of substances, used and recom-
mended for manures, would seem to render this subject both
extensive and complicated. It is capable of simplification.
Manures are generally considered and treated of, under the
division of animal and vegetable. This common and
ancient division, indicating little of the nature of manures,
actually confounds those, whose elements are essentially
alike. Manures are to be divided by their elements, into
three classes : —

1st. Those consisting chiefly of geine.

a3i)

132 MANURE.

2d. Those consisting chiefly of salts.

3d. Mixed, or consisting of salts and geine.

175. This seems to be a rational and practical mode of
classifying a vast amount of materials, and the explanation
of their action in classes, is preferable to a specific account
of each individual substance composing these classes.

176. By far the greater part of manures belongs to the
third class. Such are all composts, all stable manure, and
all the usual products of the cow-yard and hog-pen. In dis-
cussing, therefore, this subject, there ought to be some start-
ing point, some standard common measure of value, to
which can be referred all manures, and by whrch their worth
can be determined.

177. In selecting a manure for this purpose, if it can be
ascertained how much of geine, what salts, and in what pro-
portion these salts enter into its constitution, what gases it
evolves, what chemical action it induces upon silicates, it m ill
determine the relative value of all manures ; they will
approach or depart from the standard, in exact proportion to
the geine and kind of salts they contain.

178. Manures, then, are the elements of fertility. They
contain besides the inorganic salts, the organic elements of
plants, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen. The quantity
of ammonia which each manure can afford, will be in direct
proportion to the quantity of nitrogen which each contains ;
and perhaps the only true and scientific view which should
be taken of manures is that which states their components
not as compounds, but as simple elements; a statement
which should give at a glance the exact quantity of the four
organic elements which enters into their composition. To a
limited extent this can be done, and in the attempts to illus-
trate this subject, this mode of stating the value of manures,
will be united with a more detailed account of their ingredients.

MANURE.

133

179. And first, for the choice of some substance which
shall form the type of manures, and be considered the stand-
ard of value. Let it be pure, fresh fallen cov%-dung. What
is its composition 1 Water, hay, and bile, with a few salts.
The author has repeatedly analyzed this form of the food of
plants, and it is found that the water is a very uniform quan-
tity at all seasons and with various food. Others have found
a few per cent, less than that which will be here stated ;
while some late and distinguished German chemists have
given results agreeing with this statement, within a fraction
of one per cent.

180. The proportions of organic matter, salts and water,
in 100 lbs. of cow-dung, are —

Water, . . " . . . . . . 83.600

Organic
Matter.

Salts.

Hay, . .

; ;

14.000

Bile and resinous and biliary

matter, .

1.275

Albumen, .

.

.175

Silica,

,

.140

Sulphate of Potash,

. ,

.050

Geate of Potash,

•

.070

Muriate of Soda,

,

.080

Phosphate of Lime,

•

.230

Sulphate of Lime,

,

.120

Carbonate of Lime,

•

.120

99.860

Loss,

• •

•

. 0.140

100.000

181 . 100 parts of cow-dung by Morin*s analysis, consist of

Water, 70.00

Vegetable fibre, 24.08

184

MANURE.

Green resin and fat acids,
Und ecoin posed biliary matter,
Peculiar extractive matter,
Albumen, . . . ,
Biliary resin, . . . .

1.52

0.60
1.60
0.40

1.80

100.00

Morin probably includes the salts in the vegetable matter.
182. 100 parts of cow-dung, by the analysis of M. Penot,
in 1835, consist of —

Water, .

69.58
0.74
0.93
0.28
0.63
0.08
0.05
0.25
0.24
0.46
0.09

26.39
0.14
0.14

100.00

183. Other analyses have given a greater amount of
water, and differ but little in that item from the experiments
of the author. Truly this statement does not lead one to
suppose, that a very good selection has been made, in the
choice of the standard of value for manure. Here is a sub-
stance, 83^ per cent, of which is pure water. Let that be

Bitter matter.
Sweet substance.
Chlorophyll e,
Albumen,
Muriate of soda,
Sulphate of potash.
Sulphate of lime.
Carbonate of lime.
Phosphate of lime.
Carbonate of iron,
Woody fibre.
Silica, .

MANURE. 135

thrown out of the account; there are 14 per cent, of hay ;
this is very little altered, it seems only bruised and chopped,
but it has lost some of its albumen, gum, &;c. Now the
last is that portion of nutriment which the animal has
extracted from the hay.

184. It is found that hay which has thus been passed
through living organs, has its elements much less disposed to
remain combined, or, in other words, decay, that species of
fermentation which forms geine, takes place much more
rapidly in the hay of cow-dung, than in common hay. The
catalysis of life has impressed its power of disassociation on
the hay of cow-dung. The hay may therefore be considered
geine.

In the same class may be included the biliary matter,
deducting from this the green resin of hay associated with it,
and there remains in 100 lbs. of dung, only a small propor-
tion of salts and biliary matter.

The albumen, from its great tendency to spontaneous jde-
composition, may also be ranked as geine. It produces
abundance of ammonia during decomposition, and probably
is the great source of the evolution of that gas, during the
fermentation of cow-dung. Its proportion is very small,
being only about a sixth of one per cent.

185. Without violence to chemistry, the composition of
cow-dung may be stated as follows —

Geine, ........ 15.45

Salts, 0.95

Water, 83.C0

100.00

In 100 lbs. hardly i of any value in agriculture ! Only
about I of cow-dung affords geine. The insoluble is con-
verted to soluble by the action of the evolved ammonia.

136

MANURE.

Girardin states the composition thus — ^

Water, ........ 79.72

Matter soluble in water, ..... 5.34

" " alcohol, .... 2.00

Salts, 4.23

Fibre, . . 8.70

186. An important question here presents itself. How-
much ammonia will 100 lbs. of cow-dung produce? The
ultimate analysis of this substance, that is, that analysis
which gives the proportion of the organic elements, is the
following:

In 100 'parts of cow-dung^ —

Nitrogen, . .505

Carbon, . . . ' 204

Hydrogen, .824

Oxygen, 4.818

187. From these data may be calculated how much am-
monia will be formed ; for one part of nitrogen unites with
three parts of hydrogen, to form ammonia, or in the atomic
proportions by weight :

14 of nitrogen, or 1 equivalent.
3 of hydrogen, or 3 equivalents.

17 of real or pure ammonia, or 1 equivalent.

100 parts of fresh fallen cow-dung will afford, therefore,
0.607, or f of a pound, nearly, of pure ammonia, or 2.18
lbs., or about 2 lbs. 2 oz. of bi-carbonate of ammonia of the
shops, called sal-volatile, or salts of hartshorn, the carbonic
acid and water being 44 parts to 17 of ammonia.

188. Cow-dung, then, the type of manures, resolves itself
into geine, free alkali and salts. The salts, considering the

MANURE. 137

nitrogen as carbonate of ammonia of the shops, will form
about 3 per cent, of the weight of the dung ; or a bushel of
86 lbs. will contain, in round numbers, 2^ lbs. of salts of
ammonia, potash, soda and lime.

189. The cow, then, is the great manufacturer of salts and
geine, and it is a question of the highest interest, What is the
daily produce of her manufactory 1 In order to determine
this, the following experiment was conducted with great
care, at the barn C(^nected with the print-works of the Mer-
rimack manufacturing company, in Lowell. A single cow,
being only an average producer of the article in question,
was selected from the 50 cows usually kept at the establish-
ment. She was fed as usual, and as the other cows were.
The food and water were accurately weighed for seven days.
She consumed, in this period.

Water, 612 lbs.

Potatoes, 87 "

Hay, 167 "

Total, 866 " food and drink, and
voided, free from her liquid evacuations, 599 lbs. of dung.

From the facts which have been now stated, it is evident
that one cow prepares, daily, from 24 lbs. of hay, and 12^
lbs. of potatoes, about one bushel, or 85.57, lbs. of dung.
This affords only 14.04 lbs. of solid manure, composed of
salts and of hay, so acted on by the digestive organs, as to
form geine, when united with ammonia, produced by putre-
faction.

One cow daily forms, therefore, about
13 lbs. geine.

i " say 3 oz. of bone-dust, or phosphate of lime.
^ " say IJ oz. of plaster of Paris, or sulphate of lime.
y*5 " say IJ oz. of chalk, or carbonate of lime.

138 MANURE.

Or,

per year

:

4800 lbs

1. of geine.

<»

71

of bone-dust,

37

of plaster,

37

of limestone,

marble,

or chalk,

25

of common ss

lit,

15

of sulphate of

' potash.

This is the product of one cow. A^ord of green cow-
dung, pure as dropped, would be formed, daily, by 108 cows.
A cord of dung weighs 9289 lbs., which, -i- 86 lbs. (or 1
cow,) = 108 cows. And one cow daily produces, in excre-
ments, salts of lime sufficient for 4\ bushels of corn.

190. Multiply the quantity produced by one cow, by the
number of cows kept, and it may easily be calculated how
much salts and geine are annually applied to soil in this
form. This is better done than the estimate by cords or
loads. The manure from one cow is a definite comprehen-
sible quantity.

191. Estimating the nitrogen as ammonia, the yearly
product of one cow is 156 lbs. of nitrogen, equal to 189 lbs.
of pure ammonia, or equal to 677 lbs. of bi-carbonate of
ammonia of the shops. A single cow will therefore give,
annually, fed on hay and potatoes, 31,025 lbs. of dung, con-
taining

4800 lbs. of geme,

)77 ^'

of carbonate of ammonia,

71 "

of bone-dust/

37 "

of plaster.

37 "

of chalk.

24 "

of common salt,

15 «

of sulphate of potash.

MANURE. 139

192. It is perfectly evident, from this view, that the main
agricultural value depends on the ammonia or nitrogen, and
the geine. The lime, in its forms of salts, goes but little
way towards this value, yet valuable, so far as they exist.
It is evident, from section 74, that the lime in the above
salts of lime, the annual product of one cow, is sufficient to
supply the grain and straw of a crop of 140 bushels of rye.

193. If these, then, are the elements of plants which are
found in cow-dung, is it to the organic or the inorganic
portion that the enriching power is due? The great value
of dung as a manure, has been supposed to be due to its
animal matter. I'he common idea of animal matter in-
includes substances which contain much nitrogen, but is it to
the nitrogen, or to salts, that the chief value of manure is
duel To the nitrogen, chiefest and first, and that, too, as it
exists in the albuminous portion of dung. The nitrogen of
the hay contributes very little to the value of manure. The
hay furnishes the geine. That it is the nitrogen of dung only,
the part not contained in the hay, which evolves ammonia,
is evident ; for if the nitrogen of the hay only, was the essen-
tial element of dung, then hay, which contains about one per
cent, of nitrogen, could supply its place : 50 pounds would be
equal to 100 pounds of dung. It is well known that such
effect is never produced by planting on hay.

194. It is not to the nitrogen only, in dung, to which can
be referred the action of this manure. It depends on its
other elements, salts and geine. The action of nitrogen is
referred to its power of forming ammonia, and this then
acts in two ways. First, upon geine, or the hay part;
secondly, upon silicates. First, it is a powerful alkali. Now
it has been shown that all alkaline earths convert insoluble
into soluble geine. Secondly, it is a well-established fact,
that the production of nitre is not necessarily dependent on

140 MANURE.

the presence of animal matter ; under the influence of porous
materials, aided by alkalies, or lime, the elements of air
combine and form nitric acid and nitrates, when bases are
present. This action is greatly assisted by ammonia, which
acts by catalysis. The great use of the animal matter is to
produce this alltali, or ammonia. If no alkaline base is
present, it becomes the source of the formation of nitrate of
ammonia. This salt being decomposed by the living plant,
its nitric acid acts on the silicates, and saltpetre or nitrate of
potash is produced. The agency of this, as a manure, has
already been considered (167, 168). The action, also, of
other salts in dung, will be easily understood by reference
to the fifth chapter.

195. There is still a powerful effect due to the geine, or
to the hay in its conversion to that state. During this pro-
cess, a great quantity of carbonic acid is liberated. The
decomposing action of this upon silicates of the soil, and the
consequent liberation of their alkali, has also been explained
(133). Ail these actions are to be remembered, in account-
ing for the action of cow-dung. The geine, salts, nitrogen,
each acts ; the geine has an action, the salts an action, the
nitrogen an action. They all contribute to one end. Three
substances, but one result, viz., vegetation.

196. The nitrogen, then, in dung, is that organic element
to which must be attributed its chief enriching quality. The
nitrogen is the basis, both of the production of ammonia,
and of the formation of nitrates. Hence, the quantity of
nitrogen in manures will form a very good element for the
estimation of their value. Manures will be found rich, in
proportion to their quantity of nitrogen, or their power of
forming nitrates. This is the great and first cause of the
enriching power of dung. Though the action of all excre-
ments has been referred to their inorganic parts only, com-

MANURE. 141

nion experience tends to the explanation which has been
given of the joint action of all their parts.

197. The source of nitrogen in dung is an interesting ques-
tion. It is evident that it must have been introduced into
the animal's system by the food, perhaps also by the drink ;
for all water contains absorbed air, of course, nitrogen.
Hence, the kind of food greatly influences the amount of
nitrogen in dung.

198. If a cow assimilated all the nitrogen of her hay,
25 lbs. of hay would increase her weight daily, by about
8 lbs. ; but no one expects such a result, and the balance of
the nitrogen goes off in milk, or in liquid excretions. Hence,
a milch cow fats not. So long as a greater part of the nitro
gen is voided by milk or otherwise, a cow fats not. If she
is not parting with nitrogen in milk, a greater portion goes
off in dung. Hence, a common observation, that the manure
of fattening cattle is richer than that of milch cows, or of
cattle not fattening.

199. The difference in the quantity of bile, slime, &c., in
a cow fed on hay or on meal, is not very great. A cow was
fed six days on meal and water. She consumed in this
period,

Indian meal, 96 lbs., or per day 16 lbs.
Hay, 30 " " 5 "

Water, 330 " " 55 "

76 Ibs^

There were voided during this period 330 lbs. of dung, or
55 lbs, daily. She scoured and lost flesh. The evacuation
had all the appearance of night soil, and soon evolved a great
quantity of ammonia, and though covered in an earthen pot,
was soon studded with a crop of exquisitely beautiful fungi.
Compared with hay dung, its composition was,

1 1:2 MANURE.

Geine, 17.43, 14.45 in common dung.

Salts, .93, .95 " "

Water, 81.64, 83.60 " **

Probably the nitrogen was 2^ per cent., or five times that
of common cow-dung.

200. Doubtless the value of all excrements will depend
somewhat upon the food of the animal, and the manner of
feeding. It may be stated as a general fact, that the manure
of cattle, summer-soiled, is nearly twice the strength of
that from the stalls in winter; and all fattening cattle,
whether in winter or summer, produce, as has been stated,
a still richer vegetable food. Animals fattening on oil cake,
gave manure, 12 loads of which exceeded in value of crops
raised, 24 of common stock. These remarks show, that
some allowance is to be made for the food. The standard
refers only to hay and potatoes. But the value due to dif-
ferent food, may not be so great as is commonly supposed.
The actual amount of nitrogen, even where vegetable and
animal food is concerned, is not materially different. There
were two dogs, which were fed, the one on vegetable, the
other on animal food ; at the appointed time, these animals
were sacrificed on the altar of physiological experiment, and
the chyle examined. The following were the results :

Vegetable Food.

Animal Food

Water,

.

93.06

.

89.02

Fibrine,

.

.06

,

.08

Albumen, .

,

4.6

•

4.7

Salts, .

.

.8

.

.7

These are the sources of ammonia, if the chyle had been
allowed to putrefy.

201. The ammonia in dung, as has been explained, is the
source both of the rapid conversion of the hay into soluble

MA^^URE.

143

geine, and of nitrates. The action of unfermented dung
needs no explanation after this exposition. The geine, the
salts, carbonic acid, and ammonia, must be formed among
the sUicates and roots of plants on which they are to act.

202. Having determined the mode of expressing the value
of manures, and fixing the standard of value, other manures
containing salts and geine, may now be compared with that,
and their value determined, by detailing their constituents.

203. Horse-dung contains :

Water,

71.20

Hay, bile, and slime.

27.

Silica,

.64

Phosphate of lime, , .

.08

Carbonate of lime,

.30

Phosphate of magnesia and soda,

.58

Loss,

.20

100.00

The food of the horse will of course affect these results,
and hence there is found a great discrepancy in the amount
of the elements, at different times.

Girardin's analysis of horse-dung affords ;

Water, . . .

. 78.36

Matters soluble in water.

. 4.34

" alcohol,

. 2.60

Vegetable fibre, ....

. 12.86

Salts,

. 2.34

Boussingault found that the following was the composi-
tion of the dung of a horse fed on hay and oats ;

lii MANURE.

Water, 75.31

Geine, 20.57

Salts, ..•.-.. 4.02

100.

The organic portion, or the geine, gave.

Carbon, . . . , . . . 9 56

Hydrogen, 1.26

Oxygen, 9.31

Nitrogen, . . . . . . .54

Horse-dung quickly ferments. It should be immediately
removed and composted with cattle-dung, or sprinkled with
plaster. It loses in a month, at least one-third of its weight
by fermentation.

204. Expressing the value compared with cow-dung, we
have —

Geine, . 27.

Salts, . 96

Water, 71.20

The geine, then, is nearly double that in cow-dung, and
the salts, which are mostly phosphates of lime, magnesia,
and soda, are about the same. If the nitrogen is regarded,
it is found about 50 per cent, greater than in cow-dung.
Hence, during the chemical actions of the production of am-
monia and nitrates, if the heat is in proportion to that action
we may possibly assign a reason, why horse-dung is a hotter
manure than cow-dung. The nitrogen in horse-dung is
about f of one per cent., or this manure contains, in 100
parts :

Geine, . . . . . . . .27.

Salts, 96

Carbonate of ammonia, 3.24

MANURE. 145

But though horse-dung is considered as a hotter manure
than cow-dung, this is true of horse-dung only in its fresh
state. Fermented horse-manure is really of less value than
cow-dung. This is the voice of experience. Thrown out
with the litter, and moistened as it is with little urine, com-
pared with that of cattle dung from the barn, it rapidly fer-
ments and decays. By the time horse-manure has ferment-
ed, so as to be converted into a uniform mass of muck, it
loses, at least, nine-tenths of its weight, and nearly two-thirds
of its nitrogen has disappeared. Hence, without care, horse-
dung rapidly loses its value. Now this quick heating is
owing to the ready decomposition of the dry droppings;
and if these are kept properly moistened, a manure is pro-
duced when the horse-dung is half-rotted, which is fully
equal to cow-manure. It has ever required much manage-
ment to get good yard-manure from horse-stables. The pile
should be broad, well trodden down, and kept constantly
moist with water. Each layer, as it is formed, should be
sprinkled with a little ground plaster.

All the water which drains from the heap should run into
a pit and be mixed with a little plaster, and returned upon
the pile.

In the course of two or three months, a rich pasty manure
may be thus formed, equal to the best farm-yard manure
from cattle.

The evacuations of cattle and horses are usually mixed in
the farm-yard. These, with the litter, form yard-manure.
The nature of the litter, fermentation and age affect the
quality and quantity of yard-manure. This causes its
practical division into long and short, or strawy and fat
muck.

Age reduces the quantity of fresh manure nearly as fol-
lows. It has been found by one observer, that,
7

146 MANURE.

100 loads lose m Dulk, in 81 days;, 25.7, or become 73.3
" " 254 " 35.7 " 64.3

" " 384 '« 37.5 " 62.5

" " 393 » 52.8 " 47.2

Or to state the result differently from another source, 25
cwt., recent dung yield,

At the end of six weeks, . . . . 21 cwt.

After eight weeks, 20 "

When half rotted, . . . . 15 to 17 **
When fully rotted, . . . . 10 to 13 "

Turning our attention to the quality of yard-manure, it
has been found that the composition of that six months old
is per 100 parts :

Water, • , . . 79.30

Organic matter, 14.03

Salts, . 6.67

100.00

BoussingaiUt.

Cattle only afforded yard-manure of the following compo-
sition, per 100 parts :

Water, 75.

Albumen, urea, slime, bile, ^
sweet and extractive matter, > Soluble in water,
salts, potash, and soda, } i f^

Resins and fatty matter, 1 i *

Starch, .... > Insoluble in water, |
Salts of lime and magnesia, ) J
Vegetable fibre, 20.

100.
Eichardson of Newcastle, England, has also oetermined
the composition of yard manure. His results are as fol-
lows:

MANURE.

147

Fresh, ready for the field.

Water.

64.96

Organic matter, 28.71
Salts, . . 10.33

Dried, at 202
Carbon, .

Hydrogen,
Oxygen, .
Nitrogen,
Ashes, .

37.40
5.27

25.52
1.76

30.05

AshcH consist o

f

PotAsh, . .

. 3.22^

1

Soda, .

. 2.73

.-

Lime, .

. 0.34

01 solub
water.

Magnesia, .

. 0.26

Sulphuric acid, . .

. 3.27

Chlorine,

. 3.15

?.

Silica, .

. 0.04

B

Silica, .

. 27.01^

Phosphate of lime

. 7.11

CO
C5

" magnesia,

• . 2.26

^

" iron.

. 4.68

t

" mangan. trace.

p"

g 2

Carbonate of lime

. 9.34

■5:?.

" magnesia,

. 1.63

Sand, .

. 30.99

Carbon,

. .83

2.

trt-

Alkali and loss, .

. 3.14,

a

Soubeiran has recently examined farm-yard manure, about
to be laid on the field. It was made from the dung of the
horse-stables, cow-houses, sheep-folds, and pig styes, at Grig-
non, heaped up, and wetted with urine. It was not rotted
so much as to form fat muck, and contained 30.6 per cent,
dry dung. The fresh dung contained per 1000 parts :

Water, 694.

Organic matters, . . . . . .192.

Soluble alkaline salts, 8.75

Carbonate of lime and magnesia, . .^ . 17.50

Sulphate of lime, .....'. 13.13

Ammonia-phosphate of magnesia, . . . 11.50

Phosphates, principally of lime, . . . 4.65

Earthy matters, 66.47

The quantity of nitrogen was 13.91, which was divided,
thus:

148 MANURE.

Nitrogen of the soluble ammonlacal salts, . . 1.67
Do. of the ammonia-phosphate of magnesia, .64
Do. of the organic matter, . . . 11.60

13.91

It will be noted, that Soubeiran finds a much larger per
centage of nitrogen in manure than other analysts. He ob-
jects to the estimates usually made, because these have
been founded on dry manure, which thus has lost ammo-
nia by its salts being decomposed by the carbonate of lime
present. Fresh dung loses thus by drying | of its ammo-
nia. Hence, the equivalent of poudrette and all fermented
manures is generally placed much too low, when calculated
on their nitrogen only. Taking into view all the circum-
stances which affect the nitrogen in yard-manure, the quan-
tity must vary exceedingly ; but it has been estimated by
Payen and Boussingault to be 0.41 per cent. ; hence its car-
bonate of ammonia becomes equal to about 1.78 lb. in each
100 lbs. The weights of equal bulks of ox and horse-dung,
from the barn yard and stable, as usually prepared, are as
follows :

Ox-manure, old and fat, one cubic foot weighs 58 lbs.

Do. fresh, " " 48 "

Horse-manure, old and fat, " " 39 "

Do. fresh, " " 30 "

It has been ascertained that an ox in France affords 5,600
lbs., and a horse and a half, or ten to fifteen sheep, an equal
amount of yard-manure per year.

But yard-manure too often is exposed to rain. Its salts
are thus washed out, or the natural liquids mixed with it
drain away, and are thus lost. It is a positive money-loss,
for the composition of an imperial gallon of this muck-water,

MANURE.

149

as determined by Johnston, in two samples, is as fol-
lows :

From oow-iaag washed From yarl-dueg watered

by rain. with cow'b urine.

l^Amnionia, ....
Solid organic matter, .
Solid inorganic or ashes,

2® The ashes of a gallon
consisted of alkal. salts, .

Phosphate of lime and
magnesia, with a little
phosphate of iron.

Carbonate of lime, . .
" magn. and loss, .

Silica and a little alumina.

9.60 grs. .

. . 23.30 grs

200.80 " .

. . 77.60 "

268.80 '* .

. . 518.40 "

479.20 grs.

617.30 grs.

207.80 grs.

420.40 grs

25.10 " . .

. 44.50 "

18.20 " .

. 31.10 «

4.30 " ,

. 3.40 "

13.40 « .

. 19.00 «

268.80

518.40

These results speak for themselves. They show rills of
wealth gushing from the farmer's manure, which no prudent
man will allow to run to waste. It is the concentrated food,
organic and inorganic, of plants, all which they need.

205. Human excrement has been analyzed by Berzelius.

In its pure state, its composition may be thus stated :

Water, 75.3

Geine,

Salts,

23.5
1.2

Nearly three-fourths of the salts are composed of carbon-
ate, muriate and sulphate of soda, the remainder is composed
of phosphates of lime and magnesia; the latter is particu-
larly abundant in feces. The average quantity of nitrogen is

150

MANURE.

about 3|- per cent,
parts :

Human excrement contams, per 100

Gelne, . . . . . *. . .23.
Salts, 1.2

Carbonate of ammonia, 15.32

A later analysis of human excrement has been made by
rieitmann in Rose's laboratory. The feces of a young man,
in health, for four days, dried at 212° F., weighed 2607
grains, or nearly six ounces. In 100 parts of the salts or
inorganic constituents were,

Chloride of sodium (common salt),

Chloride of potassium,

Potash, and hydrate of potash,

Soda,

Lime,

Magnesia,

Peroxide of iron.

Phosphoric acid.
Sulphuric acid.
Silica,

Carbonic acid,
Sand,

0.5S
0.07

22.49
0.75

21.36

10.67
2.09

30.98
1.13
1.44
1.05
7.39

The sand was supposed to have been, in part, swallowed
during the time while the young man was in exercise in the
fields near Berlin.

The potash existed in combination partly with an organic
substance in the feces, which acted as an acid. The quantity
of phosphate of magnesia is remarkable, and all the phos-
phates are composed of three of base to one of acid.

The urine was separately collected. Its inorganic salts
exceeded daily more than six and one-third times those of

MANURE.

151

the solid feces. Now, the mixture of urine and feces, the
fluids and solids, is known under the name of night soil. No
substance is more varied in composition, depending as it
does upon the food and habits of those whose accumulations
are removed from their usual receptacle. A French farmer
found to his cost, that the night soil of a Parisian restaura-
teur was much superior to that of the Parisian military bar-
racks. The former was a very rich manure, the latter
almost worthless.

A family consisting of three men from 29 to 60 years of
age, of one woman, from 30 to 35 years, and a boy from 6
to 8 years, will ordinarily produce, daily, about 18 pounds
of excrements, consisting of

Urine, 12.25 lbs.

Feces, 5.75 lb».

contabuno

iDry organic matter, ,

2560 grains.

1550 grains

Nitrogen,

750 "

142 "

Chlorine, .

249 «

traces.

Salts, .

675 "

320 '*

The salts are composed, according to the analysis of the
ashes of urine and feces by Prof J. A. Porter, as follows :

Urine.

Feces.

Potash,

. 13.64

6.10

Soda, .

. 1.33

5.07

Lime, .

. 1.15

26.46

Magnesia,

. 1.34

10.54

Peroxide of iroif.

. trace.

2.50

Phosphoric acid,

. 11.21

86.03

Sulphuric acid,

. 4.06

3.13

Carbonic acid,

5.07

Common salt.

. 67.26

4.33

Allowing each person of the family namea above, by ab-

152 MANURE.

sence and other causes, to omit sixty -five days in a year, the
contribution to this domestic savings bank, the deposits will
amount, annually, to 3682 pints of urine, and 1650 pounds
of solid excrements, containing 10 lbs. of chlorine, 42 lbs.
of salts, 176 lbs. dry organic matter. In the last there are
38 pounds of nitrogen ; this is equal to forming 46 lbs . of pure
ammonia, or 119 lbs. of carbonate of ammonia of the shops.
Hog-manure, in its characters, approaches night-soil suf-
ficiently, to be ranked with it for the present purpose. It is
the manure of fattening swine only which is to be classed
with night-soil. The estray and running animals produce
only a " cold " manure of little value. The manure of the
penned animal is always combined with his liquid evacuation.
This, whose value is stated (247), gives hog-manure a value
which places it with night-soil.

Boussingault found in recent hog-dung — water 81, nitro-
gen, 0.63, in one hundred parts, nearly as much as in horse-
dung, and from the experiments of Schwerts, hog-dung ap-
pears superior to that of the cow.

Sheep-dung may be placed with night-soil and hog-manure.
Sheep niay be said to digest better than cattle. They cut
their food finer, and chew it better ; they void thus less veg-
etable fibre. Their excrement is more converted into geine.
Fed on hay alone, their excrement is composed of:

Water, 67.9

Bilious and extractive matter, . . . .1.7

Humus with slime, ...... 12.8

Hay and vegetable matter, .... 8.0

Silica, 6.0

Carbonate and phosphate of lime, ; , . 2.0
Carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, . . 1.6

100.0

Sprengel.

MANURE.

153

Others have found

Water, ....
Matter soluble in water, .
Matter soluble in alcohol,
Vegetable fibre,
Salts, ....

68.74
4.40
2.82

16.26
8.13

100.35

Girardm.

The salts were composed of phosphate of lime and mag-
nesia, carbonate of lime, silicate of potash, common salt and
silex.

The nitrogen is abundant, and the amount of matter con-
taining this, nearly three-fifths greater than that of cattle-
dung. The whole is finer divided, and hence speedily
putrefies, and evolves ammonia. It is thus one of the hot-
test of all manures. But containing, as it does, little water,
and being in fine compact balls, air cannot act upon it as it
would upon cow-dung. Hence, unless moisture is present,
sheep-dung undergoes little change. Great care is required
in its use. Its ammonia is abundant; hence, if uncombined
with geine, it burns up the crops. Hence, when there is
little geine, little sheep-dung must be used. Where the
soil is wet, and that too with little vegetable matter in it,
there decomposition rapidly occurs, and the virtue of the
dung, its ammonia, is lost.

It is said that 1000 sheep, folded on an acre of ground one
day, would manure it suflSciently to feed 1001 sheep, if their
manure could all be saved. So that, by this process, land
which can, the first year, feed only 1000 sheep, may the next
year, by their own droppings, feed 1365. So said Ander-
son, forty years ago (Rural Essays). Sprengel allows that
the manure of 1400 sheep, for one day, is equal to manuring
7*

154 MANURE.

highly, one acre of land. This is about four sheep per year.
In France, it is allowed that one sheep manures about lOJ
feet square of land per night.

206. Thus, the most common substances used for manure,
cow, horse, hog-dung, and night-soil, are reduced to geine,
salts, and carbonate of ammonia, or nitrogen, its equivalent.
It need not be said that the experience of ages has proved
that these varieties of manure possess very different fertiliz-
ing properties. These depend, not on the salts alone, whose
amount and quality is nearly the same in all ; nor on the
geine, for that is nearly the same in human and horse excre-
ment. Their fertilizing power, then, depends not, as has
been asserted, on the salts which would render their agricul-
cultural value equal. All experience would prove such an
assertion unfounded. But it is said that their relative value
depends on their power of producing ammonia.

If the value of manure depended on its salts only, then its
ashes alone would be as effectual as the manure. Perhaps
no experiment determines this question more satisfactorily,
than that of Mr. Lawes, in England. 28 tons of yard ma-
nure were divided equally ; 14 tons were burned to ashes,
and afforded 32 cwt. The manure, 14 tons, and the 32 cwt.
of ashes were applied, each to one acre of land, and one acre
of the same land was left unmanured. The crops were as
follows ;

1. Manure,

1276 lbs. dressed wheat, or 22 bushels.

2. Ashes of manure

, 888 "

16 "

3. No manure,

923 " "

« 16 «

Straw and chaff:

1. 1476 lbs.

'

2. 1104 "

3. 1120 "

MANURE.

155

Increase of grain by manure, No. 3 being = 1000".

1. 1382 lbs.

2. 962 "

Increase of straw, by manure :

1. 1381 lbs.

2. 985 "

It is evident that the salts alone of manure do not meei
the wants of the farmer.

Numerous experiments, proving the inefficacy of salts
without nitrogenous and organic matters, might here be cited.
They would confirm only the experience of practical farmers.
It may be useful to state what is the composition of the
ashes of several excrements, as determined by Mr. J. Rogers.

Piff.

Cow.

Sheep.

Horse.

Silex, . . . .

13.19

62.54

50.41

62.40

Potash,

. 3.60

2.91

8.32

11.30

Soda,

. 3.44

0.98

3.28

1.98

Chlor. sodium, .

. 0.89

0.23

0.14

0.03

Phos. sesqui ox. iron, .

. 10.55

8.93

3.98

2.73

Lime,

. 2.03

5.71

18.15

4.63

Magnesia, .

. 2.24

11.47

5.45

3.84

Acid, phosphoric,

0.41

4.76

7.52

8.93

" sulphuric, .

. 0.90

1.77

2.69

1.83

" carbonic, .

. 0.60

2.13

Sand,

. 61.37

When it is said that nitrogen measures the value o. ma-
nure, it must be remembered that the nitrogen should exist
as ammonia, or in a state of combination which permits its
ready conversion into ammonia.

It is the result equally of chemical and agricultural expe-
rience, that salts are decomposed with more or less ease,

156 MANURE.

that their stability is greater or less. Nitrates are less stable
compounds than sulphates, sulphates less stable than chlo-
rides, or muriates, and these last less stable than carbonates.
Hence, the ease with which the nitrogen of a salt is yielded,
affects the result. Time, then, is required to produce from
equal amounts of nitrogen, equal effects from different salts
containing that element.

This is true, also, of organic, nitrogenous manures. The
nitrogen is effective in proportion to the rapidity of decay.
Hence, the nitrogen in horns, hair, feathers, hoofs, leather-
shavings, woollen rags and flocks, produces not the sante
effects in the same time, with an equal amount of nitrogen
in flesh and blood. Nitrogen in soil may be useless from
its state of combination.

It has been proved by Krocker that rocks, and even bar-
ren soils, at the usual depth of tillage, contain an amount of
ammonia exceeding per acre that of any fair crop, raised by
the aid of best farm-yard manure, on an acre of the best soil.
It is not enough that tons and tons of ammonia are already
existent in soil, if that ammonia can be extracted only by
chemical processes, and human manipulation. No matter
how much of this element may be in rain, how much may
exist in the soil, aided by the inorganic salts, fair average
crops may be raised by these natural sources of ammonia.
To obtain truly profitable crops, an excess beyond the na-
tural supply is absolutely essential. To keep up tWs excess,
and to obtain the largest returns for the seed sown, nitrogen
in the shape of salts, or of readily decomposing organic mat-
ter, must be supplied with inorganic salts. The nitrogenous
principle gives at once an energy to vegetation, enabling it
to unfold early and largely those organs, the roots and leaves,
by which the earth and air contribute their portion to the
growth of plants.

MANURE. 157

Nitrogen gives salts power to do more work in the same
lime. It is a labor-saving machine, enabling the flirmer from
the same gromid, and with the sam.e time and labor, to reap
larger rewards. Natural vegetation is a low-pressure engine,
but it will bear any amount of pressure, so beautifully built
is it in all its parts. Inorganic salts are the water, geine the
fire which raises the steam to drive this machine, filling the
thousand cylinders which are distributed throughout plants.
Nitrogen is the regulator of this engine. Nature has every-
where put her machine into the hands of man. She keeps it
in working order, by her gentle steam. She takes man as
her apprentice, and her generous hand supplied the daily
bread while man was learning the construction of the \'alves,
the working of pistons, the real power of the engine, the
source of the steam. These, even though dimly seen, nature
demands should be worked up to full pressure, when the
apprentice sets up for himself, and is determined that the
sweat of his brow, while it feeds his body, shall also purify,
enlarge and strengthen his intellect.

In making agricultural trials with pure ammoniacal salts
(166), in which the nitrogen exists as ammonia, or as an
acid united with ammonia, and with nitrates, in which the
nitrogen exists as an acid, it is to be remembered that the
base with which this nitrogen acid is combined, acts an im-
portant part. The influence of the base is to be deducted
from that rightly due to the nitrogen, as determined by
experiments. What then is the influence of pure salts of
ammonia 1 It has been proved, again and again, especially
by Jacquemart, in France, and by Kuhlmann, in Flanders,
that pure salts of ammonia act like ordinary nitrogenous
manures. Their -energy of action, their relative value, is
almost in direct ratio to their nitrogen.

This is a doctrine, which, limited by the circumstances

158 MANURE.

referred to above, is substantiated by experiment. Sal-
ammoniac, or muriate of ammonia, and sulphate of ammonia,
were used by Kuhlmann as a top-dressing on mowing ground.
The field was apparently in the same condition in every part,
and equally exposed. It was laid out in plots of four square
poles, separated by trenches. Alternate patches were reserved
unmanared, and as the whole was in grass, all accidents of
culture were avoided. The season was rainy and quite wet.
The salts were applied at the rate of 240 lbs. per acre, and
the grass cut and cured on each plot at the same time. The
yield of hay, over unmanured plots, for every 100 lbs, of
sal-ammoniac used, was at the rate of 580 lbs. per acre ;
and for every 100 lbs. sulphate ammonia, 419.6 lbs. or as 1
to 0.723.

This is nearly in direct ratio to the nitrogen, which, per
100 parts, in the muriate of ammonia, is 26.439 ; in the
sulphate of ammonia is 21.375 ; or the nitrogen is as 1 to
0.808, while the crop is as 1 : 0.723.

In the same field, and at the same time, was used bone-
liquor, that which had been boiled on bones, to extract their
fat. The last being removed, the liquor is a weak solution
of glue or gelatin, containing, when dried, 16.980 parts of
nitrogen in 100. It was used at the rate of 2000 gallons per
acre. What, then, is the value of this bone-liquor, estimated
on the per centage of nitrogen ? It is as 26.439 : 16.980.
Now 26.439 nitrogen in sal-ammoniac, gave 580 lbs. hay
excess over unmanured. Hence, 16.980 should give 372.8 ;
and this was the actual amount for every 100 lbs. of dry
matter in this liquor. Here, an organic manure, rapidly
decomposing, formed ammonia by its nitrogen, which afford-
ed a product equal, pro rata, to that of an easily decompos-
able salt, in which ammonia was already formed.

Doubtless, had the salts employed been equally easily

MANURE. 159

decomposable, their nitrogen would have given equal
results.

To observe, then, the difference between salts of ammo-
nia unequally decomposable, let the amounts of hay produced
by 100 parts of nitrogen from each salt be compared. Un-
influenced by the considerations which have been offered,
these should be alike.

The sal-ammoniac gave, for every
100 parts of nitrogen, 24,395 parts of hay.

The sulphate gave, for every 100
parts of nitrogen, 21,660 parts of hay.

2,735

Now, this difference is attributable to the greater stability
of sulphate of ammonia. It gives up its alkali slower. The
plant does not so readily dissociate the elements of the salt.

If, on the other hand, the bone-liquor is examined, it is
found that, because it was readily decomposed, 100 parts of
its nitrogen produced 24,355 parts of hay, coinciding almost
exactly with the product from sal-ammoniac, and confirming
thus the principle that nitrogen measures the value of a
manure.

When all circumstances are equal, 100 nitrogen always
produce like effects, no matter what may be its origin.
Among the most important circumstances which influence
manure, are drought and wet. The season has its influence,
and years differing by temperature, moisture, and dryness,
show different results from the same manure.

But it is not as muriate or sulphate that the ammonia of
manure is ordinarily found.

Putrefaction gives rise to carbonate of ammonia. It has
been proved that the degree of saturation has no effect on
the result. It is of no practical importance whether the

160 MANURE.

ammonia be partly or wholly saturated with carbonic acid.
Even the excess of that acid does not prevent — it ought
rather to increase — the good effects of this compound.
Taking, therefore, carbonate of ammonia, which is more
readily decomposed than even the muriate, let its effects be
compared with that of sulphate, each salt being used in such
quantity that the amount of nitrogen shall be equal.

Jacquemart, carefully conducting this comparative experi-
ment, in France, mixed the solution of carbonate of ammo-
nia with charcoal or peat, so as to bring it into a dry state,
like the sulphate. The salts were sowed with wheat in tbe
fall, on the same field, and under circumstances apparently
the same. The field had been cleared of bushes, grubbed
up, and, after two crops, was limed and marled. Now this
liming and marling, though alike in all parts, had a special
effect on the sulphate of ammonia ; it imbibed it, and gradu-
ally evolved carbonate of ammonia. Hence, in the first
year, the sulphate yielded less than portions of the same
field un manured.

But the year following, the experiment was repeated, and
the salts, as before used, were again sown with wheat on the
same places in which each had been before applied. The
sulphate was therefore in a state to act with more efficiency,
but still the lime interfered.

The product was 71 with the sulphate to 70 unmanured.
The product, with carbonate and peat, compared with that
with sulphate, was as 94 to 71, or as 1 to 0.74. In Kuhl-
mann's trials, uninfluenced by lime, it was as 1 to 0.88. Let
it be remembered that Kuhlmann used muriate of ammonia,
a salt not so easily decomposed as carbonate. To show the
influence of lime on sulphate of ammonia, a solution of that
suit in the same quantity as before used, was absorbed to
dryness V^y chalk, and sowed with oats.

MANURE. 161

The product was as 79 to 74 over the unmanured. The
same ground being again sowed with wheat and salts as
before prepared, yielded the second year, as 90 to 70 over
the unmanured. Two seasons seem therefore necessary to
the full efficacy of sulphate of ammonia on limed soils.

That nitrogen measures the value of manures, is proved
also by nitrate of soda. Here soda, the base, also acts ; but
if nitrate of soda be used in unequal doses, then the product
is nearly in direct ratio to the nitrogen employed.

Now on the same field on which Kuhlmann performed his
experiments, which are above related, he tried at the same
time nitrate of soda in two proportions, at the rate of 240
and 120 lbs. per acre.

The yield of hay over unmanured soil was, for
240 lbs. nitrate soda, 1550 lbs. per acre.
120 " *' 784 «

This is in direct ratio of the nitrogen employed. If now
the effect of nitrate of soda is compared with sal-ammoniac
or bone-liquor, it is seen that the addition of the soda base
has given the nitrogen great activity. The combination has
given the plant power to absorb a greater quantity of food
from earth and air, than either the nitrogen or the base
singly could have effected.

The yield has been for every 100 parts of nitrogen used,
40.056 parts of hay ; nearly double that produced J)y a
simple ammoniacal salt, and four times that which an equal
amount of nitrogen ordinarily produces.

These fucts prove the strength of the principle adopted for
estimating the relative value of manures. No manure, no
salt, no combination of salts, gives full vigor to vegetation,
while nitrogen is absent. Nitrogen not only measures, but
gives the value to manures. It has been asserted, on high
authority, that nitrogen in animal manure is always in a

162 MANURE.

definite proportion to the phosphates ; hence it may meas-
ure their quantity. Nitrogen makes manure hotter or
colder. This causes change among the particles to begin,
and to be carried on in the manure. Motion begins here,
and is communicated to seeds and plants. Hence, crops are
in proportion to the energy of these changes and motions.

207. This is a practical view of a practical subject. The
nitrogen present in the manure expresses its true value.
This position is substantiated by the experience of practical
men. The experiments undertaken by order of the Saxon
and Prussian authorities, to ascertain 'whether the contents
of the sewers of the cities of Dresden and Berlin, could be
applied to fertilizing the barren lands in their vicinity, may
be offered to prove its correctness. These varied in every
form, and continued for a long period, prove that if a soil
without manure yields a crop of three for one sown, then
the same land yields, dressed

With cow-dung, 7 for one sown,

" horse-dung, 10 " "

" human manure, 14 " "

Now the nitrogen in these has been shown, taking the
minimum of nitrogen in the human, at 1-J- per cent, is as
1 : 1.50 : 3, whilst the above numbers are to each other, as
1 : 1.43 : 2.

Coj|isidering how varied is the composition of night-soil,
and how much diluted by various mixtures, this agreement
is as near as ought to have been expected, in experiments
whose objects were so totally different from that of ascer-
taining the quantity of nitrogen in each different manure.

208. Many modes of using night-soil are in use, all
depending on convenience, and modified by locality, and
other circumstances. Perhaps no mode is preferable to that
long used in Flanders. It has the sanction of a people whose

MANURE. 163

agriculture is, and has been for ages, pre-eminent. Flennish
manure, or gadou, contains the whole efficacy of night-soil,
both solid and liquid ; and as used in Flanders it may be
easily produced anywhere. Gadou cannot be too highly
recommended for those who reside in the vicinity of a dense
population, and who cannot procure dried peat, or charred
matter to mix with night-soil. It is even questionable
whether the products of the market-garden are not earlier
and more luxuriant, and the yield greater with gadou, than
with night-soil in any other shape.

An essential requisite for forming Flemish mainure, is a
brick or stone cistern, laid in mortar cement, and covered
with an arch of the same. Two openings are left in the
arch, one for the introduction of the night-soil, the other for
an. air-hole, which must be kept open. Night-soil, as col-
lected during the season allotted to this work, is thrown into
this reservoir, and then allowed to ferment several months.
Gadou sells in Lisle for about 24 cents per barrel of 32
gallons ; of this, about f are expenses of manufacture. It is
then in a liquid state, slightly viscid, with the odor of very
weak hydrosulphuret of ammonia. This salt is rapidly con-
verted by exposure and air into sulphate of ammonia.
Gadou may be used before or after planting, or as a top-
dressing to grass.

A hogshead, mounted so as to be easily moved, is kept in
the field, and filled from the cart with gadou, and from the
hogshead it is ladled out all around, by means of a long-
handled scoop, such as is commonly used by night scaven-
gers, and, by successive removes of the hogshead, the whole
ground is watered with gadou.

This manure, like all the highly nitrogenous, is an annual,
acting more rapidly in proportion to its fluidity.

In Flanders, about 22 gallons, or 2 cwt., are equal to

164 MANURE.

about 5 cwt. of farm-yard dung. But no comparison between
the two can safely be made. The one runs its course rapidly,
the other acts slowly. The one exerts all its influence in a
season, the other reserves its fire, and acts for two or more
seasons.

When it is determined what portion of farm-dung acts in
a year, then may that fraction be compared with gadou. If
the fraction is ^, then 50 of farm-yard dung are equal to 100
Flemish manure. The proportion of azote in the last being
0.22 per cent , the real relation becomes to ordinary yard-
manure which contains 0.41 per cent., as 182 : 100. Hence,
it is on certain crops only, that this and similar rapidly de-
composing manure should be applied. For lightening,
breaking up, and loosening the soil, ameliorating its condi-
tion, farm dung is better than gadou ; and even where that
is fully applied, an occasional dressing with yard-manure is
considered essential.

Each substance used for a manure cannot be considered in
detail. The composition only, will be mentioned. Among
the mixed manures, poudrette and guano rank next to
gadou. Poudrette is night-soil partly dried in pans, and
mixed up with variable quantities of charred earth, peat
charcoal, or ground peat and plaster. Its value will depend
on the circumstance, whether its ammonia and salts are
saved, or lost, in the manufacture. If sulphate or muriate
of lime is added before drying, then the volatile carbonate
of ammonia will be changed into sulphate of ammonia, and
sal-ammoniac. Thus, not only the most valuable portion of
night-soil will be retained, but the salts of lime will be much
increased. The peat not only retains a portion of gaseous
ammonia, but its geine by this act is rendered more soluble.
All night-soil from vaults has begun to evolve ammonia,
hence the advantage of mixing ground peat or piaster with

MANURE.

165

night-soil, before drying. But, however prepared, poudrette
varies much in quality. Analysis alone can determine its
true value. Four samples of dried night-soil, examined by
Professor Johnston, afforded as follows, per 100 parts :

1.

2.

3.

4.

Water,

20.04

15.12

13 97

27.46

Organic matter, with a

little nitrogen, . .

. 9.39

21.52

49.53

9.14

Ammonia, ....

0.53

2.25

1

9

Phosphates of lime, mag

nesia, and iron.

5.04

7.53

13.12

4.37

Carbonate of lime, . .

22.62

19.80

2.56

6.89

" magnesia,

.90

((

a

<x

Sulph. of lime (gypsum)

2.32

u

((

((

Alkaline salts, . . .

1.33

9.27

12.35

7.10

Insoluble silicious matter, 37.42 24.46 8.44 45.04

Very recently, Soubeiran has analyzed the poudrette of
Montfaucon, near Paris. Taking into view the state in which
ammonia exists in manure, Soubeiran has, with great skill,
separated that which exists as putrescible animal matter, or
as an easily soluble ammoniacal salt, from that which exists
as a less soluble compound of ammonia, magnesia, and phos-
phoric acid, a triple salt, which is slowly decomposed in the
soil. Fresh and warm poudrette, as sold at Montfaucon, to
farmers, in November, 1847, contained in 100 parts, —

Water, .
Organic matter,
Soluble alkaline salts.
Carbonate of lime,.
Sulphate of lime, .
Ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate.

28.00
29.00
0.43
3.87
3.87
6.55

166 MANURE.

Bone phosphate of lime, . . . . . 3.46
Earthy matters, 24.82 •

100.00

209. It is evident, therefore, that the value of poudrette
depends on the skill and honesty of the manufacturer. But
allowing these to be what they should be, no consumer of
poudrette will think himself wronged, if he discovers ground
peat in the article ; and allowing this, and the plaster, or
other salts added, and water to compose one-half the weight
of this manure, the farmer buys, in every hundred pounds
of poudrette, 200 pounds of the best human excrement, and
in a form not only portable, but perfectly inoffensive. The
value of good poudrette, depending on its ammonia, is, com-
pared with cow-dung, as 4 to 1, calculated on the average of
its nitrogen, cow-dung being 1.

Paris is the birth-place of poudrette, as well as of fashion.
Poudrette is one of the French fashions founded on good
taste. Rude in its first manufacture, like a French dish, it
has been improved by science, and its manufacture has
attracted the attention of the most eminent chemists, who
have conferred on this important interest the highest benefit.
One is astonished at the vastness of the works devoted to
the preparation of poudrette, at the forest of Bondy, and at
Montfaucon. There arrive daily at this establishment, six
hundred cubic yards of night-soil. This quantity affords one
hundred cubic yards of poudrette after undergoing the vari-
ous processes in the immense vats of reception and subsi-
dence. The liquids, and of course a large portion of the
salts, were formerly allowed to run into the Seine. But
even with this waste, the simply air-dried poudrette was
worth to the farmer and gardener, $1.62 per cwt., contain-
ing, on the average, 1.6 per cent, of nitrogen in the ordinary

MANURE. 167

poudrette, 2 per cent, in the middling, and 2.67 in the first
quality.

The immense loss sustained by agriculture, by the waste-
ful and hateful mode of making poudrette, as above de-
scribed, demanded reform. The liquid portion of night-soil
at Montfaucon, is worth to agriculture nearly three times the
value of its poudrette. Chemistry taught that urine could
be easily converted to sulphate of ammonia, at a rate, calcu-
lating its value on its nitrogen, cheaper than poudrette.
Practice has shown that sulphate of ammonia is effective, in
proportion to its nitrogen, which is about 21 per cent. It
can be made at 4| cents per lb. Now, at $1.62 per cwt. for
poudrette at 1.6 per cent, of nitrogen, the relative money
yalue of sulphate of ammonia and poudrette is as 1 to 13.

It has been estimated that the urine at Montfaucon would
annually produce 4,000,000 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia.
The nitrogen in this amount is equal to 52,000,000 lbs. of
poudrette, or to 2,029,270 lbs. yard-manure, or about 225
cords, containing 0.41 per cent, nitrogen ; about j less than
that of pure cow-dung. Still it was desirable that all the
liquids of night-soil should be saved for agriculture, without
undergoing a process of separate manufacture, however
cheap its product might be. A process was wanted which
could be universally and easily applied, even by the hum-
blest of those who go about in darkness, and by night
"gather samphire, dreadful trade;" a process equally appli-
cable to a single load, or to the annual product of a crowded
city.

With the hope that the nuisance of night-men may be
abated, when it is seen that agriculture and health will be
equally benefited, by adopting better processes for the con-
version of the contents of our vaults into manure, a general
account of the mode of effecting such a desirable result

168 MANURE.

may be here set before agricultural and sanitary commit-
tees.

It had long been known that sugar-house black, the oone-
charcoal refuse from the sugar refinery, was a valuable
manure, having properties which could not be attributed
solely to its bone-dust, or phosphate of lime. Something
was due to the charcoal, something to the blood added to
clarify, and something to the matter extracted by both from
the crude sugar. A constant and gentle production of am-
monia goes on in sugar-refinery bone-black, giving that a
value superior to its per centage of ammonia. The porous
charcoal induces by condensation the formation of ammonia
from the air, and by changes occurring in the extractive
matter, and the charcoal itself It was attempted to imitate
refinery-black, by mixing charred turf, or peat, or even
mould, with the water of city sewers. This, under the name
of " animalized black," proved a powerful manure, very like
refinery-black, affording like that, an enduring and constant
gentle evolution of ammonia. Carbonized earth, charred
peat, charcoal, or mould, mixed with urine, and the liquid
portion of the settling vats of poudrette manufactories,
formed also a manure similar to sugar-house black.

The greatest improvement yet introduced into the pou-
drette processes, depends on the above principles. The
whole contents of Parisian vaults are now at once mixed
with charred matters, by which they are completely deodo-
rized, and easily reduced to a dry state, in which they may
be pulverized, barelled, transported, without offensive exha-
lations. The substance selected for charring should contain,
like peat, or turf, or swamp muck, or pond mud, abundance
of vegetable remains. These several substances are prefer-
able. Vegetable mould or loam charred will answer, and,
when previously to being charred, these are mixed with saw-

MANURE. 169

dust, small chips, shavings, or tanner*s spent bark, they
become quite equal to peat charcoal.

Whatever substance is chosen, after it has been charred, it
should easily fall to powder. If a too clayey loam is used,
it forms lumps in the charring process.

The process of forming poudrette thus becomes inoffensive
and simple, and the materials being collected, they are to be
mixed, as follows, in a pit sunk for the purpose. To every
load of night-soil, add an equal bulk of the charred mate-
rial, mixing evenly the two, by rakes and stirrers, like a
mason's mortar mixing tool.

The liquids are absorbed, it becomes a stiff mass, which is
to be heaped up, and the watery portion allowed to drain
out. If the centre of the pit is raised, of course the fluid
collects round the edges, and this is to be again mixed with
the charred matter, till the moisture is absorbed. The
whole mass is now to be air-dried under sheds.

When pretty dry, add again its volume of night-soil, and
so repeat as long as the night-soil is deodorized, or till the
charcoal matter is only about one-fourth the whole mixture.

The whole may be finished in five or six weeks. It is a
dry powder, which may be carried about in a snuff-box, with
as little offence as the pulverized weed ; and, when recently
prepared, has been actually handed round on a china plate,
at an evening party of sensitive, and very sensible ladies and
gentlemen, without their suspecting the origin of the new
article of commerce submitted to their inspection and criti-
cism.

From the variety of materials which may be used, no one
whose enterprise and interest impel him to collect night-soil,
can say that he has not, or may not have the material for
charring. He may object to the process as too expensive
for an individual like himself to undertake such a matter.
8

170 MANUKE

Happily in this part of our country, peat bogs, hassocks,
turf, savv-dust, spent and decayed bark, underbrush of pines,
and the rubbish Jeft after gleaning the fagots where wood
land has been cleared, are abundant. Make these into small
piles with loam, giving enough combustible matter to allow
the whole, when covered with sods and fired, to burn slow^ly
like a charcoal pit, a slow, smothered fire, burning without
consuming, till the whole soil with which the peat or earth,
&c., were mixed, has been baked quite up to a low, red heat,
just visible in the night.

This mass of baked soil and charcoal will answer very
well for the speedy conversion of the few loads of night-soil,
which small farmers may collect into a dry, useable manure,
on the plan which has been laid down.

To those who undertake the removal of larger quantities,
a general account of the furnace used for charring soil, the
mode of conducting the whole process, from the collection of
the raw material, from its legion of city and town deposito-
ries, to its final state of a dry, inodorous manure, full of
agricultural vigor, may be an inducement to undertake its
preparation.

First. Be it understood, that a few pounds of copperas,
dissolved in a pail of water, say half a pound to a gallon,
will, when thrown into an ordinary vault, while its contents
are being removed, completely deodorize that, no noxious
gases escape, polluting the air, and making night more terri-
ble than day to the dweller in crowded cities.

This would be an incidental benefit to all, but to him who,
by contract, abates the nuisance of an overflowing vault, it is
money in his pocket. The addition of copperas-water actu-
ally adds a direct value to the night-soil. The ammonia so
volatile, the sulphuretted compounds so horrible, are seized
by the copperas water, they are retained long enough to be

MANURE. 171

transported to the spot where the further conversion of the
night-soil is to take place. Both the ammonia and sulphur-
etted hydrogen are too valuable to be lost. No grain ever
grew which did not contain sulphur compounds.

Secondly. The night-soil being deodorized, as above, it is
to be removed or transported, by day or by night, as may
be most convenient, to the pit prepared for its reception,
and then mixed in the mode which has been above set forth,
with the charred material.

Thirdly. The furnace for charring is to be constructed of
several hoppers, or very shallow pans, with inclined sides,
set one above the other, and surrounded with brick work, so
that the fire may play all around the hoppers.- The hoppers
must be so constructed as to swivel, so that the contents of
each may be easily dropped into the pan immediately below.

The bottom of each pan is made of thick cast-iron, the
lowest pan has a bottom of fire-brick, and is stationary over
the grate ; a door leads to it, and its end is movable, so as
to allow the charred material to be withdrawn.

The height of the furnace will be regulated by the num-
ber of tiers of pans. It is a large chimney stack, with a fire
at its bottom, the flame, smoke, &c., passing among the
hoppers.

The pans are charged with the materials intended to be
baked, and the fire is kept up constantly.

The earth or peat on the lowest hopper, when of a brown-
ish red color, and somewhat hot, is to be withdrawn into
sheet-iron cylinders, furnished with a tight cover, and cooled
while shut up. The materials in the several hoppers are to
be successively dropped into those below them, and the upper
one recharged with fresh matter. The charge is repeated
about once in an hour, the earth, &c., having been previously
screened and made fine.

172 MANURE.

The materials should be moist when put into the furnace.
This prevents combustion on the lower plate, and the steam
from the moisture pervading the whole furnace, excludes the
air, and so carbonization takes place without combustion.
A furnace 18 feet high, will char 15 to 18 cubic yards in
twenty -four hours, and in France it has been found that the
cost, per cubic yard, is 96 cents — say, $1.

The whole cost of an establishment, capable of converting
into poudrette, the night-soil of a city of 20,000 inhabitants,
is about $4000 to $5000. Theactual cost of the manufacture,
including all expenses, is about 20 cents per year for each
inhabitant.

The product is about 136 cords, or 17,000 bushels annu-
ally. The poudrette contains about 3 per cent, of nitrogen,
and under the name of " animalized black," it sells for about
34 cents per bushel. This leaves a profit of between $1700
and $1800 per annum.

Experience determines the value of manure. Its decisions
are without appeal. It has proved that from 22 to 28 bushels
per acre of animal black, are equal to four tons of yard-
manure.

The preparation of poudrette so extensively pursued in
France, Continental Europe, and England, has been also
attempted in this country with varied success. Many estab-
lishments, unfortunately, have been abandoned, but the
" Lodi Manufacturing Company," situated about three miles
from the city of New York, perseveres and produces a good
article, which is entitled to the farmer's confidence. It is
sold at the works at about $1.50 per barrel, of four bushels,
or 374 cents per bushel.

210. There is yet another form of poudrette, which, though
much used in France, has not been introduced here. It
contains more than | animal matter, and it is formed with-

MANURE. 173

out any offensive evolution of gas, by boiling the offal of
the slaughter-house, and other refuse animal substance, by
steam, into a thick soup, and then mixing the whole into a
stiff paste, with sifted coal ashes, and drying. If putrefaction
should have begun, the addition of ashes sweetens the whole,
and the prepared "animalized coal," as it is termed, or pou-
drette, is as sweet to the nose, as garden mould. It is trans-
ported in barrels from Paris to the interior

This manure is prepared at " horse boiling" establishments
in France. The carcasses of horses are cut in quarters, and
steamed, to separate the fat. Unfortunately the flesh loses
some of its salts by this treatment. The composition of the
commercially cooked flesh was found by Soubeiran to be

Water, 10.00

Animal matter, ..... 84.78
Bone phosphate of lime, .... 2.40
Earthy matter, 2.82

100.00

In this state it is said to be a cold manure, very poor in
alkaline salts. It wants ammonia.

Blood is also converted into manure by the " horse boil-
ers." It is coagulated by steam, and then dried in the air.
Thus treated, it contains

Water, 17.00

Animal matter, 78.00

Bone phosphate, 0.33

Salts and earthy matter, .... 4.67

100.00
211. Guano is the excrement of sea-birds. It is found on
our northern rocks and islands, but its great deposit is on
the islands of the Southern Ocean, between 13° and 21° south

174

MANURE.

latitude. It there forms immense beds, from 60 to 80 feet
thick. What a length of time must have elapsed, or how
incredible the number of birds, to have produced that pile
of guano, whose base, washed by the sea, was observed by
our countryman, Mr. Blake, to stretch a mile in length, and to
tower 800 to 900 feet high ! The composition of ancient guano,
countenances the idea of its being the excrements of birds.
212. The following table presents the constituents of
guano, as determined by several chemists.

1=1

Urate of Ammonia,

Ammonia, ,

Uric Acid,

Oxalate of Ammonia, ,

" " Lime, ,

Phosphate of Ammonia,

" " Lime,

" " Ammonia and Magnesia

" " Soda,

Muriate of Soda,

Sulphate of Soda,

" " Potash,

Muriate of Ammonia,

Clay and Sand,

Water and organic matter ,

16.

12.75

0.5

32.
28.75

14.3

3.3
5.5

4.2

4.7

32.3

14.3
2.6

3.8
5.5
4.2
4.7
32.3

3.24

13.35
16.36
6.45
9.94
4.19
5.29
0.10
1.19
4.22
6.50
5.90
28.31

13.t

25.

14
61.§

30.5

36.5

* Included with water and organic matter.

f Oxalate amm. included.

J From crop of the birds.

^ Includes urate of amm. and 11. water.

MANURE. 175

The samples examined by Ure were from the purest
guano, furnished by the governments of Peruvia and Bolivia.

Of the 32.3 parts of organic matter, &;c., examined by
Voelkel, about 12 parts are soluble in wdter.

An analysis of one sample indicates little of the general
character of the deposit. Its value depends chiefly on its
volatile constituents. Two samples from the same parcel,
yielded Professor Johnston :

Water, salts of ammonia, and organic matter, . . 23.5
Sulphate of soda, . . . . . . .1.8

Common salt and phosphate of soda, . . . 30.3
Phosphates of lime and magnesia, and carbonate of

lime, 44.4

100.0

JVo.2.
Water and volatile matter, ..... 51.5

Ammonia, 7.

Uric acid, 8

Common salt and sulphate and phosphate of soda, . 11.4
Phosphate of lime, ...... 29.3

100.0

The average of several hundred analyses of guano from
South America and Africa, afforded Professor Johnston, per
100 parts :

Water, from . . . . . 12.9 to 29.6
Organic matter and salts of ammonia, . 28.9 to 35.9
Phosphates, 26.8 to 38.6

Ammonia is the most valuable ingredient ; next, a peculiar

1 TU MANURE.

acid, called uric acid, which gradually affords ammonia, after
these the bone earth of guano, gives it a permanent effect.
The volatile matter acts in the earlier stage of vegetation.
It is continually escaping. Hence, fresh fallen guano is
always best. It is probably like the recent droppings of the
present race of fish-eating birds. These consist almost
wholly of uric acid. The excrement of the sea eagle gave
in the

Solid Evacuations. Liquid Evacuations,

Ammonia, .... 9.20

Uric acid, 84.65

Phosphate of lime, . . 6.13

Uric acid, .... 59.
Other salts, . . . 41.

100.00 100.

Compared with these, guano contains ^ to y of its original
organic elements. No manure yields more substances for
the wants of plants, in all stages of their growth, than guano.

Guano is an article of commerce. There are three varie-
ties known in trade. The white, the dark gray, the red
brown, which is the most common. The white is the most
recent, the red brown the most ancient, and decomposed,
the gray intermediate. The actual money value of guano to
the farmer, in England, where it is now extensively used,
does not exceed $5 per cwt. The price has fallen at the
present time to about |2.50 per cwt. Beyond this, practical
men, who have used it, say that the farmer cannot afford to
employ it. Mr. Blake thinks it may be afforded for 1 J cent,
per pound, delivered in the United States. It is much used
in Peru, where a spoonful is applied to each hill, as soon as
the corn shows itself. The effects are what the most san-
guine could expect, from this natural, concentrated poudrette,
consisting both of salts and geine. Allowing, as has been
asserted, that the land itself in Peru, contains not a particle

MANURE. 177

of organic matter, guano can be no proof that plants require
not geine, containing as it does, by analysis, 12 per cent, of
soluble organic matter.

But this soluble matter will avail nothing without moist-
ure ; hence, in Peru, from the days of the Incas, till now, it
is the practice, according to Dr. Von Tschudi, ( Travels in
Peru^) a few weeks after the seeds begin to shoot, to dig a
little hollow round each plant, which is filled up with guano,
and covered with earth. After 12 or 15 hours, the whole
field is laid under water for some hours. In a few days the
growth of the plant is doubled.

Guano is applied in best proportion in England and in
this country, at the rate of about 3 to 4 cwt. per acre. It is
still better applied mixed with one-half yard-manure. It
should be applied annually in small doses ; 3 to 4 cwt. are
considered equal to 20 or 25 tons of manure.

213. The dung of all domestic fowls, and of birds in gen-
ral, contains salts similar to those in guano ; and while this
subject is under consideration, the fact may be mentioned,
that it has experimentally been proved, that the dung of
pigeons is f ths stronger than horse manure. And for stoved
mulberries, vines, peaches, and other plants, the droppings
of the barn-yard fowls, 1 part to from 4 to 10 of water have
been found to produce excellent results ; the trees having, at
the end of two years, the most healthy and luxuriant ap-
pearance imaginable. The poultry yard is, to a careful
farmer, a rich source of vegetable food. How much a
single hen can contribute to increase the crops, may be seen
from the following account, from Vauquelin.

214. In ten days a hen ate 74'J4 grains of oats, which con-
tained of

Phosphate of lime, .... 91.8348 grains.

Silica, 141.8016 '*

8*

308.814 J

grains.

17.5975

((

276.7095

u

9.8725

((

348.521

((

39.3511

((

184.5348

u

124.6351

«

315.0606

((

202.1323

((

178 MANURE.

During this time four eggs were laid, whose

shells weighed, .....
And contained phosphate of lime.

Carbonate of lime, . . . . ;

Gluten,

The excrements during the same time, gave
of ashes, .....

Composed of carbonate of lime, .

Phosphate of lime.

Silica,

Thus voiding in eggs and excrements,

Carbonate of lime, . . , .

Phosphate of lime.

Now this is 17.2265 grains of silica less; and in round
numbers, 110 grains of phosphate, and 315 grains of carbon-
ate of lime more than the food eaten contained. Probably
in all such experiments, where confined to food different from
usual, and deprived of their customary habits, all animals
draw upon, and, in such cases, may be said to eat themselves.
The daily amount of bone-dust, however, which one hen thus
produces in her various droppings, is about 18| grains, and
of carbonate of lime, 3.9 or an annual amount in round
numbers, of these two salts, of 1 pound and 3 ounces. Esti-
mating the salts only, it is found that the agricultural value
of a single hen per annum, equals the salts contained in sev-
eral bushels of wheat. This places in a strong light, the
very great effects produced by a spoonful of guano, to a hill
of corn. In Belgium, the annual value of the dung of 400
or 500 head of pigeons, much used in manuring flax, is $25
to 130. Under the name of columbine^ pigeons' dung is
much used in the north of France, and it is stated by Dumas,
that the annual droppings of six to seven hundred pigeons

d

Recent.

Six montbi old. .

A.fter fennentotloa.

Davy.

Sprengel.

Davy.

23

16

8

MANURE. 179

are sold for 100 francs, or about $19. Columbine is applied
at the rate of about 900 lbs. per acre, ordinarily. In
France the expense of this manure, per acre, is from |9.60 to
$15.56.

The composition is as follows, per 100 parts :

Soluble matter in )
Pigeons' dung, f

The salts and other matters are similar to those in guano.
Pigeons* dung has been imported from Egypt into England.
Its composition per 100 parts was found by Johnston to be :

Water, 6.65

Organic matter, 59.68 -^"^^''/J!'"

Ammonia, ...... 1.50

Alkaline salts, 0.42

Phosphate of lime and magnesia, . . 7.96

Carbonate of lime, 2.37

Silicious matter, chiefly sand, . . . 21.42

100.00

All fowl droppings should be kept dry to avoid fermenta-
tion. It is best to compost this manure with peat, or char-
red earth, as noticed under the head of poudrette making.

215. And here, having adverted to eggs, attention may be
called to a sadly overlooked fact. All around is heard the
reqXJem of departed wheat-fields. The burden of the chant
is, carbonate of lime ! carbonate of lime ! The wail is, it is
gone ! gone ! The want of this is the grand characteristic of
.our soil. The sole cause, in thd estimation of some, of all
our barrenness, and fruitless attempts, as they say, and
^^•ould have us believe, at raising wheat. An egg-shell shall
put such reasoning or dreaming to flight. A common sized

180 MANURE.

hen's egg weighs about 1000 grains, of which the shell is
about 106 grains. Two per cent, of the shell is albumen, or
animal matter ; 1 per cent, phosphate of lime and magnesia,
and the balance or 97 per cent, carbonate of lime. At an
egg a day, this is equal to li ounce of dry chalk per week.
Whence comes this? From soil, from brick-dust, from
grain, meal, &;c. But it exists not in soil as carbonate of
lime. Animals, like plants, decompose the silicate of lime
of soil, and recombine the base with carbonic acid, to form
egg-shells. Considering the coi^i.tless thousands of eggs
which are produced by the birds of every feather in New
England, how big a bit of chalk would their shells produce !
So of fresh water clams ; their shells, common throughout
New England, are carbonate of lime. These facts speak
volumes. Whenever birds cease to lay eggs, or clams to
form shells, then, and not till then, may it be said that New
England soil is barren, because it contains no lime.

216. Flesh, fish, fowl, all animal solids, muscle, gristle,
skin, sinews, &;c., all afford geine, by putrefaction, and evolve
vast volumes of ammonia. Salts are more or less present
in all animal substances. There are uniformly found, in the
soft or fluid portions, some of the following salts :

MINERAL SALTS.

Sulphate and phosphate of lime.
Phosphates of soda, magnesia and ammonia.
Sulphate and muriate of potash and soda.
Carbonates of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia.

VEGETABLE SALTS.

Benzoate of potash, soda, lime.
Acetate, " « "

Oxalate, " "

MANURE. 181

ANIMAL SALTS.

Urate of ammonia.

Lactate of ammonia.

Oxides of iron, manganese, and silica.

In a word, are found, in animals, the inorganic parts of
soils, the elements of silicates, united with the inorganic
acids which existed in the soil, added to the organic, pro-
duced by the animal itself. These salts are common to ani-
mals and plants, but except in bones, they form only a small
part of the living body.

217. In plants there are certain principles, as albumen and
gluten, so like animal products, that they have received the
name of vegeto-animal. But very late discoveries have
proved that they are identical with the fibrine and albumen
of animals. That these animal and vegetable products are
modifications of a principle called proteine, has been alluded
to (page 118). The late analyses of these various products,
shed a clear light over the multiform substances, from the
animal kingdom, used for manure. They show how like
products arise from the decomposition of plants, and thus
assimilate animal and vegetables in the process of forming
composts.

Fibrine, or the basis of flesh, or muscular fibre, albumen,
and caseine, or the curd of milk and basis of cheese, are
composed as follows, by Mulder's analysis : —

Fibrine. Albumen. Camne.

Of eggs.

Of serum.

Carbon,

54.56

54.48

54 84

54.96

Nitrogen,

15.72

15.70

15.83

15.80

Hydrogen, 6.90 7.01 7.09 7.15

182 MANURE.

Oxygen, \

Phosphorus,). 22.83 22.81 22.24 23.09

Sulph

ur.

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

The corresponding products of vegetables are, 1st, gluten,
and 2d, its peculiar principle, detected by Liebig, called veg-
etable fibrine ; 3d, vegetable albumen ; 4th, legumine, or
vegetable caseine. The two last are identical in composition
and properties, with the albumen and caseine of animals.
Indeed, it has been suggested, that animals never create
either of the above, but draw them ready formed from
plants. The composition of the vegetable principles author-
izes such a conclusion. By the analyses of Drs. Scherer
and Jones, in the laboratory of Liebig, these are constituted
as follows :

Gluten. Vegt. fibrine. Albumen. Caseine.

Average of
3 trials.

Of rye, wheat,
and plants.

Carbon,

55.22

54.345

54.86

54.138

Nitrogen,

15.98

15.733

15.88

15.672

Hydrogen,

7.42

7 272

7.31

7.156

Oxygen,

Sulphur,

[ 21.38

22.647

21.95

23.034

Phosphorus, ^

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Caseine contains no phosphorus, but both animal and veg-
etable principles, comprised under the above names, are
always combined with alkalies, lime, magnesia, iron, sulphur,
and phosphoric acid. The above are the organized principles
of living bodies, and are distinguished from all others by
their nitrogen. Substances not containing this element are
said to be organic, but not organized.

MANURK. 183

218. The above substances, which form the great bulk of
animals, and no small part of plants, deducting their inor-
ganic elements, compose proteine, whose constituents are :

Carbon, 55.742

Hydrogen, G.827

Nitrogen, 16.143

Oxygen - 21.288

100.00

This compound is the basis of the animal solids, and soft
parts : fibrine, or flesh, and albumen, are only compounds of
this, with sulphur and phosphorus. All the parts of the
animal frame are modifications only of proteine.

The peculiar principle of glue, or size, or jelly, called gela-
tine, never exists in the healthy animal body. It is the pro-
duct of catalysis. Boiling water is the catalytic agent, and
produces it from tendon, ligament, cartilage, skin and bone.
The composition of these will show at once their relation to
proteine :

Tendon.

Cartilage, or gnristle from ribs.

Carbon,

50.874

50.895

Hydrogen

7.152

6.962

Nitrogen,

18.320

14.908

Oxygen,

23.754

23.235

Scherer.

Horny matter is equally allied to proteine. Its several
variations have been divided into two classes : 1st, soft, and
2d, compact. The first includes skin, or the outer part,
called cuticle; and the delicate lining membrane of the
internal passages, and sacs ; and these substances are like
constituted. The cuticle of the sole of the foot is composed
of—

184 MANURE.

Carbon, 50.894

Hydrogen, G.781

Nitrogen, 17.225

^^^g^"' I ...... . 25.099

Sulphur, j

100.00

Scherer.

Compact horny matter includes hair, horn, nails, claws,
hoofs, scales. Like all the other compounds of proteine,
these contain sulphur, lime, magnesia, &c., and from J to 2
per cent, of bone earth. The effect of these as phosphates
has been adverted to, section 169. These all give varied
portions of ashes. The beard gives about 0.72 per cent. ;
blond colored hair, 0.3, and the black hair of a Mexican, 0.2 ;
nails, 0.5 ; wool, 2 ; and gelatine of bone, 0.7 per cent, of
ashes. These all evolve amm.onia by caustic alkali, an effect
which might have been predicted from their composition,
which is, according to Scherer :

Carbon,
Hydrogen,

Nitrogen,

Oxygen,

Sulphi

Hair affords a substance, in addition to its proteine, and
to which feathers are analogous. The composition of the
last is,

Feather. Quill.

Carbon, .... 50.474 52.427

Hydrogen, . . . 9.110 7.213

Nitrogen,. . . . 17.682 17.893

Oxvgen, .... 24.774 22.467

en, )
lur, )

Hair.

Horn.

Nails.

WooJ.

50.652

51.540

51.089

50.653

6.769

6.799

6.824

7.029

17.936

17.284

16.901

17.710

24.643

24.397

25.186

24.608

MANURE. 18o

Bone itself is allied to proteine by its cartilage, which
composes nearly one-third the weight, and which boiling
water, under pressure, conipletely extracts in the form of
gelatine, or glue.

219. All these varied forms of proteine may be tabulated
so as to express, at a glance, their relation to each other, if
the elements. Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen, are
expressed by C. II. N. O., and to each are added figures
which represent the number of atoms entering into the com-
pound. This is called chemical notation, and each set a
chemical formula. (55.)

Proteine, 0« H^ N« O'^

Gelatine of tendons, . . . C« H« Wl 0^»

Chondrine, or gelat. of rib cartilage, C^ H'' N« O*®

Compact homy matter, hair, . . C*« IP« N' O"

Feathers, C« H^» N' 0'<=

But the great practical lesson, taught by this similarity of
constitution, is, that it enables the chemist to present at one
view, animal and vegetable substances, ' as carbon, water,
ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen. This is the view
which the farmer takes, for he knows that these are the ele-
ments of manure. Proteine may be resolved into :

Hydrogen.

p , ) 4.242 4-0.707= 4.949 Carb. hydrogen,

uarbon, ^ ^^^^^ 51.500 Carbon.

Oxygen, 21 .288 -f 2.061 = 23.949 Water.
Nitrogen, 16.143 + 3.459 = 19.602 Ammonia.

93.173 + 6.827= 100. Proteine.

This is the agricultural view, and expresses at once that
this great variety of substances is compared to cow-dung as
32 to 1, when used dry as manure, dung being 1, and pro-

186 MANURE.

teine being calculated on its nitrogen. The physiological
view is this :

If ammonia and water, known compounds of nitrogen,
hydrogen, and oxygen, are added in certain proportions to
proteine, all the gelatinous tissues, hair, horn, &c., will be
formed.

Let Pr. represent proteine, then

Proteine.

Ammonia.

Water.

Oxygen

Fibrine, albumen = Pr.

Arterial membrane = Pr.

+ 2

Chondrine = Pr.

+ 4

+2

Hair, horn = Pr.

+ 1

+ 3

Gelatinous tissues =2 Pr.

+ 3

+ 1

+7

By this view, horny matter exceeds by 16 per cent., and
the gelatinous tissues by 25 per cent., the value of the pro-
teine of flesh, blood, &c.

220. For the purposes in view, all animal and vegetable
products may be divided into two classes : first, that which
does, and second, that which does not, contain nitrogen.
The action of these is very distinct, on the elements of soil,
and as manures. The first class putrefies, the second does
not. The first class forms alkali, the second forms acids.
The action of the first depends on nitrogen, that of the second
on carbon.

221. The first class contains flesh in all its varieties ; blood,
skin, sinew, gristle, cartilage, tendons, hair, feathers, wool,
hoofs, horns, nails, scales, and one-third, nearly, of bones
and teeth. The second class contains fats and oils in all
their variety.

222. It is easily understood, then, how woollen rags and
flocks become powerful manure. They aflford ammonia, and
100 lbs. containing 17 of nitrogen, should be 34 times

MANURE. 187

stronger than 100 lbs. of fresh cow-dung. Connected with
flocks and wool, there is a very valuable product, rich in all
the elements of manure, which is often lost or not used for
agricultural purposes, namely, the sweat, or natural soap of
wool. Fresh clipped wool loses from 35 to 45 per cent, of
its weight by washing. This is due to a peculiar matter
exuded from the wool, and which consists chiefly of potash,
lime, and magnesia, united to a peculiar animal oil, forming
an imperfect soap. It is remarkable that this soap of lime,
in all other cases insoluble, is here soluble in water. The
experience of the best French agriculturalists, is full of tes-
timony to the good effects of this wool sweat. It has been
calculated that the washings from wool, annually consumed
in France, are equal to manuring 370,000 acres of land.

223. Bones consist of variable proportions of cartilage,
bone earth, and carbonate of lime. The bone earth may be
estimated at one-half the weight. It is a peculiar phosphate
of lime, containing 3 parts of lime to 1 of phosphoric acid.
A great part of the value of bone as manure, depends on its
cartilage. The animal part of bones being one-third of their
w^eight, the ammonia is equal to 8 or 10 times that of cow-
dung, while, if we regard the salts only, 100 lbs. of bone-
dust contain nearly 60 times as much as an e*qual weight of
cow-dung. Such statements while they express the chemical
facts, are almost, if not quite, supported by the testimony of
those who have, in practical agriculture, applied these con-
centrated animal manures. It is a common opinion, that
bones from the soap-boiler have lost a large portion of their
animal matter. It is erroneous. Boiling, except under high
pressure, extracts very little of the gelatine, and not all the
fat and marrow. Heads and shoulder-blades and the smaller
bones still contain, after boiling, 3|- per cent, of fat and tal-
low. If the phosphate of lime of such bones is dissolved

188

MANURE.

out by acid, the animal portion remains, with all the form
and bulk of the bone. Bones which are offered in the mar-
ket, are quite as rich in the elements above stated, as are
unboiled bones. The phosphate of lime is rendered quite
soluble by its combination with gelatine and albumen. The
class of mixed manures, containing nitrogen, has thus been
considered. The principle of their action and the foundation
of their value, pointed out. The action of the second class,
or that not containing nitrogen, remains to be explained.

224. All fats and oils exposed to air give off a quantity
of carbonic acid, and end by becoming acids. As their ulti-
mate elements are the same as those of plants, it may be
inferred, that under the influence of growing plants, fats and
oils are decomposed and become vegetable food. But there
is another action of fats and oils on silicates ; they not only
let loose the alkali of silicates by the carbonic acid, which
they evolve, but the oils now become acids, immediately
combine with this alkali, and imperfect soaps are formed.
Soaps are truly chemical salts, and hence we have at once a
clew to the action of oil and fat.

225. Among the most powerful of manures in the class
composed of geine and salts, is soot. There is no one sub-
stance so rich in both. Its composition allies it to animal
solids, and is as follows :

Geine (ulmin), 30.70

Nitrogen, 20.

Salts of lime, mostly chalk, .
Bone-dust, .....
Salts of potash and soda, and ammonia,
Carbon, . • • . .

Water, ..••••

25.31
1.50
6.14

3.85
12.50

100.00

MANURE. 189

On the principles adopted for determining the value of
manure, the salts in 100 lbs. of soot are equal to 1 ton of
cow-dung. Its nitrogen gives it a value, compared with cow-
dung, as 40 to 1.

226. Soot forms a capital liquid manure for the floricultur-
ist. Mixed with water, in the proportion of 6 quarts of soot
to 1 hogshead, it has been found to be a most efficacious
liquid, with which to water green-house plants; and being
not only a come-at-able, but a comely preparation, it may
recommend itself to the cultivator of flowers, by these lady-
like qualities.

The most decided good results have been produced in
England, on Stinchcombe farm, containing 200 acres of
arable land, by soot, barn-yard manure, and sheep-dung.
The rotation is turnips, potatoes, wheat. The average pro-
duce of the potatoes, 315 bushels ; of the wheat, 28 bushels
per acre. The turnips are manured by that produced by
12 oxen and 5 horses, 4 of which are employed in carting
the crops to market and hauling back soot, often a distance
of 25 miles. The turnips are fed oft' by sheep, and each
acre in turnips receives at the rate of the manure of 2000
sheep for one day (205). The potatoes and wheat are each
manured with soot only, at the rate of between 11 and 12
bushels per acre. The annual quantity used being about
3000 bushels, at the cost of about a 6d. English, say 12|^ cts.
per bushel. By this treatment, for 30 years the quantity of
crops and the quality of the land have improved year by
year. Anthracite coal-soot, as it may be called, contains no
geine. It contains abundant salts of ammonia. Mixed with
swamp muck and alkali, at the rate of two bushels per cord,
there can be no doubt that the good effects of soft coal, or
wood soot, would be produced. The fine dust which collects
about the flues of boilers, when anthracite is used, thus

190 MANURE. *.

becomes of great agricultural value. From an accurate
experiment on 106,504 lbs. of coal, I find the quantity of this
ash, collecting about flues, is 5.09 per cent, of the coal con-
sumed.

227. Among the mixed manures, is the salt, or spent lye
of the soap-boiler. It seems to offer a natural passage from
this class to those consisting of salts only. To understand
its components, the chemical composition of oil and fat must
be briefly studied. No products of life are now better
understood than the fatty bodies. They are all acids, com-
bined with a peculiar organic base, which acts the part of an
oxide. This is never obtained except in combination with
oxygen and water. In this state it has long been known
under the name of glycerine. The acids combined with it,
are stearic, margaric, and oleic. By the union of these acids
with glycerine, stearine, and margarine, or fats, an oleine
or oil is produced. In soap-making, the alkali used decom-
poses stearine and oleine, combining with their acids, which
thus are converted into stearates, margarates, and oleates of
alkali, or soap, while the glycerine remains free in the spent
lye with the salts which that contains.

228. The proportion of glycerine in fat and oil, is about
8 per cent. Its composition is —

Carbon, 40.07 f These are in such ^ Carbon, 24.77

Oxygen, 51.00 \ ZT^XV.ZnT, \ or Car. hyd. 17 85
Hydrogen, 8.92 I "^^"'"""^ ^y'^'^s^"- J Water, 57.37

Glycerine is transparent and liquid, and was called the
sweet principle of oils, from its sweet taste.

229. The glycerine is thus the organic, or geine part of
salt lye. Its proportion in that will vary, if the spent lye is
boiled, as is usual, upon a fresh portion of tallow, which adds

MANURE. 191

its quantity of glycerine, in proportion to the alkali in the
lye.

230. The salts are various, and depend on the kind of
alkali used to form the lye. The alkali is derived from
barilla, from soda or white ash, from potash, or from ashes.
Hence, no general statement can be given which shall express
the value of spent lye salts. That some idea may be formed
of its components, it may be divided into two kinds: 1st,
that produced from soft soap, or from ashes, or potash ;
2dly, that from hard soap, barilla, or soda-ash. A boil of
2000 lbs. of soft soap requires 150 bushels of ashes, and its
spent lye contains, in addition to a little free potash, the fol-
lowing salts, derived from ashes :

130 lbs. of sulphate of potash,
6 " of muriate of potash,
36 " of silicate of potash,

allowing the ashes to have been a mixture of oak, bass, and
birch woods. Besides these, in the process of soap-making,
in order to make the soap "grain," common salt is added.
A chemical change is thus induced, the potash soap is changed
to soda soap, or the soft to hard. The soda of the salt enter-
ing the soap is replaced by the potash, which combines with
the acid of the salt, that is chlorine, or muriatic acid. In
other words, common salt, or chloride of sodium, or muriate
of soda is changed to chloride of potassium, or muriate of
potash, which is thus added to the spent lye. The proportion
of salt added, varies, but it may be stated in general, 7 bush-
els, or 500 lbs. to 150 bushels of ashes. In a boil, then, of
2000 lbs. of soap, 1200 lbs. of fat, or tallow, containing
100 lbs. of glycerine, 150 bushels of ashes, 7 bushels of salt,
afford about 200 gallons of spent lye. This contains the
glycerine and salts above (230), and affords, per gallon.

192 MANURE.

Geine, or glycerine, | lb.

I Muriate of potash, 5^ lbs.

" ' f Sulphate of potash, 1^ lb.

Silicate of potash, 2 J oz.

231. The spent lye from soda soap, contains the sulphate
and muriate of soda, of the soda ash, which rarely amounts
to 12 per cent. As less salt is here added, the spent lye is
less rich in salts. In a boil of 2000 lbs. of hard soap, 600
weight of white ash are used. Including the one bushel of
salt usually added, the spent lye contains,

Sulphate of soda, 84 lbs. or, per gallon, 6f oz.

. Muriate of soda, 106 " " J lb.

Glycerine, 100 " " i lb.

232. The value of spent lye has been tested for a series of
years. It has shown its good effects on grass lands for four
or five years after its application. There is great advantage
in carrying it out upon snow. It has then the effect of con-
verting any carbonate of ammonia in the snow into sal-
ammoniac, or a volatile into a fixed salt.

233. When it is thus understood on what the value of
spent ]ye depends, it would seem probable that the farmer
may himself prepare it ; and, unless he resides in the neigh-
borhood of a soap-boiler, at a cheaper rate than he can buy
and cart home this liquid manure. A hogshead of spent
lye, of 100 gallons, contains, if from ashes,

50 pounds of glycerine or geine,
53 " of muriate of potash,
13 " of sulphate of potash.

The salts may easily be supplied. It becomes a highly
interesting question, whether the glycerine has any specific

MANURE. 193

action, any action which the light of chemistry may not
kindle in similar substances. By reference to (228) its
chemical constitution approaches geine, and they are here
presented side by side.

Glycerine.

Geine of soil.

Carbon,

40.07

58.00

Hydrogen,

8.92

2.18

Oxygen,

51.00

39.90

234. The glycerine resolves itself into water, free carbon
and carburetted hydrogen, or the gas of marshes or stagnant
pools ; the geine into carbon and water. In the series of
changes which they may undergo, let it be supposed that
carburetted hydrogen gas is evolved by glycerine. There is
no reason for assuming, as do some, that carbonic acid is the
only source of the carbon of plants. The volumes of car-
buretted hydrogen produced in the decay of plants, may be
intended, as well as carbonic acid, for their nutriment. Sup-
pose, of which there is no doubt, that carburetted hydrogen
of glycerine contributes to this effect, there remains then
free carbon, which, being perfectly insoluble and changeless,
acts only by condensing gases in its pores.

235. Geine, by tillage, air and moisture, evolves also car-
bonic acid. As gas, no one will deny that it thus affords
carbon to plants ; its carbonic acid is absorbed and its car-
bon assimilated, and hence, if either glycerine or geine
afford carbon, the circumstances under which they may be
applied to the land, are less favorable to the production of
carburetted hydrogen, than of carbonic acid. The balance
then is in favor of geine.

236. There are two circumstances wherein geine and gly-
cerine differ. The latter is soluble to any extent in water, it
is applied to the land in spent lye, already dissolved. The

9

194: MANURE.

action so evident, is due to one of two causes, or to their
joint action. Spent lye acts either by its organic, or by its
inorganic part ; by its glycerine, or by its salts. Those who
take the ground, that humus or geine never is taken up by
plants, will then attribute all the decided good eifects of
spent lye to its salts. Glauber's and common salts applied
in equal quantity to that contained in soda spent lye, should
produce equally good effects. It is well known that such is
not the fiict. Nor will those who maintain this doctrine,
admit that glycerine acts by its evolving gases, for then an
equal weight of peat would answer. It is well known that
such is not the fact.

237. If spent lye then acts neither by its salts, nor its
evolved gas, it acts by the perfectly dissolved state of its
glycerine. That such is the case admits not of a doubt, and
goes to show that plants appropriate the geine or humus of
soil, by absorbing it as geine or geates.

288. The spent lye acts both by its salts and its geine.
The action of salts has been explained. The soluble state
of geine is the most important fact to be borne in mind, if it
is attempted to make spent lye on a farm. Swamp muck, or
peat, ashes, and common salt, will afford all the elements of
spent lye, and the following may be proposed as an imita-
tion of that from soda soap

Fine dry snuffy peat,
Salt,

Ashes, .
Water, .

50 pounds.
^ bushel.
1 "
100 gallons.

Mix the ashes and peat well together, sprinkling with
water to moisten a little. Let the heap lie for a week.
Dissolve the salt in the water, in a hogshead, and add to the
brine the mixture of peat and ashes, stirring well the while.

MANURE. 195

Let it be stirred occasionally for a week, and it will be fit for
use. Apply \l as spent lye, grounds and all. Both ashes
and salts may be doubled and trebled, with advantage, if
convenient. The mixture of lye must be used before it
begins to putrefy ; this occurs in three or four weeks. It
then evolves sulphuretted hydrogen gas, or the smell of gas
of rotten eggs. This arises from the decomposition of the
sulphates in the water and ashes, by the vegetable matter.
A portion of the geine is thus deposited from the solution.
(See Appendix for the trial of this lye.)

239. Having thus considered the class of mixed manures,
or those composed of geine and salts, those consisting of
salts only are to be now explained. They are next in value
to the mixed manures. They are chiefly the liquid evacua-
tions of animals, and when artificially combined with geine,
their value exceeds that of the solid evacuations. These
liquids equal, in fact, the mixed manures of the most fertiliz-
ing energy. The liquid evacuations are truly salts only, dis-
solved in water ; but they are salts of a peculiar character
in many cases, and are formed of an animal acid. This is
it which renders a detailed account of these manures inter-
esting to the farmer. It is not enough for this purpose to
refer the action of these liquids to the general effect of salts
or mineral manures.

240. The peculiar animal acid to which reference has been
made, becomes, like nitric acid in nitrates, the food of plants.
The element from which it is derived gives a marked and
highly valuable character to the liquid evacuations of the
farm-yard and household. This peculiar animal principle is
urea. It may be obtained from these liquids in transparent
but colorless crystals, of a faint but peculiar odor. Cold
water dissolves more than its weight, and boiling water an
indefinite quantity of crystals of urea. The pure crystals

196 MANURE.

undergo no change when dissolved in pure water, but if they
are mixed with the other ingredients of the urine, decompo-
sition rapidly ensues, and they are resolved almost entirely
into carbonate of ammonia. Alkalies and alkaline earths
induce similar changes on urea. The practical value of this
fact will be easily understood.

241. Pure urea has no distinct alkaline properties. It
unites with aqua fortis, or nitric acid, and forms a sparingly
soluble salt, composed of about equal parts of each of its
ingredients.

242. Urea is composed, according to Dr. Prout, of car-
bon 19.99, oxygen 26.66, hydrogen QM, nitrogen, 46.66.
These elements are so beautifully balanced, that they afford
only carbonic acid and ammonia ; though the chemistry of
every reader may not understand how these elements pro-
duce cyanic acid and ammonia. The salt cyanate of ammo-
nia, has actually been formed by modern chemistry,^ which
has thus succeeded in forming a true organic product, or
product of living action, or rather of chemical action guided
by living principle. In all animal evacuations containing
urea, that may be considered as so much carbonate of
ammonia of the shops. Hence it is the urea in urine which
gives that liquid so great a value. Urine is richer in ammo-
nia than flesh or blood.

243. The peculiar animal acid which has been mentioned
as forming so essential a part in these liquid excretions, is
called uric acid. It is not, like urea, changed by exposure
into ammonia. It contains a large portion of nitrogen,
which, under the influence of growing plants, is let loose, and
may then form ammonia. Its composition is as follows :
carbon 36.11, hydrogen, 2.34, oxygen 28.19, nitrogen 33.36.
" The peculiar principles of the liquid evacuations having
been explained, their constitution may be now stated. They

MANURE.

197

are, it will be remembered, at the head of the class of
manures composed of salts. First, the liquid evacuation of
cattle, what is its agricultural value as a manure 1 Its com-
position will form the answer.

Cow's urine was long ago examined by Rouelle and by
Brandt, whose results have formed the basis of all calcula-
tions of its value for almost half a century. The results are
evidently defective. The more exact analysis of cattle
urine, by Sprengel, who has devoted particular care to the
subject, gives, as the average of many trials, the following, in
1000 pounds :

Water, 926.24

Urea, 40.00

Albunaen, . .10

Mucus or slime, 1.90

Combined with potash,
soda and anunonia, form-
ing salts,

.90
5.16
2.56

Hippuric acid,
Lactic acid, |-

Carbonic acid, J

Ammonia, » " 2.05

Potash, 6.64

Soda, 5.54

Sulphuric acid, ] f 4.05

-p., ,- . .J Combined with soda, -,-.

rnospnoric acid, - Ume and magnesia, form- ■ .70

Chlorine, J^'"'^*' [ ^ 2.72

Lime, ........ .65

.36
.02
.04
.01
.36

Magnesia,
Alumina, •
Oxide of iron,
Oxide of manganese,
Silica, .

1000.00
Let this now be compared with the standard of value,

198 . MANURE.

cow-dung. 100 lbs. of that afford 2 lbs. of carbonate of
ammonia ; while this evacuation gives 4 lbs. of ammonia in
its urea, besides that in its other ammoniacal salts.

244. The quantity of liquid manure produced by one cow
annually, is equal to fertilizing 1^1^ acre of ground, producing
effects as durable as do the solid evacuations. A cord of
loam, saturated with urine, is equal to a cord of the best
rotted dung ; and the fresh urine of one cow is valued in
Flanders at |10 per annum. If the liquid and the solid
evacuations including the litter, are kept separate, and the
liquid is soaked up by loam, it has been found they will
manure land, in proportion by bulk of 7 liquid to 6 solid,
while their actual value is as 2 to 1

245. 100 lbs. of cattle urine afford about 8 lbs. of the
most powerful salts which have ever been used by farmers.
The simple statement then, in figures, of difference in value
of the solid and liquid evacuations of cattle, should impress
upon all the importance of saving the last in preference to
the first. Let both be saved. If the liquids contained natu-
rally, geine, they might be applied alone. It is the want of
that guiding principle which teaches that salts and geine
should go hand in hand, which has sometimes led to results
in the application of the liquor, which have given this sub-
stance a bad name.

246. It has been proved that the ammoniacal salts of
urine have a forcing power on vegetation. The value of
ammonia was long ago understood by Davy, and its carbon-
ate was his favorite application. Plants watered with a
simple solution of sulphate of ammonia, an abundant salt in
cow's urine, are 15 days earlier than those watered with
pure water. Grass land watered with urine only, yields
nearly double to that not so manured. In a garden on land
of very poor quality, near Glasgow, urine diluted with water,

MANURE.

199

noarly doubled the grass. But upon wheat, sown on clay
land, it did no good ; it injured barley, potatoes grew ran,k
and watery, and on turnips the effects were only half as good
as mere unfermented dung. The circumstance of the soil
in this last case, was probably a deficiency of geine.

247. The liquid evacuation of the horse is composed, ac-
cording to Boussingault, of

Carbon, 4.4G

Hydrogen, ....... 0.47

Oxygen 40

Nitrogen 1.55

Salts, 4.51

Water, . . 87.61

Other analysts have found in horse urine,
Water, 94.

Urea,
Chalk, .
Carbonate of soda,
Hippurate of soda,
Muriate of potash,

.7
1.1

.9
2.4

.9

The hippuric acid is not peculiar to the horse. The urine
of most herbiverous animals contains hippurate, formerly
called benzoate of soda, its acid having the fragrance of gum
benzoin. If man takes benzoic acid, hippuric replaces uric
acid in the urine. According to the composition, horse stale,
pound for pound, is equal to the value of cow-dung.
Sprengel found the urine of sheep to afford, in 1000 lbs.,

Water, 980

Urea, with some albumen, 28

Salts of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, with traces
of silica, alumina, iron and manganese, . . 12

1000

200 MANURE.

No animal affords more urine than the hog. Owing to a
peculiar volatile and unexamined substance, it gives plants
and roots a disagreeable taste. Fed on grains and bran, the
urine in 1000 lbs. affords,

Water, 926.

Urea, with a little slime and albumen, . . 56.40
Salts, common salt, muriate of potash, gyp-
sum, chalk, Glauber's salts, . . . 17.60

1000.00

Fromberg has examined the urine of a sheep, and Von
Bibra that of the horse, ox, and pig. These later analyses
have been thus tabulated by Johnston :

MANURE.

201

CQ

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. B =

P Q o

S" o o o o

^ g-l^al

O

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CO
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CO ^ ^

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rrw :;psoo5CO{^
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,£^ (-• CO

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g-

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<
ct>

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0 o
cr

2" c c
cT 5*

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00 t-" H-* H-" to fco fcO
0« P JO to pc CO crt H-.

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O p ~ - :; CO
-a CO to
-^ oi :; :; :: o

p -a p ►-•

CO bO CO o
O E 00 CO ^?

»-• o

O ^T

:: C5

»— ' CO »^
:b07^bOtobO -OO

^CO-~JOoi^ rf!>.00

5*

3 c

(A

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*T3 O

o O o
H o o

» O

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bo o bO CO o to to

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cootoojoptpp
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pop :;topcococo
CO to .^ OS en en CO If^
•<j en to t-i -<i o o

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0»

202

MANURE.

248. But rich as are the liquid evacuations of the stable
and cow-yard, they are surpassed by those of the farmer's
own dwelling, especially when it is considered with what
ease these last may be saved. According to Dr. Thomson,
1000 parts of this substance, the human liquid evacuation,
contain 42^ lbs. nearly of salts, which are,

Sal-ammoniac, 459

Sulphate of potash, 2.112

Muriate of potash, 3.674

Common salt, 5.060

Phosphate of soda, 4.267

Bone-dust, (phosphate of lime,) . . . .209

Acetate of soda, 2.770

Urate of ammonia, . . . . . .298

Urea with coloring matter, .... 23.640

42.489
957.511

Water,

There is scarcely a single element in this liquid which is
not an essential ingredient of plants.
In every 100 lbs.
Of cattle urine, are . . .4. lbs. of urea.

Of horse urine,
Of human urine.
Of sheep urine.
Of hog urine, .

.70
2.36
2.80
5.64

It is at once seen how valuable are swine as manufacturers
of manure.

It will be noted, that by the table (247), pigs' urine, like
human, contains phosphates, of which the urine of the ox,
horse, and sheep, are destitute, or contain traces only.
Hence pigs' urine is more valuable than that of horses and
cattle, not only by its urea, but by its salts.

MANURE. 203

249. The urea being called equal to ammonia, it is seen
that the ammoniacal salts in human urine are very nearly
the same as those in cow-dung, but its effects in actual prac-
tice are found to be nearly double those in cow-dung. The
actual amount of salts in 100 parts of human, cow, and
horse-dung, is in round numbers, 1 per cent., while in the
liquids it averages 5.88, being in the cow 7.4, and in the
human 4 24 per cent., horse 6, according to Sprengel.

250. All urine of course varies with the food of the ani-
mal, the season, and its age. White turnips give a weaker
liquor than Swedish. Green grass is still worse. Distillers'
grains are said to be better than either of these. The more
water the animal drinks, the poorer the urine. Doubtless
the liquids of fattening kine are richer in ammonia during
this period, for it contains a part of that nitrogen not carried
away in milk. In winter, urine contains much less urea than
in summer, sometimes only one-half. Putrefaction changes
urea to ammonia. The time required for this varies. Urine
putrefying for a month, contains double the ammonia of
fresh urine. It does not wholly decompose in a month ; but
during all this time, gives off ammonia. Unless then mixed
with loam, or peat, or swamp muck, or where kept in tanks,
with thrice its bulk of water, or with oil of vitriol, 3 lbs. to
160 gallons of urine, or with plaster, copperas, or other sub-
stances which will form a fixed salt with ammonia, that will
escape. Urine is fully ripe, when it contains neither caustic
ammonia, nor urea.

Food, exercise, age, condition, and sex of the animal, alter
the quality, and affect the quantity of the urine discharged.
Jt becomes therefore an interesting question, What is the
quantity and quality of urine which various animals discharge
daily and yearly 1

On the average, a healthy

201 MANURE.

Solid lbs.
Man excretes in 24 hoars, 3 pints or 1000 lbs. per annum, giving 30 to 170
Horse " " " 3 " 1000 " « 60 to 1*24

Cow «« " <« 40 «' 7000 to 12000 " 490 to 1440

Unless she is a milch cow, when the quantity is affected by
that of the milk; the more milk, the less urine.

The abundant urine of a cow, though containing less solid
matter than that of a horse, yet agriculturally, it is more
valuable. Quantity more than compensates for quality.

The quantity of liquid drank affects little that of the urine
discharged by cattle and other animals, while in man the
result is different.

Man discharges nearly all the water drank, as urine;
while a horse which drank in 24 hours 35 pints of water,
evacuated 3 pints of urine, and a cow which drank in 24
hours 132 pints of water, evacuated 18 pints of urine, and
gave 19 pints of milk. By the late trials of Barral, common
salt appears to increase the amount of nitrogen and urea in
the excrements. An important hint for the use of salt in
feeding animals.

It has been proposed by Stenhouse, to add milky lime
(slacked lime diffused in water) to urine, to stir it well, and
let it settle. A portion of phosphoric acid is thus separated,
as phosphate of lime. Air-slacked lime may be also thus
used, the powder being sprinkled into the urine, and well
stirred. The clear liquor may be run off, but this is a loss.
Phosphates only are thus saved. Hence that great practical
farmer and chemist, Boussingault, has proposed to add a
solution of magnesian salts to urine. For this purpose
Epsom salts may be employed, while those who live near
salt works may use the '* Bittern " liquor, or muriate of
magnesia, for this purpose. By this process, both a portion
of the ammonia and Dhosphoric acid are separated and fall

MANURE. 205

down from tne urine, as ammonia-phosphate of magnesia.
This is a valuable manure for potatoes.

Each pint of human urine will produce a pound of wheat.
Each pound of ammonia is equal to a bushel of grain.
Whatever may be the food, it is evident from the above
statements, that rivers of riches run away from firms, from
want of attention to saving that which ordinarily is allowed
to be wasted.

251. Each man evacuates, annually, enough salts to
manure an acre of land. Some form of geine only is to be
added to keep the land in heart, if the farmer has but the
heart to collect and use that which many allow, like the
flower unseen, " to waste its sweetness on the desert air."

252. But with all the farmer's care, with every convenience
for collecting and preserving these animal products, still the
amount which can be so collected, is often wholly inadequate
to the wants of the farmer of small means. All these accu-
mulations presuppose a goodly stock of animals on the farm.

This again is limited by the means of keeping, and so one
influences the other. The farmer wants some source of
manure, which while it produces the salts and geine of an
unlimited amount of stock, hogs and hens, shall yet require
no more barn-room, fodder or team, than every man who
means that his hands and lands shall shelter, feed, and clothe
him, can easily command.

CHAPTER VII.

ARTIFICIAL MANURES, AND IRRIGATION.

253. The class of salts, as manure, is to be distinguished
from the salts called mineral manures, by this circumstance,
that they contain large portions of peculiar animal products
called urea and uric acid. These afford ammonia in large
quantity by their decomposition. Having considered the
relative value of the two classes of manure, those composed
of salts, and of salts and geine, that consisting chiefly of
geine is now to be explained.

254. First and foremost in this class, is swamp-muck,
mud, or peat. This class includes, also, dry leaves, dry
vegetables of all sorts ; ploughing in of green or dry crops,
irrigation. These are fruitful topics. The principles only
of their action can be pointed out. The application of the
principle must be left to the farmer. The why of things has
been or will be shown ; the how must be deduced from the
why by practical men.

255. Peat is too well known to render it necessary to say
that it is the result of that spontaneous change in vegetable
matter, which ends in geine. Peat is, among manures
consisting chiefly of geine, what bone-dust is among manures
consisting of animal matter. Peat is highly concentrated
vegetable food. When the state in which this food exists is
examined, it is found not only partly cooked but seasoned.

256. Peat consists of soluble and insoluble geine, and salts.

(206)

* ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 207

The proportion of these several higredients must be known
before the value of peat can be compared with similar con-
stituents in cow-dung. This proportion is exhibited in the
following table of constitution of Massachusetts peat per
100 parts :

Soluble

Insoluble

Total

Salts and

Locality.

Geine.

Geine.

Geine.

Silicates.

1.

Dracut,

14.00

72.00

86.00

14.00

2.

Sunderland,

26.00

56.60

82.60

14.40

3.

Westborough,

48.80

43.60

92.40

7.60

4.

Hadley,

34.00

60.00

94.00

6.00

5.

Northampton,

38.30

44.15

82.45

17.55

6.

u

32.00

54.90

86.90

13.10

7.

((

12.00

60.85

72.85

27.15

8.

((

10.00

49.45

59.45

40.55

9.

u

33.00

59.00

92.00

8.00

10.

((

46.00

46.80

92.80

7.20

Average,

29.41

54.73

84.14

15.55

11.

Watertown,

pond
mud,

5.10

8.90

14.00

86.00

12.

Danvers,

4(

8.10

6.50

14.60

84.40

257. Under the general name of peat, are comprised sev-
eral varieties, which may be distinguished as, 1st. Peat, the
compact substance generally known and used for fuel, under
this name. 2d. Turf, or swamp-muck, by which is to be
understood the paring which is removed before peat is dug.
It is a less compact variety of peat. It is common in all
meadows and swamps, and includes the hassocks. Both these
varieties are included in the above, from No. 1 to No. 10.
It includes, also, the mud of salt marshes. 3d. Pond mud,
the slushy material found at the bottom of ponds when dry,
or in low grounds, the wash of higher lands. This seldona

208 ARTIFICIAL MANURE.

contains more than 20 per cent, of geine. Nos. 11 and 12
are of this description.

258. These varieties comprise probably a fair sample of
all the peat and swamp muck and pond mud which occur in
the various parts of the country. The results stated (256),
are those of the several varieties when dried at a tempera-
ture of 240° F. The composition of peat ashes has been
alluded to (163). They contain, in fact, all the inorganic
principles of plants which are insoluble, with occasional
traces of the soluble alkaline sulphates, and of free alkali.
Twenty samples of peat, from various localities in Rhode
Island, afforded Dr. C. T. Jackson an average of 72 vegeta-
ble matter, 24 ashes, in 100 parts, dried at 300°

Silica formed f of the ashes. The remaining salts were
similar to those which have been mentioned.

259. It is well known that all peat shrinks by drying, and
when perfectly dried at 240° F., loses from 73 to 97 per
cent, of water. When allowed to drain as dry as it will, it
still contains about f of its weight of water. It shrinks from
f to f of its bulk. A cord wet becomes |^ to ^ of a cord
when dry. To compare its value with cow-dung, equal bulks
must be taken, and hence, to dry peat a bulk of water must
be supposed to be added, in proportion above stated, or still
better, because easier done, the pile of dry peat is to be esti-
mated by the pit left after digging. It will be found, on the
above data, that 100 parts of fresh dug peat, of average qual-
ity, contain, —

Water, 85.00

Salts of lime, 00.50

Silicates, 00.50

Geine, 14.00

100.00

Soluble
Geine.

Insoluble
Geine.

Total
Geine.

Salts of
Lime.

128

1288

1416

92

376

673

1049

91

519

529

1048

81

ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 209

This does not differ much from fresh cow-dung, so far as
salts, geine, and water are concerned. The salts of lime are
actually about the same, while the alumina, oxide of iron, mag-
nesia in the silicates added to the salts of lime, make the total
amount of salts, in round numbers, equal that of cow-dung.

If the bulks of these are compared, it will be found that,
at 90 lbs. per bushel, full measure, and 103 bushels being
allowed to a cord, each contains and weighs as follows, in
pounds :

Weight.

Dung, . . . 9289

No. 9 peat of table, 9216 376

No. 10 " " 9216

A cord of pond mud, (No. 11,) weighs when dug, 6117
lbs., and contains solid matter, 3495 lbs., composed of geine,
495 lbs., of silicates and salts, 3005 lbs. The salts of lime
in pond mud are 2^ per cent.

260. The salts and geine of a cord of peat are equal to
the manure of one cow for three months. It is certainly a
very curious coincidence of results, that nature herself should
have prepared a substance, whose agricultural value ap-
proaches so near cow-dung, the type of manures. This sub-
ject may have been now sufficiently explained. Departing
from cow-dung and wandering through all the varieties of
animal and vegetable manures, we land in a peat-bog. The
substance under our feet is analyzed, and found to be cow-
dung, without its musky breath of cow odor, or the power
of generating ammonia, except in some varieties of peat.
These always heat when piled. The various transformations
of geine have not ceased in peat which naturally ferments,
such is always preferable in agriculture. But generally the
power of forming ammonia has ceased to be active. That

210 ARTIFICIAL MANURE.

process is generally over, a part of the ammonia remains,
still evident to the senses by adding caustic potash. It exists
in part, either as a compound of crenic and apocrenic acid,
or other forms of geine, or as phosphate of ammonia, and
when the presence of ammonia is added to the salts, whose
existence has already been pointed out, it may be said that
peat approaches dung moistened with the liquid evacuation
of the animal.

261. The power of producing alkaline action, on the insol-
uble geine, is alone wanted to make peat as good as cow-
dung. Reviewing the various matters, from whatever saurce
derived, solid or liquid, which are used as manure, all possess
one common property, that of generating ammonia. The
conclusion then of this whole matter is this: the value of all
manures depends on salts, geine, and ammonia; and it is di-
rectly in proportion to the last ; it follows, that any substance
affording these elements may be substituted for manure.

262. The great question com^s, How is to be given to
peat, a substance which, in all its other characters, is so nearly
allied to cow-duno;, that lacking element ammonia? How is
that to be supplied 1 Without it, cow-dung itself would be
no better than peat, nay, not so good ; for in peat, nearly one-
half of the geine is already in a soluble state. Passing by
the fact, already alluded to, that peat contains traces of am-
monia, which, evolved when treated with caustic potash,
exerts its usual action, it may be added that, possibly in the
process of vegetation, when the decomposing power of the
living plant is exerted on peat, and the silicates, caustic pot-
ash is produced, and ammonia evolved. Considering peat
as a source of nitrogen only, it is evident that the action of
alkali is of the highest practical importance.

263. In this part of the subject of manure, probabilities
and possibilities are no longer admissible. There are two

ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 211

facts well established by experience, relating to the action of
ammonia in dung. First, it has been shown (166) that dung
produces nitrates. Porous substances and alkali possess the
power of forming nitrates; alkali and porous substances
act like spongy platina, they induce a catalytic power,
and the consequence is, that the elements of the air, oxygen
and nitrogen, unite and form nitric acid, this combines with
tiie alkali, and consequently nitrates are produced. The
other well-established fact, in relation to the action of am-
monia in dung, is the power of dissolving and converting
geine, which has been explained in Chap. IV. The most
valuable of these two properties is that of producing soluble
geine. The formation of nitrates may be quite, and ordina-
rily is prevented. It is the alkaline action which is sought.

264. By the addition of alkali to peat, it is put into the
state which ammonia gives to dung. The question then
arises. How much alkali is to be added to swamp muck or
peat, to convert that into cow-dung 1 Recurring to the doc-
trine of chemical proportions, whose value to the farmer is
thus made evident, it will be remembered that the equiva-
lent of pure potash and soda, that is, that portion of one
which can take the place of the other, is as 2 to 3 ; that is,
2 parts of pure soda are equal to 3 of pure potash. If either
of these is compared with ammonia, it will be found that one
part of pure ammonia is nearly equal to two of soda. When
these substances are met with in commerce, it is in the state
of salts, as carbonate of ammonia of the shops, white ash,
or soda ash, or potash and pearlash. The equivalent of these
is deduced from determining the pure alkali of each, and
adding the equivalent of carbonic acid. It is found that,

59 lbs. of pure carbonate of ammonia are equal to

54 lbs. " soda, or to

70 lbs. " potash.

212 ARTIFICIAL MANURE.

But unless the impurities of the commercial alkalies are
known it may not be prudent to substitute pot or pearlashes,
and soda or white ash, either for one another, or for ammonia
in the usual state, in the above proportions. All alkalies
in the market are now much purer than formerly.

1st quality pot and pearlashes contain, on the average, 83
per cent, of carbonate, and no perfectly caustic alkali. 2d
quality pots and pearls average 71 per cent, carbonate.
English soda ash contains in its perfectly dry state 81.5 per
cent, of pure carbonate, and about 2.75 of caustic soda =
4.68 carbonate, or the total carbonate is equal to 86 per
cent., which, in the commercial state of fair soda ash is equal
to 80 per cent.

The proportions then become,

f

59 pure carb. ammonia = 61 commercial,

54 " soda = 67 soda ash of 80 per cent.

70 " potash = 84, 1st qua), pots or pearls,

70 " " =98, 2d " " "

Fortunately for agriculture, rigid accuracy is not here
required. The farmer need not fear to use the commercial
alkalies because he knows not their chemical composition.

265. For all agricultural purposes, it may be considered,
that salts of hartshorn, or carbonate of ammonia, and white
or soda ash, are equal, pound for pound, and that pots and
pearls may be taken at one-half more.

266. If all the nitrogen in dung becomes ammonia, then,
as has been shown (187), each 100 lbs. affords 2 lbs. 2 oz.
Dlscardbg fractions, let it be called 2 lbs. Hence, if to
100 lbs. fresh dug peat, there are added 2 lbs. soda ash, or
3 lbs. of pot or pearl ashes, all the good effects of real cow-
dung will be produced. Peat or muck thus requires 2 per
cent, of soda ash, or 3 per cent, of potash.

y^

ARTinCIAL MANURE. 213

267. By (250) a cord of green peat weighs 9216 lbs. ; 2
per cent, are 184 lbs. Hence a cord requires that amount
of soda ash, or 276 lbs. of potash. But if the peat is quite
dry, so as to have lost f of its bulk, then 736 lbs. of soda
ash, or 1104 lbs. potash will be necessary. Two per cent,
of alkali seems enormous. It is stated, in the hope that it
may lead to experiments on the free use of alkali. But as
it will be hereafter shown, that this is to be reduced by
mixing with loam or other matter, this quantity, even if
applied to one acre, will probably produce very good effects.
It has repeatedly been proved for other purposes, that a cord
of fresh dug peat neutralizes 100 lbs. of soda ash, or 400 lbs.
to a dry cord. Further, dry peat, by boiling with, neutral-
izes 12|- per cent, of its weight of potash, and in actual prac-
tice, alkali to the amount of 6 per cent, of the weight of the
geine, in pond mud, has been used. It would therefore ap-
pear to be safe to use the theoretical proportion.

268. But the nitrogen in cow-dung does not all tell. It is
impossible but that some portion of the elements of ammo-
nia enter into other combinations, and part also escapes as
gas. Besides, it is not all brought at once into action, and
hence a less portion of alkali than above indicated may be
used. It is probable that not a third of the ammonia acts.
Let it be taken at that quantity. Then the equivalents are
100 lbs. fresh peat, and lOJ ounces soda, or 1 lb. of potash,
or 1 per cent, of the weight of the peat in commercial potash.

269. This proportion will allow, in round numbers, to
every cord of fresh dug peat, 92 lbs. pot or pearl ashes, or
61 lbs. of soda, or 16 to 20 bushels of common house ashes.

Having no guide here from experience of the quantity
which may be used per acre, yet, in order to arrive at con-
clusions which can be recommended safely, the alkali has
been calculated in the quantity of saltpetre which has been

21i ARTIP^ICIAL MAKURE.

used with such signal success by O. M. Whipple, Esq., of
Lowell. On the principles which have been developed,
when saltpetre is used, the whole alkali is let loose by the
action of the growing plant. The experience of Mr. Whipple
is a guide to the quantity of alkali which may be safely
used. He has used from 50 to 150 lbs. saltpetre per acre.
The real alkali in saltpetre may be called ^ of its weight ; or
the real alkali used has been from 25 to 75 lbs. = 36^ lbs.
and 109f lbs. pure carbonate, or, in round numbers, an aver-
age of commercial 1st and 2d quality, of 49 to 147 lbs. per
acre, giving an average of 99 lbs., nearly, which is nearly 1
per cent, of the weight of a cord of green peat, which agrees
with the estimate (268). If, then, this is mixed with the
usual proportion of geine, which the dung used contains,
equally good effects per acre ought to be produced.

270. There are other practical facts which may help to a
solution of the question. How much alkali is to be added to
a cord of peat 1 According to the experience of the late
Mr. Phinney, of Lexington, an authority which may not be
questioi)ed, a cord of green dung converts twice its bulk of
peat into a manure, of equal value to itself — that is, a cord
of clear stable-dung, composted with two of peat, forms a
manure of equal value to three cords of green dung. In-
deed, the permanent effects of this compost, according to Mr.
Phinney, exceed those of stable-dung. Equal bulks are here
about equal weights. On these facts, 2 lbs. of ammonia in
100 of cow-dung, should convert 200 lbs. of fresh dug peat
into good cow-dung. The equivalents of these, as has been
shown (265), are 2 lbs. of soda ash, or 3 lbs. of potash.
Allowing the gaseous ammonia to be here retained by the
peat, and consequently all effective, it is divided equally
among the 300 lbs. of dung and peat, in proportion of lOf
oz. of soda ash, or 1 lb. of potash to 100 lbs. of fresh peat.

ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 215

Now this calculation, deduced from actual experiment, con-
firms the theoretical proportions (268), supposing only -J- of
the nitrogen to act, though that was made before the author
met with the statement of the great practical farmer.

271. There is a coincidence here of proportions, which
makes it quite certain that the quantity recommended (269)
is a perfectly safe basis for agricultural use. By theory the
proportions are, 1 cord peat, 61 lbs. soda ash, 92 lbs. pot-
ash. As deduced from the compost of dung and peat, 61
lbs. soda ash, 92 lbs. potash. This proportion gives each
cord of peat a value equal to that of cow-dun^. If ^ only
of the nitrogen of dung acts, the alkali and peat may be
composted, as that is, with loam, or still better, mixed up at
once with its proportion of peat. If this is done, then the
result will be, in round numbers, 1 cord of fresh dug peat,
20 lbs. of soda ash, 30 lbs. potash, 5 to 7 bushels house
ashes. In March, 1849, the author, in a letter addressed to
the commissioner for the agricultural survey of Massachu-
setts, threw out the following hint, which was published in
the second report of Mr. Col man :

" Take 100 lbs. of peat as sold, or the fine part from the
bottom of a peat stack ; at any rate, bruise the peat fine, put
it into a potash kettle, and 2^ lbs. of white ash, and 130 gal-
lons of water ; boil for a few hours ; let it settle, dip off the
clear for use, add 100 lbs. more of peat, 2J lbs. white ash,
fill up with water, as much as you have dipped off, boil
again, settle and dip off. This may be repeated five times.
How much oftener I know not ; probably as long as the
vegetable part of peat remains. The clear liquor is an alka-
line solution of geine. The three first boilings contain
geine, alumine, iron, magnesia, and sulphate or phosphate of
alkali. The dark colored solution contains about half an
ounce per gallon of vegetable matter.

216 ARTIFICIAL MANURE.

" It is to be applied by watering grass lands. The ' dregs*
may be mixed up with the manure, or spread as a top-dress-
ing, or put in the hill. Experience will teach ; I only sug-
gest."

The principle which should guide the farmer in the making
of artificial manure has now been considered. The author
of these pages is not a practical farmer ; agriculture is not
his pursuit, and he has studied its chemistry only as a recrea-
tion from the daily duties of life. He has thrown out sug-
gestions, the result of researches undertaken with reference
to a totally different object, and these suggestions have, been
acted upon by practical men, whose results confirm his pre-
vious anticipations. He has no theory on this subject to
maintain ; his opinions must stand or fall by practice, speak
for themselves. Yet, he is not altogether indifferent to the
practical results which may follow his suggestions, and he
would consider that he had inflicted a serious injury on agri-
culture, by the publication of erroneous opinions. When a
man's character is to be established in a court of evidence,
what is the good old English rule ? To call upon the by-
standers, the country present, taken indiscriminately from
all who may have known the person. Do not summon per-
sons whose interest may throw a shadow of suspicion on the
testimony of the witness. And so here; let it be proved,
if it can be, whether the principles here advanced are of
practical value, by calling upon the stand those gentlemen
who have tested the author's opinions, and of some of whose
operations and results he was ignorant, till he met with them
in the agricultural publications of the day, or in accidental
conversation ; others have been requested to state by letter
their results, afler these pages were prepared for the press.
The evidence on this point is contained in the Appendix to
this volume.

ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 217

272. Attention might here be called to the extensive use
of peat, composted with lime and animal manure ; but it
will be observed that it is wished to direct the thoughts at
this time to a compost of artificial manure, without lime or
animal manure. The author does not go for lime, but for
soluble alkali. Carbonate of lime alone is not expected to
produce immediate results, and seldom has produced, or
can be expected to produce visible effects in the first year of
its application. The why and the wherefore of this has been
already explained, and it is merely adverted to now to
cjuard against any inference favorable to the action of lime
being deduced from the following facts. Mr. George Rob-
bins, of Watertown, an extensive manufacturer of soap and
candles, and of starch, employs the refuse of these trades in
enriching and gladdening his land. It is believed his crops
will compare with any of the best cultivators around him.
He has not used for four years a spoonful of manure made
by any animal, walking either on two legs or on four. He
keeps a large number of horses and hogs, and several cows,
and us6s not a shovelful of their manure, but selling that,
uses peat and swamp muck mixed with his spent barilla
ashes. The proportions are, one part of spent ashes to three
of peat, dug up in the fall, mixed in the spring. After
shovelling two or three times, it is spread and ploughed in.
The effect is immediate, and so far, lasting. The effects of
this spent ashes alone on sandy loam are excellent ; it makes
the whole quite *'salvey."

273. The composition of spent ashes has already been
alluded to ; a certain portion is carbonate of lime ; it is
well known, that as such, it would produce no better effects
than so much chalk. A large part of silicate of soda exists
in the spent ashes. This is decomposed by the carbonic
acid of the air, the alkali then acts on geine, but this action is

10

218 ARTIFICIAL MANURE.

greatly assisted by the carbonate of lime. It is perhaps the
most powerful agent in the decomposition of the silicate of
soda. Here then the action of carbonates on silicates tells.
And it may be worth while to be reminded here, that this
action was explained in detail, in order that it might be un-
derstood how spent ashes could act so rapidly on swamp
muck.

274. Alkalies and peat, or swamp muck, are within the
command of almost every farmer. Lime is not within
reach, and besides, requires no small skill in its management.
In the preparation of manure, price is everything. Let the
cost be estimated per cord, of artificial manure, prepared in
the proportions stated (270). Peat or muck may be called
w^orth fifty cents per cord, and the labor of digging, say one
dollar,

IL50

92 lbs. potash, 6 cts. |5.52 ]

or, 61 lbs. soda ash, or I ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^y^^^^ ^^^

white ash, 4 cts. 2.44 '

or 24 bush, ashes, 12^ cts., 3.00 j

3)10.96 $5.15

3.65

Were they really good hard wood ashes, about 16 bushels

would be sufficient, but an excess here is allowed, to com-
pensate for variation in quality. This may appear a very
high price, but it is to be remembered, that its value is to be
compared with that of a cord of clear cow-dung. What is
the value of cow-dung ? It appears from the barn account
of the Merrimack Manufacturing Company, that for 9J
years, ending October, 1838, a bushel of clear cow-dung costs
21^ cents. During the same time dung of inferior quality

ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 219

was delivered at the Print-works, by the neighboring farm-
ers at 20 cents per bushel. Clear dung is delivered at the
Print-works in Dover at 12i cents per bushel, and at seve-
ral of the Print-works in Rhode Island, at 16 cents per
bushel, giving an average of 17.45 cents per bushel, and
as a cord contains, in round numbers, 100 bushels, its
price is $17.45

Deduct from this the price of an artificial cord, 5.15

$12.30
It is hence evident that an artificial cord is only about one-
third of the price of a natural cord, and if the last may be
mixed with two parts of loam or swamp muck, so may the
first, which will reduce the price of a cord of artificial
manure, to $2.71. Now this is equal, according to all expe-
rience, cord for cord, to stable manure ; the value of that
may be estimated at $5, so that an artificial cord costs only
about one-half. The best plan for preparing the artificial
manure is to dig the peat or swamp muck in the fivll ; in the
spring of the year let this be mixe4 in the proportion of 30
lbs. of potash, or 20 lbs. of soda ash, or 8 bushels of com.
mon house ashes, to every cord of fresh dug peat, estimating
this by the pit dug out, and allowing nothing in the spring
for shrinking. If ashes are used, they may be mixed in at
once with the muck, but if soda ash or potashes are used,
they must be dissolved in water, and the pile evenly wet
with the solution. The pile is then to be well shovelled
over, and used as is other manure. But it has been found
by experience, that the peat may be dug in the spring, im-
mediately mixed with the alkali, and used forthwith. If
spent ashes are used to prepare this muck, add one cord of
spent ashes to three cords of peat or swamp muck.

275. But there are still other forms of cheap alkali frona

220 ARTIFICIAL MANURE.

salt and lime, which may be recommended, though this may
appear inconsistent with what has been advanced respecting
lime, but in this case the lime is converted into a perfectly
soluble salt. The soda is eliminated caustic, acts on the
geine, renders it soluble. During the exposure to the vol-
umes of carbonic acid evolved from the peat, the caustic
soda becomes carbonated. This carbonate of soda immedi-
ately decomposes the soluble salt of lime, and an insoluble
salt of lime with a soluble salt of soda is the result. The
effects of these various actions, are, first, the geine is made
soluble, ammonia evolved, which is converted into a niti*ate,
carbonate of lime produced, which acts as that does in spent
ashes, and a soluble salt of soda or common salt remains in
the mass, producing still farther good effects, when its alkali
is let loose by the action of growing plants. Here are.
rounds of changes taking place, which though the farmer
may not readily understand, he may easily produce, with
lime and common salt. It may be stated, in farther expla-
nation of these changes, that common salt is a compound of
soda and muriatic acid, or muriate of soda, using here the
old language of chemistry, which is more intelligible to the
farmer, though not philosophically correct. By mixing
quicklime with common salt, its soda is let loose, the acid
combines with the lime, forming a soluble salt of lime, and
as long as the soda remains caustic it has no effect on the
muriate of lime, but as soon as the soda becomes mild or
carbonated, decomposition of the muriate of lime is pro-
duced, and the common salt regenerated. Commencing
then with quicklime and salt, we pass on to a soluble salt of
lime and caustic soda, and from that, to mild soda, and to
carbonate of lime and the original common salt ; and these
in decaying soil are mutuallv decomposed, and reform car-
bonate of soda.

ARTIFICIAL ^lANURE. 221

276. If these various changes take place in the midst of
peat, or geine, it is evident that the caustic soda acts upon
the geine, and also evolves ammonia from that substance;
secondly, that the muriate of lime in its finely soluble state
insinuates itself among all the particles of the geine, that the
soda also is equally diffused, and that when the soda becomes
carbonated, it produces an almost impalpable carbonate of
lime throughout the whole mass, which, by its equal diffu-
sion through the soil with the geine, acts upon the silicates,
as has been heretofore explained. In order to produce these
effects, take

1 bushel of salt,
1 cask of lime.

Slack the lime with the brine, made by dissolving the salt in
water sufficient to make a stiff paste with the lime, which
will be not quite sufficient to dissolve all the salt. Mix all
the materials then well together, and let them remain
together in a heap for 10 days, and then be well mixed with
three cords of peat ; shovel well over for about 6 weeks,
and it will be fit for use. Here, then, are produced 3 cords
of manure, for about the cost of $2.10 per cord.

Salt, $0.60

Lime, 1.60

Peat, . . . . . . . 4.50

3)$6.30($2.10

From experiments made in a small way, it is believed
that this will be found an effectual manure ; the author sug-
gests it, in the hope that it may lead to cautious experiment.

Lime and salt have been also commended by other
writers. Sir John Sinclair, in his " Scotch Husbandry,"
says that sea water evaporated to a saturated solution, that

222 ARTIFICIAL MANURE.

is, till the salts fall, may be used to slack lime. 32 bushels
thus slacked, mixed with 40 loads of peat, and spread on
one acre of poorest fallow, were equal to any manure.

Mr. Mitchell, a surgeon in Ayr, recommends 8000 gallons
sea water to be evaporated to 600 gallons, and this is to be
used to slack 64 bushels of lime. This may be applied to
two acres.

Salt water peat mixed with lime, has been very success-
fully used in some places in England. The peat being satu-
rated with sea-water by its natural position, is dug out, par-
tially dried, and mixed with about j its bulk of slacked
lime. It soon heats, ferments strongly, and when used soon
after as manure, produces excellent effects. Doubless, all
peat saturated with strong brine, and then mixed with lime,
would be equally as effective as submarine turf.

But there is still another form in which this artificial
manure may be prepared, that is by the addition of ammo-
nia. Take

3 cords of peat,
61 lbs. sal-ammoniac,
^ cask, or about 61 lbs. lime.

Slack the lime, dissolve the sal-ammoniac, and wet the peat
well with the solution through every part. Then shovel
over, mixing in the lime accurately. We have here, then, 3
cords of manure, at a price as follows :

3 cords peat, $4.50

61 lbs. sal-ammoniac, at Is., . . . 10.17
61 lbs. lime, ...... 0.27

3)$14.94($4.98

It will be observed that three cords are used in these cal-
culations, because the quantity of salts used is equivalent to

ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 228

the ammonia in a cord of dung, and that is supposed to bo
composted ' with 2 cords of loam, or meadow mud.
Whether the estimates are correct, each one will determine
by the value he may place on his peat and manure, and will
apply his own estimate. When a cord of stable or barn-
yard manure is usually estimated worth $4, the price of
a cord of clear pure cow- dung will not be thought high at
$17. In fact, it probably, when mixed with the usual pro-
portion of litter, straw, stalks, and the usual loss by waste
of its value, would become worth only about ^5. But these
questions do not affect the principle — that from aliiali and
peat, as cheap a manure may be prepared, and as good, as
from stable-dung ; for let that be called $5.00
then adding 2 cords of peat, 3.00

3)$8.00

$2.66 per cord.

277. Tliere are other sources of alkali, for converting peat
into soluble manure. Of these the chief is animal matter.
Here we have ammonia produced. It has been actually
proved by experiment, that a dead horse can convert 20
tons of peat into a valuable manure, richer and more lasting
than stable dung; "a barrel of alewives is equal to a wagon
load of peat." The next great and prolific source of ammo-
nia is the urine. The urine of one cow for a winter, mixed
up as it is daily collected with peat, was sufficient to manure
I an acre of land with 20 loads of manure of the bejrt qual-
ity, while her solid evacuations, and litter, for the same
period, afforded only 17 loads, whose value was only about
one-half that of the former.

278. It need only be added in confirmation of all that has
been advanced, that those who have had the prudence to fill

221: ARTIFICIAL MANURE.

their yaras and hog-pens with meadow mud, which has thus
become saturated with ammonia, have in nowise lost their
reward. If they have been satisfied with their practice, per-
haps they will be no less firm in their belief of success, when
science offers them a reason for the faith that is in them.

Peat or turf has begun to excite attention in France, as a
manure in itself, and not simply as a vehicle for supplying
ammoniacal salts (206). Soubeiran, in his prize essay on
manures, &c., in 1847, says, that from his own experiments
he can find no dift'erence between the humus of mould and
turf; he asserts that it is equally fit for encouraging vegeta-
tion, and '' If we consider the service which humus spread on
land renders to vegetation, we must regret that turf, which is
so abundant in certain localities, should not be more fre-
quently employed as an adjunct toother manures. Suitably
modified by air and alkalies, it would incontestibly render
important services to agriculture." Fresh turf when mixed
with \ its weight of dried flesh, Soubeiran found was slowly
decomposed, forming with turf a compound similar to fer-
menting dung.

Peat or turf has been used in France as a convenient sub-
stance when in dry powder, to absorb solutions of ammonia-
cal salts, thereby reducing that to a state approaching pou-
drette. For this purpose M. Jacquemart, in 1843, compared
such prepared turf powder with poudrette, using such quan*
tity that each should represent the same amount of nitrogen,
or its equivalent ammoniacal salts. The poudrette contained
in 3 bushels, or 132 lbs., nitrogen equivalent to 9^ lbs. sul-
phate of ammonia crystals. Of the nitrogen, 53 per cent,
existed as ready formed carbonate of ammonia, and 47 per
cent, as part of the organic matter of the night-soil.

This poudrette, used at the rate of 25 bushels per acre,
represented therefore 82 lbs. of crystals of sulphate of am-

ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 225

monia ; solutions of carbonate and bi-carbonate of ammo-
nia, equivalent each to 82 lbs. of crystals of sulphate, were
absorbed to dryness by peat powder. These several
manures were sowed with oats and covered in, under similar
circumstances, of soil, time, and exposure. The yield was as
follows — poudrette representing 100 :

s[o

. 1.

Poudrette, . . .

Grain.

100.

The straw being 100, th«
grain is to tlie straw as

65.

((

2.

Carbonate of am., .

94.

69.

((

3.

Bicarb, of am., . .

95.

77.

((

4.

No manure, . . .

74

62.

The next year wheat was sown, and the equivalent of
sulphate of ammonia increased to 103 lbs. A mixture of
No. 1 and 2 in equal portions gave results equal to pou-
drette.

From these results, it is believed that a manure may be
prepared with the ammoniacal liquor of gas works and peat,
in a portable form, which may be confidently recommended
to the former and gardener.

Gas liquor, alone, applied by the water-cart, at the rate of
400 gallons per acre, and the land a few days after sowed
with barley, has given results equal to stable manure.
Much of this liquor is allowed to run to waste. With the
hope that it may be saved for the mutual benefit of agricul-
ture and the gas manufacturer, the following suggestions are
submitted to their consideration.

From experiments which were tried by Jacquemart, with
those above detailed, it appeared that sulphate of ammonia
and peat powder produced very little effect. The conversion
into that salt is to be avoided if it is intended to be used as
will be here recommended. Sulphate of ammonia, mixed
with other manures, is known by repeated experiments to
10*

226 ARTIFICIAL MANUKE.

produce good results, but for the purpose of preparing "peat
poudrette" at the gas works, carbonate of ammonia is pre-
ferable. If sulphate of ammonia is used, then about 2 oz. of
chalk or whiting in powder should be added to each gallon
of gas liquor, before mixing, as hereafter described. What-
ever portion of ammonia is converted to sulphate, an equiv-
ajent of chalk powder must be used. Carbonate of ammo-
nia and sulphate of lime result by slow decomposition. The
gas liquor is variable in quality ; but that from Pictou coal ^
contains about 5 per cent, of ammonia. This is equal to
about 14:^ lbs. sulphate of ammonia crystals, per 100 gal-
lons, or 2J oz. per gallon ; hence, at the rate of 82 lbs. per
acre, 600 gallons of gas liquor should be used. But from
later trials than those cited above, it has been proved that
much less than this quantity is an effectual manure. The
transportation of the liquor in any quantity will not pay the
expenses. How then may the farmer use gas liquor ? It is
recommended to dry peat, and then powder it. It may be
dried by the spare heat from the gas retorts. The tempera-
ture should not exceed 240° F. At 300° it will be apt to
take fire. To one ton dried peat, or 50 bushels, add 150
gallons gas liquor.

Peat, as has been shown (259), contains about 15 per
cent, solid matter. At the average weight of a cord, fresh
dug, the amount of solid matter of 1^ cord, will be about
2137 lbs., or one ton ; this when dried as above, will absorb
two-thirds its weight, or 150 gallons gas liquor, without
becoming pasty ; it forms a moist powder only like damp
sand. If it is found that it becomes too wet to work up
moist, this is caused by imperfectly roasted peat, and then
as proposed (209) the gas liquor must be added at intervals,
drying between in open air. The whole will weigh about
3400 lbs. and the bulk will equal 100 bushels. At 5 per

ARTIFICIAL MANURE. ^ 227

cent, of ammonia, 150 gallons of gas liquor contain equal to
27 lbs. carbonate of ammonia of commerce, or 21 lbs. sul-
phate of ammonia. Hence the compost above contains = 8
per cent, carbonate of ammonia, and one bushel 'may be
considered equal to I peck of good poudrette. The total,
whatever may be the bulk, is equal to H cord of fresh peat
mixed with 27 lbs. of soda ash, or about nearly in the pro-
portions recommended (271) to make a cord equal to a
cord of stable manure.

If, by repeated drying under sheds in the open air, 50
bushels of roasted peat are made to absorb 600 gallons gas
liquor, it produces 75 bushels gas poudrette, whose ammonia
equals that in 25 bushels of the best poudrette from night-
soil, and, used by itself, 3 for 1 of that produces ^'/^ of its
effects, or, when mixed f to :|^ of poudrette, produces equal
effects to one of the night-soil article. It may not be ques-
tioned that gas poudrette may be cheaply prepared in a form
so concentrated that bushel for bushel its ammonia may
equal that of poudrette ; and when mixed with a little stable-
dung, to set up an active fermentation, it may be expected
to act equally well with the best commercial poudrette.

For this purpose the peat should be dried at the lowest
possible temperature which will expel the moisture. It must
not be charred. The ammonia should all be in the state of
sulphate. The moistened peat powder may then be dried,
and thus reduced to nearly its original bulk, without danger
of losing ammonia. When dry, to every 100 parts of crys-
tals of sulphate-ammonia used, add 65 lbs. of powdered
chalk. It will be seen that this will gradually become equal
to about 100 lbs. of dry plaster of Paris, giving off ammonia
during all this time. Charring stops all further action of
the elements of peat. In Jacquemart's experiments, prob-
ably the whole effect is due to the ammonia carbonate

228 ARTIFICIAL MANURE.

No amraoniacal salt, according to Kuhlmann, acts till reduced
to that state. Fermentation has such effect. Hence, car-
bonate of ammonia, mixed with charcoal powder, had the
same good effects as when mixed with over-dried peat.
With this view the cinders and sparks collected by locomo-
tive engines may be mixed into a dry powder with gas liquor.
So may be used also charred saw-dust, and spent tan. But,
it will be observed that, by the mode recommended in this
work, the active power of peat is intended to be preserved.
It differs from the " peat charcoal" movement of the day in
this point. That makes vault poudrette ; this, gas poudrette.

Composts may be formed without peat or stable-manure.
That substance being omitted, speedy decay and rapid fer-
mentation may be induced in all straws, green twigs, weeds,
and green vegetable matter of all kinds, by piling them up,
moistening the heap with a solution of organic matter in the
state of decay, and adding various salts. A rich and valu-
able manure may be thus speedily prepared, if certain pre-
cautions are observed to retain the volatile ammonia, the
product of fermentation (100) by converting it into fixed
salts.

The rapid decay in all such composts depends upon the
same principle as the fermentation of dough, viz., the addi-
tion of some body, as yeast, actually undergoing chemical
change. This change communicates motion to the particles
of the whole mass which thus act by induced fermentation.

A process of making manure on this principle was origi-
nally proposed by Jauffret, in France. Variously modified,
it has been used both there and in other countries with signal
success. Manure made by his original recipe costs more
than stable-dung, but the following, based on the principle
above stated, forms an economic manure. The quantity of
the materials are intended for manuring one acre:

ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 229

3 tons of green straw, ferns, bean-stalks, pea-vines, potato-
tops, weeds, leaves, &c.,
90 lbs. of ground plaster,

2 " of common salt,

3 " of saltpetre,

2^ bushels of house ashes,

2J " of charcoal powder,

5 " of night-soil.

Make the pile of vegetable matter near a puddle of stag-
nant water, if possible; if this is not convenient, sink a pit
by the edge of the pile, fill it with common water, throw
into it the night-soil, mix it well by stirring, add the ashes,
then the charcoal, lastly the salts.

With a bucket furnished with a long-pole handle, like a
tanner's scoop, water the pile several times daily with the
above mixture, taking care that the drainage runs into the
pit, to be again returned upon the pile. In two or three
weeks in warm weather the heap is sufficiently converted for
use.

The yeast, as it may be termed in this process, is the
night-soil, and the putrescent matter in the stagnant water.

Referring now to (100), it will be at once seen here is a
ready and cheap mode of producing geine, ammonia, nitrates,
which, with the salts already added, form a manure whose
efficacy and economy alike recommend its use to those who
have not peat or swamp-muck at command.

There is a choice, if it may be exercised, in the kind of
straw best for such a compost as is above recommended.
The straw of beans, peas, and all pod or leguminous plants,
is richer in nitrogen than straws of grain, or cereal plants.
Pod-plant straw contains more vegetable matter, and a
greater quantity of potash salts, than grain straw ; the first

230

IRRIGATION.

form more geine, more ammonia by putrefaction, and are
therefore preferable for composts. Oat straw contains more
potash, and buckwheat straw more magnesia than other
straws.

The following table exhibits straws as arranged according
to their practical compost value, by Sprengel, and also their
proportion per cent, of organic matter, salts and nitrogen ;
the last as determined by Payen and Boussingault :

Straw.

Organic matter.

Salts,

Nitroge

1.

Buckwheat,

96.797

3.203

2.

Bean,

96.879

3.121

3.

Millet;

95.145

4.855

0.78

4.

Pea,

95.029

4.971

1.79

5.

Barley,

94.759

5.244

0.23

6.

Wheat, ■■

96.482

3.518

0.49

7.

%e.

97.207

2.793

0.17

8.

Corn-stalk,

96.015

3.985

0.28

9.

Oat,

94.266

5.734

old, and
■ 0.24 new.

279. Having thus considered all the classes of manure,
and shown the possibility of enriching barren fields, without
the aid of animals, other subjects, intimately connected with
this discussion, may be here introduced.

These are, the application of manure in the form of rain,
snow, and by overflowing streams, and the humble attempt
to imitate these natural processes, by irrigation. The effects
in these cases are alike. They are due to two distinct causes,
first, to the air of the water, and secondly, to the salts and
other materials dissolved by, or suspended in the water.
First, before it can be understood how irrigation acts, let it
be considered how pure water acts ; it is not said rain water,
for that acts in a double way, both by its purity and im-
purity. The more impure, the better manure is water.
The purer water is, the less is it fit for irrigation.

IRRIGATION. 231

280. Pure water acts only by its air. All water exposed
to air, absorbs different proportions of its oxygen and nitro-
gen. This is a very slow process. It is found that most
natural waters give out, by boiling, from every hundred
cubic inches of water, 3^ cubic inches of air. This air con-
tains 8 or 9 per cent, more oxygen, than an equal bulk of
common air. Water is generally filled or saturated with
air ; it will take up no more by a month's exposure. If
this water is boiled, and again exposed to the air, it will
absorb, in 24 hours, as follows : — let there be taken any
number of measures of air, which are composed of 20 of
oxygen and 80 of nitrogen. If 100 measures are absorbed
by water, it is in this proportion :

Of nitrogen, 46.43

Of oxygen, 53.57

so that oxygen is three times more absorbable than nitrogen.

281. If now, there is expelled by boiling, the air from
pond or river water, it is found to contain,

Nitrogen, 45.29

Oxygen, 18.63

so that two-thirds of the oxygen have disappeared ; this is
the only fact which concerns the farmer. The oxygen has
been absorbed by natural waters and two-thirds retained.
What has become of it 1 It has gone, it is not said all of
it, but in irrigation a large portion to convert insoluble into
soluble geine. Irrigation is chiefly employed on grass-lands.
The green sward here may not be broken up. What if it
was 1 What if by ploughing, it was exposed to the action
of the air? Remember the properties of geine. Air con-
verts the insoluble to soluble, by forming carbonic acid, that
is, the air combines with the carbon of the geine, and forms

232 IRRIGATION.

that gas. Give the geine this oxygen, condensed in water:
wet it with this concentrated oxygen, crowd it into geine, as
would be done by overflowing a meadow with water. It
penetrates every crack and cranny, and every mole's-eye
hole ; it expels the carbonic acid imprisoned under the sod.
It is doing the same work upon the untouched green sward,
which would be effected by ploughing and tillage. The long
and the short of the whole action of irrigation with pure
limpid water is, that its absorbed oxygen converts insoluble
to soluble geine. Is this explanation which science offers,
confirmed by practice? The appeal is made to all "who
have attended either to the theory or practice of irrigation,
to bear witness to its truth. Is it not admitted that the run-
ning waters are alone fit for this purpose ? That after re-
maining a few days they are abated, and a new^ flood must
cover the land ? Is not this necessity of renewing at short
periods the covering of water which shows no deposit, a
proof that it has given up some invisible agent to fertilize
the earth ? This invisible agent is oxygen. Is it not evi-
dent from the extreme slowness with which air is absorbed
by w^ater, that if it were not for the running water, which
every few days replaces that which has acted, that the prac-
tice of irrigation with pure water could be never successful 1
282. This is the principle, a principle which, having been
wholly overlooked, has led to a waste of time and money,
and has given to irrigation, in many minds, the odor, if not
of a bad, at least of a useless practice. Where, guided by
this light of science, grass lands can be irrigated, let it be
done. If the experience of the most enlightened agricultur-
ists in Europe is not all deception, by simple irrigation with
running water, the farmer may cut two tons of hay where he
toils and sweats to rake off one.

283. But bv far the most fertile source of increased crops

IRRiaATION. 238

by irrigation, IS found in the impurity of water; the salts
and suspended matter, the slime and genial mud of freshets.
Perhaps the effect due to this cause, cannot be better illus-
trated, than by a statement of those substances, and their
amount, which fill the waters of the Merrimack ; a flood of
blessings ! which rolls by those engaged in the din and hot
haste of manufactures, as unheeded as was the earthquake
which thundered and trembled, and rolled away under the
feet of the fierce soldiery in an ancient battle. In the year
1838, during twenty-three days of freshets, from May till
November, no less than 71874063 lbs. of geine and salts
rolled by the city of Lowell, borne seaward. During the
five days of the great freshet, from January 28th, to Febru-
ary 1st, 1839, no less than 35970897 lbs. of the same matter
rolled by at the rate of from 112128 lbs. to 20405397 lbs.
per day ; each cubic foot of water bearing onwards, from 1 J
to 30^ grains. This is only the suspended matter. That
which is chemically dissolved by the waters, the fine filmy
deposit, which occurs in a few days after the coarser and
grosser matters subside, and the matter ordinarily suspended
in the water of the river added to the above for the year
1838, give a grand total of 839181 tons of salts and geine,
which were rolled down in the water of the Merrimack
river.

284. What is th'is matter 1 Is it of any agricultural
value ? The answer to the first question will answer both.
The dissolved salts are sulphate and geate of lime, and the
fine deposit occurring after the water has settled, is composed
of one-half geine, and the remainder of salts of lime and
silicates. The great agricultural value is found in the clayey
deposit, which occurs in the first few days. The coarser
part, that which collects about the foot of rocks, and falls,
and eddies, is composed as follows :

234

IRRIGATION.

Geine, . . . . . . ... 3.92

Silex, 72.70

Oxide of iron, 9.15

Alumina, 8.30

Lime, 0.51

Magnesia, 0.10

But considering the elements as we have usually treated
them as silicates, salts and geine, the composition of the sev
eral deposits is shown in the following table :

Geine.

Soluble.

Insol.

Sulphate
of lime.

Phos. of
lime.

Silicates. <

5.

.06
5.40

1.86
6.50

0.74
2.34

6.30 3.20

0.90
1.20
0.60

94.44

84.66
81.20

The coarse de-
posit above.

Freshet, 1839,

Freshet, July
7-18, '39,

285. If the doctrine of the action of silicates, salts and
geine, upon each other, when aided by growing plants, is con-
sidered, it cannot fail to be perceived, that the fertility of
soils, periodically overflowed by turbid waters, is owing to
the elements, salts and geine, which it contains, and to the
exquisitely finely divided state of the silicates which form
the bulk of the deposit. The carbonic acid of the air acts
on each atom of silicate, while owing to the geine having
been, as it were, irrigated, the oxygen of the air and water
must put that into a state to evolve carbonic acid. Hence, the
silicates are at once decomposed, and their alkali liberated.
How beautiful ! It seems like a special interposition of that
beneficent Power, whose blessings, while they fill us with
wondering admiration, at the infinite skill which directs
every change in the material universe, should teach us also,
that these changes are held up to us, not only to admire,

IRRIGATION. 235

but in some humble degree to imitate. Whenever man —
" the faithful servant and interpreter of nature," has thus
learned the lessons propounded by an Infinite Mind, he finds,
when he humbly imitates nature's laws, she is a kind and
indulgent parent. She opens her hand liberally, and gives
fertility by irrigation, and rivers and streams like holy water
sprinkled by a reverend father, fructify all they bedew.
With hearts thus attuned, by the observation of the laws of
nature, they respond to the gentle vibrations caused by the
descent of genial and fertilizing showers.

286. Rain is only natural irrigation ; the water is found,
like that of rivers, rich in oxygen, and organic matter. The
fertilizing power of rain is referred to the same causes which
lead to irrigation, to the salts and geine, which rain water
contains. Several chemists have proved the existence of
saline matters and organic substances in the air. The falling
rain carries down with it salts of ammonia, of soda, of lime,
atid organic matter. These all may be supposed floating in
the air. The dry soils give to the winds an impalpable dust,
its silicates and geine. When hailstones which have been
formed in the regions of perpetual frost, exhibit almost the
same substances which are contained in rain water, the
height at which these matters float, would almost compel the
supposition that they exist in a gaseous state. From the
examination of hailstones, by Girardin, a French chemist, it
appears, that no sensible trace of ammonia was detected
during the evaporation of their water, but there was found
a notable quantity of lime and sulphuric acid ; and, above
all, a large proportion of an organic substance containing
nitrogen. Melted hailstones have the appearance of water,
containing a drop or two of milk ; by standing, the water
grows clear, and the flocky matter which settles, burns with
the smell of animal matter, and evolves ammonia.

236 IRRIGATION".

It is a question whether this is not the source of the am.
monia discovered in rain water. It is taken for granted,
that the animonia in rain water exists as a volatile carbon-
ate, because it was found to pass over in distillation. So
does a volatile product, which always discolors the crystals
of sal-ammoniac, procured by adding muriatic acid to the
distilled water. This discoloring matter was noticed a cen-
tury ago by Margraff. Later chemists have also detected
ammoniacal salts in rain water, but no volatile carbonate of
that base. It is well known that muriate of soda arises in
evaporation, so does chromate of potash, and several other
salts. If, in distilling rain water, the ammonia did not pass
over in the volatile organic discoloring product, it may have
gone over as muriate of ammonia. It is not questioned that
ammoniacal salts exist in rain and snow water. The fact that
it there exists as carbonate seems to be assumed, and is
incompatible with the salts which have been heretofore ob-
tained, from rain, snow, and hail. The subject has of late
excited much attention, and as the existence of salts in snow
is intimately connected with the old "Saying that " Snow is
the poor man's manure," it may be worth while to examine
the foundation of this proverb. Like all others of this class
it will be found to rest on observation, and is supported by
experiment. In 1751, Margraff, in the neighborhood of
Berlin, after it had snowed several hours, collected in glass
vessels as much falling snow as afforded 3600 ounces of
water. This, carefully evaporated, afforded 60 grains of
calcareous matter, with some grains of muriatic acid, and
traces of nitrous vapor. An equal quantity of rain water
afforded 100 grains calcareous matter, with some muriatic
acid ; and in both cases the matter was discolored by an oily
substance. A similar result was obtained long ago in Ire-
land, by Dr. Rutty, who found in a gallon of snow water,

IRRIGATION. 237

4 grains, and in one gallon of rain water, 6 grains of calca-
reous matter. This is about the proportion found by Mar-
graff, and would give for each inch of snow water about
10 lbs. of salts per acre. From the existence of free acids
in this case, it is evident that no carbonate of ammonia could
have there existed. There are some experiments performed
by our countryman, Dr. Williams, formerly Hollis Professor
of mathematics and natural philosophy in Harvard College,
and detailed in the first volume of his History of Vermont,
where the experiments were performed. In 1791, 6 gallons
of fresh falling snow water afforded by evaporation 11 grains
calcareous matter, 2 grains of saline matter, 5 grains of a
dark brown oily matter. In January, 1792, 6 gallons of
snow water, from snow lying three inches deep on the grass,
on an area of 16 square feet, where it had lain 59 days,
covered with a depth of 27 inches of snow, afTorded the same
salts as above, and 105 grains of this oily matter. This is
the most remarkable fact, and may afford some weight to
the suggestion before made, that organic matter exists gas-
eous in the air. It must have been drawn up by capillary
attraction, or evolved from the surface of the earth. It is
there condensed by the snow and returned to the earth, im-
pregnated with its salts of lime and ammonia. The snow is
" the poor man's manure." It not only adds salts and geine,
but prevents the escape of the last. But is it possible that it
should escape in the cold? Doubtless it does when the
ground is not frozen. The snow by its warm mantle actually
prevents the earth growing colder, and, as has been inge-
niously suggested, keeps up an imperfect vegetation. The
snow thaws frozen ground. In 1791, Professor Williams
found that the ground which had been frozen 6 inches in
depth before the snow fell, not only had this frost extracted
in a few weeks by snow, but that the ground, 6 inches below

9
238 PARING AND BUKNING.

the surface, had a temperature of 39 degrees. This slight
elevation of temperature was enough to allow the gaseous
exhalation of organic matter, which was found to exceed
that of fresh fallen snow by 20 times. This quantity, in
snow 3 inches deep, would give per acre 40 lbs., and to this
are to be added 5 lbs. of salts. If this geine is not a natural
addition in weight, it has undergone a transformation and
become soluble. Besides, every inch of fresh fallen snow
actually adds a little of this same matter ; it will not be
extravagant to estimate the total addition of geine at 50 lbs.
per acre for the winter. This, added to the warming effects
of snow, shows that it may have a genial and enriching
power on vegetation, independent of its ammonia. The old
notion of the existence of nitre in snow is not supported by
evidence ; but in whatever view we consider the salts of lime
in snow and rain water, it is difficult to believe that carbon-
ate of ammonia exists in atmospheric air.

287. There are still other sources of manure, or the ele-
ments of fertility, which the farmer can command. Among
these are paring and burning and the ploughing in of green
and dry crops.

It is not intended to go into the detail of these operations.
All experience proves their great fertilizing power. Their
whole action, mysterious as a part of it may appear, depends
for its success upon the formation of geine, salts, and silicates.
And first, — burning, in which is to be considered the effects
of simply burning the earthy parts of soils. In the descrip-
tion of silicates, Chap. II., the frequent occurrence of pyrites,
or sulphuret of iron, was described, and this is especially
the case in all clays. The effect of burning is, to disengage
sulphurous acid, and the red and seared appearance of the
foliage in the neighborhood of a brick kiln, which may be
often observed, is due to the disengagement of acid gases,

PARING AND BURNING. 239

during the process of burning the bricks. This acid gas
being liberated, in the operation of burning soils, hastens
the formation of sulphates and salts. It divides the silicates,
and thus reduces them to a state in which the carbonic acid
of the air more easily decomposes them. If we go one step
further, and burn the vegetable matter of the soil, a portion
of geine is lost, and ashes are formed, whose operation has
been already considered (Chap. III.) They dissolve any
geine in soil ; hence the practice of burning the parings of a
peat meadow, whose ashes bring the balance into cultivation.
The whole practice of burning vegetable soil for its ashes is
wasteful. The original mode of paring and burning, and
which forty years ago was so common in Europe, is still
followed in many places in England, where the paring, from
the operation, is called push ploughing. It has been more
often given up, from the excessive crops it has produced,
exhausting the soil, than any inherent sin in the practice itself.
Instead of paring and burning,- it should rather be called
paring and roasting. The process should never go beyond
a good scorching. The effects of scorching insoluble geine
and inert vegetable fibre, may be illustrated by reference to
the effects of roasting coffee, or rye. A tough green berry,
or dry seed, which is quite insoluble, is made by this process
very soluble. Toasting bread has a like effect, and so has
baking on the dough. Though in roasting coffee, a large
portion of charcoal seems to be made, yet in the grounds of
coffee, vegetable fibre is in that state in which air and moist-
ure act, as they do on the geine of soils, converting the insol-
uble into soluble. If ever decided good effects have been
witnessed from the application of charcoal, independent of
rain water, they are due to the cause here pointed out.

288. Turning in green crops is returning only to the soil,
the salts, silicates, and geine, which the plant has drawn out

240 GREEN AND DRY CROPS.

of it, together with all the organic matter the plant itself has
elaborated, from oxygen and hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen,
from whatever source derived. It has decomposed, during
the short period of its growth, as has been already pointed
out, more silicates and salts than the air only could eifect
during the same period, which, being turned in, restore to
the soil from which they grew, salts and silicates in a new
form, whose action on vegetation is like that of alkalies.
But, powerful as are the effects of green crops, ploughed in,
it is the experience of some practical men, that one crop
allowed to perfect itself and die where it grew, and then
turned in dry, is superior to three turned in green. The
whole result is explained by the fact, that dry plants give
more geine than green. Green plants ferment, dry plants
decay. A larger portion escapes in fermentation, as gas and
more volatile products are formed, than during decay. The
one is a quick ponsuming fire, the other a slow mouldering
ember, giving off, during all its progress, gases, which feed
plants, and decompose the silicates of soil.

289. The power of fertility which exists in the silicates of
soil is unlimited. An improved agriculture must depend
upon the skill with which this power is brought into action.
It can be done only by the conjunction of salts, geine, and
plants. Barren sands are worthless, a peat bog is little bet-
ter; but a practical illustration of the principles which have
been maintained, is afforded by every sandy knoll made fer-
tile by spreading swamp muck upon it. This is giving geine
to silicates. The very act of exposure of this swamp muck,
has caused an evolution of carbonic acid gas ; that decom-
poses the silicates of potash in the sand ; that potash converts
the insoluble into soluble manure, and lo! a crop. That
growing crop adds its power to the geine. If all the long
series of experiments under Von Voght, in Germany, are to

DECOMPOSITION OF SOIL. 2il

be believed, confirmed as they are by repeated trials by our
own agriculturists, it is not to be doubted, that every inch
of every sand knoll, on every farm, may be changed into a
soil in 13 years, of half that number of inches of good mould.
290. That the cause of the fertility is derived from the
decomposing power of the geine and plants, is evident from
the fact, that mere atmospheric exposure of rocks, enriches
all soil lying near and around them. It has been thought
among the inexplicable mysteries, that the soil under an old
stone wall is richer than that a little distance from it. Inde-
pendent of its roller action, which has compressed the soil
and prevented the aerial escape of its geine, consider that
the potash washed out of the wall has done this, and the
mystery disa]Ppears. The agents to hasten this natural pro-
duction of alkali, are salts and geine. The abundance of
these has already been pointed out in peat manure. Next
to this, dry crops ploughed in ; no matter how scanty, their
volume constantly will increase, and can supply the place of
swamp muck. Of all soils to be cultivated, or to be restored,
none are preferable to the sandy light soils. By their por-
ousness, free access is given to the powerful effects of air.
They are naturally in that state, to which trenching, draining,
and subsoil ploughing are reducing the stiffer lands of Eng-
land. Manure may as well be thrown into water, as on land
underlaid by water. Drain this, and no matter if the upper
soil be almost quicksand, manure will convert it into fertile
arable land. The thin covering of mould, scarcely an inch
in thickness, the product of a century, may be imitated by
studying the laws of its formation. This is the work of
" Nature's 'prentice hand *," man has long been her journey-
man, and now guided by science, the farmer becomes the
master-workman, and may produce in one year quite as
much as the apprentice made in seven.
11

CHAPTER Vlir.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL.

291. In all attempts at improving soil by manure, two
objects are intended, which form the golden rule of apply-
ing salts and geine ; to make " heavy land lighter, light land
heavier, hot land colder, and cold land hotter." Are there then,
notwithstanding all that has been offered and said, differences
in soil ? Have not, it may be asked, all the preceding pages
been based on the fact, that there is but one soil 1 True, it
has been so said, it is said so now. Chemically, the inorganic
elements of all soil are alike. The silicates and salts are
nearly the same in all ; the organic portion, the geine, varies,
and that to a greater degree than any other ingredient.
"While the silicates compose with great uniformity about 89
per cent., and the salts of lime, sulphate, and phosphate, &c.,
2 per cent., the geine varies from 1 to 20 per cent. The
silicates may be finer or coarser, more sandy or more clayey.
These circumstances affect not the chemical, but the physical
properties of soil. The physical properties, then, are the
foundation of the great diversity which soil exhibits. The
subject of soil will have been very imperfectly treated, if a
few pages are not devoted to this important subject.

Liebig has observed that, "it is the duty of the chemist
to explain the composition of a fertile soil, but the discovery
of its proper physical state or condition belongs to the agri-

(212)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 243

culturist." Evidently, in the opinion of the authority quoted,
the composition and physical state of soils are independent
of each other ; and it may be thought that the author is ex-
ceeding the limits bounded by chemistry, when he touches
this new field, thus appropriated to the agriculturist.

292. The physical characters of soil are embraced under
the terms, cold, hot, wet, and dry land. These characters
are dependent on four circumstances.

Firstly, the absolute weight of a given bulk of soil,

Secondly, its color,

Thirdly, its consistency,

Fourthly, its power of retaining water.

In other words, the physical characters of soil may be con-
sidered under,

Firstly, its relation to heat,
Secondly, its relation to moisture and gas,
Thirdly, its consistency,
Fourthly, its electrical relation.

The relation to consistency makes soil light or heavy;
the relation to heat and moisture makes soil hot or cold,
dry or wet. The great natural varieties of soil are, sand,
clay, and loam ; first, the great distinction in the scale
of soil, is sand and clay : all intermediate varieties proceed
from mixtures of these, with each other. Now the sand
may be siliceous or calcareous, that is, composed of silicates,
the distinguishing character of soil in this country, or mixed
with a salt of lime, the feature of much European soil. By
clay is meant common blue clay, or sub-silicate of alumina,
consisting of alumina 36, silica, 68, oxide of iron, and salts
of lime, and alkalies, 6.

244 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL.

Sandy clay is — clay and sand, equal parts.
Loamy clay is — f clay, and ^ sand.
Peaty earth is — geine.
Garden mould is — 8 per cent, geine.
Arable land is — 3 per cent, geine.

Taking these several varieties, it is found, that sand is
always the heaviest part of soil, whether dry or wet; clay is
among the lightest parts ; geine has the least absolute weight,
so that while a cubic of sand weighs, in its common damp
state, 141 lbs., clay weighs 115 lbs., and geine 81 lbs. ; hence
garden mould and arable soil weigh from 102 to 119 lbs.
The more geine compound soil contains, the lighter it is.

293. Among the most important physical characters of
soil, is the power of retaining heat ; this will be found to be
nearly in proportion to its absolute weight. The weight of
soil determines, with tolerable accuracy, its power of retain-
ing heat. The greater the mass in a given bulk, the greater
is this power. Hence, sands retain heat longest, three times
longer than geine, and half as long again as clay. Hence,
the dryness and heat of sandy plains. Sand, clay, and peat,
are to each other as 1, 2, and 3 in their power of retaining
heat. But while the capacity of soil to retain heat, depends
on the absolute weight, the power to be warmed, another
very important physical character, depends on four principal
circumstances : first, the color ; second, the dampness ; third,
the materials ; fourth, the angle at which the sun's rays fall.
First, color ; the blacker the color, the easier warmed.
White sand and gray differ almost 50 per cent., in the
degree of heat acquired in a given time. As peat and the
varieties of geine are almost all of a black, or dark brown
color, it is seen how easily they may become warm soils,^
when dry ; for secondly, dampness modifies the influence of

PHYSICAL PROPKRTIKS OF SOIL. 245

color, so that a dry, light-colored soil will become hotter,
sooner than a dark wet one. As long as evaporation goes
on, a difference of 10 or 12 degrees will be found be-
tween a dry and a wet soil of the same color. Thirdly, the
different materials of which soils are composed, exert but
very little influence on their power of being heated by the
sun's rays. Indeed, if sand, peat, clay, garden mould, all
equally dry, are sprinkled with chalk, making their surfaces
all of a color, and then exposed to the sun's rays, the differ-
ences of their temperature will be found inconsiderable.
Ck)lor and dryness, then, exert a most powerful influence on
the capacity of soil to be warmed.

Fourthly, the last circumstance to be noticed, is the differ-
ent angle at which the sun's rays fall. The more perpen-
dicular, the greater the heat. The effect is less in propor-
tion, as these rays by falling more slanting, spread their
light out over a greater surface. But this point, which seems
external to soil, need not be enlarged on. Now, the great
fact to be observed, in this relation, of soil to heat is, that
geine exerts the most marked influence. If soil heats quickly,
it is because it has a large proportion of geine. Does it cool
quickly 1 It is the geine which gives up heat quickly, refer-
ring here to the soil in a dry state, the modification pro-
duced by dampness having been already considered.

294. The relation of soil to moisture and gas, is not less
important than that of heat. All soil, except pure siliceous
sands, absorb moisture, but in different degrees. Geine
possesses the greatest power of absorption, and no variety
of geine equals in its absorptive power, that from animal
manure. The others rank in the following order, garden
mould, clay, loam, sandy clay, arable soil. They all saturate
themselves with moisture by a few days' exposure. It is a
very interesting question, Does soil give up this absorbed

246 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL.

water speedily and equally? Is its power of retaining water
equal? As a general fact, it may be stated, that the soil
which absorbs fastest and most, evaporates slowest and least.
Geine evaporates least in a given time. The power of evapo-
ration is modified by the consistence of soil; by a different
degree of looseness or compactness of soil. Garden mould,
for instance, dries faster than clay. As it has been already
shown, that the power of being warmed is much modified by
moisture, so the power of a soil to retain water makes the
distinction of a hot or cold, wet or dry soil. In all the rela-
tions to moisture, as to heat, geine exercises the greatest
influence.

295. Connected with this power of absorption of moisture,
is the very important relation of soil to gas. All soil absorbs
oxygen gas, when damp, never when dry. Of the ingredi-
ents of soil, geine forms the only exception to this rule.
That absorbs oxygen, whether it be wet or dry. Geine has
this power in the highest degree, clay next ; frozen earths
not at all. A moderate temperature increases the absorp-
tion.

When earths absorb oxygen, they give it up unchanged.
They do not combine with it. They merely induce on the
absorbed moisture power to imbibe oxygen. But when
^eine absorbs oxygen, one portion of that combines with its
carbon, producing carbonic acid, which decomposes silicates,
and a second portion of oxygen combines with the hydrogen
of the geine, and produces water. Hence, in a dry season
well manured soils, or those abounding in geine, suffer very
little. The power of geine to produce water, is a circum-
stance of soil almost wholly overlooked. It is one whose
high value will appear by a comparison with the quantity of
water produced by a fresh-ploughed, upturned sward, with
that from the same soil undisturbed. The evaporation from

PHYSICAL PROPERTIRS OF SOIL. 247

an acre of fresh-ploughed land is equal to 950 lbs. per hour ;
this is the greatest for the first and second days, ceases about
the fifth day, and again begins by hoeing, while at the same
time the unbroken sod affords no trace of moisture. This
evaporation is equal to that which follows after copious rains.
These are highly practical facts, and teach the necessity of
frequent stirring of soil in a dry time. Where manure or
geine is lying in the soil, the evaporation is from an acre
equal to 5000 lbs. per hour. At 2000 lbs. of water per
hour, the evaporation would amount in 92 days to 2208000
lbs. which is nearly equal to the amount of rain which would
fall in the same time in this climate. But the evaporation
from woodland actually exceeds the amount of rain which
falls. The evaporation from an acre of woodland was deter-
mined by Professor Williams, (see his Hist, of Vermont,
vol. I.,) as follows : two leaves and a bud of a branch of a
growing maple were sealed in a bottle, while yet attached
to the tree. The expired water collected and weighed, was
found to amount in six hours to 16 grains. The tree was 8|
niches in diameter, and 30 feet high. It was felled, and the
leaves carefully counted, were in number, 21192. Suppos-
ing the%e all to haye evaporated like those in the bottle, they
would have expired, in twelve hours, 339072 grains of water.
A moderate estimate, and below the usual quantity of wood
per acre of similar land, gave four such trees to a rod, or
640 per acre. Estimating 7000 grains to a pint, 3875 gal-
lons of water, or 31000 lbs. were evaporated from an acre
of woodland in 12 hours. At Rutland, in Vermont, where
this experiment was made, in 1789, the Professor notes, that
on the 26th of May, the maple leaves were ^ of their full size,
and on the 15th of September following, these leaves began
to turn white. Throwing out the 15 days in September, and
the 4 in May, the leaf may be considered as fully developed

if

248 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL.

for three months. During these 92 days, the evaporation
would have amounted, at 12 hours per day, to 2852000 lbs.
The rain at the place during this period, was 8.333 inches or
431%- pounds to every square foot of surface, equal per acre
of 43560 feet, to 1890504 lbs. The amount of evaporation
during the time in which the tree was in full leaf exceeds
that of the actual fall of rain, by nearly 1000000 of lbs.
This excess arises from the decomposition of geine in the
soil, and consequent formation of water, by the action of the
living plant. If we allow the process to go on, during 15
hours per day, then in 92 days, as above, 3565000 lbs. of
water would be evaporated. One may easily understand
how exhausting a process must be vegetation, where every
year all above ground is cut and carried away. Not only
the geine, whose carbon and water have become parts of the
plant, is thus withdrawn, but a still larger portion disappears
as water and carbonic acid. In forests, the annual fall of
leaves and wood, in fields, the,, ungathered crop, may add
more than the amount thus withdrawn from soil. That plants
do form from carbonic acid and water, a great amount of
vegetable matter, is by all admitted. This amount in dry
or green crops turned in, increases the geine of soil.

There is yet another view of the effect of the conversion
of geine into water. Allowing, as has been asserted, that all
land, forest or cultivated, produces annually about the same
amount of carbon, then the amount of water transpired
above from woodland in 15 hours, is nearly equal to dissolv-
ing one-half of the geine, to produce that amount, leaving
the balance to be derived from air. An acre of woodland
produces, it is said, annually, about 1783 English pounds of
carbon. If water dissolves only ^^\^ part of its weight of
humus, or geine, then 3565000 dissolves 1426 lbs., which, at

PHYSICAL PJROPERTIKS OF SOIL. 249

58 per cent, carbon are equal to . . . 827 lbs.
Leaving to be derived from air, . . . 956 "

1783 "

This is taking geine in its most insoluble state. The great
increase of solubility when combined with alkali would ren-
der the annual amount of water transpired equal to dissolv-
ing, as geine, all the carbon which has been added to the
plant.

The advantage of a light porous open soil is now evident ;
it lets in air, it lets off steam. This steam, charged with
carbonic acid, acts on silicates, eliminates alkalies, waters and
feeds plants. Salts, geine, and barren pine plains, are the
elements of a western prairie. Nature never bestowed upon
man soil of greater capability of being made lastingly fer-
tile, than the sandy light soil of New England.

296. It is evident that the terms of heavy and light, given
by the farmer to soil, do not refer to their absolute weight
(293). These distinctions depend on firmness or consistency
of soil. This produces a very marked difference in the fer-
tility and tillage of land. The terms light and heavy, mean
lighter or heavier to work. It is well known that clay lands
are heavy to work, sandy soil the lightest and easiest, next
to this is a soil containing a small portion of geine. All
light soil becomes heavy when wet, but it is a well-ascer-
tained fact, that heavy soil always becomes lighter by frost.
Hence the reason of breaking up with a plough before winter.
Moist earth then becomes frozen, and its particles being
driven asunder by frost, it becomes lighter, in truth it has
been found that the consistency of clay is diminished nearly
one-half by frost, and loamy clay, one-half to two-thirds. It
is essential to this change from heavy to light land, that the
11*

250 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL.

soil be wet enough to freeze. It is well known, that if, by
frost, the nature of the soil is thus changed, that if it is
ploughed while wet after freezing, the labor of the fall
ploughing is lost. A lasting injury is done by ploughing
land too wet.

297. In reference to the electrical relations of soil, the dry
sands are non-conductors, the clays weak imperfect conduct-
ors, they are in the negative state. Geine is always positive
towards the elements of soil.

298. In whatever view we regard geine, it is the basis on
which rests the whole art of agriculture. It is this which
causes the great difference of soil. It is a difference of phys-
ical characters. The chemical characters are uniform. If,
then, geine is the soul of fertility, if it makes soil hot, cold,
wet, dry, heavy or light, the proportion and state in which it
exists in soil, becomes an agricultural problem of the highest
value. This would lead to chemical analysis. The lectures
in which the principles set forth in this book were explained,
terminated with a practical exhibition of the process of
analysis of soil. Having already greatly exceeded the limits
to which it was intended to confine these pages, the subject
of analysis, and several other topics, may be resumed at
some other time.

CHAPTER IX.

BONES, SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME, AND ITS PREPARATION.

299. Bones have been already partially adverted to
(233) ; their use in farming has been long known and widely
adopted in England and in Europe, and is beginning to be
understood and valued in the older portions of the United
States.

Bones are the only available home source of phosphate of
lime. Next to guano, which owes a large portion, and
sometimes all of its value, to phosphate of lime, bones enter
largely into the composition of the artificial manure powders
of commerce. The worth and employment of bones in
farming demands an extended notice, and is now, for the first
time, introduced into the fourth edition of the Muck Manual.
It is one of those topics to which allusion is made at the
close of the preceding section (298).

300. Bones consist of an organic or animal part, which
forms about ^, and of an inorganic or mineral part, chiefly
phosphate of lime, which forms J of bone. As remarked
(217), gelatine or glue is derived from certain animal tis-
sues, tendons, ligaments, gristle and bones, so, under the
name of gelatine, it will be convenient to denominate the
animal part of bones. It is under the form of gelatine that
the bony tissue is extracted.

301. Bones force and quicken vegetation, or develop and
form seed.

{261)

252

BONES.

The first action depends on the fermentation of the gela-
tine, which produces ammonia, and induces chemical motion.
The second action depends on the phosphate of lime, an
essential element in all roots and seeds. Hence bones are
to be regarded as stem and leaf formers, or as root, seed, or
grain formers.

If both objects are to be attained, then the whole bone
must be used ; if only root and grain growing is intended,
then the phosphate of lime is to be regarded.

302. Bones, therefore, are to be studied,
1st, as entire.

2, as deprived of a portion of their geiatme.

3, as deprived of all their animal parts.

First, as entire bone. This comprises raw bones, butchers'
bones, and such as are usually thrown aside as useless, or to
the dogs, after the meat has been cooked and removed for
the family.

The composition of entire bone may be stated as follows :

Moisture,

12.

Fat, .

8.

Gelatine,

30.

Phosphate of lime

44.

Carbonate of lime.

3.

Magnesia, .

0.625

Soda, .

1.625

Alkaline chlorides

and sulphates, ,

0.750

100.

No practical use can be made of bones till they are
crushed into very small bits ; these, even of half-inch size,
called half-inch bones, are now rarely used. Bones should

BONES. 258

DC ground to meal, bone meal; the finer ground, the better.
In this state, a pile of meal, if moistened, soon heats, fer-
mentation sets in, and the gelatine evolves from 4 to 6 per
cent, of its weight as pure ammonia.

Doubtless this fermentation has its value, if excited in
bone meal before using it as a manure. If ammonia es-
capes, which is easily known by the smell, this valuable
element can be retained by sprinkling the pile with a few
pounds of plaster, or with half a pint of oil of vitriol
stirred into two gallons of water for every 100 lbs. of bone
meal.

If it were easy to reduce bones, in their entire state, to
powder, its animal part could be easily retained. But the
practical difficulty of grinding raw bones is just beginning to
be overcome, and however perfectly this process may be
hereafter effected, still the amount of raw, or entire bones,
will be always very small compared with bones from which
a portion of the animal matter has been removed. This
leads to the second head of the subject, bone as deprived of
a portion of its gelatine.

This is effected by a continued and long boiling in the
open air, skimming off the fat and gelatine as they arise to
the surftice of the water ; or better, by steaming, under a
pressure of 4 or 5 pounds on the inch, by which the gelatine
is removed, and may be extracted as glue. This leaves the
bone porous, and as the water immediately fills the pores,
the bone weighs as much nearly as it did before boiling.
By long boiling, or steamJng and separating the fat and glue,
bone becomes sofl and pliable while warm, but hard and
brittle when cold. In this state bone readily bretiks, easily
grinds.

The following is the composition of bone partly deprived
of its gelatine :

254 BONES.

Water, 10.

Animal matter, ...... 20.2

Phosphates of lime and magnesia, . , .61.5
Carbonates of lime and magnesia, . . . 8.3

100.

Ordinarily well-boiled bones would give nearly a similar
result, but some extra boiled gave Prof. Way the following
composition :

Water,

Animal matter, ....
Phosphates of lime and magnesia.
Carbonates of lime and magnesia.
Sand,

10.
16.
60.
11.
3.

100.

The animal part affords from 2 to 3 per cent, of nitrogen,
equal to about 9 ounces of pure ammonia from every 100
pounds of bone. Practical experience has shown that bone
meal in this half animalized state is its most valuable agri-
cultural form. Though not as lasting as bone ash from
burned bones, it works quicker and stronger. This bone meal
ferments, and gives off ammonia, while the phosphate of lime
by its combination with gelatinous matter, easily dissolves in
rain water. Hence, it is the result of experience, that all
bone meal acts best on soils moderately sandy and light ;
clay lands exclude air, sandy lands hold no water ; on these
bone meal acts only after two or three years, yet guano acts
on these at once.

Bone meal, deprived of a part of its animal matter, is best
employed when added to the compost heap at the rate of
from 200 to 500 lbs. per acre. If used alone, it is best to
sow it as top dressing during the early spring rains, after the

BONES. 255

frost is out an inch or two, or if used for root or grain crops,
harrowed or lightly ploughed in.

Thirdly. Bone, deprived of all its animal matter, calcined
or burned bone, bone ash, sugar house refuse, or bone black.
Bones are easily reduced to the state of ash by piling them
up with a little light wood or fagots, and firing the mass.
The bones continue burning till reduced to whiteness, be-
coming brittle as pipe stems and very easy to grind. By
this mode, all animal matter is burned up. If bones are
heated in closed vessels, leaving a small vent, as in baking,
bone black is produced, containing all the earthy part of the
bone, mixed with the coal of the animal portion. This serves
for decoloring sugar and other syrups, and after having
served this purpose several times, by repeated burning, the
spent bone black is sold to farmers and others as sugar house
refuse ; when mixed with the scum and other impurities
arising during the clarification of sugar, it is more valuable
for agriculture than simple sugar house black.

303. In the state of bone ash, phosphate of lime is more
insoluble than as bone meal. It has been found, that by
treating bone ash, as also bone meal, with certain acids, the
phosphate of lime is brought into a highly soluble state.
The cheapest acid, and that commonly used for this purpose,
is oil of vitriol, which produces, by its action on bone, both
plaster and soluble phosphate of lime, called superphos-
phate.

In this acid state, bone acts quicker, goes farther and lasts
longer than in any other form. Acid may, therefore, be
economically applied to all forms of bone, entire, partially,
or wholly deprived of its gelatine.

This application is often called dissolving bone in acid.
There is no clear solution. It is a mere breaking up, it is a
softening, pap-forming process, and bone, in this state, would

256 SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

more appropriately be called bone-pap. The bone is merely
so far reduced that, when rubbed between the thumb and
finger, no grit is felt. Bone cannot all dissolve, for the oil
of vitriol, when added rightly, miites with the lime of car-
bonate and phosphate, and forms with that insoluble sulphate
of lime, or plaster. It is this which gives the grayish white
look to the bone porridge.

304. That this subject may be placed in a clear light to
him who intends to prepare superphosphate for his own use,
or for market, the properties of phosphoric acid must be
adverted to. It is, like the acids found in geine, many
based, requiring at least 3 portions of base to 1 of acid, for
neutralization. These combinations should be well under-
stood, and they may be illustrated by reference to the phos-
phates of lime ; for

Phosphoric acid 1 part, lime 1 part, form superphosphate ; acid.

Do. 1 part, lime, lime, 2 parts, form subphosphate ; less acid.
Do. 1 part, lime, lime, lime, 3 parts, form neutral phosphate.

In this last form it is found in bones ; this forms pure
bone earth. If to this neutral phosphate oil of vitriol is
added, it combines with and removes a portion of the lime
from the phosphoric acid, more or less according to the
quantity added. No quantity will take away all the lime.

Each part of lime requires its equivalent of oil of vitriol.
If to neutral phosphate of lime, oil of vitriol (which maybe
designated by 0. V.) sufficient to unite with one part of lime,
is added, the result may be illustrated as follows :

Neutral phosphate of lime contains one proportion of acid
and three of lime, or

Phosphoric acid, lime, lime, lime.
Add, . . . O.V.

SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 257

Result is, phosphoric acid, lime, lime, plaster.
Add to this, . . . O.V.

Result is, phosphoric acid, lime, plaster, plaster.

The neutral phosphate of lime is thus, by 2 equivalents of
oil of vitriol, changed to two portions of plaster and one of
super or acid phosphate of lime. Leaving out the plaster, if
to the superphosphate is added enough O. V. to unite with
all the lime, ^ of the superphosphate will remain unacted
on ; while f of the lime of the remaining J of the superphos-
phate unite to the oil of vitriol, and form plaster, the other
fourth of the lime combines with "a// the phosphoric acid, and
forms superphosphate containing 1 acid to \ lime, or 4 acid
to 1 lime. This may be considered as almost free phospho-
ric acid. It is a compound known to chemists as quadri-
phosphate of lime ; that is, quadruple phosphate. Phos-
phoric acid dissolves its own weight exactly, and no more,
of phosphate of lime ; of course this compound of 4 acid to
1 lime, being almost free acid, dissolves that ^ of the super-
phosphate of lime which had been unacted on by the O. V.,
and thus forms a true biphosphate or double superphosphate
of lime, a compound of 2 acid to 1 lime.

This may appear somewhat complicated to those unac-
quainted with chemical changes. Perhaps the subject may
be illustrated and elucidated by representing by words the
substances, and by figures their weights, or equivalent num-
bers. Supposing the operations to be performed on pure
bone earth, the mass remaining after the addition of the best
commercial O. V. will be represented as follows :

Lime.

28

50

156 lbs. of I

contain

Phosphoric acid.

Lime.

Lime.

bone earth j

' lbs.

72

28

28

add

100 lbs. O.V.

== • a

> • •

,

, 50

258 SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

72 + 28

form 100 lbs. superphosphates.

78 + 78
form 156 lbs. plaster.

If to the 100 lbs. of superphosphate thus obtained, 50 lbs.
of O. V. are added to combine with the lime, the result will
be as follows :

100 lbs. superphosphate ; deduct -J unacted on,
33

67 lbs. superphosphate, containing 48.24 lbs. phos. acid,
and 18.76 lbs. lime.

f of the lime, or 14.07 lbs. unite with 25 lbs. of O. V.,
and form 39 lbs. of plaster, while 25 lbs. of O. V. remain
free. Of the lime, ^ or 4.69 lbs. unite with 12.06 lbs. of
the phosphoric acid, and form 16.75 lbs. of superphosphate,
while the balance of the phosphoric acid, or 36.18 lbs., dis-
solves the 33 lbs. of superphosphate, which were unacted on,
and form 69.18 lbs. of double superphosphate, or 2 acid to
1 lime.

Omitting fractions, the final result of adding to 156 pounds
of pure bone earth, 150 pounds of O. V. will be the produc-
tion of

195 lbs. of plaster of Paris,
25 lbs. of free oil of vitriol,

86 lbs. of bi, or double superphosphate of lime, contain-
ing 72 lbs. phosphoric acid, 14 lbs. of lime.

Thus we have all the phosphoric acid of the original 156
lbs. of bone earth, with i only of its lime, in this superphos-
phate. It is to be observed that oil of vitriol of commerce
contains about 40 lbs. of real acid in 50 lbs., the balance is
water, which enters into the composition of the plaster.

SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME 259

The amount of oil of vitriol used above is by far too great.
It has been calculated thus, to show that no amount of O. V.
added to the mixture above, will produce free phosphoric
acid. That may be obtained by adding O. V. to the clear
liquor, which may be drawn from the mixture by leaching.
Still an excess of oil of vitriol has its value, as will be here-
after shown. If the proportion is reduced for 100 lbs. pure
bone earth, to 87|, or | the weight of the bone earth, it will
be seen, presently, that this will be an advisable proportion
to be used, whatever ^orm of bone earth may be used for
conversion into superphosphate of lime.

So much for the chemistry of this subject. Before this
knowledge can be practically applied, the composition of
bone must be recollected. As has been shown (302), bone
comprises other substances of mineral origin, besides bone
earth. These also will combine with O. V., and if it is in-
tended that the 88 parts of bone earth in 100 parts of bone
ash shall all be converted into superphosphate, these hungry
mouths must be first satisfied, or else they will surely help
themselves before the phosphate, their better, is served.

On referring to the composition of raw bones (302), it is
seen that 200 lbs. will afford 100 lbs. of bone ash, composed
as follows :
Phosphate of lime, 88 lbs., requiring 77 lbs. of oil of vitriol.

Carbonate of lime, 6 "

((

6 "

Magnesia, . .1.25

((

1.49

Soda, . . . 3.25

a

3."

Alkaline sulphates.

and chlorides, . 1.50

u

u u

100 lbs. 87.49

Bone meal from

raw bones, . 100 lbs,, require 43.75 " **

260 SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

Boiled or steam-
ed bones, 100 lbs. require 70.22 lbs. of oil of vitriol.

Sugar house refuse or bone black varies much in its com-
position, containing from 65 to 75 per cent, of phosphate,
and from 10 to 12 per cent, of carbonate of lime ; its com-
position should be always ascertained before conversion into
superphosphate of lime.

As a general rule, bone black will require about the same
weight of oil of vitriol as boiled bones.

306. If it is intended to convert bone ash into superphos-
phate, 100 lbs., as has been shown (305), require 87| lbs. of
oil of vitriol for all purposes. The product when dried in
warm air, so as to crumble easily with slight crushing into
a coarse powder, will weigh about 183 pounds, constituted
as follows:

Superphosphate of lime.

47.71

Sulphate of lime,

120.07

" " magnesia,

2.54

" soda,

4.92

Alkaline sulphates and chlorides from the bone

ash, ,

1.50

Oil of vitriol, free, .....

6.48

183.22

100 lbs. of this crude mass, commercially termed super-
phosphate, are composed as follows :

Superphosphate of lime of which are solu-

(double), . . 26.04 ble in water, 26 04 lbs.

Sulphate of lime, . 65.53

" magnesia, . 1.38 . . . . 1.38 "

** soda, . 2.69 .... 2.69 "

SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 261

Alkaline sulphates and

chlorides, . . 0.82 .... 0.82 lbs.

.Free oil of vitriol, . 3.54 .... 3.54 "

100. 34.47

No account is here taken of the solubility of the sulphate
of lime. It is all ultimately soluble in cold water. The
actual amount of the crude superphosphate, readily soluble
in cold water, is about 40 per cent, of which 5, or ^, is sul-
phate of lime. By repeated treatment with cold water, at
least one-half of the air-dried superphosphate, as above con-
stituted, is dissolved, and in the soil would minister imme-
diately to the wants of plants. Ultimately, all the crude
superphosphate would dissolve in soil.

307. Having thus explained the composition of bone in its
various forms, and determined the quantity of oil of vitriol
which is requisite to convert 100 lbs. to superphosphate, that
process is to be conducted as follows, supposing bone ashes
to be used:

Take a half hogshead tub, or any vessel of similar depth,
which will hold from 80 to 100 gallons. If lined with lead
it is better, but this is not essential for making a few hun-
dred pounds.

1. Put 100 lbs. of burned bones, ground to fine powder,
into the tub.

2. Wet the bone ash with 5| gallons of cold water, mix-
ing evenly.

3. Pour on this wet mass 5J gallons, or 87^ lbs. by weight
of best commercial oil of vitriol.

4. With a stout wooden paddle, stir the whole briskly, so
as to mix thoroughly and evenly the materials. The mixture
works, froths, and foams, becomes nearly boiling hot, steams

262 SUPERFHOSPHATE OF LIME.

like a boiling pot. Stir away till the mass thickens too
stiff to move easily. Cover over with an old blanket and
wooden cover, and let all stand 24 hours, with occasional
stirring.

On opening the tub after that time, a stiff, gray mortar,
moderately dry, will be found, which may be shovelled out
and spread thin in a warm dry place. In two or three weeks
it will dry so as to break down under a mullet or post-setter.
The finer dust may be sifted out and used for drilling in with
seed ; or the whole, before drying, may be softened and
broken down to an impalpable paste, in its weight of cold
water, and then mixed with the compost heap, at the rate of
100 lbs. of the dry mass to one cord of compost. Ordina-
rily, there is obtained from 100 lbs. of bone ash and 87| lbs.
of oil of vitriol, about 183 to 185 lbs. of superphosphate dry
enough to grind. It may be ground, after being cracked
small, in a grist mill, or still better, in a Bogardus mill, such
as is used for grinding ores.

The drying of the crude mass may be hastened, and the
ease with which it may be pulverized promoted, by adding
to it, before removal from the tub, absorbent substances.
The best material is perfectly dry powdered peat or muck ;
or if obtainable, the charcoal cinders from locomotives at
railway stations. Fine dry spent tan will answer, or the
finest sifted parts of anthracite coal ashes. In lack of these,
bone ash itself may be used. Any of these, added and stir-
red well in till the mass dries and granulates, speedily puts
it into a state in which with slight drying, the mass will
easily pulverize.

Supposing 183 lbs. have been obtained by thorough dry-
ing, the cost to the farmer who collects bones, or buys them
of the bone boiler at $6 per ton, will be as follows :

SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 263

200 lbs. of raw bones burned, give 100 lbs.

bone-ash, $0,600

Burning and grinding, 250

87J lbs. of oil of vitriol, at 3 cts. per lb., . 2.625

$3,475

or, per pound, $0.1.896

If there is added for labor besides that for

burning, &c., ...... .104

$0.2.000
the cost is 2 cts. per lb.

This is for a superphosphate which contains all the phos-
phoric acid of bone in a soluble state.

It is this soluble state of phosphoric acid which is most to
be desired by the farmer. Every care should be taken by
him that his phosphoric acid falls not back into its insolu-
ble state of phosphate of lime, magnesia, alumina or iron,
when it comes in contact with these elements in soil, or in
the compost heap. Lime, or leached ashes, would immedi-
ately reduce the phosphoric acid to insoluble bone earth.

308. In the crude mass formed from bone ash and oil of
vitriol, as above described, there is no longer any superphos.
phate of lime, or at most, only a very small quantity. It
has been shown how very small a portion of lime is com-
bined with phosphoric acid in the superphosphate, when that
is made from pure bone earth. If to such a superphosphate
of lime, an alkaline sulphate is added, as, for instance, sul-
phate of soda, or Glauber's salt, decomposition ensues, sul
phate of lime, insoluble, is formed, and phosphate of soda,
soluble, takes the place of phosphate of lime. Now, in oper-
ating on bone ash with oil of vitriol, alkaline sulphates are
formed, which with those already existing in the ash, precip-

264: SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

itate the lime from the phosphoric acid, and that alone with
soluble alkaline phosphates remains. By potash, soda, or
ammonia, all the phosphoric acid may be converted into
soluble, neutral phosphates, as will be presently shown.

Again, a portion of oil of vitriol, amounting to 3J per cent.
(306), is found in the crude mass termed superphosphate.
It has its use. It prevents earthy bases in the soil, or com-
post heap, from uniting with the phosphoric acid. It com-
bines with any free ammonia in the compost heap, to which
the superphosphate may have been added, and forms mere
sulphate of ammonia. If the superphosphate is mixed with
guano, the same effect follows. The abundance of sulphate
of lime in a very finely-divided state in the crude superphos-
phate contributes to the formation of sulphate of ammonia
in compost, or guano, when all the oil of vitriol is exhausted,
a little soluble sulphate of ammonia being likewise formed.
Under every view, the tendency of the phosphoric acid is to
remain free. But this free acid is not what the plant de-
mands. Plants want soluble phosphoric acid salts, that is,
alkaline phosphates, and therefore the farmer should see that
all his phosphoric acid is converted to that state.

How may this be effected 1 In several : two or three of
these may be mentioned, which the author has practically
proved to form as effectual a " superphosphate" as any article
bearing that name in the market, whatever its prefix or suffix
may be.

1. If a forcing, early effect is desired, united to the lasting
operation of common bone meal, or supherphosphate of lime,
mix as follows :

50 lbs. of crude superphosphate made as described (307), in dry powder.
25 lbs. of soda ash of commerce, of about 80 per cent, strength.
25 lbs. of Peruvian guano.

Mix well together the superphosphate and soda ash, then

SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 265

add the guano. Use about one pound of this mixture to five
hills of corn, beans, squashes, cucumbers, melons, &c., or
for peas, turnips, or drilled crops, half a pound to every rod
in length of furrow.

It may be mixed with two or three times its bulk of dry
soil, or scattered over the bottom of the hills and covered
with two or three inches of soil, and the seed is to be dropped
on that.

Side by side with the "improved superphosphate" the
above mixture has produced results every way equal to
those of that excellent preparation.

The cost per 100 lbs. is, 50 lbs. superphosphate at 2 cts. $1.00
25 « soda ash, " 3 " 0.75

25 " guano, " 3 " 0.75

100 " cost , $2.50

The soda ash may be replaced by an equal weight of dry
house ashes, when soda is not at hand.

2. If an effect showing itself later, a seed-forming effect,
and a good drought resister is desired, mix as follows :

80 lbs. superphosphate, at 2 cts., . . . $1.60
20 " soda ash, at 3 cts., .... 60

100 " cost $2.20

3. An excellent mixture for all purposes, combining the
virtues of the above, is formed as follows :

75 lbs. superphosphate at 2 cts., . . . $1.50
18f " Peruvian guano, 3 ** . . . 0.56^
6i « soda ash, 8 « . . 0.18f

100 " cost $2.25

12

266 SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

In this case the superphosphate and soda, or house ashe»,
are to be mixed before guano is added.

Either of the above mixed with twice its bulk of soil may
be used as a top dressing for grass, and it is to be sown or
scattered during early warm spring rains, at the rate of
from 100 to 300 lbs. per acre. At this rate they may be
used for top dressing wheat or rye, or sown with oats and
grass seed. For roots, it is best to add these compounds to
the soil, before sowing, working well in, and then sowing
with a seed planter. For cabbages, &c., use 1 lb. to five
plants when set out.

309. Nitrogen, whose conversion into ammonia has been
explained (187), seems to be the great element introducing
chemical change, and inducing chemical motion in the ele-
ments of soil. Nitrogen, as has been stated (206), always
produces for a like weight, like effects, whatever may be the
form in which it is introduced into the soil, or compost heap.
Nitrogen is the element, which the crude superphosphate
lacks, to make it a perfectly efficient artificial manure, when
added either alone to soil, already rich in geine, or to peat
or swamp muck, after these have been treated with ashes,
soda, salt and lime, &lc., as has been before explained.

There is a source of nitrogen of which the farmer may
avail himself, which may be added to his superphosphate,
and go far towards furnishing anew to burned bones the ele-
ment of which fire has deprived them, or that element which
is sought in guano. This source of nitrogen is found in salt-
petre, either East Indian, nitrate of potash, or South Ameri-
can, nitrate of soda. '

When it is considered that these nitrates alone, are among
the most powerful and beneficial of all salts applied by
farmers (168), and that, in the opinion of wise and careful
English agriculturists, nitrates mixed with common salt may

SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 267

supplant guano itself, nitrates added to superphosphate may
be expected to produce all the good effects resulting from
the mixture of guano and superphosphate.

The following compound is therefore recommended with
confidence. The amount of nitrogen in the nitrate here
used, is about the same as that in the best mixtures of
guano, salts of ammonia, and superphosphate of lime.

40 lbs. crude superphosphate, 2 cts., . . $0.80

10 " soda ash, 3 cts., 30

50 " nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, 6| cts., 3.25

100 " cost $4.35

OR,

38 lbs. superphosphate, 2 cts., . . . |0.76

9 " soda ash, 3 cts., 0.27

43 " nitrate of soda, (Chili saltpetre,) 5i cts., 2.36

100 " . cost $3.39

The cost of these per pound is greatel* than that of the
mixtures before proposed, and above that of the commercial
mixture. Still, it is believed that the mixture of nitrates
with superphosphate, even at the above rates, will be found
an economical manure, especially when one prepares for
himself small quantities of superphosphate from such bones
as may be collected in his neighborhood, and where guauo is
not to be had.

No cheaper or better addition can be made, in the small
way, by the farmer, than the droppings of the hen-roost and
poultry yard, home-made guano.

About equal parts of superphosphate, sprinkled with a
little ashes, and of fowl droppings, may be recommended
for trial.

APPENDIX

No. 1.

Dr. Nichols's Statements, prom the Essex County Agricultu-
ral Transactions, 1839-40.

To the Committee to whom, was referred the Communication of
Andrew Nichols, on the subject of Compost Manures, Sfc.

Gentlemen : — Persuaded of the importance of the discoveries
made by Dr. Samuel L. Dana, of Lowell, and given to the world
through the medium of the reports of Professor Hitchcock and
Eev. H. Oolman, to the Legislature of Massachusetts, concerning
the food of vegetables, geine, and the abundance of it in peat mud,
in an insoluble state, to be sure, and in that state not readily
absorbed and digested by the roots of cultivated vegetables, but
rendered soluble and very easily digestible by such plants, by
potash, wood ashes, or other alkalies, among which is ammonia, one
of the products of fermenting animal manures, I resolved last year
to subject his theories to the test of experiment the present season.
Accordingly, I directed a quantity of black peat mud, procured by
ditching, for the purpose of draining and reclaiming an alder swamp,
a part of which I had some years since brought into a state highly
productive of the cultivated grasses, to be thrown in heaps. Dur-
ing the winter I also had collected, in Salem, 282 bushels of un-
leached wood ashes, at the cost of 12 J cents per bushel. These
were sent up to my farm, a part to spread on my black soil grass

270 APPENDIX.

lands, and a part to be mixed with mud for my tillage land. Two
hundred bushels of these were spread on about six acres of such
grass land, while it was covered with ice, and frozen hard enough to
be carted over, without cutting it into ruts. These lands produced
from one to two tons of good merchantable hay to the acre, nearly
double the crop produced by the same lands last year. And one
fact induces me to think, that, being spread on the ice, as above
mentioned, a portion of these ashes was washed away by the spring
freshet. The fact from which I infer this is, that a run below,
over which the water coming from the meadow on which the
largest part of these ashes were spread flows, produced more than
double the quantity of hay, and that of a very superior quality to
what had been ever known to grow on the same land before.

Seventy bushels of these ashes, together with a quantity not ex-
ceeding thirty bushels of mixed coal and wood ashes, made by my
kitchen and parlor fires, were mixed with my barn-manure,
derived from one horse kept in stable during the winter months, one
cow kept through the winter, and one pair of oxen employed almost
daily on the road and in the woods, but fed in the barn one hun-
dred days. This manure was never measured, but knowing how it
was made, by the droppings and litter or bedding of these cattle,
farmers can estimate the quantity with a good degree of correct-
ness. These ashes and this manure were mixed with a sufi&cient
quantity of the mud above mentioned, by forking it over three
times, to manure three acres of corn and potatoes, in hills four feet
by about three feet apart, giving a good shovelful to the hill.
More than two-thirds of this was grass land, which produced last
year about half a ton of hay to the acre, broken up by the plough
in April. The remainder was cropped last year without being well
manured, with corn and potatoes. Gentlemen, you have seen the
crop growing, and matured, and I leave it to you to say whether
or not the crop on this land would have been better, had it been
dressed with an equal quantity of pure, well rotted barn-manure.
For my own part, I believe it would not, but that this experiment
proves that peat mud, thus managed, is equal, if not superior, to
the same quantity of any other substance in common use as a manure
among us, which, if it be a fact, is a fact of immense value to the

APPENDIX. 271

£Eirmers of New England. By the knowledge and use of it, our
comparatively barren soils may be made to equal or excel in pro-
ductiveness the virgin prairies of the West. There were many hills
in which the corn first planted was destroyed by worms. A part
of these were supplied with the small Canada corn, a part with
beans. The whole was several times cut down by frost. The pro-
duce was three hundred bushels of ears of sound corn, two tons of
pumpkins and squashes, and some potatoes and beans. Dr. Dana,
in his letter to Mr. Colman, dated Lowell, March 6, 1839, suggests
the trial of a solution of geine as a manure. His directions for pre-
paring it are as follows : " Boil one hundred pounds of dry pulver-
ized peat with two and a half pounds of white ash, (an article
imported from England,) containing 36 to 55 per cent, of pure soda,
or its equivalent in pearlash or potash, in a potash kettle, with 130
gallons of water ; boil for a few hours, let it settle, and dip off the
clear liquid for use. Add the same quantity of alkali and water, boil
and dip off as before. The dark colored brown solution contains
about half an ounce per gallon of vegetable matter. It is to be
applied by watering grain crops, grass lands, or any other way the
farmer's quick wit will point out."

In the month of June, I prepared a solution of geine, obtained,
not by boiling, but by steeping the mud as taken from the meadow,
in a weak lye in tubs. I did not weigh the materials, being careful
only to use no more mud than the potash would render soluble.
The proportion was something like this : peat, 100 lbs. ; potash, 1
lb. ; water, 50 gallons, — stirred occasionally for about a week, when
the dark brown solution described by Dr. Dana, was dipped oft
and applied to some rows of corn, a portion of a piece of starved
barley, and a bed of onions sown on land not well prepared for that
crop. The corn was a portion of a piece of manured as above
mentioned. On this the benefit was not so obvious. The crop of
barley on the portion watered, was more than double the quantity,
both in straw and grain, to that on other portions of the field, the
soil and treatment of which was otherwise precisely similar

The bed of onions which had been prepared by dressing it with
a mixture of mud and ashes previous to the sowing of the seed, but
which had not by harrowing been so completely pulverized, mized

272 APPENDIX.

and kneaded with the soil, as the cultivators of this crop deemed
essential to success, consisted of three and a half square rods. The
onions came up well, were well weeded, and about two bushels of
fresh horse-manure spread between the rows. In June, four rows
were first watered with the solution of geine above described. In
ten days the onions in these rows were nearly double the size of the
others. All but six rows of the remainder were then watered. The
growth of these soon outstripped the unwatered remainder.

Mr. Henry Gould, who manages my farm on shares, and who
conducted all the foregoing experiments, without thinking of the
importance of leaving, at least one row unwatered, that we might
better ascertain the true effect of this management, seeing the
benefit to the parts thus watered, in about a week after treated the
remainder in the same manner. The ends of some of the rows,
however, which did not receive the watering, produced only very
small onions, such as are usually thrown away as worthless by cul-
tivators of this crop. This fact leads me to believe that if the
onions had not been watered with the solution of geine, not a single
bushel of a good size would have been produced on the whole piece.
At any rate, it was peat or geine rendered soluble by alkali, that
produced this large crop.

The crop proved greater than our most sanguine expectations.
The onions were measured in the presence of the chairman of your
committee, and making ample allowance for the tops, which had not
been stripped off, were adjudged equal to 640 bushels to the acre.
In these experiments, T lbs. of potash, which cost 7 cents a pound/
bought at the retail price, were used. Potash, although dearer
than wood ashes at 12| cents per bushel, is, I think, cheaper than
the white ash mentioned by Dr. Dana, and sufficiently cheap to
make, with meadow mud, a far cheaper manure than such as in
general used among our farmers. The experiment satisfies me that
nothing better than potash and peat can be used for most if not all
our cultivated vegetables, and the economy of watering with a solu-
tion of geine, such as are cultivated in rows, I think cannot be
doubted. The reason why the corn was not very obviously bene-
fited, I think must have been that the portion of the roots to which
it was applied, was already fully supplied with nutriment out of the

APPENDIX. • 273

same kind from the peat ashes and manure put in the hill at plant-
ing. For watering rows of onions or other vegetables, I should
recommend that a cask be mounted on light wheels, so set that like
the drill they may run each side of the row and drop the liquid
manure through a small tap-hole, or tub from the cask, directly
upon the young plants. For preparing the liquor, I should recom-
mend a cistern about three feet deep, and as large as the object may
require, formed of plank and laid on a bed of clay and surrounded
by the same, in the manner that tan-vats are constructed ; this
should occupy a warm place, exposed to the sun, near the water,
and as near as these requisites permit to the tillage lands of the
farm. In such a cistern, in warm weather, a solution of geine may
be made in large quantities with little labor, and without the ex-
pense of fuel, as the heat of the sun is, I think, amply sufficient for
the purpose. If, from further experiment, it should be found eco-
nomical to water grass lands and grain crops, a large cask or casks
placed on wheels and drawn by oxen or horse power, the liquor
from the casks being at pleasure let into a long narrow box pcrfoF-
ated with numerous small holes, which would spread the same over
a strip of ground some six, eight, or ten feet in breadth, as it is
drawn over the field in the same manner as the streets in cities arc
watered in summer.

ANDREW NICHOLS.
I certify that I measured the piece of land mentioned in the fore-
going statement, as planted with corn, on the 21st of September,
1839, and found the same to contain two acres, three quarters,
thirty-one rods.

John W. Proctoe, Surveyor.

Dr. Andrew Nichols's Statement op 1840.
Gentlemen : — Having invited the attention of the Trustees of
the Essex Agricultural Society to our continued use of, and experi-
ments on, fresh meadow or peat mud, as a manure, it is of course
expected that the result of these experiments should be laid before
12*

271 • APPENDIX.

them. The compost with which we planted most of our corn and
potatoes the present year, was composed of the same materials, and
managed in the same manner as that which we used last year for
the same purpose.

Four acres of corn, on the same kind of soil, was manured in the
hill with this compost, and one acre of corn on a more meagre por-
tion of the same field, was manured in the same manner, with a
compost consisting of the same kind of mud, half a cord of manure
taken from the pig-sty, and forty pounds of potash, second quality,
dissolved in water, sprinkled over and worked into the heap, with
the fork, in the same manner that the dry ashes were into the other
compost. Of both kinds the same quantity, a common iron or steel
shovelful to the hill, was used, and no difierence in the crop which
could be ascribed to the different manures, could be perceived. The
hills were four by three feet apart on an average. In the borders
and adjoining this piece of corn, one acre was planted with potatoes.
The compost used in some portions of this consisted of rather a
larger portion of coarse barn-manure composed of meadow hay,
corn-fodder waste, &c., wet with urine and mixed with the drop-
pings of cattle, and less meadow mud. The whole six acres was
hoed twice only after the use of the cultivator. The whole amount
of labor, after the ground was furrowed and the compost prepared
in heaps on the field, is stated by the tiller of the ground, H. L.
Gould, to have been forty-nine days' work of one man previous to
the cutting of the stalks. Pumpkins, squashes, and some beans
were planted among the corn. The produce was four hundred and
sixty bushel baskets of sound corn, eighty bushels of potatoes, three
cords of pumpkins, one and a half bushels of white beans. On one
acre of the better part of the soil, harvested separately, there were
one hundred and twenty baskets of corn ears, and a full proportion
of the pumpkins. On one-eighth of an acre of Thorburn's tree
corn treated in the same manner as the rest, the produce was nine-
teen baskets. A basket of this corn shells out seventeen quarts,
one quart more than a basket of the ordinary kinds of corn. The
meal for bread and puddings is of a superior quality. Could we
depend upon its ripening, for, Thorburn's assertions to the contrary
notwithstanding, it is a late variety of corn, (though it ripened per-

APPENDIX, 276

fectly with us last season, a rather unusually warm and long one,)
farmers would do well to cultivate it more extensively than any
other kind.

The use of dry ashes on our black soil grass lands showed an in-
creased benefit from last year. But our experiments with liquid
manure disappointed us. Either from its not being of the requisite
strength, or from the dryness of the season, or from our mistaking
the effects of it last year, or from all these causes combined, the
results confidently anticipated, were not realized ; and from our
experiments this year we have nothing to say in favor of its use,
altliough we think it worthy of further experiments. On the first
view of the subject, a dry season or a dry time might seem more
favorable to the manifestations of benefit from watering plants with
liquid manure, than wet seasons or times. But when we consider
that when the surface of the earth is dry, the small quantity of
liquid used would be arrested by the absorbing earth ere it reached
the roots, and perhaps its fertilizing qualities changed, evaporated,
or otherwise destroyed, by the greater heat to which at such times
it must be exposed — it is not, I think, improbable that the different
effects noticed in our experiments with this substance, the two past
years, might be owing to this cause. It is my intention, should
sufficient leisure permit, to analyze the soil cultivated and the mud
used, and prepare a short essay on the subject of peat mud, muck,
gand, &c., as manure, for publication in the next volume of the
transactions of the society.

Yours, respectfully,

Andeew Nichols.

Danvers, December 20, 1840.

No. II.

EXTEACT FEOM Dr, NiCHOLS's LeTTER..

Danvers, Jan, 28, 1842.
Dear Sir ; — ^I am sorry to say that I have no new facts to com-
municate. Nor have I anything that contradicts my former views
on the subject of peat, as manure. We used it in compost on about

276 APPENDIX.

nine acres of corn and potatoes last summer, one-half of which was
the same land on which it was used the preceding season. Its
effects seemed not to be lessened by this second trial in the same
soil. The compost was as formerly composed by mixing the mud,
barn-manure, ashes or potash together in the field, in spring, two or
three weeks before the corn was planted ; in a part of it, say the
manure for two acres, about 20 lbs. of nitrate of potash were used.
Wherever the nitre was used, worms were absent ; other parts of
the field were more or less injured by them. This was all the good
that we could positively ascribe to the nitre. Our crops were in a
most flourishing condition on the morning of the 30th of June ; in
the afternoon and evening of that day, a violent tempest and two
showers of hail blew down my barn, half my fruit trees, and pros-
trated and mangled the corn. I should have bargained readily
with any one who would have insured me half the crop realized the
preceding year from the same land and management. But the
healing powers of nature and genial influences of summer suns and
showers, in a few days restored the field again to a flourishing con-
dition. A drought more severe than that of the preceding season
followed in August ; and our crop of corn per acre, was about | less
than the crop of that year. My farmer, H. L. Gould, from his suc-
cess with the mud which you analyzed, was strongly impressed with
the belief that other peat mud would not prove as good. I request-
ed him to make an experiment, which he accordingly did, with two
cart-loads of peat, such as makes good fuel, taken directly from the
swamp, mixed with ashes, and used in the same quantity by meas-
ure, as the other compost. He planted with this four rows of corn
through the piece. And, contrary to his expectations, if there was
any difference, he acknowledged that these rows were better than
the adjoining ones. The mud you analyzed, contained, you recol-
lect, a large portion of granitic sand ; this peat much less sand but
more water, it being quite spongy. The same bulk, therefore, as
taken from the meadow and used in our experiment, would probably
have weighed, when dry, not more than i or 4 as much as the other.
The quantity of geine in the shovelful of the two kinds, varies not
very much after all. I regret that Mr. Gould did not repeat his
experiments with the solution of geine last season. My farm is

APPENDIX. 277

Beven miles from my residence, and, like yourself, I turn no furrows
with my own hand, nor can I oversee, in their various stages, ex-
periments there. I suggest, advise, and leave him to execute. He
found himself too much hurried with his work, to attend to this
subject at the proper time. In answer to your question I say — that
the solution the second year was not applied to the same land, and
although used in much larger quantities, it was not as strong as
that used the past year.

Yours, respectfully,
To S. L. Dana, M. D Andrew Nichols.

It will be observed that about three cords of swamp mud and 33
bushels of ashes have been used per acre, in 1839, and 40 lbs. of
potash in 1840.

The number of hills is 3630 per acre. Then calculating the real
potash, there were given to each hill of corn about J pint of ashes,
or 32 grains of alkali, in 1839, and 45 grains in 1840.

If three cords of swamp muck were used in 1840, about 6 oz. of
dry geine have been applied per hill — the muck being like pond
mud. Now, 45 grains of alkali and 6 oz. of geine, and T^gVir of a
cord of pig-manure per hill, have here produced effects equal to
guano. No new source of nitrogen has been opened to the corn.
The effects are due, then, to the alkaline action on geine, and of
salts upon silicates. The failure of the solution in the second year
is probably owing to the formation of sulphuretted hydrogen ; sec
section (238).

No. m.

Letter from Hon. William Clark, Jr.

Northampton, 10th February, 1842.
Dear Sir : — The results of the few trials I have made with alka-
lies to neutralize the acidity of swamp muck, have not been ascer-
tained with that precision that is necessary to determine conclu-

278 APPENDIX.

sively which is best. I will, however, give you the experiments (if
th^ deserve the name), as they were made, with the apparent results.
The first was with fine well decomposed muck, from the swamp of
which you had samples, numbered 5, 6, and 7. In the spring of
1840, 16 lbs. of soda ash, or white ash, dissolved in water, were
carefully mixed with two estimated tons of the muck, and the mix-
ture applied as a top-dressing for corn. Two other estimated tons
of the muck were served with eight bushels of dry wood ashes, all
well mixed together and spread on one side of the muck that was
served with the white ash, and further on, an equal quantity of fresh
barn-yard manure was spread, and still farther on, an equal quantity
of compost, made of one part barn-manure, and two parts muck,
mixed and fermented before using.

The land was a light sandy loam, on the border of a pine plain,
and the whole field was treated alike in all respects, except the dif-
ferent kinds of manure, all of which was spread on the turned fur-
row, and harrowed in before planting. The corn planted where the
wood ashes and muck were spread, early took precedence of all tho
other parcels, and continued apparently much the best through
the season. Among the other parcels, no striking difference in
growth or yield was manifest. The whole field was harvested
together, without separate weight or measurement ; and the advan-
tage which the ashes and muck apparently gave over the others,
rests (where no experiment should rest) on the opinion of those
whose attention was called to it while the corn was growing.

A similar trial of ashes and muck, and soda and muck, was made
the same season on grass land ; and the advantage was decidedly in
favor of the soda ash and muck, as on the corn land it was in favor
of the ashes and muck.

Why the soda ash should act relatively, more favorably upon the
muck spread on grass land than when spread on corn land, I am
unable to determine, unless it be the partial shade which the grasa
affords to protect it from the direct rays of the sun, and measurably
preserve its moisture and softness. This inference is strengthened
by the fact that muck, treated as in the above cases — with soda
ash in solution (which makes it somewhat pasty), in the only instance
I have tried it — spread on the surface of an old field, without a pro-

APPENDIX. 279

tecting crop, or subsequent liarrowings to cover it in the soil, be-
came apparently sun-baked so hard as to defy, for a time at least,
the softenjng action of water. This hardening effect was not ob-
served to take place with the muck treated with the dry ashes, or
in the manure compost, and may have arisen from the insufl&cieut
quantity of alkali used in the case mentioned.

In another case, one lb. of soda ash, and one lb. of soft soap were
mixed with four bushels of muck, and all put in a fifty gallon tub,
and the tub filled with water, and left to stand five or six days with
an occasional stirring ; at the end of that period, the dark colored
water was dipped off and applied to various garden plants and
vegetables, and the tub again filled with water, and the muck stir-
red up, and after a day or two the water was again dipped ofi" and
applied as before, and the tub again filled with water. This pro-
cess was continued for two or three weeks in the early part of the
season, and the muck, though gradually wasting, without additional
alkali, continued to ferment from time to time, and yield black
liquor, to appearance nearly as rich as the first. Rapid growth of
the plants followed in all cases when it was applied, and its effects
upon a lot of onions would have been ascertained with considerable
accuracy, had not a " hired man" took it into his head that the few
rows purposely left for comparison, were suffering by unwitting
neglect, and gave them a " double dose," thereby equalizing the
growth, and sacrificing the experiment to his honest notions of fair
dealing, which required that all should be treated alike. In another
case, a muck compost dressing, formed by previously slacking quick-
lime with a strong brine of common salt, to disengage the acid of
the salt, that its soda might act on the muck when in contact, was
applied as a top-dressing for corn, without any perceptible effect,
perhaps for want of skill in compounding.

Facts abundantly testify to the fertilizing properties of swamp
muck and peat, when brought to a right state, and the subject of
your inquiry perhaps yields to no other, at the present time, in point
of importance, to our good old Commonwealth. Taking your esti-
mate of the weight of fresh-dug muck or peat, and Professor Hitch-
cock's estimate of the quantity in the state, and the saving of one
cent per ton in the expense of neutralizing its acidity, and fitting it

2S0 APPENDIX.

for use iu agriculture, when applied to all our swamp muck and peat,
will amount to an aggregate saving to the industry of the Common-
wealth, of over five and a half millions of dollars. Is there a rea-
sonable doubt that more than ten times this one per cent, per ton
will be saved over any present process, when chemistry has shed its
full light on the subject ?

The magnitude and importance of a small saving in this matter,
must certainly have been overlooked by some who have given ad-
vice on the subject of making muck compost.
KespectfuUy,

Your most obedient servant,

William Clark, Jr.
S. L. Dana, M.D., Lowell, Mass.

No. IV.

Extract from a letter of Mr. Joseph A. Foster to the
Author, relating to imitation spent Lye (238).

Attlehoro\ February eth, 1844.

Dear Sir : — I determined last spring to make a trial of the imi-
tation spent lye, recommended in the " Manual," and the object of
this communication is to give you the results.

I mixed the composition in the manner and proportion stated,
with one exception, using two bushels of ashes instead of one. I
then spread it upon grass land, seeded down to herd's grass and
clover. The soil was rather a dry, gravelly loam. It was spread
upon a piece of land about ten rods long, and two broad. It was
spread the 27th of April. On the 8th of June, or a little more than
five weeks after the application, as I find by the farm journal, the
effects of it were distinctly visible. The grass was both much
darker, or deeper green, and much taller. The spot was distinctly
marked where the composition was spread. The difference contin-
ued to be much more apparent, and several persons who knew not
that anything had been put on, pointed out the spot upon which it
had been applied. The difference continued to increase till the dry
weather came on, when, in common with other dry lands, the grass

APPENDIX. 281

in a short time was completely scorched. The grass upon which
this manure had been applied did not dry up any quicker than that
around it. The grass had not attained half its growth when it was
mown. The spot upon which the imitation was spread, had not the
drought come on, would have yielded at least one-half as much more
as an equal area by its side.

Respectfully yours,

Joseph A. Foster.

INDEX.

INDEX

Section.

Acetates, formation oi,

47

Acids, "...

, ,

. U, 52, 65

" *' in plants,

. 93, 98

" " ** salts n

Bcessary to,

98

" action of, .

46, 47, 155

** " on alkalies, .

46

" in salts, action of, .

. 150

" " cause of peculiarity of acti(

>nof.

145

" difference in constitution of,

166, 157

'* different strength of,

166

*' rule for naming,

66

" combine only in their equivalents,

58

" in soil, when free, . . .

. 162

" crenic, ....

. 101, 102

« " many based,.

. 126

" " saturating power of,

126

" apocrenic, .

101, 103

« " many-based,

126

" " saturating power of,

. 126

" geic, . . : .

101

" humic,

. 101

" phosphoric,

163

" sulphuric, . . . .

. 153

" weak, action on sugar, .

(p. 92)

" ulmic,

. 101

Agriculture, improvement of,

289

" mineralogy of

37

(SW)

286

INDEX.

Agriculture, value of small discoveries in,
" relation to silicates and salts,

Agricultural Chemistry, aims of,

'* " first principle of,

second "

third "

fourth, "

fifth

« ((

a «

sixth "

seventh "

eighth, «

ninth «

« li

tenth "

chemical proof of,
agricultural "

result of,

" Geology,
Albumen, analysis of, .

" in dung, ....
Alkalies, . . . . , , '

" properties of, . . .

" strong resemblance in, .

" catalytic action of, .

" combine only in their equivalents,

" suflaciency of in soil, "

" in soil not free, . . . .

« effects on geine, 126, 128, 136, 142,

" " " cause of, .

" in ashes,

" action of carbonates on, .

" action on vegetable fibre;

«' " " connected with

plants,

" soluble, .....

" " within the reach of all,

" other forms of cheap, .

" action of salt on, .

" stearate of, . .

" margarate of, . . •

SBOnON.

128
91

1
19
20
29
75
84
84
85
91
. 95
104
. 134
135
145
2,3
217
201
41
46
63
126
58
75
.76
162, 264, 276, 137
137
163

growth of

184,

159,

169
136

137
272
274
275

275
227
227

INDEX.

287

Alkalieg, relative value of,

Alkaline geates, ....

" bases, ....

" " aflSnity of, for carbonic acid,

Alum, formation of, . . .

Alumina, geate of, ' .

** phosphate of, .

" silicate of, .

" insolubility of, in water,

" quantity of, in rock,

" combining weight of, .

" peculiarities of,
Ammonia, in soil, unites with organic acid,

*' changes to nitric acid,

" humate of, changed to apocrenic acid,

*' in manure,

" in cow-dung, .

** produced yearly by one cow,

" the main value of manure,

" catalytic action of,

" sources of,

" in proteine,

" in bone,

•♦ in all animal matters,

" in peat,

" action of, in dung,

" chemical equivalent of,

" equal to soda for agricultural purposes,
Ammoniacal salts of urine,

" ** and peat powder, .

Analysis of horse-dung, Girardin's,

" " sheep " "

" *• 146 Massachusetts soils,

" " 15 Wisconsin " .

" " 48 European "

« " soils, 413, table of,

" •• night-soil, " « .

" " vine ashes,
Animal matter, .

SEcno.v.

. 264

118, 124

62

62

79

121

80

48

186.

(p. 153)

(p. 32)
(p. 33)
(p. 35)

288

INDEX.

BECTIOy.

Animal matter, use of .

.

194

((

" all affords geine, ammonia

and salts,

. 216

<(

source of alkali for peat,

.

277

«

products may be divided into two classes,

. 220

((

*• first class of.

.

221

it

'' second "

.

. 221

Animalized coal,

, ,

210

Anthracite coal, ashes of,

.

. 163

Apocrenates formed by nitric and humic acid,

126

Ashes, action on soil.

. 135

<t

value of, .

163

«

constituents of, .

. 163

«

divisible in two parte,

163

«

of hard wood, analysis of,

. 163

i(

*' soluble part of,

163

€i

" insoluble "

. 163

((

pine, analysis of,

163

t(

of several American trees, analysis

of, .

. 163

a

wheat straw, .

163

ti

anthracite coal, .

. 163

a

leached, value of,

163

«

" contents of cord of,

. 164

«

" salts in,

164

((

of manure, value of, .

. (p. 154)

it

" " table of, .

(p. 154)

u

" vine, analysis of.

21

Atomic weight,

55

"

" theory of,

. 55'

Atoms, combinations of,

55

Author, not a practical farmer, .

B.
Barley, limits of, .

. 271

. 26, 28

«

" cause of.

26

(I

temperature necessary to growth.

26

u

" of germination,

. 28

Bases, alkaline,

41

((

" properties of, , ,

62

••

" equivalents of,

62

INDEX,

289

tscnox

Bases, alkaline, action on geine, .

. 147

" metallic, ....

58

" carbonates of, in ashes,

92

'* separated from the acid,

142

" of all salts, acts ever the same,

145, 152

Bones, constituents of, . . .

223

** bone earth in, .

. 223

*' tallow in after boiling,

223

" liquor of, as manure.

(p. 158)

** their importance and value, .

299

** in what way they act, .

. 301

** entire composition of

302

•* partially deprived of gelatine, .

. 302

*' steamed and boiled, .

302

*' ash, .

. 302

" oil of vitriol to dissolve,

305

Bromine in seaweed, ....

87

Burning of crops, ....

287

" eflfectsof,

. 287

a

Carbon, chemical equivalent of,

57

** in sandy soil, ....

. 127

' * eulphuret of, . . .

65

Carbonates, .....

52, 159

" of ammonia,

2G5

Carbonate of lime in leached ashes.

1C4

** " in soil, remarks on.

33

Carbonic acid, evolved by roots.

. (p. 130)

* '* formation of,

57

" •♦ chemical equivalent of, .

57

' ** aflQnity for alkaline bases, .

62

" ♦♦ cause of, ...

93, 170

' ♦* absorbed by geates, .

120

* '• action on silicates.

. 133, 134, 159

result of.

135

" in plants,

167

" ♦♦ composition of,

65

Car

burets, .....

49

290

INDEX.

Cartilage of bone, as manure,

Caseine, analysis of, .

Catalysis, action of, ...

" definition of, .

Catalytic power, ....
Chalk in eggshells,
" clamshells.
Charred peat, ....
Chemical equivalent, definition of,

" " important to farmers,

*' formulae, of proteine,
Chlorides, ....

" source of, ...

" in granite rocks,
" " *' Hayes on.

Chlorine in soil, ....
Columbine, .....
Combining number, .
Compost of animal matter, .
Copperas, ....

Cotton, phosphates in,
Cow-dung, the type of manures,

" composition of, .

" analysis of, .

•* value of, dependent on food,

" water in, .

" general analysis of,

" ammonia in,

" ultimate analysis of,

" quantity produced by one cow,

" compared with horse-dung,

" cost of, . .

** from meal compared with from hay,

" richer in summer than winter,

" action of, ...

Crasso, analysis of vine ashes, .

129.

BECnoK.

223

. 217

137

69

140, 141, 142

. 215

215

. 278

66

68

219

. 170

84

D.

Decay, definition of,

107

INDEX.

291

Decay,

first product of, .

. 110

((

hastened by potash and lime,

136

(<

" alumina, . . . .

. 136

(>

general products of, .

101

Decomposition, as effecting value of manure, .

(p. 56)

Deodor

izing vaults, how done,

(p.

171)

Drought, its effects on manure,

(p.

159)

Dung, horse, how treated, ....

(P-

145)

i(

" fermentation of, .

(p.

145)

Eggshells, lime in, .

215

Elements defined, . , . . .

35

«

number of, . . . . •

40

«

atomic, . . . . .

65

((

earthy and metallic,

40

4i

volatile and combustible.

40

«

division of, ....

41

«

" adopted, . . * .

61

i(

unequal affinity of, ...

• 64,55

it

combination of, ... .

65

«

proportion of combination,

66

*" u

of soil, metallic and unmetallic,

40

«

" action of, .

130

u

« defined, . . . .

. 131

u

" two classes of, .

101

li

" first class of, .

. 102

u

" second class of, .

103

((

metallic, change to unmetallic.

64

<«

mineral, cause of decomposition of.

137

«

number selected by plants, .

87

l<

wherein plants do not obey chemical laws of,

87

«

susceptibility of change.

90

l(

number of, in organic parts of Boil,

89

M

" inorganic parts of soil.

89

u

organic, complex combination o^

99

«

inorganic, simple " . .

99

l<

organic, character of, .

99

(«

" products of decomposition of,

. 100

292

INDEX.

Element.^, organic, one constant,

" inorgaaic,

" organic, of plants,

" relative weight of,

'• of silicates, laws of combination
Epsom salts, formation of,
European soils, analyses of, .
Evaporation from soil, .

" ** woodland,

Excrement, human, analysis of, .

" " ashes of, table of,

F.

Farmer, the, a chemist, .

" philosophy of, .

** pole-star of,

" knowledge of terms, .

" important fact to, .

" true field of action of, .

"• first requisite of, ,
Fats, action of air on,
" action on silicates,
" chemical composition of,
Feathers, analysis of, .
Feces, human,
Felspar, ingredients of, .
" soda in, .

" action of air and moisture on,
Fertility, what dependent on, .
Fibrine, analysis of, . .

Fleitmann, on human feces, .
Flemish manure, ....
Flowers, salts in, .
Fluorine, in rye ashes, . . .

Fruit trees, limits of.
Furnace, for poudrette, .

of.

(p. 33, 35)

(p. 150)
(p. 156)

SEcnos.
100, 101
. 115

(p. 150)

60
61

77
98, 152

(p. 150)

(p. 171)

Gadou,

208

INDEX.

293

SBCnON.

Gas poudrette, how made,

278

•• li

ijuor, value and use of,

278

Geates, character of, .

. . 118

"

properties of, . . .

124

i(

formation of, .

. 136

"

abundant in soil, . .

162

<(

action of lime on, . . .

. 162

((

of lime, ....

118

t(

of magnesia, ....

. 120

«

of alumina, ....

121

<(

of iron, . . ,

. 122

((

of manganese,

123

Geic acid, .....

101, 116

Geine

researches of Mulder,

(p. 91)

»

history of, . * . .

. (p. 85)

((

first discovery of, .

a

((

contents of, .

. (p. 90)

«

potash in, .

n

♦♦

called ulmin in trees, .

. (p. 86)

((

same as "

(p. 89, 93, 94)

"

constitution pf, .

(p. 97, 98)

«

names of, .

(p. 90)

definition, ....
essential to crops, .

100, 101, 102, 105
104

((

in all forms the same, .

. 105

((

a generic term,

105

<«

described, ....

108, 109

a

divided, ....

109

(I

soluble, what dissolved by,

. 109

u

properties of, important to the farmer.

109

(•

•passage from insoluble to soluble,

110, 113

«

affinity for alumina, .

111

ti

" lime, magnesia,

111, 126

<(

" oxides of iron and manganese,

112

It

uncombiued, ....

. 115

((

•' properties of, .

160, 116, 117

(i

properties of, with water.

. 125

«

relations to alkalies,

. 126. 136

((

quantity in soil, . . •

. 127

29i

INDEX.

SEcnojr.

Geine, twofold action of, .

,

136

t(

cause of effect of alkalies on, .

.

137

((

how retained in soil,

, ,

138

<(

fertility dependent on,

.

151

((

necessary with salts, . . ,

.

153

((

action of oxygen on, .

,

168

<(

as required by nature,

,

171

«

in cow-dung, ....

,

185

<(

formed daily by one cow,

.

189

" yearly *' *' .
the main agricultural value of manure,
action of, in manure.

»

189
191
195

U

in horse -dung, ....

.

204

«

compared with glycerine.

233, 234,

235

,236

«

in spent lye, .

.

238

n

necessity of in soil, .

.

127

«

in peat, . , . . .

.

256

in rivers at freshets, . .
intention of application of,

•

283
291

<i

varies much in soil, .

. ■

291

ti

lightest part of soil,

.

292

it

absorption of moisture by, .

.

294

«

'' gas by, .

.

295

((

slow evaporation of,

.

294

<i

effect of conversion into water, .

.

295

1

electrical relations of,

.

297

a

basis of agriculture.

298

a

table of composition of,

(p.

97)

a

comparison of natural and artificial,

(p. 97,

98)

li

modiflcations of, . . .

(p. 99)

Gelatin, description of, :

,

.»

218

"

analysis of, .

.

218

Glass

green, composition of, .

.

.

71

Glauber's salts, ....

,

170

Glycerine, . . . , .

,

.

227

(

composed of, . ,

.

227

<

the organic part of lye,

.

.

229

(

compared with geine.

233,234,

235

,236

" different from geine^

.

.

236

INDEX.

295

Grain, crops of, in Massachusetts,
" northern boundary of,
" failure of, in Iceland,
" " " cause of,

of germination,

'* temperature "
Granite, formation of,

" composed of.
Guano, great quantity of,

" analyses of, .

" an article of commerce,

" Johnston's average table of,

" table of various analyses of,

" proportion to be used,

" use of, .

" ammonia in, .

•* varieties of,

" and superphosphates,
Gypsum, application of, .

" action of,

Hair, analysis of, ...

Hair, fertilizing power of.
Hay, action of catalysis on,

** yield of by various salts,
Hayes, Dr., on chlorides in rocks.
Heat, absorbed by soils.
Hen, food of, .

*^ '* analysis of, .

" eggs of, *' .

" excrements of, "

" " salts in,

" " and superphosphates,

" agricultural value of,
Hog manure,

" " value of, .

" " contents of,

" urine, analysis o^ . •

Horn, analysis of, . . •

SBcmoN.

, ,

23

26

.

26

26

, ,

26

6

,

71,72

. 211

,

212

. 212

(p. 175)

. (p.

174)

,

208

. 212

.

212

. 212

, ,

308

. 151

•

151

. 218

.

286

. 184

(p. 158,

159)

88

.

293

214

.

214

. 214

, ,

214

. 214

,

309

. 214

, ,

205

. 205

(p. 162)

. 247

• •

218

296 INDEX.

SEcnox.

Hornblende, ingredients of, . . . ^ .60

" action of, air and moisture on, . . 77

Horse-dung, analysis of, . . . . . . 203

" '' value compared with cow-dung, . , 204

" " fermentation of, . . . . . 204

" " how to be treated, . . . (p, 144)

" boiling establishments, . . . . .210

Hruschauer, analysis of vine ashes, . . . 21

Human excrement, Fleitmann's analysis of, . . (p. 150)

•' '• Berzelius's '•' . . (p. 149)

Humic acid, . . . . . (p. 98)

Humin, . . . . . . . 102

Humus, ...... (p- 95)

" constituents of, • . . . . (p. 94)

" formation of, . . ' . . (p. 94)

Humin, formula of, . . . . . (p. 94)

Humic acid, " formation of apocrenates by, . . 126

Humate of ammonia, . . . . (p. 95)

Hydrogen, ....... 40

" in sandy soil, . . . . ' . 127

" considered as unity, . . . .55

" combination of, . . . . . 55

" excess of, in decaying soil, . . . 100

" group, in organic bodies, . , . . 101

I.

Indian corn, northern limit of , . . . .26

" " temperature of germination, . . . 26

Iowa soils, analysis of, . . . . . (p. 33)

Iodine, in land plants, ..... 87

Irrigation, .... 254, 279, 281, 282, 283

" most fertile source of benefit from, . . 283

natural, ...... 286

Iron, carburet of, . . . . . .65

" geateof, ...... 122

** phosphate of, . . . , . .80

*' silicate of, ..... , 48

" sulphate of, formation, . , . , ,79

*' " action, . . , , , 82

INDEX.

297

Iron, Bulphuret of, . . .

" " decomposition of,

" combining weight of,
Isinglass, physical properties of,
Isotheral line, ....
Isochimenal line,
Isomorphism, law of, .

J.

Jackson, C. T., Dr., on peat,

Jacquemart, on peat and ammonia,
" ^' various manures,

Jauffret's manure, principles of,

Johnston, Professor, analysis of .yard-dung,

" " " of night-soil, table of,

" " soil not dependent on rocks.

K.

Krocker, on amount ammonia in soil,
Kuhlmann, on nitrogenous manures,

SBCTION.

66
79
. 66
37
26
26
94

(p. 160)

(p. 149)

258
278

278

Lawes, on the value of manure

ashes,

Law of substitution,

,

Life,

a catalytic power, .

.

Life,

first action of, .

.

Lime

, action of, .

.

"

" on vegetable fibre, .

<<

" on free acids in

soil,

((

properties of, .

«

secretion of,

.

(«

in soil,

<(

sufficiency of, in soil,
not free **

•

u

combining weight of,

.

<i

in dung.

''

in eggshells.

•

(<

in granite,

13*

3 of,

.

208

.8,

. (p. 156)

21

(p. 157, 159, 160)

•

. (p. 164)

95

,

.

139

171

,

159, 161,

1G2

^ ,

. 160,

162

162,

163

160

,

, ,

18

30

, ,

75

76

,

66

192

•

215
72

298

INDEX.

Lime, in pine plains, ....

" in wheat straw, ....

" place of, may be supplied,

" corrective of too much,

" hastens decay, ....

*' misapplication of, .

** caustic, .....
" " greedy of carbonic acid,

" carbonate of, .
" " in ashes,

" " extent of use,

** " in flowers and leaves, ,

" composts of, . . .

" geates of, . .

" '' soluble,

" " insoluble, ....

*• phosphate of, ... .

" " cause of, . .

" *• in all soil, . . .

" " in bones of graminivorous animals

" " in vegetables,

" " in grain and cotton,

** superphosphate of, . . .

" " how made,

" " how used,

" " solubility of, in water,

" " and soda ash,

" " " guano,

« " •* nitrates, .

" « cost of, .

" " and fowl droppings, .

" " double, composition of, .

" silicate of,

** sulphate of,

" *' in all soil,

" muriate of.
Loam, formation of,
Locomotive cinders, as manure,

53

57,

INDEX.

299

Magnesia, ....

18

((

combining weight of,

56

t<

caustic,

62

<t

may supply the place of lime,

91

ti

geate of, . . .

. 120

<(

phosphate of, in vegetables,

85

((

silicate of, .

48

Man,

the journeyman of nature,

290

Manganese, geate of, .

. 123

•

silicate of,

48

Manure, ....

172, 252

«

the farmer's first requisite, .

172

u

what composed of,

. 172

ti

immense variety of,

174

ti

divisible into three classes,

. 175

«

chiefly of the third class.

176

It

standard measure of, . .

177, 179

It

the elements of fertility.

178

It

contents of, .

. 178

((

the type of, .

179

it

" composition of,

. 179

<t

from one cow.

189, 190, 191

«(

chief value of, .

193.

194, 195, 261

ti

rich in proportion to nitrogen.

. 196, 261

«

what reduced to,

. 206

«

three varieties, different properties of.

206

<(

*' '• comparative value of.

. 207

«

long and short,

.

(p. 14,5)

«

weight of cubic foot of, .

,

(p. 149)

((

various sorts of,

.

208

«

dung of fowls,

.

. 213

«

" " good results from use of,

213

<<

not containing nitrogen,

.

. 224

<(

from salts only.

.

239

((

" chiefly from liquid animal evacuations, 239

it

of peculiar salts.

-,

.

. 239

"

of animal acids,

,

.

. 239, 240

((

liquid of cow, composition of, .

.

.

. 243

OOO INDEX.

sEcno.v.

Manure, liquid of cow, compared with dung,

243

" " *' quantity annually

from one cc

w, effects of, 244

'• " of horse,

.

. 245

♦' " of man.

.

248

" natural, insufficient for all,

,

. 252

" artiecial,

.

• . 253

" " distinction of, from animal.

. 253

" " first in this class, .

. ,

254

" " others "

,

. 254

" green, action upon peat,

.

270

" artificial, cost per cord,

.

274, 276

" " *• compared with cow

r-dung.

274

" " preparation of, in best manner,

. 274

" other sources of,

2S4

" sheep, analysis of,

. 205

" hog, . . . •

205

sheep, value of, .

. 205

Margarine,

227

Margaric acid, ....

. 227

Metalloids, defined, .

. 40, 50

" number of, .

48, 45, 58

^' characters of,

65

" combinations of with oxygen,

66

" action of air and water on.

78

" continually become salts, ,

79

" selected by plants.

87

Metalloid compounds.

40

Metals, . . . .

41

Mica, properties of, . . .

37

" ingredients of, .

60

" action of air and wet on, .

. 77

Minerals, simple,

35

number of,

38, 59

♦* " limited knowledge of,

38

(* " elements of,

39

" " table of constitution of,

59

" " three classes of,

. 60

Mitchell, on sea water, lime, and peat,

.

270

Motion, in seeds and plants, remarks on,

. (p. 162)

INDKX.

Motion, chemically induced in soil, .
Mould, vegetable, defined.

" organic elements of, according to Berzelius
Muck, action on sand,
Mud, value of, .

" compared with dung, .
•' of freshets, analysis of, .
Muriates, . . . .

" source of, ... .

N.
Nails, the, analysis of.
Nature, beneficence of, .
Neutral group of organic bodies,
Night-soil, table of analysis of, .
" Soubeiran's analysis of,

" composition of, . . .

*' ** nitrogen in, ,

Nitrates, . .....

" action of, .

" in soil, source of, . . .

•• of soda, its effects on grass.
Nitrification in soil, ....

Nitric acid, action of on humic,

'* " " on humate of ammonia, .

Nitre, composition of, . . .

" one of the most active salts,
Nitro-humic acid, ....

Nitrogen in soil, ....

" in sandy soil,

" in geine, ....

" in air, ....

* source of, for roots and seeds,
" in manure,

" produced yearly by one cow,
" action of, .

" the chief enriching quality in manure,
" the basis of ammonia,
" in dung, source of, .

SKcno.v.
98
. 114
(p. 145)

289
258, 259
259
284
170
84

(p. 99)

302

INDEX.

Nitrogen in hay, what becomes of, .

.

198

" in horse-dung,

. 204

" in night-soil, » . . .

.

205

" in cow-dung, ....

. 268

" distinguishing feature of organized bodies,

217

" measures, value of manure, .

. (p.

155)

" how limited in value,

(P-

160)

Nitrogen eflFective, as decay is rapid, .

. (p.

155)

•' remarks on its effects on vegetation,

(P-

156)

Norton, Professor J. P., on fertile soils,

21

0.

Oats, limit of, .... .

26,28

" temperature of germination,

26

Oil of vitriol free in superphosphate of lime.

304

" " quantity for raw bones, .

. 305

*' " " steamed bones, .

305

" " *' bone ash, .

. 305

" " " sugar house refuse, .

305

Oils, action of air on, .

. 224

" action on silicates^ ....

224

Oleic acid.

. 227

Oleine

227

Organic matter in cow-dung, .

. 180

" " " according to Morin, .

181

M.Penot,

. 182

" " " ultimate analysis of.

186

Oxides, metallic, ....

49

" of iron, combining weight of,

56

*' of manganese, ....

56

Oxygen,

40, 49

" combining weight of, .

56

" in bases of organic acid salts.

98

" in sandy soil, ....

. 127

" action of, on geine,

168

" " silicates, .

. 168

" in water, action of, ...

281

*• group of organic bodies,

. 101

Ox, quantity of manure from one, .

(P-

148)

INDEX,

303

SKcnox

P.

Pearlash, properties of,

.

46

" to be used one-half more than soda-ash, .

265

Peat, ....

254, 255

" analysis of, .

256

•* varieties of,

. 257

" water in,

259

" value of, .

. 259

" ashes, contents of,

163

*' compared with cow-dung.

. 254

" salts and geine in,

260

" resemblance to cow-dung,

. 260

" ammonia in, .

260

" power wanting in,

.

. 261

" power wanting in, how to be given. .

262

" addition of alkali to,

.

. 264

** quantity of alkali to hundred weight.

266

" " " cord, fresh

dug, .

267, 269

" " " dry,

.

267, 269, 271

" dung to be added to.

.

270,276

" action of dung on.

.

27G

*" boiled with alkali,

.

271, 272

" mixed with spent ashes,

, ,

272

" charred, .

,

. 278

" action of lime and salt on,

.

276

" " sal-ammoniac on.

.

. 276

• converted by other sources into soluble manure.

277

*' mixed v/ith urine, .

277, 278

•* necessity of fermentation in, .

260

" submarine.

. 276

" and salt water,

276

Phosphates,

52

" action of.

169

«' proportional to nitrogen.

. (p. 162)

Phosphorus, equivalent of, .

57

" existence of.

84

Phosphoric acid,

67

" equivalent of,

57

*' properties of, . •

304

30i

I!^DEX.

Phosphurets,

" action of air on,

Pigeon dung,

" •' value of,
Pine ashes, analysis of,

" plains, lime and potash in.
Plants for food, .

'• product of,

" repay labor of cultivation,

" natural limit of,

" artiGcial "

" limits of, what determined by,

" laws of distribution of,

" irregularity of limits of,

" limits of grain bearing on mountains

" earthy parts of,

" not all contain the same elements,

" elements of, return to earth, .

" always contain salts and silicates,

" always form acids,

" galvanic action of,

" decomposing action of,

" animal principles in,

" " '• analysis of,

Plaster of Paris, formation of, .
" " application of,

" " action of,

Ploughing in of crops,

" " great fertilizing power of,

" " green, action of,

" " compared with dry,

Polstorff, experiments of, . .

Potash, silicate of, . . .

*' combining weight of,

•' solubility in water,

" caustic,

*' in granite,

♦' carbonate of, in ashes,

«' may supply the place of lime, .

INDEX.

805

BKCnON.

Potash, hastens decay, .

.

.

136

'♦ to be used one-half more thaa soda,

.

265

Potassium, sulphuret of, .

.

.

65

Potato, limits of, .

.

26

Poudrette, ....

,

208

209, 210

" mode of making,

(p. 166 to 172)

" composition of,

.

.

. 208

^' ammonia in, . .

.

208

" peat in, , . .

.

.

. 209

salts in, . . . .

.

209

Proteine, ....

.

(P-

99,

100)

" description of, .

.

218

" chemical formulae of,

.

.

. 219

" action of weak acid on,

(P

99,

100)

Putrefaction, products of,

.

. 100

" table of products Qf, .

'

100

Q.

Quartz, formation of, ...

.

60

" odor produced by friction,

•

•

84

B.

Rain, natural irrigation..

••

.

286

" fertilizing power of,

. 286

" aramoniacal salts in, ,

.

286

Replacement, of elements, . :

94

Richardson, analysis of yard-dung, .

(p.

146)

Rogers, J., on manure ashes,

(P 155)

Rule for estimating soil ingredients,

(p. 37)

Rocks, primitive,

. 6,6

" secondary, ....

.

5,8

*• trappean,

7

" origin of, . .

.

10,11

•* chemical constituents of.

8

" two great classes of.

.

10,11

" distribution of, .

11

" first class of, .

.

12

" second "...

13

" chemical constitution of,

.

15,39

806 INDEX.

BKcnox.

Rocks, chemical constitution of, difference in,

. 15

" fossiliferous, ....

16

" non-fossiliferous.

17

" cause of difference, .

18

" amount of " . .

19

" only one, in truth,

19

" not affect vegetation.

20, 26, 27, 28

*' what covered by, .

.* . 30

" different views of,

34

" compound, ....

35

" composition of, .

38

" number of elements in,

. 40, 45

" great bulk of, .

48

" enrich soil, ....

290

" action of, on soil,

. 290

Rye, limit of, . . * .

26, 28

" temperature of germination,

26

S.
Sal ammoniac, action of, .

276

Salt, action of, .

. 149

" use of, .

170

Saltpetre,

. 166

*• action of, .

269

alkali in.

. 269

Salts,

40, 44, 45, 46, 50, 76

'* super, sub, neutral,

57

" very insoluble, and abundant,

80

" action on silicates,

133, 171

" of, . . 143, 144, 145, 146,

147, 148, 149, 150, 171

" " on of plants.

147

" fertility dependent on.

. 151

" connection with geine necessary,

154

" action of, without geine.

. 155

" ** on soil of slate,

155

" " " gneiss, .

. 155

" excess of, the cause of barrenness.

156

" some of better effect than others,

. 156

«* divided into two classes, . , ,

168

807

INDEX.

Salts, first class, three divisions,

" constant in plants,

" second class of,

" quantity of, which may be used, .

" two classes of, poisonous,

** in cow-dung,

" " " by Morin,

" " " byM. Penot,

" in bushel of dung,

** formed daily by one cow, .

" formed yearly by one cow,

" in horse-dung,

" in night-soil,

" in excrements of a hen,

" in animal matter,

" annually evacuated by one person,

** in urine,

'* in mud and peat,

*• in rivers, at freshets, .

" in rain and snow,

" intention of application of, .

" of ammonia, value of,

** of crenic and apocrenic acids, sources
Sand, improved by liming,

" composition of,

" action of muck on,

" best to restore,

" heaviest part of soil,- . .
Sandstone, formation of,
Science, definition of, .

" application to agriculture.
Sea eagle, excrement of,
" water, for slacking lime,
Serpentine, ingredients of.
Seeds, heat and cold borne by,
Sheep, urine of, . . . ,

Silex, ....

" formation of, . , ;

" quantity of, in rock, .

(p.

of.

42,48

BBCnON.

159
91
166
169
170
180
181
182
188
189
191
204
205
214
216
251
243, 249
256
283
280
291
158)

126

133

13

289

290

292

5

128

128, 129

212

276

60

26

247

62, 69

48

69

c08 INDEX.

sEcnojr.

Silex. as an acid in simple minerals,

59

Silica, combining weight of, ...

56^

" soluble,

. ' 70'

Silicates, ..... 40,

41, 42, 45, 46, 76

" decomposition of, . .

76

" action of, carbonic acid on,

77, 131, 134, 285

" selected by plants,

87

" constant in plants, ....

91

" no action on each other.

. 131

" of soil, stationary, ....

132

" of potash, ....

.. 165

" action of oxygen on, . . .

168

" of soda in spent ashes,

. 273

" unlimited fertility of, . . .

289

" uniformity of, .

. 291

" laws of combination of, .

56

Silicon,

43

" action of, with oxygen.

48

*' sulphuret of, .

65, 83

" properties of, . . . .

67

Silicic acid, .....

69, 71

Siliciurets, ......

49

" action of air on, .

78

Sinclair, Sir John, on sea water, and peat, .

276

Skin of the sole of the foot, an analysis of,

. 218

Slate, ......

5

Snow, salts in, .

. 286

Soda, . . . .

42

" silicate of, ....

48

" silicate of, combining weight of,

66

" may take the place of lime,

96

'• muriate of, action of, .

149

Soil,

10

" only one, .....

19

" all primary, ....

20

'* transportation of, ... .

30, 31

" chemical composition of, . . •

. 32, 33

" analysis of, .... .

33

" bulk of, ... . .

.48

INDEX.

809

BECTION.

Soil, elements in, .

40

•' unvarying,

58

" decay of,

.

76

" organic parts of, .

. 88, 89

** inorganic "

.

89

" " number of elements in, .

89

" organic " "

.

89

•• inorganic, difference of,

90

" carbonaceous, .

,

102

•• not external to plants,

. 140

" decomposed by plants,

.

141, 147

" result of action of carbonates on, .

. 135

" sandy, best to restore, .

.

290

•• physical properties of.

291, 298

" " " characters of,

.

291

« " " what dependent on,

. 292

relations of.

.

292

" varieties of, ...

.

. 292

" sand heaviest part of, .

.

292

" most important character of.

.

. 293

" " " " determined

by weight.

293

" color and dryness important to, .

,

. 293

" relation to moisture and gases, .

.

294, 295

«• fresh ploughed, evaporation of.

.

. 295

*• light, advantages of, .

.

.

295

" action of cold on, .

.

. 296

" electrical relations of, .

.

.

297

" chlorine in, ...

.

. 298

" all fertile has certain elements.

.

.

21

*• origin of four, growing grape vine,

.

21

" Johnston on, .

.

,

21

" Norton on fertile, .

.

21

" table of analyses of, 413,

.

(p.

35)

♦' weight of cubic foot of, ingredients,

amount

per acre.

rule for, ....

. (P

37)

" remarks on analysis of, .

.

33

" divided into soluble and insoluble.

,

. (p. 31)

Soot, a powerful manure, .

,

,

225

•' salts in, ....

•

. 225

310

INDEX.

SECTION.

Soot, analysis of, ,

225

*' nitrogen in, ... .

. 226

" capital liquid manure.

226

*' good results of, in England,

. 226

** of anthracite coal, . .

226

Soubeiran, analysis of yard-manure,

. (p. 147)

" observations on nitrogen in,

(p. 148)

" analysis of night-soil,

. 208

" " of animalized coal,

210

" on mould and turf,

. 278

*' '•' '' and dried flesh,

278

Spent lye, . . . .

170, 297

" *' salts of, ....

230

" " alkali in, ....

. 230

" " two kinds of,

330

" " first kind, analysis of,

230, 233

" *' second " '♦ . .

231

'* *' value of, ....

. 232

" " action of,

236, 237, 238

" " from soda soap, imitation o^

. 238

Spent ashes, composition of,

273

Starch, converted into sugar, . . .

. 137

Stable manure, composition of,

176

Stearine, .....

. 227

Stearic acid, ....

227

Stinchecombe farm, ....

. 226

Straws, table of value of, .

(p. 147)

Substitution, of elements,

94

law of,

95

Sulphur, . . . .

43

" equivalent of, . .

57

Sulphates, .....

62, 170

Sulphurets, .....

49

" action of air on, .

. 78

Sulphuric acid, formation of,

57

'• " equivalent of, .

57

Sulpho-benzoic acid,

(p. 99)

Super-geates, . . . ,

120, 124

Superphosphates, ....

. 804-306

INDEX.

311

SKCTIOX.

Superphosphates, how made,

.

307

" how applied,

.

308

Swamp mud,

.

. 254

Sugar, action of weak acid on,

tn

(p. 117)

X.

Table of products of putrefaction,

. 100

Talc, ingredients of,

.

60

Temperature, effects of, .

26

Theories, the evils of.

.

146

Turf, .

u.

. 257

Ulmin, composition of, .

. (p. 94) 101

" production of.

(p. 92)

" first called geine.

. . (p. 90)

Ulmic acid, .

(p. 87) 101

" " formation of.

. (p. 93)

" " composition of, .

(p. 94)

Urea, formation of,

. 139, 240, 242

** properties of, .

241

" composition of.

. 242

Uric acid,

243

" " composition of,

. 243

Urine of cow, composition of.

243

" of one cow, annually,

. 244

" salts in,

. 245,246

" effects of watering with.

. 246

♦* of horse, analysis of, .

247

value of.

. 247

" human, "

248

•♦ " analysis of.

. 248

" ** compared with horse and cow,

. 248,249

" varies with food, .

.

. 250

" action of putrefaction on

>

259

" mixed with peat, .

• • •

277, 278

" of hog, analysis of,

• •

247

" sheep.

V.

. 247

Vegetable mould,

• • •

113, 114

%^

S12

INDEX.

jEcnox.

Vegetable mould, inorganic elements of,

115

" " brown powder of,

. 115

*• " " " properties of, .

116

" products, two classes of,

. 220

Vinegar, properties of, . . . .

246

" action on pearlash,

246, 247

Vital principle, .....

171

Volcanoes, cause of, .

6

" products of, . . .

12

Von Tschudi, on guano,

. (p. 177)

W.

Water, elements of, .

40

" composition of, .

. 52,55

in plants,

167

" pure, action of, on land,

. 280

" " air in, .

280

" with air expelled,

. 281

Weigmann, experiments of, .

(p. 130)

Wisconsin, soils of, . . . . .

. (p. 32)

Wheat, limits of,

26, 28

" conditions necessary for,

26

" temperature of germination,

26

*•' straw ashes, analysis of.

. 163

Wood, hard, ashes, analysis of, .

163

Woodland, evaporation of, . .

. 295

Wool, analysis of, . . ...

218-

" natural soap of, for manure.

. 222

" " '' 35 to 40 per cent, of,

222

" *' " used in France, .

. 222

Woollen rags, powerful manure.

222

" " stronger than cow-^ung, .
Y.
Yard-manure, defined,

. 222

(p. 146)

" how affected by age, &c., .

. (p. 147)

*• composition of, ....

(p. 147)

" analysis, by Richardson, .

. (p. 147)

" Johnston,

(p. 148)

" " " Soubeiran, .

. (p. 147)

« weight of cubic foot of. . . .

(p. 148)

14 DAY USE

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22Jan*57i .v

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I

678993

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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