31EDbt.DD51D4flTfl / ? a-0 LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE NO, S SOU ^99 B93 1854 3ATE_7r_LE_S_ U^ :, , /. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1839, by Marsh, Capen, Lyon, and Webb, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. ADVERTISEMENT. Scarcely had the ink, with which this Volume was written, become dry, ere we were called upon to mourn the loss of its intelligent and highly-respected Author, who, while on a mission of good to his Agricultural breth- ren, was suddenly cut off, in the mid-day career of his usefulness, atDanbury, Conn., October 6, 1839, after an illness of a few days' continuance. The high estimation, in which he was held, is amply evinced by the expressions of regret for his loss, and of respect for his memory and worth, that have appeared in the public prints, throughout the Union. He had long been identified with one of the most important interests of our country, and, more recent- ly, shone as an ardent advocate of another equally as im- portant interest. After a careful examination of the vari- ous projects that have been devised for furnishing School Districts with suitable Libraries, he became fully convinc- ed of the superiority of the Massachusetts plan, and, ac- cordingly, repeatedly expressed, through the columns of the ' Cultivator,' his decided preference for ' The School Library' now publishing under the sanction of the Mas- sachusetts Board of Education, and, as a still stronger evi- dence of his preference, he prepared, for the larger Series, the present Volume. During the past season, he compiled a volume, con- sisting of selections from the columns of the ' Cultivator ;' permission to print which, was by him granted to the iv ADVERTISEME>'T. Publishers of ' The School Library ;' but they, pre- ferring a freshly written and original work, were favored with this. It was the intention of Judge Buel, during the then coming Winter, to follow this with another Work, on matters interesting to the Farmer and general reader, but the All-wise Disposer of events has seen fit to order dif- ferently, and this Volume, therefore, as his last and most important work, must be looked upon as a rich legacy by bim bequeathed to the friends of Agriculture and Educa- tion, and as an earnest of what, had his life been spared, he would have continued to do for the advancement of the two interests, for whose success his earnest aspira- tions were sent up. The Publishers are indebted to the kindness of Jesse Buel, Esq., (son of the deceased Judge,) and the Agricul- tural and Horticultural Societies of New Haven, Conn., for the Address, — the last prepared by the lamented Au- thor,— which is appended to this Volume. To Amos Dean, Esq., of Albany, they are also indebted, for per- mission to insert his valuable Eulogy on the life and char- acter of Judge Buel. A full Glossary, or explanation of all the words not easily to be understood by young persons, and a copious Index, have been added ; and the Pubhshers confidently beheve, that this Volume is one of the best books for our agricultural population, which has ever been presented to the public. Boston, May, 1840. EULOGY ON THB LIFE AND CHARACTER or THE LATE JUDGE JESSE BUEL, PBOKOUNCED BEFORE THE NEW-YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIEXr, AT THEIR ANNUAL MEETING, ON THE HPTH FEBRUARY, MDCCCXL. BY AMOS DEAN, ESQ. OF ALBANY. A* EULOGY. The treasures of the Republic are to be found in the worth, the virtues, the intelligence, and the integrity, of the citizen. He, alone, sustains the burdens, as he re- ceives the benefits, of all our institutions, our frames of government, our plans of policy. The mere citizen, uncontrolled by higher powers, and unaided by adventitious circumstances, has been, in truth, but a recent actor in the affairs of our world. The great instruments of change, in the political condition of nations, have been, principally, the slave and the subject. In the revolutions that have waited upon human affairs, we have witnessed almost every thing dominant, in its turn. The despot, the demagogue, the monarch, the aristocrat, have each and all had their day of trial and of triumph. Let the honest, intelligent, unpretending, citizen, now have his. He claims it in view of his importance in our social, civil, and political, edifice ; in virtue of the policy and spirit of our institutions ; and in consequence of the many examples of real worth and merit which he is ena- bled to bring forward. Among the most prominent of these, is the name of the late esteemed and lamented Jesse Buel ; a name, which must ever furnish a fitting theme for eulogy wherever intelligence is prized, or well-directed industry respect- ed, or high moral worth meets with its due appreciation. Since the last annual meeting of your Society, he, who so justly constituted its pride and its ornament, has pass- ed from among us. It has been deemed proper, at this time and place, to pay a tribute of respect to his memo- Vlll EULOGY. ry ; and, surely, if his name, and deserving worth, be any where entitled to consideration, it is here, and by you. In reference to his individual history, I propose to be brief and general, conscious that, although the partiality of friends may dwell, with deep and intense interest, on minute particulars, yet the atteation of the public, gen- erally, ought rather to be directed to such facts, as may instruct, by their practical application to the common af- fairs of life. The subject of these remarks was born in Coventry, in the State of Connecticut, on the fourth day of Janu- ary, 1778. He was the last born, and the last that has died, of a family of fourteen children. His father, Elias Buel, held the commission of Major, in the War of our Revolution, and was a fair sample of the plain, unas- suming, straight-forward character of the New-England farmer. As an instance, in proof that the end of the good man is peace, it deserves to be mentioned, that the advanced years and declining strength of this excellent sample of New-England's earlier population, together with his aged consort, received, for the last five years of their lives, their stay and support from the filial affections of their youngest child ; until, fully matured, arid at the advanced age of eighty-six years, they both left this world ; and, as if their union had become indissoluble by bonds that had been tightened by nearly three fourths of a century, they left it, within the brief period of six weeks of each other. From early boyhood, Judge Buel seems to have had the direction of his own course ; his parents wisely leav- ing, to his own disposition and inclinations, the choice of that which should mainly constitute the business of his life. In this, it is to be hoped they have many imitators. Let young, unsophisticated Nature always speak its own language, and follow its own original bias, and success will be likely to reward its exertions. When he had ar- rived at the age of twelve years, the family, including himself, moved from Coventry to Rutland, Vermont, and, two years afterwards, when he had completed the age of EULOGY. 11^ fourteen, he became an apprentice to the printing busi- ness, in the office of Mr. Lyons, in Rutland. When the youth, possessing the quahties that are to ennoble the future man, has silenced all mental debate, by his irrevocable determination as to what particular pursuit or calling the great energies of his life shall be devoted, he immediately applies himself, with unwearied ardor and assiduity, to carry into full effect his firm, high, undeviating resolve. The young apprentice distinguished the first four years of his term by a close, assiduous, and unremitted, atten- tion to the attainment of the printing art. At the end of that period, such had been his devotion to business, that he had acquired as perfect a knowledge and mastery of the routine and all the details of that art, as are ordina- rily acquired by others, during the entire term of their apprenticeship. Conscious of the sufficiency of these attainments, and entertaining a realizing sense of the immense value of time, especially to the young, he suc- ceeded, at the expiration of the first four years, in pur- chasing of Mr. Lyons the unexpired three years of his regular term, and thus, at the age of eighteen, he was ready to exchange the apprentice for the journeyman ; and to earn, in the latter capacity, sufficient to pay the expense of the exchange. He immediately found his way to the city of New York, and was there laboring, as a journeyman, during the desolating ravages of the yellow fever. He subsequently worked, as a journey- man, with Mr. McDonald, of this city, and was a short time at Walerford and Lansingburgh, until June, 1797, when he formed a connexion in business with Mr. Moffit, of Troy, and commenced the publication of the ' Troy Budget.' This was continued until September, 1801, when, at the age of twenty-three, he married Miss Susan Pierce, of Troy, and immediately removed to Pough- keepsie, where, in connexion with Mr. Joiner, he com- menced the publication of a weekly paper, called the 'Guardian.' This was continued about a year ; after which, he entered into another copartnership, and com- menced the pubhcation of the ' Pohtical Banner.' This X EULOGY. last proved to be an unfortunate business connexion ; and, after about a year's continuance, either through the mismanagement or dishonesty of his partner, he found himself reduced to utter bankruptcy. This is, I am sorry to say, rather a common history ; and many, thus situated, abandon hope, and yield them- selves up to fatal despondency. Not so Judge Buel. With the unshaken assurance of success, which naturally results from the firm determination to deserve it, he saw, with apparent indifference, the slow, labored, and rather scanty, accumulations of some six or seven years sud- denly swept from him ; and read, in this lesson of muta- bility, at least the chance of elevation, as well as depres- sion, in individual condition. He never, for one moment, lost confidence in the general integrity of men, nor in the ultimate success of industry and application. He left Poughkeepsie, and removed to Kingston, where he es- tabhshed a weekly paper, called the ' Plebeian.' Here he continued, during the period of ten years, from 1803 to 1813, applying himself, with diligence and activity, to his business. During a part of this time, he sustained, with reputation, the office of Judge in the Ulster county court ; and, by his persevering industry and well-direct- ed application, he not only retrieved his losses, but also acquired some considerable real and personal estate. In 1813, his reputation as an editor and a man having made him favorably known to the public, he was induced, through the exertions of Judge Spencer and some others, to remove to the city of Albany, and to commence the ' Albany Argus.' The next succeeding year, 1814, he was appointed printer to the State, the duties of which, together with the editorship of the Argus, he continued to discharge until the year 1820 ; at which time, he sold out, with the determination to abandon the printing busi- ness. It is worthy of remark, that, while engaged in this bus^ iness, he always performed, himself, the labor essential to its successful prosecution. He was always the setter of his own types, and, until he came to Albany, the worker of^is own press. Is there not something, in the very EULOGY. -3i;i nature of the printing art, that tends to originate and per- petuate habits of severer industry, than any other occu- pation or calling ? After disposing of his printing establishment and busi- ness, he purchased a farm, of eighty-five acres of land, near the city of Albany, which then' helped to compose that tract of land, lying west of the city, and appropri- ately denominated, the ' Sandy Barrens.' That which, for some years past, has been so extensively and favora- bly known as the ' Albany Nursery,' then, lay an open common, unimproved, covered with bushes, and appar- ently doomed to everlasting sterility. These unpromis- ing appearances, which, to a common mind, would have presented insuperable obstacles, served to increase the efforts, rather than damp the ardor, of Judge Buel. Difficulties, hinderances, obstructions, were, with him, e very-day familiars. His mind had been, in some meas- ure, formed under their influence. He recognised and acted on the doctrine, that, where God has done little, it is incumbent on man to do much ; and that nothing in this world is ever lost, by courting situations, that require the expenditure of unremitted effort. Man was made to la- bor, both corporeally and mentally, and liis happiness in life depends, much more than he is generally aware of, on the strict obedience which he yields to this primal law of his being. On this farm, he continued to reside, until the time of his death. Under his untiring and well-directed industry, the most unpromising indications soon disappeared, and, as a practical commentary upon the truth of his agricul- tural doctrine, and in proof that he in reality practised what he preached, it may be mentioned, that the same acre of land, which, in 1 821, he purchased for thirty dollars, is now worth, at a moderate estimate, two hun- dred dollars. While residing on his farm, since 1821, he has several times represented the city and county of Albany, in the popular branch of the Legislature of this State ; has been, for several years, and was, at the time of his death, a Regent of the University ; and, in the Fall of 1836, re- Xll EULOGY. ceived the whig support, as their candidate for the office of Governor of the State of New York. On the political course of Judge Buel, I do not de- sign to enlarge. He was a believer in the old fashioned doctrine, that office, instead of being made for men^ should be made hy them ; that it conierred far lesspmi- leges than it imposed duties ; that it was a trust reposed, and the incumbent a trustee^ and responsible for the prop- er performance of the trust ; that, instead of operating as a license to live and fatten on the public spoil, without the necessity of labor, it imposed the severe obligations of more incessant effort, and of acting under deeper and heavier responsibilities ; and that it was no further honor- able, than as an indication of trust and confidence on the part of those, whose intelligence and moral worth were the vouchers for its value. The introduction of many modern improvements is tending to render that doctrine somewhat antiquated, and to diminish the number of its adherents. Mere political preeminence is, at best, extremely equivocal. It may be ennobled by the solid qualities of the statesman, or debased by the crafty arts of the poli- tician. Its highest attainable summit has been not in- aptly compared to the apex of a pyramid, which can be reached by the soaring eagle, or the crawling reptile. The durable reputation of .Tesse Buel depends on that, which politics can neither give nor withhold ; which is at a high remove above the little tricks of little men ; which is far beyond the reach of the aristocrat, and above the highest possible conceptions of the mere demagogue. It reposes on that strong sense of obligation, which a people feel themselves under, to a high and gifted mind exerted for their benefit. It is the grateful homage, ren- dered by mind to mind ; the most desirable, the most en- during, the most esteemed, of earthly homage. It arises from the feeling of benefits conferred, on the one side, and received, on the other. It serves to connect the great mass of man with. the few master spirits, who are pioneering onward, in advance of their age. The highest mere political distinctions dwindle into insignificance, EULOGY. Xlll when compared and contrasted with this highest attain- ment of a laudable ambition. To those, acquainted with the arcana of politics, it will be sufficient to observe, that Jesse Buel never merged the man in the politician ; that he never gave up his independence of thought, of expression, or of action ; and that he preserved, through- out, that perfect integrity of purpose, that never, through his whole life, ceased to be the guide of his action. To those ignorant of such arcana, I can only say, that, *' Where ignorance is bliss, 'twere folly to be wise." It is in the labors of Judge Buel, in the advance- ment of agricultural and horticultural pursuits, particu- larly the former, that the people of this Union have a deep and abiding interest. He retired to his farm, at the age of forty-three ; a period of life, when the mind has attained the full maturity of its varied powers. He carried with him a sound body, the result of a good ori- ginal constitution, of strictly temperate habits, and much active exercise in the prosecution of his business ; and a mind well stored with valuable information, of a character the most available for the common uses and purposes of life. So far as his pecuniary circumstances were con- cerned, he might, at this period of time, have been jus- tified, in dispensing with further labor, either of body or mind. He was no longer compelled to act under the spur of necessity. But his ready perceptions, and ac- curate feelings, convinced him of a truth, which others are often doomed to acquire from a sad experience, — that a life of labor is, of all other kinds of life, the last that should be terminated by an age of inactivity. Men violate the laws, impressed by God upon the condition of things, when they assign, to their declinMig years, an in- glorious ease in the expenditure of that fortune, which the successful industry of their manhood had accumulated. There is, also, in all highly-gifted minds, that are endow- ed with clear, strong intellect, combined with conscien- tiousness, a deep feeling of responsibility, for the due ex- ercise of their powers, in a manner the most advantageous to their fellow-men. God has placed a double safeguard B XV. XIV EULOGY. over the advancement of man, by leaving the means that conduce to it, in charge, both of the impulses that origi- nate from self, and of the promptings derived from his high moral nature. The mind of Judge Buel, fortunately, had the sagac- ity to perceive, both where his industry was the most re- quired, and could be rendered the most available. Of the three great interests, that divide between them the labors of men, namely, the agricultural, the mechanical and manufacturing, and the commercial ; it is not difficult to perceive, that the first has long been the most impor- tant, and the most neglected. The last, or commerce, is much dependent on the other two, and may always be expected to flourish, where either agriculture, or mechan- ical and manufacturing arts, yield their multitude of pro- ducts. Between the other two, there is a mutual depen- dence ; agriculture furnishing the supports of life, and the mechanic arts, in their turn, supplying the instruments of agriculture. Of these two, the mechanic arts had receiv- ed, relatively, much the most attention. To advance them, man's ingenuity and inventive powers had been severely tasked ; and science was required to furnish its contribu- tions ; and the devising and employment of labor-saving machinery attested, in a variety of instances, the triumphs of mind over the inert materials every where abounding in Nature. But, while the mechanic and manufacturing arts were thus prospering, agriculture was allowed to labor on, unaided, and unenlightened in the knowledge of itself. The new and virgin earth, on this continent, that had been, for ages, rearing and receiving back into its bosom the tall tree of the forest, and the waving grass of the prairie, required, at first, in many places, but a small quantity of labor to insure ample returns. When the soil began to give evidence of exhaustion, instead of attempting its restoration, new fields were brought under the dominion of the plough. The great mass of agricul- tural population, so far as their business was concerned, were little more than creatures of habit. Men lived, and labored, and trod the same paths, and performed the same circles of action, with scarcely a single well-settled EULOGY. XV principle for their guide, except that the same field ought not to be taxed to raise two successive crops of flax. The principal, and almost the sole, object in view was, to realize as great immediate returns, as possible, from the smallest amount of labor, without any regard, what- ever, to the exhausted condition in which they might leave the soil ; much like the traveller, who seeks the rapid accomplishment of a long journey, by driving so far, the first day, as to destroy his horse. The new system of agriculture, with which the name and reputation of Judge Buel is essentially identified, consists in sustaining and strengthening the soil, while its productive qualities are put into requisition ; in rendering the farm every year more valuable, by annually increasing both its products and its power of producing ; like the traveller, who, instead of destroying his horse, the first day, should so regulate his motion, and administer his supplies of food, as to enable him to make additional progress every successive day, until the completion of his journey. This new system, — new, I mean, in this country, — has been principally carried into effect, by manuring, by draining, by good tillage, by alternating crops, by root culture, and by the substitution of fallow crops for naked fallows. In testing the principles, embraced in the new system, Judge Buel first made the practical application to his own farm. He compelled his sand-hills to stay at home, and be less obedient to commotions in the atmosphere. He was particular in observing the efiect produced upon the soil by his mode of management. After satisfying himself, by actual experiment, of the truth and advanta- ges of the new system, he became desirous of rendering it as generally known as possible. With that view, the paper, now so well known as ' The Cultivator,' was first commenced, under the auspices of the State Agricultural Society, in March, 1834. A committee of publication, consisting of Jesse Buel, Doctor .James P. Beekman, and James D. Wasson, were appointed by the society, and, under their direction, .Judge Buel being the real editor, ' The Cultivator' first made its appearance, in XVI EULOGY. the form of a small sheet, issued monthly, and at the very moderate price of twenty-five cents per year. So little, however, did it become known ; so very deficient was the taste for reading on agricultural subjects ; and, consequently, so extremely limited was its circulation, that the same volume, which has since passed through three editions, and now reposes on the shelves of more than twenty-four thousand American farmers, was found, at the end of the year, to have accumulated a debt, over and above its receipts, of nearly five hundred dollars. En- tertaining, however, a thorough conviction of the utility of the undertaking, and never doubting its ultimate success, he made an arrangement with the society, by which he be- came sole proprietor of ' The Cultivator,' assuming the payment of all its debts and liabilities. The superior merits of the paper soon began to render it more general- ly known. It was found necessary to enlarge it, and to increase the price to fifty cents per annum. Notwith- standing the increase in price, the subscription list for the fourth volume, published from March, 1837, to March, 183S, amounted to twenty-three thousand. It was then deemed expedient, still further to enlarge and improve ; and, accordingly, in March, 183S, at the commencement of the fifth volume, a larger, more expensive, and better executed sheet, was issued, at the subscription price of one dollar per annum. This increase in price at first di- minished, very considerably, the number of subscribers. They were, however, gradually increasing, and, at the time of his death, amounted to about sixteen thousand. We might naturally expect that a mind, thus active and gifted, could not long continue to exercise its powers, without acquiring a more or less extended and solid repu- tation. The new and vigorous impulse he was giving to agriculture and horticulture, awoke to activity a kindred spirit in the breasts of his countrymen. This call to re- newed agricultural efforts met with a corresponding res- ponse from many portions of the Union, Societies, de- voted to agriculture and horticulture, originated in various sections of our country ; and, among their first acts, has usually been the recognition of their obligations to Jesse EULOGY. XVU BuEL, by electing him an honorary member. As exam- ples of this, and also to show the laudable efforts that have been made to form agricultural and horticultural societies, I would mention the following : In 1821, he was elected a member of the Massachu- setts Agricultural Society ; in 1829, of the Horticultural Society of that State ; in 1830, of the Monroe Horticul- tural Society, at Rochester ; in 1831, of the Charleston Horticultural Society, in South Carolina'^; in 1832, of the Hampshire, Franklin, and Hampden, Society, in Massachusetts, and of the Hamilton County Agricultural Society, at Cincinnati ; in 1833, of the Tennessee Agri- cultural and Horticultural Societies ; in 1834, of the Horticultural Society of the District of Columbia ; in 1838, of the Philadelphia Society of Agriculture ; and in 1839, of the Albemarle Agricultural Society. In 1838, he was chosen President of the Horticultural Society of the Valley of the Hudson. He has been several times elected President of the State Agricultural Society. Distinctions, similar to those already mentioned, have been conferred upon him by foreign and transatlantic Societies. In 1833, he was chosen a corresponding member of the Lower Canada Agricultural Society ; in 1834, of the London and New- York Horticultural Soci- eties. In 1830, he was chosen an honorary member of the State Society of Statisques Universelles, at Paris ; and in 1836, he was chosen a corresponding member of the Royal and Central Society of Agriculture, at Paris. Let it, however, by no means, be supposed, that Judge Buel's mental efforts were confined exclusively to agri- culture and horticulture. In his view, man was born for higher purposes than merely to produce and consume the products of the earth. The motto to his ' Cultivator' was " To improve the soil, and the mind.''^ Of what real utility are all the enjoyments of mere physical exis- tence, unaccompanied by the higher delights of a mental being ? No man more fully realized the force of this, than Judge Buel. His system of education, however, like his system of agriculture, was eminently practical ; and, like that, too, it would endeavor to strengthen the B* XVlll EULOGY. producing power while it developed its products. He would guide the efibrt of muscle by the direction of mind. While cuhivating the land, he would enjoy the landscape. While caging the bird, he would not be insensible to its music. The numerous valuable hints and suggestions on the subject of education, that occur in his 'Cultivator,' and other writings, evidence the soundness and correct- ness of his views on that all-important subject. The efforts of Judge Buel have greatly tended to make honorable, as well as profitable and improving, the pursuits of agriculture. He clearly perceived, that, to render the farming interest prosperous, it must stand high in the public estimation. So long as it was conceded to be an occupation that required little more than mere habit to follow, and that it was indifferent to success, whether the man possessed great intellectual power, or a mind on a level with the ox he drove, it could not be expected that any would embark in it, unless necessity compelled them, or the very moderate extent of their mental bestowment precluded any reasonable chance of success in any other. He taught men, that agricultural prosperity resulted neither from habit nor chance ; that success was subject to the same law in this, as in other departments of industry, and, before it could be secured, must be deserved ; that mind, intellectual power, and moral purpose, constituted as essential parts in the ele- ments of agricultural prosperity, as in those of any other ; and all these truths he enforced by precept, and illus- trated by practice. By these means, he has called into the field of agricultural labor a higher order of mind ; has elevated the standard of agricultural attainment ; and has tended to render this extensive department of industry as intelligent, respected, and honorable, as it ever has been conceded to be useful, healthy, and independent. Thus gifted, esteemed, beloved, distinguished, and in the enjoyment of a reputation coextensive with the agri- cultural interest in this country, it would seem, that, if life were a boon worth possessing, he had almost earned a long and undisturbed enjoyment of it. But the dispen- sations of God to man are full of mystery. Religion EULOGF. XIX and reason here teach the same lesson : — to observe, adore, and submit. He had accepted invitations to dehver addresses be- fore the Agricultural and Horticultural Societies of Nor- wich and New Haven, Connecticut, on the 25lh and 27th of September last. About the middle of that month, he left this city, for that purpose, accompanied by his only daughter. On Saturday night, the 22d of September, at Danbury, Connecticut, he was seized with the bilious cholic. This was extremely distressing, but yielded, within three days, to the force of medical treatment. A bilious fever then supervened, unaccompanied, however, by any alarming symptoms, until Friday, the 4th of Oc- tober. His disease then assumed a serious aspect, and a change was obviously perceptible, particularly in his voice. He had occasionally, during his sickness, ex- pressed doubts of his recovery, although his physicians, up to the 4th of October, entertained no serious appre- hensions that his disease would terminate fatally. He retained, throughout, the full possession of his mental fac- ulties, and expressed his entire resignation to the will of Heaven. He continued gradually to decline, from Fri- day, until about three o'clock in the afternoon of Sunday, when, after faintly uttering the name of his iibsenr com- panion, with whom he had shared the toils, and troubles, and triumphs, of almost forty years, he calmly, and with- out a groan or a struggle, cancelled the debt which his birth had created, and " yielded up his spirit to God who gave it." We involuntarily pause, at the termination of the good man's earthly career, and almost imagine ourselves enti- tled to catch some feeble or imperfect glimpse of his de- parting spirit, as it speeds its way to the source of light and of love. He died in the very field of his labors ; in the midst of his usefulness ; in the full maturity of his mental faculties. No symptom of decline had evidenc- ed a waning spirit, nor had the touch of decay impaired the strength, or disturbed the harmony, of his mind. He left behind him the companion of his earlier and later years, and four children, to mourn their bereave- XX EULOGY. ment ; an extensive circle of warmly-attached and devot- ed friends, to deplore their loss ; a whole community, deeply to regret his removal ; and an entire interest, con- stituting the keystone in our social and civil arch, to lose the benefits of his untiring efforts. Such a death, suc- ceeding such a life, occurring at such a time, and under such circumstances, most forcibly exemphfies that beau- tiful sentiment of the poet, that •' Life lies in embryo, never free. Till Nature yields her breath ; Till time becomes eternity, And man is born in death.^' All that remains for us, is, to cherish his memory ; to imitate his virtues ; and to avail ourselves of his labors. He was himself a practical illustration of republican sim- plicity. Always plain in his dress and appearance ; un- assuming in his manners ; unostentatious in the extreme ; he was hospitable, without display ; pious, without pre- tension ; and learned, without any mixture of pedantry. His was a character of the olden time, and formed on a noble model. With a proper estimate of what was due to others, he united accurate conceptions of what he was justly entitled to receive from them. His principles of politeness were not learned from the writings of Lord Chesterfield ; nor were they derived from those higher circles in society, where, too frequently, artificial rules chill the warmth of social feeling, and the play of our faculties, which, beyond all other things, should claim ex- emption from restraint, is reduced, under the worse than iron bondage of heartless forms ; where a mistake in manners is even less pardonable, than a fault in morals. His politeness flowed directly from his character, and was the natural expression of a happy combination of facul- ties. He was frank in his communications, because he was so constituted by Nature, and had, in fact, nothing to conceal. Although more than threescore years had passed over him, yet the consciousness of a blameless life removed all restraint upon the freedom of his inter- course. The character and general habit of his mind was, in EULOGY. XXI the highest degree, practical. The value and importance he attached to a thing were deduced from his estimate of its uses ; and those uses consisted of tlie number and importance of the applications which he perceived could be made of it, to the common purposes of life. He re- garded life as being more made up of daily duties, than of remarkable events ; and his estimate of the value of a principle, or proposed plan of operations, was derived from the extent to which application could be made of it to life's everyday matters. He presented the rare occur- rence of a mind originally conversant with the most com- mon concerns, arising, by its own inherent energies, from them to the comprehension of principles, and coming back, and applying those principles to the objects of its earlier knowledge. As a writer, the merits of Judge Buel have already been determined by a discerning public. It is here wor- thy of remark, that he never had but six months' school- ing, having enjoyed fewer advantages, in that respect, than most of our farmers' and mechanics' sons. He, however, had the good fortune to possess a mind that could improve itself by its own action. Although, there- fore, he lacked the advantages of that early education, which can polish, point, and refine, good sense, where it happens to be found, and endeavors to supply its absence by some imperfect substitute, where it is wanting ; yet, by dint of study and practice, and of strong original en-« dowment, he succeeded in the attainment of a style ex- cellently-well adapted to the nature of his communications. It consisted, simply, in his telling, in plain language, just the thing he thought. The arts of rhetoric ; the advan- tages of skilful arrangement in language ; the abundant use of tropes and figures ; he never resorted to. He seemed neither to expect nor desire, that his communica- tions would possess, with other minds, any more weight, than the ideas contained in them would justly entitle them to. With him, words meant things, and not simply their shadows. He came to the common mind, like an old familiar acquaintance ; and, although he brought to it new ideas, yet they consisted in conceptions clearly com- XXll EULOXIY. prehensible in themselves, and conveyed in the plainest and most intelligible terms. His writings are principally to be found in the many addresses he has delivered ; in the six volumes of his ' Cultivator ;' in the small volume (made up, however, principally or entirely, from materials taken from the ' Cultivator,') published by the Harpers, of New York ; and in the ' Farmers' Companion,' the last and most per- fect of his works, containing, within a small compass, the embodied results of his agricultural experience, — a rich legacy, to which the great extent of our farming interest cannot remain insensible. This work was written ex- pressly for the Massachusetts Board of Education, and constitutes one of the numbers of the larger series of that truly invaluable District School Library, now is- suing, under the sanction of that Board, from the press of Marsh, Capen, Lyon, & Webb, of Boston ; which, for the extent of the undertaking ; the great caution exercised in selecting the material ; the talent enlisted in furnishing it ; and the durable manner in which the books are exe- cuted ; so richly deserves the patronage of the whole American Nation. I deem it really the most fortunate circumstance in his life, that he should have been permit- ted, so immediately previous to his departure, to furnish just this volume, for just this purpose ; and I shall confi- dently expect, that the coming generation will be better farmers, better citizens, and better men, from having had the formation of their young minds influenced, to some extent, by the lessons of experience and practical wis- dom, derived from the last, best, most mature, produc- tion, of this excellent man. The several district schools, throughout our State, will, undoubtedly, feel it due to the important trusts they have in charge, to secure this among other valuable publications, to aid in composing their re- spective District School Libraries, from which so much good is expected to be derived. The example of Judge Buel affords practical in- struction, as well as his works. There is hardly a situa- tion or condition in life, to which some incident, event, or portion, of his existence, does not apply, with peculiar EULOGY. XXll force, and afford much encouragement. To the weahhy, those who, by successful industry, have accumulated com- petent fortunes, it teaches the salutary lesson, that con- tinued happiness can only be secured by continued indus- try ; that the higlily-gifted mind must feel a responsibility, for the legitimate exercise of its powers ; and that, when the requisite capacity is possessed, the one can be the most effectually secured, and the other satisfied, by com- municating, to the minds of the young, the results of a long experience, of much varied observation and accu- mulated knowledge, and many original and profound re- flections upon men and things. To those, who have sustained losses, been unfortunate in business, and had the slow accumulations of years sud- denly swept away, by accident, misfortune, or fraud : it teaches the important truth, that, " In the Lexicon of youth, which fate reserves For a bright manhood, there is no such word As FAIL ;" that undaunted resolution, rigid economy, close calcula- tion, prudent management, aided by renewed application, and well-directed, persevering industry, can never fail, except in cases very uncommon, to retrieve their circum- stances, restore their condition, and, by the excellent habits they create, to send them forward, on the mutable course of life, with fresh assurance, renewed hope, and more confident anticipations. To the youth, who has just commenced threading the devious paths of young existence ; who is beginning to open his senses and his faculties to the appreciation and enjoyment of the aliment with which God has furnished them ; it speaks a language, at once impressive and invit- ing. It presents the instance of one,^from among them, born in poverty, having all the hardships, obstacles, and disadvantages, so frequently occurring in early life, to contend with ; with no other inheritance, than a sound mind in a sound body, working his way, onward and up- ward, to the esteem, respect, and confidence, of his fel- low-men. There have been no peculiarly favorable com- binations of circumstances, to contribute to his progress XXIV EULOGY. and advancement. No miracle has been wrought in his favor, nor arts of magic enlisted in his aid. Nothing, whatever, has contributed to remove his case out of the empire of that same cause and eftect, in subjection to which all the phenomena of life are evolved. It is the obvious case, of distinction and a high reputation acquired and earned by the most persevering industry ; the most scrupulous regard for right ; the exercise of superior in- tellect ; the practice of every virtue ; and its plain, prac- tical language, to the youth of our land, is, — " Go, and do thou likeioise.''^ You are supported by the same soil ; overhung by the same heavens ; surrounded by the same classes of objects, and subjected to the action of the same all-pervading laws. Would you possess the same good ? Acquire it, by a resort to similar means. To all, it addresses a consoling language, in the fact, that we here see industry recompensed ; unobtrusive merit rewarded ; intellectual action accomplishing its objects ; high moral worth appreciated ; and the unos- tentatious virtues of a life, held in due esteem, respect, and consideration. This tends to create a strong confi- dence in the benignity of the laws that regulate human affairs ; to inspire a higher degree of respect and rever- ence for the contituent elements of human nature ; and to give birth to that sentiment, strongly embodied in the language, — God! I thank thee, that I am a man. THE FARMER'S COMPANION, ESSAYS ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE AMERICAN HUSBANDRY. AND AN APPENDIX, CONTAINING TABI,ES, AND OTHER MATTER USEFUL TO THE FARMER. BY THE LATE HONORABLE JESSE BUEL PREFACE. My prominent object, in presenting this volume to the pub- lic, is to aid in the improvement of American Husbandry. Even he that has received but the one talent, is bound to put it to interest for the benefit of his country. Influenced by this consideration, and the almost total deficiency of books upon American husbandry, for school and rural libra- ries, I have been induced to send abroad this volume, in the hope, that it will contribute, in some degree, to improve and elevate this primary branch of national industry. Should it be favorably received, I propose to prepare another volume, treating particularly of the management of Tillage Crops, the Garden, the Orchard, 8lc. Bred to a mechanical business, I took up Agriculture, more than twenty years ago, from choice, as the future busi- ness of my life. Without the pretensions or conceits which we are all apt to acquire in the long practice of a business, I began farming with a consciousness that I had every thing to learn, and that the eyes of my neighbors would be quick to detect faults in my practice. I at once, therefore, sought to acquire a knowledge of the principles of my new busi- ness, and of the practice of the most enlightened and suc- cessful farmers. These I found in books and agricultural periodicals ; and by these I have been greatly benefited. Although it does not become me to herald my success, I will venture to say, to encourage others, and particularly the young, in the work of self-instruction and improvement, that my lands, which are light and sandy, and which cost, in an uncultivated state, thirty dollars an acre, are now worth two hundred dollars an acre, for farming purposes ; or, in other words, that the net profit of their culture exceeds the interest of two hundred dollars per acre. 4 PREFACE. I make no pretension to scientific or literary attainments, other than such as men acquire in the active business of life. I write as I think and practise ; and have endeavored to adapt my style to the capacities of common readers. In detailing the operations of the farm, I have endeavored to explain the principles on which these operations are founded. Indeed, so far as my ability would permit, I have endeavor- ed to unite science and art, as I think they ever ought to be united, in all the business of farming of which I have treated. The great objects of the iarmer should be, io obtain the greatest returns for his labor, without deteriorating the fertility of the soil ; and to 7'estore fetiility , m the most economical ivay, where it has been impaired, or destroyed, by bad husbandry. It has been my aim to give instruction upon these points, and to explain the principles upon which my recommendations are based, and upon which my individual practice has been founded. J. Buel. Albany, September, 1839. .'+ CONTENTS. Page Advertisement, iii Eulogy, v Preface, 3 CHAPTER I. Importance of Agriculture to a Nation, 9 CHAPTER H. The Improvement of our Agriculture practicable and necessary, 16 CHAPTER ni. Some of the Principles of the New and Improved Hus- bandry, 21 CHAPTER IV. Agriculture considered as an Employment, ... 26 ^1. As a Means of obtaining Wealth, ... 27 §2. As promotive of Health and the Develope- ment ofthe Mind, 28 §3. As a Means of individual Happiness, . . 32 ^4. As a Means of enabling us to fulfil the tem- poral Duties of Life, ....... 33 CHAPTER V. Earths and Soils, 35 CHAPTER VI. mprovement ofthe Soil. — Preliminary Operations, . 53 CHAPTER VII. iicnalogy between Animal and Vegetable Nutrition, . 57 I* 6 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. Further Improvement of the Soil, 62 CHAPTER IX. Improvement of the Soil by animal and Vegetable Manures, 66 CHAPTER X. • Improvement by Mineral Manures, 78 CHAPTER XI. Improvement by Draining, 92 CHAPTER XII. Operations of Draining, 98 CHAPTER XIII. Principles of Tillage, 112 CHAPTER XIV Operations of Tillage, 124 § 1. The Plough, 124 ^2. Rules for Ploughmen, 141 ^3. The Harrow, 144 ^4. The Roller, 148 ^5. The Cultivator, 150 § 6. The Drill Barrow, 151 CHAPTER XV. Alternation of Crops, 152 CHAPTER XVI. Root Culture, 163 CHAPTER XVII. On substituting Fallow Crops for naked Fallows, . 169 CHAPTER XVIII. On the Adaptation of particular Crops to certain Soils, 182 CHAPTER XIX. Effects of Cropping and Manuring, 186 CONTENTS. 7 CHAPTER XX. Rules and Suggestions in Farming, . ... 194 CHAPTER XXI. On the Improvement of Grass-lands, 204 § 1. Of Pastures, 205 ^2. Of Meadows, 208 CHAPTER XXII. On the Cultivation of Grasses, . ... 211 ^ 1. Herbage Plants, 212 § 2. Cultivated Grasses, 223 Table of the comparative Product and Value of Grass- es, 226 CHAPTER XXIII. The Atmosphere, and its Uses to the Husbandman, 237 CHAPTER XXIV. On the Germination of Seeds, 246 CHAPTER XXV. On Stall-feeding Cattle, 249 CHAPTER :j:xvi. The Economy of cutting up Corn, 251 CHAPTER XXVII. On Rural Embellishment, 253 Address, prepared to be delivered before the Agri- cultural and Horticultural Societies of New-Haven County, Conn., 261 Appendix. — Collections of facts. Mathematics and Physics, 283 Measures of Length, 284 Weights 286 Measures of Capacity, 286 Interesting Facts in Chemistry, 287 Philosophical Facts, 291 8 CONTENTS. Tables Number of Bushels of Marl necessary to give one per centum of Carbonate of Lime, 292 Breadths and Lengths of an Acre, . . 293 Comparison of American, Scotch, and Irish Acre, 293 Number of Hills or Plants in an Acre, . 294 Contents of an Acre of Land, .... 296 Foreign Coins, Sec, 296 Glossary, 297 Index, 317 FARMER'S COMPANION. CHAPTER I. THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE TO A NATION. There is no business of life which so highly conduces o the prosperity of a nation, and to the happiness of its entire population, as that of cultivating the soil. Agricul- ture may be regarded, says the great Sully, as the breasts from which the state derives support and nourishment. Agriculture is truly our nursing mother, which gives food, and growth, and wealth, and moral health and character, to our country. It may be considered the great wheel which moves all the machinery of society ; and that whatever gives to this a new impulse, communicates a corresponding impetus to the thousand minor wheels of interest which it propels and regulates. While the other classes of the community are directly dependant upon agriculture, for a regular and sufficient supply of the means of subsistence, the agriculturist is able to supply all the absolute wants of life from his own labors ; though he derives most of his pleasures and profits from an in- terchange of the products of labor with the other classes of society. Agriculture is called the parent of arts, not only because it was the first art practised by man, but because the other arts are its legitimate offspring, and cannot continue long to exist without it. It is the great business of civilized life, and gives employment to a vast majority of almost every people. The substantial prosperity of a country is always in the ratio of its agricultural industry and wealth. Com- merce and manufactures may give temporary consequence 10 THE IMPORTANCE OF to a state, but these are always a precarious dependance. They are effemmating and corrupting ; and, unless back- ed by a prosperous agricultural population, they engender the elements of speedy decay and ruin. Venice, Genoa, Portugal and Spain, each in turn rose to wealth and power by commercial enterprise. But they all now ex- hibit melancholy evidences of fallen greatness. They have fallen, in succession, from their high standing, vic- tims to the more robust energies of rival powers, or to the enervating and corrupting influence of commercial cupidity. They exhibit nothing now, in their political or social institutions, and but little in their agriculture or in the useful arts, that can be admired or coveted, by the citizens of our free country. Great Britain has now become ascendant in commerce and manufactures, yet her greatness in these sources of power and opulence, is primarily and principally owing to the excellent condition of her agriculture ; without which she would not be able to sustain her manufactures or her commerce, in their present flourishing state, or long retain her immense foreign possessions, or any thing like her present popula- tion. Only one third of her inhabitants are said to be employed in agriculture ; yet the labors af this one third, sucli is the high condition of her husbandry, suffice to fur- nish subsistence for the whole. Five millions, of all ages, produce annually, from her limited soil, seven hundred millions worth of agricultural produce, averaging about one hundred and forty dollars for each man, woman, and child of her agricultural population. The recently-published let- ters of the Rev. Dr. Humphrey are so conclusive and so instructive upon this subject, not only in regard to the importance of agriculture to a nation, but as showing the susceptibility of this art, of high improvement and great productiveness, that we here quote an extract in illustra- tion of what we have stated. "It is the opinion of competent judges," says Dr. Humphrey, " that the advances made in the agriculture of Great Britain, during the last seventy or eighty years, are scarcely exceeded by the improvement and extension of Its manufactures, within the same period ; and that to AGRICULTURE TO A NATION. 11 these advances, no other old-settled country furnishes any parallel. That they have been very rapid indeed, the following figures and comparisons abundantly show : In 1760, the total growth of all kinds of grain in England and Wales, was about 120,000,000 bushels. To this should be added, perhaps, 30,000,000 for Scotland — making a total of 150,000,000. In 1835, the quantity in both kingdoms could not have been less than 340,000,000 bushels. In 1755, the population of the whole Island did not much, if any, exceed 7,500,000. In 1831, it had risen to 16,525,180, being an increase of 9,000,000, or 120 per cent. ! Now, the improvements in agriculture have more than kept pace with this prodigious increase of demand for its various productions ; for it is agreed on all hands, that the 16,500,000, or rather the 17,500,000, (for more than a million has been added since 1831,) are much fuller fed, and on pi-ovisions of a better quality, than the 7,500,000 were in 1755. Nor is Great Britain indebted at all, at present, to foreign markets for her supplies. Since 1832, she has imported no grain worth mentioning ; and till within the last six months, prices have been so exceedingly depressed, as to call forth loud com- plaints from the whole agricultural interest of the country. England is, at this moment, so far from wanting any of our bread-stuffs, if we had them to export, that she has been supplying us all winter liberally from her own grana- ries ; and, according to the latest advices, she has still bread enough, and to spare. Again, it is estimated by British writers, of high authority, that the subsistence of 9,000,000 people costs, in raw produce, no less than £72,000,000, or .£8 for each individual, per annum. According to this estimate, the annual product of this great branch of national industry is ,^350,000,000 more at present than it was in 1755 ; which is more than twice the value of the whole cotton manufacture of the country, in 1831. Now if it costs $350,000,000 to feed the increased population of 9,000,000, then to feed the present population of 17,500,000 must cost near 700,- 000,000! What an amazing agricultural product for so small a territory ! And yet it is the opinion of practical 12 THE IMPORTANCE OF men of the highest respectabihty in England, that the raw produce of the Island might be well-nigh doubled, with- out any greater proportional expense being incurred in its production ; that is to say, 35,000,000 people might draw their subsistence from that one little speck in the ocean ! Now ive have a territory more than fifteen times as large as the island of Great Britain ; and what should hinder it, when it comes to be brought under no higher cultivation than some parts of England and Scotland, from sustaining a population of five or six hundred mil- lions of people ? This would give to Virginia somethmg like thirty miUions ; to Illinois and Missouri, about the same number each ; to New- York near twenty-five mil- lions, and so on in proportion to the other States. I am quite aware that this estimate will be regarded as ex- tremely visionary and incredible, by many of your read- ers ; but not more so than it would have been thought in the middle of the last century, that England, Scotland, and Wales could ever be made to sustain thirty-five, of even thirty millions." A city may flourish by foreign commerce — by becom- ing the carrier of other nations, as Venice and Genoa have once done ; — till foreign aggression, or foreign rivalship — contingencies of no unfrequent occurrence in the history of nations — shall blast its prospects, and reduce it, like the cities we have named, to ostentatious beggary, or consign it, like Tyre, Persepolis, Petra, and other cities of the East, to ruin and oblivion. A toivn or district may flourish by its manufacturing industry, as many have done in ancient and modern times, as long as it can exchange its merchandise for the means of subsistence and of wealth ; but if its dependance for these contingencies is upon foreign lands, its prosperity is unsta- ble. The interchange may be interrupted or destroyed by war, by the want of a demand for its commodities, or a failure in a su])ply of the necessaries of life. A country can only continue long prosperous, and be truly independent, when it is sustained by agricultural intel- hgence, agricultural industry, and agricultural wealth. Though its commerce may be s.wept from the ocean — and AGRICULTURE TO A NATION. 1^ its manufactures perish — yet, if its soil is tilled, and well tilled, by an independent yeomanry, it can still be made to yield all the absolute necessaries of life ; — it can sus- tain its population and its independence ; — and when its misfortunes abate, it can, like the trunkless roots of a recently cut down tree, firmly braced in, and deriving nourishment from, the soil, send forth a new trunk, new branches, new foliage, and new fruits ; — it can rear again the edifice of its manufacturer, and spread again the sails of its commerce.* But agriculture is beneficial to a state, in proportion as its labors are encouraged, enlightened, and honored — for in that proportion does it add to national and individ- ual wealth and happiness. ^Agriculture feeds all. Were agriculture to be neg- lected, population would diminish, because the necessa- ries of life would be wanting. Did it not supply more than is necessary for its own wants, not only would every other art be at a stand, but every science, and every kind of mental improvement, would be neglected. Manufactures and commerce originally owed their exist- ence to agriculture. Agriculture furnishes, in a great meas- ure, raw materials and subsistence for the one, and com- modities for barter and excha-nge for the other. In pro- portion as these raw materials and commodities are multiplied, by the intelligence and industry of the farmer, and the consequent improvement of the soil, in the same proportion are manufactures and commerce benefited — * Those who labor in the earth, are the chosen people of God, if ever FTe had a chosen people, whose breasts He has made a peculiar deposit for substantial and genuine virtue. Corruption of morals in the mass of cultivators, is a phenomenon in which no one, nor nation, has found an example. It is a mark set on those, who, looking up to heaven, and to their own soil and industry, depend not on the casual- ties and caprice of customers. Dependance begets subserviency and degeneracy, suffocates the germ of virtue, and prepares fit tools for the designs of anibition. Thus the natural consequence and progress of the arts, has sometimes, perhaps, been retarded by accidental ch-cum- stances ; but, generally speaking, the proportion which other citizens bear in the state to that of husbandmen, is the proportion of its un- sound to its healthy parts, and is a good enough barometer, whereby to Pleasure its degree of corruption. — JeJ^erson. 2 XV. 14 THE IMPORTANCE OF not only in being furnished with more abundant supplies, but in the increased demand for their fabrics and merchan- dise. The more agriculture produces, the more she sells — the more she buys ; and the business and comfort of society are mainly influenced and controlled by the results of her labors. ^Agriculture, directly or indirectly, pays the burdens of our taxes and our tolls, — which support the govern- ment, and sustain our internal improvements ; and the more abundant her means, the greater will be her contri- butions. The farmer who manages his business igno- rantly and slothfully, and who produces from it only just enough for the subsistence of his family, pays no tolls on the transit of his produce, and but a small tax upon the nominal value of his lands. Instruct his mind, and awaken him to industry, by the hope of distinction and reward, so that he triples the products of his labor, the value of his lands is increased in a corresponding ratio, his com- forts are multiplied, his mind disinthralled, and two thirds of his products go to augment the business and tolls of our canals and roads. If such a change in the situation of one farm, would add one hundred dollars to the wealth, and one dollar to the tolls of the state, what an astonish- ing aggregate would be produced, both in capital and in revenue, by a similar improvement upon 250,000 farms, the assumed number in the State of New York. The capital would be augmented 25 mihions, and the revenue two hundred and fifty thousand dollars per annum. ^Agriculture is the principal source of our wealth. It furnishes more productive labor, the legitim.ate source of w^ealth, than all the other employments in society com- bined. The more it is enlightened by science, the more abundant will be its products ; the more elevated its char- acter, the stronger the incitements to pursue it. What- ever, therefore, tends to enlighten the agriculturist, tends to increase the wealth of the state, and the means for the successful prosecution of the other arts, and the sciences, now indispensable to their profitable management. Agriculturists are the guardians of our freedom. They are the fountains of political power. If the foun- AGRICULTURE TO A NATION. 15 tains become impure, the stream will be defiled. If the agriculturist is slothful, and ignorant, and poor, he will be spiritless and servile. If he is enlightened, industrious, and in prosperous circumstances, he will be independent in mind, jealous of his rights, and watchful for the public good. His welfare is identified with the welfare of the state. He Is virtually fixed to the soil ; and has, there- fore, a paramount Interest, as well as a giant power, to defend It, from the encroachment of foreign or domestic foes. If his country suffers, he must suffer ; if she pros- pers, he too may expect to prosper. Hence, Vvhatever tends to Improve the intellectual condition of the farmer, and to elevate him above venal temptation, essentially contributes to the good order of society at large, and to the perpetuity of our country's freedom. Agriculture is the parent of physical and moral health to the state — it is the salt which preserves from moral cor- ruption. Not only are her labors useful In administering to our wants, and in dispensing the blessing of abundance to others, but she Is constantly exercising a salutary influence upon the moral and physical health of the state, and in perpetuating the republican habits and good order of society. While rural labor is the great source of physi- cal health and constitutional vigor to our population, it interposes the most formidable barrier to the demoralizing influence of luxury and vice. We seldom hear of civil commotions, of crimes, or of hereditary disease, among those who are steadily engaged in the business of agricul- ture. Men who are satisfied with the abundant and cer- tain resources of their own labor, and their own farms, are not willing to jeopard these enjoyments, by pro- moting popular tumult, or tolerating crime. The more we promote the interest of the agriculturist, by develop- ing the powers of his mind, and elevating his moral views, the more we shall promote the virtue and happiness of society. The facts which are here submitted must afford ample proof, that agriculttu'e is all-important to us as a nation ; and that our prosperity In manufactures, in commerce, and in the other pursuits of life, will depend, in a great 16 IMPROVEMENT OF OUR AGRICULTURE measure, upon the returns which the soil makes to agri- cultural labor. It therefore becomes the interest of every class, to cherish, to encourage, to enhghten, to honor, and to reward those who engage in agricultural pursuits. Our independence was won by our yeomanry, and it can only be preserved by them. CHAPTER II. THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR AGRICULTURE PRACTICABLE AND NECESSARY. To render agriculture more productive, and beneficial to all, it is necessary that its principles should be better understood, and that we should profit more from the ex- perience of each other, and by the example of other coun- tries which excel us in this great business. It is true of the manufacturing and mechanic arts, that our citizens do profit greatly by the improvements which have been made, and are continually making, in these arts, whether in Europe or in America. If an improvement, tending to economize labor, to simplify manipulation, or to produce certainty in results, is this year made in any part of Eu- rope or America, in these arts, it is known, — it is adopted, and it profits the artisans and the manufacturers of our country, in the coming year. Thus the improvements of the civihzed world, in the manufacturing and mechanic arts, are made subservient to our use in the short space of a twelvemonth. Is it so with agriculture ? We are sorry to say it is not. Mr. Coke, one of the most en- lightened agriculturists of this or any other age, who has been the means of converting a large sandy, and compara- tively barren district, into one of great productiveness and wealth, has said, that his agricultural improvements, and they have been manifestly great, have hardly extended around him more than at the rate of three miles a year, — such have been the prejudices, and such the ignorance of the agricultural population. It is from these causes — PRACTICABLE AND NECESSARY. 17 the want^of better knowledge, and the lack of means of dis- seminating it — that our agricultm^e ranks so low in the public estimation — that every young aspirant for fame and fortune, turns from this pure source of independence and happiness with derision, and seeks for higher enjoyments — for fame and fortune — in pursuits which, alas ! often disappoint his hopes, and which add httle or nothing to the promotion of the public good. Yet agriculture may be rendered as progressive in Im- provement, as profitable and as honorable, as any of the other arts of productive labor— and more independent than any other employment, if the agriculturist will employ the same means to enlighten his mind, and improve his prac- tice, which the artisan and the manufacturer, and others employ. He lacks neither the means nor the natural capacity for improvement ; and there is no business sus- ceptible of greater enlargement, in the elements of human happiness, than the one he pursues. AVe possess a soil, prolific in the riches and blessings of a wise and beneficent Creator, who has spread around us all the elements of happiness. He has given to us capacities for applying these elements to our own good, and the good of others. He has commanded us to exercise these capacities, in the use of these means, — and He has promised to reward — and He does bountifully reward — all who prove faith- ful to his command. Let us here stop and Inquire, what our agriculture is, and what it may and should be. Generally speaking, our practice Is bad. Its tendency Is to exhaust the soil of its natural fertility — to render the products of our farms less and less annually — until they become too poor to support our families, or pay us for our labor, — until hundreds and thousands are obliged either to sell out, for a nominal consideration, and to resort to new and unexhausted soils, to retrieve their fortunes, or to sink their patrimonial es- tates, and to sink themselves and their families to indigence and want. To illustrate what we here state, In regard to the defective condition of our husbandry, and to show the causes which have operated to produce It, we beg to in- troduce an extract, from a highly-distinguished statesman 2# 18 IMPROVEMENT OF OUR AGRICULTURE and farmer, the Honorable James M. Garnett, of Vir- ginia. In a letter to the writer of this essay, in reply to some queries that had been addressed to him, he remarks : " Your first question is, ' Have not successive crops of wheat, of corn, of tobacco, greatly deteriorated some of her once fertile soils ?' [alluding to Virginia.] And your second is like unto it — ' Have they not reduced thou- sands and tens of thousands, of her good acres, to comi- parative sterihty — to unproductive commons ?' To both I reply — that we have, alas ! hundreds of thousands of once good acres long ago reduced to ' comparative ste- rihty,' but not to ' unproductive commons ;' for they still produce what w^e call hengrass, broom-straw, and, ever and anon, a starveling pine or cedar bush — the reproach- ful and melancholy mementoes of ancestral improvidence. But the successive crops to which you ascribe this, are far from being the only^ or the chief causes of the lamen- table fact. From the first settlement of the country, un- til within a few years past, the most deadly enemies to good husbandry, in Virginia, have been — the utter neg- lect of it as a science ; — the implicit adoption^ by each successive generation^ of the practices of their FOREFATHERS ; the almOSt total nCglcct of MANURES — • except for gardens ; — the incessant alternate cropping and grazing our lands without rest ; — the culture of them in a certain rotation of workings without a due re- gard to the condition of the soil^ as to wetness or dryness. But, above all, to the proprietors of this goodly soil generally using it more as the means of gratifying their appetites — their love of show, and the means of display- ing it, than as sources of future comfort, respectability, and happiness to their children, as well as of credit and honor to their native State. The acme of ambition, in the olden time, seemed to be, who should have the best cheer, and the most company to consume it — with little or no regard to the ' material' of which it was composed ; provided these ' JS'^ati consumere fruges'' were lovers of, and tolerable contributors to, fun and frolic. As long as the plantation held out in furnishing the means of this ruinously-merry career, the troublesome study and prac- PRACTICABLE AND NECESSARY. 19 tice of good husbandry were postponed, like the study and practice of religion, ^ to a more convenient season.'' This, sir, 1 sincerely believe, is a true and just explana- tion of the complicated causes which have contributed to enipoverish a vast portion of our lands, and much to my shame and sorrow have I given it. But I have consola- tion in feeling assured, that the dawn of a much better state of things, — at least in regard to husbandry, — is now shining in almost every part of our old State. I fear to inquire how much is owing to the absolute necessity of reform — how much to motives every way laudable, and shall therefore content myself with the fact. There is, however, one cause of the happy change with us, in regard to the efficacy of which 1 feel so perfectly confident, that I cannot omit to mention it. This is — the circulation among us, of our friend Ruffin's Farmers' Register and your Cultivator,* which have done more than every thing else towards it. Both are read by great numbers of our brethren, and have greatly contributed to awaken them to a true sense of the vast losses they have sustained by their long and destructive neglect of the study and prac- tice of agriculture." Let not the Northerners take credit to themselves from this outline of old Virginia husbandry, or from, the ingen- uous detail of the causes which brought it to so low a condition. Though not exactly the like causes have op- erated, the same deteriorating system of husbandry has pre- vailed with us, though perhaps to a more hmited extent. Though we have personahy attended more to the art — to the practice — yet we have been equally deficient in the science with our brethren of Virginia — equally indif- ferent to the study and application of the principles upon which good husbandry must ever be based. And although we may have begun earlier in the business of reform, whether from necessity or from choice we will not say, we are still too defective in practice to boast of our trivial acquirements. Neither let him boast too soon who is now luxuriating upon the fertile soils of the west, the ac- * At the date of this remark, nearly two thousand copies of the Cultivator were circulated in Virginia. 20 IMPROVEMENT OF OUR AGRICULTURE. cumulated treasure of ages, and, in too many instances we fear, exhausting that fertility which of right belongs to coming ages. Like causes will produce the same effects in the west, that we now deplore in the east. The ocean would- in time become exhausted, were it not for the streams which are constantly flowing into its bosom. The soil will becom.e barren by constant cropping, unless we give back to it some of the fertilizing matters, which crops are continually taking from it. The truth is, we have regarded the soil as a kind moth- er, expecting her always to give, give, without regarding her ability to give. We have expected a continuance of her bounties, though we have abused her kindness, and disregarded her maternal admonitions. We have managed the culture of the soil as a business requiring mere animal power, rather than as one in which the intel- lect could be brought largely to co-operate. We have not gone into the principles of science — of cause and effect — the laws of Nature, which are certain and immu- table, and which must ever have a controlling influence over the soil and its manifold productions. Like prodi- gal sons of wealth, we have gone on recklessly wasting the treasures intrusted to our care, for the use of coming generations. But tliere is a redeeming spirit abroad. The lights of science are beaming upon the agricultural world, and dis- sipating the clouds of superstitious ignorance which have so long shrouded it in darkness. The causes which have for some time been actively operating to improve the condition of the other arts, and to elevate the character of those who conduct them, are extending their influence to agriculture. A new and better system of husbandry is coming into vogue, which has already been productive of great good, and which promises many new comforts and blessings to ourselves and our children. PRINCIPLES OF THE NEW HUSBANDRY. 21 CHAPTER III. SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF THE NEW HUSBANDRY. The new system of husbandry is based upon the belief, that our lands will not wear out, or become exhausted of their fertility, if they are judiciously man- aged ; but, on the contrary, that they may be made pro- gressively to increase in product, — in rewards to the husbandman, and in benefits to society, at least for some time to come. It regards the soil as a gift of the benefi- cent Creator, in which we hold but a hfe estate, and which, like our free institutions, we are bound to trans- mit, UNIMPAIRED, to posterity. The principles of the new husbandry teach, that the soil is the great laboratory for converting dead into living mat- ters— the useless into the useful — manure into plants — plants into animal food : That plants, hke animals, are or- ganized beings ; that is, they live, grow, and require food for their sustenance — have organs to take in food, to elab- orate it, to transmit it through their systems — organs of sexual intercourse, or reproduction, &c., all acting together to one end : That plants cannot, any more than animals, live upon mere air, or earthy matters, as clay, sand, and lime, but that they require, for their growth and perfection, animal and vegetable matters : That the effect of raising and taking from the ground successive crops, is to exhaust the vegetable food in the soil ; and that continued cropping will ultimately render it barren and unproductive, unless we return to it some equivalent for what we carry off. The principles of the new husbandry also teach, that by carefully saving, and suitably applying, all the fertihz- ing matters afforded by the farm ; by an alternation or change of crops, and by artificially accelerating or retard- ing the agency of heat, moisture, air, and light, in the process of vegetable growth ; by draining, manuring, ploughing, harrowing, hoeing, &c., we may preserve, un- 2[2 SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES impaired the natural fertility of our soils ; — and that, with the aid of improved implements of husbandry, and a good system of management, we may also greatly increase the profits of its culture. These principles do not rest upon mere theory. They have been long reduced to practice, and their correctness has been most amply vej-ified. They have, in their prac- tical application, virtually converted Flanders into a gar- den, and rendered it so fertile in human food, that each acre is said to be capable of supporting its man. The system, which these principles inculcate, has changed Scotland, in a litde more than half a century, from com- parative sterility and unproductiveness, into one of the richest and most profitable agricultural districts in Europe. It has increased the products of the corn harvest, in Great Britain, in sixty years, from 170 to 340 millions of bush- els. It has doubled, trebled, and quadrupled, the agri- cultural products of many districts in our own country. It has augmented the value of farms, in some of these districts, two, three, and four, hundred per cent. — from twenty and thirty dollars, to one hundred dollars, and more, per acre. It has made every acre of arable land, upon which it has been practised ten years, and lying contigu- ous to navigable waters or a good market, worth, at least, one hundred dollars, for agricultural purposes. We will state some cases of comparison, between the products of the old and new systems of farming, to illus- trate, more fully, the advantages of the latter. The average products in Flanders are stated, by Rad- cliffe, as follow^s : wheat, 32 bushels, rye, 32J, oats, 52, potatoes, 350, per acre. Flanders has generally a flat surface, with a light, sandy soil, ill adapted to wheat. It is, naturally, very similar to the sandy district upon the seacoast in New Jersey and Maryland, and to the san- dy plains in the valley of the Connecticut. In the fertile districts of Scotland, according to Sir John Sinclair, and in ordinary seasons, " the farmer may confidently expect to reap, from 32 to 40 bushels of wheat : from 42 to 50 bushels of barley ; from 52 to 64 bushels of oats ; and from 28 to 32 bushels of beans. OP THE NEW HUSBANDRY. 23 per statute acre. As to green crops, 30 tons of turnips, 3 tons of clover, and from 8 to 10 of potatoes, per statute acre, may confidently be relied on. In favorable sea- sons, the crops are still more abundant." Professor Low gives the average products of Scotch husbandry somewhat lower than the above. It is to be remem- bered, that, sixty years ago, the average was probably not one quarter as much as it is now. Loudon states the average product of wheat in Eng- land, at 24, 28, and 32 bushels per acre — mean average 28 bushels. The preceding references are made to old-settled countries — to lands which have been under culture for many centuries — to lands which were once worn out by bad husbandry, but which have been renovated and ren- dered highly productive by the new system. In 1790, General Washington, in a letter to Arthur Young, computed the average crop in Pennsylvania, then one of the best wheat-growing States, as follows : — wheat 15 bushels, rye 20, barley 25, oats 30, Indian corn 25, potatoes 75. Mr. Strickland, who resided in Maryland about forty years ago, in a report which he made to the British Board of Agriculture, gave the aver- age product of our wheat crop at 12 bushels the acre, and of Dutchess county, then, as now, the best cultiva- ted county of New York, at 16 bushels. Bordley, about the period we are referring to, stated the average yield of Indian corn, on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, at 15 bushels per acre. These quotations are sufficient to show, that in our old-improved districts, the crops do not in any wise com- pare with those raised in Flanders, Scotland, and Eng- land,— and this difference in product is owing entirely to the different modes of managing the soil ; for wherever the new system has had a fair trial among us, it has been as successful as it has been in Europe. We will illustrate still An'ther the difference between the two systems, by stating the products, or their value, on the same lands, under the old and under the new sys- tem of husbandry. 24 SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES We are furnished, in Rees's Cyclopedia, with many statements, demonstrating the superiority of the new, over the old system. We will quote some of them. The first comparison is made on a farm dev^oted to grazing, breedins;, and tillage, of 314 acres, in Yorkshire. Under the old mode of husbandry, the nett profits amounted to £ol6 10s. ; under the new system the same lands gave a nett profit of £596, making a difference of £278, or nearly one hundred per cent., in favor of the new system. The second is that of a tillage farm of 139 acres in Lin- colnshire. Under the old system the profits were £130 — under the new £452 ; difference in favor of the latter £322, or 250 per cent. The third statement exhibits the profits of an acre of land, being the medium of a farm of several hundred acres, in Yorkshire, for six years. Under the old system the profit was £1 95. Sd. — under the new £17 6s. 9d. — an increase of more than 1100 per cent. The medium value of the profit per acre in England is stated at from 27 to 3G dollars per annum. We have spoken of Mr. Coke as one of the best far- mers of the age. He owns a large estate in Norfolk, England, a portion of which he has been personally im- proving for half a century, the residue being occupied by tenants. The rental upon his estate has risen, in fifty years, in consequence of the improvement in husbandry which he has introduced, from £5,000, to £40,000. The Hofwyl Agricultural School farm, in Switzerland, under M. Fellenberg, comprises 214 acres. Lord Brougham, often visiting this farm, and making inquiries of the Principal, says he found that the average annual profit of the pattern-farm alone, for a period of four years, amounted to £886 sterling, equal to about $4,000, ex- clusive of the cattle concern, Avhich was kept separate. The last case we cite from abroad, is that of the farm belonging to the Agricultural School of Moegelin, in Prussia, under Doctor Von Thaer. The school was established in 1809. In twelve years the value of the farm was increased from 2,000 to 12,000 rix dollars, by the improved mode of cultivating it. The cases we have quoted, we admit to be extraordi- OP THE NEW HUSBANDRY. 25 nary ones ; yet they are not without parallels in our own country. Agriculture has been in a state of progressive improvement in the valley of the Hudson, for thirty and forty years. The lands have been increasing in value in consequence. The change has been so great in some districts, that farms which twenty years ago were sold for 20 to 25 dollars an acre, have recently been sold for 100 to 120 dollars an acre ; and in other cases, particularly on Kinderhook plains, farms which were bought thirty years ago at five or ten dollars an acre, have lately commanded from sixty to seventy dollars. Few farms of tolerable land in Dutchess, Orange, or other river coun- ties, contiguous to the Hudson, can now be bought at less than from 100 to 150 dollars an acre, in consequence of their increased productiveness, caused by improved husbandry. Doctor Black has demonstrated, in his prize-essay, published in the American Farmer, that every acre of arable land in New Jersey, which now sells at from ten to thirty dollars per acre, is intrinsically worth five hun- dred dollars per acre ; that is, if put under a judicious system of husbandry, every acre may be made to yield a nett profit of thirty dollars per annum, equal to the in- terest on five hundred dollars, at 6 per cent. And Mr. Johnson, of Maryland, in a speech which he made in Congress in 1837, cites a case in Delaware, near Dover, where land was bought, a few years ago, of medium quality, at thirty dollars an acre, by Messrs. Sipple and Pennewell, which has paid in its product for all outlay in improvement, and the owners are now receiving, in the farm-crops which it gives, an annual clear income equal to the interest of jive hundred dollars an acre. We will ofter but one other illustration in support of the great superiority of the new husbandry. It is that of John Robinson, Esq., an intelligent, industrious Scotch farmer. Fifteen years ago, Mr. Robinson bought a farm on the banks of Seneca Lake, three miles from Geneva, at ten dollars an acre. The farm w^as consid- ered worn out. Mr. Robinson, with the aid of sheep, lime, manure, and good husbandry, has made it produce, 3 XV. 26 AGRICULTURE CONSIDERED over and above the expense of culture, and the support of his family, an annual income equal to the interest of one hundred and fifty dollars an acre, — and the farm is still in a state of progressive improvement. The income from 400 acres is now §4000. Mr. Robinson has refused $100 per acre for the whole. We might multiply instances of worn-out lands being brought into a highly productive and profitable state, by the new husbandry, w^ere it necessary ; but almost every old-settled district furnishes examples in point. Enough has been shown, or may be seen, to justify us in saying, that, under the new system of husbandry, every acre of arable land, if any where contiguous to navigable waters or a good market, may in a few years be made to yield a nett annual profit, equal to the interest of two hundred dollars. And we may add, that with such an income, and the industry and economy which belong to republi- can habits, there are hw employments in life better cal- culated than agriculture to render a man independent in circumstances and in mind, and rich in all the elements of substantial happiness. CHAPTER IV. AGRICULTURE CONSIDERED AS AN EMPLOYMENT. Every provident parent is anxious to see his children settled for life in some business, that promises to confer wealth and respectability ; and every young man, who aims to arrive at future and honorable distinction, is anx- ious to select that employment which is most likely to realize his wishes. It is with a view to enable both pa- rent and son to act wisely in this matter, that we pro- pose to point out some of the advantages which agricul- ture holds out to those who embark in it as a pursuit. We propose to consider agricultural employment under the following heads : — § 1. As a means of obtaining wealth ; AS AN EMPLOYMENT. 27 § 2. As promotive of health, and the useful develope- ment of the mmd ; § 3. As a means of individual happiness, the great pursuit of life ; § 4. As a means of enabling us to fulfil the high ob- jects of our being ; — of performing the duties which we owe to our families, our country, and our God. § 1. As a Means of obtaining Wealth, Adequate to our wants, and to all the beneficial pur- poses of life, agriculture certainly holds a pre-eminent rank. With that industry and prudence, which Provi- dence seems to have made essential to human happiness, and that knowledge which w^e all have the means of ac- quiring, its gains are certain, substantial, and sufficient — sufficient for ourselves, for the good of our children, and the healthful tone of society. It does not, we admit, af- ford that prospect of rapid gain, which some other em- ployments hold out to cupidity, and which too often dis- tract and bewilder the mind, and unsettle for life the steady business habits of early manhood ; yet neither does it, on the other hand, involve the risks, to fortune and to morals — to health and to happiness — with which the schemers and speculators of the day, who would live by the labor of others, seem ever to be environed. Great wealth begets great care and anxiety, and is too apt to engender habits unfriendly alike to the possessor and to society. Wealth that comes without labor, is often wast- ed without thought ; but that which is acquired by toil and industry, is preserved with care, and expended with judgement. The farmer, therefore, wiio secures an an- nual and increasing income by his industry, though it be small in the outset, is much more likely to become ulti- mately rich, not only in dollars and cents, but in all the substantial elements of happiness, than the man of almost any other profession in life. We have shown that farm lands have been made to produce an annual income of thirty dollars an acre ; and have said, that by good husbandry they may certainly be made to produce a nett income of fourteen dollars an 28 AGRICULTURE CONSIDERED acre. Now, if a farmer, upon a hundred acres of land, can save fourteen hundred dollars a year, to buy super- fluities for his family, educate his children, and to add to his capital, he must, at the end of twenty years, be either a rich man or an improvident one ; and if improvident, he will probably remain poor, be his employment what it may. But suppose the nett income of a farm should be but half, or a quarter of the sum we have assumed — that is, $7, or $ 3,50, an acre ; — even this income, prudently managed, will in a few years place the possessor in inde- pendent circumstances. § 2. »^5 promotive of Health and the Developement of the Mind, The grand requisites to health, or rather for the pre- vention of diseases, are declared by Dr. Johnson, one of the highest medical authorities of the age, to be — exercise in the open air — temperance in our living — moderation in our pleasures and enjoyments — restraint on our passions — limitation to our desires^ and limitation to our ambition.* What employment is there in life, so highly favorable to all the benign influences of exercise — so conducive to repose and tranquillity of mind — and which has so few temptations to intemperate enjoyments — as that of agri- culture. And the only ambition which is likely to ob- trude upon the farmer, and this is in no wise, we believe, prejudicial to the health either of his body or his mind — is the ambition of increasing the prolific properties of the soil, whereby he may benefit himself and society. Polit- ical ambition, which, like a cancer, is apt to prey upon and corrupt the mortal upon whom it fixes its fangs, abides not upon the farm ; at least it should not abide there — for that farmer must be either weak or unfortunate who is wil- ling to give up the certain and tranquil pleasures of a rural home, for the vexing, precarious, and corrupting cares and responsibilities of political eminence, otherwise than as duty may require it at his hands. " Horticulture and agriculture are better fitted for the promotion of health * Economy of Health. AS AN EMPLOYMENT. 29 and of sound morals," says an eminent medical author,* " than any other human occupation." The business of agriculture is one of exercise in its most approved forms. It brings into healthful action the entire muscular system ; and when exercised with prudence, as all employments should be, it insures appetite, digestion, sleep, a sound constitution, and a contented mind. " The declaration is as trite as it is true, that exercise promotes virtue, and subdues the storms of passion, "f Although the garden and the farm may be made to fur- nish a great many delicacies and luxuries for the table, yet these delicacies and luxuries are such as conduce alike to health and to rational pleasure. It is a remark of St. Pierre, that every country and every clime furnishes, within itself, the food which is best fitted for the wants of the animals which dwell in it. The same remark, with a trifling modification, will apply to the farm. The prod- ucts of the farm and garden do constitute the best food for the farmer ; and there is no class who can indulge in a greater variety of native products, or enjoy them in a higher state of freshness and perfection, than those who raise them. And upon the farm, and among an intelli- gent rural population, the pleasures of social intercourse are not curtailed by the cold formalities, nor taxed by the extravagant folly, of the town and city. The agricultur- ist relies upon his own resources — upon his industry and the blessing of Providence, for the enjoyments of life. His farm and his family are the special objects of his care, and his ambition is to obtain good crops, a good name and reputation in society, and to deserve them, by a liberal and kind deportment to all around him. He is exempt from a crowd of evils — of rivalships and jealous- ies— of corroding cares and feverish anxieties — which not unfrequently hang around other professions, mar the pleas- ures of life, and undermine health. Pie should hate no one ; for he should dread no rivals. If his neighbor's field is more productive than his ow^n, he borrows a use- ful lesson. If his own field is the most productive, it * Dr. Caldwell, Prof. Med. Dep. Transylvania College, Ky. t Dr. Harris, Philadelphia, on Physical Culture. 3* 30 AGRICULTURE CONSIDERED affords him pleasure to benefit his neighbor by his exam- ple. He learns to identify his own, with the prosperity of his neighborhood and of his country. " Exercise is the univ'^ersal law of improvement for the faculties of the mind, as well as of the powers of the body."* " The profession of agriculture is more favor- able to the entire developement of the human faculties ; to the unfolding and perfecting of this physical, this intellec- tual, this moral and immortal being, which God has given us, than any other employment. It imparts vigor to the body and to the mind, leaving the soul free from feverish excitements, to imbitter, as it were with its growth, the lessons which Nature teaches ; in fine, it is capable of ministering, most successfully of all arts, and of ah occu- pations, to wealth, to intelligence, and to virtue."! And what an expansive field is ever before the eye of the agriculturist, for study, for reflection, for usefulness, for the enjoyment of rational happiness ! The book of Nature, replete with the teachings of Divine Wisdom, always lies open before him ! The elements are subservient to his use ; the vegeta- ble and animal kingdoms are subject to his control ! And the natural laws which govern them all, and which exert a controlling influence upon his prosperity and happiness, are constantly developing to his mind new harmonies, new beauties, perfect order, and profound v/isdom, in the works of Nature which surround him. Nor need he, in these studies of usefulness, be restricted to his own personal ob- servation. He may call to his aid, both in the prosecution of his business, and the improvement of his intellectual fac- ulties, the counsels of eminent men of every age and every country, who have left for our use the record of their experience and their wisdom. And we say it without qualification, that there are few professions in the communi- ty, w^iich give more leisure for general reading, or whose employments embrace a greater scope of useful reading, than the business of agriculture. The artisan is generally obliged to employ his winter evenings in labor ; and those * Wild's Report on Manual Labor in Literary Institutions. t Canadian Quarterly Agricultural and Industrial Magazine. AS AN EMPLOYMENT. 31 engaged in the liberal professions, and in mercantile busi- ness, are not only accustomed to do the like, but their study is in a measure restricted to their particular calling. The agriculturist, on the contrary, may devote his even- ings, or most of them, to study — to the improvement of his mind — to the acquisition of useful knowledge. He may devote three hours out of the twenty-four to study, without infringing upon his necessary business, or fatiguing his mind, or impairing his health. This is allowing eight hours for sleep, ten for labor, and three for contingencies. What profession is there, which, if well conducted, gives a larger portion of time to the acquisition of general knowledge ? And what a scope of usefulness may be embraced by these studies ! The properties of the soils which give him bread and meat — their adaptation to par- ticular crops — the cause of their deterioration — the modes of renovating or increasing their fertility — by farm ma- nures, by lime, gypsum, marl, and by admixture of earths ; by draining, irrigation, and alternating crops: — the animals which are consigned to his care — their form, internal structure, appropriate management ; the nature, cause, and cure of their diseases ; the various foods most profit- ably raised for the nourishment of the different kinds ; and the best modes of preparing and feeding it : — the crops which he cultivates — their relative value, their hab- its, proper succession, exhausting influence upon the soil, and the best modes of their management : — the agency of air, heat, light, and moisture in preparing vegetable food, in the processes of vegetable nutrition and developement, and the means of accelerating or retarding their agency ; all these are matters which come specially within the province of the agriculturist. The more knowledge he has in these matters, the more likely he is to succeed. His unaided observation and experience may do much ; yet if to his own, he can add the observations and expe- rience of hundreds of others, in his particular business, as observing and intelligent as himself, he must certainly be able to profit greatly by it, and to advance in improve- *nent. Labor is in no wise incompatible with study ; but, on 32 AGRICULTURE CONSIDERED the contrary, it is necessary, or exercise is necessary, to the developement of the facuhies of the mind ; and where study and labor are directed to the same object, as they may be in agricuhure, they tend particularly to stimulate, and to give pleasure and profit to each other. Many of the most eminent and useful men, in the improvement of society, have been such as have prosecuted their studies while daily laboring in their professional business. Among those, of our country, who have been distinguished for public usefulness, we may name Franklin, Rittenhouse, Fulton, Sherman, &c., who were all hard-working men, and who greatly improved their minds, while they daily labored with their hands. §3. Jls a JWeans of Individual Happiness. One of our good and great men has said^ — " If happi- ness is to be found upon earth, it must certainly be sought in the indulgence of those benign emotions which spring from rural cares and rural labors." " As Cicero," he continues, " sums up all human knowledge in the charac- ter of a perfect orator, so we might, with much more propriety, claim every virtue, and embrace every science, where we draw that of an accomplished farmer. He is the legislator of an extensive family ; and not only man, but the brute creation is subject to his laws. He is the magistrate, who expounds and carries these laws into operation. He is the physician, who heals the wounds, and cures the diseases, of his various patients. He is the divine, who studies and enforces the precepts of reason. And he is the grand almoner of the Creator, who is continually dispensing his bounties not only to his fellow-mortals, but to tlie fowls of the air, and to the beasts of the field."* Though there are many w^ays and devices by which men endeavor to obtain wealth and happiness, there is perhaps no employment in which these are obtained with so much certainty, — few w^iich apparently better fulfil the * Chancellor Livingston's Address before the Society of Agriculture and the Arts. AS AN EMPLOYMENT. 33 beneficent designs of the Creator — than that assigned to our first parents — the cultivation of the soil. It has, to be sure, like all other avocations, its cares, its toils and its thorns ; — yet its cares and its toils often turn out to be substantial blessings ; and, unhke most other avocations, it has more of the roses than the thorns of hfe. " Agricul- ture," said Socrates, " is an employment most worthy the appHcation of man, the most ancient, and the most suitable to his nature ; it is the common nurse of all per- sons, in every age and condition of life ; it is the source of heakh, strength, plenty, and riches, and of a thousand sober delights and honest pleasures. It is the mistress and school of sobriety, temperance, justice, religion, and, in short, of all the virtues, civil and military." § 4. Jls a Means of enabling us to fulfil the Temporal Duties of Life. These duties consist, first, in providing honestly for ourselves and families ; secondly, in helping our neigh- bor ; and, thirdly, in promoting the good of society at large. It is the due performance of these duties that gives worth and dignity to the human character, — that makes the good man, — that renders him useful and re- spected,— and that constitutes the temporal elements of human happiness. Every virtue has its reward, and every vice a punishment, in one form or another, even here, to say nothing of a hereafter. The indolent man, who provides not for himself and his own, but lives upon the labor of others, becomes a dependant upon the sympa- thies or charities of the world, and is a stranger to the high and manly feelings that flow from conscious inde- pendence. He who cares not for the welfare of his neighbor, or seeks not to promote it, is a stranger to the best feelings of humanity — he is a misanthrope in practice, if not in heart. And he w4io feels not his obligations to society, for the protection and security it affords him, in the enjoyment of life, liberty, and property — and who does not use a portion of his means and his influence, from a high sense of duty, to promote the common weal — to maintain order, law, and a tone of moral health in 34 AGRICULTURE CONSIDERED, ETC. society, — is not a good citizen, whatever may be his pre- tensions to talents or to weahh. Now, agricuhural employment, in the first place, enables us to provide by our industry for all the first wants, and for most of the substantial comforts of life ; — to superin- tend and assist in the education of our children ; to form their habits, restrain their bad passions and propensities, and to start them in life in a course of industry and use- fulness. In the second place, the condition of the agriculturist enables him to help his neighbor, and promote his wel- fare, in a variety of ways — by his counsel, by pecuniary aid, and particularly by his example. In the city, in- dividual example is limited in its influence, or lost in the crowd, except in very eminent individuals ; but in the country, it becomes conspicuous to all ; and the good farmer is sure of benefiting those around him, not only by the improvements which he introduces upon his farm, but by his exemplary deportment in life. In the third place, no one is better fitted than the farmer, to appreciate his high obligations to society, — no one has a stronger interest in performing them. He en- joys the fruits of his labor in peace and quietude, because the laws protect him. He participates in all public im- provements, as they tend to enhance the value of his farm and his products. He rejoices in the prosperity of other professions, as they are his customers. He sees constantly around him the works of Creative Wisdom ; he sees that they are all governed by immutable laws — and that he is himself subject to these laws ; and his employ- ments, his reflections, and a conscious sense of duty, excite in him a desire to aid in carrying out the great and beneficent designs of the Lawgiver. Having considered agriculture in its influence upon the prosperity of nations, — having demonstrated its suscep- tibility of great improvements, and noticed some of the principles and profits of the new husbandry ; and having endeavored to satisfy our readers, that there is no employ- ment so conducive to health and happiness, by the labor and study which it involves, as this parent art, — we will EARTHS AND SOILS. 35 next proceed to speak of some of its principles and prac- tices.* CHAPTER V. EARTHS AND SOILS. Earths are merely the decomposed rocks which are exposed on the surface of the globe, and are as various as the rocks of which they are made. They consist mainly of sand, clay, and lime, with, occasionally, an admixture of magnesia, iron, &c. They are considered more or less fitted to become the basis of a good soil, in propor- tion to the quantity of organic remains w^hich the rocks contain from which they originate — primitive rocks afford- ing the poorest, and secondary rocks the best basis. Hence the utility of geological surveys. But the earths alone, however blended, do not possess fertility. Soils consist of earths, with more or less of the de- composed organic matters afforded by dead plants and animals, — which latter constitute the true food of plants, as much as hay, grain, roots, and herbage constitute the true food of farm-stock. Earths are found in the ashes of plants ; and silex is apparent in the epidermis of Indian corn, wheat, oats, and the hollo v/ grasses ; and, although the earths seem * " The man who makes agriculture not merely productive, but honorable ; who surrounds his farm with the images of the most at- tractive happiness ; who dwells in a neat abode, such as a republican might build, and republican simplicity ought to desire ; who, in addi- tion to the song of the robin, can make the music of contentment flow around his calm abode ; can unite it with the intelligence of a citizen who knows his rights, and is determined to defend them ; who shows that tills bxisiness is favorable to mental culture, and as fair a road as any to political eminence ; — such a man does more to encourage the profession, than all other causes combined. He touches the springs of action in their centre, and blesses his country and mankind. He plants the laurel beside the plough, and allures thousands to come, and, after having toiled within its fragrance, to sit beneath its shade.'* — Whitington's Address before the Essex Agricultural Society. 36 EARTHS AND SOILS. essential in both the animal and vegetable structure, they are not considered as forming any portion of the proper food of either. Lime enters adventitiously into the food of animals, and is transformed into bone. Silex enters in the same way into the food of vegetables, and forms a part of the epidermis of plants, like those we have named, rendering them hard and rigid ; and seems designed to strengthen and defend them from the attacks of insects and parasitical plants. The earthy parts of the soil are useful in retaining water, an essential agent in preparing the food of vegetables, and the medium of conveying the food thus prepared into and through the vegetable struc- ture ; and they are also useful in producing the proper distribution of animal and vegetable matter. It is the finely-divided matter, principally clay and lime, which gives tenacity and coherence to soils, a strong affinity for moisture and manures, and which most tends to fertility, when it does not exist in excess. " A certain degree of friability, or looseness of tex- ture, is also required in soils, in order that the operations of culture may be easily conducted ; that moisture may have free access to the fibres of the roots ; that heat may be readily conveyed to them, and that evaporation may proceed without obstruction. Both water and air must circulate in a soil, to render it productive. Hence the presence of sand is necessary. As alumina possesses all the properties of adhesiveness in an eminent degree, and silex those of friability, it is obvious that a mixture of these two earths, in suitable proportions, would furnish every thing wanted to form the most perfect soil, as to water and the operations of culture. In a soil so com- pounded, water will be presented to the roots by capillary attraction. It will be suspended in it, in the same man- ner that it is suspended in a sponge, not in a state of aggregation, but minute division, so that every part may be said to be moist, but not wet." — Grisenthwaite. Another property to be regarded as of value in a soil, is its capacity to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, in which vapors more or less always abound. The soils which possess this property in the highest degree, are EARTHS AND SOILS. 37 those which contain sand, finely-divided clay and lime, in due proportions, and animal and vegetable matters. If such soils are rendered permeable to the atmosphere, which is always charged with the gaseous food of vegeta- bles, by good tillage, and by the surface being kept clean and loose, they are seldom affected by drought. Carbo- nate of lime, and animal and vegetable matters, impart to the soil this property, without increasing its tenacity, A soil containing 11 parts of carbonate of lime, and 9 parts of vegetable matter, in 1000, when dried to 2120, gained in an hour, by exposure to air, saturated with moisture, at a temperature of 62"^, 18 grains ; 1000 parts of fine sandy soil gained, under like circumstances, 11 grains ; and 1000 parts of coarse sand only 8 grains.* Thus it would seem, that the power of a soil to absorb moisture from the air, and with air other elements of fer- tihty, depends, first, upon the presence of vegetable and calcareous matters ; and, secondly, upon the soil being well tilled, and the surface rendered permeable to the atmosphere. The color of the soil has an influence upon the agency of heat in inducing fertility, and consequently early matu- rity of the crop. Several farm-crops, in our northeni latitude, require a high temperature in the soil to bring them to timely maturity. Such, particularly, are Indian corn, and, in unfavorable seasons, the potato. White soils, especially of clay, are heated with difficulty, owing not only to color, but to compactness and retentiveness of moisture. Such are truly denominated cold soils. Black soils, abounding in vegetable matter, heat rapidly under the sun's rays, and cool almost as rapidly when the sun's rays are withdrawn. Sir H. Davy found that a rich black mould, which contained nearly one fourth of vegetable matter, had its temperature increased in an hour, from 65° to 88°, by exposure to sunshine ; while a white chalk soil was heated only to 69° under the same circumstances. Now, as the soil supplies all our wants, and is, directly * Davy's Agricultural Chemistry. 4 XV. 38 EARTHS AND SOILS. or indirectly, the source of our wealth and enjoyments, it merits our particular study and attention. The measure of the blessings which it confers on the human family, is wisely made to depend upon the intelligence, skill, and industry which are employed in its cultivation. If these are properly applied, the reward will be bountiful. If they are neglected, want, vice, and wretchedness will ensue. To render his farm-stock profitable, in meat, milk, and wool, every farmer knows he must provide for them an abundance of wholesome food, as he must be aware that it is this food which makes his meat, milk, and wool, and gives the ultimate profits. And he takes care, if he is a good manager, so to economize his food as to yield him the greatest return in these products. We should think him very improvident, who, instead of feeding out roots and forage to his stock, should throw them away, or let them spoil for want of a little care, or permit them to be consumed by his neighbors' stock. Let these remarks be applied to our plants. Our farm-crops, like our farm-stock, must be fed, if we would make them profitable to us ; and the former, like the latter, will be profitable precisely in proportion to the food we give them, and the judicious care v/ith which we give it. The vegetable lives and thrives upon animal and vegetable matters, after they have become useless to the animal, and are reduced, by decomposition, to a liquid or gaseous state. Every substance that has once belonged to an animal, has previously been a vegetable ; and every substance that has been a vegetable, whether it be found in a solid, liquid, or aeriform state, is con- vertible into hving plants. So that it is as important, in good farming, to economize dung, or whatever will make dung, and judiciously to feed it to crops, as it is to hus- band well the hay and grain of the farm, destined to feed and fatten the cattle. The soil is the stomach, the re- ceptacle of the food of plants, in which manure is digested, converted into substances that are soluble, that is, capable of being dissolved, by the moisture of the soil ; and of afterwards being absorbed by the minute roots of plants, EARTHS AND SOILS. 39 --as food, after undergoing the digestive process in the animal stomach, is taken up by the lacteals. In the ani- mal, the food, after undergoing various changes, is con- verted into flesh, bone, sinew, milk, wool, &c. In the vegetable, the food, in like manner, is converted into stem, fohage, blossoms, and fruit, grain, or roots. Both the animal and the plant exhaust the food which nourishes them ; and if we would keep the animal fat, or the soil fertile, we must continue to replenish the food. We have introduced this comparison here, in order to impress more fully upon the minds of our young readers, the importance and the means of feeding their crops. Soils are variously classed by difterent writers. Von Thaer and Fellenberg liave enumerated more than eighty varieties. Sinclair has divided them into sand, gravel, clay, chalk or lime, peat, alluvial, and loam. We shall adopt the latter classification, and consider each separ- ately. 1. Sandy soils are those where sand most predomi- nates. They are loose, easily worked, but are not re- tentive of manure or moisture, owing to their porous texture. They are best adapted to tap-rooted plants, as carrots, turnips, clover, lucerne, to Indian corn, and aher- nating husbandry. They comprise a great portion of the lands upon the Atlantic border, from New York to the Capes of Florida, and most of the pine lands of the inte- rior. Their mechanical texture is improved by marl, and by an admixture of clay, which often underlie them, or abound in their vicinity. If the silex does not exceed 60 or 65 percent., they are as profitably managed, under good husbandry, as most other lands. Under the old exhausting system they soon become worthless. If not too flat and wet, sandy soils are well adapted for sheep, which assist much to keep up and to increase their fertility. The county of Norfolk, in England, is principally a sandy soil. Sixty years ago it gave but a very lean product ; but under the alternating system of husbandry, including the turnip culture, it has become the most productive and profitable county for agricultural products in England. Flanders is mostly sand, and a portion of it was original- 40 EARTHS AND SOILS. \y poor and unproductive ; yet there is perhaps not now a district in Europe that makes a better return for agri- cultural labor. Where sands contain carbonate of lime, and are kept in good condition, they yield wheat, barley, and other farm-crops, besides those first enumerated, and become converted ultimately into a species of light loam. The celebrated Mr. Ducket, of England, founded his practice in managing sandy soils on three principles : 1. He ploughed very deep ; a due degree of moisture was thus preserved in his light land, by means of which his crops escaped the evils of drought, while his neighbors' crops suffered severely. 2. He ploughed seldom, but effectually, covering all the weeds. He sometimes raised seven crops with four ploughings. One good ploughing will always suffice to prepare sandy ground for a crop ; and a second ploughing is injurious, if it turns up the sod or other vegetable matters to the surface. The cultivator will frequently supersede the use of the plough, in the preparation for a crop. It is a good practice to sow clo- ver or grass seeds with all small grains, or broad-cast crops, upon sands, to improve the texture, and to impart fertility to the soil. The benefits will greatly overbal- ance the expense. The Flemings have converted some districts, which were originally a barren white sand, into a most fertile loam. They cultivated at first only to the depth of three or four inches ; but gradually went deeper as the soil be- came enriched, until they had got a very deep soil — and now the ground, says Sinclair, at the commencement of every rotation, is trenched by a shovel (the soil being very loose) to the depth of fifteen or eighteen inches; the ex- hausted surface is buried, and the fresh surface brought up, enriched by the manure washed down to it during the preceding seven years. The generic name of a soil is determined by the earth which prevails in it ; as clayey, sandy, calcareous, &c. Where two prevail to all appearance equally, then their names may be conjoined, as clay and sand, lime and clay, &c. The term sandy, according to Davy, should not be applied to a soil which does not contain seven eighths of EARTHS AND SOILS. 41 sand ; sandy or gravelly soils that effervesce with acids, should be distinguished by the names of calcareous sands, or calcareous gravels, to distinguish them from those that are silicious. The term clayey soil should not be ap- plied to any land that contains less than one sixth of im- palpable matter, not considerably effervescing with acids ; the word loam should be limited to soils containing at least one third of impalpable earthy matter, copiously effervescing with acids. A soil, to be considered as peaty, ought at least to contain one half of vegetable mat- ter. In cases where the earthy parts of a soil evidently consist of the decomposed matter of one particular rock, a name derived from the rock may with propriety be applied to it. Thus if a fine red earth be found immedi- ately above decomposing basalt, it may be denominated basaltic soil. If fragments of quartz and mica be found abundant in the materials of the soil, which is often the case, it may be denominated granitic soil ; and the same principles may be applied to other like instances. In gen- eral, the soils, the materials of which are the most vari- ous and heterogeneous, are those called alluvial, or which have been formed from the depositions of rivers ; and these deposits may be denominated silicious, calcareous, or ar- gillaceous ; and in some cases the term salinic may be added as a specific distinction, applicable, for example, at the embouchure of rivers, where their alluvial remains are overflowed by the sea. Such are some of the rules for classifying soils laid down by Loudon, in his Encyclo- pedia of Agriculture. We occupy a soil which may be strictly denominated a sandy one. We have dressed some of it with blue clay, containing from twenty-five to thirty per cent, of carbonate of lime, say at the rate of from twenty to thirty loads to an acre, and we are continuing the practice ; being per- suaded, from philosophy, as well as experience, that a load of blue clay is ultimately of more benefit to our soil than a load of barn-yard manure. In the application of clays, or clay marl, (and most clays contain a portion of carbonate of lime,)" the great point to be obtained," says Professor Emmons, in his Geologi- 42 EARTHS AND SOILS. cal Report, "is to secure a sufficient degree of fineness, that they may be incorporated with the soil, and form, strictly speaking, a constituent part of it. To attain this object, it is necessary that they should be raised in the autumn, and placed in heaps, that they may be exposed to frosts and the atmosphere through the winter. To assist still further in the process of pulverization, it is bet- ter to mix them with barn-yard materials, straw, manure, and refuse of any kind, either animal or vegetable. This course being pursued with them, they should be spread as evenly as possible upon green sward, that they may enjoy the further benefits of air, moisture, &c., by direct exposure during the season. Besides, the grass, passing up through the layer, will assist greatly in producing a comminuted state. The succeeding season it is in a state to be ploughed in, when it is duly prepared to become a constituent part of the soil. It is only in this way that the stiff and adhesive clays can be broken up, and pre- pared for, and incorporated with, the other earths." Our practice differs somewhat from the preceding rec- ommendation of Professor Emmons. Our leisure time for drawing clay is generally in the winter, and we are enabled to obtain it at this season from the clay-banks in Albany. We do not place it in piles, or mix it with other materials ; but scatter it immediately from the wagon upon the sward, as evenly as its adhesive properties will per- mit. In this way it becomes better exposed to the ame- liorating influence of the weather. The frosts and the rains break down the lumps ; and when the clay has after- wards become dried, it is readily pulverized with the maul or roller, and distributed by the harrow. Upon the utility of employing vegetable or animal sub- stances, in conjunction with marl, or other varieties of calcareous manure, Professor Emmons remarks : — "It must be plain that carbonate of lime, or sulphate of lime, cannot support vegetation without other materials. It appears, however, that a large proportion of the food of plants exists in the earth in an insoluble state ; that it is by a chemical union of this calcareous matter and this insoluble vegetable substance, that it becomes soluble, EARTHS AND SOILS. 43 and fitted for the sustenance of plants in general ; hence arises the mutual benefit of combinins; earths with veseta- ble and animal substances ; and hence, too, the bad prac- tice of continuing the mineral manures until the whole of the vegetable and animal matter is withdrawn from the soil ; for by the increased activity of the growing vegeta- ble, the soil is rapidly exhausted of its nutritious matter, and it is left comparatively barren, if the agriculturist ceases to supply vegetable and animal manure. There remains then but one course, that of supplying directly the necessary nutriment ; but it is unquestionably better to maintain a sufficiency of vegetable matter always in the earth, and never suffer a soil to be exhausted or worn out by overtaxing its resources." We subscribe to the Professor's recommendations, though we do not exactly agree with him in his premises, that all calcareous matters tend to accelerate the exhaus- tion of organic matters in the soil. We think this remark will only apply to caustic or quick lime. Davy proved that it did not apply to gypsum ; and it is generally con- ceded, that calcareous soils are less liable to be exhausted than soils that are not calcareous. 2. Gravelly soils " differ materially from sandy," says Sinclair, "both in their texture and mode of man- agement. They are frequently composed of small, soft stones, sometimes of flinty ones ; but they often contain granite, limestone, and other rocky substances, partially, but not very minutely decomposed. Gravel, being more porous than even sand, is generally a poor, and what is called a hungry soil, more especially when the parts of which it consists are hard in substance and rounded in form. Gravelly soils are easily exhausted, for the animal and vegetable matters which they receive, not being at- tracted by the earthy constituent parts of the soil, which are seldom sufficiently abundant for that purpose, are more liable to be decomposed by the action of the atmosphere, and carried off from them by water. " Gravelly soils are improved by draining, where they are troubled with springs ; — by deep ploughing ; — by mix- ing with them coats of clay, chalk, marl, peat, or other 44 EARTHS AND SOILS. earth ; — by frequent returns of grass crops ; — by repeated applications of manure ; — and by irrigation, if the water be full of sediment, and judiciously applied on a proper form of surface." — Code of ^.Agriculture. Gravelly soils, like sandy ones, if dry, become soon heated by solar influence, but they retain the heat longer than sands. They are therefore the earliest soils, and are most liable to suffer from the droughts of summer. Hence the crops upon them should be upon a clover or grass ley as often as practicable. The crops suited to these soils, are Indian corn, tur- nips, clover, barley, rye, peas, oats, and, if a portion of the ground is calcareous, good crops of wheat may be obtained. When they are cropped with small grains or summer-ripening crops, these crops should be sown very early. The w^armth of the soil will admit of it, and the crops may then mature before they are injured by the in- tense heats of our mid-summers. If gravelly lands are poor, or unfriendly to arable husbandry, they should be left in wood, or planted in wood. 3. Clay soils are tenacious, stiff, very retentive of moisture, can only be well worked in favorable seasons, and require extra labor in their tillage. If too dry, the soil breaks up by the plough in hard clods or lumps. If wet, it assumes the appearance of mortar. In either case, pulverization, the main object of ploughing, is not effected. Yet clay soils yield heavy crops, when they are got in in good order. The great expense of tillage, however, and the rich herbage which they afford, induce many farmers to appropriate them mainly to meadow and pasture. But clay soils vary greatly in texture, according to the quantity of other earths which are commingled in their composition ; and they vary in fertility according to the quantity of vegetable matter which they contain, and the nature of the subsoil upon which they repose : if the lat- ter is retentive, and impervious to water, the soil will be wet, cold, and unfriendly to those crops which require much heat to bring them to maturity. Clay soils are of all intermediate qualities between a dead barren mass and EARTHS AND SOILS. 45 fine clay loams, which are friendly to most farm-crops, and most profitable to the owner. Clay soils are adapted to the growth of wheat, timothy, oats, and, if possessing a dry bottom, to clover and pota- toes. When intended for a spring crop, it is advantage- ous to plough in the fall, that the frosts may break down and pulverize the surface, and that the vegetable matters turned under may have the better chance to rot in time to benefit the crops. There has been recently introduced into Great Britain a new and highly advantageous mode of improving clay lands for tillage, by means of the subsoil plough. Trench ploughing has long been practised, and is analogous, in its effects, to trenching with the spade, as practised in Flem- ish husbandry. In trench ploughing, a second plough follows in the track of the first, and throws a portion of the subsoil to the surface. In subsoil ploughing, no por- tion of the subsoil is brought to the surface, but merely loosened, and pulverized, until, by the admission of air and of water, and by their free circulation through it, it becomes so improved as to possess the fertility of the upper stratum, and is then blended with it. Air and water are charged with highly fertihzing properties ; yet if either remains long stagnant, it loses its fertilizing pro- perties, and becomes prejudicial to vegetable as well as animal health and growth. Trench ploughing mixes the sub with the surface soil, or rather the latter with the former, before the ameliorating influence of air and water has operated upon it, and therefore trench ploughing often proves prejudicial to the first and second crops. But neither trench ploughing nor subsoil ploughing can devel- ope all its advantages upon a stiff clay, with a horizon- tal surface, without the auxiliary aid of what is termed furrow-draining, — of which we shall speak more partic- ularly in our chapter upon draining. The effect of sub- soil ploughing then^ is, to free the soil at all times of an excess of water, to fit it for cultivation, at a much earlier period in the spring, and to increase its fertility. The advantages of subsoil ploughing have been partic- ularly illustrated by Robert Laing, Jr., in the Edinburgh 46 EARTHS AND SOILS. Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, who had practised it two years. The plough operated to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches, and was worked by a three or four- horse team. " The field in which the operations were commenced," says Mr. Laing, [in 1S36,] " consisting of ten Scottish acres, was at the time, and during the whole operation, so saturated with rain, that the horses' feet sunk in the unploughed ground from four to six inches. Notwithstanding the disadvantages consequent upon the w^et state of the field, the results have been of the most flattering description. Since the work has been finished, [the communication being written two years afterwards,] little or no water has stood upon the surface, and in the spring of 1837, this field, which was usually last worka- ble upon the farm, from its wetness, was the first ; and it had the advantage of land working like loam, when compared with the solid soured furrow that was wont to be turned up." The land thus managed produced in 1837, the season after it was subsoil ploughed, 48 bush- els of beans to the Scottish acre, at least one quarter more than it would have yielded had the field not been subsoil ploughed, and in 1838, it produced 48 bushels to the Scot- tish acre. The opinions of Mr. Laing, of the great ad- vantages of subsoil ploughing, are amply sustained by the experience of many farmers, whose communications have appeared in the foreign agricultural periodicals. The subsoil plough should, however, be preceded by furrow- draining. 4. Chalk soils, or those containing an excess of calca- reous earth, do not much abound with us. Lime is deemed essential in a wheat soil ; and if it amounts to two per cent, of the tillable surface, it is considered adequate to the wants of this crop. Soils derived from primitive roi-- mations seldom contain much if any of this earth, and hence the difficulty of raising wheat upon them. If com- bined with clay and other earthy and vegetable matters, these soils are very productive ; if with sand or gravel, they are light and often unfertile. Calcareous earth has a strong affinity for putrescent vegetable and animal mat- ters, and increases the absorbent powder of soils to which EARTHS AND SOILS. 47 it is applied. It corrects the adhesive qualities of clays, and augments the absorbent and retentive qualities of sands. Hence the advantage of applying lime to clayey, and clay-Hiarl to sandy lands. The means of ameliorating, or rendering productive, a soil too calcareous, are, to mix with it sand or clay loams, or pure clay ; or, where the vegetable matter is deficient, to blend with it quantities of peat or swamp earth, or yard dung. Tillage crops are best adapted to calcareous soils, as peas, turnips, barley, clover, wheat, and Indian corn. It is difficult to bring these soils into permanent pasture or meadow. 5. Peaty soils, are those of our swamps and marshes, in which vegetable matter exists in excess, in consequence of their being habitually saturated with water, which has prevented its decomposition. On being thoroughly drained, some of these soils, in which the vegetable has been re- duced to something like soft, black powder, or where the earths constitute a considerable portion of the surface stratum, have become very productive. But where the vegetable matters greatly preponderate, or are coarse and woody, it has been found necessary, in order to render them valuable, after draining, to bring on a decomposition by paring and burning the surface, or by the application of lime, or barn-yard manure ; and sometimes a good dressing of sand, or loam, has induced fertility. The cause of sterility is not the want of vegetable food, but the want of this food in a soluble or cooked state, pre- pared for the mouths and the nourishment of plants. An author who has successfully explained the nature of peat, says Sinclair, has adopted the following classifi- cation : 1. Fibrous; 2. Compact; 3,. Bituminous; 4. Peat mixed with calcareous matter ; 5. with sand or clay; 6. with pyrites ; 7. with marine salt. Tliese, he contends, differ essentially in their composition and chem- ical qualities ; and, above all, each species requires a pe- culiar treatment, in order to convert it either into a soil or into a manure. The crops best calculated for reclaimed swamps, or 48 EARTHS AND SOILS. peaty grounds, are oats, potatoes, rye, turnips, carrots, and Indian corn ; clover, timothy, red-top, and other grasses. When properly drained and subdued, hay crops make good returns on peaty lands. By suflering the sec- ond crop of grass to rot upon the ground, instead of feeding it off as is usual, the Flemings have experienced an immense increase of hay the ensuing year, and in this way their fenny grounds are converted into permanent meadow. The application of gypsum would, no doubt, with us, in the interior, tend further to increase the crop, and perpetuate fertility. If the surface consist of bogs and other living vegeta- ble matters, as roots, it must either be burnt or carried off. The ashes are useful if spread upon the surface, and they may also be applied to uplands with great advan- tage. Peat earth may be also extensively and profitably used for uplands, after it has lain for a season in the cat- tle or hog-yard, and been subjected to the tread, and be- come mingled with the urine and other excrementitious matters of the yard ; or after it has been mingled in com- post with lime, ashes, or unfermented stable manure, till the process of decomposition or fermentation has com- menced. 6. Alluvial soils are, first, those which have been formed by the action of the sea, which are composed principally of sand, with but little of organic matter except marine shells, such as the great level sandy dis- tricts lying along the border of the Atlantic; and secondly, those which have been formed from the deposits of riv- ers, as upon the Mississippi, the Ohio, and most of the secondary and minor streams of our country. The com- position of the latter depends upon the geological forma- tion of the country from which the deposits are brought ; and the degree of fertility, somewhat upon the force of the current by which they have been deposited, — the coarser matters only being left where the stream is rapid, and the finer and richer materials, being specifically light- er, subsiding only where the waters become tranquil. Hence alluvial soils are various in their character and productiveness. Those of the first class are generally EARTHS AND SOILS. 49 sandy, except where the formation is aided by fresh-wa- ter streams, in which case clay is found extensively mixed with sand, as also marine shells and vegetable matters. Of the latter class of alluvial soils, those created by riv- ers, the earthy elements are more generally blended with a greater admixture of organic matters. Where the de- posit has been made by a rapid current, gravel or small stones will predominate, and the soil will be comparative- ly poor. As the force of the stream abates, sand will next subside, while the finer earthy and enriching matters will be found deposited upon the borders of still waters. Where alluvial grounds are subject to frequent, or to annual inundation, and the character of the soil will per- mit, they should be appropriated to permanent grass. If tilled, the soil is hable to be worn away or injured, and the crops destroyed, by freshets ; while, if in grass, the deposits made by the waters will tend to keep up fertihty. If not subject to floods, they may be cropped, as uplands of the same character are cropped. 7. Loams. — " Where a soil is moderately cohesive, less tenacious than clay, and more so than sand, it is known by the name of loam. From its frequency, there is reason to suppose, that, in some cases, it might be called an original soil. At the same time, a constant course of tillage for ages, the application of fertilizing manures, where necessary, (as clay with sand, or sand where clay predominates) will necessarily convert a soil thus treated into a loam. " Loams are the most desirable of all soils to occupy. They are friable ; can in general be cultivated at almost any season of the year ; are ploughed with great facility and less strength than clay ; bear better the vicissitudes of the seasons ; and seldom require any change in the rotation adopted. Above all, they are peculiarly well adapted to the convertible husbandry ; for they can be altered, not only without injury, but generally with benefit, from grass to tillage, and from tillage to grass. They should not, however, be kept in tillage too long, nor while they are in cultivation should two white crops be taken in suc- cession. 5 XV, 60 EARTHS AND SOILS. '' Loams are of four sorts : 1. Sandy; 2. Gravelly; 3. Clayey ; and, 4. Peaty. "1. A sandy soil and a sandy loam, are easily distin- guished. A sandy soil is always loose and crumbling, and never gets into a clod, even in the driest weather ; whereas a sandy loam, owing to the clay which is mixed with it, retains a degree of adhesion or cloddiness, after wetness or drought, and will not suddenly crumble down, without the apphcation of machinery for that purpose. " A mellow, rich, crumbhng, sandy loam, adhesive enough to fear no drought, and friable enough to strain oft' superfluous moisture, if incumbent on a good sound subsoil, is the most profitable of all soils, being managed with much less expense than any other soil, and raising, with advantage, every species of crop that the chmate will admit of. "2. Gravelly loams, where warm, sound, and dry, or free from springs, are useful soils, more especially in wet seasons and climates. *' 3. A clayey or stiff" loam, is nearly alHed to brick earth. Though the soil might originally have been poor, cold, and hungry, yet, if it be well drained and highly manured, it will yield great crops. It is found well adapted for the dairy. "4. Peat, in some of its varieties, may likewise be converted by culture into a species of black, soft loam, and, in that state, it becomes highly fertile and produc- tive."— Sinclair's Code of Agriculture. It has been already mentioned, that mould containing a mixture of animal and vegetable remains, is an essential ingredient in all fertile soils ; that the effect of cropping is to diminish this fertilizing property ; and that if vegeta- ble and animal matters are not returned, to make up for the exhausting influence of the crops taken oft', the soil will ultimately become sterile and barren. The offices of the soil are, 1 . To receive and digest the food designed for the growing plant. 2. To serve as a medium for conveying to the spongioles or mouths of plants, the water holding in solution the different sub- stances which pass into and nourish them. And, 3, EARTHS AND SOILS. 6l to serve as a basis for fixing the roots of plants, and main- taining them in an upright position. The agents in vegetable nutrition, or growth, are air, heat, and moisture. The seed cannot germinate and grow, nor can the food be prepared or transmitted to the plant, without the united co-operation of these agents. Hence the utility of draining, ploughing, pulverizing, &c., to render the soil permeable to solar and atmospheric in- fluence. But of these matters we shall speak more fully in another place. Subsoil. *' The value of a soil depends much upon the nature of the subsoil or under stratum. On various accounts its properties merit peculiar attention. By examining the subsoil, information may be obtained regarding the soil itself ; for the materials of the latter, are often similar to those which enter largely into the composition of the former, though the substances in the soil are necessarily altered, by various mixtures, in the course of cultivation. The subsoil may be of use to the soil, by supplying its deficiencies, and correcting its defects. The hazard and expense of cultivating the surface, are often considerably augmented by defects in the under stratum, but which, in some cases, may be remedied. " Subsoils are, 1. Retentive ; or, 2. Porous. *' 1. Retentive subsoils consist of clay, or marl, or of stone beds of various kinds. " A retentive, clayey, or tilly subsoil, is highly injuri- ous. The land is soaked with water, is ploughed with difficulty, and is not in a condition to exert its powers, until the cold, sluggish moisture of the winter be exhaled. By the water's being retained in the upper soil, the putre- factive process is of course interrupted, and manures are prevented from operating. The plants likewise, from the roots being chilled, can make but litde progress. Hence, when grain is cultivated, it is always of inferior quality, and the herbage, when in grass, is coarse. " A clayey subsoil, however, may sometimes be of material advantage to a sandy soil, by retaining moisture, 52 EARTHS AND SOILS. in such a manner as to supply what is lost by evapora- tion, and the consumption of plants. " When soils are situated immediately upon a bed of impervious rock or stone, they are much sooner rendered dry by evaporation, than when the subsoil is clay or marl. A stony subsoil, w^hen in a position approaching to the horizontal, is, in general, prejudicial, and, if the surface soil be thin, usually occasions barrenness ; unless the rock should be limestone, and then the soil, though thin, is distinguished for its fertility. "2. A porous subsoil, if not carried to an extreme, is uniformly of great advantage, not only by its admitting the fibrous roots of vegetables to extend deeper, in search of moisture and nutriment, but also from its carrying oft all superfluous moisture, which is less perfectly done ar- tificially, by the expensive operation of hollow-draining. " Below clay and all the variety of loams, an open subsoil is particularly desirable. It is favorable to all the operations of husbandry ; — it tends to correct the imper- fections of too great a degree of absorbent power in the soil above ; — it promotes the beneficial effects of ma- nures ; — it contributes to the preservation and growth of the seeds ; — and insures the future prosperity of the plants. Hence it is, that a thinner soil with a favorable subsoil, will produce better crops than a more fertile one, incum- bent on wet clav, or cold or nonabsorbent rock. " Lands whose substratum consists of clean gravel or other silicious earths, can bear but little sun, owing to their not having a capacity of retaining moisture, and their generally possessing but only a shallow surface of vegetable mould." — Sinclair''s Code of Agriculture. The difficulties resulting from a retentive subsoil are likely to be obviated, in a great measure, by improve- ments of recent introduction ; — viz., furrow-draining, and subsoil ploughing. The first drains off the surplus water from the surface soil, and the latter deepens the soil, and facIUtates the passing off of surplus water. IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 53 CHAPTER VI. IMPROVEMENT OP THE SOIL. PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS. If we put into the hands of the manufacturer a sack of wool, a bale of cotton, or a bundle of flax, it is always understood, that these materials, eminently calculated as they are to administer to our wants and our comforts, must necessarily be wrought by the manufacturer into fabrics, and thence be transferred to the tailor, to be converted into wearing apparel, before they can be use- ful for the great purposes for which they are so admira- bly fitted — to protect and embellish the human form. When we pass our meats and our vegetables into the hands of our wives, daughters, or domestics in the kitchen, it is well understood by every one, that before they are fit- ted for the primary purposes of life — for our nourishment and the gratification of the palate — they must undergo the culinary processes of cooking. And when we are presented with a goodly soil, prolific in all the substantial blessings of fife — the primary source of our food and clothing — we are admonished by every thing around us, that if we would enjoy these blessings, in all their purity and richness, we must, like the manufacturer, the tailor, and the cook, exert those powers and faculties which God has given us for this purpose, in rendering this soil what it was designed to be, a fountain of temporal blessings. The manufacturer, the tailor, and the cook may abuse their trusts, and, from ignorance or indolence, spoil or waste what it is their interest and their duty to improve ; and the husbandman may, by a reckless course, pervert the high trust confided to his care, in the management of the soil. They have each their assigned duties. The means of usefulness are before them. They are endowed with capacities for manufacturing the cloth, making up the garment, cooking the food, and rendering and keeping the soil fertile ; — and their reward, certainly in temporal 6* 54 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. blessings, will very much depend upon the honesty, in- telligence, and fidelity with which they acquit themselves in their several duties. Every person should consider that he comes into the v/orld for some purpose of useful- ness ; — that nothing has been made in vain ; — that he ought at least to provide for himself and his own ; and that he fulfils the high duties of life in proportion as he contrib- utes, by his means, his example, and his influence, to improve the condition of society at large. And as his capacities for improving t]ie soil will depend very much upon the developement of the powers of his mind, the culture and improvement of the mind should receive the early and constant care of the husbandman. The natural elements and agents of fertility in the soil, are organic matters, which constitute the food of farm- crops, and heat, air, and moisture, which are essential in the preparation of this food, and to its conversion into grain, grass, roots, &c. The first of these is constantly accumulating upon the surface, by the death and decay of animals and vegetables ; the sun gives the second, the atmosphere gives the third, and the clouds the fourth. Without the aid of heat, air, moisture, and manure, labor and art can do little to render the soil productive ; — with them, skill and industry need never exert their powers in vain. It is the province of the husbandman to understand the laws by which these agents are rendered most sub- servient to his use ; and to assist, and in some sort to regulate, their influence upon the soil and upon vegetable growth. This he does by clearing and cultivation, — by rendering the soil permeable to heat and air, and to the roots of plants, — by regulating, as far as practicable, the supply of moisture, and by furnishing to the soil the ele- ments of vegetable food as these become exhausted by cultivation. The clearing of land for the purposes of husbandry, is too well understood, when it is required to be practised, to need illustration here. It consists in cutting down, burning, or carrying off the timber, brush, and other mat- ters which obstruct the plough, and in baring and open- ing the soil to the ameliorating influence of the sun and PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS. ^^ the atmosphere. Burning the vegetable matter upon the surface of new lands, tends to accelerate then* fitness for producing good crops. It converts much woody or in- soluble, into soluble matter ; corrects the natural acidity of the soil, and imparts to it much of the benefit which results from ploughing and longer exposure. A good burn is a pretty certain indication that a good crop will follow ; and a bad burn is almost as certain a precursor of a bad crop. Hence, in clearing up new lands, the timber is generally felled, when the foliage is most abun- dant, in June or July ; the fallow is burnt when the fire is likely to operate most efficiently, both in destroying the vegetable matter upon the surface, and in ameliorating the soil, say in August or early in September, and the first crop is put in with the harrow or drag soon after. We cannot but remark here, that in our zeal to clear up^ we generally carry the matter to an unwarrantable extreme ; every thing is cut away — the whole surface is denuded — stripped of its natural growth. We know that old forest- trees will not long bear an open exposure — that the winds will prostrate them when deprived of the pro- tection of surrounding forests ; yet the young growth, if left in clamps and belts upon the bleak borders, the divis- ion lines, about the farm-buildings, or upon portions of the farm not adapted to ploughland or to meadow, would tend ultimately to enhance its value, by the beauty which they would impart to the landscape, the shelter and pro- tection which they would give to crops and cattle, and by the resources which they would give for fuel, fencing, and timber. The settler upon new lands may preserve^ without labor or expense, that which it would cost much time and money to produce — that which imparts to old- settled districts the highest rural charms, and gives to them much of their intrinsic value. To destroy, in this case, is but the labor of a day ; to restore, is the work of an age. After the timber has been removed from forest lands, and the first crop put in, the stumps will remain for some years, to obstruct, partially, the further operations of improvement. The plough cannot yet do its office 56 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. thoroughly ; and neither draining nor freeing the surface from stones, where these are in the way, can be managed with economy, if the new setder has the time and the means of doing them. The most approved practice, therefore, is, to sow grass-seeds with the first crop, where the land can be spared for this purpose, and to leave the field in grass, till the stumps, or the greatest portion of them, can be readily drawn out with a team, or turned out with the plough. When this can be done, the other operations of improvement, — removing the surface stones into walls, draining, manuring, thorough tillage, and alter- nation of crops, are more or less necessary, to induce and keep up fertihty. But these seldom engage the attention of the pioneer in improvement. He considers that he has done his part ; or, rather, he does not seem conscious that he is capable of going further. He generally goes on cropping, without giving manure to his soil, and without seeming to know, that the soil is every day becoming less and less capable of supplying his wants. The ulterior improvements must be generally undertaken by his chil- dren or successors, or not undertaken at all. Hence the deterioration which has been going on in a great portion of our lands from the time of their first settlement. And hence the inducement of countless multitudes to emigrate to the west, where the natural fertility of the soil has not yet been exhausted by a reckless system of husbandry. The natural quality and condition of soils have not so much influence upon their ultimate products and profits, as the good or bad management which they receive. Some of the now poor lands in the Atlantic States, were once as rich and productive as the now rich lands of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys ; and the latter, under the treatment which the former have received, will as cer- tainly become poor, as that like causes will produce like effects. Nature was as bountiful to the east as she was to the west ; and gave to us the same means and capaci- ties for improving and enjoying her bounties, as she has given to them ; but we have abused her gifts — we have disregarded her admonitions — and we are suffering the penalty of our disobedience in an empoverished soil. Nor ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 57 can the west expect to escape a similar calamity, if she is alike unmindful of her duty and her interest. But, though late, we are beginning to see our errors, and to atone for them, by adopting a better system of farming, — by improving the bounties of Providence. We are renovating some of our worn-out lands ; and begin to find, that, under a better management, we can not only restore them to primitive fertility, but greatly increase their productive properties. We have begun to call into exercise those faculties, long dormant, which have profited the manufacturer and the artisan, and to study, and to apply to husbandry, those natural laws — that science — which must ever govern its operations, wherever its labors are wisely applied. Instead of getting a bare reward for labor, with a diminution of fertihty, as in former times, we are augmenting the capacities of the soil, and doubling, trebling, and quadrupling its products. We are now de- monstrating, that agricultural pursuits are not only the most healthy and useful, but that, judiciously managed, they are a means of wealth, and of independence and hap- piness, which few other employments in life confer. To point out some of the prominent features of this better system of husbandry — whereby the fertility of the soil is progressively improved, the labors of the husband- man better rewarded, and the country at large more benefited, than under the system pursued by our fathers, will be the subject of subsequent chapters. CHAPTER VII. ANALOGY BETWEEN ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE NUTRITION It may not be inappropriate here, with a view of bringing the process of vegetable nutrition and growth more directly home to the understanding of the unlearned reader, to notice some of the analogies which exist be- tween the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Animal and vegetable matters constitute the food alike 68 ANALOGY BETWEEN ANIMAL of animals and vegetables ; yet these matters nourish neither the animal nor the vegetable, until they have un- dergone certain preparatory processes, and are reduced to a soluble state. Solid substances, so long as they remain sohd, can benefit neither the animal nor the vege- table. The stomach is the place where these preparatory processes are performed for the animal — the soil is the place where they are carried on for the vegetable ; — where the food undergoes the first process of decomposi- tion, is broken down and rendered solvent, by the gastric juices of the stomach, and the moisture and constituents of the soil. After this process is completed, the nutrient matter of the animal food is taken up by the lacteals of the animal, and sent to the lungs, for its final preparation to become flesh, bone, &c. — and the nutrient matter of the vegetable is taken up by the spongioles, or the extreme points of the minute root-fibres, and sent to the leaves for final elaboration, fitted to nourish and enlarge all parts of the vegetable system, and to become grain, grass, roots, &c. Leaves are to plants, what lungs are to animals, — the organs of respiration. The air which is inhaled by the animal in breathing, undergoes a material change ; a portion of its oxygen is imparted to the blood, with which it comes in contact in the lungs, and a portion of the carbon is given off by the blood in exchange. By this operation the blood is fitted to become hving animal matter. The leaves, in like manner, are the organs of final elaboration to the vegetable blood, or sap. In these, the sap is exposed to atmospheric influence ; and it parts with oxygen, and retains and imbibes carbon, the principal element in vegetable structure, and is thus fitted to become living vegetable matter. The animal cannot grow, nor long continue to live, without the aid of the lungs. The vegetable cannot grow without the aid of the leaves, nor continue to live if wholly divested of them during the season of growth. Heat, air, and moisture are essential in all the processes AND VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 59 of nutrition, vegetable as well as animal — in the stomach and in the soil — in the lungs and in the leaves. The ordinary temperature of the animal stomach is about 98° — air is always inhaled by the lungs, and moist- ure is ever present. Hence the digestive process of animals is seldom arrested from the want of these agents. The decomposition of vegetable food, in the soil, ceases when the thermometer falls below 40°, and is most active at the temperature of 80°. Hence vegetable nutrition does not go on in the winter, in the absence of heat, and when most plants are shorn of their elaborating organs. Neither lungs nor leaves can perform their office healthfully, without access to fresh air ; nor can decom- position or germination take place without air. Water is a necessary solvent in the preparation of an- imal and vegetable food, for the delicate mouths of the lacteals and spongioles, and is no less indispensable as a medium for transmitting the food to the lungs and leaves, and from thence through the animal and vegetable struc- tures. After the blood of the animal has been perfected in the lungs, it is conducted, by minute arteries, to every part of the body, and is transmuted, or converted, into flesh, &c. After the sap has become elaborated or changed in the leaves, it is conveyed, in like manner, to every part of the vegetable system, and is transmuted, or trans- formed, into wood, fruit, roots, &c. Vegetables, like animals, may be injured by an excess of food ; and when food is too concentrated, or too rich, the lacteals and the spongioles become clogged, and unfitted to take up and transmit aliment to the lungs and leaves. A seed may be compared to an egg. One contains the germ of a chick, the other, the germ of a plant. Na- ture has provided in their envelopes the food proper for both, in infancy, and until both are set free from their envelopes, and can provide for themselves. Through the agency of heat and air, the chick becomes animated, grows, and bursts its shell; and the seed germinates and grows, and bursts its case — its roots strike into the soil, and its stem ascends above it — the roots collect food, 60 ANALOGY BETWEEN ANIMAL and the leaves convert it into vegetable blood. In the processes of germination and of incubation, light must be excluded. The elementary matters found in animals and vegetables are rarely the same — the animal contains the most nitro- gen, the vegetable the most carbon. Lime and iron are found in both. In the vegetable, as in the animal, the power exists of throwing off, through their excretory organs, matters, blended with their food, not fitted to their wants, or not assimilating with the elements of their structure. Plants often exhale, or give off, like some animals, a strong odor. Thus it will be seen, that plants, like animals, are or- ganized beings, fed and fattened, like animals, upon vege- table and animal — upon organic matters ; and that the same care, industry, and intelligence are required, at the hands of the farmer, to grow good crops, that are re- quired, in him, to make good mutton or good pork. The importance of providing well for the vegetable is greater than that of providing for the animal ; for, while the ani- mal has locomotive power, and can go abroad for food — the vegetable is stationary, and can only send abroad its roots for food — and where this is deficient it must be sup- plied by art. Besides, feeding the vegetable well, is the true way of providing economically for the animal. For if the crops are good, the means of rendering the animal good are always at command. The animal manufactures the crops into meat, milk, and manure — virtually into money. But if the crops are bad or deficient, an outlay must be made for cattle-food, which will reduce, if not eat up, the profits, or the farmer w^ill be correspondingly deficient in the raw material which he should turn into money. These considerations cannot fail of impressing upon the mind of the farmer the importance of keeping up and of increasing, by all prudent means, the fertility of his soil. In the management of cattle, no decent farmer would think o^ fattening a score of animals upon the food that would barely serve to keep them in a lean condition. If AND VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 61 he wanted to make money, and to realize a profit from his beef, his policy would be, to sell off half his lean stock, and to fatten his other half upon his supply of food — for what would keep a score, would fatten half that num- ber. In this way he would evidently be a gainer. He would save the labor of feeding the animals, and have converted into marketable meat the food which they would have required to keep them lean, and which then, in a measure, would have been lost. We go upon this hypo- thesis,— if an animal requires 20 lbs. of forage to supply daily exhaustion, it cannot increase in flesh upon this bare supply; but if the animal can digest 40 lbs. of food per day, or double what is necessary to supply absolute want, all the additional .20 lbs., or most of it, goes to the increase of meat, milk, &c. Now let us apply these remarks to crops. A farmer cultivates 20 acres of corn, spreading upon each acre five loads of manure. If he gets 30 bushels an acre, he thinks he does well. His labor upon each acre is worth ^15 — or on the whole 20 acres it is worth $300 — and he gets 600 bushels of corn, which, at 50 cents per bushel, just remunerates him for his labor. His crop, like the lean animal, is but so so. He gets stalks, but comparatively httle corn. Now suppose the food that Is given to the 20 acres, sufficient just to keep in it the breath of life, if this figurative expression is ad- missible, is all applied to five acres, which may be term- ed stall-feeding — let us see what would be the result. We maintain, and our experience for years will warrant us in the declaration, that the average product, under this system of stall-feeding corn, may be safely stated at 80 bushels the acre. Thus the product of five acres would be 400 bushels, and the expense of culture, at $15 per acre, 5^75 — showing a profit of one hundred and twenty-five dollars, or twenty-five dollars an acre. Thus five acres, well fed, would be worth $125 per annum more than 20 acres badly fed. The comparisons we have made will be sufficient to justify us in suggesting, as rules in farming — 1. J^Tot to work more land than can be well worked and well fed ; and^ 6 XV. 62 FURTHER IMPROVEMENT 2. J^ot to keep more cattle than the crops of the farm will feed and fatten , and than may be made profitable to the owner. CHAPTER VIII. FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. We have seen, in the preceding chapters, what must be apparent to every intelligent observer, that the improve- ment of the soil by the first settlers, has generally ter- minated in clearing up the land, and in rendering it sub- servient to their personal and immediate wants ; and that the further progress in its cultivation, has been rather to wear it out, and exhaust its fertility, without attempting to husband, or even to develope all its resources of wealth. We have said, that under a better, a more modern sys- tem of husbandry, a considerable portion of our lands, hitherto unproductive, may be rendered of great value ; that the fertility of the soil may be kept up in lands already subjected to culture — and, where they have been empov- erished by severe cropping, that they may be renovated, and may be made to produce as much and more than ever. This better, or more modern system of husbandry, of which we speak, is new only comparatively, and the term new is used in contradistinction to the old system, which is generally adopted in the first settlement of a country, in some degree as a matter of necessity ; but which, being once established, has been too often persisted in till it has empoverished most of the old-settled districts upon our Atlantic border, and is already causing indications of premature exhaustion and poverty in some districts of the west. This deterioration particularly happens in countries like our own, where new and virgin soils are constantly inviting to emigration. What we denominate the new system of husbandry has long been in operation in the valley of the Po, in Italy, and in Flanders ; for the last hal/ century it has been gaining strength in Great OF THE SOIL. 63 Britain, and is at present carried to a higher degree of perfection in Scotland, probably, than in any other part of Europe. It has, moreover, for some time, been making its way into the United States, where its followers are daily and rapidly increasing. Wherever it has long been in operation among us, it has greatly increased the products of the soil, and the value of the land ; and yet in no district do we believe that half its advantages have been developed. In the details of practice under the new system, much will depend upon chmate, soil, and upon the distance and demands of the market. Where the market is remote, the coarser products must be concentrated in meat, wool, butter, cheese, and other articles, of the least expensive transportation. Near navigable waters, and in the vicin- ity of large towns, hay, roots, fruit, and coarse grains, may be more profitably cultivated. The products of the soil, as well as the demand for them, must also vary with lati- tude. Grain, pulse, roots, grass, and domestic animals, are the staples of our northern districts ; rice, cotton, and tobacco constitute the principal products of the southern part of our Union ; while the torrid zone produces coffee, sugar, molasses, &c. Though there are no definite rules of practice that will apply to all zones, or all soils, there are general principles, and essential requisites, which have a general application. In all situations, organic matters constitute the food of plants ; in all situations, heat, air, and water are the essential agents to prepare and convey this food to the mouths of plants, to circulate the vege- table blood, to assimilate it with vegetable structure ; and in all cases are capital, skill, and industry advanta- geously employed in aiding, and in some measure con- trolling, the operation of these natural elements and agents of vegetable nutrition and growth. The modern improvements in husbandry, consist prin- cipally,— 1. In manuring ; 2. In draining ; 3. In good tillage ; 4. In alternating crops ; 64 FURTHER IMPROVEMENT 5 In root culture ; and, 6. In substituting fallow crops for naked fallows. Most of these are necessary to good farming, in a far greater degree than they have been hitherto considered. They are the distinguishing features of the new husband- ry ; and as they are practised with more or less intelli- gence and fidelity, in that proportion are they likely to advance the interests of the farmer, and to profit the country. We intend to bestow some notice upon each of these branches of improvement ; and shall endeavor to explain, as we go along, their operation upon the soil, separately and conjointly. In the remarks we shall offer, it will be our object rather to explain the principles upon which the new system is conducted, and which have a common application, and to demonstrate their beneficial influence in husbandry generally, than to detail the minutiae of prac- tice, which must, in some degree, be influenced and con- trolled by a variety of circumstances. If we overstock the farm, that is, attempt to keep twice as many cattle upon it, as our pasture and hay will support in a thriving condition — every one will tell us that we don't work it right ; that our cattle, instead of being a profit, under such management, will turn out to be a loss ; that we expend our labor and our forage, without improving their condition, or obtaining any corresponding return. Such is precisely the case with our crops. If we but half feed them, they will be meager, and but ill repay us for their culture. Although, as we have ob- served, every one can see the folly of half starving cattle, few seem to perceive the folly of half starving crops, — or, if they see, they do not seem inclined to profit from their knowledge. There is many a farmer, who, under the old system, is scrupulously economical of his cattle-feed, knowing that food makes meat, milk, &c., but who is perfectly reckless of his manure, the food of his crops ; apparently forgetting, that crops are to constitute his cat- tle-food, and that they will be abundant and nutritious pre- cisely in proportion to the food he gives them, and the care which he bestows in their culture. The farmer upon OF THE SOIL. 65 new-settled lands, acts very much like the prodigal son of wealth, who finds a treasure in his hands, and who, without inquiring how it came there, or how it should be preserved, exhausts it recklessly, without regard to duty or ultimate benefit. So the farmer, under the old sys- tem, seems to have regarded the treasures of the soil as a patrimonial inheritance, conferred by Providence, for his especial benefit, and to have gone on and wasted it, regardless of the interests of society and of his off- spring. The consequence has been, that he who has wasted the treasures of the soil, like the spendthrift, has often thereby consigned his children to poverty and to want, or driven them to other employments, by the in- fluence of his bad example. The first requisite, therefore, for improving the fertili- ty of the soil, is to provide plenty of food for the crops which it is destined to nourish. The meal-chest must be occasionally replenished, or it will not long serve to supply the wants of the family. The cow must have daily her forage, or her grain, or she will withhold her accustomed tribute of milk. The field which yields an annual contribution to the husbandman, will become ster- ile, if nothing is returned to replace the vegetable matters continually carried off. Philosophers have speculated for ages, as to what constitutes the food of plants. With- out recapitulating the various theories which have had their day, upon this point, every farmer can readily re- spond to the question, from personal knowledge — that it is MANURE — vegetable and animal matters — which con- stitute the true food of farm-crops. Mineral, fossil, and earthy substances may meliorate the soil, and increase its capacities for the healthy developement and maturity of plants, or may impart wholesome stimuli to their organs ; but vegetable and animal substances, after all, constitute mainly the food of plants. Crops are always good, on well-prepared ground, where these, in a soluble state, are known to abound ; and they are always defective, or prove a failure, where these are wanting. Farmers should hence regard manure as a part of their capital — as money — which requires but to be properly employed, 6* 66 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY to return them compound interest. They should hus- band it as they would their cents, or shillings, which they mean to increase to dollars. They should economize ev^ery animal and vegetable substance upon the farm, and when it has subserved other useful puposes, apply it, by mixing it properly with the soil, to the increase of the coming harvest — put it to interest, that it may return the owner its per centage of profit, in grain, roots, and for- age, and ultimately in the increase of meat, and in the products of the fleece and the dairy. Every load of manure, well apphed to the farm, will increase its prod- ucts to the value of one dollar. The farmer, therefore, who wastes a load of manure, is as reckless and improvi- dent, as he who throws away a bushel of corn. Not only what is denominated dung, as the contents of the cattle and hog yards, and the clearings of the stable, — the amount of which may be greatly increased, by stalks, weeds, vines, and other vegetable matters, — may be trans- formed into farm produce — but the rich earth of swamps, ditches, and ponds, the leaves of the forest, urine, soap- suds, &c., are all convertible to a like use. He that will not feed his crops with manure, should not complain if his crops fail to feed him with bread. CHAPTER IX. IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MANURES. The great sources of fertility to the farm, are the ref- use of the crops which they bear, modified by the farm- stock, and preserved and judiciously applied by the hus- bandman. There is not a vegetable matter grown upon the farm, be it considered ever so useless or noxious, but will, after it has served ordinary useful purposes, impart fertility to the soil, and contribute to the growth of a new generation of plants, if it is judiciously husbanded and applied. There is not an animal substance, be it ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MANURES. 67 solid, liquid, or gaseous, — be it bone, horn, urine, hair, wool, or flesh, or the gases which are generated by the decomposition of these matters, — but, with like care and skill, may be converted into new vegetable, and after- wards into new animal matters. To economize and ap- ply all these fertihzing materials is the province and the duty of the husbandman. To aid him in this useful labor, is the object of this essay. And, 1st. Of the cattle-yard. This should be located on the south side of^ and adjoining, the barn. Sheds, sub- stantial walls, or close board-fences, should be erected at least on the east and west sides, to shelter the cattle from cold winds and storms — the size and the divisions to be adapted to the stock which it is intended to feed. Excavate the centre, or some other part of the yard, placing the earth removed upon the borders, which may be ten to fourteen feet broad, or upon the lower sides, where there is a descent, so that the hquids will all run to the centre, and the borders, which should be left gently inclining, will remain dry and firm, for feeding the cattle upon. The centre may be from two to five feet lower than the borders. The labor may be done principally with the plough and scraper, and smoothed off with the shovel and hoe. We were employed two days and a half, with two hands and a team, in giving a cattle-yard the desired shape. When the soil of the yard is not sufliciently com- pact to hold water, or is not likely to become so by the tread of the cattle, or the puddling effects of the manure, the bottom should be bedded with six or eight inches of clay, well beat down, and well covered with gravel. This is seldom however necessary. Our yards are upon a sand loam, and yet the liquids never sink into the earth. When the yard is prepared, the first thing done should be to overlay the whole bottom with six to twelve inches of peat or swamp earth, where it is at command ; and where it is not, with earth from ditches, the road-side, or other rich deposits. It is then fit for the reception of the cattle, and of straw, coarse hay, corn-stalks, and other litter of the farm ; and subsequently, as they may be gathered, the weeds, potato and pumpkin vines, and 68 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY Other vegetable matters. These materials will absorb or take up the urine and other hquids, and, becoming incor- porated with the dung, double or treble the ordinary quan- tity of manure. During the continuance of frost, the excavation gives no inconvenience ; and when the weath- er is soft, the borders afford space for feeding the cattle, and for a dry passage to the barn. In this way the urine is saved, and the waste incident to rains, &:c. prevented. The barns and sheds which adjoin the yards, should be provided with eve-gutters, which should discharge out- side of the yard, so that the waters from the roofs may pass off. As a further precaution against waste by rains, a cis- tern or tank may be sunk near the yard, into which an under drain may be made to conduct the liquids, when they are likely to accumulate to excess. These liquids may be pumped into casks upon carts, and employed to great advantage upon grass or arable crops. The Flem- ings call these liquids the cooked food of their crops. To guard against the wasting influence of the sun in summer, a roughly constructed covering, supported by posts, may be erected over the central depot. This is seldom necessary under our mode of management, which requires a thorough cleaning of the yard every spring, for the corn, potato, and other root crops. The catde should be kept constantly yarded in winter, except w^hen let out to water, not only because, if suf- fered to run at large, they poach and injure the fields and meadows, but because they waste their dung ; and the yard should be frequently replenished with fresh litter. Upon this plan, from ten to twelve loads of manure may readily be obtained, every spring, from each animal win- tered in the yard. If the manure from the horse-stables, and from stalled neat cattle, be added, the quantity will not only be proportionally increased, but the quality im- proved. Whenever the yard is thoroughly cleaned for spring crops, it ought to be again bedded with fresh earth, and well littered. 2d. The stables^ whether occupied by horses or cattle, may be made to contribute much to the value of the yard ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MANURES. 69 dung, by their urine, which may be conducted into the yard by paved or other conduits, leading from the stables to the yard. In these, too, litter may be as profitably employed to increase the dung, and to promote the health and comfort of the animal, as in the yard or open sheds. The dung from the horse-stables, if suffered to lie in mass, is apt to heat and become fire-fanged^ as it is term- ed, which very much impairs its quality. Where there are cellars under stables, the dung is thrown down into them, and is there protected from the wasting influence of the weather ; but even here it is liable to suffer injury unless hogs are permitted to root among it, or unless the cellar is frequently cleaned out. An approved practice is, to scatter the dung from the stables over the cattle- yard, which thus retards fermentation, prevents waste, and produces a homogeneous mass of excellent manure. 3d. The hog-pen. Hogs are excellent animals for man- ufacturing manure, if they are furnished with the raw ma- terial, as peat earth, straw, weeds, &c., and a suitable place for conducting the process. The composts of their formation are among the cheapest and the best that are used upon the farm. The slops of the kitchen, the weeds of the garden, the refuse fruits of the orchard, and the offal of the farm, are readily converted, by these swinish laborers, into meat or manure. Hogs are profitable la- borers, and should be employed to as great an extent upon the farm as the proprietor's circumstances will per- mit. 4th. The sheep-fold may be made an abundant source of fertility to the farm. Economy in its management con- sists in giving abundance of litter, repeated at short inter- vals, sufficient to absorb the urine, prevent wasting exha- lations, and secure health to the flock — and in applying the dung in its recent or unfermented state. 5th. Composts. These are an artificial mixture of vegetable or animal matters, with earthy or mineral sub- stances, and may be profitably resorted to in two contin- gencies, viz., first, to arrest and detain, for useful purpos- es, fertihzing matters which might otherwise be wasted and lost — as the urine of animals, or the gaseous matters 70 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY which are evolved from animal or vegetable substances while undergoing fermentation ; — and, secondly, to ren- der soluble, or available as the food of plants, matters which are not already so, as swamp earth, woody jfibre, &c. There is nothing added to the elements of fertility by mixing organic with inorganic matters in a compost- heap. The advantage in one case is m saving that which would otherwise be lost ; and in the other, of rendering useful that which is otherwise useless. Earthy matters absorb and retain the fertilizing properties of liquids and gases, if placed in juxtaposition, or in contact with them, and impart them again to growing plants. Thus a fer- menting dung-heap will enrich the stratum of earth with which it is covered, by the gases which it gives off; thus the earthy matters with which we bed our cattle-yards become rich in the elements of fertility, by the urine and juices of the dung which they there imbibe ; and "thus the inert, insoluble matter of peat-swamps is rendered soluble and enriching, by bringing it in contact with recent ma- nure, or other heating and fermenting substance. It is the business of the farmer to calculate, upon the foregoing principles, and upon the proximity and cost of the mate- rials, to what extent composts may be made profitable in the economy of the farm. To some they are highly use- ful ; while to others, hke Franklin's whistle, they may cost too dear. There are several other animal and vegetable sub- stances, which every farmer has more or less at com- mand, or which he may have at command, besides his cattle-dung, which may be made to contribute largely and economically, to keep up and increase the fertility and products of his lands. We will notice some of them briefly in detail. 1. Bone-dust^ or crushed bones. The bones of the ox, according to Davy, consist of 51 parts in 100 of decomposable animal matter, 37 of phosphate of lime, 10 of carbonate of lime, and 1.3 of phosphate of magnesia. All these matters impart fertility, and are necessary ele- ments in the food of plants. They are species of con- centrated, or portable manure : concentrated^ inasmuch ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MANURES. 71 as two bushels of bone-dust, or crushed bones, properly applied, will, upon some soils, do as much good as a load of barn-yard manure ; portable, because they may be transported at one tenth the expense of their equivalent of yard-dung. Bone-dust is comparatively a new ma- nure, at least in the United States, though it has been long highly prized, and extensively used, in Great Brit- ain. Such have been its magic effects in British hus- bandry, and such the increasing demand for it there, that bones to the value of more than $800,000, it is said, are annually imported into that country, to enrich the soil, in addition to those which the kingdom furnishes ; and it is announced in one of her late agricultural periodicals, that the use of this manure is actually adding sixteen millions of bushels of grain annually to her agricultural products. This great source of fertility is now engaging the atten- tion of the American farmer, and some mills have been put in operation near Boston, New York, Albany, Wa- terford, &c., and there is no doubt but the use of this fertilizing material will be rapidly and profitably ex- tended. We shall speak further of its importance, and the modes of applying it, in a chapter appropriated to this subject. 2. Horn-shavings, These consist of the chips and refuse of the horns and hoofs of neat cattle, from comb- factories. Although more limited in quantity than the bones of animals, they may be had in considerable amount, and are equal, and, according to Davy, superior, to crushed bones, in their fertilizing influence upon the soil. From 500 grains of ox-horn Mr. Hatchet obtained only 1.5 grains of residuum, and not quite half of this was phosphate of lime — the residue being decomposable ani- mal matter. " The animal matter in them," says Davy, " seems to be of the nature of coagulated albumen, and it is slowly rendered soluble by the action of water. The earthy matter in horn, and still more that in bones, pre- vents the too rapid decomposition of the animal matter, and renders it very durable in its effects." — *^g. Chem. With these maybe classed the piths of horns, or the resi- due of cattle's horns after the comb-maker has taken all 72 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY that is fit for his use. These may be either cut into pieces upon a block, with an axe, so as to be readily buried with the plough, or broken in the bone-mill. We have used fifteen wagon-loads of piths in a season with great advantage. The best way of applying the bone-dust and horn-sha- vings and horn-piths, that we have tried, is to keep them dry till a short time before they are wanted — then to mix them, in the proportion of a bushel to a load, with un- fermented yard or stable dung, to cart to the field, spread broadcast, and immediately cover the whole with the plough. The action of the dung brings on a decompo- sition of the animal matter, without previous preparation, and its benefits are imparted to the coming crop. We estimate fifteen loads of manure, thus charged with bone or horn, equal to twenty-five loads without it. 3. Poudrette is the contents of privies, dried, and ren- dered as inodorous and inoftensive, by chemical process, as the common earths. This is another species of con- centrated manure nearly as powerful as bone-dust ; more operative upon a first crop, but less durable in its effects. It is the most efiicient, in its immediate effects, of any manure we have tried. It is applied at the rate of 40 bushels or less to the acre, upon all arable crops, to be sown broadcast, superficially covered, or placed in the hill or drill of hoed crops. It has long been used about Paris, has become an article of commerce, and is trans- ported to every part of the interior. Manufactories of poudrette have been established in the vicinity of New York, and the demand for the article increases with the supply. Like manufactories w^ill, no doubt, ere long be established near all our large cities ; and thus, what would be otherwise a nuisance, and the indirect cause of disease and death, will be converted into vegetable food, and be- come a source of comfort and of wealth. Let not the sensitive start at this suggestion — the choicest delicacies of the table come from a nauseous mass of animal and vegetable putrefaction ! 4. Urette is animal urine, absorbed and rendered dry by mixture with calcareous earth. It possesses the like ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MANURES. 73 fertilizing virtues as poudrette, and is applied in a similar way, and with very similar effect. 5. Woollen rags, and the flocks and sweepings of wool- len-factories, constitute a highly-concentrated manure, and are procured in considerable quantities at the woollen-mills. 6. Fish are converted Into a valuable manure, and are a main dependance for fertility on some parts of Long Island, and other districts near the margin of the sea. These are most economically used in the form of a com- post— the earth with which they are blended absorbing the volatile parts, and permitting a more equal distribu- tion of the fertilizing matters upon the soil. 7. Sea-iveed, or sea-drift, which is so often thrown upon the beach in immense quantities during a storm, is beneficially employed as a manure, not only on account of its vegetable, but of its saline properties. It Is em- ployed in composts, in litter for cattle-yards, or is ploughed in, in a green state. 8. Feat earth, or swamp muck, is vegetable food, in an insoluble state, and requires only such a chemical change as shall render it soluble, to convert it into an ac- tive manure. This change may be effected in the cattle- yard, in the compost-heap, or by admixture with alkaline substances, as lime, ashes, &c. This earth is generaly insoluble in the places where it is deposited, especially when saturated with water. It some- times is rendered soluble by thorough draining, and by the admixture of sand or loam, and always by being brought In contact with fermenting animal or vegetable matters. 9. Peat ashes are valuable as a top dressing for grain or grass, and particularly for young clovers. They how- ever differ much In their fertilizing properties, according to the proportion of sulphate of lime and other salts which they contain. The peat or bogs should be burnt in stacks or piles, the fire being kindled In the centre, where dry combustibles should be placed for the purpose ; and when the fire has got firm hold of the peat earth or bogs, it should be prevented from breaking out, by the occasional addition of fresh turf or bogs to the outside. The more 7 XV. 74 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY the air can be kept out, and the smoke kept in, the more abundant and fertilizing will be the ashes. 10. Wood ashes are beneficial to most soils, on account of the potash and other salts which they afford. Leached ashes are in many cases beneficial, particularly within the influence of the marine atmosphere ; and it has been shown by a writer in the Cultivator, that their unvarying efficacy upon the borders of the sea, is owing principally to their combining, there, with the muriate of soda, or common salt. An admixture of a small portion of salt, or salt water, with leached ashes, in the interior, gave to them highly-enriching qualities ; whereas, applied without the salt, they imparted httle or no benefit. On many lands in the interior, however, the application of leached ashes has induced an increase of fertility. In short, there is no animal or vegetable matter, upon the farm or elsewhere, but is convertible into farm-crops, when properly managed. As the grain, roots, and forage destined to feed the family and the farm-stock, require the best care of the husbandman, to prevent waste and injury, so does the manure which is destined to feed his crops. Fermenta- tion, if suffered to exhaust its powers upon yard-dung, materially lessens its value ; the wind and the sun dissi- pate its virtues, and rains leach it and waste its fertilizing powers. The same care given to the food of vegetables, which should be given to the food of animals, will be richly recompensed in the increased product of the har- vest. If we contrast the common with the improved practice, in regard to the management of dung, we shall readily see, that the difference, in enriching the soil, is incalcula- bly great — enough to induce poverty in one case, and to enrich the proprietor in the other. Even the best class of our farmers, who are deemed judicious managers, sel- dom avail themselves of half the resources of fertility which their farms or neighborhoods afford — not half that are put in successful requisition by the farmers of Great Brit- ain and Flanders. Besides, what manure they do make, is badly husbanded : they suffer the gaseous portions to ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MANURES. 75 waste in the air, instead of being absorbed by, and enrich- ing the soil ; and the hquids to course down hill to the highway or some neighboring brook. But what shall we say of the mass of our farmers ? We have travelled hun- dreds of miles to the west, and seen great quantities of manure, in the yards and about the barns, often the ac- cumulation of years, seemingly considered by the owners rather as an encumbrance, or a nuisance, than as a source of fertility and wealth. In the new system of husbandry, the farmer's profits are in a measure graduated by the quantity of manure he is enabled to jDroduce from his farm. In the fourth vol- ume of the Cultivator, estimates are given, from high au- thorities, of the amount produced upon farms in Great Britain. Doctor Coventry, Agricultural Professor in the Edinburgh University, gives four tons of manure to each acre of straw manufactured by farm-stock. A Berwick- shire farmer, quoted by Sir John Sinclair, obtained four cart-loads, of 30 to 35 cubic feet each, from every ox wintered upon straw and turnips. Meadow land is stated to produce from four to six tons of manure to the acre ; and the available sources of fertility upon a farm, if the products are consumed by the stock on the farm, are esti- mated to be sufficient to give a full supply of manure once in every course of the four-year system of husbandry. Arthur Young, with six horses, four cows, nine hogs, and suitable litter, made IIS loads of dung, 36 bushels each, in a winter. Cattle fed with turnips are computed to make double the manure that those do which are fed upon dry fodder alone ; and an acre of turnips, with an adequate quantity of straw, has produced sixteen cart-loads of dung. It will be readily perceived, that by this mode of man- agement, ample means may be provided for keeping up the fertility of the soil, when put under the four-shift system of husbandry. What now is the common quantity of manure, under the old system ? Taking our State, or our country at large, we are confident the average quantity which is judiciously applied, will not amount to one load an acre, and we are doubtful if it will amount to half a load. Can it be won- 76 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY dered, then, that under such reckless management, of returning to the soil only a quarter, or an eighth, of what we take from it, of the food of plants, our lands should continue to grow poor, till they no longer yield a reward to culture ? The cultivated lands in New York are estimated at eight millions of acres. On the suppo- sition that one half of these are appropriated to tillage and meadow — and this is a low estimate — we might pro- duce, and apply annually, under the new system of hus- bandry— and we ought to do so — sixteen milhon tons of manure, worth, to the country, at a low computation, six- teen millions of dollars ; — whereas, we now produce, un- der the old system, certainly not more than four millions of tons — thereby suffering an annual loss, independent of the certain and constant diminution in the product and value of our lands, of twelve millions of dollars, in the single item of manures ! This is not a visionary specula- tion— it is sober truth — and we ask any intelligent man, to show, from facts, a less favorable conclusion. But, to relieve this sombre picture, so discreditable to American husbandry, we are happy to have it in our pow- er to cite some illustrious exceptions to the conclusions we have drawn ; which go to prove both our general neg- lect in this branch of rural economy, and the vast benefits which it is capable of dispensing when duly attended to. Among other notable examples which might be mentioned, we state, on the authority of the Essex Committee on Manures, that in Plymouth county, when a premium was to be given to the man who made the greatest number of loads of manure on his farm, the prize was awarded to a farmer who made 798 loads — the lowest competitor claim- ing for 350. William Clark, Jr., of Northampton, with an average stock of 8 oxen and cows, 3 horses, and 8 hogs, made in a year 920 loads. A friend of the writer on Staten Island, who has a stock of some 20 or 30 cat- tle, assured us that he could or did make, from his cattle, peat earth, peat ashes, and sea-weed, enough manure to thoroughly dung more than one hundred acres of his farm annually. The cases we have cited will serve to show, that a ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MANURES. 77 vast improvement may be made in this branch of farm economy. We will merely remark here, in regard to the applica- tion of manures, that if used in an unfermented state, they should be buried with the plough, at least so deep as to remain saturated with moisture, a material agent of de- composition, and applied to a hoed, or autumn-ripening crop. If used in a rotted state, they may be blended with the surface, and applied to a summer-ripening crop. We wall give our reasons for this practice. Manure fer- tilizes in two ways — by the gaseous matters w4iich are evolved in fermentation, and which rise ; and which, be- sides constituting vegetable food, operate in the soil, like yest in dough, rendering it porous, and permeable to heat, air, and moisture ; and by liquid matters, which sink. If used before it has parted w^ith its gases, manure should be buried, that the incumbent soil may imbibe the gaseous elements. If the manure has been rotted, it has parted with its gaseous matters, and all its remaining fertilizing properties are liable to be carried down by the rains — hence this may be deposited near the surface. Again, fresh manures, even in a liquid form,* induce a rank growth of herbage ; but they do not produce good plump seed. Hence, if applied to common small grains, they cause a great growth of straw at the expense of the grain; fermentation being most rapid at mid-summer, when the seed, and not the straw, requires the food. But the au- tumn-ripening crops, as corn, &c., are in that state, at mid-summer, which requires strong food to perfect their stalks and leaves ; and the fermentation of the manure has subsided before the grain matures in autumn. Fos- sil manures, as lime, marl, and gypsum, are apphed upon the surface, or buried superficially, because their disposi- tion is to settle down, and they give off no gaseous food. * Colonel de Courteur (see Farmers' Magazine) tried stable manure and lio^uid manure, the latter diluted, upon his wheat. The grain tillered much, or gave a great growth of straw and grass ; but the product in grain was diminished. When the liquid manure was ap- plied a second time, by being poured upon the growing wheat, the straw was very rank ; the plants produced only a few ears of wheat, and those were very defective in grain. 2* 78 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL CHAPTER X. IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY MINERAL MANURES. Although animal and vegetable matters are consider- ed the true food of plants, as they are of animals, yet the plant, like the animal, is benefited by certain mineral and saline substances, which seem necessary to both, as stim- uli or condiments, and which act either upon the food, in fitting it for use, upon the organs of digestion or nutrition, or become essential in giving form, strength, and firmness to the animal and vegetable structure. Thus the bones of animals are formed from the lime and phosphorus which are taken in with the food. Without lime, the eggs of fowls would be without a shell. All the earths enter more or less into the animal and vegetable structures, and into the seeds of the latter. Lime is found in the wheat, gypsum in the clover, sulphur in the turnip, silex in the stalks of Indian corn, and most of the cereal gras- ses. Mineral substances are also beneficially employed in improving the texture of the soil, and in fitting it to promote the growth of plants. The most important of the mineral applications is lime. Lime benefits in two ways ; first, in its caustic state, deprived of its carbonic acid by fire, it dissolves vegeta- ble fibre, and converts it into the food of plants ; and at the same time, by forming new chemical compounds with matters that are soluble, it prolongs the nutritive action of soft vegetable and animal substances beyond the time in which they would have acted, if they had not entered into a combination with it. Hence, caustic, or quick- lime, should not be applied with common dung, but to soils abounding in peaty, fibrous, and other insoluble, inert vegetable matters. And secondly, in its mild state, or as a carbonate, it improves the mechanical texture of sands and clays ; rendering the first more compact and more retentive of manure and moisture, and the latter BY MINERAL MANURES. 79 more porous, and more permeable to the dews, to air, and to heat. Upon all soils which do not contain it natural- ly, mild lime may be applied with certain ulterior benefit. Lime, says Professor Low, may be applied to land in different ways, and at different periods. "1. It may be laid on the surface of land which is in grass, and remain there until the land is ploughed up for tillage, even though this should be several years after- wards. The lime, in this case, quickly sinks into the soil, and, acting upon it, prepares it for crops when it is again tilled. "2. It may be spread upon the ground, and buried even by the plough, just after a crop of any kind has been reaped. In this case it prepares the soil for succeeding crops. "3. It may be spread upon the surface even where plants are growing. This practice, however, though some- times convenient, is very rarely to be imitated. "4. It maybe, and is most frequently, applied du- ring the season in which the land is in fallow, or in prep- aration for what are termed fallow crops. ^'5. It may be mixed with earthy matter, particularly with that containing vegetable remains, [the ligneous, woody and peaty ;] in this case it forms a compost." — Low'^s Elements, &c. Quicklime adds nothing to the elements of fertility ; it merely digests these elements, or renders them soluble. Hence its tendency is to exhaust these elements in the soil, and to induce ultimate sterility, unless organic mat- ters are returned to it. Lime will produce no benefit to soils in which there are no organic matters. The quantity of lime to be applied to the acre, will depend upon the quality of the soil ; the poorer the soil, the less should be the application. In Britain, from 100 to 300 bushels are applied. In the United States, from 50 to 120 bushels ; and the dressings may be repeated, according to circumstances, in every four to ten years. In France, applications of from three to ten bushels are made annually, with the best effect. Lime is inoperative upon all soils containing an excess of water. It eradi- 80 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL cates sorrel, corrects the acidity of soils, neutralizes the oxydes of iron, tends to prevent rust in the small grains, and to give to wheat a fine, clean straw and berry. Quicklime, in its ultimate, and carbonate of lime, in its immediate effects, are beneficial, as we have stated, in all soils in which it is deficient. Two per cent, of car- bonate of lime, in the tillage stratum of a soil, is deemed sufficient, by Mr. Ruffin, for all tillage crops; but it should be borne in mind, that this earth, more than any other, is exhausted by cropping ; and that when it is supplied arti- ficially, it will require to be repeated at intervals of four to eight years. The following rules for the application of quicklime are given in British husbandry, and will be found gener- ally applicable to our practice. "1. Before application of lime, the land should be thoroughly drained and laid dry. "2. It may be carried on when the teams are most at leisure ; but summer is the best season ; and it never should be laid upon the land except in dry weather. "3. It should be laid on while in a powdery state, and kept as near the surface as possible, as then best adapted to mix intimately with the soil. " 4. It may be apphed either quick or effete ; but if in the former state it will have more effect in cleansing the land, and a less quantity w^ill serve the immediate pur- pose. It should however be carted upon the land as soon as possible, and spread directly before the plough, let- ting that follow on so quickly, that the body of the lime shall be slaked in the soil ; and it must be cautiously ap- plied to light soils. " 5. As it has a tendency to sink into the ground, and it is important to preserve it near the surface, it should be ploughed w'ith a shallow furrow. "6. When found, after a few years, in lumps, and much below the surface of the land, it should be ploughed up and repeatedly harrowed, so as to insure its entire mixture. "7. Clays and strong loams require a full dose ; but for sands and other light soils, a much less quantity of BY MINERAL MANURES. 81 lime will serve, each in proportion to the strength of the lime and the land. ''8. If the land be not supplied with the same quantity of putrescent manure that is usually laid upon other soils, the crops will suffer ; and if it be not then laid down to grass for a long series of years, it will be worn out and exhausted." We add the following from Professor Low : — " Lime may be laid on the surface of land when it is in grass, and remain there till the land is ploughed up for tillage, even though this should be several years afterwards. The hme, in this case, quickly sinks into the soil, and, acting upon it, prepares it for crops when it is again tilled." " It may be spread upon the surface even when plants are growing. This is, however, rarely to be imitated." Lime is most extensively used in East Pennsylvania, of any part of the United States. The writer of this essay addressed a letter to Dr. Darlington, of Chester county, propounding certain queries as to the mode of applying lime, quantity appHed, &c. in his neighborhood ; to winch the Doctor kindly returned the subjoined answer, which will probably afford the best guide to the Ameri- can farmer, in the application of this mineral, that can be found. Dear Sir, — I proceed, with great pleasure, to furnish you with such facts and remarks as my opportunities for observation have enabled me to offer. With a view to render the answers more explicit and satisfactory, I will annex them, seriatim, to your several inquiries. Query I. " Upon ichat lands does lime operate most beneficially, — 1st. In regard to geological formation^ — as primitive, transition, secondary, and alluvial 9 2d. In reference to the soil, — as sand, clay, lime, and vege^ table matter 9 Sd. As indicated by natural growth of timber and plants V Answer. My residence has always been in a primitive region, and my observations very much limited to agri- cultural processes in soils upon that formation. The pre- 82 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL vailing rock here is gneiss, with occasional beds, or veins, of hornblende, greenstone, and sienite. About five miles to the north of us is the great valley of transi- tion limestone, stretching from northeast to southwest, and immediately on the northern side of this valley, run- ning parallel with it, is a broken ridge of hills, formed of mica slate, — with beds of serpentine rock and hornblende, on the side next to gneiss rock, on the southeast. Over the gneiss rock, and among the hornblende, the soil is generally a still loam ; and I think the best effects are perceptible from a given quantity of lime. On the soil overlaying the schistose rock, the good effects of lime are sufficiently obvious, under the management of skilful farmers ; but the benefits seem to be less perma- nent. On the serpentine rock the soil is extremely sterile ; and neither lime nor barn-yard manure can be used with much advantage. In the limestone soil of the great val- ley, where one would suppose it was already redundant, lime is used whh advantage ; and much heavier dressings are put on, than in the adjacent districts. I cannot fur- nish the rationale of this practice, but I believe the fact is established, that more lime is required to produce the same beneficial effect on soils resting on limestone rock, than upon those overlaying gneiss, and perhaps some other primitive rocks. I have had no opportunity to witness the effect of lime upon secondary^ and strictly alluvial, formations ; but the circumstances have led me to suspect, that the same quantity of lime would not be so signally beneficial in secondary, as it is in certain primitive formations. Lime undoubtedly has a good effect in soils which are sandy, even where sand predominates ; but I beheve its mehorating properties are most conspicuous in a clay soil, — or rather in a stiff loam. A good proportion of decomposed vegetable matter adds greatly to the benefi- cial effects of lime ; and hence our farmers are desirous to mingle as much barn-yard manure as possible with their lime dressings, — and to get their fields into what is called a good sod, or turf, — full of grass roots. Then a dres- BY MINERAL MANURES. |^ sing of lime has an admirable effect.* The soils indica- ted by a natural growth of black oak, (quercus tinctoria,) walnut, {juglans nigra,) and poplar, {liriodendron,) — and those in which such grasses as the poas and festucas best flourish, are generally most signally benefited by the use of lime. In short, I may observe, that lime has been found more or less beneficial in every description of soil in this district. It is most so on hilly or rolling lands, where clay pre- dominates,— less permanently so among the mica slate, — and least of all on the magneslan rocks. The soil on these last is rarely worth cultivating. Query 2. " What quantity of lime is applied to the acre J upon different soils, at a single dressing, and during a period of years ?" Answer. The quantity of lime, per acre, w^hlch can be used advantageously, varies with the condition and original character of the soil. Highly-Improved land will bear a heavier dressing than poor land. On a soil of medium condition the usual dressing is 40 to 50 bushels per acre. A deep, rich soil, or limestone land in the great valley, will receive 70 to 80 (and I am told even 100) bushels to the acre with advantage. On very poor land, 20 to 30 bushels per acre Is deemed most advanta- geous to commence with. It is usually repeated every five or six years — i. e., every time the field comes in turn to be broken up with the plough ; and as the land Improves the quantity of lime is increased. The prevailing prac- tice here is, to plough down the sod, or ley, in the fall or early in the spring — harrow It once — and then spread the lime (previously slaked to a powder) preparatory to planting the field with Indian corn. Every field, in rota- tion, receives this kind of dressing ; and as our farms are * The yard manure is not usually mingled with the lime, when the latter is first applied. The practice is, to lime the Indian corn ground, prior to planting that grain, on the inverted sod, — and, the ensuing spring, to manure the same field for a barley crop, — or, to reserve the manure until the succeeding autuiim, and apply it to the wheat crop. It is not well settled which of these is the better practice. Each has its advocates ; but it is most usual to reserve the manure for the wheat. 84 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL mostly divided into about half a dozen fields, the dressing of course comes once in six years, more or less, accord- ing to the number of the fields. Some enterprising farm- ers however give their fields an intermediate dressing, on the sod, after they come into grass, which I consider an excellent practice, — tending rapidly to improve the condi- tion of the land. Query 3. '•^ Is it applied in a caustic or in an effete state V Answer. It is usually obtained in a caustic state from the kiln, — deposited in heaps in the field where it is to be spread, and water, sufficient to slake it to a pow^der, is then thrown upon it. As soon as slaked it is loaded into carts, and men with shovels distribute it as equally as possible over the ground. It is generally considered best to put it on the ground while it is fresh, or icarm, as the phrase is ; and it is certainly easier to spread it equally when in a light, pulverized state, than after it gets much wet with rains. I am inclined to think, too, it is better for the land w^hen applied fresh from the kiln. Query 4. '' To what crops is it most advantageously applied, and at what season V Answer. It is usually applied, as already intimated, to the crop of Indian corn, in the spring of the year — say the month of A pril. Occasionally it is applied prepar- atory to sowing wheat in autumn. When used as a top dressing, on the sod, it is generally applied in the fall — say November. The prevailing impression is, that it is most advantageously applied to the Indian corn crop ; and hence the general practice. But the truth is, it is highly advantageous at any, and at all seasons ; and our shrewd old farmers have a saying — " Get your lime on for your corn, if you can, — but be sure to get it on the land some time in the year.'''' Query 5. " How is it incorporated with the soil — by the plough or the harrow ? and is it applied in any case as a top dressing to grass and to grains, and icith lohat effect V Answer. As already stated, after the sod is ploughed down for Indian corn, it is usually harrowed once to BY MINERAL MANURES. 85 render the surface more uniform. The lime is spread as equally as possible over the field, and then the ground is well harrowed in different directions, in order to in- corporate the lime with the soil. Soon afterwards the field is marked out and planted with corn. The plough is rarely if ever used for the purpose alluded to. I have mentioned above, that lime is occasionally used as a top dressing for grass. It appears to be particularly beneficial to that crop ; and answers extremely well when applied in that manner. The practice of applying it to Indian corn as above related, is, however, chiefly followed ; and the apphcation of a dressing to each field, in rotation, causes as much labor and expense every year, as our farmers generally are willing to incur Lime has rarely been used as a top dressing to grain crops within my knowledge. Query 6. " What is the ordinary cost per acre of liming, and the relative profits, in increased products of a period of years V Answer. Quicklime, at the kilns, usually costs twelve and a half cents a bushel. The farmers generally haul it with their own teams ; and the additional expense de- pends, of course, materially upon the distance. It is fre- quently hauled by them a distance of eight, ten, and even twelve miles. The average, perhaps, is about five or six miles. It is delivered to me by the lime-burners, (a distance of near six miles,) at IS cents a bushel. At the rate of 40 bushels to the acre, the cost, at 18 cents, would be $7,20 per acre. It is difficult to estimate, with precision, the relative profits in increased products. But I can safely say, from my own experience, on a small farm of middling quality, that two dressings of lime at the above rate, in the course of eight or nine years, have more than trebled the products of the land to which it was applied, both in grain and grass. It is to be under- stood, however, that the system of ploughing only so much ground as could be well manured was adopted at the same time. I may also observe, generally, that the farmers of this district, (who are shrewd economists,) are so well convinced of the beneficial efiects of liming, that, 8 XV. 86 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL costly as its application seems to be, they are unanimous in sparing no effort to procure it. Lime has been found peculiarly favorable to the growth of pasture, when the farm is otherwise well managed ; and as our farmers are mostly in the practice of feeding cattle, they resort to hming as an indispensable auxiliary to successful grazing. Query 7. " /s lime applied ivith yard manures , or earthy composts^ and with what results ?" Answer. I have already intimated that vegetable mat- ters, and especially yard manures, are highly important in conjunction with lime. Both are valuable even w^hen used separately ; but w-hen combined, the effect is most complete. If to this be added the great secret of good farming, — viz., to plough only so much ground as can be well manured, — the state of agriculture may be considered nearly perfect. Lime is in some instances added to earthy composts, preparatory to distribution in the fields ; but it is doubtful whether the extra labor of this method is compensated by any peculiar advantages. It is not generally practised. Query 8. " /s powdered limestone {carbonate of lime) applied to soils ; and, if so, does it induce fertility other- wise than by mechanically ameliorating their texture ?^^ Answer. No instance of powdered limestone being applied to soils has come under my notice. I can, there- fore, form but a very imperfect opinion of its utility. If it were even as beneficial as quicklime, (which I doubt,) I apprehend it could not be procured and applied with less cost and labor. Query 9. '•'• On ichat soils, if any, in your neighbor- hood, is lime found to be inoperative as a fertilizing ap- plication ; and the cause of its failure ?" Answer. There is no soil in this district deemed worthy of cultivation, on which lime is wholly inoperative as a fertilizer. On some sterile, slaty ridges, and on magne- sian rocks, it has indeed but a slight effect ; and even the benefits of barn-yard manure are very transient. In low, swampy grounds, also, unless they are previously well drained, the labor of applying lime is pretty much thrown away. There seems to be something in the con- B7 MINERAL MANURES. 87 stitutlon of magnesian rocks peculiarly unsuited to the growth of the more valuable plants. Indeed, there are patches of the soil perfectly destitute of all vegetation. Repeated attempts have been made to cultivate the bases of our serpentine banks ; but neither lime nor manure will enable the farmer to obtain more than a light crop of small grain. Neither clover nor the valuable grasses can be induced to take root and flourish in the ungenial soil. It is, therefore, almost universally neglected. I have thus endeavored (in rather a desultory manner, I confess) to answer your queries according to my best judgement. If what I have furnished shall in any degree tend to make the subject better understood, I shall be amply gratified. With great respect, I have the honor to be, your obedient servant, Wm. Darlington. Jesse Buel, Esq., Cor. Sec^y^ 8fc, Lime has been long used in the agriculture of Flanders and the Netherlands, and is, according to M. Puvis, ap- plied at intervals of ten or twelve years, at the rate of about 45 bushels to the acre. It is also apphed in com- post, and the older the compost the better it is considered ; and the benefits of this application last from 15 to 20 years. In some parts of France, according to the same authority, it is given, every three years, at each renew^al of the rotation, at the rate of about 11 bushels to the acre, in a compost, with seven or eight parts of mould to one of lime. This compost is used upon land previous to the autumn sowing, with an equal proportion of farm- yard dung. M. Puvis recommends this practice for gen- eral adoption. After all that has been said and written upon the ap- plication of lime for agricultural purposes, no definite rules can be laid down for its general application. Much depends upon the quality and condition of the soil. In some districts quicklime has proved of vast benefit ; while in others it has been in a great measure inoperative. Every farmer should experiment with it first upon a limited .scale, and extend its use as he finds its benefits will war- 88 IMPROVEMENT OP THE SOIL rant. Effete lime and marl are more certain in their effects, when judiciously employed. They seldom fail to benefit any soil not highly charged with calcareous earth. In the application of all mineral manures, of concen- trated animal manures, and even of yard-dung, upon which fermentation has exhausted its powers, one rule applies, viz., that they should be blended, as intimately as is prac- ticable, with the surface of the soil, in preference to being buried deep with the plough. The tendency of all of them is to sink. Lime is not only an alterative, rendering a cohesive soil more porous, and a porous soil more compact, but it changes and neutralizes many matters that often abound in soils, that are deleterious and hurtful to farm-crops ; — as, for instance, some of the acids, and the oxydes of iron and other salts. In this way it destroys sorrel, and often converts a barren ferruginous soil, charged with the oxydes of iron, into one of fertility. The prevailing opinion is, that lime soon loses its caustic quality, however fresh from the kiln, when it is either spread upon the surface of a field, or buried in the soil ; and that its principal benefits to agriculture result rather from its use as a car- bonate, than from its caustic properties. Gypsum^ or plaster of Paris^ is lime combined with sulphuric acid. Common limestone is called carbonate of lime, from the union of carbonic acid with the base. Gypsum is called sulphate of lime, from the acid which it contains. This substance exists in soils, is found in plants, and is consequently contained in manures ; yet it is applied to certain crops, upon dry, sandy, and gravelly soils, with almost certain advantage — except on the sea- board— and the poorer the soil the more apparent its benefit — probably because such soils contain little or no gypsum, and have received little or no manure. Its mode of operation is yet matter of dispute. Sir H. Davy considers it a necessary element in some kinds of plants ; and his opinion is strengthened by the facts, that its ap- plication proves beneficial to such crops as afford it on analysis, as clover, lucerne, Indian corn, and broad-leaved plants generally ; that it is seldom of direct benefit to \ BY MINERAL MANURES. 89 narrow-leaved crops, as wheat, rye, timothy, &c., which do not yield it on analysis ; and that it produces no bene- ficial effect upon wet or heavy clay grounds. Judge Peters, of Pennsylvania, and John Taylor, of Virginia, who multiplied experiments with gypsum, thought that a bushel an acre, sown broadcast upon grass lands, was a sufficient dressing. We have found two busiiels an acre to be beneficial upon meadows. In arable hus- bandry, gypsum is either sown broadcast, before the last ploughing or harrowing, or put upon the plants in hilled or drilled crops. Jllarl is another mineral substance which often induces fertility. It is composed of carbonate of lime, com- bined with sand or clay, and is deemed valuable in pro- portion to the quantity of lime which it contains. Clay-marl occurs in beds, more or less indurated ; and is sometimes so hard as to acquire the name of rock- marl. These marls should be laid upon the surface, not in heaps, but spread, that they may be well exposed to the ripening influence of the atmosphere, and if to the frosts of winter, the better. They have been found sometimes to be injurious without this exposure. Their operation is similar to that of mild lime, though slower. This kind of marl is most beneficially applied to sandy, gravelly, and peaty soils. It gives to such soils, what they want, both lime and clay. To improve a soil, 20 or 30 loads of this marl are given to the acre ; but when the object is to change the constitution of a defective soil, doses of 300 to 400 cart-loads are given to the acre. The best way is to spread it upon the sward, where it remains until the land is brought under tillage. We have used the blue clay, containing 25 to 30 per cent, of the carbonate of lime, upon blowing sands, at the rate of 20 loads the acre, to very great advantage ; and consider its ultimate benefit greater than that of an equal quantity of stable-dung. When taken to the field it should be immediately scattered upon the surface ; the frost and weather so divide and break it down, that, when dry, it may be broken into powder, with but little labor. Shell-marl is a deposit of marine, and sometimes of 8* 90 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL land-shells, immense beds of whieh are found along our southern Atlantic border, and frequently in the interior, where fresh-water ponds have apparently existed, and where the marl is generally covered with a bed of peat earth. This may be applied at the rate of 25 to 30 loads to the acre ; and may be spread upon stubble, upon a fal- low, or upon grass. While it benefits the herbage, the mineral sinks into the soil, and prepares it, when broken up, for the arable crop. Its effects are slower than those of lime, though they are said to last longer. A species o^ green sand is coming into extensive use in the maritime borders of New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia, which is found of great potency in imparting fertility to the soil. Its fertilizing properties do not con- sist of carbonate of lime, but of potash, of which it gives on analysis about 14 per cent. It is applied like marl, but in somewhat less doses. Common salt has been highly recommended as a fer- tilizing material, and in many cases certainly has been used with great effect ; yet there do not seem to be any established rules to guide in its application. It is no doubt beneficially applied to some soils, and to some crops, while upon other soils and other crops it seems to be inoperative. It should be used sparingly, and should be mixed with manures or composts. It has been ascertained by experiments made by Hitt, Knight, Johnson, and others, that salt is serviceable in preventing some diseases of plants, as well as of animals. In the late investigations by a committee of the British Parliament, on the question of reducing the duty on salt for agricultural purposes, it abundantly appeared, that its free use to farm-stock was the best preventive of disease ; and that in several instances, where flocks of sheep had been diseased, they had been restored to health by the liberal use of this condiment. Used in moderate quan- tities, it is said to prevent mildew on the gooseberry, and on various garden and field crops. Until we know more of the peculiar properties of soils, and of the operation of mineral mixtures, the only way to determine the efficacy and economy of these applica- BY MINERAL MANURES. 91 tions, is to experiment with them, upon a limited scale, upon our own ground. Although lime effects wonders in some districts, and upon some farms, yet in other ca- ses it does no good. This difference is sometimes found to exist upon the same farm, — one portion becoming highly benefited by lime, and another portion not at all affected by its application. General prescriptions can with no more propriety be applied to bad soils, than they can be to the bad health of animals. What would cure the animal in one case might kill in another ; and what benefits one soil in one case, might be inoperative or prejudicial in another. The admixture of earths., to improve the mechanical texture of soils, — as sands with clays, and clays with sands, — is often made with advantage ; and we are per- suaded may be profitably carried to a greater extent, when the difierent kinds are found contiguous to each other. We have seen that sand, clay, hme, and organic matters are all useful constituents in a fertile soil. When one of them is deficient, it may often be supplied without much expense, and a permanent improvement effected thereby. It is on this principle that we apply lime, marl, and manures. The soil being deficient in these, or any one of them, by supplying the deficiency, we re- store it to its pristine condition, and sometimes increase its prolific powers. And we are often able to render peaty lands productive, after they have been drained, by blending sand, clay, or loam, or lime, with the vegetable matters with which they abound. From the facts given in this and the preceding chap- ter, it will be apparent, that we lack not the means of feeding our farm-crops, and of thereby increasing our farm-products : we lack only the intelligence and indus- try which are necessary to render the means efficient. Most of our old-settled districts are employing one or more of these means to renovate the fertility of the soil ; but it is doubtful whether any are employing all which are at their command to effect this object. The east are depending principally upon the resources of their cattle-yard, wherever they have become sensible of the 92 IMPROVEMEET OF THE SOIL importance and practicability of improvement. Upon Long Island, fish, drawn ashes, and street manure, with clover, and alternation of crops, are relied upon as sour- ces of fertility and profit. In the valley of the Hudson, clover, gypsum, and alternation of crops, and mixed hus- bandry, have done much towards improvement, and are likely to do much more. In New Jersey, the green sand is working miracles, and stimulating the farmers to new exertions in improvement. In Eastern Pennsylvania, lime and plaster have done much. In Maiy^land and Virginia, marl is the efficient agent of improvement, near tide-water, and clover and gypsum in the interior. And as to the south and west, they either do not seem to know that land can wear out, or, reckless of the future, they seem determined to kill the goose which lays the golden egg. With, to be sure, many highly creditable excep- tions, the tendency of the system of husbandry at present pursued in the new south and west, is to wear out the soil, as it has been worn out, in many cases, on the east ern borders of our country. Having shown, in the last chapter, that manures are indispensable to good husbandry — that they constitute the food of plants, and tend to ameliorate and fit the soil for the performance of its important offices ; — and having noticed those manures which are most available to the farmer, and indicated the mode of profitably applying them — we proceed now to the next stage of improvement. CHAPTER XI. IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY DRAINING. Few improvements, of modern introduction, promise greater benefits to husbandry than thorough draining. Whatever be the earthy constituents of the soil, or whatever its richness in organic matters, no northern cul- tivated crop will grow and produce well on lands that are habitually wet. BY DRAINING. 93 In the first place, draining will reclaim, and render productive, large tracts of land, which now produce little or nothing uselul, by reason of the water which covers or saturates them. In the next place, it will improve lands that are cold and wet, by reason of a level surface and retentive subsoil, and render them far more manage- able and productive, in grain, roots, and the more nutri- tious grasses, by carrying off the superfluous water. When there is an excess of moisture in the soil, plough- ing and pulverization can only be imperfectly performed, nor till late in spring, or in favorable weather — the bene- fit of manure is lost, and the cultivated crop is light, and more hable to be injured by late and early frosts, than it would be if the land were laid dry. From the experience of others, as well as from our own observation, we can venture to say, that by thoroughly draining lands of the above description, two weeks upon an average are gained in the getting in and the ripening of the crop, one third is gained in product, and one third is saved in the labor of tillage. We have likened the offices of the soil to those of the animal stomach — the preparation of food. And we have said that these offices cannot be healthfully performed, by the soil, without the agency of heat and air, as well as of moisture. Now an excess of the latter excludes the proper agency of the two former. We all know that when the animal stomach is out of order, from any cause, so that the food taken upon it is not properly di- gested, the subsequent processes of nutrition are arrested, the animal sickens, and ultimately dies. So with the soil. If the organic matters deposited there, to feed the crop, are not decomposed, or rotted, and resolved into a fiquid or gaseous form, so that they can be taken up by the spongioles, the cultivated plant will become sickly and unproductive, and the processes of healthy nutrition be at a stand. This is the case in all grounds habitually saturated with water. Hence the accumulation to excess, in such grounds, of peaty and inert vegetable matters, and their great fertility when thoroughly drained, and the ve- getable matters rendered soluble ; and hence the necessi- 94 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL ty of draining the wet grounds upon our farms, before we can expect to make them profitable by cuhure. Coarse aquatic plants, it is true, do grow in wet grounds, and in water ; but few of the cultivated crops are found to thrive where the ground is not dry, and permeable to the influ- ence of the sun and the atmosphere. It is not enough, that the surface of a soil be dry, or that the soil itself be dry at some seasons of the year ; it must be free from excess of water at all seasons when re- quired to be worked, and during the growth of plants, to the depth to which their roots penetrate for food, at least fifteen to eighteen inches, to insure a healthy growth of vegetation. It is the extremities of these roots which gather the food, and which are constantly lengthening, in annuals and perennials, while the plant grows ; «nd if roots extend into a wet stratum of soil, the food they take up is either too much diluted, or not otherwise adapted to a healthy vegetation. Besides, stagnant water in the soil injures or destroys the fibrous parts of the roots, and un- fits them for the performance of their functions. Nor is this all : lands that hold water in a wet season, become compact and hard when the water has subsided or evap- orated— impenetrable alike to the roots of the crop, and the ameliorating influence of the atmosphere. Wet clays sufler most from drought. The truth of these re- marks may be verified by any farmer who will compare the growth and product of crops upon wet and dry grounds. We have no question of the economy of draining wet lands, even if they are to be kept in meadow and pasture, provided the work is well done. There are but few nutritious grasses that will thrive in a wet soil. The fol- lowing simple table, says Armstrong, exhibits at a glance the present state of our knowledge on this important part of our subject. Whole number of plants in wet meadows, 30 ; useful, 4; useless or bad, 26. Do. dry meadows, 38 ; do. 8 ; do. 30. Do. moist meadows, 42 ; do. 17 ; do. 25. We have expended considerable money in this kind of improvement, and our experience has more and more confirmed our opinion of its advantages. An outlay of BY DRAINING. 95 15 to 20 dollars an acre in draining, lias often been repaid by the extra product of the reclaimed land in two or three seasons. Wet soils proceed from two causes, viz., first, from the rain and snow waters which fall upon the surface, which are arrested in their downward course, by an im- pervious stratum of earth or rock, and, if the surface is level, or nearly so, repose and stagnate there, rendering the soil compact, wet, and cold, and infertile. And, secondly, from waters which, having passed through porous strata, are arrested by an impervious stratum lower down ; and, operated upon by a constant pressure, find their outlet upon the outcroppings of the impervious stra- tum, or are forced up again in the form of spouts and springs, — and which impart to the soil which they saturate, an excess of moisture, and a cold temperature, wholly unsuited to the growth of farm-crops. The first object, in seeking to rid lands of surplus water, is, to determine from which of the above causes the evil arises ; — and having ascertained the cause — having located the fountain of waters — the next considera- tion is, how to get rid of, or drain it, with the least ex- pense, and with most benefit to the land. A stiff soil, as one of clay lying upon a slope, or being upon a level, and having a porous subsoil, may be sufficiently freed from water by throwing the land into ridges, terminating in the lower level. These ridges may be narrow or wide, according to the tenacity of the soil, and the slope of the surface. This is one kind of sur- face-draining. In hollows and other depressions of surface, where waters accumulate suddenly, from thawing of snow, or heavy rains, open drains should in all cases be made ; and these should be of capacity to receive all the waters which may come into them, and of sufficient slope at the sides to render their banks secure and permanent. These are also to serve as outlets to the under-drains. Surface-drains of this kind are often wholly insufficient, by reason of their not being deep or broad enough, or they become contracted from a want of care in scouring 96 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL and keeping them in order. Parsimony in draining is seldom economy in farming. When wetness is caused by spouts or springs, rising from below, the object is to prevent the water rising to or saturating the soil, and spreading through the grounds lying below ; and the mode of effecting this is to cut a drain at the point, or a Httle above it, where the water from these spouts or springs seems first to affect the surface soil. Where the soil is very porous, the presence of water may not be indicated upon the surface. In this case, holes should be made down to the subsoil, at different levels, to ascertain where the fountain is. The drain should be so far sunk into the subsoil, as to make a complete chan- nel in it for the water which it is expected to convey. Under-drains are decidedly preferable for this kind of improvement : — Because, 1. They are most efficient. They can be made to reach, by digging and boring, the depot of water, or wa- ter stratum, and thus to carry off the water before it ap- proaches the surface, or pasture of plants. Open drains do this but seldom, or imperfectly, because they are not often carried deep enough, and are continually liable to obstructions, which impair their efficiency. 2. They are most durable. An under-drain, laid in the most approved mode, with stone or tile, will last an age, and perhaps a century. Open drains are but tem- porary in their beneficial effects, without periodical re- pairs. 3. They are most economical. A good under-drain costs no more than a good open drain, designed for a like purpose, and which probably does not effect so much, as the former can be carried down with nearly perpen- dicular sides, w^hile the latter must be dug with sloping banks, and must embrace a width of surface corresponding with its depth — the deeper the drain, the broader it must be at the top. The cost of the stone or tile is in a manner counterbalanced by the difference in excavation. And, when completed, the under-drain will seldom require re- pairs, while the open one will be a constant drain upon the labor of the farm, requiring bridges and frequent BY DRAINING. 97 scourings and cleanings. If under-drains cost something the most, they are certainly cheapest in the end, if they are well constructed ; and they waste no land. The only other kind of drains we shall mention, are what are termed furrow-drains. They are of recent introduction even in Europe, and particularly distinguish Scotch husbandry. They are employed upon lands which are nearly level, where there is a tenacious subsoil, to free them from an excess of water at all seasons when the ground is not frozen. The field intended to be fur- row-drained is laid into ridges, of from sixteen to thir- ty feet broad, according to the texture of the soil, in the direction of the slope, or with such descent as to carry off the water, and under-drains are laid in every central furrow, so deep, that, when covered, the materials of the drain shall not be disturbed by the plough. A cross- drain is laid on the upper margin of the field, to catch the water coming from above, and another at the lower side, which should be six inches deeper than the furrow-drains, to receive and convey off the water from them. The effect of these drains is to enable the cultivator to work the land easier, better, and at his leisure, and greatly to increase its product. The labor and expense of this kind of drains seem great, to those who have not made them, and their economy may seem doubtful ; but we are persuaded that, after a little experience, the benefit will be found to outweigh the expense. Wherever coarse aquatic grasses are found growing, however dry the surface may appear, the farmer may de- pend that under-draining will be an improvement, and if he will sink a pit, eighteen inches deep, in such places, he will in a few hours find water at the bottom. We draw no comparison, nor do we need any, to show the difference in products and profits between a field ha- bitually wet, and the trouble and expense of managing it, and the same field after it has undergone a thorough drain- age and amelioration. In the first case it produces very little, and seldom pays the expense of cultivation. In the latter, it is often the most productive field on the farm. Every farmer, we presume, has noticed the vast dispari- 9 XV. 98 OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. ty. If there is one to whom it is not familiar, let hihi make the trial, and he will be astonished at the result, and at his own want of forethought in not having made it before. CHAPTER XII. OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. For the purpose of illustrating the operations of dram- ing, we shall consider the effect of, 1 . Draining the surface ; 2. Draining the soil ; and, 3. Draining the subsoil. 1. Draining the surface. Surface-water wants only a suitable channel, and a moderate inclination, to readily pass off. In case of heavy rains, it is seen that tenacious soils, upon a level or slightly-inclined surface, are liable to be flooded with surface-water, which often stands for some time in pools, destroys the seed or growing crops, and renders the soil, when dry, compact and hard. Again, in ravines, or depressed surfaces, the like evils are liable to occur, from the sudden accumulations of water, with- out a proper gradation of surface, and a sufficient drain to carry it off. In the first case, the evil may be corrected by throw- ing the land into ridges ; the modes of doing which we shall prescribe under the article, ploughing. In the second case, when large quantities of surface- water are liable to concentrate from heavy rains, an open drain or ditch is the only resort. This should be capa- cious enough to carry off, in its channel, all the waters that may thus accumulate. It should be from two to four feet deep, to give a sufficient descent to drain off the waters from the contiguous grounds. Its banks should have a slope of 45 degrees, that they may resist the pres- sure from the surface, and the action of the water ; and in digging, the sides should be left sohd, without being OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. 99 hacked or perforated with the spade. The earth taken from the trenches should be removed from their borders, and either spread over the surface, or, if peaty, taken to the compost-heap, or to higher grounds, so as to leave a shght inclination, on each side, for the surface-waters to pass into the drain. 2. Draining the soil — of waters reposing upon the subsoil. The soil, if the subsoil is porous, or a consid- erable inclination exists in its position, may be freed from surface-water by ridging. The surplus water, in these cases, either settles down through the subsoil, or passes off through the furrows between the ridges or upon the inclined subsoil. But where the surface is nearly level, and the subsoil tenacious, under-drains must be resorted to, into which the water may settle and be conducted off, before it injures the crops or texture of the soil. Under-drains, in cases to which we now have refer- ence, need be but two to three feet deep, so that the ma- terial of which they are constituted shall not be liable to be disturbed by the tread of cattle, or the operations of the plough. Some fifteen or twenty inches of these may be economically sunk by the plough. The instruments for completing them, are the common spade and shovel, for throwing out the loose substances, and a pick or mat- tock for raising the stones and breaking the earth where hard. The sides may be nearly perpendicular, and the ditch be no broader than is merely convenient to work in. The workmen should commence at the lower, and work up to the higher ground ; and so much descent should not be given as to render the bottom and sides liable to be worn away by a strong current of water. The materials to be used for forming the drains, may be stones, tiles, or other hard substances. In drains where considerable water is expected to flow, it is advisable to form a conduit at the bottom, of four to ten inches square. Where stones are to be employed, either as a covering to the conduit, or as a drain of themselves, they should be broken to so small a size, that moles or ground-mice cannot penetrate and find a shelter among them ; for if they can they will ; and by opening apertures to the sur- 100 OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. face, they will let in surface-water, with the earthy mat- ters which it contains, and which will ultimately fill the interstices and choke up the drain. The stones should be broken to a size not to exceed four inches, the ex- pense of doing which will not exceed 25 to 30 cents the cubic yard. If a stone conduit is laid, or tiles are em- ployed, the first covering of them should be broken stone, or porous materials, to a convenient height, in order that the water settling from above, may find free access to the drain. Conduits of stone are seldom necessary in furrow- draining — it being sufiicient to break and throw in stone from 12 to 24 inches in depth. Conduits to under-drains are made by building a little wall, roughly, with stone or brick, on each side at the bottom, about 6 inches in height, so as to leave a passage for the water six inches in width and six inches high. These side-walls are covered with flat stones, as close as can be conveniently placed, and straw or htter thrown over to defend the conduit from earth and other substan- ces which might get into it before the ground has become compact and firm. When this is done, broken stones may be thrown in promiscuously, if they are at hand, to the height of 6 to 24 inches, according to the supply and the depth of the drain ; and the earth then filled in and rounded upon the surface. A drain thus formed will ap- pear on a transverse section as in fig. 1, and after the subsidence of the earth as in fig. 2. Where the earth is Fig. 1. Fig. 2. OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. 101 very soft, it is of benefit to bed the bottom of the drain with stones or slates, or with boards or plank. We believe we were among the first to employ tiles in draining in the United States, though they have long been in use in Europe. We adopted them as a matter of ne cessity, having no stone. They are made of a peculiaf kind of clay, and resemble, when burnt, red earthen When sufficiently burnt, they are very durable. They are used with soles made of like materials, or are laid upon boards. The draining-tiles and soles are represent- ed by fig. 3. We have laid some ten thousand feet of tiles, for which we paid $15 per thousand feet, and find them to answer an excellent purpose. We recommend their use only where stone cannot be readily obtained. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Tile drains, as seen at fig. 4, may be finished at bot- tom by using a narrow-mouthed spade, somewhat taper- ing, and broad enough to admit the tile and its sole, or a board ; the tiles are then laid down close, and the joints covered with turf, or straw, or brush, and the space on the sides compactly filled, so as to prevent the passage of water there ; small stones or porous earth may be then laid on, so that the water from above may pass freely into the drain, and the trench then filled with earth. What we term soil-draining, is most frequently resorted to in swamps and low lands, into which the water collects from higher grounds,and from which it is kept from passing 9* 102 OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. off by an impervious stratum below, and often upon the borders. The first object here is to make an outlet, of sufficient size and depth to carry off the water ; the sec- ond to carry a main drain through the marsh or swamp ; and the third to lay lateral and other under-drains, accord- ing to the extent of the ground, to collect and conduct the waters into the main drain. The under-drains should not enter the main drain at right angles, but diagonally, inclining down the stream. If waters come in from the margins of the low ground, they must be arrested then by under-drains, and conducted off, as represented in fig. 6. Care should be taken to sink the main drain, and the Fig. 5. S^n^ ' ^i^um''h0^^^'^ ^ Cross Section. Others, particularly those around the margin of the swamp, into the subsoil, or impervious stratum, so that the water shall not pass under the drain into the lower ground. If the surface-water that flows into the main drain be con' OPERATIONS OP DRAINING. 103 siderable, it should be open, but covered in all other cases. There is another mode, which is sonmetlmes success- fully practised, of getting rid of the water which reposes upon the subsoil, when the stratum of the subsoil is thin, and lies upon a porous gravel or sand ; which is, by bo- ring or digging through the subsoil, so as to let the water pass into the porous stratum below. In this case the holes or pits are generally filled with stones, and the drains conducted to them. 3. Subsoil draining^ or the drainage of waters that rise through the subsoil, or pass off at its outcroppings, as upon the declivities of hills, &c. In discussing this section, we shall principally quote from Professor Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture. " It is the intercepting of water below the surface that constitutes the most difficult part of draining, and which requires the application of principles which it is not ne- cessary to apply in the case of surface-draining. " If we shall penetrate a little way into the looser por- tion of earth, we shall generally find a minute stratification, consisting of gravel, sand, or clay, of different degrees of density. These strata are frequently horizontal, frequent- ly they follow nearly the inclination of the surface, and frequently they are broken and irregular. Sometimes the stratum is very thin, only a few inches in thickness, and sometimes it is several feet thick ; and sometimes the traces of stratification disappear, and we find only, to a great depth, a large mass of clay or other homogeneous substance. "When these substances are of a clayey nature, water finds its way through them with difficulty ; when they are of a looser texture, water percolates through them freely. These, accordingly, form the natural conduits or channels for the water which is below the surface, when finding its way from a higher to a lower level. *' When any bed or stratum of this kind, in which water is percolating, crops out to the surface, the wa- ter which it contains will flow out and form a burst or spring, oozing over and saturating the ground, as in 104 OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. fig. 6, which represents a section of the ground from C toD. Fig. 7. '' When water is, in like manner, percolating through one of these pervious strata, and meets with any obstruc- tion, as a rock or bed of clay, (A, fig. 7,) it is stopped in its progress, and, by the pressure of the water from a higher source, it is forced upwards, and thus saturates the superjacent soil, as from D to E, forming springs or a general oozing. " In either of these cases, and they are the most fre- quent that occur in practice, the object of the drainer is OPERATIONS OP DRAINING. 105 to reach the water in its subterraneous channel before it shall arrive at the surface, and carry it away in a drain. " By cutting a drain at A, fig. 6, the water of the stratum of sand, C E, is cut off before it reaches the sur- face at E, where it forms the swamp, C T). " In hke manner, in fig. 7, by forming a drain at C, or F, the water is cut off in its channel A B, and thus, in relieving the pressure from a higher source, by giving egress to the water through the drain, the cause of the wetness from E to D is removed. " In looking at the slo- ping surface of any tract of ground, as a field, in which there is an oozing or burst- ing out of water, we shall generally distinguish the line where the wetness appears upon the surface, extending over a considerable space, |1| X X X X X. fis:. 8, the effects f 41 appearmg m the wetness oi |1|t the ground further down the pj. slope, as y y ])' The line |l»| where the wetness begins, which is generally rendered perceptible by the change ^^i =5 MnX' -^^-^ of color of the soil, the ten- dency to produce subaquatic plants, and other indications of wetness, marks, for the most part, nearly the course which the line of the drain should follow. By cutting a drain nearly in this line, 'jj ^^\ as from G to A, sufficiently deep to reach the stratum in which the water percolates, //^\% "# '6. #1'^ we shall intercept it before it reaches the surface, and by carrying it away in some convenient outlet, A B, remove the cause of wetness. Fig. 8. ^.%'.M'' 4:C >^* '''■ m '«i%" 106 OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. " This accordingly forms, in the greater number of cases, the rule adopted in practice for the laying out of drains upon the surface. The line is drawn nearly at, or a httle above, the line of wetness, or, to use the com- mon expression, betw^een the wet and the dry. " Should the line of drain be drawn too much below the line of wetness, as at G, fig. 6, then the trench would fail to intercept the water ; and further, if it w^ere filled with earth, stones, and other substances, in the way to be afterwards described, the whole, or a part, of the water would pass over it, and the injury be unremoved. '' Again, should the line be too much above the line of wetness, as at H, the drain would fail to reach the channel of the water, and so Fig. 9. would be useless. " It is for this reason that, in common practice, the rule is, to clear the line of the drain nearly between the wet and the dry, or a little above it, taking care to give it the necessary descent, and to form it of sufficient depth to reach the pervious bed or stra- tum in which the water is con- tained. " But as the water may arrive at the surface in different ways, and the wetness be produced by different causes, so variations from this rule of lining out the drain may be required, and the judgement of the drainer is to be shown in adapting the course of his drain to the change of cir- cumstances. " Sometimes in a hollow piece of ground feeders may reach the descent, as in fig. 9, and the water may be forced upw^ards by the pressure from each side of OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. 107 the hollow, and thus form a swamp from A to B. It may not be necessary here to cut a trench on each side along the line of wetness at A and B ; a single trench, C, cut in the hollow, and giving egress to the water, may relieve the pressure and remove the swamp. '^ Sometimes, upon a sloping surface, one pervious stra- tum, in which the water percolates, may produce more than one hne of springs, as at B and A in fig. 10. Here a single drain, cut at B, will remove the cause of wetness at both swamps, without the necessity of the drain at A. " And, in practice, it is well to mark the effects of a drain cut in the higher part of the slope to be drained, for these effects often extend further than might be anticipated, removing springs, oozings, or bursts at a great distance. 108 OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. '* On the other hand, a single swamp, as from B to A, fig. 11, may be produced, and yet one drain at B may be insufficient to remove it. In this case, the water being brought to the surface by more than one channel, it is necessary to form several drains to reach the several beds in which the water is contained, as at B, C, and D. " These examples will show, that one rule, with re- spect to the laying out of drains, is not applicable to all cases, but that the drainer should adapt his remedy as much as possible to the cause of injury. One object, however, to be aimed at in all cases of under-draining, is to reach the bed, channel, or reservoir, in which the wa- ter is contained. "Before beginning to drain a field or tract of ground, it is frequently well to ascertain, by examination, the na- ture of the substances to be dug through. " At the upper part, where the wet tract to be drained appears, or between the wet and the dry, let a few pits be dug. The place of each pit is to be marked out near- ly in the direction of the proposed line of drain, six feet long by three in width, in which space one man, and, if required, two, can work. Let the earth be thrown out to the lower side, and to such a distance from the edge of the pit as not to press upon and break down the sides. Let these pits be cast out to the depth of five or six feet, or more if necessary, so that we may reach, if possible, the porous beds in which the water is contained. Should we find no water, then let us apply a boring-rod, in order to ascertain at what depth the porous substance Hes in which the water is contained. " Sometimes water will not be found until we come to a great depth. It may be so deep that we cannot reach it by any drain, or even by boring with the auger. In this case, we are saved the labor of making the drain un- necessarily deep. Sometimes we shall proceed to a con- siderable depth without finding any appearance of water, when, all at once, by breaking through some thin stratum we shall reach it. The water is frequently seen, in this case, to boil up like a fountain, and this affords the assu- rance that we shall succeed in our object. OPERATIONS OP DRAINING. 109 " This species of preparatory examination, by means of pits, is therefore, in many cases, useful. It affords the means of judging of the proper depth and dimensions of which the drain shall be formed ; it prevents the com- mitting of errors in the laying out of the lines of drains ; and enables the drainer to enter into contracts with his workmen with precision. " When we have thus, by sinking pits in various parts of our intended lines, obtained an idea of the nature of the ground, of the substances to be dug through, and of the depth of the water, we mark our lines of drains upon the ground. " This may be done by pins, or by a plough drawing a furrow along the intended line. "It is at this time very convenient to make a hand- sketch of the piece of ground to be drained, marking each line as it is laid off in the field, and noting the depth and direction in which the water is to run. " The hues being marked off in the manner described, these are to form the upper edges of the drains. " The width of the drain at the top depends upon its depth, it being usual, except in the case of very hard and tenacious substances, to make it slope from the top to the bottom. Thus, if it be 6 feet deep, and from 18 inches to 2 feet wide at bottom, it may be 2 J feet wide at top. " But it is often impracticable to reach these substances with a drain of common depth. In this case apertures may be formed at the bottom of the drain, by boring or sinking down at the proper distances, until the pervious bed in which the water is contained is reached. By this means the water will be allowed to flow up from be- low into the cavity of the drain, and so will be carried away. " The application of this principle had been familiar from the remotest times in the sinking of wells. But it was not till after the middle of the last century that the same principle was applied to the draining of lands. This was done by Mr. Elkington, of Warwickshire, who em- ployed the auger and the boring-rod for the purpose of 10 XV. no OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. reaching the channels and reservoirs below the surface, when an ordinary drain could not reach them. " The auger employed for this purpose is similar to a carpenter's wimble. It may be from four to five inches in diameter. Square iron rods are made to be screwed into each other, so that the length of the line of rods may be increased in proportion as the auger penetrates the ground. In fig. 12, A is the auger, B one of the rods, C a key for turning it round and working it, D another key for holding the rods when they are to be unscrewed by means of the key C. Fig. 13. Fig. 12. Ei 3D *' This instrument may frequently be found useful when the channels and reservoirs can be reached in this man- ner. The apertures are formed by the auger in the bot- tom of the drain. When the water is reached, it will spring up into the drain, in the same manner as water in the bottom of a well. It is not necessary to employ any artificial means for- keeping the apertures open, as the flow of the water will suffice to maintain for itself a pas- sage. " Sometimes, in place of an auger-hole, wells are sunk OPERATIONS OF DRAINING. Ill at intervals along the side of the drain, and filled with stones in the manner shown in fig. 13. " In all cases of under-draining, the drains should be made of sufficient dimensions. They should not be less than 4 feet deep, even when the pervious stratum lies a less depth ; and the reason is, that they may be more permanent, and better defended from injury, from mud and sand carried down by surface-water. It is not neces- sary that they be made deeper than 4 feet when that is found to be sufficient ; but they must be carried, if neces- sary, to the depth of 6 feet, or sometimes of 7 feet, though the expense and difficulty of executing the work increase, in a great proportion, as the dimensions of the drain increase. " The importance, in this species of draining, of pro- ceeding upon principles in laying out the lines of drains, instead of acting at random, as so many do, cannot be too strongly impressed upon the attention of the drainer. Every drain, however rudely devised, and imperfectly executed, may do some good. But one drain well laid out, and of the required dimensions, may perform a pur- pose which no multiplication of minor and insufficient drains can effect. These may lessen the efiects of wet- ness, but the other is designed to remove the causes of it ; and the more perfect practice will usually be found, in the end, to be the most economical as well as the most efficient. " The drains of the larger class described, it will be seen, are intended solely for the removal of water which is contained in reservoirs and channels below the surface. They do not supersede the necessity of carrying away water which is at or near the surface. From this latter cause, an equal or greater injury may arise, and must be met by a corresponding remedy." — Professor Low^s Ele- ments of Agriculture. Under- drains, for the want of stones or tiles, are some- times constructed of other materials, as boards, plank, brush, straw, turf, &c. We have tried them all. They serve a temporary purpose, and may be resorted to as matters of necessity. But we would not advise their use 112 PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. on the score of economy. In draining the rule has pecu- Har force, that what is done should be well done — be the object either economy, or permanent utility. We repeat — draining is comparatively a new branch of improvement with us. Its principles are httle under- stood, and its advantages not fully appreciated ; and we are not likely to learn much of either except from ex- perience. When we are convinced of its value, we shall persevere in it, notwithstanding repeated disappointments, till we succeed in managing it upon correct principles. The sooner we begin, therefore, the more rapid will be our progress and the greater the advantages. CHAPTER XIII. PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. When thorough draining has been effected, upon lands to be benefited thereby, there is another operation which is calculated to aid in the efficiency of manures, and in the increase of farm-products. This is good tillage — a perfect pulverization of the soil, and the keeping it free from weeds, which retard the growth of the crop, and rob it of its food. Good tillage is important, not only as it serves to exterminate weeds, to facilitate the digestion of vegetable food, and to mix and incorporate this food with earthy matters, — but as it breaks and mellows the soil, and enables the roots of plants to range freely in search of this food. Every farmer must have observed, that when tillage has been but imperfectly performed, as is sometimes seen about stumps and rocks, and near fences, the crop is comparatively feeble and light. This is not owing to the poverty of the soil, because the plough, as it rises to the surface in these places, deposits and accumulates there the finest and best mould of the field. The feebleness of the grain arises from the imperfect tillage which these spots receive. PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. 113 As we have before observed, the atmosphere and the rams are not only charged with the elements of fertility, but they are indispensable agents, together with heat, in preparing the vegetable food deposited in the soil. Com- plete pulverization, therefore, is essential to the full de- velopement of their enriching properties. They should not only be permitted to enter^ but to circulate in the soil. Stagnant air and stagnant water soon become hurtful to plants as well as to animals. The old practice of carrying the main furrows to the extremity of the field, and of dispensing with head-lands, is a bad and slovenly one, and ought to be every where exploded, because, under this practice, the head-lands can only be imperfectly worked. The cut-and-cover prac- tice is still worse, as it leaves one half, and sometimes two thirds ©f the soil, undisturbed by the plough. We remember well, when we followed the plough in our boy- hood, and knew nothing of the philosophy of ploughing, our aim was, to go over much ground, and show a plough- ed surface, regarding the complete breaking up of the soil as of minor importance. There will always be a great many boys at the plough, until the importance of good ploughing is well understood. Good ploughing consists in turning and breaking every inch of the soil to the re- quired depth ; and good tillage requires that the harrow and roller should finish, if the plough has failed to effect, a complete pulverization. A green sward becomes pul- verulent as the roots of the grasses decay, and is best without a second furrow, because this turns again to the surface, to the wasting influence of the sun and winds, the vegetable matters buried by the first ploughing, and which, if left buried, would contribute largely to the sus- tenance of the crop. As the roots of the grasses decay, the soil becomes loose and porous, and is permeable to moisture, air, and heat. Hence the advantage of fallow crops over naked fallows, and of depositing seeds upon the top of a clover ley ; the sod then imparts fertility to the soil, while it enables it to derive important advantages from the co-operation of external agents. Good tillage requires that, when practicable, as in the 10* 114 PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. ' culture of drilled and hoed crops, the surface soil should be kept clean while the crop is growing, for the same rea- son that the soil is required to be made so before depos- iting the seed ; viz., to facilitate the decomposition of the vegetable food, to stimulate the organs of the plants, and increase the growth and product of the crop. There is no better expedient for preventing the evils of drought upon a soil, than that of keeping the surface mellow and clean. Atmospheric air and dew, always charged with the food of plants, penetrate such a surface as into a sponge, and impart to the roots of plants both aliment and stimuli. Dews fall upon a hard surface, and are evaporated by the first rays of the morning sun ; but they penetrate a loose surface, and moisten and fructify it. Hence the high repute of drill husbandry, which enables the cultivator to keep his crops clean, and the surface of his soil mellow and open. Good tillage has reference to depth, as well as quality of tilth. " There are many plants, the roots of which are found from fifteen to twenty, and even thirty feet un- der ground — sainfoin and lucerne, for instance ; even red clover will strike down three feet if the soil be a fertile loam ; and some of our commonest vegetables, if it be a friable or sandy, push their tap roots to about the same depth. The roots of wheat will penetrate as far as eight inches into the earth ; and when sown on the crowns of ridges, they have been found at the depth of twelve. We may therefore assume the depth of twelve inches as the utmost vegetative limit of corn land. Provided the soil be open and fertile, the nearer its depth approaches to twelve inches, the greater number of plants may it there- fore be supposed capable of furnishing with support." — British Husbandry, vol. ii. pp. 49, 50. Soils should be ploughed as deep as the substratum will admit, at least once in a course of crops, if this can be reached with the force of an ordinary team ; and when the surface soil is superficial, it should be deepened, as fast as fertility can be imparted, by turning up, at suitable intervals, some portion of the subsoil. The atmosphere • PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. 115 imparts to this apparent inert earth, more or less of the elements of fertility. We have a good illustration of the advantages of artifi- cially, but gradually, deepening the soil, in the practice of Baron Von Voght, an eminent German agriculturist, who in a few years transformed a thin, unproductive soil into one of great depth and fertility. In 1813, the Baron undertook to improve the condi- tion of an estate denominated Flottbeck, as a pattern farm, and to make it an experimental farm for the north of Germany. In 1829, he had carried his improvements to so high a state of excellence, that he published, for the benefit of the visiters who thronged to see him, a pam- phlet, developing the principles, by the adoption of which, his soil, naturally bad, had been raised to a state of high productiveness. It is from a portion of this pamphlet, for we have not seen the whole of it, that we collate the following facts. The soil of Flottbeck is a mixture of sand and clay. Its original depth of krume (mould) was only three inch- es ; the surface was uneven, and the soil wet, water stand- ing for a long time, and manure ineffectual on account of the consequent low temperature. Fields could not be sown, owing to quagmires, often till June. The winter crops were full of tares and perennial weeds ; summer crops abounded in wild radish and mustard, the clover with wild chamomile, sorrel, &c., and the fields with dog's grass, and other noxious plants. How many of our farms now form a counterpart to this description of Flottbeck ! The means of improving which the Baron instituted to raise the condition, and increase the fertility of this farm, consisted principally in — 1. LeveUing the surface, and thorough drainage. 2. Deepening the krume, or soil, at least one inch a year, till he had gained a depth of fourteen inches — this depth being requisite, in his opinion, for the roots of plants to penetrate, and as a reservoir for moisture, to supply the crop in time of dry weather. To obtain this depth, trench ploughing {rayolt) was resorted to when necessary. 116 PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. • 3. Increasing the fertility with the increasing depth of the soil, by ploughing in green crops, and by husbanding and judiciously applying manure — the latter applied to the potato and rape crops, and before it had become ex- hausted by fermentation. 4. Throwing the land into one-bout ridges in autumn, (it being generally flat and rather stiff,) and cleaning the intermediate furrows with a double mouldboard plough. This operation enriched the soil^by atmospheric influence, broke down its stubbornness, and laid it dry, so that the spring operations could be commenced two or three weeks earlier than formerly. 5. Thorough pulverization preparatory to putting in seeds, and giving these only a superficial covering of earth. 6. Graduating, by a scale, which the Baron's long ob- servation and numerous experiments had enabled him to contrive, the manure to be applied, to the precise de- mands of the soil and the crop — thus receiving the whole benefit which it was capable of imparting, without loss by excess. 7. A judicious rotation — in which green crops often intervened. The rotation was one of six years, as the clover, which he observes forms the basis of agriculture, cannot return oftener. The intermediate crops were wheat, oats, mixed fodder, barley, rye, potatoes, vetches, rape, &c., the climate of Germany not admitting the cul- ture of Indian corn. In 1829, Flottbeck exhibited a far different appearance from what it did in 1813. All the fields showed a level surface — the krume or mould had every where a depth of 14 inches. The fields were rendered dry by ditches, and the under-water was carried off* by 27 under-drains — no noxious plants infested the ground, save the dog's grass, when the clover happened to be frozen out — and the produce was so much increased, that the same area, which, in 1813, would yield only 14 bushels rye, in 1829 was found to produce 24 bushels of wheat. We think there is much in Baron Von Voght's prac- tice that commends itself to the notice of our farmers. % PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. 117 The means which he employed are within our reach, and the advantages of using them manifest. The chmate of Germany is not very dissimilar to ours, save that ours is rather the more mild. That our readers may understand the principles upon which the improvements at Flottbeck were based, we subjoin them in the Baron's own words. " The few general principles adopted here with all kinds of produce, are the fruit of thirteen years' experi- ence, and several thousand experiments. " 1. The soil must have 11.280 to 14.000 inches of krume, in order to admit of the roots penetrating into the ground ; that in wet weather, the water, which in a flat soil might drown the crops, may be absorbed, and formed in the deep into a reservoir, from which the extremities of the roots may imbibe a nourishing moisture, impregna- ted with carbonic gas, which it draws from the manure fermenting in the earth.* " The krume must have a depth of 14.000 inches, in order that the exhausted surface, being buried at a greater depth, may reimbibe the lost moisture. " This I obtained, by having the land ploughed in au- tumn, to a depth of about 5.640 to 7.520 inches, then having it finely harrowed, and finally rayolt it with two ploughs, one behind the other, (the last with four ani- mals ;) this requires, of course, swing ploughs, as it is absolutely necessary to plough before rayoled. " The latter operation is usually performed by oxen. "2. In autumn all ditches must be opened, and all the drains examined, so that the water may not be stopped in any place. " 3. The rayolt lands must be laid in high furrows, by means of ploughing, always two furrows together, af- ter the rayoled and furrowing, so as to make a water-fur- * " Thaer mentions the following proportion of the value of the soil, with a flat and deep mould. ' If,' says he, ' the soil, with a mould of three inches, is worth 38, that possessed of five inches of mould will be worth 50 ; that of 8, 62 ; and that of 11, 74 ;' and this en- tirely agrees with my experience at Flottbeck. Should we then hesi- tate to spend a few years, and some manure, thus permanently to enhance the value of our fields ?" 118 PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. row at every 16.920 inches, which is deepened and cleaned by means. of a double struckbrett, [mouldboards fixed to the plough,] with a clayey soil ; this operation is indispensable. " The advantage of this mode of treatment is, that it keeps the soil dry, and renders it capable of being culti- vated three weeks sooner than other shallow land ; that it avoids stiffness, and, on the contrary, the high ridges, being frozen through in the winter, are found very mellow in the spring. I cannot deny that in autumn this requires four kinds of ploughs, (the two last of which may certainly be considered as only half kinds of ploughs,) instead of one kind, generally used on large farms. Moreover, this depth of mould cannot be obtained in less than ten years, when, at the same time, the disadvantage of an inferior subsoil can be repaired by manure, which will add about one inch of mould in a year — a method quite impossible on large farms, and on small ones attainable only by a pro- prietor, and never by a farmer. " These high furrows are separated in the spring with the four-horse split plough : if the land is quite clean, it may, after being harrowed in the manner which will be mentioned hereafter, be immediately sown ; but if it is not, it is hooked [harrowed] crosswise. '' 4. All the land which is not rayolt [trench-ploughed] — ^because there remains from the preceding harvest too much manure on the surface, which, if the next crop should leant it^ must not be removed too far, is, if it bears no manure crop, ploughed in autumn, first shallow, then deep, and lastly laid in high furrows. In spring, in which there is as little ploughing as possible, it is, after the split- ting, according to the necessity of the crop and soil, first harrowed, and then hooked crosswise, or only harrowed in the manner prescribed. "5. It is a principal maxim to sow a green crop for ploughing in, in the rape-seed stubble, as well as in the corn stubble, where no clover has been sown. In August, I use for this purpose rape-seed ; in the beginning of Sep- tember, turnips ; from the middle of September to the middle of October, rye ; then there is but one ploughing PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. 119 in autumn, a method which I recommend on large farms. ^ " The manure crop is in the spring shallowly rayolt in, and is equal in its effects to 3.914 to 5.811 loads of manure per acre. ''6. One observation which leads to the most impor- tant results, was the certain conviction, that it is the vital power of plants, which, by the incomprehensible faculty of decomposition and assimilation, by means of their leaves and stalks, constantly imbibe an incredible quanti- ty of substances, in the shape of gases and manures, and convert them into their own elements, rejecting what they do not want, changing what they have received into a new body, and so continuing until they have formed their blossoms ; that the root, which till then keeps grow- ing and oozing out moisture, only begins when its growth is perfected powerfully to decompose that which surrounds it, and alone supports the fruit, whilst the leaves and stalks are fading ; that the vital point of the plant has its seat exactly in the centre of the germ, from which it forces the root into the earth, and the stalk upwards ; that every thing depends, in the first growth of the plant, on keeping this point in health and activity ; that this should be done in sowing, " 1st. When the surface is as much as possible pulver- ized, in order that the seed-corn or potato-shoot should be surrounded by, or rather laid on earth finely divided, in which the fibres of the root may quickly shoot, and where air, moisture, and warmth may operate with facility. " 2d. When the shoot, lying on such a pulverized sur- face, is covered only a couple of lines, in order that light, air, warmth, dew, and other atmospheric moistures may immediately excite the vitality in this point, and thereby promote the developement of the germ and pro- cure nourishment to the first leaf. " I refer, with regard to this, especially, to the speci- mens of dried plants kept ready for the inspection of the visiters, which so strikingly show what difference there is in the vital germ lying on the surface, where roots and leaves immediately, numerously, and powerfully shoot 120 PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. from one point, and the weakened vital germ, which, ly- ing at the depth ol^ 1.680 inches, shoots forth few roots, but a thin tube, which rises as far as the surface, where the knot is formed, whence the weakened germ pushes forth a single and sickly plant. " The result of this observation was, that we took every possible pains to give the surface, to a depth of from 1.880 to 2.820 inches, the necessary state of pulveriza- tion, to divide the thickly-sown seed equally upon it, and to give it as thin a covering of the pulverized soil as pos- sible. But for this we were entirely without imple- ments. " The grubber, indeed, gave looseness to the surface, but did not destroy the small clods. The roller pressed the soil too firmly, and, if it happened to rain, a fresh pro- cess became necessary. The usual harrow, with teeth 6.580 inches apart, drew, in a ground previously har- rowed, lines in which seed sown by the best sower would fall, and then stand too thickly, while a surface of 2.280 inches was left between these hues, which contained few plants, but became a nursery for weeds. " Then it occurred to us, (after the usual grubbing and harrowing,) to pass with the iron Mecklenburg harrow reversed, the upper side of it being flat upon the surface, till all the small clods were pressed into a powder ; then I had harrows made, the teeth of which are only from 1.410 to 1.880 inches wide apart, and in the Flemish fashion, placed in a slanting angle. With these we passed sharply over this finely-pressed soil, with the horse fas- tened to the middle, and afterwards to one corner, after which we sowed. The corn came to lie in lines 1.410 inches apart, and was harrowed in crosswise, with the drag teeth of the close harrow,* and by this means the seed was shghtly covered, and not again displaced. " By this mode of cultivation, it was found that every germ immediately shot forth strong roots and several stems at once ; and an experience of several years has shown an increase of produce of from 20 to 30 per cent, occa- * With the teeth slanting forward. They are called drags when the teeth slant backwards. PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. 121 sioned by it, as we continued to cultivate a piece of ground next to it in the usual manner. "7. I must further mention, as the last, but not less important principle and cause of success, that each of the manured fields has been brought to that point of fertility in which it can yield the greatest produce ; so that with less manure, it would not yield its full produce, and more manure would cause the crops to lie down, even if the year was not wet. The difficulty of being able to fix this point, for every field and kind of crop, with certainty, was removed by the now perfected geometrical method by which, with the help of a scale formed on twenty years' experience, the degree of productiveness may be marked, in which the field has been left in the last crops ; i. e., seldom below 100 degrees, which denotes a field capable of yielding 24.02 bushels of wheat per acre, and below which it is not advisable to let a field sink." Jethro Tull and his disciples maintained, that the great secret of inducing fertihty, consisted in minutely dividing and pulverizing the soil by culture ; and John Taylor, the Arator of Virginia, and an excellent practical as well as scientific farmer, considered the atmosphere as the great store-house for vegetable food, where it exists in a gaseous form. The good tillage we advocate embraces all the advantages of Tull's and Taylor's theories, with- out lessening the importance which we attach to barn-yard manure. The deep ploughing of dry land, or the breaking up and stirring of the subsoil, promotes fertility, by increas- ing the power of the land to absorb water by cohesive attraction. " The power of soils to absorb water from air," says Davy, " is much connected with fertility. This power depends in a great measure upon the state of di- vision of its parts ; the more divided they are, the greater their absorbent power. When this power is great, the plant is supplied with moisture in dry seasons ; and the effect of evaporation in the day is counteracted by the absorption of aqueous vapors from the atmosphere, by the interior parts of the soil, during the day, and by both the exterior and interior during the night," The soil im- 11 XV. 122 PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE. bibes heat earlier in the spring, and retains it later in au- tumn, in proportion as it is dry and deep; — a matter of high consideration in cold climates, where the length of the summer scarcely suffices to mature the crops. The quality and dryness being the same, a soil is fertile and durable nearly in proportion to the depth of the tillage which it receives ; six inches giving nearly double the pasture for plants that a three-inch stratum does — and a twelve-inch tilth greatly exceeding in productiveness one of only six inches. Von Thaer calculates this difference in proportionate degrees in lands which contain a vegeta- tive stratum of soil of four, six, eight, and twelve inches in depth, provided, of course, that it be all of equal qual- ity. If, therefore, each seed were to produce a plant, it would follow that ground which contains eight inches of depth of fertile mould, might be sown with double the quantity of that which consists of only four inches. He, however, admits, that this principle cannot be carried to that extent, because the action of the atmosphere must ever afford such an advantage to the surface, that a cubic foot of mould, if divided into two square feet, will always produce a greater number of plants than if the seed were sown upon one foot superficial ; but he assumes the value of the land to be increased, in the proportion of eight per cent., for every inch of mould beyond the depth of six to ten inches, and to be diminished, in the same proportion, from six to three inches, in soils of a thinner staple. Principes Raisonnesd^Jlg.^ vol. iii. p. 138, §735. These considerations have been hitherto but little regarded in our practice, though they constitute an important feature in the new system of husbandry. Good tillage demands, also, the extirpation of weeds. Every plant which grows upon a soil tends to impair its fertility, and weeds more than cultivated crops, because they are generally the most hardy, and the greatest con- sumers of vegetable food. They are particularly preju- dicial to crops in a dry season, as they exhaust the soil of moisture in proportion to their superficies, or the sur- face of their stems and leaves, some species transpiring their weight of moisture every twenty-four hours. The PRINCIPLES OP TILLAGE. 123 drill culture and deep ploughing both lessen the evil of weeds ; the first tends to destroy them, and the latter to bury their seeds so deep, as to prevent the plants getting ahead of, and choking, the young crop. Clean tillage has been too much neglected in our practice. Many crops are diminished a fourth, a third, a half, by pestiferous weeds which are permitted to seed and propagate upon the land. In regard to some troublesome perennials, as Canada thistles, wild onions, quack grass, daisies, &c., the best means of destroying them is, to prevent the growth of leaves, their elaborating organs, which concoct and pre- pare their food. This is done by frequent summer plough- ings, or by a succession of well-cultivated hoed crops. Good tillage requires good implements, and these to be kept in order, that the farm-work may be economically done, and well done, and done at the proper time. The disparity between old and new implements of culture is great, not only in the time employed, but in the manner in which they do their work, and in the power required to perform it. The old plough required a four-cattle team, and two hands, to manage it, and the work ordi- narily was but half executed. The improved plough is generally propelled by two cattle, requires but one man to manage it, and, when properly governed, performs thorough work. Harrows and other implements have un- dergone a like improvement. Besides, new implements, which greatly economize the labor of tillage, are coming into use, as the roller, cultivator, drill-barrow, &c.,so that a farm may now be worked with half the expense of labor that was required, to work it, forty years ago, and may be better worked withal. Mind, hkewise, where it is put in requisition, and enlightened by science, is doing ten times more in aid of agricultural labor than it formerly did. If we revert to old, and, in many cases, present prac- tices, we shall perceive, that thorough tillage has not been sufficiently attended to. Our implements have been de- fective, and the manner of using them often imperfect. Good ploughing is all-important to good farming, and still 124 OPERATIONS OP TILLAGE. there is no labor upon the farm that has been more im- perfectly performed, than this generally has been. Light soils seldom require more than one ploughing for the seed, if well executed ; but if badly executed, two ploughings are too little. Our implements are, however, daily im- proving; the importance of good tillage is becoming more and more apparent, and our practical knowledge is in- creasing. CHAPTER XIV. OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. There are six prominent objects to be effected by til- lage ; viz., 1 . To break up the entire surface-stratum of soil, there- by to render it permeable to the agents of vegetable nu- trition and growth, and the roots of plants. 2. To give the greatest exposure of surface to the ame- liorating influence of the atmosphere. 3. To induce a pulverization of the soil, that seeds may more readily germinate and grow, and air and moist- ure more freely circulate in it. 4. To destroy weeds and foreign plants, that rob the crop of food, and choke its growth. 5. To effect an economical distribution of the dung, tlie food of the crop, by blending and incorporating it with the soil. 6. To bury the seed of the intended crop. The principal implements employed in the operation of tillage are, the Plough, Harrow, Roller, Cultivator, and Drill. .§1. The Plough. In order to profit from the excellent illustrations of Professor Low, in the use of the Plough, we shall copy this writer's remarks from his Elements of Practical Ag- riculture. OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. 125 ** By means of this instrument the earth is to be turned over to a given depth ; and this is to be effected by cut- ting from the ground successive sods or sHces of earth, so that each sod or shoe shall be raised up or turned over, in such a manner that an entirely new surface shall be ex- posed to the atmosphere." In this mode of laying the furrow, it will be perceived, the largest surface is exposed to the enriching influence of the atmosphere — viz., one entire edge, and most of both the upper and under surfaces of the furrow-slice. In fig. 14, let A B C D represent the end or trans- verse section of the slice of earth which is to be turned over. Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fiff. 16. The slice is first to be raised from the position in which it Hes in fig. 14 ; it is next to be placed in the position shown in fig. 15, and it is finally to be placed in that represented in fig. 16. " In the following diagram, fig. 17, let A B C D, corresponding with the same letters in the last figures, represent a transverse section of the slice of earth which is to be turned over. This slice is first to be raised from its horizontal position A B C D, by being turned upon its corner C as a pivot, and placed in the position C E F G, corresponding with that of fig. 15 ; it is then to be turned upon its corner G, as upon a pivot, and laid in 11* 126 OPERATIONS OP TILLAGE. the position G H I K, corresponding with that of fig. 16. In this manner the side D C, which was formerly un- derneath, will be above, namely, in the position H I ; and if successive shoes be thus reversed, they will rest upon each other m the manner shown by the section of the slices P Q R S, O L M N, and G H I K. Fig. 17. " The angle of inclination at which these different slices will naturally rest upon each other in the manner shown in the figure, will depend upon the proportion which the width of the slices bears to their depth ; and that the greatest extent of surface may be exposed to the air, the angle of their inclination will be 45°. In order, there- fore, that the sHces may be at this angle, the proportion which the width of the slices bears to their depth is to be determined ; and this can be done by simple calculation ; for it can be shown that, the width of the slice A B being the hypotenuse of an isosceles right-angled triangle, the depth of the slice B C will be one of the sides. Sup- posing, therefore, the width of the sod A B to be ten inches, the depth B C will, by calculation, be 7.071 inches. " If, then, beginning at one side of a field, we shall cut off a sUce of earth, the entire length of this field, and place it in the position P Q R S, fig. 17, and then cut off a second slice, and place it in the position of O L M N, and then a third slice, and place it in the position G H I K, and so on, the various slices will rest upon each other at a given angle, in the manner represented. " A similar operation is to be performed by the plough. Beginning at the right-hand side of the field or ridge to be ploughed, a sod, which we shall now call a furrow- slice, is to be cut from the firm ground, raised up and turned over, and so on. In this manner, an entire new OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. 127 surface will be exposed to the atmosphere, and the suc- cessive furrow-slices laid resting upon each other, thus : — Fiff. 18. " An essential property of the plough is, that it shall move in the earth with a steady motion ; and the giving to it the force and combination of parts necessary for that purpose is one of the main difficulties attending its con- struction. " Were it ascertained, by experiment on the plough when at work, at a given depth of furrow, and in soil of a given texture, that a cord attached to any point A, fig. 19, and drawn in the oblique direction A B, would so C E G D pull forward the plough, that it should press uniformly upon the earth at all points, from C to D, so that the share should tend to point neither upwards nor downwards, but should move horizontally forward, then it is to some part of this line that the moving power should be applied ; and further, it is known, from the principles of mechanics, that it matters not, in so far as regards the force exerted, 128 OPERATIONS OP TILLAGE. to what precise part of this hne the power is applied. Now, without entering into any mathematical investigation of the principles upon which this line is to be determined, it is to be observed, that in a well-made plough, formed on the principles pointed out, this hne, drawn from the usual point of detachment of the draught on the collars of the working cattle, will intersect the sole of the plough at E, a little behind the setting of the share, and a little to the right of the plane of the left side of the instrument. " Now, knowing the height at which the point of draught is to be attached to the shoulders of the working cattle, let us suppose 4 feet, and the distance from the point of the share at which the animals of draught can be conve- niently yoked, let us suppose 12 feet, then laying off D F 12 feet, and F B 4 feet, and drawing B E ; it fol- lows that the point at the end of the beam, is that to which the draught is attached. '' But the angle which the line E B forms with the surface, is not, as can be shown, constant, but varies with the depth ploughed, and the tenacity of the soil. That the instrument may suit itself to these variations, as well as that any defects in the form of its parts may be coun- teracted, and that the line of draught may be placed in that portion which is required to pull forward the plough, without there being any tendency in the share to sink into the ground or rise out of it, the bridle is fixed at the end of the beam, so as to elevate or depress the hne of draught, as may be required. Should the plough, for example, tend to go deeper into the earth, the line of draught is to be lowered, by means of the bridle, so that it shall form a greater angle B G F ; the effect of which will be to counteract the tendency which the plough has to go deep- er. The same effect will be produced by shortening the traces by which the horses are attached to the draught, and thus increasing the angle. In like manner, by means of the bridle, the point of draught can be shifted to the right or to the left. If the point of the share tends to point to the left hand, in the firm ground, the line of draught is shifted more to the left ; and if to the right hand, it is shifted more to the right. This adjusting of the plough's OPERATIONS OP TILLAGE. 129 motion is easy, and is performed by the ploughman, until he feels that the plough continues to swim fair, to use his own technical language, that is, until he feels, which he does at once, that it continues to move horizontally for- ward, without any tendency to turn to the right or left, or to rise from the earth or to sink into it. A well-con- structed plough of this kind, therefore, needs no wheels or other devices to steady its motion ; the effect being produced by merely altering the line of draught. " In ploughing, it has been seen, a slice of earth is to be cut from the left-hand side, and to be turned over to the right-hand side. In this operation, the left-hand or near-side horse walks on the ground not yet ploughed, the right-hand or ofF-side horse walks in the furrow last made, and the workman follows holding the handles of the plough. By means of these handles he guides the plough, and he directs the animals of draught by the voice and the reins. When he is to turn the plough at the end of the ridge, or when it encounters an obstacle, as a large stone, he presses down the handles, so that the heel of the plough becomes a fulcrum, and the share is raised out of the ground. ''In ploughing, the instrument ought to be held vertically. If it is inclined to the left-hand side, the same work is performed in appearance, though not in reality, a portion of the ground below not being tilled at all, but left thus : Fk. 20. " The plough is of the most perfect form, when its various parts are so adjusted that they shall not oppose each other's motion ; but it is very difficult to form a plough that is perfect in its form and the combination of its parts. Even in those of the best construction, there is frequently found to be a tendency to rise out of the ground, or to turn to one side, generally the right-hand or open side. The tendency to rise out of the ground can be corrected by giving an inclination downwards to the point of the share, and the tendency to turn to the open or right- hand side can be corrected by turning the point of the 130 OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. share slightly to the left-hand side. By these means, however, the labor of draught is increased, and care must therefore be taken that this tempering of the irons, as it is frequently called, be not in any case carried further than is necessary to correct the defects of the instrument. All that is necessary beyond this is effected by changing the position of the Une of draught, by means of the bridle on the beam. " With regard to the depth to be ploughed, this, we shall see in the sequel, depends upon the kind of crop to be cultivated, and other circumstances. It has been shown that a furrow-slice of ten inches in width requires a depth of seven inches, that is, a depth of about two thirds of the width, in order that it may lie at the angle of 45°. But, although it is necessary to proceed upon this prin- ciple in forming a plough, we cannot regulate the width to the depth in this manner in practice. It is not neces- sary that the depth should be to the width in the propor- tion of two to three, or that the sod should be precisely at the angle of 45°. In the field, all that can be arrived at is a kind of approximation to the true proportions. When the sods are considerably too wide in proportion to their depth, the ploughman will be admonished of this by their lying too flat, and too slightly overlapping each other. When their depth is considerably too great in proportion to their width, they will stand too upright, and be apt to fall back again into the furrow. ''- The medium depth of good ploughing may be held to be seven inches. When circumstances, as the kind of crop, and the nature of the soil, do not require deep ploughing, the depth may be less ; but it will be consid- erable in those cases to be afterwards adverted to, when deep ploughing is from any cause expedient. " In the moist climate of Britain, and indeed in most parts of Europe, it is necessary to form the ground into what are termed ridges, so as to permit the water which falls upon the surface to find a ready egress. And even in lands so dry that little injury will result from stag- nating water, such ridges are generally formed, on account of their convenience in the different modes of tillage. OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. 131 " The first operation in the formation of ridges is stri- king the furrows. " Let it be supposed that afield has been laid level by previous ploughings, and that, the marks of former ridges being obliterated, the lines of the new ones are to be laid out. The usual breadth of ridges is from fifteen to eighteen feet, and sometimes more. We may assume, in the follow- ing descriptions, fifteen feet to be the width of the ridge. ^' Let a steady ploughman be furnished with three or more poles of wood shod with iron, eight or nine feet in length, and divided into feet and half feet. The first op- eration is to mark off, at two sides of the field, what is termed a head-land. This is merely a ridge formed par- allel to the side of the field, on which the horses are to turn, to afford sufiicient space for which, these ridges may be eighteen feet w^ide. The lines of them are marked off before the other ridges, in order that the ploughman may know when to turn his horses. After the rest of the field is ploughed, the head-lands themselves are ploughed and turned into ridges. " In the following diagram, fig. 21, representing a field, let E F, G H, represent the lines of the head-lands, drawn parallel to A B, and C D, the sides or boundaries of the field, and at the distance from each of these sides of eighteen feet. These fines the ploughman marks out, by running a straight furrow with his plough parallel to the two sides. Fig. 21. B / 5 C H cl g d o a E D 132 OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. " Let him now, beginning at the two sides of the field, A D, parallel to which it is intended to run the ridges, measure offwhh his pole E a, seven and a half feet. At the point a, let him place one of his poles. This is the point at which he is to enter his plough. But, leaving his horses in the mean time, let him walk on to a convenient distance, as to I, and then in like manner measuring off I 6, seven and a half feet, let him set up his second pole at 6, and then, at the further end of the field, on the line of the head-land, at c, let him place his third pole. He has now three poles placed in a line ; but if, from the length of the field, or irregularities of the surface, more than three poles are necessary, more must be used, as there must be so many poles in sight, that the ploughman may be enabled to direct his plough, by means of them, in a straight line. He now returns to his plough, and enters it at the first pole at a, keeping the other two poles in a line, so that he may be enabled to plough directly towards them. Having entered his plough at a, he stops his horses and measures ofi:' fifteen feet to d, where he plants the pole. He then returns to his plough, which is standing at a, and drives his horses, keeping the two poles before him as a guide, to the second pole, b. Having done this, and leav- ing his plough standing at 6, he measures off from b to e, fifteen feet, and there he plants his pole. He then returns to his plough, and proceeds forward, making his furrow in a straight line to the last pole at c, where in like man- ner he stops his horses, and measuring off fifteen feet, he plants his pole at/. " In this manner he has placed his poles in a straight line, at the distance of fifteen feet from the last position, and parallel, as before, to the line of fence. He now turns his horses short about, and returns by the furrow he has just drawn, c b a. By this second ploughing he throws the earth out in an opposite direction, so that he has formed a completely open furrow. In returning, he takes care to correct any irregularity or crookedness which may have taken place through the unsteady motion of the horses in his first track. " The poles being now placed in a line def^he brings OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. 133 his plough to d, enters it, and stops it there. He meas- ures off fifteen feet from d to g, and fixes his pole at g ; and then he proceeds with his plough to e and /, repeating the same operation with the poles as before, and returning by the track of the last-made furrow from /to d. In this manner he proceeds throughout the whole field, forming open parallel furrows, at the distance from each other of fifteen feet ; these furrows are to form the centres of the future ridges. " The field is now prepared for being ploughed into ridges, and the manner of doing so is this : — '' The ploughman, beginning at the left-hand side of the open furrow, ploughs his first furrow-slice towards it. He then, returning by the opposite side, performs the same operation, causing the two first furrow-slices to rest upon each other. " Thus, in forming his first ridge, he begins at the side of a. and ploughing in the direction of a to c, he turns his first furrow-slice into the open furrow a c. When he ar- rives at c, he turns his plough right about ; and returning from c to a, he lays his second furrow-slice upon the first one, as at C, fig. 22. " In this manner he continues, always turning to the right-hand side, and laying his furrow-slices towards the centre of the ridge, until he has reached the boundary of the ridge, E H, on the one side, and the line o 5, half way between c a and d /, on the other. He has thus formed a ridge, of which c a is the crown or centre, and H E and 0 s the termination. By proceeding in this manner throughout the field, the whole is formed into ridges, of which the first-marked furrows are the centres. *' It has been said that the ploughman continues turn- ing his horses to the right, and that thus, having proceeded from a to c, he returns from c to «, and so on, always ploughing round a c as a central hne. When, however, he has proceeded from a to c, he may turn his horses left about, and return from / to c/, and so on, always lay- ing his furrow-slices towards a c and / c?, respectively. In this manner he will have ploughed the half of two adjoining ridges, and terminated at the space 0 5, half 12 XV. 134 OPERATIONS OP TILLAGE. way between them. This method of ploughing, it will appear, has the same effect as turning the horses right about, and is the most frequent and convenient in prac- tice. " In the following figure, 22, in which C C, C C, C C are the centres of the ridges, the manner in which the successive furrow-shces have been laid upon each other is shown. " By this laying of the earth towards the centres, the ridges acquire a certain curvature. By ploughing the earth away from the intervals D E, F G, the ground is hollowed at these parts, which now forms the open furrows. It is by these open furrows that the water which falls upon the surface finds a passage. " A certain, though not a great, degree of curvature, is given to the ridge by this ploughing. It is frequently, however, necessary to give it a yet greater degree of cur- vature and elevation. This is done by ploughing the whole ridge a second time, and in a similar manner. " The plough is first driven along the centre of the ridge from C to C, forming an open furrow. Successive furrow-slices are then laid towards this furrow, in the same manner as in the previous ploughing. This is done OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. 135 with the successive furrow-slices, until the plough reaches the open furrows D E, F G. In this manner the whole ridge is ploughed, and an increased elevation and curva- ture given to it. This operation is termed gathering. " In performing the operation of gathering, it is impor- tant that the ridge be formed with a uniform curvature, so that it shall not have what is technically termed a shoul- der, or hollow part, on each side of the crown. It is to prevent this defect, that the open track is made along the crown before the first two slices are laid together ; by which means the ploughman is better enabled to lay them upon each other in such a manner that they shall not over- lap and form a protuberance at the crown of the ridge. A transverse section of the ridges, when gathered, will appear thus : — Fig. 23. B C E C G " A ridge, however, being already formed, it may be wished to plough it again, and yet to preserve it at the same curvature and elevation. In this case, the plough is to enter at the open furrow, and to lay the successive furrow-slices towards it, until the two adjoining ridges are ploughed. By this means all the slices of the same ridge lie in the same direction, and the curvature and elevation of the whole remain as before. This operation is termed casting, and the manner in which the furrow-slices rest upon each other will appear in fig. 23. " In the same operation of casting, two methods may be pursued. The two first furrow-slices, as those at E and C, may be laid resting upon each other, as in fig. 24, in which case the two ridges will be formed, as it Fig. 24. B C E C G i were, into one large ridge ; or else, the open furrow at E may be preserved by keeping the two first furrow-slices 136 OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. at a little distance from each other, and preserving the space between them, as in fig. 25. Fig. 25. " When land is ploughed in this manner, the ground is taken from one side of each two adjoining ridges at G, and laid towards the other, E ; that is, it is gathered towards one side and gathered from the other. In this manner the ground at the open furrow G, from which we gather, becomes more bare of earth than the open furrow E, towards which we gather. This is an imper- fection unavoidable in casting a ridge. When, therefore, we wish to cast a ridge twice in succession, we reverse the former mode of ploughing ; we gather towards the open furrow G, and from the open furrow E, and thus the ridge is restored to its former state. " Another method of ploughing is cleaving. In this case, the plough commences at the open furrow, lays the first shce towards it, and then, returning by the other side of the open furrow, lays the second slice upon the first, as in fig. 26. When it has reached the centre, it stops Fig. 26. B C £ C G • and begins with another pair of ridges, and ploughs the half of each pair together in the same manner. In this w^ay the open furrows of the ridges become the centres, and the former centres become the open furrows. The operation of cleaving is of constant occurrence in the summer-fallow, and other cleaving processes of tillage. When w^e wish to level a ridge, we cleave it. " There are two variations to be noticed in the prac- tice of cleaving : either the two first slices are laid togeth- er, in which case the open furrows of the former ridges become the centres, and the former centres the open furrows, in the manner shown in fig. 26 ; or a certain OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. 137 distance is kept between the two first slices, and so the open furrow is preserved. In this case, each ridge is split into two ridges, and the number of open furrows is doubled. See fig. 27. Fig. 27. ^u^z^x<^'--^^ s "O 5 c— « ^ " 1- 1^ 74 10 o X o- 4^ iH 81 6 4 8i 79 20 4 6^ 40 22 36 4 20 67 3 10 58 36 2 4 56 30 12 2 60 38 2 48 50 2 68 30 .■S 2 38 60 =5 S^ 2 33 Ho — . a 2 28 70 "rt "^ 2 231 75 CK H 181 80 H 100 98 96 90 78 77 75 70 651 60 , 60 50 40 30 20 It will be perceived that the wheat soils possess from 40 to 81 per cent, of clay, from 4 to 36 of carbonate of lime, and from 4 to I IJ of humus, or geine. Lime seems to be an indispensable ingredient in a wheat soil. Neither barley, oats, nor rye, and we may extend the remark to Indian corn and turnips, and indeed to many other farm products, requires carbonate of lime, though this always gives a chemical and mechanical improvement to the soil, by rendering sands more compact, and more reten- tive of moisture and manure, and clays more light and pervious to atmospheric and solar influence, and to the roots of the crop. All the soils in which sand pre- dominates over clay, are best adapted to the growth of Indian corn, turnips, clover, &c., though the product will depend on the soluble organic matter in the soil, and the fidelity of the culture. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are alluvial soils of the richest quality, and embrace much of the land upon the lower flats of riv- ers coming from secondary and transition formations, and a large portion, it is beheved, of the secondary fomiation 184 ADAPTATION OP lying west of the Alleghany range of mountains ; and from the abundance of vegetable mould, or humus, which such soils contain, and the intimate state of admixture with earthy materials in which it is found, they are not so stiiF as the quantity of clay which they contain would seem to indicate. But their texture will become more compact as the vegetable matter becomes exhausted by bad hus- bandry. From the absence of lime in most of the prim- itive formation east of the Alleghanies, many districts, although not deficient in the other ingredients, are not found congenial to the growth of wheat. No. 4 is a fine clay loam, such as abounds in many limestone districts, and contains a very large proportion of carbonate of lime. The application of lime or marl to such a soil would be a waste of time and money. Indeed, while there is four per cent, of carbonate of lime in a soil, it is doubted whether these applications can be made with any advantage. No. 5 may be termed a very rich sand loam, in which there is one fifth clay, one tenth humus, or organic mat- ter, and a sufiiciency of carbonate of lime for ordinary purposes. This soil is easily worked, is adapted to al- ternate husbandry, if made dry, and, although graduated a tenth below No. 1, is probably as profitable a soil as the farmer can cultivate. Nos. 6 and 7 may be denominated kind clay soils, about upon a par with No. 5, clay more preponderating in their composition, and with less than half the humus that No. 5 contains — a deficiency, however, which a good farmer would soon contrive to remedy. Nos. S, 9, and 10 are rated of less value than the preceding, because they are deficient in carbonate of lime and humus. Upon these, it is presumed, mild hme, and marl, and ashes would prove benefici-al, and would raise them to the value of Nos. 6 and 7. All of these num- '^'bers, and those which follow, may be considered as corn, turnip, and clover soils, if the deficiency of humus is sup- plied by manuring. Nos. 10, 11, and 12 form the Hghtest classes of soils, and are termed sandy, from the preponderance of CROPS TO SOILS. 185 sand over clay. These lack carbonate of lime, and humus and clay ; and clay-marl or blue clay, or indeed any clay, properly applied, would constitute an excellent dressing for them. Green crops, of any sort, turned under with the plough, are here particularly serviceable. When duly enriched they will bear good rye. Clover, or other green crops, should frequently intervene in the alterna- tion. If dry, sheep may be advantageously pastured upon them. We will here make some suggestions as to the mode of applying marl or clay to sandy lands, though at the risk of repeating what we may have already said upon this subject. The object of the application is to improve the absorbent and retentive properties of the soil, as it regards moisture and manure. It is hence important that the clay or marl should be pulverized and intimately incor- porated with the soil. Pulverization can only be efl^ect- ed by exposing the marl or clay to the action of the frosts, rains, and the sun. If laid upon the ground in masses, or heaps, pulverization is but partially effected, and that only upon the surface of the heaps. It is advisable there- fore, and it is the practice we have settled upon, to draw the clay or marl on to the ground in autumn or winter, and to spread from the carts, as far as its adhesive quali- ty will permit, over the entire surface of the field. The lumps become saturated with rain, the frosts penetrate, expand their volume, and loosen their adhesive proper- ties, and when the clay or marl afterwards becomes dry, they may be broken down by a maul, and pretty well pulverized and distributed by the roller and harrow. The operations of tillage will then produce as good a mix- ture as can be expected. Were the attempt made to blend these materials with the soil, without the prepara- tory process of pulverization, much of the benefit of the application would be lost. Besides, the clay and marl, by exposure to atmospheric influence, part with deleteri- ous properties which they often possess when drawn from the pit, and are ameliorated and enriched by the atmo- sphere. Judging from experience, we consider twenty or thirty two-horse loads of blue clay, containing, like that 16* 186 THE EFFECTS OP about Albany, 25 to 30 per cent, of carbonate of lime, applied, agreeably to the foregoing directions, to an acre of land like Nos. 14 and 15 of the above table, of more ultimate benefit than an equal number of loads of barn-yard manure. The majority of soils do not contain more than five per cent, of humus ; and, as we have observed, many contain little or no carbonate of lime. Without the first, no admixture of earths can be productive ; and without the latter, wheat, and probably some other farm-crops, can- not be grown to advantage. Yet where there is a due admixture of sand and clay, two per cent, of carbonate of hme, and an equal proportion of humus, will render the soil productive, for a season, or until the lime and the dung are too far exhausted by the growing crops. Sandy soils are much more easily wrought than clay soils ; and if they are tolerably well dunged and managed, or if green crops are made frequently to alternate, they make a good return to the husbandman. Under constant tillage they are soon exhausted ; and it is but seldom they are found to yield a succession of grass crops. Alternate husbandry should therefore, at all events, be resorted to upon soils of this description. CHAPTER XIX. EFFECTS OF CROPPING AND MANURING. The reader will find a further illustration of the bene- fits of manuring, of alternating crops, and of abolishing naked fallows, in the facts and suggestions which we are about to present him. We have heretofore endeavored to make it plain, that living and dead plants contain the same elementary mat- ters,— that dead plants afford the proper aliment for liv- ing plants, — and that, consequently, the fertility of a soil will be increased or diminished, in proportion to the quan- tity of dung or organic matter which is returned to it, CROPPING AND MANURING. 187 compared to the quantity which is taken from it by crop- ping. New or virgin soils may contain a large supply of vegetable matter, or humus, or soluble geine, (terms which mean much the same thing,) or they may contain an abundance of the specific food of certain plants, as of wheat, for instance, enough to feed several successive crops ; yet the powers of fertihty are diminished by ev- ery succeeding one, if the crops are carried off from the field, and nothing returned to it to supply the loss, — until finally, if the system of cropping goes on in this way, the food of plants will become exhausted, and the land sterile and barren, for all the profitable purposes of hus- bandry. If we look to the old continenc, we shall per- ceive that large districts, once fertile and populous, have, by the injudicious management of the husbandman, be- come almost waste and depopulated. A great portion of Egypt, of India, of Asia Minor, of the Barbary States, and of Spain, which once sustained their millions of inhabitants, and were to the world examples in the arts of culture and civilization, may be cited in illustration of this fact. And if we will turn our eye upon the Atlantic border of this new continent — new at least in culti- vation and improvement — we shall see ample evidence of the melancholy tendency of the old, the exhausting system of husbandry. We shall see millions of acres of once fertile lands, formerly in as high repute as the El Dorado of the west — the land of promise — worn out and exhausted of their fertility, by the old wretched system of cropping, cropping, cropping, until they have been thrown into " old fields^''^ or commons, as unworthy of culture. And even in the fertile west, from the abuse of those who are charged with their culture, are the lands in some districts assuming the garb of old age and unproductive- ness, and their occupants are passing further west, to seek out and exhaust the patrimony destined for coming gen- erations. If we put an ox to a stack of hay, he may subsist upon it a longer or shorter time, according to the quantity of food which it contains. A constant diminution of his food is going on ; and although he may feed and fatten till the 188 THE EFFECTS OF last lock is consumed, it is very certain, that unless the stack, or the food, is replenished, the ox, when the stack is consumed, will hunger and die, for want of nourish- ment. The organic matter in the soil is the stack of hay, and the crops are the ox. As long as the organic matter continues in sufficient quantity, the crops will thrive ; but the moment the organic matter is exhausted, or is deficient in quantity, the crops, like the ox, will pine and die, for want of food. The herdsman takes care to provide fresh food for the ox before the stock of hay is exhausted ; and the prudent farmer will take like precaution to provide for the coming wants of his crops. Providence has imparted fertihty to the soil for the benefit of man, to whose management He has intrusted it ; and He has endowed him with the faculty, and provided abun- dant means, of perpetuating that fertility. How reckless and improvident do we consider the young spendthrift, who wantonly squanders his paternal inheritance. He not only injures himself, and perverts the noble object of his being — that of doing good to his fellows — but he does injury to others by his bad example, and robs his chil- dren of their inheritance. The contemner of Nature's laws, who wantonly wastes the bounties of Providence, by a reckless, exhausting system of husbandry, does injury to himself and others, of a hke nature, though not perhaps to equal extent, nor in so glaring a manner, as the spend- thrift who squanders, in vice and folly, his paternal estate. Crops exhaust the fertility of the soil in proportion to the nourishment they respectively draw from it. To keep up our comparison with the animal kingdom, we may hken our grain crops to our cattle and horses, which are gross feeders, and consume a large quantity of food ; and our grass and roots to sheep and swine, which consume less, which thrive on comparatively scanty and coarse fare, and in a measure requite us for their food, by their intrinsic value, and by the fertility which they impart to the soil. The hog and the sheep, the grass and the roots, will live upon the pasture or soil which will not sustain the more gross feeders — the grain and the cattle — yet, like the latter, they will only thrive well when well fed. CROPPING AND MANURING. 189 Von Thaer, who has not, perhaps, his superior in the practical and scientific business of farming, any where, has turned his attention, for several years, to a series of experiments and observations, with a view to ascertain the degree of diminution or augmentation of fertility, which soils ordinarily experience from the culture of the principal farm-crops ; and has combined the results of his observations in a series of tables. Although these do not possess perfect accuracy, (for any thing like this would be impossible from the nature of the inquiry,) they never- theless serve as useful data to farmers who are anxious to preserve or to increase the fertility of their soils, by ju- dicious rotations, and by applying all the means of fertility which the farm affords. " The vegetative power," says ' British Husbandry,' "•is supposed to be in proportion to the quantity of liu- mus^ (or soluble vegetable matter,) or mould, which is contained in the soil; and its consumption has been found to be regulated according to the amount of nutritive mat- ter consumed by the crops which are grown upon it. The degrees of exhaustion thus occasioned, have only been fixed by naturalists with any degree of certainty, in so far as regards the usual species of cultivated grain and pulse ; for, as to the other products of the earth, although they have doubtless similar effects when similarly repeat- ed, yet those which consist of vegetable roots and grasses, and which are drawn from the land before they have per- fected their seed, are nevertheless — whether from the in- fluence attributed to their shade upon the soil, from sustenance drawn from the air and water, or from other causes with which we are not acquainted — only viewed as ameliorating crops. Corn crops are, however, consid- ered respectively to exhaust in proportions which render the proportion of about 4J bushels of wheat equal to that of 6 bushels of rye, SJ of barley, and 12 of oats.'' "According to all the experiments which have been made, there is reason to suppose, however, that upon a soil of moderate fertility, an average crop of wheat em- poverishes the land to the extent of 40 per cent., while one of rye only produces that effect as far as 30. Al- 190 THE EFFECTS OF though barley is more exhausting than oats, yet, upon strong land, in a less perfect state of culture, the latter produces proportionably larger crops, consequently ab- sorbs more nutriment ; and, for this reason, they may be both stated at 25 per cent. " The exhaustion by these crops is proportionably re- paired, and the land is restored to its former nutritive powers, in three ways, namely — ^' By the application of putrescent manure ; according to its quantity and quality. " By the ground being left a certain time under pasture ; according to the number of stock which it can support. " By the operation of a summer fallow ; according to the manner in which it is performed." Von Thaer considers the exhaustion by grain crops in the following relative proportions : — Wheat 4 degrees, rye 3J, barley Sj, oats ly^^, per bushel of product ; that upon poor soils, whose original fecundity is 40, according to the scale given in the preceding chapter, a fallow adds 10 degrees to its fertility, pasture 20, and 8 tons of ma- nure, of ordinary quality, 50 degrees — so that the manure and fallow, or manure and pasture, add 60 or 70 degrees, and are more than sufficient to double what the crop would have been without them. Without them, a crop of rye would have yielded but five bushels per acre ; with them, the yield would be 7 J to 10 bushels. A fallow is bene- ficial, not only on account of the fertilizing properties it may draw from the atmosphere, and by the influence of working the land, but from the weeds and vegetable mat- ters which it buries in the soil. Pasture is fertilized by the droppings of the stock, and the rich sward it gives to the plough and to the tilled crop. In the two following tables, the journal, which is about two thirds of an English acre, is the measure of land ex- perimented upon. The schiffel is more than a bushel and a half, Winchester measure. These tables are pre- dicated upon accurate experiments, and show the aug- mentation or diminution of fertility, caused by the crops, the manures, the pasture, and the fallow. CROPPING AND MANURING. 191 Crops and manures. Fallow, 6 4-10 loads of manure, Rye, 6 schiffels. Barley, 6 do. Fallow, Rye, 3 J schiffels, Oats, 4 do. . Fallow, light folded, Rye, Oats, TRIENNIAL SYSTEM. Fecundity. ^Augmentation. Diminution, 10 deg. 67 deg. 10 deg. 28 deg. 30 deg. 21 deg. 171 deg. 10 deg. 20 deg. 101 deg. 109 deg. 115 deg. By which course, land would gain six degrees of fer- tility in nine years, provided the manure was that of well- fed cattle ; but if principally straw, it probably would oc- casion no amendment. ALTERNATE SYSTEM. Fecundity, Crops and manures. 9 loads of dung. Potatoes,* 80 schiffels. Barley, 9 do. Peas, . 3| loads of manure. Rye, 8 schiffels, Clover, mown. Pasture, Oats, 11 schiffels, Augmentation. Diminution. 90 deg. 10 deg. 37J deg. 12 deg. 20 deg. 30 deg. 31ideg. 10 deg. 40 deg. 27i deg. 1691 deg. 139 deg. ♦The augmentation of fertility ig here added, because of the culture bestowed upon the potatoes as a fallow crop, the value of which is considered equal to 10 degrees. 192 THE EFFECTS OF This course would augment the fertility of the soil, in eight years, 30| degrees, besides producing crops of superior value. This increase is owing to the clover and pasture, and the additional quantity, as well as su- perior quality of the dung, made by cattle fed upon roots and clover. Land is progressively improved by the pro- duction of good crops, consumed upon the farm, and the manure which they supply, if the latter is properly hus- banded and applied. This will be rendered still more apparent by the fol- lowing summary of four different rotations actually carried into effect, and each consisting of 120 journals, or equal to 76.1.6 11-5 acres English, and bearing the crops here mentioned, after deducting the seed. No. 1. Courses of crops. Product per journal Fallow dunged. Rye, .... 8i schiffels. Barley, .... 8J do. Oats, .... 8 do. Clover and mown, . . 14 centnus.* Ditto pasture two years, together with 170 journals ot extra meadow and sheep-pasture. No. 2. Oats upon pasture ley, . 12 schiffels. Fallow dunged. Rye, . . . . 10 do. Barley, . . . . 10 do. Rye, .... 5 do. Clover and mown, . . 20 centnus. Ditto pastured two years, together with 100 journals of extra pasture meadow, dunged. No. 3. Potatoes, ... 87 schiffels. Barley, . . . . 12 do. Clover, .... 24 centnus. ♦The centnu is 103 lbs. English. CROPPING AND MANURING. 193 Oats, . . . . 14 schiffels. Peas, .... 6 do. ^Rye, . . . . 10 do. ' Tares, .... 20 centnus. Rye, .... 9 schiffels. Meadow dunged, . . 15 centnus. Besides 100 journals sheep-pasture. No. 4. Oats upon pasture ley, . 14 schiffels. Fallow, sown both before and after with winter and spring tares for fodder, Rye, Peas, Rye, Potatoes, Barley, Clover mown, . Ditto pastured with sheep 2 years. Meadow, 150 journals dunged, 15 centnus. The produce of these several crops, both in fodder and manure, as well as in grain, and the profit gained by feeding of stock, were then summed up, and being calcu- lated according to the price of grain, were reduced to schiffels of rye, from which were deducted the charges of cultivation, thus affording a parallel between the dif- ferent courses, as follows : — 10 schiffels. 6 do. 9 do. 87 do. 12 do. 24 centnus. CO O Product of straw. Produce of fod- der, reduced in wt. to an esti- mate in haj\ Manure. Profit on cattle. Profit of grain. Nett balance. Centnus. Centnus. Centnus. Schiffels. Schiffels. Schiffels. 1 4173 2936 14219 992 1948 1869 2 6464 4650 22228 1651 2958 3028 3 7916 9120 29272 2430 2960 3458 4 10973 12315 41791 3178 4323 5188 It appears from these results, that the fertility of the soil, and the consequent profits of the farm, were in- creased, 17 XV. 194 RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. First. In proportion to the augmentation of manure, by reason of meadow, green crops, and roots ; Secondly. In proportion to the increased ratio which the above-named crops and pasture bear to the grain crops. And, Thirdly. In proportion to the amount of pasture. And it will be further seen, that the courses were profitable, and the fertility of the soil increased, in propor- tion as green, leguminous, and root crops were alternated with grain crops — the two first, and least profitable courses, giving three grain crops in successive years — the third course interposing clover, peas, or tares between the grain crops — and the fourth and most profitable course alter- nating dry, green, leguminous, and root crops, followed by clover mown or pastured three years. The inference from these experiments, made by one of the most intelligent and careful of men, is, that if we would preserve or increase the fertility of our lands, and thus augment the profits of our labor, we should not sow dry crops for two successive years, upon the same field — but alternate them, as far as practicable, with roots, legumens, green crops, meadow, and pasture. The reader will find these matters more largely treat- ed of in 'British Husbandry,' and particularly in Von Timer's works on agriculture. CHAPTER XX. RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. We shall now proceed to offer some rules and sugges- tions in husbandry, of general apphcation, to enable far- mers, and particularly novices in the business, to judge of the character and qualities of their soil, — of its adaptation to particular crops, — of the causes of deterioration, — and of the means of perpetuating its fertihty ; or, if worn out or empoverished, of restoring it to its primitive vigor. These facts or suggestions form a sort of synopsis, or RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. 195 epitome, of what has been stated in the preceding essays of the principles and practice of the New Husbandry. Though they may not in all cases fully apply, they will in the main, we believe, be sound and useful. 1. The essendal elements of a good soil, are sand, clay, lime, and organic matter. Magnesia, iron, and vari- ous other minerals and salts, are often found blended with the preceding ; but in general they are not considered as exercising a great influence upon its fertility, except they exist in more than ordinary proportions. 2. The presence of sand, clay, and vegetable matter in a soil, is deemed indispensable to all crops ; and lime, in some of its forms, is considered indispensable to wdieat, and perhaps some other crops, and prejudicial to none, where it is in moderate quantity. 3. The presence of sand and clay is readily detected by the experienced eye ; that of vegetable matter by the consistence and color of the soil ; and that of carbonate of lime, or calcareous earth, by drying a portion of soil, and pouring upon it some acid, as the muriatic, or even strong vinegar. If it contain any considerable portion of carbonate of hme, effervescence will take place, and the carbonic acid be expelled by the apphcation. The pro- portions in the elements of a soil are ascertained by chem- ical analysis. 4. Sand is the most essential in the earthy ingredients of soils, and most predominates in them, though where it exceeds eighty-two per cent, the soil is virtually barren, for it is then too porous to retain long either moisture or manure. Clay is next in importance and proportion ; but when it greatly preponderates, the soil becomes stubborn, is hard to be worked, is too retentive of moisture, too im- pervious to atmospheric influence, and is more or less un- productive. Lime exists in the smallest proportion, and is least essential of the three common earths, and from two to four per cent, of the upper tillable stratum is all that is deemed essential to the growth and maturity of any crop. When lime is in excess it induces barrenness, though calcareous soils are considered conduci-ve to the health of the neigh- 196 RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. borhood, imbibing or neutralizing, like chlorine, the im- purities of the atmosphere. Organic matter, that is, vege- table or animal, is indispensable in a soil. It is the food of plants. Yet even this is often found in excess, as in peat, and in too highly manured grounds, and is often insoluble, or infertile, till mixed with larger portions of earthy mat- ters, or brought in contact with fermenting materials. 5. When there is perceived to be a deficiency of sand, of clay, or lime in a soil, ihe defect may be remedied, and permanent improvement effected, by an admixture of the deficient element or elements. When there is an ex- cess of either, it can only be remedied by a similar but more tedious process. Thus a load of clay, properly blended with an arid sand, — or a load of sand mixed w'ith a stubborn clay, or a few bushels of mild lime, or marl, or ashes, upon a soil deficient in calcareous earth, often prove of more ultimate service than a load of barn-yard manure. But, 6. Both lime and dung, the latter in far the greatest proportion, are taken up and consumed by the growing crop ; and if the crops are not consumed upon the field, so that their principal elements return again directly to the soil, the land must be periodically replenished with them, or it will soon become deficient in these elements of fertility. 7. The sand and clay of the soil may be likened, in their offices, to the stomach of the animal — the recipient of food ; the Hme and salts to the gastric juices, which facilitate the digestive process in the animal stomach, and to the condiments, as salt, &c., which we employ to stim- ulate the digestive organs and promote health ; and the organic matters in the soil to the food which feeds and fattens the animal. 8. If the crops grown upon a soil are permitted to de- cay upon, and return again to it, its fertility wnll not be diminished, but rather improved. It is upon this princi- ple that the Flemings have converted sterile lands into fer- tile ones. They plant the larch, and in a few years the soil becomes so enriched by the foliage of the trees, as to afford, after the wood is cleared off, tolerable crops, and RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. 197 the nucleus of greater improvement. But when the crop is carried off, and nothing returned, deterioration must talce place — the food for the vegetables must undergo a continual diminution. This is a plain exposition of the cause 01 lands^ IV earing out ; and at the same time of the means of preventing their wearing out. 9. All the elements of a good soil being present, its fertility, and consequent profit, will in a measure depend upon its exemption from an excess of water, which, like fire, is a good servant, but a bad master. This excess may arise from spouts and springs bursting up from below, — from surface-waters, where the ground is level, or near- ly so, settling and reposing upon a tenacious soil or sub- soil, or from waters flowing from higher grounds. Hence the importance of draining. We do not know of any farm-crop which thrives upon a soil habitually wet, either upon the surface, or within the natural range of the roots. Water meadows and rice grounds profit by periodical floodings, but they are injured by habitual wetness. 10. Fertility depends much, also, upon the quality and properties of the subsoil. If this is bad, or comes too near the surface, its faults may be corrected by furrow- draining, and the trench or subsoil plough, or by bringing it up, in small portions at a time, or during a course of crops, to the ameliorating influence of the atmosphere, and incorporating it with the upper stratum, or proper soil. 11. If a soil, under good management, does not return good crops, or if the crops are found annually to diminish, it is a sure indication that there is a deficiency in some of the primary elements of a good soil, that the subsoil has a malign influence, or that there is an excess of water. It is the province of the manager to seek out the cause of the evil, and to apply the proper remedy, be it lime, manure, drainage, or deeper tilth. In doing this, a knowl- edge of natural science will be found of great advantage. 12. The small-grain crops are the greatest exhausters of the fertility of the soil, on account of their narrow system of leaves, which draw sparingly from the atmosphere, and the large portion of nutriment they extract from it to 17* 198 RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. mature their seeds. The remark extends to the narrow- leaved grasses, converted into hay, when they are permit- ted to ripen their seeds in the field. 13. Indian corn, tobacco, and beans maybe embraced in the second class of exhausting crops ; for, although they have broad leaves, and derive much nourishment from the atmosphere, they are nevertheless gross feeders, bulky crops, and leave very little upon the soil to compensate for what they take from it. But great economy in dung may be eftected by feeding these crops with the long manure of the yards and stables, instead of summer-yarding it, as many farmers are wont to do. These crops will feed upon what is otherwise lost in the yard, — the gaseous matters of the dung. These afford exactly what the crops named want, and at the time they want it. 14. Roots come next in the order of exhausting crops ; but they in part compensate for what they take from the soil by the ameliorating influence they have upon it, pulver- izing and freeing it from weeds — by their roots and the culture they demand. 15. Green crops, that is, clover, buckwheat, rye, oats, turnips, and even weeds before they seed, ploughed un- der as food for plants in their green^ succulent state, are enriching crops, and powerful auxiliaries in keeping up the fertihty of the farm ; but they are too seldom resorted to for this purpose. 16. Depasturing with cattle, and particularly with sheep, enriches a soil. According to Von Thaer, it adds 20 per cent, to the fertility of an ordinary soil, that is, in five years it will double its fecundity. This results from the fact, that the crop is returned to the soil in the drop- pings and stale of the animals which crop it. 17. Not only do different crops tend to exhaust differ- ent properties of the soil, denominated their specific food — but different crops, in consequence of their different systems of roots, draw their food from different portions of the soil : the fibrous-rooted from near the surface, and the tap-rooted from below, and partially from the sub- soil, into which a portion of the humus is carried down by the rains, and into which the tap-roots penetrate to obtain it. RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. 199 18. Lime and clay are essential in a wheat soil. In- dian corn delights in a rich, dry, sandy loam, and makes a good return on light sands, provided it is well fed, that is, well dunged. Turnips excel on dry, sandy soils, though ruta baga requires that they be rich. Barley does best on loams in which there is considerable clay, as do the beet and pea. Oats and potatoes find a congenial home in rich, moist grounds, though for the latter the surface stra- tum should be light and mellow. Of the grasses, the tap- rooted, as the clover, lucerne, &c. require a deep soil, per- meable to their roots, and free from water ; the fibrous- rooted, as the tall oat, orchard-grass, &c. thrive upon soils that are dry and shallow ; and the rough-stalked meadow, bent, and some of the festuca and agrostis fami- lies, are congenial to, and often natural in, moist or swampy grounds. The timothy, the herds-grass of the Eastern states, our main dependance for winter forage, adapts its habits, it is said, to its location — being fibrous-rooted upon dry, and bulbous-rooted upon moist grounds — and therefore suited to either. 19. The natural fertility of a farm cannot ordinarily be kept up, or increased, where arable and mixed husbandry prevail, from the resources of the farm and cattle, without a resort to an alternation or change of crops. Although the diminution of fertility may be imperceptible for a time, — and although some soils seem naturally and peculiarly adapted to certain crops, — yet the stock of humus or of specific food is constantly diminishing, and will ultimately fail, if the same crop, or class of crops, is grown upon the same ground in successive years. Whether, according to the theory of De Candolla and Malcaire, the excrementi- tious matter thrown into the soil by the growing crop is poisonous to its species ; or whether, as we maintain, each species requires and exhausts, wholly or partially, a specific food in the soil, suited to its particular wants, — we will not stop now to inquire ; but it is a fact established by general experience, that an annual change of crops upon a field, while under tillage, tends very much to economize its fertility, and to increase the profits of the labor bestowed upon it. Hence, 200 RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. 20. It has been laid down as a sound rule in farming, that two white, or grain, or culmiferous crops, should not be made to succeed each other in the same field ; but that each of these should be alternated with, or preceded and followed by, a green, a grass, a root, or a leguminous crop. 21. Where the soil of a farm will admit of it, a good course is to alternate, — 1. roots or Indian corn, with long manure upon the sod ; 2. grain, with grass-seeds ; 3. grass for two years ; or, grass one year ; 4. grain and grass-seeds upon the first furrow ; and, 5. and 6. meadow and pasture. The poorer, or more sandy the soil, the oftener should it be returned to grass, particularly to clo- ver and pasture. 22. Geologists refer to three distinct formations, as constituting the crust of the earth — the primitive^ as con- taining little lime and no organic remains ; the transition, containing lime and organic remains ; and the secondary, abounding extensively in both these elements of fertility. Their natural relative fertility is in the reverse order in which they are named, the secondary being best, and em- bracing most of the great basin of the Mississippi, and the country drained by its tributary streams. We say noth- ing of alluvial formations, made by the ocean and rivers. These deposits partake of the character of the country from whence they are brought, and are more or less fer- tile, according to the fertility of the districts from which their soil is derived, and the force of the currents by which the deposits have been made, — a rapid^current leaving only the coarser and heavier materials, while the finer and richer matters subside where the current is slow and less agitated. 23. The three great formations which we have men- tioned, possess, it is well known, characteristics differing from each other. They grow, naturally, many plants peculiar to each, and they are adapted to different branch- es of husbandry, and to different farm-crops. The primitive will not generally grow good wheat ; but is suited to grass, oats, potatoes, &c. The transition is adapted to natural grasses, and to most of the arable crops, particularly to the cereal class ; and the secondary RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. 201 to the cultivated grasses, to roots, and particularly to wheat. ^ 24. There are other circumstances, in regard to the location of a farm, which demand the consideration of the master, which refer to latitude and elevation. Plants have their natural zone, or climate, beyond which they do not grow, or thrive but imperfectly. There is a differ- ence in every degree, or seventy miles, of latitude, upon tide-water, of five or six days, in the forwardness of nat- ural vegetation in the spring, and nearly a like difference in the blighting indications of autumn. But what is of equal importance, but less generally regarded, is the dif- ference in climate produced by altitude. Three hundred feet of elevation is considered equal to one degree of lat- itude, in its influence upon temperature. Hence it does not follow, that because a crop will thrive and ripen in a given latitude upon tide- water, it will thrive and ripen well in the same latitude at a higher elevation. On the contrary, to be better understood, we say, that, other things being alike, the climate on tide-water, in latitude 42°, is similar to that of a place three hundred feet eleva- ted above tide-water in latitude 41°, or of a place nine hundred feet above tide-water in latitude 39° ; so that the table-land of Mexico, in latitude 16°, at an elevation of seven thousand eight hundred feet above the ocean, * An able writer in the Edinburgh Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, in reference to these formations, terms the primitive, which it seems comprises the most elevated lands in Scotland, the region of heath and coarse herbage ; the transition, the natural region of the grasses ; and the secondary, the region of the cultivated grasses, and particularly adapted to arable and alternate husbandry. He assigns to each a par- ticular and distinct breed of cattle. To the first, or higher region, a thick-haired, small, hardy breed ; to the second, or middle region, those of large size ; and to the third, or lower region, those that are more sensitive to cold, gross feeders, and that acquire the greatest weight. He then goes on to show, from numerous examples, that the sev^al breeds are the most profitable in the several districts assigned them ; end that they have been manifestly improved, in most cases, by a judi- cious cross with the improved short horns. There is much good sense in the writer's remarks ; and although the description of the three for- mations does not fully apply in the United States, the remarks as to the influence of altitude or climate, upon different breeds of domestic aoimalsj are entitled to high consideration. 202 RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. should possess about the same mean temperature, and produce the same natural and artificial growth, as Kings- ton, upon the Hudson, though the extremes, both of heat and cold, are probably greater at the northern than they are at the southern point.* These data are assumed from recollection, and may not be precisely correct. 25. The means of preserving, and of augmenting, the fertihty of the soil, are sufficiently indicated in the pre- ceding suggestions. They consist mainly in manuring, * "All the western part of the intendancy of Vera Cruz," sajs Humboldt, in his New Spain, " forms the declivity of the Cordilleras of Anahuac. In the space of a day, the inhabitants descend from the regions of eternal snow to the plains in the vicinity of the sea, where the most suffocating heat prevails. The admirable order with which different tribes of vegetables rise one above another, by strata as it were, is nowhere more perceptible than in ascending from the port of Vera Cruz to the table-land of Perote. We see there the physiogno- my of the country, the aspect of the sky, the form of plants, the fig- ures of animals, the manners of the inhabitants, and the kind of culti- vation followed by them, assume a diiferent appearance at every step of our progress. " As we ascend. Nature appears gradually less animated, the beauty of the vegetable forms diminishes, the shoots become less succulent, and the flowers less colored. The aspect of the 3Iexican oak quiets the alarms of a traveller newly landed at Vera Cruz. Its presence de- monstrates to him that he has left behind him the zone so justly dread- ed by the people of the north, under which the yellow fever exercises its ravages in New Spain. This inferior limit of oaks warns the colonist who inhabits the central table-land how far he may descend towards the coast, without dread of the mortal disease of the vomito. Forests of liquid amber, near Xalapa, announce by the freshness of their verdure that this is the elevation at which the clouds, suspended over the ocean, come in contact with the basaltic summits of the Cordilleras, A little higher, near la Bandarila, the nutritive fruit of the banana-tree comes no longer to maturity. In this foggy and cold region, therefore, want spurs on the Indian to labor, and excites his industry. At the height of San Miguel, pines begin to mingle with the oaks, which are found by the traveller as high as the elevated plains of Perote, where he be- holds the delightful aspect of fields sown with wheat. Eight hundred metres higher, (two thousand six hundred feet,) the coldness of the climate will no longer admit of the vegetation of oaks ; and pines alone cover the rock, whose summits enter the zone of eternal snow. Thus in a few hours the naturalist, in this miraculous country, ascends the whole scale of vegetation, from the heliconiaand the banana-plant, whose glossy leaves swell out into extraordinary dimensions, to the stunted parachyma of the resinous trees." RULES AND SUGGESTIONS IN FARMING. 203 draining, the admixture of earthy materials, and the alter- nation of crops. 26. Stable and fold-yard dung is most profitably applied in an unfermented, or partially fermented state, and to hoed and autumn-ripening crops. Fermentation dimin- ishes the fertilizing properties of manure. If this ferment- ation takes place in the soil, the gases, the volatile por- tion which first escapes from the putrefying mass, are retained in the mould, and serve to feed the crop. If fermentation takes place in the yard, or upon the surface, the gases are wasted, and the dung undergoes further loss from the rains which ordinarily leach it. Long ma- nure should be spread broadcast, and well buried by the plough. 27. Short manure, or that which has undergone fer- mentation, is most beneficial when harrowed in, upon arable lands, or spread upon the surface of grass grounds. 28. Old meadows may be kept in a productive state, in ordinary cases, by a triennial top-dressing with manure or compost ; or may be renovated, and restored to a pro- ductive state, by the modes recommended in the essay which follows, Chapter XXI. 29. Composts are economical, when made to absorb fertilizing liquids which would otherwise be wasted — or to decompose inert vegetable matter, as peat-earth, &c. 30. Lime, gypsum, marl, and ashes are powerful aux- iliaries, when applied to proper soils, or suitable crops. Observation and experience w\\\ be the best guides in their application. They should all be applied to the surface, or but superficially covered. 3L All vegetable and animal matters constitute the food of plants, when they are rendered soluble, or capable of being dissolved in the water of the soil. 32. Bone-dust, horn-shavings, poudrette, woollen rags, urine, and animal carbon, or burnt bones, are concentrated manures, and should be used sparingly and with great care, upon or near the surface of the soil. Pigeons' and hens' dung partake much of the character of the prece- ding, and require precaution in their use. We think the best mode of applying the two first named, is to mix ashes 204 . ON THE IMPROVEMENT with them, or long manure, just before they are put upon the soil, whereby they are brought speedily into a state of fermentation and decomposition. 33. The best guards against drought, are keeping the soil deep, rich, clean, and mellow on the surface. 34. The more cattle there are well kept upon a farm, the more manure ; the more manure there is applied, the greater the product and the profit, and the greater the means of sustaining an increased stock of animals upon it. All of these advantages are increased, when root crops are made to enter largely into the system of culture. CHAPTER XXI. ON THE IMPROVEMENT OP GRASS LANDS. Although the alternation of grass and grain crops, in connexion with the rearing of cattle, is deemed most prof- itable, on soils and in situations which will admit of this kind of husbandry, yet there are many situations in which this alternate change camiot be carried into effect with- out manifest prejudice to the interests of the cultivator. There are some soils so natural to grass, as to yield an undiminished product for many years, almost without la- bor or expense. There are others, upon the banks of streams, w4iich periodically overflow, which it is prudent to keep in grass, lest the soil should be worn away by the rapid flow of waters. Besides, fertility is kept up upon these last, by the annual deposit of enriching materi- als. Others, again, are too precipitous, or too strong, to admit of arable culture. Nor should we conceal the fact, that it is still a controverted point, whether rich, stiff clays are not most profitable, when permanently appropriated to grass. Whatever causes prevail, the fact is indisputable, that a considerable portion of our lands is, and will con- tinue to remain, in meadow and pasture. It is with the view to aid the farmer in correctins: the defects wliich may exist in such grounds, and in improving and keeping OF GRASS LANDS. 205 them in condition, that we offer the following suggestions. And, first, § 1 . Of Pastures. The evils that are experienced in pasture grounds, are, the gradual disappearance of the best grasses ; the growth of mosses and weeds in their stead ; and the prevalence of coarse herbage, which cattle reject, in situations where there exists a superabundance of moisture. Wherever there are stagnant waters, as upon flat surfaces that abound in springs, or which have a superficial soil upon a tena- cious subsoil, the herbage is not only mainly rejected by the stock, but the pasture is unhealthy, particularly to sheep ; but it is remarked, that if the water is in continued motion, as is generally the case upon the declivities of hills and mountains, ill consequences do not so often re- sult. To remedy the evils we have enumerated, and to im- prove the value of pasture grounds, one or more of the following expedients may be resorted to, viz., sowing and harrowing in grass-seeds, scarifying, bushing, draining, manuring, top-dressing with marl, lime, or ashes. Grass-seed may be sown either in September or April, followed by the harrow, and, if practicable, by the roller. The harrow partially extirpates the mosses, breaks and pulverizes the surface, and buries the seeds ; and the roller presses the earth to the seeds, and smooths the surface. The bush harrow is to be preferred. This may be con- structed by iiftrweaving some strong, but pliant branches of trees through the open squares of a heavy harrow, which thus forms an efficient brush, and when drawn over the ground performs its duty perfectly during a short distance ; but the branches, being pressed close, and worn by the motion, soon become so flat as not to have the effect of spreading the earth thrown upon the surface by earth- worms, ground-mice, or ants. It is therefore recom- mended, in ' British Husbandry,' as a better mode, to fix the branches upright in a frame, placed in the front part of the carriage of the roller ; by which means they can be so placed as to sweep the ground effectually, and when 18 XV. 206 ON THE IMPROVEMENT worn, can be moved a little lower down, so as to contin- ue the work with regularity. This operation also com- pletely breaks and scatters the manure dropped on the field by the stock, and particularly incorporates it with the surface-mould. Scarifying is cutting the sod and loosening the surface. Concklin's press-harrow (fig. 34) is a suitable implement for this purpose. We also subjoin the drawing of an implement constructed for this purpose, which we take from ' British Husbandry,' calculated to be drawn by a one or two-horse team. Fijr. 40. This implement is intended to cut the sod perpendicu- larly so far down as to sever the roots of die grass, which occasions it to throw out fresh roots. It shces the sod, without tearing it, and should be constructed with a num- ber of very sharp coulters, fixed into a cross-beam at such distances as may be thought advisable, from six inches to a foot, and of a width according to the strength intended to be employed in drawing it. The blades should be occasionally whetted to preserve their edge, and the im- plement should be used when the ground is in a moderate state of moisture, and the grass short. If the land is poor, or moss-bound, it may be passed crosswise also. It is best adapted to moist clays, which do not contain stones or gravel. It is advantageously used to precede the sowing of grass-seeds. The foot- wheel is to regulate the depth of the work. Draining improves the quality of the herbage, and marling, liming, or ashing increases the quantity. It is remarked, that animal dung, when dropped on coarse OF GRASS LANDS. 207 pastures, produces little or no benefit ; but when calcare- ous matters have been laid upon the surface, the finer grasses soon take possession of it. Bushing, that is, drawing over the ground tops or heavy- branches of trees, tends to extirpate moss, loosens the surface to atmospheric influence, and covers grass-seeds which may be sown previous to the operation. Manures are seldom applied to pastures, especially with us ; but, appHed in the form of compost, as a top-dressing, they are decidedly serviceable. Gypsum and spent ashes may be applied with undoubted benefit in most cases. Upland pastures have been greatly improved in Scotland, according to Sinclair, by drawing surface-drains diago- nally across the face of the hills. The herbage is ren- dered more palatable and wholesome, and the waters are prevented from accumulating so as to cut gullies and chasms in the hill-sides. It need hardly be added, that bushes, thistles, and other perennial weeds obstruct the growth of grass, and that they ought to be carefully extirpated ; and that surface stones diminish the herbage in proportion to the extent of surface which tliey occupy. These, then, should be converted into walls, one of the most economical fences, if well laid, because the most permanent, that can be constructed. The weeds that infest pasture grounds are mostly bien- nials or perennials. If these are cut two or three times in a season, at the surface of the ground, they will die. Leaves are as essential to vegetable, as lungs are to ani- mal life. Divested of these elaborating organs, the vitali- ty of the vegetable is soon destroyed. Our pasture grounds are generally left to take care of themselves ; but there is no doubt that expense bestowed upon their improvement, in some of the modes above suggested, would be profitably laid out. Their value depends upon the quality and quantity of the herbage which they afford. The quality is in a great measure determined by the exemption of the soil from stagnant waters, the quantity by the richness of the soil, and its exemption from moss, bushes, weeds, stones, and other surface obstructions ; for if these are eradicated or re- 208 ON THE IMPROVEMENT moved, it is presumed the nutritious grasses will occupy their places. §2. Of Meadows. The crop being here annually carried off, it becomes a matter of necessity, if the field is to be kept permanent- ly in grass, to apply manure occasionally, if we would prevent a diminution of product. It is affirmed, that a perfectly thick bottom cannot be maintained on perma- nent meadows, in England, unless it is manured every second year. Gypsum will effect much here, upon dry soils, though there its effects are equivocal ; but gypsum alone will not suffice here. The average product upon our old grass lands will hardly exceed a ton and a half an acre. With a biennial or triennial top-dressing of dung or compost, where the sod is in good condition, it is believed the average would be double. Meadows are subject to all the evils that are experi- enced in pastures, from mosses, wetness, and the dimi- nution of the finer grasses, besides the greater exhaustion of fertility consequent upon carrying off the annual growth ; and the same measures are best adapted to reno- vate them. Meadows are generally depastured after the hay has been taken off, and the rowen partially grown. " After the cattle have been removed," says an English WTiter, " the land is bush-harrowed and rolled.''^ It has been stated, though some question the fairness of the ex- periment, that the operation of heavy rolling has been found to add six or seven hundred weight of hay per acre to the produce of the crop.* The effect of pasturing meadows in the spring, upon the coming grass crop, has been a matter upon which farmers have differed — though all agree that heavy cattle should not be kept on so late in autumn, or put on so early in spring, as to injure the sole of the sod, by poach- ing it when in a wet state. Mr. Sinclair has stated, that a given space of the same quality of grass having been cut towards the end of March, and another space of equal size left uncut until the last week in April, the pro- * Derbyshire Report^ vol. ii. p. 88. OF GRASS LANDS. 209 duce of each having afterwards been taken at three dif- ferent cuttings, that of the space last cut exceeded the former in the proportion of three to two ; and in one in- stance, during a dry summer, the last-cropped space ex- ceeded the other as nearly two to one.* It is generally conceded, that it is better to feed off rowen, than to cut it as a second crop. But when grass grounds can be alternated with arable crops, and where they are not periodically overflowed, or triennially dressed with compost or manure, we are de- cidedly of opinion that they should be subjected to the alternating system. A field well laid down in seeds, will give more grass the two first seasons, or in the three sea- sons following, than it will in the four seasons following these, unless it is overflowed, manured, or top-dressed. Besides, the grass ley, if turned under, greatly enriches the soil for a tillage crop ; — which, by its ameliorating tenden- cy, in pulverizing, opening it to atmospheric influence, and exposing a new surface, fits the soil again for the re- turn of the grasses. But the mere alternation of crops tends to preserve the fertility of the soil. A great objection to the alternating system on clay grounds is, that it is difficult to make the grass-seeds take, the spring and autumn being generally too w^et to obtain so complete a pulverization of the soil as will fit it for the reception of grass-seeds, — and of course, if sown then, they do not germinate and grow. Judge Van Bergen, of Greene County, New York, has adopted a practice which obviates these objections. He sows his grass-seeds with buckwheat, at midsummer, when the ground can be well worked. We have seen his fields, a stiff clay, of one, two, and three years' seeding, as well set with grass as we have seen on the most favored soils ; and, compared with adjoining meadows which had not been broken up, the crop was at least double. Where old grass-grounds are to be broken up, other than for a summer fallow, the first ploughing should be in autumn, in order that the vegetable matters of the sod may * Woburn Grasses, p. 3S9. 18* 210 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. undergo a partial decomposition in time to meet the wants of the spring crop, and that the soil may be exposed to the ameliorating influence of the winter frosts. Paring and burning, upon clay soils, would be of manifest advantage, not only in converting the sod speedi- ly into soluble matters, but in improving the condition of the soil itself. We long entertained a prejudice against this mode of improvement, on the ground that it de- stroyed much of the food of plants ; but we have been induced, in a measure, to change our opinion, from a conviction, that the food of plants is not annihilated, but rather concentrated, changed in its form, and rendered more available to the crop. This is seen in burning new fallows. Paring and burning produce a further benefit by destroying most of the seeds and roots of noxious or useless plants. " The objections to the division of a farm," says Sir John Sinclair, ''one half into permanent grass ^ and the other half into permanent tillage^ are not to be surmount- ed. The arable is deteriorated by the abstraction of the manure it produced, if applied to enrich the grass ; while the greater part of the manure thus employed is wasted ; for spreading putrescent substances upon the surface of a field, is to manure, not the soil, but the at- mosphere ; and is justly condemned as the most injurious plan that can be devised in an arable district. The mis- erable crops of corn produced where this system prevails sufficiently prove its mischievous consequences. So in- jurious is this mode of management, that, in the opinion of the most intelligent farmers, the landlord loses one fourth of the rent he might otherwise have got, from every acre thus debarred from cultivation, while the public loses 3 J bushels of grain for every stone (14 lbs.) of beef or mutton thereby obtained." The complaint of the inferiority of the new over the old pasture herbage, originates, says Sinclair, either from the improper choice of seeds, or from giving them in too small quantities ; and he quotes the example of an emi- nent farmer, upon a clay farm, who stocked heavy with grass-seeds, and who always secured a thick coat of her- CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 211 bage the first year, which differed from old pasture only in being more luxuriant. There can be but Httle doubt, jhat grasses will grow more luxuriantly in a soil which has been recently meliorated by the plough and harrow, than in one which has remained undisturbed for years. The great difficulty is in getting the ground into proper condition to receive the seeds, and in getting them to begin to grow. CHAPTER XXII. ON THE CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. On the judicious selection and proper cultivation of grasses, materially depend the profits of the farmer. These constitute, directly, the principal food of his farm- stock ; and, indirectly, the food of his crops. If his grasses are abundant and nutritious, a greater number of domestic animals maybe maintained, and the greater will be the returns they will make to the soil, in manure. A well-set sward is far more enriching to the soil, because it contains much more organic or vegetable matter, the food of plants, when ploughed under, than one that is thin and meager. A judicious selection comprises those kinds which are naturally best adapted to the soil. A proper cultivation consists in keeping them free from stagnant water and noxious weeds ; and, if to remain long in meadow, in giving them a triennial top-dressing of manure or com- post. One acre of good grass will cut three tons of hay, or keep a cow, or, if in lucerne, will soil half a dozen (Tows five months in a year. Four acres of lean, poor grass will cut little more, if any, than three tons of hay, and will barely suffice to keep a cow. There is as much difference between good and bad grass lands, in regard to profit, as there is between a good and a bad field of corn or wheat. The common practice in this branch of husbandry has hitherto been wretchedly bad. Generally, and until late- ly, we have either altogether omitted to sow grass-seeds, 212 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. or have sown them so sparingly, or of so few kinds, tha^ we have in a great measure lost much of the profit which they are calculated to afford. Timothy and red clover have been almost the only seeds sown ; and unless the soil has been prolific in indigenous kinds, our pastures have been thin, and our meadows light. There is one fact in regard to grasses which is not sufliciently known and appreciated. Difi'erent species subsist upon diflerent specific properties of the soil, and draw their food from different strata, the fibrous-rooted gathering sustenance from the upper, and the tap-rooted from the lower stra- tum. And it has been found, that although a superficial square foot of turf will only support a given number of plants of one species, it will nevertheless support double or treble that number of plants comprising several spe- cies. We mean, by cultivated grasses, those of which the seeds are sown by the husbandman, whether indigenous, or natural to the soil, or exotic. And in discussing the subject, we shall consider them under two heads, and shall draw liberally for facts and illustrations from Lou- don and other approved agricultural writers. The divis- ions we propose are, — 1. Herbage plants, or those particularly fitted for al- ternate husbandry. 2. Cultivated grasses, or those best adapted for mead- ow and pasture. § 1 . Herbage Plants. Under this head, Loudon has embraced the clovers, lucerne, sainfoin, birdsfoot trefoil, parsley, burnet, rib- wort, plantain, broom, wall-flower, yarrow, &c. The six last are never cultivated among us as herbage or field plants ; the sainfoin, which is peculiarly adapted to chalk soils, has never been successfully cultivated among us, and the birdsfoot trefoil but partially. We shall therefore confine our remarks, in this department, to the clovers and lucerne. The cultivation of clovers and lucerne exclusively for live stock, is comparatively a modern improvement in CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 213 husbandly. These plants were not introduced into British husbandry until the sixteenth century. Their introduction among us, on any thing hke a general scale, was far more recent. Indeed, lucerne has hardly yet ob- tained a footing among us ; and a great many of our far- mers are yet strangers to the great advantages which the cultivation of the clovers imparts to farming operations. In Flanders, where husbandry underwent its earliest improvements after the feudal age, and where it is found now most to excel, the cultivation of clovers is deemed indispensable to profitable farming. It forms a part of the course in every system of rotation upon all soils that will grow it. Upon their cultivation, says Radcliffe, hinges apparently the whole of the farmer's prosperity. " Without clover, no man in Flanders would pretend to call himself a farmer." Clover is used there as it should be used here — both to feed the animal and to enrich the soil. In Great Britain, clovers are considered ahke in- dispensable to good farming, particularly upon sandy and other light lands. Their general introduction into Amer- ican husbandry promises higher advantages than have been derived from them in Europe, inasmuch as gypsum, which exerts a magic influence in their growth, produces a more uniformly beneficial eftect in the United States than it does in Europe, excepting perhaps in the interior of Germany. Those districts in our country in which clover and plaster were first introduced, as some of the counties in the valley of the Hudson, and on the eastern border of Pennsylvania, have unquestionably made the most rapid strides in agricultural improvement, and are now confessedly, and by far, the best-cultivated districts of our country. Those who have followed their exam- ple, in whatever part of the country they have been loca- ted, are realizing a rich reward for their intelligence and enterprise. Several counties might be named, which have doubled their agricultural products, and the profits of their agricultural labor, since the introduction of clo- vers and gypsum. No thorough-going farmer, we believe, who has given them a fair experiment, has voluntarily given them up. 214 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. The species of clover in cultivation are — 1. The common red clover, (Trifolium pratense^) a biennial, and sometimes, if not permitted to seed, a tri- ennial, known from the other species by its broad leaves, luxuriant growth, and reddish purple flowers. 2. The white, or creeping, or Dutch clover, (T. re- pens^) is a perennial plant, known by its creeping stems and white flowers ; and sprmging up, it would seem, al- most spontaneously, in most of our pastures and meadows. 3. The yellow clover, hop-trefoil, or shamrock clo- ver, (T. procumbens,) a biennial, known by its procum- bent shoots, yellow flowers, and black seeds. This species is not cultivated among us, though it seems to abound in the northern and middle States. 4. The cow-grass, meadow clover, or marl-grass, (T. medium of Linnaeus, and resembling, says Beck, the T. Pennsylvanicum of Wild,) is a perennial, resembling the red clover, but of a paler hue, dwarfer habit, with pale red or whitish flowers, and long roots, very sweet to the taste. Whether what we term Southern Clover is the T. medium, or T. Pennsylvanicum, or a variety of the T. pratense, we shall leave it to botanists to settle, bare- ly remarking, that its time of flowering is usually ten to fourteen days earlier than that of the northern red clover. 5. Scarlet clover, (T. incarnatum,) an annual, a na- tive of Italy, but little known or cultivated either in the United States or Great Britain. We have sown it twice on a limited scale ; and although it promised a handsome product, it did not attain its growth in time for a forage crop, or to mature its seeds. Of the species we have named, the pratense, repens, and medium, if the latter be a distinct species, are the only ones which are, or are likely to be, cultivated among us. The first yields the heaviest burden, but is coarser, and later in maturing than the last named ; and the lat- ter has consequently one manifest advantage orer the former, — it will give two crops in a season, one to the scythe, and one for seed. It is to be remarked, that the first growth or crop of clover seldom produces much seed, on account of the heat of our mid-summer. If the first CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 215 crop of the large clover is not cut until it is in full blossom, the season hardly suffices for a second crop to mature its seed. The southern clover may be fed till the 20th June, or the first crop taken by the 25th or 2Sth, and the sec- ond or seed crop will come to perfect maturity, in ordi- nary seasons, before the autumnal frosts. The white clover is not sown to the extent it deserves to be. Being a perennial plant, and grateful to all kinds of farm-stock, its continuance in meadow and pasture grounds renders it highly valuable, both for hay and grazing. It does not seem to intrude upon the taller grasses, but will occupy every vacant space, and add essentially to the value of the crop. It is universally valued and admired ; then why not sow it more generally ? The soil best adapted to the growth of red clover, ( T. pratense and T. medium,) to which we shall hereafter con- fine our remarks, is a deep, sandy loam, or other soils which will admit freely the long tap-roots to extend down- wards ; but they will grow in any soil, provided it be dry. Calcareous soils are also peculiarly congenial to clover ; and the application of gypsum upon soils sensitive to its influence, will call into action the seeds, which before would seem to have lain dormant, for want of this stimu- lus, or specific food. The usual time of sowing clover-seed is in the spring, if with a spring crop, before the last harrowing ; or upon winter grain in March or April, when the field will bear cattle without poaching the ground, followed by a light harrow or roller. Let no one fear to injure his grain by harrowing it in the spring. The harrow or roller effects a material benefit, by breaking the crust which is gener- ally perceptible on the appearance of dry weather, in the spring, closing the innumerable cracks which are caused by the contraction of the soil, and in pressing down, and even covering the crowns of the plants. Harrowing win- ter grain in the spring has long been a general practice in the north of Germany, and the practice would not have been persisted in had it not been found beneficial. Clo- ver-seeds are sometimes sown with the autumn crop, in September or October ; though this practice is not to be 216 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. approved of, as the plants do not ordinarily obtain suffi- cient strength to withstand the severity of our northern winters. A better practice would be, we think, to sow with buckwheat in July. The plants would then have time to establish themselves well in the soil. We, how- ever, think that spring sowing is to be preferred in the northern States. The quantity of seed to be sown on an acre, will de- pend upon the quality of the soil, the purpose to which the clover is to be applied, and the quantity of other grass- seeds sown with it. As much of the seed sown upon stiff clays, or upon grounds not well pulverized, will not vegetate, for want of a continued supply of moisture, al- lowance should be made for the failure ; yet, upon these, and wet grounds, the main dependance, after the first year, is upon timothy or other grasses sown with the clo- ver. If the ground is intended for pasture, the varieties of seeds should be as extensive as possible, as the object is to obtain an abundance of food at all seasons, and to render the pasture perennial. The usual quantity of seed sown on the acre in the United States, is about ten pounds ; in Great Britain it is often increased to fourteen pounds ; while in Flanders six pounds is the medium quantity, though in the latter country the land is always in the best condition to receive it. The more plants there can be made to grow, the finer will be the herbage, and the greater the amount of vegetable matter afibrded by the ley to the crop which is to follow. The after-culture of clover consists in freeing the sur- face of stones and sticks, the soil from docks and thistles, and in applying an annual top-dressing of gypsum, or, when this is inoperative, of lime or ashes. The top- dressing is best applied in the spring, before the clover begins to grow. Upon lands annually dressed with plas- ter, a bushel is considered a sufficient dressing for an acre, though greater quantities are often applied with ad- vantage. The making of clover into hay is a process different from that of making hay from natural grasses. All herbage plants abound most in nutriment, and should be cut be- CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 217 fore the seeds are formed, and indeed before fully in blos- som, that the full juice and nourishment of the plant may be retained in the hay. A crop of clover, when cut in the early part of the season, may be ten per cent, lighter than when it is fully ripe ; but the loss is amply counter- balanced, by obtaining an earlier, a more valuable, and more nutritious article ; while the next crop will be pro- portionably more heavy. The hay from old herbage will carry on stock, but it is only hay from young herbage that will fatten them. When the stems of clover become hard and sapless, b}* being allowed to bring their seeds towards maturity, they are of little more value as proven- der than an equal quantity of the finer sort of straw. The mode of making clover hay, as practised by the best farmers, is as follows : The clover is cut close to the ground, in as uniform and perfect a manner as it is possible to accomplish, by the scythe kept constantly sharp. That part of the stem left by the scythe is not only lost, but the after-growth is neither so vigorous nor so weighty as when the first cutting is taken as low as possible. As soon as the grass is partially wilted, let the swath be gently turned over, but not spread or scattered. This may be done with forks or rakes. If the weather is fair, and the clover cut in the morning, the swaths may be turned after dinner ; and if mown after noon they may be turned before evening ; at which time those turned after dinner may be put into grasscocks. This last op- eration should be performed with care, and in this man- ner : — Three swaths are appropriated to a row of cocks. The laborer gathers a good forkfull, and deposits it on the centre swath, if the ground is dry, if not, in one of the intervals, putting it down gently, so that the cock may present a small base ; he then continues to gather and deposit in the same way until the cock is brought to a point, at the height of four to five feet, according to the dryness of the clover, — the dryer this is, the higher the cock may be made. When cgmpleted, the grasscock is two to three feet broad at the ground, tapering to the apex, and the projecting ends of the herbage drooping, so 19 XV. 218 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. as to carry off the rain which may fall. The points to be regarded are, to cock before the leaves begin to crum- ble, not to suffer the dew to fall upon the dried surface of the swath, and to build the cocks so as completely to shed rain, should the weather be bad. These grasscocks may stand to advantage 36 or 4S hours, without any pre- judice, and should not be opened until there is a fair pros- pect of obtaining a few hours of good weather to com- plete the curing process. When this is the case, open the cocks as soon as the dew is off, spread them partially, from four to six inches thick. If the day is good, the spread clover may be turned over between twelve and two, and in an hour or two afterwards be gathered for the barn. By this process of curing, the leaves are all pre- served, injury from dew and rain is in a great measure avoided, the stalks are better dried, and the appearance and value of the forage are retained in their highest perfec- tion. If rain is apprehended, after the grasscocks have stood a night, these may be doubled by putting one upon the top of anodier, and dressing with a rake. An intense sun is almost as prejudicial to clover as rain ; and there- fore it should not be shaken out, spread, or exposed often- er than is necessary for its preservation. The more the swath is kept unbroken, the more green and fragrant will be the hay. The advantage of curing clover in the cock is this, that when cured by being spread, the leaves and blos- soms are dry long before the stems are cured, or suffi- ciently dry ; so that either the stems must be housed be- fore they are properly cured, or, if made sufficiently dry by long exposure to the sun, the leaves and blossoms become too dry, crumble, and are lost. If in cock, all parts of the plant dry alike, the moisture in the mass is equalised, and when gathered to the barn, there will scarcely be a leaf lost, while the stalks will be amply cured. A slight fermentation often takes place in the cocks, which, instead of doing any injury, is a benefit, as it prevents the hay from afterwards heating in the mow or stack. It is a good practice to sprinkle salt upon clover hay, when deposited in the barn, especiallv upon CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 219 the first loads brought in, not so much with the view of preserving the hay, as of seasoning it, and rendering it more palatable to the cattle. The secret of making good hay, says Low, is to pre- pare it as quickly as possible, and with as httle exposure to the weather, and as little waste of the natural juices, as circumstances will allow. When we are enabled to do this the hay will be sweet, fragrant, and of a greenish color. The produce of clover, on the best soils, is from two to three tons per acre. The difference in quality, resulting from the mode of curing, is apparent from this fact, that well-cured clover, according to Loudon, is generally twenty per cent, higher in the London market than mead- ow hay, or clover and rye-grass mixed. As we have before remarked, clover will not perfect its seed in the early part of the season ; therefore it is necessary to take off the first growth, either as a hay crop, or by feeding it off, till June, and to depend for the seed upon those heads that are produced in autumn. The product in seed varies from two to five bushels an acre. When ripe, the heads are gathered, with or with- out the stems, threshed, and the seed separated from the chaff in a clover-seed mill. The seed forms an article of substantial profit with many farmers, and amounts often to more than the rest of the crop. Assuming as an aver- age four bushels to the acre, and estimating it to be worth ten dollars a bushel, the acreable value would be forty dollars. The expense of threshing and cleaning is com- paratively trifling. The stems of the seed crop, if cured in the manner directed for clover hay, are of more value as fodder than straw, and constitute excellent litter for the stables and yards. When we take into consideration the value of the first crop for forage, and of the second crop for seed and lit- ter ; and consider, that while clover is one of the least exhausting crops to the soil, it returns more to it than almost any other crop, and benefits it mechanically by pulverizing and dividing it, by its tap-roots ; — if we take these several matters into consideration, together with the facts, that clover is admirably adapted to light, sandv 220 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. lancls,and to the alternate system of husbandry; and that its growth is wonderfully accelerated by gypsum — we shall not be surprised at the saying of the Flemings, that " without clover, no man in Flanders would pretend to call himself a farmer ;" nor shall we be surprised at the uniform success which has attended its culture in the United States. Lucerne — Medicago sativa^ L. Lucerne is a deep-rooted perennial plant, sending up numerous small and clover-like shoots, with blue or vio- let spikes of flowers. It is a native of the south of Eu- rope, is extensively cultivated in the south of Spain, Italy, France, Persia, and Lima, in the two latter being cut all the year round, — and is partially cultivated in Great Britain and the United States. With us it is often called French clover, and is found to be as hardy as red clover. It was extensively cultivated by the Romans, and com- mended by Columella, as the choicest of all fodder. Three quarters of an acre of it, he thought abundantly suf- ficient to feed three horses during the whole year. The soil for lucerne must be dry, friable, inchning to sand, and with a subsoil not inferior to the surface. Un- less the subsoil be good, deep, and dry, it is in vain to attempt to cultivate lucerne. A friable, deep, sandy loam is excellent for it. No land is too rich for it. The preparation of the soil consists in deep ploughing and minute pulverization. Loudon recommends trenching for it. But a good preparation is a potato crop, heavily dressed with long manure, the ground ploughed very deep, and the manure buried at the bottom of the furrow, and the crop kept perfectly free from w^eeds. The season most proper for sowing in the northern and eastern States is about the 1st to the 15th of May, when the ground has become sufficiently warmed to promote quick germination. The manner of sowing lucerne is either broadcast or in drills, and either with or without an accompanying crop. Broadcast, with a very thin cast of winter rye, is most generally preferred in the United States ; though drills, by enabling the cultivator to keep out grasses and weeds, CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 221 promise the greatest permanency to the crop. A gen- tleman, who has sown in drills, three feet apart, and cul- tivated alternate rows of mangel wurtzel with the lucerne, speaks in high commendation of the practice. Arthur Young recommends drilling at nine inches. The quantity of seed, when the broadcast method is adopted, is from fifteen to twenty pounds ; in the United States, sixteen pounds is the usual quantity, — and when drilled, eight to twelve pounds suffices. The ground should be perfectly pulverized, the seed put in with a fine harrow, and the operation of sowing finished with the roller. The after culture of lucerne^ sown broadcast, consists in harrowing, in the spring, to destroy grass and weeds ; rolling, after harrowing, to smooth the soil for the scythe ; and such occasional top-dressings with gypsum, ashes, or rotted manure, as the plants may require, or the conve- nience of the farm best afford. The harrowing may com- mence the second year, and the weeds collected should always be carefully removed. In succeeding years, two harrowings may be applied, one in spi'ing and the other in the latter part of the summer. If in drills the crop must be kept clean by the hoe, cultivator, &c. Liquid manure from the cattle-yard is an excellent manure for this crop. The taking of lucerne, by mowing, for soiling or hay, or by tethering, hurdling, or pasturing, may be consid- ered the same as for clover. Lucerne frequently attains a sufficient growth for the scythe from the 10th to the 20th May ; and in soils that are favorable for its culture, it will be in a state of readiness for cutting a second time in twenty or twenty-five days, being capable of undergo- ing the same operation, at nearly similar intervals of time, during the whole of the summer season. In the United States, in a good soil, it may be cut, for soiling, four, and sometimes five times in the season. The application of lucerne is, with us, generally for the purpose of soiling, with the exception sometimes of the last cutting. It is advantageously fed in its green state to horses, cattle, and hogs ; but as a dry fodder, it is also capable of affording much sustenance, and as an early food for ewes and lambs, may be of great value in par- 19* 222 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. ticiilar cases. All agree in extolling it as food for cows, whether in a green or dried state ; and it is said to be much superior to clover, both in increasing the milk and butter, and in improving their flavor. In its green state, care is necessary not to feed too much at a time, especially when moist, as cattle may become hoven or blown with it. It is a good precaution to cut it the day before it is used, and to let it wilt in the swath. When made into hay, lucerne should never be spread from the swath, but managed as directed for clover. It may be housed before perfectly dry, if it is alternated in the mow with layers of straw, which imbibe the superabundant juices, and thereby become grateful and nutritious to the farm-stock, when led with the lucerne. Soiling is a term applied to the practice of cutting her- bage crops green, for feeding or fattening live stock. On all farms under correct management, a part of this crop is cut green for the working horses, often for milch cows, even when at pasture ; and in some instances, both for growing and fattening cattle. On small farms, this crop is of immense advantage, as affording a ready substitute for pasture. The produce of lucerne, cut three times in a season, has been stated from three to five, and even eight tons per acre. In soiling, one acre is sufficient for five or six cows during the soiling season.* * In the first volume of the Transactions of the Society for the Pro- motion of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures, we find a detailed state- ment of a series of experiments made by the late Chancellor Livings- ton, in 1791 to 1794, in cultivating lucerne, most of which proved unsuccessful. He sowed it mixed with clover-seeds, and by itself, on a variety of soils, at different seasons, and with oats, wheat, buck- wheat, barley, and turnips. These experiments warrant the following conclusions : — That the seeds should be sown on a dry, rich, deep soil, in May, when the earth is sufficiently warm to excite a quick germina- tion and growth ; that from 16 to 20 lbs. of seed should be sown on an acre, and the ground harrowed and rolled ; that " it is full as hardy as clover," and "better braves the biting frosts of spring, and keen autumnal blasts, than clover, or any cultivated grass of this climate ;" and that the profits of an acre may be estimated from $'20 to .$30 per annum. The following is Chancellor Livingston's account of the ex- pense and produce of the third year — this experiment being made on the fourth of an acre. "1st April — manured with ten loads of black earth from a swamp, or at the rate of 40 loads to the acre. CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 223 One of our farmers has kept eight cattle (two oxen and six cows) upon an acre of lucerne, during the season, with a range of three or four acres of pasture. Say, how- ever, the produce is equal to a full crop of red clover in value, then, yearly for nine or ten years, (its ordinary duration in a productive state,) at an annual expense of harrowing and rolling, and a triennial expense of top-dres- sing, it will be of sufficient value to induce farmers, who have suitable soils, to lay down a few acres of this crop aear their homesteads. To save seed, the lucerne may be treated precisely as red clover, i. e., obtained from the second cutting, or even the third, the crop being left to ripen its seed. It is easily threshed, the grains being contained in small pods, which readily separate under the flail, threshing-machine, or clover-mill. § 2. Cultivated Grasses. " The forage, hay, and pasture grasses," says Lou- don, ''of which we are now about to treat, are found " It was very luxuriant, and cut twice before the 20th June, for plough-horses, kept in the stable — being, when they began to cut each time, about 16 inches high — the average height, taking the first and last cutting, each time, about 20 inches. On the 24th of July, cut and made into hay, produced 1000 lbs., or two tons to the acre. On the last of August cut a fourth time, produced 600 lbs., or 2400 to the acre. The fifth crop is not cut, but is now, the first of October, 20 inches high, and very promising in its appearance. If we have no severe frosts before the middle of this month, it will produce about 6 cwt. of hay. Produce and Expense of Acre JVo. 1. 40 loads of black earth from an adjoining swamp, at Is. per load, £2 00 00 Cutting five crops and making them into hay, at 8s. . 2 00 00 Tons. Cwt. Two first crops, valued at 5 cwt. each, or Third crop in hay, .... Fourth crop do. .... Fifth, estimated at .... 6 tons 4 cwt., at 2s. 6(1. . . . Expenses above, . . . • Profit, .... , . 2 2 1 1 0 0 4 0 6 4 . £15 10 00 4 00 00 • . £11 10 00 224 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. clothing the surface in every zone, attaining generally a greater height, with less closeness at the roots, in warm climates ; and producing a low, close, thick, dark green nutritive herbage, in the cooler latitudes. The best grass pastures are found in countries that have least cold in winter, and no excess of heat in summer, as in Ireland, England, Holland, and Denmark. In every zone, whej-e there are high mountains, there are certain positions be- t^veen the base and summit, where, from the equiiibrinm of the temperature, turf may be found equal to that in marine islands." The universal presence of the forage grasses, and the rapidity with which all soils become covered with them, when left uncultivated, is the obvious reason why their selection and systematic culture are of but recent date. This branch of culture originated in England, about the middle of the seventeenth century. It at first embraced only rye-grass, but afterwards extended to cock's-foot, timothy, foxtail, &c. The Duke of Bedford made the latest and most laborious efforts, towards attaining a knowl- edge of the comparative value of all the British and some foreign grasses worth cultivating. The result is given in the Appendix to Sir H. Davy's Agricultural Chem- istry, of which an abstract will be found on pages 226 and 227. With respect to the general culture of grasses^ though no department of agriculture is more simple in the execu- tion, yet, from the nature of grasses, considerable judge- ment is required in the design. Though grasses abound in every soil and situation, yet all the species do not abound in every soil and situation indifferently. On the contrary, no class of perfect plants are so absolute and unalterable in their choice in this respect. The creep- ing-rooted and stolonlferous grasses will grow> readily on moist soils ; but the fibrous-rooted species, and especially the more delicate upland grasses, require particular at- tention as to the soil in which they are sown ; for in many soils they will not come up at all, or they die in a few years, giving place to the grasses which would naturally spring up in such a soil, when left to a state of nature. CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 225 Hence in sowing down lands for permanent pasture, it is a good method to make choice of those grasses which thrive best in adjoining and similarly-circumstanced pas- tures, for a part of the seed, and to mix with these what are considered the very best kinds. Although the catalogue of grasses, indigenous and for- eign, which are useful for forage, is extensive, yet the number cultivated, or propagated artificially, is very limited, and indeed it is but recently, not perhaps half a century, that we have been in the habit of sowing grass- seeds at all. The practice is hov\^ever gaining, and it is reasonable to believe, that many species will ere long be advantageously cultivated, which have hitherto altogether escaped the notice of the farmer. We shall confine our remarks, at present, to those spe- cies which are cultivated, upon a greater or less scale, among us. And we begin with that deemed most valua- ble as a forage grass, at least in the northern States ; viz., 1. Timothy^ better known in the east as herds-grass, and in Europe as meadow cat''s-tail^ (Phleum pratense.) This is the general forage grass of the northern States. It finds here a congenial climate, particularly in moun- tainous districts, is perfectly hardy, perennial, highly nutritious, and gives an abundant product ; and it should not escape the notice of the farmer, that it is far more rich in nutritious properties, when cut in the seed, than when cut in the blossom. It is often sown alone, but more generally with clover ; though the two are not well conjoined, for the clover is in condition to be cut two weeks before the timothy is in seed. Yet where the grounds are intended to be left a considerable time in grass, the loss is not so material ; for the clover gradual- ly disappears, while the timothy enlarges its volume, and fills the ground. Although the crop is less nutritious when cut early, the aftermath compensates, in some meas- ure, for the deficiency ; for, if suffered to seed, the after- growth is comparatively trifling, and the exhaustion to the soil is far greater. 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Another consideration which renders this grass desirable is the value of the seed which it atibrds, and which may be saved without materially deteriorating the hay crop. From ten to thirty bushels of seed are taken from an acre by many farmers, in the valley of the Mohawk, and con- stitute a large item of their farm profits. The seed of this grass being small, particular care is requisite in pul- verizing the ground for its reception, and, when practica- ble, the roller should follow the seeding process. The seed may be sown in autumn with winter grain, in the spring with a crop, or at midsummer with buckwheat. Upon stiff, tenacious clays, the latter practice has been found to be advantageous, unless the season prove unusually dry. In cutting timothy for seed, the most approved mode is to reap the tops, say twelve inches long, with a sickle, to the width of a swath or two, and then immediately to cut down the stems with a scythe. In this way, all foul seeds may be avoided, and a suitable place provided, as the cutting progresses, to spread and dry the tops. .2. Red-top^ the herds-grass of the middle and south- ern States, (^grostis vulgaris^) is indigenous, perennial, and valuable for hay and pasture, on lands adapted to its growth, which are reclaimed swamps and other moist grounds, in which it almost every where springs up and flourishes spontaneously. This grass and timothy are fit for the scythe about the same time, and are therefore very suitable kinds to be sown together. Its cultivation is yet very limited, though of manifest advantage. The seeds are kept for sale in the seed-shops. The lohite-top or foul meadow is said, by Muhlenburgh, to be a variety of the *R. vulgaris. 3. Jlmerican Cockh-foot and Orchard-grass are dif- ferent names given to the Dactylis glomerata of botanists. This is one of the most abiding grasses we have. It may be known by its coarse appearance, both of the leaf and seed-spike, its broad leaves, seed-glumes resembling a cock's-foot, and also by its whitish-green hue. It is prob- ably better adapted than any other grass to sow with clo- ver and other seeds for permanent pasture, and for a crop of hay, as it is lit to cut with clover, and grows CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 229 remarkably quick after being cropped by cattle. Five or six days' growth in summer suffices to give a good bite. Its good properties consist in its early and rapid growth, and in its resistance of drought ; but all agree, that to ob- tain its greatest value, it should be kept closely cropped. Sheep, it is said, will pass over every other grass to feed upon it. If suffered to grow long without being cropped, it becomes coarse and harsh. Arthur Young and Mr. Cook commend it highly, and the latter culti- vates it on an extensive scale at Holkham. Colonel Pow- ell, of Pennsylvania, after growing it ten years, declares, that it produces more pasturage than any cultivated grass that he has ever seen in America. On being fed very close, it has been found to afford good pasture after re- maining five days at rest. It is suitable to all arable soils. It abounds in seed, which is easily gathered ; but, on account of its peculiar lightness, (the bushel not weigh- ing more than twelve or fourteen pounds,) it should be spread on a floor and sprinkled with water a day or two before it is sown, that it may become saturated, and more easily germinate. Two bushels of seed are sown to the acre, when sown alone ; and half this quantity when sown with clover. The orchard-grass should be cut early w^hen intended for hay, as it diminishes two sev- enths in value, as hay, by being permitted to ripen its seeds. When cut early with clover, the after-growth, or rowen, is very abundant. 4. Tall Oat-grass^ [Jlvena elatior.) Dr. Muhlen- burgh, and Mr. Taylor, of Virginia, place this at the head of good grasses. " On the continent of Europe," says Dickson, "in comparison with common grass, it is found to yield in the proportion of twenty to t^vo." Dr. Muhlenburgh says, of all others it is the best grass, and earliest for green fodder and hay. The Doctor was prob- ably not advised of its deficiency in nutritive matter, as indicated in the experiments of Sinclair. It possesses the advantage of early, late, and quick growth, for which the orchard-grass is esteemed, and is well calculated for a pasture grass. We have measured it in .Tune, when in blossom, (at the time it should be cut for hay,) and found 20 XV. 230 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. the seed-stems four and a half feet long. The latter- math, it will be perceived by the table which is append- ed, is nearly equal in weight, and superior in nutritious matter, to the seed crop. Sinclair says it thrives best on a strong tenacious clay ; and Muhlenburgh prefers for it a clover soil. Dickson speaks well of it, and says it makes good hay, but is most beneficial when retained in a close slate of feeding. The seed falls and wastes un- less gathered early, and with care. Sow at the rate of six or eight pecks the acre, with grain, in the spring. 5. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass [Anthoxanthum oclo- ratum) is a foreign perennial grass, of dwarfish habit, sown principally on grounds intended for pastures, for the very early feed which it atlbrds, and for its growing quick after being cropped. Muhlenburgh says it delights in moist soils ; the ' Bath Papers' assure us it does well in clayey loams ; and Dickson, that it grows in almost any soil, including sands and bogs. It is eaten by oxen, horses, and sheep, though not so freely as some other grasses are. 6. Meadow Foxtail [Alopecurus pratensis) is also a foreign grass, possesses all the advantages of early growth with the preceding, and is much more abundant in pro- duce and nutriment, but is not so w^ell suited to difi:erent soils. It almost invariably constitutes one of the several seeds which are sown together by the British farmer, par- ticularly when the grounds are intended for pasture. '' Of all the English grasses," says Dickson, " this ap- pears to be the best adapted for cutting twice. It starts up very rapidly after mowing or feeding, and produces an abundant aftermath." It does best in moist soils, whether loams, or clays, or reclaimed swamps. It abides nine or ten years. Sheep and horses have a better relish for it, according to G. Sinclair, than oxen. It abounds in seed, says Middleton, which is easily collected from the swath during mowing time. The two preceding grasses were probably introduced first some years ago, into the neighborhoods of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, &c., by emigrants, or others ; and as they seed earlier than the orchard-grass or tall oat, and before they would be likely to be cut for hay, the CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. ^31 seeds have probably been scattered, and these grasijes are now found in those neighborhoods, among the natural grasses of the meadows. A great advantage resuhing from sowing these seeds, as also of the orchard and tall meadow-oat, is, that they are disseminated upon the farm, and thus tend to augment the natural growth of herbage. 7. Rye-grass^ (^Lolium perenne.) This is exten- sively cultivated in Scodand, and in the north of Eng- land, and forms the principal seed sown with clover. There are several varieties ; some of w^hich are annual, and others biennial and perennial. The Italian rye-grass has within a few years attracted notice, as being superior to the other kinds. The common kinds have been re- peatedly tried in the United States, but generally with poor success — our summers being too dry, and our win- ters too cold for it. We have also twice tried the Italian variety, but the result has induced us to abandon it, as unsuited to our climate. To those who wish to try the rye-grass, it will be proper to add, on the authority of Dickson and others, that it is a good pasture grass, and is valuable in rich moist meadows ; that cows and sheep eat it freely ; and that Arthur Young considers the orchard- grass superior to it. The biennial rye-grass is preferred for a first crop with clover, as being of larger growth, and better suited to alternate husbandry. The perennial is preferred for grounds that are to be left longer in grass, as it abides several years. The Italian variety gives the largest produce, and, were it hardy enough to withstand the cold of our winters, would no doubt become a valua- ble acquisition to our husbandry. The seed sells in the American shops at three to four dollars a bushel. On the whole, we do not recommend its culture, except in elevated or humid districts. We have enumerated, we believe, all the grasses, that have hitherto been cultivated in the United States to any considerable extent. There are many other species, in- digenous and foreign, which might be worthy of our no- tice, and which may yet form valuable accessions in our husbandry, whenever they shall be brought into notice, cultivated, and their merits deternnned, in experimental 232 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. farming. There are other grasses that spring up sponta- neously, and which produce a good turf without labor, as the blue-grass of the western States, or flat-stalked mead- ow-grass, (Poa compressa^) the smooth-stalked mead- ow-grass, {Poa pratensis^) the red meadow-grass, {Poa aquatica^) and the rough-stalked meadow-grass ; {Poa trivialis ;) also many species of ihe festuc a and agrostis genera, particularly the A. stricta, of which our quack oi witch-grass is a variety. Upon this last it may be well to remark, that Dr. Rich ardson first brought this grass into notice, as a superior forage, well adapted to reclaimed bogs and swamps, par- ticularly in mountainous districts, in localities where other grasses will not thrive. The peculiar value of the florin arises from the concrete sap laid up in its numerous joints; and indeed it may be remarked that the straw or stems, of all plants, are rich in nutriment in proportion to the frequency of their joints, w^hich are peculiarly the deposit of nutritious matters. The florin suffers less in weight and nutriment, by frosts, than any other grass ; and of course afibrds good w^inter pasture. It is propagated by stolens or roots ; the ground being previously drained, and ameliorated by one or more crops, for which purpose potatoes or other root crops are preferable. The surface is made smooth and clean, the strings or roots are then strewed over it, and a compost, consisting in part of bog- ashes, lime, and loam, spread over, sufficient to prevent the roots being blown away. The quack, switch, or witch grass, a variety of the florin, is highly nutritious, roots and all, and, if cultivated for forage, might prove a proflt- able crop ; but the objection is, it interferes too much where it is not wanted, and will stay where it is once in- troduced. In pasture grounds, however, it seldom abides after the third year. We will endeavor to class the grasses of which the seeds can be procured in this country, according to the best data in our possession, for the uses to which they are best adapted, and to indicate the soils on which they respectively thrive. But before we do this, we will in- troduce Dickson's classification of grasses for diiFerent CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 233 soils in Great Britain, which will show the quantity and variety of seeds sown to the acre in that country. Clayey Soils. Marl or cow-grass, 5 lbs. ; trefoil, 5 lbs. ; crested dog's-tail grass, 10 lbs. ; meadow fescue-grass, one bushel ; meadow foxtail grass, one bushel. And when the three last cannot be procured, meadow soft-grass, two bushels ; meadow cat's-tail, or timothy, 4 lbs. Loamy Soils. White clover, 5 lbs. ; crested dog's- tail, 10 lbs. ; rye-grass, one peck ; meadow fescue-grass, three pecks ; meadow fox-tail, three pecks ; yarrow, two pecks. Or, where the second cannot be had, rye-grass, one peck ; and rib-grass, 4 lbs. And in room of the last three, meadow soft-grass, half a bushel ; timothy grass, 4 lbs. ; marl or cow-grass, 5 lbs. • Sandy Soils. White clover, 7 lbs. ; trefoil, 5 lbs. ; burnet, 6 lbs. ; rye-grass, one peck ; yarrow, one bushel. Or, instead of the last, rib-grass, 4 lbs. ; rye-grass, 1 peck. Chalky Soils. Burnet, 10 lbs. ; trefoil, 5 lbs. ; white clover, 5 lbs. ; yarrow, one bushel, or, in its place, rye- grass, one bushel. Peaty Soils. White clover, 10 lbs. ; crested dog's- tail grass, 10 lbs. ; rye-grass, one peck ; meadow fox- tail grass, two pecks ; meadow fescue-grass, two pecks ; cat's-tail, or timothy grass, one peck. Or in place of the second, fourth, and fifth, meadow^ soft-grass, six pecks ; rib-grass, 5 lbs. ; marl or cow-grass, 4 lbs. Our classi- fication embraces — I. Grasses best suited to arable lands, and designed to alternate with grain and roots. II. Those best adapted for hay or meadows ; and, III. Grasses which are most profitably sown for peren- nial pastures. I. There are several descriptions of land which are much more profitably employed in tillage than in grass, particularly those that are dry or light, and which have little tendency to produce good herbage. Yet constant cropping with grain would soon exhaust them of fertility, without an expense for manure which few can afford. The system of introducing artificial or sown grasses, after two, three, or four years' tillage, is happily calculated to 20* 234 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. avert the evil, and constitutes one of the late improve- ments in farming. " The lands are thereby not only pre- vented from being so much exhausted as would otherwise be the case, and at the same time rendered fit for the growth of particular kinds of grain, without the necessity of fallowing ; but a much larger proportion of green and other food, than could otherwise be obtained, is provided for the support of live stock." The grasses best adapted to this purpose, are the red and white clovers, lucerne, and the orchard, tall oat, timothy, and rye grasses. Clover is the primary dependance on all soils that will grow it, and particularly where gypsum can exercise its magic powers. As vegetables are said to exhaust the soil in propordon to the smallness of their leaves, (the larger and more succulent these, the more nutriment the plant draws from the atmosphere, and the less from the soil,) clovers are entitled to the high commendation they have received among American farmers. But as these plants are liable to premature destruction by the frosts of winter, it is pru- dent and wise to intermix with their seeds those of some other grass more to be depended on. For this purpose, On sands^ light loams^ and gravels — and these consti- tute the soils usually employed in convertible husbandry — the orchard-grass, or tall meadow oat-grass, appears best calculated to insure profit. They grow early, delight in a clover soil, and are fit for the scythe when clover is in bloom — the period at which it ought to be made into hay. The hay from this mixture may be made before the harvest commences ; and if the soil is good, a second crop may be cut almost equal to the first. If intended for pasture, the second or third year, either of these grasses will afford more abundant herbage than timothy. Lu- cerne may be sown on deep sandy loams. On clays and heavy loams, timothy may be sown alone, or those grasses named in the preceding paragraph, sepa- rate or mixed. On wet soils and reclaimed swamps, as the only object of tillage ought to be to prepare the ground to be laid down in grass, the kinds indicated in the preceding re- marks as suitable for such soils, and intended for meadow CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. 235 grasses, should be selected, yet so scanty is our assort- ment, that we can only name timothy and herds-grass. II. Meadows. These may be classed under three heads ; viz., low or alluvial lands, on the banks of riv- ers, creeks, and brooks ; uplands naturally moist, or of clay or heavy loam ; and reclaimed bogs and swamps. These soils, to adopt a common term, are natural to grasses, while the expense of tillage, and the uncertainty of a crop, render it most proper to appropriate them to grass. The objects, in stocking meadows, are, to select those grasses which yield the greatest burden of hay^ and afford the most nutriment for cattle. When mixed seeds are employed, care should be taken to select those which can be most profitably cut at the same time. The impro- priety of mixing timothy and orchard-grass, for instance, will be apparent, from observing that the last should be cut in the latter end of June, while the former continues to improve till the first of August. Timothy is undoubt- edly the best grass which we can employ for meadows, on moist or tenacious soils. Herds-grass, and rough-stalk- ed meadow-grass, often come in spontaneously. And if the timothy is left standing until its seeds have formed, seeds enough fall to supply new plants. For light loams, sands, and gravels, the tall oat and orchard grasses are probably the best ; and to these mviy be added red and white clover. The great difficulty is, to prevent the deterioration of meadows. This takes place from the better grasses run- ning out, and giving place to coarser kinds, to mosses, and to useless and noxious plants ; aided, often, by a neglect to keep them well drained. Hence it is of the first importance to keep the surface soil free from standing water, by good and sufficient drains ; and it often becomes necessary, and in most cases advisable, on a flat surface, to lay the land in narrow ridges, at right angles with the ditches. Another precau- tion to be observed is, not to depasture them with heavy cattle when the ground is wet and poachy. Plarrowing in the fall has been found beneficial to meadows. It destroys mosses, covers the seeds of grasses which have fallen, 236 CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. or have been previously sown, and thus produces a suc- cession of young plants. In Europe, top-dressings of lime, marl, compost, ashes, and yard manure are repeated at intervals of two or three years. In Flanders, extensive apphcations are made in this way, of the urine of animals, after it has fermented, or been diluted. It is collected in cisterns under the stables, and adjoining the yard in which the stock are fed, summer and winter. With us, the annual application of a bushel of plaster of Paris is found beneficial, on most lands not absolutely wet. The gypsum not only thickens the verdure with clover, but is of advantage to most of the other grasses. Stable manure should be applied only when it can be spared from the more profitable uses of tillage, as it is far more beneficial mixed with the soil than spread upon the surface. Its most economical application as a top-dressing, is in the form of compost, made by mixing it with bog-earth, river mud, the wash from the highways, or other rich earth, at the rate of one load of dung to five or six of earth. If turned and mixed well, this constitutes a valuable top-dressing for grass grounds, and is best applied in the autumn. When these means fail to insure a good crop of hay, it is time to resort to the plough, a course of crops, and reseeding III. Pastures. Here the object is to obtain those grasses which are most nutritious, relished by cattle, and which supply green feed from March to December, or such a mixture as will give a succession of fresh herbage during the grazing season. The tall-oat, rye, and orchard grasses are best adapted to the lighter and" drier soils, where the spontaneous growth of clover and other indige- nous grasses should be encouraged by top-dressings, or the application of plaster. In moist and stiff grounds, timothy and herds-grass may be sown with the tall-oat. Our observations, under the preceding head, in regard to draining, top-dressing, sowing seeds, and scarifying or har- rowing, lose none of their force when applied to pasture grounds. It is believed, that, if once introduced upon our farms, the valuable grasses which we want would propagate themselves. If so, how important is it that we obtain them, particularly those which our seed-shops already afford. THE ATMOSPHERE. 237 CHAPTER XXIII. THE ATMOSPHERE, AND ITS USES TO THE HUSBANDMAN. -A. KNOWLEDGE of the Constituents of the atmosphere, and of the various and important offices which it performs in animal and vegetable economy, is valuable to the far- mer, not only as aiding him in promoting the health of himself and his family, and of his brute animals — and in all his rural and money-making operations — but as ofiering a source of high intellectual enjoyment. Although the sub- ject may be deemed too abstruse for the generality of far- mers, we consider it fraught with so much useful instruc- tion, that we venture to say it will be read with interest by many of our young friends, and w^e would fain hope that it may lead some of them into a course of study, in physical science, which will not only benefit them individually, but ultimately become beneficial to the human family. Nei- ther fame nor fortune is hereditary. And let no young man be deterred from aspiring to both, because he is the son of an humble farmer. The brightest geniuses of the age have come from the plough. The Creator has en- dowed us with power to become acquainted with many of the apparent phenomena of Nature, and thus to render them subservient to our wants ; and, in this free country, the humblest individual has ample leisure and means to pursue the investigation, and win the reward. The time and means that are usually devoted, in early life, to frivo- lous, and often deleterious pleasures, would suffice to lay in a stock of useful knowledge, which would become a treasure and a blessing in after-life. But it should never be forgotten, that in all our undertakings, mental, moral, and physical, a determined perseverance is the only ra- tional prelude to success. With these views and hopes, we shall briefly describe the principal constituent parts of the atmosphere, and some of its more important offices, that seem most likely to interest the agriculturist. 238 THE ATMOSPHERE, AND The atmosphere is composed principally of two invisi- ble gases, termed oxygen^ (sometimes vital air, being indispensable to animal life,) and azote or nitrogen, in the proportion of about four fifths of the latter to one fifth of the former. This proportion is found to exist, with tri- fling modifications, in all latitudes and at all elevations. Although these elements are invisible in the atmosphere, they both assume liquid and solid forms under many and various circumstances. Nitrogen abounds in animals, but seldom to a great extent in plants. It is however found in wheat, in what is denominated gluten, and it is this which gives to that grain its prominent value. It abounds in the urine, but seldom, or but partially, in the dung of animals. " It is the base of ammonia and nitric acid, (aquafortis,) and ap- pears to be the substance which Nature employs in con- verting vegetable into animal substances." — Fourcroy. Its principal office seems to be, to neutralize, in some measure, the properties of oxygen, and to render it fit for respiration and combustion. Oxygen enters more or less into all animal and vegeta- ble matters. It constitutes 88 parts in 100 of water, — forms from 40 to 70 per cent, of all vegetable acids, — more than 40 per cent, of the wood of the oak and beech, — about 50 per cent, of starch (the nutritious property, next in value to gluten) of grain, pulse, and roots, and 64 per cent, in sugar. It is essential to animal and vegetable life ; it is necessary to fermentation, to combustion, to the germination of seeds, and to the growth and maturity of plants ; and combining with the carbon of the blood, it produces the greatest proportion of animal heat. It also combines with metals and forms oxydes, or, in common language, 7^iist. Nitrogen and oxygen are called simple bodies, because they are supposed to be incapable of division or decom- position. Carbonic acid gas, also, is found to constitute about one thousandth part of the atmosphere ; and in winter, it has been found to amount to one five hundredth part. This is a compound substance, composed of two parts of oxy- ITS USES TO THE HUSBANDMAN. 239 gen and one of carbon, the latter being found pure in the diamond, and forming the substance of mineral and wood coals. This gas is produced in abundance by fermenta- tion, respiration, and combustion; is absorbed and decom- posed by the leaves of plants, the oxygen being set free, and the carbon being converted into wood, &c. The causes which produce it, sometimes, in confined situa- tions, give it in such excess as to render it prejudicial to animal health ; but the free access of atmospheric air soon restores the equilibrium. It constitutes much of the prop- er food of plants. Thus animals and vegetables are mutu- ally benefited, through the wise provision of the Creator, by their proximity to each other — plants giving off oxygen, necessary to animals — and animals giving off carbonic acid gas, the pabulum of vegetable life. Water also exists in the atmosphere, in the form of an elastic fluid. This fluid is found to form, at the tempera- ture of 50° Fahrenheit, about one fiftieth of the volume of the atmosphere, in the driest time in summer, and is in- creased with the increase of temperature — heat accelera- ting the evaporation of moisture from the earth's surface. When the temperature of the air is diminished, the aque- ous fluid is condensed, and appears in the atmosphere in the form of vapor, or clouds, and is copiously deposited, in summer, in the form of dew. This water is retained, principally, in the lower regions of the atmosphere. It is so slightly united with the other elements of the atmo- sphere, that a change of temperature produces a change in its proportions ; whilst nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic acid preserve, always, nearly the same relative proportions. " Independently of those bodies which essentially con- stitute the atmosphere," says Chaptal, "there are mingled in it the exhalations constantly arising from the earth ; these are again disengaged from the air, and precipitated, as soon as the heat, or any other cause which occasioned their ascension, ceases to act upon them. These ex- halations modify the properties of the air, [by the carbonic acid gas, &c. disengaged from animal and vegetable mat- ters in a state of putrefaction,] and affect its purity. The oxygen and the water of the atmosphere become impreg- 240 THE ATMOSPHERE, AND nated with the particles of the exhalations, which are de- posited with them upon the surfaces of other bodies, when they remain in contact, or enter Into combination, with them. The origin and dissemination of many maladies may be traced to this source ; the germ of them is carried through the air by the aqueous fluid. And for the same reason it Is, that intermittent fevers are endemic in those situations where large quantities of vegetable matter are undergoing decomposition, as upon the borders of ponds and marshes ; and that the miasm, which arises from nu- merous animal remains, In a state of decomposition, be- comes a fruitful source of disease. It is for the same rea- son also dangerous, under some circumstances, to breathe the evening air ; the aqueous fluid contained in it is loaded with noxious principles, which the heat of the sun, during the day, had caused to ascend into the atmosphere. The disagreeable odor, conveyed to us in mists, Is owing to the power of the aqueous fluid in transmitting the exhala- tions arising from the earth. The nianner in which the air conveys to us the perfume of plants, and the odors which it contracts from the exhalations of bodies in a state of decomposition. Indicates clearly its influence in produ- cing maladies, and still more plainly its power of propaga- ting those that are contagious." — Chemistry applied to Agriculture. According to the best authorities, a man inhales, or takes into his lungs, from six to ten pints of air at every respi- ration or breath. This air comes in contact with the blood In the lungs, and both the blood and the air un- dergo a material change in consequence. The blood im- bibes a portion of the oxygen from the air, assumes a florid red hue, and acquires thereby the power of sup- porting life, and is fitted to become a part of the living ani- mal. The air receives, In return for the oxygen, or vital air, which it gives to the blood, about an equal portion of carbonic acid, which vitiates it, and renders it unfit for further respiration ; or. If this vitiated or impure air is again respired, the blood becomes likewise vitiated by its contact with it, and all its functions become more or less disordered. Atmospheric air, as we have observed, con- ITS USES TO THE HUSBANDMAN. 241 tains about 79 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and near- ly one of carbonic acid. A greater or less quantity of oxygen unfits it for healthy respiration, and causes disor- ganization and disease in the animal system. When at- mospheric air is inhaled upon the lungs, it parts with 8 or 8^ per cent, of its oxygen, and receives in return a like quantity of carbonic acid. Thus atmospheric air becomes rapidly vitiated by being breathed, and is as speedily restored to its purity by healthy vegetation, which takes up the carbonic acid, or decomposes it, and gives off, or sets free, oxygen. According to Dr. Bostock's estimate, an average-sized man consumes about 45,000 cubic inches of oxygen, and gives out about 40,000 of carbonic acid, in 24 hours. " Taking," says Dr. Combe, '' the consumption of air at 20 cubic inches at each breath- ing, as a very low medium, and rating the number of res- pirations at 15 in a minute, it appears that, in the space of one minute, no less than 300 cubic inches of air are required for the respiration of a single person. In the same space of time, 24 cubic inches of oxygen disappear, and are replaced by an equal amount of carbonic acid, so that in the course of an hour one pair of lungs will, at a low estimate, vitiate the air by the abstraction of no less than 1,440 cubic inches of oxygen, and the addition of an equal number of carbonic acid, thus constituting a source of impurity which cannot with safety be over- looked." Atmospheric air becomes vitiated by one, or a combi- nation, of the following causes : — 1. By animal respiration ; 2. By decaying animal and vegetable matters ; 3. By stagnant waters ; and, 4. By combustion in close apartments. Many cases are cited of the fatal effects of breathing highly-vhiated air in prisons, in small, close apartments, and in unhealthy districts. One of the most horrible was that which occurred in the Black Hole of Calcutta, where one hundred and forty Englishmen were thrust into a confined place, eighteen feet square, in which there were but two small windows on one side, and where ventilation 21 XV. 242 THE ATMOSPHERE, AND was impossible. Scarcely was the door shut upon the prisoners, when their sufferings, for want of fresh air, commenced, and in six hours ninety-six of them were dead. In the morning only twenty-three of them were living, many of whom were subsequently cut off by pu- trid fever, caused by the dreadful effluvia and the corrup- tion of the air. Other cases are recorded of persons dying, for want of fresh air, in small, close cabins ; and numerous cases are annually recorded of deaths caused by burning charcoal in close apartments, where the oxygen is abstracted from the atmosphere, by the carbon of the charcoal, to form carbonic acid. But it is not only where death or severe sickness ensues, that the breathing of viti- ated air is hurtful ; it is always prejudicial, more or less, to health ; it impairs the constitution, and is often the latent cause of diseases which ultimately prove fatal. " The chief symptoms," says Orfila, " which follow the breathing impure air, are great heaviness in the head, tingling in the ears, troubled sight, a great inclination to sleep, diminution of strength, and falling down." These sensations are experienced in crowded, heated rooms, in steam-boat and canal-boat cabins, &c. Decaying animal and vegetable matters are a prolific source of disease, by vitiating the atmosphere we breathe, particularly in cellars, close yards, or other places where the effluvia they generate are not speedily dissipated by the winds. Hence fevers are most prevalent where due re- gard is not had to cleanliness, as in dwellings where there are wet and dirty cellars, adjoining filthy yards and lanes, and in houses in and about which animal and vegetable matters are suffered to accumulate and putrefy. Hence the sickness that pervades newly-cleared countries, from the decay of vegetable matters, on the first exposure of the soil to the full influence of solar heat. The deleterious influence of stagnant waters upon the atmosphere is known to all, and when combined with animal and vegetable putrefaction, the evil is greatly in- creased. Hence the draining of marshes and wet lands contributes essentially to the healthiness of a neighborhood. Combustion also vitiates the air in close rooms, par- ITS USES TO THE HUSBANDMAN. 243 ticularly gas-lights — a single gas-burner consuming more oxygen, according to Combe, and producing more car- bonic acid gas, to deteriorate the atmosphere of a room, than six or eight candles. We shall not speak of the other matters which commingle in the atmosphere, as light, heat, and electricity, although they possess a great influence upon animals and plants — but proceed to the improvement, and the application to rural affairs, of the facts already estabHshed. We MAY profit by these truths : — 1. In selecting sites for our dioellings — taking care to have them in airy situations, remote from marshes, ponds, and stagnant waters, which vitiate, by the exhalations they give, the atmosphere we breathe, and thereby generate disease. 2. In the manner of constructing our dwellings. The cellars should be dry, with windows at opposite sides, for ventilation, whenever the weather will permit. The rooms should be lofty, and rather capacious than con- tracted, should all open, by windows, to the exterior, and should be ventilated every fair morning in summer. 3. In improving our personal and domestic habits^ by practising cleanliness, an ancient, if not a modern virtue ; — by avoiding the deleterious influence of the night air, especially in autumn, when much vegetable matter is in the process of decay ; — by well ventilating our apartments, particularly when the atmosphere is pure and salubrious ; — by keeping our cellars free from putrefying vegetables, and other filth ; — by graduating the temperature of our rooms in winter, which should not be suffered to rise above 64° of Fahrenheit ; by avoiding hot sleeping- apartments, in which the temperature often varies, be- tween the hour of going to bed, where fires are kept up, and the hour of rising, when the fires have gone cut, — a transition too trying for the most robust constitution ; — • by abandoning the use of foot-stoves, which transform our wives and daughters into green-house plants, and render them too sensitive to cold, poison the air they respire, and beguile them into indolent and inactive hab- its, as detrimental to their health as to their useful- 244 THE ATMOSPHERE, AND ness ; — by taking frequent exercise in the open air, when our habits are studious or sedentary ; — by sleeping in rooms without fires, with open partition doors, that fresh air may at all times have free access, and by avoiding lodging too many persons in the same room ; — and by inducing our females to go warmly and tidily clad, as well to church as to parties of ^ileasure. How many human constitutions are ruined, in our cities and villages, by indulging in habits which philosophy and reason teach us to avoid ! 4. In multiplying ornamental trees and shrubs about our d,wellings^ which serve to purify the air, abate the fervor of summer heats, by carrying off a portion of the caloric with the moisture they exhale, and serve, with- al, as an embellishment and an evidence of good taste. 5. In the construction of our stables and cattle-sheds. Farm-stock are as much benefited by cleanliness and good air as man ; and the same precautions which go to se- cure the health of the latter are essentially requisite to promote the thrift and well-being of the former. Hence the importance of having clean and well-ventilated stables and sheds, of removing the dung so that it does not under- go fermentation in the stalls, and of giving cattle whole- some exercise. 6. In the planting of our seeds. The atmosphere be- ing essential to germination, both on account of the oxy- gen and heat which it contains, all seeds should be deposit- ed in the soil within its reach ; they should be put just so low as will barely secure about them moisture enough to insure their germination. We have reason to think, thai small seeds often fail to grow from being buried too deep in the soil, and that, even if they germinate, the food which the cotyledons afford, and which is their only support till the seminal leaves are developed, is notsufiicient to carry the plumula, or upright shoot, to the earth's surface, where alone the leaves can exercise their office of elaborating or preparing the food. 7. In the management of our field and garden crops. The soil has a strong affinity for water, and the atmo- sphere penetrates it freely, when pulverulent and loose; but ITS USES TO THE HUSBANDMAN. 245 where the soil is compact and crusted, neither the atmo- s})here nor the dews are able fully to exert their salutary influence in promoting the growth of the vegetation upon it. In the former case, the soil is like a sponge, per- vious to atmosphere and dew, and transmitting both to the roots of plants, with the elementary food with which they are both charged. But where the earth is hard and crusted, by alternate rain and sunshine, neither dew nor air penetrates freely, and the former is dissipated by the first rays of the morning sun. Hence the best preventive against the evils of drought, is the frequent stirring of the surface, and keeping it constantly permeable to atmo- spheric air, and the vegetable nutrition with which it abounds. We remember an account of a remarkable illustration of the benefit of frequently stirring the surface of cultivated lands, given by Curwen, a distinguished British agriculturist. He prepared a field of stiff, forbid- ding land, and planted it with cabbages. His neighbors ail declared he would get no crop ; but he put a horse and cultivator among the plants, and subjected the ground to almost constant stirring during the growing season. The result was, he gathered an immense crop, some of the cabbages weighing over 50 lbs. each. The farmer may derive great benefit from this practice in the culture of drilled and hoed crops, provided he does not go so deep as to cut the roots of his plants, or throw his manure to the surface. 8. Li draining our wet lands, which will contribute at the same time to promote health, and augment our profits. For, generally speaking, our wet and marshy lands are the richest in organic matters, and become the most prof- itable to the owner, when thoroughly drained. And, lastly, we may profit from the facts we have detailed — 9. In the management of our manure. All the food of vegetables must be resolved into a liquid or gaseous form, before it can enter the mouths of plants, or become incorporated in the vegetable structure. This change is effected, in dung, by fermentation or decomposition, by which the parts are separated. The gaseous matters first escape. If fermentation takes place in the soil, the earths 21* 246 GERMINATION OF SEEDS. imbibe, and the plants growing thereon are nourished by them. If fermentation takes place upon the surface, either in the yard or in the field, these gases rise, from their specific gravity being less than that of atmospheric air, and are dissipated by the winds. The liquid matters escape next. If buried in the soil, the soil absorbs and gives them off to plants. If left upon the surface, they are w^ashed away by rains, or sink, with little or no benefit to the owner, into the earth beneath them. The whole of the matter of dead animals and plants is convertible, if buried in the soil, into living plants, by the ordinary pro- cesses of Nature ; and it is capable, however solid it may seem, of being reduced to liquid or gaseous forms, fitted to the wants of our crops. Indeed, it proceeds to take these forms immediately, on its losing its vitality, as soon as it comes in contact with air, heat, and water, the great agents of decomposition. The moment fermentation be- gins, the waste of vegetable food begins; if the fermenta- tion takes place upon the surface, carbonic acid gas is disengaged, and is scattered by the winds ; the oxygen of the atmosphere, uniting with the hydrogen of the mass, forms water, which settles into the ground, or is carried off by the rains ; the mass is reduced in volume, and w^ien fermentation has exhausted its force, it has lost one half of its fertilizing properties. If the fermentation takes place in the dung-yard, or upon the field, we repeat, this half is lost to all useful purposes of the farm. If it takes place in the soil, the earth imbibes it, and the plants growing thereon are fed and nourished by it — the gases and liquids are converted into the solid matter of the grow- ing crop, be it grain, grass, pulse, or roots. CHAPTER XXIV. ON THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Seeds often fail to grow ; and the seedsman is as often blamed, for vending bad seeds, when they are really GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 247 good, and when the cause of their not growing is found in the gardener or planter. To induce germination, moisture, atmospheric air, and a certain temperature, are indispensable ; and it is also requisite that light be ex- cluded, until the nutriment in the seed is exhausted, or until the root can draw nourishment from the soil. The first effect of the air, heat, and moisture upon the seed is to change its properties, — to convert its starch into sugar — i. e. a sort of milky pulp, the proper food of the em- bryo plant. If at this stage the seed becomes dry, its vitality is believed to be destroyed ; but if these agents are permitted to exert their influence, the contents of the seed swell by degrees, and the first point of the future root, having formed, breaks through the shell in a down- ward direction, and at about the same time the point of the future stem comes forth in an upward direction. The presence of air, heat, and moisture is as indispensable to the growth of the plant, as it is to the germination of the seed. Now it often happens, when seeds are planted in fresh- stirred ground, or where the soil is moist, they undergo the incipient process of fermentation, and the earth not being pressed upon them, and dry weather ensuing, the moisture is abstracted, and the seeds perish. Too much moisture is also often destructive to the vital principle of seeds, — and others again are buried too deep to be vivi- fied by solar and atmospheric influence. The first ob- ject in planting, therefore, should be, to place the seed just so far under the surface, and so to cover it with earth, as shall barely secure to it a constant supply of moisture. There are many seeds, as of the carrot, pars- nip, orchard-grass, &c., which, if not previously steeped, or the soil \\»ell pulverized and pressed upon them, fail to grow for want of moisture. Hence, in sowing orchard- grass, it is found prudent to spread the seed upon a floor, and sprinkle it with water, before it is sown, and to pass a roller over the ground after it is sown. And hence, in nght garden mould, it is advisable to press, with the hoe or spade, the earth upon all light seeds after they are sown. 248 GERMINATION OF SEEDS. But we would draw the attention of the farmer, as well as of the gardener, to another mode of preventing failure and disappointment in the growth of certain seeds — and that is, by spvouting them before they are planted. This may be conveniently done with Indian corn, pumpkins, mangel wurtzel, beets, &c., on the farm, and with mel- ons, beans, cucumbers, peppers, and a great number of other seeds, v/hich are assigned to the garden. The mode of doing it with the field-seeds we have named is this : Steep the seeds twelve or twenty hours in water of a tepid or warm temperature — then take off the Vvater, and leave them in a warm place, covered, to exclude the light and prevent their drying, or in a dark cellar or room, and the radicles or roots will shoot in a few days, and may then be planted without injury. Being obliged to suspend our planting four days, on account of rain, we found our seed, which had been previously steeped, and set by in a dark room, with radicles two or three inches long. It was planted with but little inconvenience, and did remarkably well. Mr. I. Nott sprouted a part of his corn last year, while a part of the seed was not sprouted; — and, what is worthy the particular notice of the farmer, he assures us, that the sprouted corn ivas not injured by the ivire-worm^ while the unsteepcd seed ivas seriously in- jured, although planted by the side of each other. Mr. Nott accounts for the difference in this way : The wire- worm attacks the chit, and feeds upon and destroys the germ ; but the radicles having protruded, and not being to the taste of the worm, the insect attacked the solid part of the kernel, where its progress was too slow, and too remote from the germ, to retard its growth. Mr. Nott also sprouted his mangel wurtzel seed, and planted it as late as the 27th of .lune. Almost every seed grew, and the crop might be called a good one early in Septem- ber. To sprout garden-seeds, procure two sods, of equal size, say 18 inches square ; lay one down in the corner of the kitchen chimney, grass down ; lay your seeds upon it ; if small, wrap them in a piece of brown paper ; then place the other sod upon them, grass up — water well with ON STALL-FEEDING CATTLE. 249 warm water, and the seeds will sprout in twenty-four to forty-eight hours. There is one manifest advantage in sprouting seeds, — it tests their goodness, and shows whether they will or will not grow. A small quantity of seed-corn, submitted to this test before planting, would in many instances pre- vent great loss to the farmer. CHAPTER XXV. ON STALL-FEEDING CATTLE. In the management of our cattle, as in the management of our crops, much is lost for want of system and regular- ity. The stall-feeding of neat cattle for the butcher is annually increasing, and promises to increase in interest, as we progress in the culture of roots. There is proba- bly the difference of one third or one half, in the profits of the business, whether it is well or badly managed. Under this view of its importance, we extract from the 'Farmer's Series' the following compendium of the man- agement recommended in that work. " The first point is the comfort of accommodation ; for in whatever way your cattle may be placed — whether under sheds or in close ox-houses — they should have the security of perfect shelter from the weather, with a certain degree of warmth ; that is to say — if in open hammels, the sheds should be broad, the roof low, and the floor well covered with an abundance of dry litter. We are, how- ever, decidedly of opinion, that close walls will further the object more promptly ; though we do not entertain the idea that it will be promoted by too much heat ; and we should therefore recommend a moderate degree of healthful ventilation. In these stalls, litter is very frequently dispens- ed with — or else sand, oi any rubbish, is substituted for straw ; but there can be no doubt that animals enjoy the comfort of a dry bed as well as their master, and the more they seek repose in it the better-? 250 THE ECONOMY OF " The next is strict regularity in the administration of food — both as regards the slated quantity and the time of supplying it. The periods may be regulated as the feeder thinks proper ; but, whenever adopted, should never after- wards be altered. Oxen are quiet animals, and those which are fed in the house soon acquire a precise knowl- edge of the exact hour at which food is usually given ; and if that be transgressed, or the quantity be not furnish- ed, they become restless ; but if the time and quantity be strictly adhered to, they remain tranquil until the next period arrives. If no disturbance takes place, they, in- deed, generally lie down to ruminate, and nothing will be found to forward the process of fattening more than this perfect quietude ; wherefore, the stalls should not only be well bedded, but light should be very much excluded, the doors should be closed, all outward annoyances as far as possible prevented — and, in short, every means should be used to promote complete ease, rest, and contentment. " Some persons serve out food as often as five times a day ; but the most prudent, and the better practice, is to give it as soon as possible after day-light, at noon, and some time before sunset. This enables the animals to fill their bellies, and to have sufficient time for that quiet digestion which is interrupted by too frequent feeding. In stating that the quantity should be moderate, we how- ever alluded merely to the not allowing the animal to have so much as to cloy him ; he ought always to have as much as he can fairly eat with a relish, but the moment he begins to toss it about, it will be then evident that the keenness of his appetite is satisfied, and it should be instantly re- moved. " The last is thorough cleanliness. The ox-house should be opened before day-light, and well cleansed, both by pail and broom, from every impurity. After the ani- mals have been satisfied with food, whatever may remain should be instantly removed, and the cribs and mangers should be swept out, and washed, if necessary ; water should then be given without limitation.* If their hides * According to an experiment stated by Sir John Sinclair, an old man was appointed to discover how often some cattle^ condumiug CUTTING UP CORN. 251 be then wisped, it visibly occasions a very pleasurable sen- sation ; as they begin to fatten, the ancient coat falls off, and if this be accelerated by the curry-comb, the better appearance of the beast will well repay the trouble." CHAPTER XXVI. THE ECONOMY OF CUTTING UP CORN. Thirty years ago, we read a communication of John Nicholas, then we believe of Virginia, on the advan- tages of cutting up instead of topping Indian corn. These advantages appeared to us so palpable, that in the noviti- ate of our farming operations, twenty-odd years ago, we reduced it to practice ; and although since we have occa- sionally adopted the topping system, by way of compari- son, we have made it our general practice to cut up the crop ever since. We are convinced, from our long expe- rience, that it possesses over the old mode the following advantages. 1. It saves labor. With proper implements, which every farm can furnish without expense, two smart men will cut up and stook two acres, in a day. They cannot top more than one acre, and the stalks are to be bound and car- ried off from the field, or left to be bleached till the corn is harvested, when they have lost half their value. A hill is gathered with a blow, in cutting up ; in topping, a cut must be made upon every stalk. 2. It adds to the grain crop. We have satisfied our- selves, by careful experiments, that we gain six to ten bushels of corn per acre, by cutting up, above what we chaff and straw upon a farm, went to the watering-trough in a short Winter's day, and, that he might not be confused in the execution of his orders, one particular bullock was pointed out for his repo-rt ; ac- cordisig to which, it drank eight times in the course of the day, and the man was convinced, that the rest of the cattle drank as often as the one fixed on. Now, twice a day is generally as often as the cattle get water ; and they are not able, at one or two opportunities, to drink a BUliicient quantity. — Husbandry of Scotland^ p. 100. 252 ECONOMY OF CUTTING UP CORN. obtain by topping our corn. And we account for it on the well-known principles in vegetable physiology, that all the nutriment of plants must be elaborated, or prepared, in the leaves, and that this elaborated sap, or prepared food, descends — consequently, that when the leaves above the corn are taken off, by topping, the grain can gain no further nutriment, or accession of growth ; and that when the crop is cut up, and stocked, the grain does continue to obtain nutriment, and accession of growth, for some days, from the descending, or elaborated sap, with which the succulent stems are abundantly charged. The leaves also continue their elaborating process for some days after the corn is cut. 3. It augments the cattle-fodder, and preserves its nu- tritious properties. Cut and well stocked, neither the grain nor the forage is likely to be seriously injured by the weather, even if left in the field late. If topped, the tops must be exposed to the deteriorating influence of the rains, winds, and sun, until they are dry enough to bind, which diminishes their value. If cut up, the whole of the stalks are converted into forage. If topped, but a small part becomes useful. And if the butls are fed in the cat- tle-yards, they imbibe additional fertilizing properties from the urine and hquids which abound there, and which are lost if there is no litter to absorb them. Hence, In the fourth place, it gives more food to the crops as well as to the cattle, by saving that which otherwise is often lost to the farm. And, Finally, cutting up has this important advantage, at least in the north, — it secures the crop, both grain and for- age, from the damage of early autumnal frosts — for after the grain is cut and stocked, it is not liable to injury from their occurrence. We may add, that the ground may be cleared two or three weeks earlier, for a winter crop, where it is desirable to sow in autumn. ON RURAL EMBELLISHMENT. 253 CHAPTER XXVII. ON RURAL EMBELLISHMENT. There are few things better calculated to attach us to our HOMES, — where the social virtues love to congre- gate, and to dispense their blessings, than rural embel- lishments. This is true whether we apply the term to our neighborhood or individual abode. The public grounds about the great cities of the old continent, some of which comprise an area of five hundred acres, are the theme of general admiration, the theatres of healthful exercise and recreation, and the sources of high intellectual enjoyment. The lesser towns and villages, even of our own country, owe more of their charm and interest to the trees and plants which embellish their squares, streets, and grounds, in the eye of a man of taste, than to any ostentatious show of brick and mortar — more to the beauties of Nature, than to the works of man. Nay, the highest efforts of the human intellect are in vain put in requisition to imitate the handiwork of the Creator. And when we come down to the suburban residence, and even to the unostenta- tious abode of the farmer, how are their beauties height- ened, and their value enhanced, by a screen of ornamen- tal trees, and a well-kept garden. Loudon tells us, that in travelling from Strasburgh to Munich, he passed through a continued avenue of forest and fruit trees, planted on both sides of the highway, for more than one hundred miles. Who that has passed through New England, in summer, has not admired the beautiful trees with which he is in a measure enshroud- ed .'' The great objection to planting is, that one may not live to enjoy the fruit or the shade of the trees which he plants. Such an objection is unworthy of the age, which should, if it does not, have regard to the interests of the human family, and of posterity, — and is, besides, affecting to hold a shorter tenure of life than all of us hope 22 XV. 254 ON RURAL EMBELLISHMENT. for, and most of us expect. Twenty years ago, at forty years of age, we commenced the cultivation of what was termed a barren, untameable common, not an acre of which had been cultivated, and on which a tree or shrub had never been planted by the hand of man. We have now growing in our court-yard, comprising about half an acre, and in the highway in front of it, fifty species of forest and ornamental trees, many of them forty and fifty feet high, more than fifty species of ornamental shrubs, not including the rose, besides a vast number of herbaceous, ornamen- tal, and bulbous and flowering perennial plants — the great- est number of which, in all their variety and hue of foli- age, flowers, and fruit, may be embraced in a single view from the piazza. Most of our fruits have been raised by us from the seed, or propagated by grafting or budding. Yet we can enumerate more than two hundred kinds, in- cluding varieties, which we are now in the habit of gath- ering annually from trees, vines, &:c. of our own planting. We feel grateful to God for these rich and abundant bles- sings, and for the impulse which prompted our labor. We have adduced our own example, not in a spirit of vaunting, but to convince the young and the middle-aged, that there is abundant reason for them to plant, with the hope of en- joying the fruits of their labor. The old should plant from an obligation they owe to society, and for the requital of which they have but a short period allowed them. The young should plant for the double purpose of ben- efiting themselves and their children. We would by no means advise that the farmer should confine himself to mere ornamental trees. There are many fruit-trees that are not only ornamental but useful, about dwellings, as the cherry, pear, apple, quince, &c. There is not a spring or an autumn in which a few hours cannot be spared, without detriment to the labors of the farm, to plant out fruit and ornamental trees and shrubbery about the dwelling, and but very ^evj hours are requisite. There is no great art required in the business. The holes for the plants should be dug larger and deeper than the size of the roots, in order that these may be sur- rounded on all sides by rich surface mould, into which the ON RURAL EMBELLISHMENT. 255 new roots may push freely, and find food. The infertile soil from the pit should be thrown away, and its place supplied by mould taken from the surrounding surface ; the roots should have their natural direction, and the earth be well pressed upon them ; and the plants should be pro- tected from cattle till they are of a size not to be injured by them. Our attention has been particularly drawn to this sub- ject, by reading the report and the constitution of the Bangor Association, termed, the Ornamental Tree Soci- ety, which has been recently formed, and whose object is the embellishment of their city by planting out forest trees. The constitution requires, that "every member shall himself set out, or cause to be set out, one or more ornamental trees, on such of the public streets or squares of the city as he may elect" — the kind of tree, and the distance of planting, to be determined by the directors. Accompanying the report, in the New England Farmer, are two letters from General Dearborn, on ornamental planting, evincing much experience and good taste in the matter. " The monotony of appearance, which lines or clumps of the same tree produce, is to be avoided, and a pic- turesque and agreeable aspect obtained, by increasing the varieties ;* for as the periods of their foliation are so very different, as well as the tints of green when in vege- tation, and the remarkable autumnal changes quite as dis- similar, they are presenting an ever-varying, yet always pleasing and interesting scene. Besides, we have so many magnificent species of native trees, which flourish luxuriantly, even in the most exposed situations, that I have never been able to divine, why one particular tree should be so universally selected, as shades, or for orna- ment, not only around private dwellings, but for all pub- he places. As well might all flowers be excluded from our gardens but the rose, or the lilach, and all fruits from our orchards but the apple." " For your streets I recommend the alternate planting * The General considers the planting of only one kind of tree as evincing a bad taste. 256 0>* RURAL EMBELLISHMENT. out of rock maples, elms, white ash, white maple, bass- wood, beech, and red, white, and other oaks." [We will add to the list of native trees, the buttonwood, the tulip- tree or whitewood, and cucumber-tree, {S\IagnoUa acu- minata.) for the city and village, and the black walnut, butternut, and honey locust for tlie country.] " The rock maple is certainly one of our most superb trees, and in my own estimation superior to the elm. Its form and foliage, with the splendid changes of its autumnal aspect, are of surpassing beauty. The basswood ( Tilia Amer- icana) is the American linden, or lime, and much superior, in its size, graceful form, and large leaves, to the much celebrated and favorite European species. It is easy to transplant, and of rapid growth. The oaks are of rapid growth, and were once as renowned as the name of England. They have been the choice trees of all the cel- ebrated nations of antiquity. The occidental plane, or American buttonwood, is also a finer tree than tlie orien- tal variety, which was so much admired and cultivated by the Asiatics and Romans." For public grounds and squares, the General recom- mends, also, the white pine, cedar, hemlock, spruce, and we would add the fir, the larch, and a sprinkling of for- eign trees, as the English and Scotch elms, larch, abeel, horse chestnut, mountain ash, &:c., which may be obtained at the nurseries. He recommends the spring as the best season for transplanting in New England ; that the roots be taken up as entire as possible ; that the trees be not more than tico inches in diameter ; that the tops be not cut or mutilated ; — '• Do not," says he, " cut off a sin- gle tirig^ save such as may be within four or five feet of the ground." He also directs that large and deep holes be made for the reception of the trees, and that these holes be filled with the best mould, to be well trodden down and watered after the tree is planted. In regard to conif- erous and other evergreens, General Dearborn recora- mends, that they be taken from open grounds — (nurseries are the best) — all the limbs carefully preserved, and as ranch of the dirt about the roots retained as possible. " The best time," he continues, ''to transplant all the ON RURAL EMBELLISHMENT. 257 evergreen trees is later than that for the deciduous, and is just before they commence vegetation.'''' These direc- tions are ail good ; yet we would amend, or rather add to, the one which regards the time for transplanting ever- greens. We transplant them just after vegetation has commenced — have transplanted in July, with entire suc- cess— and our friend, Michael Floy, of New York, a professional nurseryman, prefers the month of August. He showed us, the other day, several large firs, which had been planted at that season, in front of his grounds at Har- lem, all of which lived and did well. We think evergreens should be planted ichen the tree is growing — as the foliage requires a constant supply of nourishment through the roots ; and if the functions of these are dormant, as they are likely to be when evergreens are transplanted while vegetation is at rest, the foliage is apt to wither, and the plant to die ; and the only danger to be feared from trans- planting these trees at midsummer, is that which arises from excessive evaporation. To guard against this, as much earth should be lifted with the roots as is practica- ble, the holes for their reception should be large and deep, filled to the proper height for the roots of the tree with loose mould, and well saturated with water ; the surface around the tree should be well strowed with litter, and this well wet, and superficially covered with earth, and the plants occasionally watered if the weather is hot and dry. As to the effect of planting, upon the beauty of the landscape^ Mr. A. J. Downing, in a well-written article upon this subject, justly remarks, — " Many a dreary and barren prospect maybe rendered interesting, — -many a natural or artificial deformity hidden, and the effects of almost every landscape may be im- proved, simply by the judicious employment of trees. The most fertile countries would appear but a desert w^ithout them, and the most picturesque scenery in every part of the globe has owed to them its highest charm. Added to this, by the recent improvements in the art of transplanting, the ornamental planter of the present day may realize, almost immediately, what was formerly the slow and regular production of years." 22* 258 ON RURAL EMBELLISHMENT. As to the effect of planting and gardening, upon the body and mind of those who engage in these pursuits, we offer the following remarks from Loudon's ' Suburban Gardener,' and we recommend them to the special notice of all gentlemen who are troubled with dyspeptic or hypo- chondriac affections. " There is," says an author, " a great deal of enjoy- ment to be derived, from performing the difierent opera- tions of gardening, independently of the health resulting from this kind of exercise. To labor for the sake of ar- riving at a result, and to be successful in attaining it, are, as cause and effect, attended by a certain degree of satis- faction to the mind, however simple or rude the labor may be, and however unimportant the result obtained. To be convinced of this, we have only to imagine our- selves employed in any labor from which no result en- sues, but that of fatiguing the body, or wearying the mind; the turning of a wheel, for example, that is connected with no machinery ; or, if connected, effects no useful purpose ; carrying a weight from one point to anoth- er and back again ; — or taking a walk without any ob- ject in view, but the negative one of preserving health. Thus, not only is it a condition of our nature, that in or- der to secure health we must labor ; but we must also labor in such a way as to produce something useful or agreeable. Now of the different kinds of useful things produced by labor, those things surely which are living beings, and which grow and undergo changes before our eyes, must be more productive of enjoyment than such as are mere brute matter — the kind of labor and other circumstances being the same. Plence, a man who plants a tree or hedge, or sows a grass-plot in his garden, lays a more certain foundation for enjoyment, than he who builds a wall, or lays down a gravel walk ; and hence the enjoyment of a citizen, w'hose recreation, at his suburban residence, consists in working in his garden, must be higher in the scale, than that of him who amuses himself in the plot around his house, with shooting at a mark, or playing at bowls." A strong illustration of this truth lately came within our ON RURAL EMBELLISHMENT. 259 knowledge. An esteemed friend, who had become wealthy, and retired from active business, at the middle age of life, had become particularly diseased in body and in mind. We advised him to recreate himself in horticultural pur- suits, as an antidote to both maladies. He replied, that he had no taste, and could not acquire a relish, for these pursuits. We thought otherwise ; and as he was going to spend the summer with a relative, on a farm which belonged to him, we presented him with half a dozen trees, asked him to plant them on his farm, and to report to us in autumn, whether they had afforded him any gratification. When he returned from his summer resi- dence, he confessed, with gSlitude, that they had been to him a source of high interest and gratification ; that they had received his constant care and attention ; that he had watched, with a kind of paternal feeling, the developement of the leaves, and the growth of the branches ; that he had examined them almost daily, sedulously guarded them from injury, and watered them with his own hand ; and that these cares and labors afibrded pleasure without alloy. Had our regretted friend made this experiment two years earlier, he would, in all probability, be now numbered among the living, and probably among the hale and hearty. But to return to our quotations from Mr. Loudon: — "One of the greatest of all the sources of enjoyment resulting from the possession of a garden," remarks our author, ''is the endless variety which it produces, either by the perpetual progress of vegetation which is going for- ward in it to maturity, dormancy, or decay, or by the almost innumerable kinds of plants which may be raised in even the smallest garden. Even the same trees, grown in the same garden, are undergoing perpetual changes throughout the year ; and trees change also in every suc- ceeding year, relatively to that which is past ; because they become larger and larger as they advance in age, and acquire more and more their characteristic and mature form." " Independently of the variety of changes result- ing from the variety of plants cultivated, every month throughout the year has its particular operations and its products ; nay, it would not be too much to say, that 260 ON RURAL EMBELLISHMENT. during six months of the year, a change takes place, and is perceptihle, in the plants of a garden, every day ; and every day has in consequence its operations and its prod- ucts." In conclusion : A bountiful Providence has given the vegetable kingdom for our sustenance, employment, and highest intellectual enjoyment, — and has scattered these elements of happiness, with a profuse hand, every where within our reach. It is left for us to enjoy them in a greater or less degree, as we learn to appreciate their value, and exert ourselves to apply them to their proper use. The brute is content to satisfy its animal wants. Man, the lord of the creation, should have a higher aim, because he has higher sources of enjoyment than the brute, and higher duties to perform. He is the husband- man appointed to take care of and nurture the great vine- yard, and to carry out the purposes of the all-bountiful Giver. THE ADDRESS, PREPARED TO BE DELIVERED BEFORE THE AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES OF NEW HAVEN COUNTY, CONN. SEPT. 25, 1839. For the following Address, — the last prepared by the lamented au- thor,— the publishers are indebted to the kindness of his son, Jesse Buel, Esq., and the Agricuhural and Horticultural Societies of New- Haven. The subjoined letter will show the interest with which the reading of the Address was listened to by a large and respectable assem- bly, and the regret felt by them that the author should have been pre- vented, by sickness, from delivering it himself. New Haven, Sept. 26, 1839. To Jesse Buel, Esq. — Dear Sir, We have the pleasure of ten- dering to you the thanks of the Agricultural and Horticultu- ral Societies of New Haven, and of many other citizens, for your excellent Address, which was impressively read yesterday to a large assembly, both from the city and the neighborijag towns. We are instructed to say to you, that the discourse was heard with great satisfac- tion and delight, and that, by a unanimous vote, a copy is requested for publication. The sentiment was warmly expressed, that a copy ought to be placed in every family in the State, and the only regret manifested by the au- dience, was, that the respected author should be arrested by sickness in his journey, and that they were thus deprived of listening to one whose bright and successful example, gave such decisive weight to his pre-. cepts of wisdom and of real patriotism. It is made the duty of the Committee also to inform Judge Buel, that the Hon. Simeon Bald WIN, Henry Whitney, and James Brewster, Esqrs., were appointed agents to promote the circulation of the ' Cultivator,' and to recommend that useful publication to the public favor, and to a more extensive and etficient patronage in this State. The Committee beg leave to express their personal satisfaction in the performance of the pleasing duty assigned them, and to add their warmest good wishes for the restoration of health, and f©r a long course of usefulness, to one who has proved himself a real benefactor to his country. On behalf of the Agricultural and Horticultural Societies, and of many other citizens. S. Baldwin, B. Silliman, Eli Ives, J. Knight, ^ Committee^ ^c, James Brewster, I A. N. Skinner, | Henry Whitney, J To the above, Judge Buel replied, assenting to the publication of the Address. ADDRESS. I APPEAR here, gentlemen, by invitation, to address you on the cultivation of the soil, in which it is the object of the associations here convened to promote improvement. I have been prompted, in the undertaking, rather by a desire to render a service, than from a confidence in my ability to perform one ; and in the few remarks I have to offer, shall need much of your indulgence, for defect in style, and deficiency in matter. Agriculture and Horticulture are intimately related to each other. They both depend upon the soil, and the animals and plants which it nurtures, for support, for profit, and for pleasure. They both administer, and are indis- pensable, to our wants and comforts. They are governed in their operations by the same natural laws. Agricul- ture has cognizance of the farm, which supphes our prin- cipal wants ; Horticulture, of the garden, which adminis- ters to our more refined appetites, to our health, and to the rational pleasures of mind. The one gives us bread and meat, and the materials for our clothing ; the other gives us the choice delicacies for the table, and multiplies around us the charms of floral beauty, and rural scenery. Both tend to beget habits of useful industry and sober re- flection, and to improve us in all the social relations of life. It is befitting, therefore, that institutions designed to foster and promote improvements in these primary and associate branches of labor, should unite in their anniversary cele- bration, and in returning thanks to the Supreme Being, for the bounties of a fruitful season. Of the utility of these celebrations, and exhibition of the products of the farm and garden which are made at them, I have no kind of doubt. They bring to pubhc 264 ADDRESS. notice whatever is new and most valuable, in a business which highly interests us. They perform the work of years, in diffusing useful knowledge in all the departments of rural labor. They awaken, in the bosoms of hundreds, the dormant powers of the mind, wdiich otherw^ise might have slumbered in apathy. They excite to industry, to emulation, and to the study of those laws which every where control the visible creation, and which enlighten and reward all who humbly seek and follow their coun- sels. Nor is it the cultivator of the farm and garden alone that are to be benefited by these exhibitions. What- ever tends to increase and improve the products of the soil, serves to augment the common stock, and enables the grower to supply the market with more and better products, and to buy more liberally of the other classes in return. The merchant, the manufacturer, the mechan- ic, and the professional man, have all, therefore, as deep an interest in promoting the improvement of agriculture and horticulture, as the farmer and gardener have. So- ciety is in some measure a joint concern, at least so far as relates to what are termed the producing classes ; the more these earn by their labor, the greater is the acces- sion of substantial wealth to the community. The amount of honey in a hive, depends not upon the number of bees which it contains, but upon the labor and skill of the working bees. The farmer virtually provides for the other classes, and is at the same time their principal pa- tron and customer ; and although his labors are too often held to be low and menial, by those who cannot, or will not appreciate their value, his condition affords the best criterion by which to judge of the welfare of those around him. No country can long flourish, or preserve its mor- al and physical health, whose agriculture is neglected and degraded. The amount of a farmer's sales, and of his purchases, will depend upon the surplus products of his farm, and upon the profits of his labor. Double these, by an improved system of husbandry, which I feel assur- ed can be done, and which has been far more than real- ized, in many old districts of our country, and you will double the substantial wealth of the neighborhood, and ADDRESS. 265 impart corresponding life and activity to every other de- partment of business. If we look to Spain, to Portugal, to a great portion of Italy, to South America, or any other country where agriculture is neglected, or holds but a subordinate rank, w^e shall find a degraded population, characterized by superstitious ignorance, poverty, and crime. Every class of the community, therefore, has a deep interest in promoting the improvement of the soil ; and all should willingly contribute their aid towards en- lightening, honoring, and rewarding those who are hon- estly employed in its cultivation. With regard to the utility of Agricultural and Horti- cultural Societies, much will depend upon the objects which bring together their members. If they associate for selfish purposes, merely to monopolize the spoils, and withdraw whenever they are disappointed in their sinister hopes, jealousies and apathy will ensue, and the associa- tion will fall, as many under like circumstances have fall- en, without public loss or public regret. But if the asso- ciation is formed for mutual improvement, and in the be- nevolent and patriotic desire to do a pubhc good, — to stimulate and reward industry and enterprise, however humble their condition, — and strives, by concentrated and persevering efforts, to improve th^ condition of a district, of a county, or a State, — then will it inspire public confi- dence, obtain public support, and become a public bles- sing. To illustrate this last proposition, I beg to refer to some associations which have been tried, and whose la- bors have been crowned with palpable and brilliant suc- cess. The counties of Berkshire, Essex, and Worcester, in Massachusetts, have each, for many years, maintained an Agricultural Society ; and they each distribute ten or twelve hundred dollars a year, one half of which is paid out of the State treasury, in prizes to successful competi- tors in the various departments of agricultural and house- hold labor. It is said, and I believe whh truth, that every dollar thus expended, has made a return of twenty dollars, in the increase of agricultural products which it has caused ; and so satisfied are the inhabitants of the 23 XV. 266 ADDRESS. benefits of the expenditure, that an increased spirit is an- nually manifested, by all classes, to maintain and perpet- uate these nurseries of industry and Improvement. The Highland Society of Scotland affords another il- lustrious example of the utility of agricultural associations, when conducted with a view to public improvement. This society was organized in 1784, but so few were its members, and so limited its means, that it attracted but little public notice, and effected no great improvement in husbandry, till the commencement of the nineteenth century. Yet it had sown the good seed which never fails, under proper management, to yield to the husband- man a bountiful harvest. Nor did it fail in this case. The society now numbers twenty-two hundred members, embracing most of the opulent and influential men of the country, of all professions ; and distributes annually in prizes, about seventeen thousand dollars. In no country or district has agriculture made more rapid strides in im- provement, than it has In Scotland, since the organization of this society ; and although it may not have been the only, it most assuredly has been a principal cause, of this wonderful and salutary change. Up to. 1792, the agri- culture of Scotland, to adopt the language of the Edin- burgh Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, was "wretched — execrably bad, in all its localities ! Hardly any wheat was attempted to be grown ; oats full of thistles was the standard crop, and this was repeated on the greater part of the arable land, while it would produce twice the seed thrown into it ; turnips, as part of the rotation of crops, was unknown, few potatoes were raised, and no grass- seeds or clover were sown. A great part of the sum- mer was employed, in the now fertile shire of Fife, in pulling thistles out of the oats, and bringing them home for the horses, or mowing the rushes, or other aquatic plants, that grew on the bogs, around the homestead." But a change soon came over the land. The seed which had been sown by the Highland Society had germinated, and Its luxuriant foliage already covered the soil. In 1815, according to the authority I am quoting, "beau- tiful fields of wheat were to be seen ; drilled green crops ADDRESS. 267 every where abounded ; the bogs had disappeared ; the thistles no longer existed ;" naked fallows were abolish- ed ; draining was extensively introduced ; wet lands were made dry ; poor weeping clays were converted into tur- nip soils ; and " whole parishes were completely trans- formed from unsightly marshes, into beautiful and rich wheat-fields ; and where the plough could scarcely be driven for slush and water, were heavy crops per acre, and heavy weight per bushel."* The improvements in Scotch husbandry have continued to advance, until, ac- cording to the estimate of Sir John Sinclair, and Profes- sor Low, both very high authority, — the acreable prod- ucts of her soil more than double those of our Atlantic States. The means adopted by the Highland Society to effect these radical improvements in Scotch husbandry, are such as may be employed by us with almost a certainty of cor- responding success. " In the days of its youth and fee- bleness," says the Quarterly Journal I have just quoted, "the Highland Society sent the leaven of the turnip husbandry into all the glens and straths of the north, by offers of small prizes to certain Highland parishes, and the same may be said as to the growth of clover and the finer grasses. As it advanced in strength, as to numbers, and to cash, attention was turned to premiums for stock ; then came offers of reward to men of science to discovei better implements and machines, to diminish friction, and consequently draught, such as in the threshing-mill, and other parts of agricultural machinery. Still advancing in the scale of intellect and of science, premiums were offered for essays to bring to light the facts connected with chemistry and natural philosophy ; and, under the auspices of the society, was set up the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, a work which has been the vehicle of conveying so much useful information to the agriculturist, that we humbly venture to say, it ought to appear on the book-shelf and table of every farmer's parlor. After this, the great stock-shows were resolved upon." At the * Quarterly Jour. Ag. for June, 1839, p. 70. 268 ADDRESS. Glasgow show in 1838, there were exhibited for prizes, 461 neat cattle, 121 horses, 274 sheep, and 47 swine; total 903 domestic animals, in 634 lots. Of the other kinds of competitors, the numbers were as follows : For Butter, - - - - 18 *' Full Milk Cheese, - - 15 ^' Skim Milk Cheese, - - 6 '' Wool, - - - . 8 Roots and Seeds, - - 13 Implements, - - - 28 (C In 88 lots. The number of persons present at the exhibition, was estimated at over 17,000, besides workmen and official people ; — not one in a thousand of whom probably left the exhibition without canying home with him some newly acquired knowledge in his business, or some new stimulus to improvement and industry. Not only has Scotland profited by the labors of her Agricultural Society, but Great Britain generally, and even the United States have been highly benefited by them. The information which that Society has promulgated, has been widely dissemi- nated among us by our agricultural journals, and has con- tributed not a httle to the improvement of the agriculture of our country. And in England, which had been thrown into the back-ground by the superior improvement of Scotch husbandry, it has, within the last year, induced the formation of the Enghsh Agricultural Society, on a broad and liberal scale, which promises important advantages to English husbandry, and to agriculture generally. As evidence of the utility of Horticultural Societies in multiplying and improving the products of our gardens, and in promoting rural embellishments, I would refer to the neighborhoods of Boston and Philadelphia, where societies of this kind have long existed, and to the Horti- cultural Society of London. In the first-named cities, and their environs, the progress of horticultural improve- ment has been manifestly great. Many new and choice fruits, culinary vegetables, and ornamental plants, have ADDRESS. 269 been introduced, culture has been much improved, the markets better supplied, and prices cheapened. The London Society, although its garden has been established but about twenty years, has concentrated in it, from both continents, and from the islands of the sea, embracing every clime, more than five thousand varieties of edible fruits, including fourteen hundred varieties of the apple, and seven hundred of the pear, and an innumerable vari- ety of ornamental plants, many of them before unknown in our catalogues. Its collection of pears, which ejn- braces hundreds of recent origin, from Flanders and from France, has been already broadly spread over these States, and sup])lies our dessert w^ith a succession of this dehcious fruit. As a corresponding member of this So- ciety, I have participated, and have enabled others to participate, in the good which it has been generously dif- fusing abroad. In 1825, and at subsequent periods, I have been supplied liberally with grafts of the choicest fruits wiiich it has collected. The greatest obstacles to Horticultural improvement, are, ignorance of the relative merits of different kinds of fruits and culinary vegetables, and of the proper modes of cultivating and preparing them for the table. The generality of country gardens exhibits but a scanty assort- ment of vegetable productions, and these are but badly cultivated, and often of inferior quality. The tendency of Horticultural exhibitions is, to show the good and bad in contrast, or rather to promulgate a knowledge of the better sorts, their culture and use, to excite useful competition, and to demonstrate the utihty of garden cul- ture, as a source of health, pleasure, and profit. I have had many fruits presented to me, which the donors con- sidered of the first quality, but which I found, on com- parison, to be of secondary, or inferior grade. The man who has seen or tasted only inferior fruits, may well mis- take them for good ones. It is as easy to cultivate good fruits as bad ones ; and no one eats so good fruits as he who cultivates them himself. It is as easy to cultivate the vergaleu as it is the choke pear ; the green gage as the horse plum ; and yet the difference between them, in 23* 270 ADDRESS. all the qualities which we most esteem, is incomparably- great. But till we can show our neighbor better fruits, he will continue to cultivate, and rest content with, his choke pear and horse plum. With regard to what is termed ornamental gardening, or the cultivation of flowering shrubs and plants, there is an objection, real or affected, often made by very many people, on the ground that it yields no profit. If the great object of life Vv'as to accumulate money, without enjoying any of the comforts which it confers, save the gratification of animal appetite, the objection would be conclusive. But we are endowed with other and higher appetites than the mere brute ; and Providence has every where sur- rounded us with suitable objects for their developement, and innocent gratification. And shall we reject the boun- ty of Providence, so kindly tendered for our benefit, be- cause it adds nothing to our pelf ? And what is there in the natural creation, better calculated to soften down the rough asperities of our nature, to awaken kind feelings to- wards each other, and excite reverence and love for the Most High, than a familiar acquaintance with the wonders and beauties of his vegetable kingdom. Did you ever know a misanthrope, or a miser, who was an admirer of flowers .'' I would not recommend the neglect of more important duties, for the culture of a flower-garden : yet where there is ability or leisure, and these may be found to a greater or less extent in almost every family, a taste for floral beauties should be inculcated in the young, not only as a source of rational pleasure, but as a salutary precau- tion against bad companions and bad habits. The mind must be employed, and must have recreation. It is bet- ter to direct it to the works of the Creator, than to the works of man. Lord Bacon has said of the garden, " It affords the purest of human pleasures — the greatest re- freshment to the spirits of man — without which, buildings and palaces are but gross handiworks." But I am forgetting myself. In my ardor to commend Horticulture, for its useful, elevating, and purifying influ- ence upon the habits and manners of society, I did not recollect that I am addressing the highly polished inhab- ADDRESS. 271 itants of a classic city,* who have long since demonstrat- ed, in practice, the truth of the lessons I would inculcate. I will therefore dismiss this branch of my subject, and turn to the more rugged, though not less important, topic of Agriculture ; barely adding, — That in all endeavors to improve the condition of so- ciety, w^hether religious, moral, or industrial, individual efforts and example caji effect but little ; and hence, that in every great work of reform or improvement, the con- centrated strength of many has been resorted to, and brought to a focus, by means of associations ; and that the great objects of society are not likely to be promoted in a more eminent degree, by any, than by associations formed for like purposes with those which I have now the honor to address. Being a native of this State, and having spent my early days within its borders, I can well remember the farming practices that w^ere wont to prevail. The farm w'as, to use the commendatory language of that day, "suitably divided into meadow, pasture, and plough land," and each division was exclusively devoted to its object, until most of the nutritious grasses had '-'run outj''^ in the meadow, and the plough land had become too much impoverished to bear a remunerating crop. Many an acre was turned into " old field ^^^ or commons, destitute alike of natural or artificial herbage, affording scanty gleanings to half- famished cattle. I beg not to be misunderstood. I am describing what was a bad feature in Yankee husbandry. Farming has no doubt recently undergone great improve- ments iniConnecticut, as it has elsewhere. Yet on a fair comparison with highly-cultivated agricultural districts, I believe that it will be found that the husbandry of this State, in the main, is susceptible of great improvement. The lands of Connecticut were originally rich and pro- ductive. The earthy elements remain in a great measure unchanged ; the seasons are about as propitious as they were wont to be ; and the lessons in improvement that have been taught elsewhere, leave httle reason to doubt, * New Haven. 272 ADDRESS. that under proper management, they may again be re- stored to then* original fertility. In a late tour which I made through parts of New York and New Jersey, I found many evidences of recent im- prov^ement, and I doubt not similar ones abound in my native State. In a part of Dutchess County, which 1 visited, the best farms have been sold, within my recol- lection, with improvements and buildings, at from seven to seventeen dollars an acre. They cannot now be bought for one hundred dollars an acre ; and one was sold last year at auction, without buildings, at one hun- dred and thirty dollars an acre. Fifteen years ago, a farm in western New York, of 400 acres, exhausted by bad husbandry, was bought by a Scotch farmer for $4000. This farm has been so improved by good hus- bandry, that the owner was last year offered for it $40,000. He refused the offer, upon the ground, that it actually netted him the interest of §60,000, or $10 50 the acre. A farm was pointed out to me in New Jer- sey, which was recently sold for seven dollars the acre, and that was all it was said to have been worth in its then condition. By a liberal outlay in draining, it being level and wet ground, and in liming, manuring, &c., it is now considered worth one hundred and twenty-five dollars an acre. I went over another farm which a few years ago was bought at the same price, and which now, on account of the improvements which have been made upon it, is considered worth one hundred dollars per acre. 1 am informed on the best authority, that similar cases of the rapid increase in the products and value of farn:^, conse- quent upon an improved system of management, are to be found in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. Although these cases are isolated ones, they nevertheless serve to show the practicability of vastly increasing the value and products of our exhausted lands. Among the causes which have essentially contributed to the deterioration of our lands, and the consequent depression of our Agriculture, I consider the following as prominent : Ignorance of the principles of Agriculture ; ADDRESS. 273 The want of a sufficient outlay in the management of our farms ; and The low estimation in which the employment has been held by all classes, including farmers themselves. Agriculture has too generally been considered a busi- ness requiring mere physical power, with which the prin- ciples of natural science had little or nothing to do. To plough, sow, and gather the crop, has been the general routine of farming operations, regardless of the poverty which our practice was inflicting upon the soil and upon our children. Like the reckless heir of wealth, we found ourselves in possession of a treasure ; and without inquir- ing for what purpose it came into our hands, or realizing our obligations to husband and preserve it, for others, we have squandered it lavishly, through our ignorance or our folly. True, we have been occasionally admonished of our error, by the schoolmen ; who, wrapped in abstract science, and knowing little practically of its application to husbandry, have as often tended to confuse and mysti- fy, as to enlighten and instruct. Hence the prejudice which has arisen, against book-farming. But science and art are now unhing their labors, and are deriving mutual aid from each other, on the farm, as they have for some time been doing in the manufactory and in the shop of the ar- tisan. A new era is dawning upon the vision of the far- mer ; a new light is illuming his path, and a new interest and new pleasures are urging him on to improvement. He begins to study the laws which Providence has or- dained for the government of improved culture, and he finds, in their application to his labors, the means of in- creasing profits and high intellectual enjoyment. And the more he studies and is guided by these laws, the more does he become satisfied of former errors, and of his comparatively limited sphere of usefulness. Science is probably capable of rendering more important services to husbandry than to any other branch of labor, and presents a wider field of useful study to the cultivator of the soil, than to any other class of society. The deficiency in farming capital, or rather the stin giness with which capital is employed in improving and 274 ADDRESS. maintaining the condition of our lands, is another cause of declension in the profits and character of our Agricul- ture. The farnner is too prone to invest his surplus means in some new business, or in adding to his acres, instead of applying them to increase the profits of his la- bor and the products of his farm. He either works more land than he can work well and profitably, or he diverts to other objects the means which would yield a better return if applied to the improvement of the farm. He is apt to consider twenty or thirty dollars an enormous and wasteful outlay upon an acre of land, or upon a choice animal ; and yet the interest of this outlay will be ten times paid by the increase of crop or the increase of the animal ; and in most cases the principal also will be re- turned to him in the course of two or three years. Many of the most thriving farmers in southern New York, Nev^^ Jersey, and Pennsylvania, make a quadrennial expenditure of twenty dollars or more to manure an acre ; and it has become a maxim with them, that the more the outlay for manure, the greater the net profit of their lands. But it is not the outlay for manure alone, that demands a lib- eral expenditure of capital. Good seed, good farm-stock, and good implements, are all essential to the economy of labor, and to neat and profitable farming. And I think it will appear from the cases I have quoted, that in many locations, capital may be very advantageously employed, in reclaiming wet and marshy grounds, generally rich and the most productive when laid dry. When t)ur cattle grow lean, and threaten to disappoint our hopes of profit, we do not hesitate to impute the evil to the want of food, or to inattention in the herdsman. And if we are prudent managers, we at once graduate our stock to our food, knowing that one well-fed animal is of inore value in the market, than two animals that carry but skin and bones; and w^e take care that the food is properly fed out. When our crops become lean, we need not hesitate to ascribe the decrease in product to hke causes — want of food, or want of attention in the farmer ; and prudence and profit in like manner require, that our crops, like our animals, should be limited to the food and labor ADDRESS. 275 which we have to bestow upon them. In other words, an acre well manured and well worked, will be found to be more profitable, than four poor acres badly worked. I may be here asked, whence are to be obtained the vast supplies of manure requisite to manure our old lands ? I answer, from a multiplicity of sources around us, from every animal and vegetable substance within our reach. Nothing that has once been part of an animal or a vegetable, but can be converted into corn, grass, and roots. I think I may assume as facts, that upon an aver- age, not half the manure is saved upon our farms that might be, and that this moiety is half lost before it is ap- plied to the soil. Every horse, ox, or cow, wintered upon the farm, if well fed, and littered with the straw, stalks, &c., of the crop, should make from six to ten cords of good manure. Dr. Coventry, late Professor of Agricul- ture at Edinburgh, estimated that the straw of an ordinary acre of grain, computed at 21 cwt., may be converted by the urine and liquids of the stables and cattle-yards, into three and a half tons of manure ; that meadows which cut one and a half tons of hay will give four tons of ma- nure ; clover, the first year, six tons, and the second year, five and a half tons per acre ; and that with the extraneous substances which may, with due care, be collected with- out expense from the roads, the ditches, the ponds, and from refuse of every kind about the house and premises, the acreable amount should be amply sufficient for a full supply of manure once during every course of the four- year system of husbandry. Arthur Young, with 6 horses, 4 cows, and 9 hogs, which consumed 16 loads of hay and 29 loads of straw, obtained 118 loads of manure, 36 bushels to each ; and from 45 fatting oxen, well fed and littered, 600 tons of rotten manure. But an American lawyer,* and an excellent practical farmer withal, has gone beyond these estimates. I visited, a (ew weeks ago, his farm, which lies upon the sea-shore. It consists of about 200 acres, most of which was in a course of crops. The crops of the season had all received an ample supply * W. A. Seeley, Esq., of Stateii Island. 276 ADDRESS. of manure, as their appearance indicated ; and yet I was shown masses of well-prepared compost, in reserve, con- sisting of yard manure, peat ashes, peat earth, sea-weed, and fish — estimated at twenty-five hundred loads — all produced upon his own farm. The third obstacle to Agricultural improvement, which I propose to notice, is the subordinate rank to w^hich this employment has been consigned, and to which the farmers themselves have contributed, by a want of respect for themselves and respect for their vocation. The whole- some habits of society have been so broken up, by the civil and political convulsions of the age, and the inordi- nate thirst for acquiring wealth and fashionable conse- quence, through mercantile and other speculations, that honest productive labor has been thrown entirely into the back-ground, and considered not only ungenteel, but me- nial and servile. Yet I venture to lay down this proposition, that he who provides for the wants and comforts of him- self and family, and renders some service to society at large, by his mental and physical industry, performs one of the high duties of life ; and will ultimately be rewarded in the conscious rectitude of his life, by a greater measure of substantial happiness, than he who makes millions by fraud and speculation, to be squandered in extravagance or wasted in folly, by his children or grandchildren. The revolutions which are constantly taking place in families, sufficiently admonish us, that it is not the wealth we leave to our children, but the industrious and moral habits in which we educate them, that secures to them w^orldly prosperity, and the treasure of an approving conscience. The farmers, I have remarked, share in the errors of the day. Not content with the gains which are ever the reward of prudent industry, and which might be greatly increased by the culture of the mind ; nor content with one of the most independent conditions in society, hun- dreds and thousands of them seek other and new employ- ments, and some of truly menial character, to get rid of labor, the greatest blessing to man, and to raise themselves in the imaginary scale of fashionable society. And if they cannot participate, themselves, in this imaginary ADDRESS. 277 greatness, (and it is seldom any thing more than imagina- ry,) they are anxious to inflict the evil upon their posterity, — to rear their sons to the law, the rail-road to office, to political power, and turmoil ; to make them merchants, a useful, but greatly over-stocked business, or to place them in some other genteel employment, which shall exempt them from the toils of labor, the salt that best preserves from moral corruption. Mistaken men ! What class in society have within their reach so many of the elements of human enjoyments — so many facilities for dispensing benefits to others, one of the first duties and richest pleasures of life — as the independent tillers of the soil ? " The farmer," says Frankhn, " has no need of popular favor ; the success of his crops depends only on the blessing of God upon his honest industry." If discreetly conducted on the im- proved principles of husbandry. Agriculture offers the cer- tain means of acquiring wealth, and as rapidly as is con- sistent with the pure enjoyments of life, or with the good order and prosperous condition of society. Agriculture is the golden mean, secure alike from the temptations of mushroom opulence, and the craven sycophancy and de- pendance of poverty. " Give me neither poverty nor riches," was the prayer of the wise man of Scripture, "lest." he added, "• I be full and deny thee, and say, who is the Lord ? or lest I be poor, and steal, and take the name of my God in vain." When we consider that Agriculture is the great business of the nation — of mankind ; that its successful prosecu- tion depends upon a knowledge, in the cultivators of the soil, of the principles of natural science, — and that our Agriculture stands in special need of this auxiliary aid, — we cannot withhold our surprise and regret, that we have not long since established professional schools, in which our youth, or such of them as are designed to manage this branch of national labor, may be taught, simultaneously, the principles and practice of their future business of life, on which, more than any other branch of business, the fortunes of our country, moral, political, and national, essentially depend. We require an initiatory studv of 24 XV. " 278 ADDRESS. years in the principles of law and medicine, before we permit the pupil to practise in these professions. We require a like preliminary study in our military and naval schools, in the sciences of war and navigation, ere the student is deemed quahfied to command. And yet, in Agriculture, by which, under the blessing of Providence, we virtually " live, and move, and have our being," and which truly embraces a wider range of useful science than either law, medicine, war, or navigation, we have no schools, we give no instruction, we bestow no govern- mental patronage. Scientific knowledge is deemed indis- pensable in many minor employments of life ; but in this great business, in which its influence would be most potent and useful, we consider it, judging from our practice, of less consequence than the fictions of the novelist. We regard mind as the efficient power in most other pursuits ; while we forget, that in Agriculture, it is the Archimedean lever, which, though It does noimove^ tends to fill a world with plenty, with moral health, and human happiness. Can it excite surprise, that under these circumstances of gross neglect. Agriculture should have become among us, in popular estimation, a clownish and ignoble employ- ment ? In the absence of Agricultural professional schools, could we not do much to enlighten and raise the charac- ter of American husbandry, by making its principles a branch of study in our district schools ? This knowledge would seldom come amiss, and It would often prove a ready help under misfortune, to those who had failed in other business. What man is there, who may not ex- pect, at some time of life, to profit directly by a knowl- edge of these principles ? Who does not hope to become the owner, or cultivator, of a garden, or a farm ? And what man, enjoying the blessing of health, would be at a loss for the means of an honest livelihood, whose mind had been early imbued with the philosophy of rural cul- ture— and who would rather work than beg ? An early acquaintance with natural science is calculated to beget a taste for rural life and rural labors, as a source of pleasure, profit, and honor. It will stinmlate to the ADDRESS. ^ 279 improvement of the mind, — to elevate and to purify it, — to self-respect, to moral deportment. And it will tend to deter from the formation of bad habits, which steal upon the ignorant and the idle unawares, and which con- sign thousands of young men to poverty and disgrace, if not to premature graves. A. knowledge of these princi- ples, to a very useful extent, can be acquired with as much facihty in the school, or upon the farm, as other branches of learning. Why, then, shall they not be taught ? Why shall we withhold from our Agricultural population that knowledge which is so indispensable to their profit, to their independence, and to their correct bearing as freemen ? Why, while we boast of our supe- rior privileges, keep in comparative ignorance of their business, that class of our citizens who are truly the con- servators of our freedom ? I know of but one objection, — the want of teachers. A few years ago, civil engineers were not to be found among us. The demand for them created a supply. We have demonstrated that we have the materials for civil engineers, and that we can work them up. We have materials for teachers of Agricultural science, which we can also work up. Demand will al- ways insure a supply. The enumeration of the foregoing obstacles to Agricul- tural improvement, sufficiently indicates the means which will be efficient in removing them. The means consist, so far as I now propose to notice them — 1. In giving a professional education to the young far- mer, which shall embrace the principles and the practice of the business which he is designed to follow in life ; and, 2. In diffusing, more extensively, among those who have completed their juvenile studies, and are better fitted to profit by the lessons of wisdom and experience, a knowledge of the same principles, and of the best modes of practice which these principles inculcate, and which experience has proved to be sound. We have professional schools in almost every business of life, except in the cultivation of the soil, one of the most important and essential of them all, and one em- bracing a larger scope of useful study in natural science, 280 ADDRESS. and in usefulness to the temporal wants of the human family, than any other. The policy of monarchs, and of privileged orders, has been to repress intelligence in the Agricultural mass, in order to keep them in a subordinate station. But neither the policy nor the practice should be countenanced by us. Our Agriculturists are our privileged class, if we have such. They are our sover- eigns, because, from their superior numbers, they must ever control our political destinies, for good or for evil. And the more intelhgent and independent w^e can render them, the more safe we make our country from the con- vulsions of internal feuds, and the danger of foreign war. I put the question to fathers — Would you esteem that son less, or think him less likely to fulfil the great duties of life, who had been educated in a professional school of Agriculture, with all the high qualifications which it would confer for public and domestic usefulness, than him who had been educated for the counter, the bar, or other high professional callings ? On which could you best rely for support and comfort in the decline of life ? Nay, I will venture to carry the appeal further — to the dis- criminating judgement of the unmarried lady — Would you reject, as a partner for life, the student of such a college, coming forth with a sound mind, deeply imbued with useful knowledge, and a hale constitution, invigorated by manly exercise, whose cares and afi^ections were likely to be concentrated upon home and country, and whose precepts and examples would tend to diffuse industry, prosperity, and rural happiness around him .'' The fa- ther's response would be, I think, an unhesitating no, to the first question ; and the lady's, after due deliberation, I verily suspect, would be a half articulate amen ! I pretend not to the spirit of prophecy, yet I venture to predict, that many who now hear me, will live to see pro- fessional schools of Agriculture established in our land, to see their utility extolled, and to be induced to consider them the best nurseries for republican virtues, and the surest guaranty for the perpetuity of our liberties. They should be established — they will be established — and the sooner they are established, the better for our country. ADDRESS. 281 To those who have passed to manhood, and who have made up their mmds, from necessity or from choice, to till the ground, the means of improvement — of studying the principles of their business, and of becoming acquaint- ed with the most approved and modern practices in hus- bandry— the opportunities of acquiring useful knowledge, are abundant and cheap. One of these means, and a valuable one, is proffered him through the exhibitions and publications of these societies. Another is the perusal of books upon Agriculture and rural economy, which should form a part of social and rural libraries. And another facility of acquiring this useful knowledge, is afforded by the Agricultural periodicals of our country, which, besides containing much that is instructive in the philosophy of farming, are a record of the best modes of practice, and of much that is new and important, in the various depart- ments of rural and household labor. A volume of the Cultivator, of which 1 can speak with accuracy, contains about as much matter as five or six volumes of the popu- lar novels of the day, and twice as much as four numbers of our literary quarterly journals. The price of the Cul- tivator is one dollar per annum. I verily think, that if the farmer would divide his patronage between political and Agricultural journals, he would be a manifest gainer, in his fortune and in his family — would be more happy in his business, and domestic in his habits — a better mana- ger, and a more useful citizen. Time will not permit me to go into the details of mod- ern improvements in husbandry. These improvements are great, and afford the brightest hopes to the philan- thropist and the patriot. No one who can carry back his memory forty years, can withhold his wonder at the as- tonishing improvements which have in that time been made in the manufacturing and mechanic arts, by reason of the aids of science ; and those who can scan the future, will have no less reason to rejoice, in the anticipated ad- vantages which are in prospect, from an improved culture of the mind and the soil, consequent upon a better system of education, to the agricultural population, and the gen- 24* 282 ADDRESS. eral diffusion of useful knowledge, which is likely to re- sult from it. I will merely further remark to the farmer, that if he would prosper in his business, he should study, practise, and adopt, the better system of husbandry which is abroad in the land, and which has already greatly profited thou- sands, so far as his soil and circumstances will permit ; that he should drain his wet lands, economize his manures, and apply them with judgement ; cultivate well, what he does cultivate ; alternate his crops ; extend his root culture ; increase and improve his stock, as the products of his farm will permit ; and substitute fallow crops for naked fallows. In conclusion, gentlemen, permit me to express my hearty wish, that success and honor may crown your ef- forts to improve the condition of your country, industrial and moral, associate benefits almost as intimately con- nected as cause and eftect ; and that you may long live to enjoy the blessings which are promised to him who truly loves his neighbor, and reveres and worships his God. APPENDIX. COLLECTIONS OF FACTS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. If the square of the diameter of a circle be multiplied by .7854, the product is the area. If the diameter of a sphere be cubed and multiplied by .6236, the product is the solidity ; and the square of the diameter, multiplied by 3.14159, is the surface of the sphere. To find the contents of a cask, add double the square of the bung diameter to the square of the head diameter, and multiply this sum by the head of the cask ; then divide the product by 1,077 for ale gallons of 280 cubic inches each, or by 882 for wine gallons of 231 cubic inches each. Quincunx is one at each of four corners, and one in the middle, thus, : • : The convexity of the earth interposes to prevent the sight of distant bodies. Thus, at 600 yards, one inch would be concealed, or an object one inch high would not be seen in a straight line ; at 900 yards, two inches ; at 1,400 yards, five inches ; atone mile, eight inches ; three miles, six feet , four miles, ten feet ; five miles, sixteen feet ; six miles, twenty-four feet ; ten miles, sixty-six feet ; twelve miles, ninety-five feet ; thirteen miles, one hundred and twelve feet, and fourteen miles, one hundred and thir- ty feet. The mechanical powers may be reduced to three, but they are usually expressed as six — the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the screw, and the wedge. In a single moveable pulley, the power gained is double. In a continued combination, the power is twice the num- ber of pulleys, less 1. In levers, the power is reciprocally as the lengths are each side of the fulcrum or centre of motion, as illustrated in the steelyard. 284 APPENDIX. The power gained in the wheel and axle is as the radius of the wheel to that of the axle. The power gained by an inclined plane is as the length to the height. The power of the wedge is generally as the length to the thickness of the back. The power of the screw is as the circumference to the distance of the thread, or as 6.2832 to that distance. Resistance is an affair of experiment, sometimes a third, and at other times less. The friction of cylinders or wheels is as the pressure, and inversely as the diameter. The least friction is when polished iron moves on brass. The area of a circle is the product of the diameter and circumference, divided by 4. A fall of one tenth of an inch per mile, will produce a motion in rivers. The greatest velocity is at the surface and in the middle, and the least at the bottom and sides. But as the velocity increases, the action on the sides and bottom increases also. Eclipses return in the very same order every 18 years and 1 1 days, supposing four leap years in the interval, and if five, then every 10 days. Other cycles of motion, how- ever, vary the phenomenon or measure. The moon's shad- ow is less than 170 miles broad ; but the eclipse, in de- gree, for 2,000 miles. A pump ten feet above a well, with seven inches bore, will discharge 70 gallons a minute ; and at 30 feet 4 inches, 23 gallons. The specific gravity of water being 1.000, that of al- cohol, pure, is 0.829 ; beer, 1.034 ; cider, 1.018 ; milk, 1.032; linseed oil, 0.94; vinegar, 1.025; sea-water, 1.026; ox bone, 1.666; brass, 7.824; brick, 2.; cork, 0.24; gold, 19.2587; granite, 2.728 ; bar iron, 7.68; lead, 11.352; lignum-vitse, 1.33; mahogany, 1.06; marble, 2.716 ; mercury, 13.58 ; oak, 1.17 ; platina, 20.722 ; sil- ver, 10.474; clay-slate, 2.67; tin, 10.717, limestone, 1.386 ; elm, 0.671 ; honey, 1.45. — Treasury of Knowledge. MEASURES OF LENGTH. Measures of length are the distance of one object from another, accordinjr to some agreed standard. A line is the twelfth of an inch, and the 144th of a foot. COLLECTIONS OF FACTS. 2S5 A geometrical pace is 4.4 feet English ; and an English mile contains 1,200 paces, or 1,760 yards, or 5,280 feet. A Scotch mile contains 1,500 paces; a German mile 4,000 ; a Swedish and Danish mile 5,000 ; the Russian mile 750. A hand, used in measuring the height of horses, is 4 inches. A surveyor's chain is 4 poles, or 66 £eet, divided into 100 links of 7.92 inches. A square chain is 16 poles, and 10 square chains are an acre. 640 square acres are a square mile ; and 4,840 square yards are an acre, 69.58 yards each way. The Irish acre is 7,840 square yards. The Scotch acre is 1.27 English. A French arpent is f of an English acre. 121 Irish acres are equal to 196 English. 48 Scotch acres are equal to 61 English. 11 Irish miles are equal to 14 English. 80 Scotch miles are equal to 91 English. A sea league is 3,4536 miles, or the 20th of a degree. 6,078 feet are a sea mile. A degree at the equator is 365,101 feet, or 69.148 miles, or 69f nearly. Iri latitude 66° 20', Maupertuis meas- ured a degree of latitude, in 1737, and made it 69.403 ; and Swanberg, in 1803, made it 69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732 ; and Lambton, in 1803, latitude 12°, 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it 69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12, and Biot, 68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain, makes it but 68.63, which is less than at the equator, and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a prolate spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and others, while it has more generally been re- garded as an oblate spheroid. Degrees of longitude are to each other in length, as the cosines of their latitudes. For every 10° they are as fol- lows : — Equator, 69.2 10° 68.15 20° 65.27 30° 59.93 40° 53.1 50° 44.48 55° 39.69 60° 34.6 70° 23.67 80° 12.02 The pendulum which vibrates seconds, 39.1393 inches 286 APPENDIX. at London, is the standard for the British measures. One mile is equal to 1,618.833 such pendulums. WEIGHTS. The standard of weights, is, the cubic inch of distilled water, weighing 253.458 Troy grains ; the Troy pound, 5,760 grains, or 22.8157 inches. The same standard of 7,000 Troy grains, makes the pound avoirdupois, 27.7274 cubic inches ; ten of which, or 277.274, being the impe- rial gallon, or a quart 69.32 ; and a gill of five ounces of water, equal to 8.664. The American quintal is 100 pounds. The weight of a cubic inch of distilled water, in a vac- uum, is 252,722 grains, and in air, is 252.458 grains. The Tarkish pound is 7,578 grains ; the Danish, 6,941 ; the Irish, 7,774; the Neapolitan, 4,952; the Scotch, pound Troy, 7,620.8. A cubic foot of loose earth or sand weighs 95 pounds. A cubic foot of common soil weighs 124 pounds. strong soil, clay, mason's work, tt (C 127 135 205 distilled water, (( 62.5 " cast iron I, <( 450.45 " steel. (( 489.8 ** lead. (( 709.5 ** platina, (( 1,218.75 •* copper, cork, tt 486.75 " 15 ** tallow, tt 59 oak. (C 73.15 " brick. tt 125 air. tt 0.0753 " MEASURES OF CAPACITY. Measure is length, breadth, and thickness, estimated by known lengths, or compared by other known quantities ; thus, there are 12X12X12=1,728 cubic inches in a cu- bic foot, and 3X3X3=27 cubic feet in a cubic yard. The imperial gallon is 277.274 cubic inches. A gill, or quarter of a pint, is 8| inches. The imperial gallon contains 10 lbs. avoirdupois, of dis- COLLECTIONS OF FACTS. 287 tilled water, weighed in air at 62°, with the barometer at 30 inches. Two gallons are equal to a peck, eight to a bushel, and eight bushels to a quarter. Heaped measure, per bushel, is 2,815^ cubic inches clear. The Winchester bushel is 18 J inches in diameter, and 8 inches deep, containing 2,154.42 cubic inches. 1,000 ounces of rain-water are equal to about 7 J gallons wine measure, or to a cubic foot. 7 pounds avoirdupois is a gallon of flour. A chaldron of coals is 58| cubic feet. Twelve wine gallons of distilled water, weigh 100 lbs. avoirdupois. The imperial dry bushel, when not heaped, is 2,218.192 cubic inches ; the peck, 554.548 ; gallon, 277.274, and quart, 69.3185. The bushel is 8 inches deep, and 18.8 wide, with a heap 6 inches high. A bushel of wheat is 60 lbs., rye, 53 lbs., barley, 47 lbs., oats, 38, peas, 64, beans, 63, clover-seed, 68, rape, 48 lbs. A Scotch pint is equal to four English pints. A Scotch quart is 208.6 cubic inches. There are 545,267,000 cubic yards in a cubic mile. INTERESTING FACTS IN CHEMISTRY. Chemistry is the study of the eflTects of heat and mix- ture, with the view of discovering their general and subor- dinate laws, and of improving the useful arts. — Black. Whenever chemical action takes place, a real change is produced in the substance operated upon, and its iden- tity is destroyed. If a little powdered chalk (carbonate of lime) be put into a glass of water, the chalk will sink to the bottom of the vessel. Though it should be mixed with the water, if left at rest it will soon subside ; no chemical action has taken place ; therefore the water and the car- bonate of lime both remain unaltered. But if a small quan- tity of diluted sulphuric acid be added to a glass of chalk and water, a violent effervescence will commence the mo- ment they come in contact with each other ; a chemical union of the two substances will be the consequence of this chemical action ; the identity of each substance will be destroyed, and sulphate of lime, or gypsum (a body very different from either of the substances employed) will be produced. 288 APPENDIX. Heat has a tendency to separate the particles of all bodies from each other. Hence nothing more is necessary to eifect the decomposition of many bodies than to apply heat, and collect the substances which are separated by that means. It is evident that water exists in the atmosphere in abundance, even in the driest season, and under the clear- est sky. There are substances which have the power of absorbing moisture from the air, at all times, such as the fixed alkalies, (potash and soda,) and sulphuric acid, the latter of which will soon absorb more than its own weight of water from the air, when exposed to it. Fresh-burnt lime absorbs it rapidly ; and earth that has been freshly stirred absorbs it in a much greater degree, at night, than that which is crusted and compact. Hence the impor- tance of stirring the soil among tillage crops, in time of drought. Bishop Watson found, that even when there had been no rain for a considerable time, and the earth v/as dried by the parching heat of summer, it still gave out a consid- erable quantity of wat^r. By inverting a large drinking- glass on a close-mown grass plat, and collecting the vapor which attached to the inside of the glass, he found that an acre of ground dispersed into the air about 1,G00 gallons of water in the space of twelve hours, of a summer's day. Lavoisier has explained solidity thus : " The parti- cles of all bodies," says he, " may be considered as sub- ject to the action of two opposite powers, repulsion and attraction, between which they remain in equilibrio. So long as the attractive force remains stronger, the body must continue in a sta.te of solidity ; but if, on the contrary, heat has so far removed these particles from each other as to place them beyond the sphere of attraction, they lose the cohesion they before had with each other, and the body ceases to be solid." Aeriform substances (gases and vapors) are called elastic, because they are all capable of being reduced into a smaller compass by pressure, and of expanding again to their usual volume whenever the pressure is removed. Thus atmospheric air may be so compressed, that 128 volumes may be forced into a space usually occupied by one volume, and the greater the compression the more will its elasticity be increased. It is on this principle that the air-gun is constructed. — Parke. COLLECTIONS OF FACTS. 289 Fluidity is owing to the matter of heat being interposed between the particles of the fluid ; which heat would dis- sipate all fluids into the air, were it not for the pressure of the atmosphere, and the mutual attraction which subsists between those particles. Were it not for this atmospheric pressure, water would not be known in any other states than those of ice and vapor ; for, as soon as ice had ac- quired caloric enough to give it fluidity, it would evaporate, and be dispersed into the regions of space. This may be proved by direct experiment. The constitution of the world in this respect exhibits a beautiful instance of the harmony of Nature, and of the exquisite contrivance of its Divine Author. On the other hand, could we totally abstract the matter of heat from any fluid, no doubt this fluid would by that means be changed to a solid, the lightest vapors being nothing more than solids combined with heat. Not only fluids, but all those substances which are soft and ductile, owe their properties to the chemical combination of caloric. Metals owe their malleability and ductility to the same cause ; for in very intense artificial cold, the most ductile metals, such as gold, silver, and lead, lose their malleabil- ity, and become brittle, as Van Mons has shown. — An- nals de Cliimie. Take, for instance, mercury. This metal is a fluid body in our climate, but by cooling it to 30 degrees below the zero of Fahrenheit's thermometer, it becomes solid ; and if it be heated to 660 degrees, it will be volatilized and converted into vapor. The elasticity of air and steam arises from the caloric being chemically combined with the solid substances of which they are composed. I say solid, because we have abundant evidence that oxygen and nitrogen [the principal elements of the atmosphere] are both capable of taking a solid form, and actually do, in many instances, exist in a state of solidity. Nitrogen is a component part of all ani- mal substances, and exists in a solid state in all the ammoni- acal salts. Oxygen takes the same state when it combines with metals and other combustibles ; and in the composi- tion of the nitrous salts, they both take the same state of solidity. These facts surely evince that atmospheric air owes its fluidity to caloric. — Parke. Whenever a body changes its state, it either combines with caloric, or separates from caloric. — Dr. Black. 25 F. C. 290 APPENDIX. It is an axiom in hydrostatics, that every substance which sivims on water, displaces so much of the water as is ex- actly equal to its own weight ; whereas, when a substance sinks in water, it displaces water equal to its bulk. Take a piece of hard wood, balance it accurately in a pair of scales with water, and then place it gently in a vessel on the surface of water which will flow over the top of the ves- sel. If the wood be now taken out with care, it will be found that the water in the scale will exactly fill the va- cancy left by the wood. — lb. The specific gravity of bodies is denoted in chemical writings by comparing it with the specific gravity of pure water, in decimal figures, water being always considered as 1.000. Thus the. specific gravity of the strongest sul- phuric acid (oil of vitriol) is 1.850, or nearly nine tenths heavier than water. Iron is 7.650, or more than 7| times heavier than water ; that is, a cubic inch of iron, if put into a scale, would require 7| inches of water to balance it ; silver is 10.470 ; gold 19.257 ; andplatina21.2500,or 21 times heavier than water. All substances that Jloat upon water are specifically lighter than it, as oils, alcohol, &.c. There are various instruments which, when dropped into liquids, indicate, upon a graduated scale, their specific gravity, be it heavi- er or lighter than water, as the areometer, hydrometer, Sue. Thus the juice of the apple or grape is heavier than water in proportion to the quantity of sugar which it con- tains ; and after fermentation, it becomes specifically lighter than water in the same ratio, the sugar, which was heavier, being converted into alcohol, which is lighter than water. The tendency of wine or cider to run into the acetous or vinegar fermentation, is in proportion to its lightness before, and heaviness after fermentation — the lighter the must, the heavier the liquor, and the less sugar in the former, and less alcohol in the latter. The specific gravity of apple-juice varies from 1.000 to 1.091. Some we lately tried, from mixed fruit, indicated 1.063 by Bau- me's areometer. — Con. A pint measure of atmospheric air weighs nearly nine grains ; whereas a pint measure of hydrogen gas weighs little more than half a grain. The same measure of pure water weighs upwards of one pound avoirdupois. It may be remarked, that the Creator has endowed at- mospheric air with the property of preserving its own COLLECTIONS OF FACTS. 291 equilibrium at all times, and in all places. Its elasticity is such, that, however it may be consumed by respiration or combustion, its place is immediately supplied with a new portion, and though, by a mistaken policy, the doors and windows of our habitations may be constructed so as to exclude it as much as possible, it will have admission ; it forces its way through every crevice, and performs the important office assigned it, in defiance of all exertions. — Parke. PHILOSOPHICAL FACTS. The change of properties which takes place when chem- ical attraction acts, is not confined to metals, but is a gener- al result in every case, where different bodies are brought into this state of combination or chemical union. Fre- quently we find that the properties of each body are totally changed ; and that substances, from being energetic and violent in their nature, become inert and harmless, and vice versa. For instance, that useful and agreeable substance, culinary salt, which is not only harmless, but wholesome, and absolutely necessary to the well-being of man, is com- posed of two formidable ingredients, either of which taken into the stomach proves fatal to life : one of these is a met- al, and the other an air ; the former is called sodium, the latter chlorine. When presented to each other, the vio- lence of their nature is manifested by their immediately bursting out into flame, and instantly they are both deprived of their virulence. Can any thing be more striking than the change of properties in this case ? and who could have supposed that culinary salt is composed of a metal united to an air ? The medicine called Glauber's salts is another instance ; it is composed of two caustic poisons of difTer- ent kinds ; one called oil of vitriol, and the other barilla or soda. There are also two substances known to chem- ists, which are disgustingly bitter liquids ; one is called nitrate of silver, and the other hyposulphate of soda ; when mixed they form a compound of considerable sweetness. But the atmosphere which we breathe is the most extraor- dinary of all instances : it muog^s-tail grass, a species of the genus Cynosurus. Crop, the corn or other fruits of the earth ; any thing cut off, or gath- ered. To Crop, to pluck ; to mow ; to reap ; to yield harvest. To Crop out. When the edges of the strata of rocks appear at the surface, they are said to crop out. Cropped, reaped or mowed. Cropping, the raising, cutting, and carrying off, the crop ; generally applied to tillage crops. Cross-ploughing, turning furrows at right angles with other furrows. Crown, the top ; the head ; an appendage to the top of a seed, which serves to bear it in the wind. Cube, a body, having six equal sides, like dice. Cubed, in mathematics, having the cube root extracted, or found. Culinary Vegetables, such as are raised for the table. Culm, the smooth, jointed stalk of grain and grass. Culmiferous Crops consist of the grains and the grasses which have smcoth, jointed stalks, (culms,) and seed contained in chaffy husks, as wheat, timothy, &c. These have generally fibrous roots. Cultivator, see p. 150. Cut-and-cover, in ploughing, to make wide furrows, turning over the sod upon a part not ploughed, and covering it up Cutting up, (corn,) cutting the stalks close to the surface of the ground GLOSSARY. 303 Cycht a circle ; a round of time ; an astronomical term for a contin- ual revolution, or rolling about, of certain numbers, which success- ively go on, without any interruption, from the first to the last, and then return again to the first, and so circulate perpetually; as the twelve hours of the day successively go on, from one to twelve, and then begin again with one, and so on, continually. Dale, a low place between hills ; a vale ; a valley. Deciduous, falling off. Trees, whose leaves fall off in the Autumn, are deciduous ; those, which retain their leaves in the Winter, are called persistent, or evergreen. Decomposition, separation of the constituent principles of compound bodies. Depasture, to eat up ; to consume ; to feed ; to graze. Deteriorate, to render, or become, less valuable. Dog''s-iail grass, a species of the genus Cynosurus. Drags, the teeth of a harrow, which slant backwards. Drill, in husbandry, to sow grain in rows, drills, or channels ; the row of grain so sowed. Drill-barrow, a machine to sow small seeds in a garden, in rows. Drill-plough, a machine for sowing seeds in drills. Drought, dryness of the weather, and the effect produced by it on the soil, in preventing the growth of plants. Dry Crops, those which mature their seeds before they are gathered, as wheat, rye, barley, &c. They are considered the most exhaust- ing crops. Earth, see p. 35. • Earthy, composed, or partaking, of earth ; consisting of earth. Effervescence, an intense motion, which takes place in certain bodies, caused by the escape of a gaseous substance. Effete, old, barren, worn out with age, deprived of some of its prop- erties. Lime is so called, when it has long been slaked. Efflorescence, the pulverulent form of saline bodies, produced by ex- posure to the air, in consequence of losing their water of crystalliza- tion. Elaborate, improved by successive endeavors or operations ; produc- ed with labor ; finished with great diligence. To Elaborate food, to digest it in the stomach, and prepare it to be converted into blood. Elaboration, improvement, by successive operations. El Dorado, a fabulous or imaginary country, in which gold, and silver, and precious stones, are said to be as common as rocks and sand, ia other countries. Elements are, properly, the simple constituent parts of bodies, inca- pable of decomposition, or further division. Embouchure, the mouth or outlet of a river, where it empties into the sea or lake. Endemic, peculiar to a country or district. Epidermis, the hull, or outer skin ; the scarfskin ; the outer bark. Equilibrio, equilibrium or equipoise, equality of weight. Essences, the essential oils, obtained by distillation, from odoriferous vegetable substances. 304 GLOSSARY. Evaporation, dissipation of fluids, by heat ; evaporating fluids into vapor, by heat. ExcrementUious, consisting of matter excreted from the body. Excretory organs, those organs which have the quality of separating and ejecting superfluous parts. Fahrenheit, the inventor of the thermometer which is in general use in this country. His name is sometimes used for tlie instrument. Fallow, unsowed, left to rest after the years of tillage. In fallow, at rest. Fallow crop, a crop changed at every ploughing, substituted for the old practice of leaving the ground at rest. See an explanation of this improvement, in Chapter xvii. p. 169, &c. Fallows, grounds lying at rest, in order that they may recover from an exhausted state. Falloivs, naked, ground ploughed up, and left uncovered. See p. 169. Fallows, Summer, grounds broken up several times, during the sea- son, and exposed to the heats of Summer. Fallows, Winter, grounds broken up, and exposed to the frosts of Winter. Farmer, one who cultivates a farm, be he proprietor or tenant. On the old continent, the term is only applied to such as pay rent. As our cultivators are generally proprietors, we give to the term its broadest, though perhaps not its legitimate, definition. Farmstock, cattle, horses, sheep, hogs, &c. Felspar, or Feldspar, a constituent part of numerous rocks. It is not so hard as flint, and is composed of thin laminje, or plates. Its lustre is shining, and its colors white, gray, yellowish, and reddish white. It decays readily, and forms soil. Fermentation, a peculiar spontaneous motion, which occurs in vege- table substances, if exposed to proper temperature, under certain circumstances. It is usually divided into the acetous, vinous, sac- charine, and putrefactive, stages. Ferruginous, impregnated with iron. Ferruginous 4. Objection to, considered, 164. Five things essential to, 165. See Roots. Roots, depth of, 114. Provision for the penetration of, 117. Remarks on the vitality of, 119. Of culmtferous and leguminous plants, 155, 156. Culture of, 163. On preserving, 164. See Plants, and Root culture. Roses change their location, 161. Rotation of crops, at Flottbeck, 116. See Alternation. Rouble of Russia, value of the, 296. Rowan, on feeding, 209. Ruffin's Farmers' Register, 19. Rupee of Bengal, value of the, 296. Rural embellishment, 253, 268. Russia, value of the rouble of, 2i;'6. Ruta baga, 168, 174. Rye, sowed for ploughing in, 118. Soil for, 183. Exhaustion by, 190. Weight of, 287. Rye-grass, 227, 231. Sainfoin, depth of the roots of, 114. Non-cultivation of, 212. St. Pierre, remark by, 29. Salt, as a manure, 90. On clo- ver hav, 218. Component parts of, 29i. Sand, importance of, in good soils, 195. See Green sand. Sandy Barrens, Euel's farm on, xi, 254. Sandy soils, on the character, im- provement, and uses to be made of, 39-43, 199, 215. Grasses for, 226, 227, 233, 234. Sap and blood compared, 58, 59. Scalloped rollers, 150. Scarifiers, Concklin's press-har- rows used for, 150, 206. Used on the Coles Farm, 176, 177. On the Knowie Farm, 180. Schillel, value of the, 190. School Library, IMassachusetts, xxii. Schools, agricultural, 24. Re- marks on, 277-280. Science, importance of, in agricul- ture, 273, 278. Scotch, miles, 285. Acres, 285, 293. Pounds, 286. Measures, 287. Scotland, agricultural in>prove- rnentsin, 11, 22, 153,266, 267. Crops in, 22, 46. Successful subsoil ploughing in, 46. Prog- ress of the new husbandry in, 63. Alternation of crops in, 153. The Highland Society of, 332 INDEX. and its benefits, 266, 267. Glas- gow exhibition in, in 183S, 268. Screw, 283. Power of the, 284. Sea-league, 285. Sea-water, specific gravity of, 284. Sea-weed, as a luanure, 73. Secondary formation, fertility of the, 200, 201, Jtote. Seeds, compared to eggs, 59. Planting of, 244, 247. Germi- nation of, 246. Sprouting, 248. Seeley, W. A., farm of, and ma- nure, 275. Seneca Lake, Robinson's farm on the banks of, 25. Setting out trees, 244, 253, 254, 258. Shadow, breadth of the moon's, 284. Sheds, hints on, 244, 249. Sheep, grass and roots compared to, 188, Depasturing with, en- riches soil, 198. At the Glas- gow exhibition, 268. Sheep-folds, on making manure in, 69. Shell-marl, as a manure, 89. Shilling, weight and value of the Enghsh, 296. Shows, see Exhibitions. Shrubs, about dwellings, 244. Ob- jection to, considered, 270. Siliiman, Benjamin, 262. Silver, specific gravity of, 284, 290. Nitrate of, 291. \Veight and value of foreign coins of, 296. Sinclair, Sir John, on crops in Scotland, 22. Classification of soils by, 39. On Flemish agri- culture, 40. On gravelly soils, 43. On loams, 49. On sub- soils, 51. On pasturing mead- ows, 208. On the division of a farm into permanent grass and permanent tillage, 210. On watering cattle, 250, note. On the acreable products of Scot- land, 267. Sinking bodies in water, 290. Sipple and Pennewell, the farm of, 25. Skinner, A. N., 262. Slate, clay, specificgravity of, 284. Sleeping apartments, 243, 244. Soap-suds, a manure, 66. Societies, see Agricultural. Society, Farmers, as members of, xviii, 276. On the improve- ment of, 271. Socrates, on agriculture, 33. Soda, hyposulphate of, 291. Sodium, 291. Sods, instrument for cutting, 206 Soils, exhausted by the common mode of farming, 17, 153, 187 ; in Virginia, IS ; in the Northern States, 19, 56. On enriching, instead of exhausting, 21, 56, 57. Consist of earths and de- composed organic matter, 35. Use of the earthy parts of, 36. Should have friability, or loose- ness of texture, 36 ; capacity to absorb moisture from the at- mosphere, 36, 121. Black, preferable, 37. Different clas- sifications of, 39. Sandy, 39. Gravelly, 43. Clay, 44. Chalk, 46. Peaty, 47. Alluvial, 48. Loam, 49. Offices of, 50. Sub- soil, 51. Improvement of, 53. Elements and agents of fertility in, 54. Clearing and burning, 54. Of the Eastern and West- ern States compared, 56, 92. Further improvement of, 62 ; by animal and vegetable ma- nures, 66 ; by mineral manures, 78 ; by draining, 92,245. Ope- rations of draining, 98. Princi- ples of tilling, 112. Pulveriza- tion of, recommended, 113, 116, 121,167. On cleanness ofjwhile the crop is growing, 114. Ex- periments on, at Floitbeck, 1 15. Requisitions in, for the penetra- tion of roots, 117. Remarks on the fertility of, 121, 194, 199 Operations of tilling, 124. Im proved, by alternation of crops, 152 ; by root culture, 163 ; by substituting fallow crops, for INDEX. 333 naked fallows, 169. Suited to different crops, 182, 199. Ef- fects of cropping and manuring on, 186 ; tables, 191. Princi- ples for fertilizing, 194. Essen- tial elements of good, 195. Im- proved by planting the larch, 196. Small-grain crops exhaust, 197. Enriched by depasturing, 198. Paring and burning clay, 210. Different species of gras- ses require different properties of, 212. Grasses, for different, 226, 233. Stirring, in time of drought, 245, 288. Weight of, 2S6. JMarl, necessary to give one per cent, of carbonate of lime, for ploughed, 292. See Agriculture. Soil-draining, mode of, 99. When resorted to, 101. Soiling, meaning of, 222. Solidity, of a sphere, 283. Expla- nation of, by Lavoisier, 288. South America, neglect of agricul- ture, and degradation, in, 265. Sowing, hints on, 118-120, 205. Clover seed, 215. See Plant- ing. Spain, degradation and neglect of agriculture in, 10, 265. Meas- urement for a degree in, 285. Value of a real and dollar of, 296. Specific gravity of different bodies, 284, 290. Spheres, solidity and surface of, 283. Spiked rollers, 150. Sprouting seeds, 248. See Seeds. Square measures of length, 285. Stables, on making manure in, 68, 203. Hints on, 244, 249. Stagnant waters, bad effects of, 241, 242. Stall-feeding cattle, 164, 249. Standard, of specific gravity, 284, 290. Of British measures, 286. Of weights, 286. Staten Island, manure made at a farm on, 76, 275. Steam, cause of the elasticity of, 289. Steel, weight of, 286. Stirring the soil, in time of drought, 245, 288. Stock, see Cattle and Exhibitions. Stomach, compared to soil, 58. Ordinary teniperature of the, 59. Straw, making manure from, 275. See Litter. Strawberries, exhaustion by, 161. Strickland, on wheat crops, 23. Striking the furrows, 131, 138, 139. Strong soil, weight of, 286. Study, agriculture favorable to, 31. ^^e Mind. Subsistence, cost of, in Great Brit- ain, 11. Dependence of, on agriculture, 13. Subsoil-draining, described and illustrated by cuts, 103. Subsoil plough, successful use of, in clay soils, 45. Subsoils, retentive, 51. Porous, 52. On ameliorating, 52. Fer- tility dependent on, 197. Sully, Duke of, 9. Sulphate of lime, 287. Sulphur, in turnips, 154. Effects of chemical action on, 292. Sulphuric acid, 287. Absorbs moisture from the air, 288. Summer fallows, 169. Surface of spheres, 283. Surface-draining, remarks on, 98. Surface-water, on carrying off, 139. Surveyor's chains, length of, 285. Swanberg, on degrees, 285. Sweden, weight and value of the dollar of, 296. Sweet-scented vernal grass, 226, 239. Swimming substances, displace- ment of water by, 290. Swine, see Hogs. Switzerland, Hofwyl Agricultural School farm in, 24. 334 INDEX. T. Tables, oftlie comparative product and value of grasses, at Wo- burn, under the direction of the Duke of Bedford, 226. Showing tlie bushels of marl necessary to give one per cent, of carbonate of lime to an acre, for ploughed soils, 292. On the breadths and lengths of an acre, 293. Comparing the American with the Scotch and Irish acre, 293. Giving the hills or plants, on an acre, 294. Of the weight and value of foreign coins, 296. Tall oat-grass, 227, 229. See Oat-grass. Tallow, weight of, 286. Tap-roots, depth of, 114, 167. Soil for, 199. Taxes, paid by agriculture, 14. Taylor, John, on gypsum, as a manure, 89. On tillage, 121. On tall oat-grass, 229. Teachers, want of agricultural, 279. Teeth of harrows, 145, 147. Thistles, Canada, 123. In Scot- land, 266, 267. Tiles, used for drains, 99, 101. Tillage, principles of, 112. Ope- rations of, 124 ; by the plough, 124 ; by the harrow, 144 ; the roller, 148; the cultivator, 150; the drill-barrow, 151. Alterna- tion of crops in, 152. Lands better adapted to, than to grass, 233. See Agriculture. Timothv, remarks on, 225, 227, 234, 235. Tolls, paid by agriculture, 14. Tools, farmers', 123. See Imple- ments. Topping corn, cutting up, instead of, 251. Traces, length of, in ploughing, 144. Transition formation, fertility of the, 200, 201, note. Transplanting trees, 256. Trees, remarks on the destruction of, 55 ; on alternation of, in for- ests, 155, 161. About dwel- lings, 244. As an ornament, 253. Cultivation of, by the author, 254. Set out at Bangor, 255. Dearborn's hints re- specting, 255. Mode and time of transplanting, 256. Effects of, on the beauty of the land- scape, 257 ; upon the body and mind, 258. Trench-ploughing, 115, 117, 118. Troy weights, 286. Tull, Jethro, on tillage, 121. Turkish pounds, 286. 'rurnips, for ploughing in, 118. Sulphur in, 154. Cultivated in Germany, 163. Introduction of, into Great Britain, 163. Soil for, 199. U. Under-drains, advantages of, 96. Cases for resorting to, 99. Con- duits to, 100. Directions re- specting, 111. At Flottbeck, 116. See Draining. Urette, a manure, 72. Urine, for manure, 66, 72, 203. V. Value of foreign coins, 296. Van Bergen, practice of, in sow- ing grass-seeds, 209. Van Mons, on brittleness, from cold, 289. Vapors, elasticity of, 288. Vary, Samuel T., products and sales of the farm of, 159. Vegetable and animal nutrition, analogy between, 57, 188. Vegetables, food for, 36. Feed- ing, 38, 59, 188, 274. Agents in the nutrition or growth of, 51. Ignorance as to the best, 269. See Plants. Velocity of water in rivers, 284. Venice, 10, 12. Ventilation, 243, 244, 291. Vera Cruz, Humboldt on vet, ela- tion on the declivity of the Cor- dilleras, near, 202, note. INDEX. 335 Vergaleu pears, 269. Vinegar, specific gravity of, 284. Tendency of wine or cider, to ^run into, 290. Virginia, deterioration of the soil in, and causes of it, 18. Virtue, see Morals. Vitality of plants, seat of the, 119. See Plants. Vitriol, oil of, in Glauber's salts, 291. Von Thaer, Agricultural School of Moegeiia under, 24. On the classification of soils, 39. On soil with a flat and deep mould, 117, 7iote. On exhaustion of the soil, 189, 190. Von Voght, agricultural success of, at Flottbeck, 115. Means employed by, 115. Principles of his improvements, 117. W. Wasson, James D., on a commit- tee for publishing The Culti- vator, XV. Water, on the circulation of, in a soil, 36, 113. Improvement of soils by draining, 92, 115, 197. Operations of draining, 98 ; from the surface, 98, 139 ; from the soilj 99 ; from the subsoil, 103. Detrimental to root crops, 165. In the air, 239, 288. Bad etfects of stagnant, 241, 242. Hints on draining off, 245. Velocity of, in rivers, 284. Discharged from a pump, 284. Assumed specific gravity of, 284, 290. Weight of a cubic inch of distil- led, in a vacuum, 286. Weight and measurement of rain, 287 ; of distilled, 287. Chemical ac- tion with, 287. Absorption of, from the air, 288. Cause of the fluidity of, 289. Bulk of, re- moved by floating bodies, 290, See Draining ujid Soils. Watering cattle, 250. Watson, Bishop, on evaporation in time of drought, 288. Wealth, agriculture the principal source of National, 14, 264. Agriculture, as a means of ob- taining, 27, 264. Remarks on, 276, 277. W'edge, power of the, 284. Weeds, extirpation of, 122, 168, 266. Weights, 286. Standard of, 286. Of various substances, 286, 287. Of grains, 287. Of various coins, 296. Western States and Eastern, com- pared, as to soil, 56. Wet soils, improvement of, by draining, 92, 245. Causes of, 95. Operations of draining, 98. See Meadows. Wheat, average crops of, in Flan- ders, 22 ; in Scotland, 22 ; in England, Pennsylvania, and Ma- ryland, 23. Experiment in ap- plying manure to, 77, note. Depth of the roots of, 114. At Flottbeck, 116. Lime found in, 154, 184, 195,199. On the Coles Farm, 176. Soil for, 183. Exhaustion of the soil by, 190. Weight of, 287. Wheel and axle, 283. Power gained in the, 284. Wheels, friction of, 284. White-top grass, 228. Whitney, Henry, 262. Wild, cited, 30. Wild onions, 123. Winchester bushel, size of the, 287. Winter grain, ploughing for, 169. On harrowing, in the Spring, 215. Wisping cattle, 250. Witch grass, 232. See Quack grass. WTiitington, on agriculture, 35. Woburn, table of the product of grasses at, 226. Wood-ashes, a manure, 74. Woollen rags, a manure, 73, 203. Worcester county, Massachusetts, Agricultural Society in, 265. 336 INDEX. Worn-out lands, improved, 24- 26. See Alternation and Soils. Yankee husbandry, bad features in, 271. Yorkshire, comparative profits of a farm in, under the old and new systems of husbandry, 24. Young, Arthur, manure made by, 75, 275. Experiments on the potato, 166. END. ^^f^^^MfW^^ ^W'W 'm^^'J^^M'i