*r-- . «:4

JSC':*:

' «r«iei.-^'fsr

^ -OBETJi'

^^eL^<:y'

«gc a

m^<

*«scz: *■

^JC^:

, «flc^Tr

■- •««-•<' ■!

-■• Aisr:

V cc ^

•Kit:;

■«:<:•(«

*«5cr'

■rWT' .

4eK3r/

«:<■'"<

<<

«iCS£l, < ^CC'C

<•

•«!«jk::. c

n:<C. :4

<:?

'^Kj£"'.< U

K r'lr •■

ssc: • < « <*^

I- < c,cc

'■c«C«sC<

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND

MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

■^^^^--'W- «»n

sLl*:^

■C33:<S:'«31«

Cs^

■C^r^r c«^g

ZJKB

«f«^ <cr cvtfS;

Ziy*

^SK^^

JCL't

«:-Kr«:.t«^HG

«^-^

<!'<<< c«iaaE£

E3^

. «cr<<«<<5ag^

bcT

' <m'<s'*3grz

3^

,v<<t«:-.ic3|^5

*E?S

" ' -.ic:-^'"^-^^^

dr

^ Ct.<<'*^^H

"fe"

, • <ic;«^^

^

-^ '- "'-'^ *^^

^

^^::i^<^

Si^

=5^2 •«.'^-''^ *■*•

S

C^^cr-ciiSI

^^^i^S

~<-tfli

|^_^Bg"gy;r ,,.r ■ .«■

CX^C^''i *is

* ■— ~;- •'^^

^S-?-^'

/t C <

^^—2—-'

^T^

Digitized by tine Internet Arcliive

in 2008 witli funding from

IVIicrosoft Corporation

In ftp ://www.arcli ive.org/details/farmersdictionarOOgardricli

THE

FARMER'S DICTIONARY:

A VOCABULARY

OF THE TECHNICAL TERMS RECENTLY INTRODUCED INTO AGRI-
CULTURE AND HORTICULTURE FROM VARIOUS SCIENCES,
AND ALSO A COMPENDIUM OF

PRACTICAL FARMIIG:

THE LATTER CHIEFLY FROM THE WORKS OP THE REV. W. L.

RHAM, LOUDON, LOW, AND YOUATT, AND THE

MOST EMINENT

AMERICAN AUTHORS.

EDITED BY

D. P. GARDNER, M.D.,

HONOBATIT MEMBER OF SEVERAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES.

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

N E W - Y O R K :

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

82 CLIFF STREET.

1849.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by

Harper & Brothers,
In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York.

5V//

Or

X

PREFACE.

The Farmer's Dictionary was undertaken originally for
the purpose of supplying a want long felt by the editor, in
common with the agricultural community, of a short expla-
nation of the many technical terms introduced into the works
written on farming. Much opposition has arisen to the use
of technical words in these productions, and our journals are
full of complaints, from respectable men, against the innova-
tion. If, however, words having so precise a meaning, and,
in many instances, conveying so much information, be dis-
carded, what shall be substituted in their place ? It is obvi-
ously impossible for every writer who has occasion to use
the terms hybrid, hydrogen, or eremacausis, to explain in de-
tail what these mean ; and if the attempt were made, our
treatises would present the most tiresome examples of tau-
tology. Each farmer may satisfy himself with a set of arbi-
trary terms, which convey all the information he desires ; but
they will not answer if he wishes to impart that inforination
to others. There is, perhaps, no greater drawback to the
advancement of our art than the indefinite words used among
us — words which are often peculiar to a small district, and
which are used to designate a variety of objects in different
parts of the country. We find one writer using the word
" withers" for the shoulders of an animal, another for the
womb.

The friends of agricultural improvement, and especially
our journalists, should use all exertions to establish a suitable
nomenclature. The art has arrived at that stage that this is
the greatest object to be accomplished. It will open to the
practical man the extensive information of the scientific world,
and will enable the theorist to study his generalizations by
consulting the works of the true farmer. I have not, in at-
tempting to carry out my original design of preparing a
vocabulary, thought it advisable to insert every provincial
phrase, but have taken only those words in common use
among farmers, and which have become somewhat fixed by

iv PREFACE.

being frequently introduced into essays. I have thought it
useful, when words were occasionally met with a strange
signification, to omit them as an error in language ; nor has
it appeared conformable with my object to introduce the well-
known words of our language which have a place in the
common dictionaries. In this compilation I am necessarily
under infinite obligations to others, especially to Loudon,
Rham, Youatt, Stephens, Johnson, Deane, Young, Buel, Arm-
strong, Ellsworth, Colman, Low, Brande, Clater, &c., &c.,
and our journalists. My task has not been, however, with-
out labour; for I could find no vocabulary such as that I
desired to produce already in existence, to serve me as a
model ; and if any merit should be awarded me for this un-
dertaking, it may be claimed on the ground that the Farm-
er's Dictionary is the first book of its kind. This will also,
I trust, avert much of the criticism to which I know the work
is obnoxious. So much for my design, and the manner in
which it has been accomplished.

In addition to the vocabulary, my friends have suggested
the introduction of short and practical essays on the opera-
tions of farming ; and these have been introduced the more
readily, from the facility with which they were procured from
the works of the Rev. W. L. Rham, one of the best practical
writers of Britain, and others, as Loudon and Low, of great
merit, and but little known in the United States. In this part
of the work, care has been taken to edit the essays so as to
make them of practical value in this country. To the jour-
nalists of the United States I am also deeply indebted for the
matter introduced, and for which I have uniformly given
them credit.

To most of the crops raised in the United States, an Ajj-
pendix has been made of the composition of the ashes, and
remarks offered on the special manures. This has been
done in consideration of the existing desire for information
on the topic, and the impression that the most suitable ma-
nures for plants are discoverable by a study of their ashes.
The best theories of the chejnical school of agriculture are
also introduced. In this part of the work, I am indebted to
the labours of Chaptal, Davy, Braconnot, Saussure, Berthier,
Berzelius, Sprengel, Hermbstaed, Paycn, Johnston, Boussin-
gault, Dumas, Thaer, Liebig, Mulder, Fowncs, Fresenius,
Will, Hertwig, Kane, Shephard, and other chemists.

D. P. Gardner.

THE

FARMER'S DICTIONARY.

ABO

ABATTOIR. A building for the
slaughtering of animals.

ABDOMEN. The region of the
body containing the stomach, intes-
tines, liver, spleen, &.c. In insects it
is the third division of the trunk, in
spiders the second.

ABIES. The Fir genus of trees.
See Pmus.

ABNORMAL. Irregular or unu-
sual: applied to deviations from the
ordinary development of parts of an-
imals or plants.

ABORTION. Miscarriage. In
veterinary surgery, miscarriage, slip-
ping, slinking, casting, or warping, all
meaning the expulsion of the young
at so early a period of pregnancy as
to render it impossible for it to live.
The immediate causes appear to be
the death of the fetus, or derange-
ment in the functions of the womb or
its dependencies, arising from some
external cause or causes operating
on tlie mother. Among these causes
may be reckoned too much or too
little food, producing fullness or ema-
ciation ; sudden fright or sympathy
with certain smells or sights, sucli as
the smell or sight of blood, of bones,
of horns, and particularly of the abor-
ted fetus of another animal. Acci-
dents, also, such as falls, bruises,
over- driving, or fatigue, and the like,
may frequently bring on abortion.

The signs of approaching abortion
are, great languor, uneasiness, and
restlessness, sometimes a discharge
of bloody matter, and the sudden fill-
ing of the udder, similar to the signs
of approaching delivery.

Abortion in the Marc. — Abortions
very frequently happen among mares.
This often arises in consequence of
over-exertion during the latter period
of pregnancy. Mares are liable, also,
very frequently, to various accidents
A2

ABO

in their pastures, which may be the
cause of their slipping their foal, such
as kicks, tumbling into holes and
ditches, over-exerting themselves to
get over fences, and the like. On
this account, when a mare is near
her time, she should be kept by her-
self, in some convenient place. But
there is another, and, we suspect, a
very general cause of these accidents
in mares ; we mean a stinting of them
in their food, either in quantity or
quality. It appears, indeed, that some
imagine that the mare, when she is
in foal, may be turned out almost any-
where ; but this opinion is ill-found-
ed ; for, although she does not require
to be kept so high in condition as
when she is at hard work, yet she is
not to be turned out into a pasture
where she may be in a manner starv-
ed : but how often do we see the
mare in foal on the worst piece of
ground in the whole farm, exposed,
during the rigorous winter season, to
endure the cold, as well as to put up
with scanty food ? On the other hand,
when the mare is not worked at all,
and indulged with too high keep, she
is almost equally in danger of abor-
tion, her high condition having a ten-
dency to cause inflammation and oth-
er disorders ; and these, deranging the
reproductive organs, frequently pro-
duce miscarriage. It would seem,
then, that moderate exercise and diet
are best suited as means to avoid the
misfortune of the premature exclu-
sion of the foal.

Abortion in the Cow. — Abortion oc-
curs oftener in the cow than in all
other domestic animals put together.
Perhaps it is one of the greatest an-
noyances the proprietor of cows has
to encounter. The causes are fre-
quently involved in obscurity ; but it
may be mentioned that an extremely

ABO

hot and foul cow-house will now and
then produce alwrtion. and similar to
those in maros. Anythini,' wliatov-
er, indeed, that seriously affects the
health of the animal in general, or
the state of the reproductive origans
in particular, may do so. But abortion
occurs again and again when no such
causes as those enumerated can be
traced. The disease, if such it may
be called, as we think it may, is even
said to be infectious. No sooner does
it show itself in one animal than it is
seen in another and another, till it
has spread over the most part of the
cow-house. Some say this is to be
attributed to the odour arising from
the things evacuated. Possibly it
may be so ; there can be no great
harm, however, in acting as if we
were assured that the mischief has its
origin in the source so commonly sup-
posed, provided we do not shut our
eyes to any other which accident or
investigation may reveal. In the
mean time, the number of abortions
may be diminished by carefully avoid-
ing all those causes which are known
to be capable of producing it. Let the
cows be regularly fed ; let their food
be good, and in proper quantities ; let
them have water as often as they will
take it ; avoid sudden exposure to
cold or heat ; and, above all, let the
cow-house be well ventilated. Pro-
hibit all manner of rough usage on
the part of those who look after the
cows, whether they be pregnant or
not. If any of them accumulate flesh
too rapidly, gradually reduce their al-
lowance ; and, on the other hand, if
any become emaciated, discover the
cause and remedy it, always by slow
degrees. Sudden changes in the mat-
ter or mode of feeding should also be
avoided. The same sort of diet does
not agree equally well with all the
cows, and this, in general, is indica-
ted by undue relaxation or constipa-
tion of the bowels ; this should be
watched, and removed at once. At-
tention to these, and many other mi-
nor circumstances, will amply repay
the proprietor for the little additional
trouble.
It is a remarkable feature in the his-
G

ABO

tory of this complaint, that those an-
imals that have once miscarried are
particularly liable to do so again at '
the same period of their succeeding
pregnancy. Greater care is therefore
recpiisite to guard against those caus-
es which do, or are supposed to excite
it. The treatment of abortion, when
it does take place, differs not from
that adopted in cases of parturition,
only that the cow which miscarries
should be removed, with all that be-
longs to her, from among pregnant
cows.

If the signs of approaching abortion
be discovered early, the accident may
sometimes be prevented. If the cow
is in good condition, then immediately
let it be bled to the extent of five or
six quarts, and the bowels opened
with half a pound of Epsom salts, two
ounces of Glauber's, or three or four
ounces of castor oil, administered in
a quart of gruel ; but if the cow is in
very poor condition, and the miscar-
riage is anticipated from her having
been exposed to cold, avoid bleeding,
and give her a warm gruel drink, with
an ounce of laudanum in it. If after
this abortion does take place, let her
be kept in a comfortable place by her-
self; and if the after-birth has not
passed off. let no injudicious and un-
necessary administration of violent
forcing medicines be given. Nature,
with a little assistance, is generally
equal to the perfect restoration of the
animal.

Abortion hi the Sheep. — Ewes are
subject to abortion, in consequence
of the numerous accidents they are
liable to. A pack of hounds in pursuit
of a hare got among a flock of sheep
belonging to a farmer, and so hurried
and alarmed them, that thirty out of a
flock of two hundred ewes premature-
ly dropped their lambs. It is the same
in sheep as in the other cases of do-
mestic animals ; scarcity of food, and
exposure to severe cold, having a
great tendency to make the ewes pre-
maturely drop their lambs, or produce
them weakly and crippled at the full
time ; and although there may be a
little danger in giving too much food,
such as allowing them to feed all the

ABS

•winter on turnips, the danger is tri-
fling compared witli the starving sys-
tem.—(.V;7/fr.)

ABORTIVE. Deficient. A com-
mon term in botany, and signifying
the absence of stamens or pistils,
whereby fruit cannot be produced ;
but also used to designate the partial
or complete obliteration of any other
organ, as the leaf, petals, carpels, dec.

ABRAXAS. A genus of butterfly
(Lepidopterous) insects of the family
of geometers ; one of which, the A.
grossidariata, is the well-known goose-
berry moth, the caterpillar of which
destroys the leaves of currant and
gooseberry bushes.

ABS C E S S. A gathering or tu-
mour containing pus ; it is the result
of accidents or impaired health ; and
is only of moment when it atTects
internal organs or is produced near
joints. Abscesses in joints, especial-
ly the hock joint of the horse, oft-
en produce incurable lameness, and
those of internal organs destroy life
by enfeebling the system. Superfi-
cial abscesses are to be opened freely
at their lowest point when the pus is
well formed ; and poultices are to be
applied to encourage the disciiarge :
the wound must be kept clean, and
dressed daily. It is advisable to hind-
er the formation of the abscess by low
diet, and scarifying the part with a
lancet ; but this is only serviceable in
the first stages.

ABSORBENTS. In vetcrbmry
medicine, drugs that are given inter-
nally for the purpose of neutralizing
any acid which forms in the stomach
and bowels, in consequence of impair-
ed digestion. Prepared chalk is gen-
erally used for this purpose ; or car-
bonate of soda. Those medicines are
likewise termed absorbents which
are applied externally for absorbing
moisture. Starch, calamine, flour,
and the like, are employed in this way.
They are sometimes dusted between
folds of the skin when galled, and raw
from friction, blisters, or grease.
They are likewise useful in canker
of the horse's foot, foul in the foot of
cattle, foot-rot in sheep, and sores
between the toes of dogs ; and they

ABCr

are beneficial in some forms of
mange, in slaying bleeding, and as-
sisting the cure of a wounded joint.

Absorbents. In physiology, a
class of vessels whose office is to
convey the product of digestion and
the residue of nutrition into the cir-
culation, to be mixed with and repair
the waste of the blood. They are
divided into lacteals and lymphatics.
The former are all situated in the cav-
ity of the abdomen ; and by extreme-
ly minute mouths, opening on the in-
ner surface of the stomach and intes-
tines, they receive the nutritious por-
tion of the food, and carry it to a ves-
sel which runs along the left side of
the spine, and which, in its turn,
empties itself into the left jugular
vein.

The lymphatics are distributed over
every portion of the frame. The uses
of the lymphatics are to remove the
residue of nutrition ; and, when the
supply of food is deficient, to remove
such portions of the body as can be
spared and converted into blood. The
lymphatics ultimately empty their
contents into the same vessel as the
lacteals, and they follow, in their dis-
tribution through the body, the same
course as the veins. In the horse
they are liable to a disease termed
farcy ; and in all animals they are
frequently inflamed in the neighbour-
hood of a sore.

ABSORBENT SOILS. Soils in
such a state of improvement, or of so
good a quality as to absorb moisture
from the air.

ABSORPTION. The imbibition

I of fluids. In plants this takes place

! chiefly by the swelling terminations

i of the rootlets (the spongioles). In

i very damp weather, leaves and the

green stems also absorb moisture

from the air. Fluids and gases only

can be absorbed, no insoluble matters

entering plants. Absorption in ani-

mals is carried on by the lacteals and

' lymphatics.

ABSTERGENTS. Medicines used
! for resolving tumours. They are usu-
ally stimulating.

I ABUTMENT. The solid part of a
1 pier from which an arch springs.

ACI

ACI

ACACIA. Spinous leguminous
trees, with small flowers collected in
spikes or heads ; they are usually of
small size. Two or three insig-
nificant species belong to the United
States. The locust is often improp-
erly called by this name.

ACARl. The family of mites.
ACCIPITRKS. The order of birds
containing the hawks, eagles, and
similar birds of prey.

ACCLIMATE. To accustom or
mure animals or vegetables to a par-
ticular climate.

ACER. The generic name of the
maples.

ACERANS. A family of wingless
insects without antennaj.

ACEROSE. In botany, leaves
which are thin and sharp, such as
those of the pine-trees.

ACETABULUM. In anatomy,
acetahvlum signifies the cavity of the
hip joint. In entomology, it is the
socket on the trunk in which the leg
is planted.

ACETARIOUS PLANTS. Salad
plants.

ACETATES. Salts containing
acetic acid, of which the acetate of
lead or sugar of lead is the most im-
portant in the arts.

ACETIC ACID. See Vinegar.
ACHENIUM, AKENIUM. A small
bony fruit, containing a single seed,
which does not adhere to the shell or
pericarp, nor open when ripe.

ACHLAMYDEOUS. Plants which
have neither calyx nor corolla, and
whose flowers are consequently des-
titute ofa covering, or naked.

ACICULAR. Sharp, like a needle.
ACIDS. For the most part, sharp,
sour bodies, which redden litmus, and
combine with metallic oxides or bases
to form salts. Many are, however,
destitute of sour taste. They are di-
vided into organic and inorganic : the
latter constitute the mineral acids.
The organic acids are divided into
vegetable and animal acids. The fol-
lowmg are interesting in agriculture :
Mineral Acids.
The sulphuric. See Sulphur.
Muriatic. See Chlorine.
Silicic. See Sand.
Phosphoric. See Phoaphorui.
8

Vegetable Acids.

Nitric. See Silrogen.
Acplic. See Vinegar.
Carbonic. See Carbon.
Tannic. See Tannin.
Gnllic. See Tannin.
I'russic. See Hydrocyanic acid.
Humic. See Humus.

Oxalic acid in the free state is found
in the hairs of the Ciccr arictinum, or
chick pea. It is very common in com-
bination with potash, in sorrels, docks,
rhubarbs, &c., and with lime in lich-
ens. It is a very soluble, crystalline,
colourless solid, of intense sourness,
and highly poisonous. The composi-
tion is C; O3 -f HO, the HO (water)
being replaced by bases. A solution
is used as a test for lime, which it
precipitates from its solutions as a
white, insoluble oxalate of lime.

Tartaric acid. Combined with pot-
ash, it abounds in the juice of the
grape, and is also found in tamarinds,
bilberries, &c. It is a white, crys-
talline bodv, of the composition Cg
H4 Oi -\- 2 HO, and is bibasic. The
racemic acid is isomeric. A solu-
tion precipitates potash in the form
of the white crystalline bitartrate
(cream of tartar).

Benzoic acid gives an aroma to
many balsams, sweet-scented grass,
&c. Its formula is Cu H., O3 + HO,
and it is considered an hydrated oxyde
of benzoyl, or Bz. O -f HO,

Citric acid. This is the sour prin-
ciple of lemons, cranberries, cherries,
gooseberries, &c. It is a very solu-
ble, crystalline solid, of the composi-
tion Ci; H.^ Oji -f 3 HO ; but the crys-
tals contain 1 and 2 atoms of water
of crystallization besides.

Malic acid is the acid body of un-
ripe apples, pears, plums, &c. In the
insulated condition, it is a deliques-
cent crystalline substance of intense
sourness, composed of Cs H^ O3 -+-
2 HO.

Besides these, all oily bodies con-
tain one or more acids. See Oils.

The animal acids are enumerated
under that head. The acids in plants
are, for the most part, combined with
bases : potash and lime are the most
common ; but magnesia, soda, alu-
mina, and iron are also found. Oc-

ACU

casionally they are united with vege-
table alkalies.

As food, the acids are not of nauch
moment ; they do, however, serve to
sustain the heat of the body by fur-
nishing carbon for the respiratory
function.

ACINACIFORM. Of a curved fig-
ure, like the cimeter.

ACINUS. The small and separate
carpels of a compound succulent fruit.
ACOXITINE. The poisonous al-
kaloid of Monk's-hood.

ACORN. The fruit of the oak.
That of the live oak and other species
is sweet and agreeable : it is an ad-
mirable food for pigs, and in England
commands 37V cents the bushel.

AC0TYLED(3NS. Plants desti-
tute of seed-lobes, the cryptogamia
of Linnaeus, including fungi, mosses,
sea-weeds, ferns.

ACRE. A standard land meas-
ure. The imperial acre is subdivided
into

4 roods, each rood 40 perches.
160 perches, 16 feet and a half
each.
4840 square yards, 9 feet each.
43,560 square feet, 144 inches

each.
174,240 squares of six inches each,
36 inches each.
6,272,640 inches, or squares of one
inch each.
From this table the farmer can
readily discover how many plants can
he set in the acre, according as they
are one yard, one foot, &.C., apart
each way.

ACROGENS. The same as cryp-
togamia or acotyledons.

ACRID. A biting, nauseous taste,
often producing blistering, belonging
to many poisonous plants.
ACROLEIN. See Glycerine.
ACROSPIRE. The young up-
ward shoot of germinating seeds.
ACRYDIUM. A genus of locusts.
ACTINOLITE. A variety of horn-
blende.

ACTINOMETER. An instrument
to measure the intensity of the sun's
rays.

ACULEATE. Furnished with
prickles.
B

AGA

ACULE ATES. The insects of the
bee and wasp kind, furnished with
stings.

ACUMINATE. Tapering to a
point.

ADDUCTORS. Those muscles
which draw the parts to which they
are attached together : they are op-
posed to the abductors.

ADEPS. Lard.

ADI ANTUM. A genus of elegant
ferns : the fructification is in short
marsjinal lines.

ADIPOSE. Fatty, as the adipose
tissues.

ADNATE. Adhering, growing, or
attached to the surface.

ADVENTITIOUS. Occurring in
an unusual manner, as when a bud
arises from the root of a plant.

ADULARIA. A brilliant crystal-
line feldspar.

AERATING. Introducing air or
gases.

ESTIVATION. The manner in
which the parts of the flower bud are
folded together.

yETHEOGAMOUS PLANTS.
The cryptogamia.

AETHER. See Ether.

AETIOLOGY. The study of the
causes of disease.

AFFINITY. In natural history,
the close resemblance of animals or
plants in their organization.

Affinity. In chemistry, the force
which combines dissimilar bodies to-
gether in precise proportions. See
Atom.

AFTER-GRASS. The second crop
of grass from lands mowed the same
year.

AFTER-MATH. The second mow-
ing of permanent meadows the same
year. It is free from flower stems,
and often much more nutritious than
the first crop ; but it is customary to
feed it off' by sheep or cattle instead
of cutting.

AGAMOUS. Cryptogamic plants.

AGARICUS. A genus of mush-
rooms distinguished by plaits or gills
under the cap, which are arranged
nearly parallel. Several are nutritious
and of a delicate flavour, as A. cam-
pestris (the common mushroom), chaU'
9

AGE

tarcUus, delkiosus, cinnamomcus, ■pra-
tcnsis, vwlaccus. The poisonous
kinds have usually a narcotic or acrid
odour.

AGAVE. The Mexican aloe. The
juice yields pulque, and a good hemp
is made from the leaves.

AGE OF ANIMALS. For that of
the horse, see Horse.

Age of Neat Cattle. — The age of
cou's, oxen, and bulls is known by the
teeth and horns. At the end of about
two years they shed their first fore-
teeth, which are replaced by others,
larger, but not so white ; and before
five years all the incisive teeth are
renewed. These teeth are at first
equal, long, and pretty white ; but as
the animals advance in years, they
wear down, become unequal, and
black. When three years old, neat
cattle also experience a considerable
change in the structure of their horns,
after which period these appendages,
like the second or permanent teeth,
preserve the same character. Du-
ring the first year of the animal's age,
two small, smooth, pointed, and neat-
ly-formed horns make their appear-
ance, attached to the head by a kind
of button. This conformation con-
tinues during the first three years,
after which the button moves from
the head, being impelled by a horny
cylinder. Thus the horns continue
growing as long as the animal lives,
as is indicated by the annual joints,
which are easily distinguished in the
horn, and by which the age of the
creature may be easily known, count-
ing three years for the point of the
horn, and one for each of the joints
or rings. Dishonest dealers some-
times obliterate these rings by shaving
or filing the horns, in order to conceal
the age of the beast. — (Johnson.)

Age of Sheep. — The age of these
animals is known by their having, in
their second year, two broad teeth ;
in their third year, four broad teeth ;
in their fourth year, six broad teeth ;
and in their fifth year, eight broad
teeth before ; after which none can
tell how old a sheep is while its teeth
remain, except by their being worn
down.
10

AIR

About the end of one year, rams,
wethers, and all young sheep lose the
two fore-teclli of the lower jaw ; and
tliey are known to want tiie incisive
teelh in the upper jaw. At eighteen
months, the two teeth joining to the
former also fail out ; and at three
years, being all replaced, they are
even and pretty white ; but as these
animals advance in age, the teeth
become loose, blunt, and afterward
black.

AGI, or AGY. Chilian pepper,
Capsicum baccalum.

AGlSTMEiNT. Payment for pas-
turage on another's lands.

AGRICULTIKE. The whole art
and science of husbandry. For the
history, see Loudon'' s EncycJopcvdia of
Agriculture.

AGRIMONY. The genus Agri-
monia, perennial, unimportant weeds
of small size.

AGRIONTD.E. The family of in-
sects called dragon flies (Libellula,
Agrion).

AGRONOMY. The cultivation of
land, agriculture.

AGROSTIS. The genus of bent
grasses. They grow chiefly in wet
places, and flower late ; most are
perennial, stoloniferous, or creeping,
and are therefore difficult to extir-
pate, and unsuited to rotations. The
Agrostcs stricta is the red top, or herd
grass. A. stolonifera is Richardson's
florin, and, when grown in rich, wet
pastures, is very superior.

AIGRETTE. The down or pap-
pus of the seeds of compositae.

AIR. Any gas, but usually the at-
mosphere, which see.

AIRA. The genus of hair grasses.
They are perennial, usually grow in
wet places, and are of little moment
in agriculture.

AIR CELLS. In plants, enlarged
cavities in the cellular tissue, to pro-
duce buoyancy in aquatic plants. In
birds, membranous cavities commu-
nicating with the lungs, and traver-
sing all parts of the bird, even to the
interior of the bones and quills. In
some insects the air vessels are en-
larged into cells.

AIR PLANTS. Those which grow

AIR

without striking their roots into the
soil. They usually derive sustenance
from other plants.

AIR PU.MP. A machine for remo-
ving the air out of a vessel. The
principle of this important philosoph-
ical instrument is very simple, and
may be easily comprehended from a
brief explanation. The essential part
,| of the machine con-

,11 sistsofan exhaust-

IQ /^^ ing syringe (a),
a\ I formed of a tube

j / I I o"" barrel of brass,

•'^^^~'/—'-y closed at one end,
^ with the exception

of a small orifice, to which a valve
(A), opening inward, is attached. An
air-tight piston is worked up and
down in the barrel by a rack and pin-
ion turned by a winch. The piston
has also an orifice with a valve (c),
which opens upward, or in the same
direction as the valve of the tube.
The syringe communicates, by means
of a small pipe {d) fitted into the open-
ing at its lower extremity, with a ves-
sel (e) called the receiver, from which
the air is to be extracted.

The receiver is placed on a brass
plate ( f, g), over a small hole, into |
which Ihe other end of the pipe is in- 1
serted ; and, in order that the contact ,
maybe air-tight, the edge of the glass I
is previously rubbed with lard or some [
unctuous matter. I

Suppose the piston at the bottom [
of the tube. As it begins to be drawn j
up, the valve c of the piston is imme-
diately shut by the pressure of the ex- 1
terior atmosphere, so that no air can |
enter the barrel, and a perfect vacu-
um would be left under it, were it not
that the valve at the bottom of the
barrel is forced open by the pressure
of the air in the receiver, which rush-
es into the barrel till its density be-
comes the same both in the receiver
and barrel. When the piston has been
drawn to the top of the barrel, the
whole of the air which occupied the ;
barrel has been removed, and the re-
ceiver and barrel are now both filled
with the air which was previously ,
contained in the receiver alone. — I
{Brande's Encyclopedia.) 1

ALG

I AIR VESSELS. Spiral vessels,
tracheae.

j ALATE (froma/a, a?nV). With
i lateral expansions, winged.
! ALBUMEN. One of tlie important
' azotized principles of animals and
plants. In the solid state it consti-
tutes the principal component of
membranes, and in the fluid form is
found in the serum of blood and the
white of egg. The juice of all plants
contains a small quantity. In the
moist state it is readily putrescible,
and coagulates at about 180^ Fahren-
heit ; but when dry it is a transpa-
rent, brittlfe substance, which resists
decay. For its composition, see Pro-
tein.

Albumen, in botany, is the fleshy,
mealy, or horny substance forming
the substance of the seed, and lying
between the embrvo and testa.

alburnum". The sap wood.
The ascending sap rises along its
pores. It is usually of a different
colour, and much more perishable
than the heart wood.

ALCOHOL. Spirit of wine. It is
formed daring the vinous fermenta-
tion. The pure spirit has a specific
gravity of .792, and consists of d He
0:. It is present in brandy, whiskey,
and strong spirits to the extent of
fifty per cent., twenty-five per cent,
in strong wines, ten per cent, in ci-
der and ales, and six per cent, in beer.
It is of great use in the laboratory as
a solvent of resins, &c., and for the
hot flame it produces when burned in
lamps.

ALDER. Shrubs of the genus ^Z-
nus, which is closely allied to the
birch. The common swamp alder is
the A. scrrulata. The A. glauca (black
alder) is used by dyers for the produc-
tion of a black.

ALE. A strong beer made from,
light malt.

ALE-HOOF. Ground ivy.

ALEMBIC. A retort with a move-
able cover or cap.

ALEXANDERS. An umbelliferr
ous plant, formerly cultivated like
celery.

ALG-E. The family of sea-
weeds and fresh- water weeds (^Con,'
11

ALL

ferva). They are cellular and crypto-
gamic.

ALIMENTARY CANAL. The
passage from the mouth through the
stomach and intestines.

ALITKUNCK, ALITRUNCUS.
In entomology, the posterior segment
of the thorax of an insect, to which
the abdomen is alhxed, and which
bears the legs, properly so called, or
the two posterior pairs, and the
wings.

ALIZARINE. The red colouring
principle of madder.

ALKALI, ALCALI. A term ori-
ginally applied to the ashes of plants,
now generally used to designate pot-
ash, soda, lithia, and ammonia, which
are also termed vegetable, mineral,
and volatile alkali. These substan-
ces have certain properties in com-
mon, such as neutralizing and form-
ing salts with the acids, reddening
several vegetable yellows, and chan-
ging some blues to green, and ready
solubility in water. Lime, baryta,
strontia, and magnesia have been
called alkaline earths, from their an-
alogous action on vegetable colours.
Lithia is also one of the alkalis. A
singular class of bodies have been dis-
covered in vegetables, which have
been termed alkalis, or alkaloids,
chiefly in consequence of their pow-
er of saturating, and forming detinite
salts with the acids. Morphia, quin-
ia, &c., are substances of this descrip-
tion.

ALKALIMETER. A graduated
glass tube employed in determining
the quantity of real alkali in commer-
cial potash and soda, by the quantity
of dilute sulphuric acid of a known
strength which a certain weight of
these saturates.

ALKANET. Anchusa tincloria.
The root of this plant, which is a na-
tive of the warmer parts of Europe,
contains a red resinous colouring
matter, which it imparts to alcohol
and oils ; it is used to tinge some
ointments, especially lip-salves, of a
red colour.

ALLANTOIS. A membrane at-
tached to the extremity of the ali-
mentary canal in the fetal calf and
12

ALM

other animals. It contains the allan-
toic fluid.

ALLSPICE. The pimento.

ALLUVIUM, ALLUVION. A soil
formed by the deposites of ancient
rivers, or washed from hill-sides by
floods. The character of the soil dif-
fers with the country through which
the flood has passed ; hut it is al-
ways rich, because it contains matter
finely divided, and much organic re-
mains. It is not to be confounded
with diluvium, which signifies an an-
cient gravel.

ALMOND. Amygdalus argentea
and nana. The silver and dwarf al-
mond ornamental slirubs.

ALMOND-TREE. Amygdalus com-
munis. Varieties : bitter, sweet ten-
der shell, sweet hard shell, long fruit,
and peach-almond of large size. The
tree is of small size, bears an abun-
dance of flowers, and may be grown
advantageously south of Maryland.

Propagation. — All the species and
varieties are propagated by seeds,
budding, grafting, layers, and occa-
sionally they will produce suckers,
which may be successfully planted
out. "When stocks for budding or
grafting upon are wanted, or new va-
rieties desired, these are obtained by
sowing the fruit stones, though they
may be budded or grafted on mussel-
plum stocks.

The stones of the last season's
produce should be sown in October,
upon a bed of light, rich soil, about
three inches apart, and covered four
inches deep with fine soil. This is
indispensable ; for when the soil is
left in lumps, the shoots are often
forced into a crooked direction, and
this causes the trunk to be deform-
ed, and unfit to become a fine tree.
"When the surface of the seed-bed
has been smoothed, a covering of rot-
ten tanner's bark or leaf mould, to
the depth of two inches, must be laid
upon it, which being light, prevents
the fruit-stones from being damaged
by any severity of winter. At the be-
ginning of May this covering of bark
or leaves must be raked clean off the
bed. The stones might be reserved
till spring, and be sown at the end of

ALM

Marcli, but the plants do not come so
certainly as when sown in autumn.
An additional advantage of an au-
tumn sowing is, that the plants come
np about six weeks or two months
earlier than those sown in spring ;
consequently, the plants become vig-
orous and well rooted the first year,
and thereby not liable to be thrown
out of the ground by thaws succeed-
ing frost in the following winter.

During summer, care must be ta-
ken to pull up all weeds when very
young ; for if they be allowed to get
strong before pulling out, tliis opera-
tion is apt to injure the roots of the
almond plants.

When almond stones have been
sown in spring, it will be necessary,
at the approach of the succeeding
winter, to have the beds covered
with rotten tanner's bark, or leaf
mould, scattering it an inch deep or
more among the plants : a cover-
ing which will tend to prevent the
plants being injured or thrown out
by frost.

In the second spring after the sow-
ing, the plants should he taken up,
carefully preserving all the fibrous
roots : a care which, as they are but
sparingly produced, will be essentially
necessary. The plants must be trans-
planted in rows, two feet apart row
from row, and a foot and a lialf dis-
tant in the rows. Here they may be
trained to form standards, half stand-
ards, or dwarfs, and be regulated and
prepared either ibr wall training or
shrubbery plantations. For i)oth pur-
poses, attention will be requisite du-
ring summer and wniter to thin out
the branches, reserving only a suita-
ble number for the future limbs of the
tree, and these so far apart that they
may not, in any future stage of growth,
be liable to rub against each other,
which standard trees would be liable
to ; for if this be not avoided, gum
would be exuded at such injured
parts, and the speedy decay of the
tree be the consequence.

Almond plants intended for train-
ing against walls should have some
stakes fixed in the ibrm of a trellis,
to which the branches should be se-

ALU

cured in a proper form, so that they
may be suited to the position of the
wall on their final removal. — {Miller's
DicUonan/.)

ALOES. The dried juice, or an
extract of numerous species of Aloe,
particularly the Aloe spicata. The
plants inhabit arid countries in the
tropics, and have long, rather fleshy
leaves, and a liliaceous inflorescence
arranged in spikes.

The drug is a nauseous, bitter, and
warm purgative. It is administered
to horses in balls of six to eight
drachms.

ALOPECURUS. The genus of
fox-tail grasses ; they resemble the
cat's-tail. Many are of great agricul-
tural value. See Grasses.

ALPACA. The Llama, or Peru-
vian sheep. It is cultivated in the
Andes of Peru lor its long fleece, and
as a beast of burden. The flesh is
also good. These animals are of the

same family as the camel, and are ex-
tremely hardy and abstemious. Their
wool is largely imported into England
from Peru.

ALTERATIVES. Medicines
which improve the health without
any active effects.

ALTERNATE HUSBANDRY
The system in which one part of the
farm is in pasture and part arable ;
and these are changed every few
years.

ALUDEL. An implement used in
sublimation, and resembling an alem-
bic.

ALUM. The sulphate of alumina
and potash. The powder is a pow'er-
ful styptic, and used to arrest bleed-
ing. In lotion it is astringent and
13

AMI

ANA

stimulating. "Wlien burned, the pow-
der becomes caustic.

Tlie lotion may be made with six to
eight drachms of alum to a quart of
water. It is used for grease, cracks
in the heels of horses, and ulcers
after the inflammation is subdued.

The alum is used by dyers, but the
solution of acetate of alumina is su-
perior for most i)urposes.

ALUMINA. Pure base of clay,
argil. It is a scsquioxide of alumi-
nium, white, insoluble ; but it possess-
es a great affinity for water. In the
crystalline state it forms the sap-
phire and emerald. It is a feeble
base, uniting with acids. The hy-
drated silicate of alumina forms the
bulk of clav.

ALUMLNIU.M. The metallic base
of alumina.

ALVEOLATE. Covered with lit-
tle pits ; honey-combed.

ALVINE. Relating to the bow-
els.

AMALGAM. A compound of mer-
cury with a metal.

AMANITA. A genus of poisonous
mushrooms.

AMAUROSIS. Total blindness,
without loss of brilliancy in the eye.

AMBLE. The same as the pace
in horsemanship.

AMBUSTION. A scald or burn.

AMELIORATING CROPS. Root
crops, clovers, and grasses, fed on
the land.

AMENDMENTS. Sand, marl, and
other substances applied in large
quantities to amend the tilth.

AMENTUM. The catkin ; a de-
ciduous spike, such as that of wil-
lows, poplars, dec. Trees with this
inflorescence are called amentaceous,
and usually contain much potash in
their ashes.

AMENTABOLIANS. Insects
which do not undergo metamorpho-
ses.

AMERICAN BLIGHT. The wool-
ly or mealy aphis. Aphis lanigcra,
also called Erwsoma mali : it is very
destructive to apple and pear trees in
England. See Insects.

AMIDOGENE. A theoretical ba-
sis of ammonia, composed of N Hj :
14

its compounds with metals are term-
ed amides, or amidides.

AMIDINE. The soluble, internal
portions of the starch globules.

AM.MONIA. Volatile alakli, spir-
its of hartshorn. See Nttro^cti.

AMMONIACAL GAS. The gas-
eous state of pure ammonia before it
is dissolved by water, in which it is
extremely soluble ; it is also rapidly
absorbed by charcoal, clays, rust, dec.

A.MMONTUM. A hypothetic base
of ammonia, consisting of N H4. The
oxide of ammonium is the common
base, as found in the salts of ammo-
nia, and consists of N H4 0.

AMNION. The delicate membrane
which surrounds the fetus in utero :
it contains the amniotic fluid, or li-
quor amnios.

AMNIOS. The fluid within the
nucleus of the young seed, on which
the embryo feeds.

AMORPHOUS. Without regular
figure or form.

AMPHIBOLE. A variety of horn-
blende.

AMPHITROPAL. In botany, an
embryo which is turned round in the
albumen, or curved upon itself in
such a manner that both its ends are
presented to the same point.

AMPLEXICAUL. Clasping or
embracing the stem.

AMYGDALUS. The generic name
of the peach and almond.

AMYGDALOID. Rocks in which
other minerals are imbedded, pudding-
stone.

AMYGDALIN. A white, sweet-
ish, soluble matter in bitter almonds,
changeable into oil of bitter almonds
by the action of emulsin.

AMYLACEOUS. Starchy, full of
starch.

AMYLIN. Pure starch.

ANAL GLANDS. Glands for the
secretion of various substances, sit-
uated near the anus.

ANALYSIS The separation of
the components of any substance. It
is quanlUatitc when the amount of
each ingredient is to be known, quali-
tative when the nature only.

Analysis of soils is of no value un-
less rigorously performed with per-

ANALYSIS.

feet means. It is best, however, for '
agricultural purposes, to discover the
presence or absence of a given sub-
stance, as lime or bone earth, rather
than enter into the complete solution
of the substance. The ordinary means
flf distinguishuig the components of ,
a soil is given under Soils. The |
following, from Boussingault, is of a ;
higher character : |

In examining a soil, attention ought |
to be directed, 1st, to the sand ; 2d, to ]
the clay ; 3d, to the humus which it ]
contains. It would farther be useful
to inquire particularly in regard to
certain other principles which exert '■
an unquestionable inlluence upon ve-
getation, such as certain alkalme and
earthy salts.

Vegetable earth dried in the air
until it becomes quite friable may
nevertheless still retain a considera-
ble quantity of water, and which can
only be dissipated by the assistance
of a somewhat high temperature. It
is therefore proper, in the first in-
stance, to bring all the soils which it
is proposed to examine comparative-
ly, to one constant degree of dryness.
The best and quickest way of drying
such a substance as a portion of soil,
is to make use of the oil bath ; a quan-
tity of oil contained in a copper ves-
sel is readily kept at an almost uni-
form temperature by means of a lamp.
A thermometer plunged in the bath
shows the degree to which it is heat-
ed : the substance to be dried is put
into a glass tube of no great depth,
and sufficiently wide ; or into a por-
celain or silver capsule, if the quan-
tity to be operated upon be somewhat
considerable : these tubes or vessels
are placed in the oil so as to be im-
mersed in it to about two thirds of
their height. For the desiccation of
soils, the temperature may be carried
to 150^ or 160^ C. (334= or 352= F.).
The weight of the vessel is first ac-
curately taken, and a given weight of
the matter to be dried is then thrown
into it, after which it is exposed to
the action of the bath. If we oper-
ate upon from GOO to 700 grains, the
drying must be continued during two
or three hours ; the weight of the

capsule with its contents, after hav-
ving been wiped thoroughly clean, is
then taken. It is placed anew in the
bath, and its weight is taken a sec-
ond time after an interval of fifteen
or twenty minutes ; if tlie weight has
not diminished, it is a proof that the
drying was complete at the time of
the first trial. In the contrary case,
the operation must be continued, and
no drying must be held terminated un-
til two consecutive weighings, made
at an interval of from fifteen to twen-
ty minutes, show anything more than
a very trifiing difference. Davy points
out another and much more simple
method, which, although far from ac-
curate, may nevertheless suffice in
many general trials. The soil to be
dried is put into a porcelain capsule
heated by a lamp, and a thermome-
ter, with whicii the mass may be stir-
red, is placed in its middle, and shows
the temperature at each moment.
Lastly, in many circumstances the
marine bath may suffice. In drying,
the main point is to do so at a known
temperature, and one which may be
reproduced ; for the absolute desicca-
tion of a quantity of soil could not be
accomplished except at a heat close
upon redness, and this would, of
course, alter or destroy the organic
matters it contains.

The organic matters contained in
ordinary soils consist in part of pie-
ces of straw and of roots, which are
usually separated by sifting the earth
through a hair sieve ; the gravel and
stones which the soil contains are
separated in the same way.

The earth sifted is now washed.
To accomplish this, it is introduced
into a matrass, with three or four
times its bulk of hot distilled water ;
the whole is shaken well for a time,
the matrass is left to stand for a mo-
ment, and then the liquid is decanted
into a wide porcelain capsule. The
washing is continued, fresh quanti-
ties of water being added each time,
until the whole of the clay has been
removed, which is known by the fluid
becoming clear very speedily ; the
sand which remains is then washed
out into another capsule. The argil-
15

ANALYSIS.

laceous particles, or the clay and all
the matters held in suspension in the
water, are tlirowii upon a lilter and
dried ; the desiccation is completed
by the same process, and under the
•ame circumstances as that of the
•oil had been. The sand is, in like
nanner, dried with the same care.

If we would ascertain the nature
and quantity of the soluble salts, the
whole of the water used in the wash-
ing must be put together and evapo-
rated, which may be done upon a
sand bath. The evaporation is push-
ed to dryness, and the salts that re-
main, having been previously weigh-
ed, are thrown into a small platinum
capsule, in which they are heated to
a dull red by means of a spirit-lamp,
in order to burn out the organic salts,
and thus distinguish, by means of a
subsequent weighing, between them
and the inorganic salts.

The sand may be silicious or cal-
careous. The presence of carbonate
of lime is readily ascertained by treat-
ing it with an acid wiiich will form
a soluble salt with lime, such as hy-
drochloric, nitric, or acetic acid. Ef-
fervescence shows the presence of
a carbonate, the quantity of which
may be estimated by weighing the
sand dry before and after its treat-
ment with the acid, particular care
being, of course, taken to wash the
remaining sand well before setting it
to dry. Tiiis, however, is an opera-
tion of little use ; the great object is
to ascertain the quantity of sandy
matter. Had we a particular inter-
est in ascertaining the presence and
estimating the quantity of the earthy
carbonates contained in a sample of
soil, it would be advisable to make a
special inquiry, inasmuch as the fine-
ly-divided calcareous earth being car-
ried off along with the clay in the
course of the washing, the sand ob-
tained never contains the whole of
the carbonate of lime.

The argillaceous matter procured
by the washing is far from being pure
clay ; it contains a quantity of ex-
tremely fine sand, particles of calca-
reous earth, and if the soil contain
humus, the more delicate particles
16

of this substance will also be inclu-
ded.

To determine the quantity of hu-
mus, recourse is generally had to its
destruction by heat. A known weight
of dried earth is heated to redness in
a capsule, and constantly stirred for
a time, and when no more of those
brilliant points or sparks, which are
indications of the combustion of car-
bon, are observed, it is set to cool,
and then weighed. This is the meth-
od which has been generally followed
by Davy and others. It would be
difficult to find a method more con-
venient than this, but it is, unfortu-
nately, very inaccurate. Soils dried
at a temperature at which organic
matter, such as humus, &c., begins
to change, still retain a considerable
quantity of water in union with the
clay. This water is disengaged at
the red heat required for the combus-
tion of the organic matters ; and as
their quantity is estimated by the loss
of weight on the subsequent weigh-
ing, it is obvious that the loss from
the dissipation of water is added to
that which proceeds from the de-
struction of the humus. It is un-
doubtedly to this cause of error that
we must ascribe the large proportions
of humus mentioned in the soils ex-
amined by Thaer and Einhoff; it is
therefore better to restrict the exam-
ination to the determination of the
presence or absence of humus than
to attempt to ascertain its quantity
by so imperfect a method.

Priestley and Arthur Young were
already aware that a more delicate
operation was required to determine
the quantity of humus. They recom-
mend calcination of the soil in a close
vessel, and that the gaseous products
should be collected. This mode of
proceeding, however, would have but
slight advantages over that which I
have just criticised, inasmuch as the
volume of gas collected varies with
every diflerence of heat employed.

The only method, in my opinion,
which we have of learning the quan-
tity of humus, of organic debris,
which is contained in a sod, is that
of an elementary analysis. It is by

ANALYSIS.

burning a known quantity of earth
thoroughly dried by means of the ox-
yde of copper, aided by a current of
oxygen, that the carbon and hydrogen
may be determined. But the most
important point of all is to ascertain
the amount of azote included in the
organic remains of the soil ; and we
have, happily, precise means in our
elementary analysis of ascertaining
the quantity of azote from which the
amount of azotized organic matter
may be accurately inferred.

It may be very useful to determine
the presence or absence of carbonate
of lime in a soil ; this knowledge
would, of course, guide us in our ap-
plications of lime, marl, &c. Two
modes may be employed for this pur-
pose ; 1st, the soil may be treated by
nitric acid slightly diluted with water.
Any etfervescence will denote the
presence, in all probability, of carbon-
ate of lime. I say in all probability,
because the disengagement of car-
bonic acid gas under such circum-
stances generally indicates the pres-
ence of carbonate of lime ; it is not,
however, a special character, because
the disengagement may be due to the
presence of any other carbonate. It
is well to boil the acid solution upon
the sample of soil that is analyzed ;
the part which is not dissolved is
thrown upon a filter and washed with
distilled or rainwater boiling hot.
Into the clear filtered liquor which
results from all the portions of water
used in the washing, a little ammonia
is added ; if any precipitate falls, it
is collected upon a filter and washed :
to the new liquors obtained by this
washing, a solution of oxalate of am-
monia is added. If there be any lime
present, it is thrown down in the
state of oxalate, and the liquor, hav-
ing been left at rest for five or six
hours, becomes completely clear ; the
addition of a few drops of the solu-
tion of oxalate of ammonia to this
clear fluid satisfies us whether the
whole of the lime has been precipita-
ted or not. The oxalate of lime is
received upon a filler, washed, and
dried ; it is then thrown into a plati-
num capsule along with the piece of
B2

filtering paper upon which it was col-
lected, and is heated to a dull red, un-
til the paper of the filter is complete-
ly consumed and no farther trace of
carbon appears ; the capsule is then
taken from the fire, or from over the
spirit lamp, and cooled ; when cold,
the matter which it contains is moist-
ened with a concentrated solution ot
carbonate of ammonia.

The matter is then dried, great
care being taken that nothing is lost
by particles flying out, and the cap-
sule is again heated to a dull red ;
when cold, it is weighed accurately,
and the quantity of matter contained
then becomes known. This matter
is carbonate of lime, 100 of which
represents 56-3 of lime and 43-7 of
carbonic acid. I have said that in
arable soil other carbonates may be
met with besides that of lime ; calca-
reous soils, for example, very com-
monly contain carbonate of magne-
sia. If we would ascertain the quan-
tity of this earth, the mode of pro-
ceeding which I have just particular-
ly indicated enables us to do so ; we
have but to evaporate the liquid from
which the oxalate of lime was depos-
ited, and then to calcine the product
of the evaporation in a platinum cap-
sule. Any nitrate of magnesia which
may exist there will be decomposed
at a dull red heat, as well as any ox-
alate of ammonia which may have
resulted from anmionia added in ex-
cess. By treating the residue of the
calcination with water, we obtain the
magnesia, which, being washed, has
only to be calcined, and its weight
ascertained by weighing.

2. If we would be content with a
simple approximation, we may judge
of the quantity of calcareous carbon-
ate contained in a vegetable soil by
measuring the quantity of carbonic
acid which we obtain from it. We
counterpoise upon the scale of a bal-
ance a vial containing some diluted
nitric acid ; we weigh a certain quan-
tity of the earth to be analyzed, and
this is added by degrees to the acid.
If the earth contains carbonates, ef-
fervescence ensues. The liquid is
shaken with care, and having waited
17

ANALYSIS.

a few minutes in order to let the car-
bonic acid whicli is mixed with the
air of the vial escape, the vial with
its contents is ajrain put into the bal-
ance. If there has been no disen-
gagement of carbonic acid, it is clear
that, to restore the equilibrium, it will
be sufficient to add to the opposite
scale the weight of the earth which
was put into the vial ; whatever is
wanting of this weight represents
precisely the weight of carbonic acid
which has been disengaged. Presu-
ming this acid to have been combi-
ned with lime, the weight of the cal-
careous carbonate can be calculated
exactly.

Sulphate of lime is an occasional
constituent of soils ; to ascertain its
presence and quantity, the following
is the method of procedure :

The earth, well pulverized, is first
roasted for a considerable time in a
crucible or platinum capsule until all
the organic matter is completely de-
stroyed ; it is advisable to operate on
about 100 grammes, or about 32 oun-
ces troy of soil. After this operation,
the matter is boiled in four or five
times its weight of distilled water for
some time, water being added to re-
place that which is dissipated by
evaporation ; we then filter, rewash,
and having added all the liquors, we
evaporate in a capsule until the vol-
ume of the lifjuid is reduced to a few
drachms. To the liquid thus concen-
trated we add its own bulk of alcohol.
If the solution contains sulphate of
lime, it will be deposited, and the de-
posite being received upon a filter
and washed with weak alcohol, its
weight is taken after having been
dried and calcined. This salt is fre-
quently seen deposited in the form of
fine colourless needles on the cooling
of the sufliciently concentrated solu-
tion ; but the addition of alcohol is
always useful, because the sulphate
of lime, which is not very soluble in
water, is altogether insoluble in weak
spirits, which, on the contrary, dis-
solves certain alkaline and earthy
salts whose presence would interfere
with the accuracy of the result.

It may be matter of great moment
18

to determine the existence and the
quantity of phosphates contained in
a soil destined for cultivation. Al-
though the search for phosphoric acid
may perhaps require a certain famil-
iarity with chemical analysis, I shall
nevertheless indicate the method of
procedure. It is much to be desired
that enlightened agriculturists should
not remain strangers to manipula-
tions of this kind.

The soil to be analyzed must be de-
prived of all organic matters by cal-
cination. After having reduced it to
a very fine powder, it is to be boiled
for about an hour with three or four
times its weight of nitric or hydro-
chloric acid. The solution is then
diluted with distilled water, and filter-
ed ; the matter which remains upon
the filter is generally silica or alumina
which has escaped the action of the
acid. After having reduced the wash-
ings by evaporation, and added them
to the acid liquor, ammonia in solu-
tion is poured in. Taking the sim-
plest instance, the precipitate which
lalls upon the addition of this alkali
may contain, 1st, phosphoric acid in
union with the peroxide of iron and
lime ; 2d, oxide of iron and of man-
ganese ; 3d, silica. This precipitate,
which is usually of a gelatinous ap-
pearance, is received upon a filter,
well washed and dried, when the pre-
cipitate is readily detached from the
filter. It is thrown into a platinum
capsule which is raised to a white
heat, after which the weight of the
residue is taken. The precipitate af-
ter calcination is thrown into a small
glass matrass, and dissolved by hot
hydrochloric acid. If there is any sil-
ica undissolved, its quantity is merely
estimated if it be very small ; if it be
a larger quantity, it is to be collected
upon a filter and weighed. To the
new acid solution about three times
its weight of alcohol is added ; the
mixture is shaken, and pure sulphuric
acid is then instilled drop by drop un-
til there is no longer any precipitate.
The precipitate is sulphate of lime,
which is thrown upon a filter, where
it is washed with diluted alcohol ; it
is then dried, calcined, and the weight

ANALYSIS.

of the sulphate of lime obtained per-
mits us to calculate that of the lime
which formed part of the precipitate
thrown down by the ammonia in the
first instance. 100 of sulphate of lime
are equivalent to 41-5 of pure lime.

The alcoholic liquor is concentra-
ted in order to expel the spirit ; as it
is acid, it is saturated with ammonia
until a slight precipitate begins to be
formed, which is not redissolved upon
shaking the mixture. A few drops
of the hydrosulphate of ammonia are
then added, upon which the iron and
the manganese fall in the state of sul-
phurets. As a part of the metals has
been precipitated in the state of ox-
ide by the ammonia added in the hy-
drosulphate, it is well to digest for
eight or ten hours, because the hy-
drosulphate of ammonia always ends
by changing the metals present into
sulphurets, which being washed,
dried, and reduced to the state of
oxides by calcination in a platinum
capsule, are weighed.

If the first ammoniacal precipitate
did not contain phosphoric acid, its
weight ought to be reproduced by
adding that of the hme to that of the
metallic oxides proceeding from the
calcination of the sulphurets. Any
loss which is noted after this, is due,
if the process has been well conduct-
ed, to phosphoric acid, which had not
been collected, but which has remain-
ed in the state of phosphate of ammo-
nia in the liquid treated by the hydro-
sulphate. To determine with pre-
cision the presence of phosphoric
acid, the liquid in question must be
evaporated to dryness, and the resi-
due heated strongly in a platinum
capsule. After the dissipation and
decomposition of the ammoniacal
salts, there remains watery phos-
phoric acid, distinguishable by its
powerful acid reaction, its sirupy con-
sistence, and its fixity.

By way of example, I shall give the
results obtained in an analysis of this
kind :

From the acid liquor, ammonia threw down
of: grs. troy.

Phosphates and metallic oxides . . t>'lll2
These gave of sulphate of lime . . b'dS
E luivalent to lime .... 3'612

Hydrosulphate of ammonia caused a pre-
cipitate, which, calcined, gave of me-
tallic oxides Ifi20

Lime and metallic oxides together . 5-2:t3
Difference due to phosphoric acid . 2'7a9

The analysis for phosphoric acid
may be simplified by employing a pro-
cess conceived by M. I3erthier, and
which is founded ujjon the strong af-
finity of this acid for the peroxide of
iron, and the insolubility of the phos-
phate of the peroxide of iron in dilute
acetic acid. If to a fluid containing at
once phosphoric acid, lime, peroxide
of iron, alumina, and magnesia in so-
lution, ammonia be added, the precipi-
tate will contain the whole of the phos-
phoric acid. The acid will be in great
part combined in the state of phos-
phate of iron, if the peroxide of iron
be in quantity more than sufficient to
neutralize it : a condition which must
be frequently expected in an arable
soil ; however, to make sure of this
point, it is well to add a certain quan-
tity of the peroxide of iron to the soil
which is to be analyzed. Besides the
phosphate of iron, the precipitate may
contain phosphate of lime, phosphate
of alumina, and certainly ammoniacal
magnesian phosphate. Finally, with
these phosphates will be found asso-
ciated alumina and oxide of iron, the
latter especially, if it has been intro-
duced in excess. The precipitate, col-
lected upon a filter and washed, must
then be treated with dilute acetic acid,
which will dissolve the lime, the mag-
nesia, and the excess of the oxides of
iron and alumina ; and there will re-
main phosphate of iron or phosphate
of alumina, because the latter salt is
as insoluble as the former in acetic
acid. Whenever the precipitate in
question, therefore, leaves a residue
which is insoluble in vinegar, the
presence of phosphoric acid may be
inferred ; this residue may consist of
basic phosphates of iron or alumina,
or of a mixture of the two salts, and
no great error will be committed if
one hundred parts of this residue, cal-
cined, be assumed as representing
fifty of phosphoric acid.

'i'he presence of silica in the pre-
cipitate insoluble in acetic acid may,
19

ANALYSIS.

however, lead to error. To make
sure that the precipitate is formed by
a phosjiiiatc, it must be rcdissolved in
hydroc'iilorio acid, and the acid solu-
tion evaporated to dryness, so as to
render the silica which may e.vist in
it insoluble. 13y treating the resi-
due with hydrochloric acid again, the
phosphates alone will be dissolved.
The presence of phosphoric acid may
otherwise be determmed by treating
the phosphate of iron in solution in
the way which I have already indi-
cated.

From what precedes, it must be ob-
vious that the most carefully conduct-
ed chemical analysis of a soil only
leads us to the discovery of certain
principles which exist in very small
quantity, although their action is un-
questionably useful to vegetation. As
to the determination of the relative
quantities of sand and loam, this rests
upon simple washing ; and a chemist
would spend his time to very little
purpose in seeking, by means of ele-
mentary analyses, to determine the
precise composition of these substan-
ces. The finest part, carried off by
the water, will always show proper-
ties analogous to those of clay ; the
sand, which is generally silicious, will
exhibit the characters of quartz ; and
the calcareous fragments which are
mixed with it will exhibit those that
belong to carbonate of lime. It will
be sufficient, then, in connexion with
the mineral constitution of arable
soils, to expose very briefly the gen-
eral properties of clay or loam, of
quartz, and of carbonate of lime, sub-
stances, in fact, which form the bases
of all arable lands. Pure clay, com-
posed of silica, alumina, and water,
does not contain these substances in
the state of simple mixture. The in-
quiries of M. Berthier have satisfac-
torily shown that clay is a hydrated
silicate of alumina. When we re-
move a portion of the alumina from
clay, for example, by treating it with
a strong acid, the silica which is set
at liberty will dissolve in an alkaline
solution, which would not be the case
were the silica present in the state
of quartzy sand, however fiue.
20

Pure clays are white, unctuous to
the touch, stick to the tongue when
dry, and when breathed upon, give
out an odour which is well known,
and is commonly spoken of as the
argillaceous odour. Tiiis property of
dry clay to adhere to the tongue is
owing to its avidity for water. It is
known, in fact, that dry clay, brought
into contact with water, first swells,
and finally mixes with it completely.
Duly moistened, it forms a tough and
eminently plastic mass. Exposed to
the air, moist clay, as it dries, shrinks
considerably ; and if the drying be
rapid, the mass cracks in all direc-
tions. It is to an action of this kind
that we must ascribe the cracks and
deep fissures which traverse our clay-
ey soils in all directions during the
continuance of great droughts.

The constitutional water of clays
is retained by a very powerful affin-
ity, and does not separate under a red
heat ; pure clay has a specific gravity
of about 25 ; but the weight is fre-
quently modified by the presence of
foreign matter, for it contains sand,
metallic oxides, carbonate of lime,
carbonate of magnesia, and frequent-
ly even combustilile substances, from
bitumen to plumbago, all of which ad-
mixtures of course modify the prop-
erties which are most highly esteem-
ed in clays, such as fineness, white-
ness, iniusibility, &c.

Quartz is abundantly distributed
throughout nature, and is met with in
very different states : in the form of
transparent colourless crystals, con-
stituting rock crystals, as sand of dif-
ferent fineness ; finally, in masses,
constituting true rocks. . Quartz is
the silica of chemists, and a com-
pound, according to them, of oxygen
and silicon, in the proportion, Berze-
lius says, of 100 of the radical to 108
of oxygen.

Silica, in a state of purity, occurs
in the form of a white powder, and
having a density of 2-7. It is infusi-
ble in the most violent furnace ; but
it not only melts in the intense heat
which results from the combustion
of a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
gas, but it is even dissipated in va-

ANALYSIS.

pour. As generally obtained, silica
is held insoluble in water ; still, when
in a stale of extreme subdivision, it
is soluble ; and then its insolubility is
probably not so absolute as is gener-
ally supposed, for M. Payen has found
notable quantities in the water of the
Artesian well of Crenelle, and in that
of the Seine. Silica exists especially,
in very appreciable quantity, in cer-
tain hot springs, where the presence
of an alkaline substance favours its
solution ; the water of the hot springs
of Reikuni in Iceland contain about
j-g^th parts of its weight of silica;
and the thermal spring of Las Trin-
cheras, near Puerto Cabello, depos-
ites abundant silicious concretions.
The water of this latter spring, which
is at the temperature of 210° Fahren-
heit, besides silica, contains a quan-
tity of sulphureted hydrogen gas, and
traces of nitrogen gas. Rock crystal,
when colourless and transparent, may
be regarded as pure silica ; in the va-
rieties of quartz which mineralogists
designate as chalcedony, agate, opal,
&c., the silica is combined with dif-
ferent mineral substances, particular-
ly oxide of iron and of manganese,
alumina, lime, and water.

Carbonate of Lime, considered as
rock, belongs to every epoch in the
geological series, and frequently con-
stitutes extensive masses. When
pure, it is composed of lime, 563 ; car-
bonic acid, 437 ; and its density is
then from 27 to 29. It dissolves
with effervescence, without leaving
any residue in hydrochloric or nitric
acid. Exposed to a red heat, its
acid is disengaged, and quick-lime re-
mains. Carbonate of lime is insolu-
ble in water, but it dissolves in very
considerable quantity under the influ-
ence of carbonic acid gas. When
such a solution is exposed to the air,
the acid escapes by degrees, and the
carbonate is deposited, by which
means those numerous deposites of
carbonate of lime are produced which
we see constituting tufas and stalac-
tites. The solubility of carbonate of
lime in water acidulated with carbon-
ic acid enables us to understand how
plants should meet with this salt in

the soil, inasmuch as rainwater al-
ways contains a little carbonic acid.

The mineral substances whi(;h we
have now studied, taken isolatedly,
would form an almost barren soil ;
but, by mixing them with discretion,
a soil would be obtained presenting
all the essential conditions of fertil-
ity, which depend, as it would seem,
much less on the chemical constitu-
tion of the elements of the soil than
on their physical properties, such as
their faculty of imbibition, their den-
sity, their power of conducting heat,
&c. It is unquestionably by study-
ing these various properties that we
come to form a precise idea of the
causes which secure or exclude the
qualities we require in arable soils
This has been done very ably by .M
Schubler ; and his admirable papei
will remain a model of one applica-
tion of the sciences to agriculture.*

The researches of M. Schubler were
directed to the mineral substances
which are generally found in soils,
viz. : 1st. Silicious sand ; 2d. Calca-
reous sand : 3d. A sandy clay con-
taining about xnths of sand ; 4th. A
strong clay containing no more than
about Xflths of sand ; 5th. A still
stronger clay containing no more
than about ygth of sand ; 6th. Near
ly pure clay ; 7th. Chalk, or carbon-
ate of lime in the pulverulent state ;
8th. Humus ; 9th. Gypsum ; 10th.
Light garden earth, black, friable,
and fertile, and containing, in 100
parts, clay 52-4, quartzy sand 365,
calcareous sand 1-8, calcareous earth
20, humus 7-3 ; 11th. An arable soil
composed of clay 51-2, silicious sand
427, calcareous sand 04, calcareous
earth 2-3, humus 34; and, 12th. An
arable soil taken from a valley near the
Jura, containing clay 333, silicious
sand 630, calcareous sand 12, calca-
reous earth and humus 12, loss 1-3.

The object of these inquiries was
to ascertain, tst. The specific grav-
ity of soils ; 2d. Their power of re-
taining water ; 3d. Their consist-
ency ; 4th. Their aptitude to dry ;

* Schubler, Annals of French Agriculture,
▼ol. xl., p. 122, 2d series.

21

ANA

ANB

5th. Their disposition to contract
while drying ; Gth. Their hygrometric
force ; 7th. Their power of absorbing
oxygen ; 8th. Their faculty of retain-
ing heat ; and, 9th. Their capacity to
acquire temperature when exposed
to the sun's rays.

Specijic Gravity of Soils. — The
weight of soils may be compared in
the dry and pulverulent state, or in
the humid state ; or the specific grav-
ity of the particles which enter into
their composition may be determined.
This last information is easily obtain-
ed by the following method : Take
a common ground stopper bottle ;
weigh it, stoppered and full of distil-
led wafer ; let it then be emptied, in
order that a known quantity of the
soil, in the state of powder and quite
dry, may be introduced into it. A
quantity of water is now poured in,
and the vial is shaken to secure the
disengagement of all air bubbles ; the
vial is then filled with distilled water,
and, when the upper part has become
clear, the stopper is replaced ; the
vial is then wiped dry and weighed
again. The difference between the
weight of the vial full of water plus
that of the matter, and the weight of
the vial containing the matter and
the water mixed, gives the weight of
the water displaced by this matter.
Thus:

Weight of the vial full of water . . . 60-0

Weight of the matter 240

8?0
Weight of the vial containing the min-
gled earth and water 74'4

Difference of water displaced .... 9(5

which is the weight of the volume of
water equal to that of the matter in-
troduced into the vial ; we have, con-
sequently, for the specilic gravity of
the earth f!^ =25, the weight of the
water having been taken as 1.

This number represents the mean
specific gravity of the isolated parti-
cles of the powder which has been
examined ; but we must not, from
this density, pretend to deduce the
weight of a particular volume of soil
— a cubic foot or a cubic yard, for in-
stance : we should come to far too
high a number. The weight of a
22

given volume of earth must be deter-
mined immediately by ramming it
into a mould or measure of a known
capacity.

From M. Schiibler's experiments
it appears, 1st. That silicious and cal-
careous sandy soils are the heaviest
of any ; 2d. That clayey soils are of
least density ; 3d. That humus or
mould is of much lower density than
clay ; 4th. That a compound soil be-
ing generally by so much the heavier
as it contains a larger proportion of
sand, and so much the lighter as it
contains a larger quantity of clay, of
calcareous earth, and of humus, it is
possible, from the density of a soil,
to infer the nature of the principles
which prevail in it. In the course of
his experiments, M. Schubler found
that artificial mixtures always gave
higher densities than those that ought
to have resulted from the several den-
sities of each of the sorts of substance
which formed the mixture.

ANASARCA. A dropsy in the cel-
lular tissue of the limbs.

ANASTOMOSING. Growing to-
gether, uniting.

ANASTOMOSIS. The interlacing
and union of small veins or arteries
proceeding from different parts.

ANATROPOUS. A very common
kind of embryo, produced by one side
of the ovule growing upon itself,
while the other remains immoveable,
till, at last, that part of the ovule
which was originally next the apex
is brought down to the hilum, the
base of the nucleus in such cases
being at the apex of the ovule. The
common apple, and the greater part
of plants, offer an example of this.

ANBURY. In farriery, a spongy,
soft tumour, commonly full of blood,
growing on any part of an animal's
body. Substances of this kind may
be removed either by means of liga-
tures being passed round their bases,
or by the knife, and the subsequent
application of some caustic, in order
to effectually destroy the parts from
which they arise.

Anbuky, Amhury, Club-root : fingers
I and toes. A swelling formed on the
1 roots and ground-stems of cabbages,

ANB

ANE

radishes, turnips, &c., by the maggot
of a weevil.

The maggot found in the turnip an-
bury is the larva of Curculio plcuro-
stigma of Marsham, and Rhi/)ich(e>ius
sulctcollts of Gyllenhal. " I live bred
this species of weevil," says Mr. Kir-
by, " from the knob-like galls on tur-
nips, called the anbury, and I have
little doubt that the same insects, or
a species allied to them, cause the
clubbing of the roots of cabbages."
Marsham describes the parent as a
coleopterous insect of a dusky, black
colour, with the breast spotted with
white, and the length of the body one
line and two thirds.

The general experience of farmers
and gardeners upon the subject testi-
fies that the anbury of the turnip and
cabbage usually attacks these crops
when grown for successive years on
the same soil. This is precisely what
might be expected ; for the parent in-
sect always deposites her eggs in
those situations where her progeny
will find their appropriate food ; and
in the fragments of the roots, &c., of
preceding crops, some of these em-
bryo ravagers are to be expected.
That they never attack the plants
upon a fresh site is not asserted :
Mr. Marshall's statement is evidence
to the contrary. But it is advanced
that the obnoxious weevil is most
frequently to be observed in soils
where the turnip or cabbage has re-
cently and repeatedly been cultiva-
ted. Another general result of ex-
perience is, that the anbury is most
frequently observed in dry seasons.
This is also what might be anticipa-
ted, for insects that inhabit the earth
just beneath its surface are always
restricted and checked in their move-
ments by its abounding in moisture.
Moreover, the plants actually affected
by the anbury are more able to con-
tend against the injury inflicted by
copious supply. In wet periods, also,
the affected plants show less the
extent of the injury they have sus-
tained, for their foliage does not
flag.

In considering the best modes of
preventing the occurrence of the dis-

' ease and of palliating its attacks, it
I is apparent tliat any addition to the
soil that renders it disagreeable to
the weevil will prevent the visits of
this insect. The gardener has this
in his power with but little difficulty,
for he can keep the vicinity of his cab-
bage, cauliflower, and broccoli plants
sprinkled with soot, powdered tobac-
co, or other offensive matters.

ANCHUSA. See Alkanet.

ANCHYLOSIS. A stiff, immovea-
ble joint.

ANCIPITOUS. Having two edges.

ANDES GRASS. Arena elatwr.
Tall meadow oat ; a perennial grass ;
flowers in May, and ripens its seeds in
July. It is hardy, early, and makes
good hay. It is difficult to root out,
and lasts a long time. A clay loam is
the best soil. Sow two and a half to
three bushels with oats.

ANDROCEUM. The male parts
of the flower.

ANDROGYNOUS. Hermaphro-
dite : a union of both sexes.

ANDROPORUM. An elevation in
the middle of a flower, formed in part
by the union of the filaments of the
stamens.

ANELLIDES, ANELLATA. The
class of articulated animals formed
of ring-like segments, as the earth-
worms.

ANELYTROUS. Without elytra
or wing cases.

ANEMOMETER. (Gr. ai'f//of, the
2cind, and fzcrpov, measure.) An in-
strument for measuring the force or
velocity of the wind ; a wind gauge.

Dr. Lind's anemometer consists of
a glass tube, bent into the form of the
letter U, and open at both extremi-
ties. One of the extremities, A, is
also bent round to the
horizontal direction,
in order that the
wind may blow into
it. The tube being
partially filled with
water and exposed
to a current of air, the
water in the branch
at which the wind en-
ters is depressed ; for
example, to B, and consequently ri-
23

ANG

ANN

ses in the other branch to C; and
the difierence at C, of the levels at
which it stands in the two branch-
es, is ihe hciffht of a coliiiiin of wa-
ter, tiie weigiit of which forms a
counterpoise to the force of the wind.
Tlie relative velocities of the wind
are thus ascertained, the variation of
the velocity being nearly proportion-
al to tlie square root of the resist-
ance. The bore of the tube is di-
minished at the bottom to check the
undulations of the water caused by a
sudden gust of wind. Various other
contrivances have been proposed, of
which one of the simplest is to ex-
pose a flat board of given dimensions
to a current of wind, and observe to
what extent it will force back a spring
attached to it, and resting against an
immoveable obstacle. — (Brandc.)

ANEMOSCOPE. An instrument
showing the direction of the wind ; a
weathercock.

ANEURISM. In farriery, a throb-
bing tumour, produced by the dilata-
tion of the coats of an artery in some
part of the body of an animal Aneu-
risms in the limbs may be cured by
making an incision, exposing the ar-
tery, and tying it above and below
the tumour with a proper ligature.

ANGINA. In farriery, a name
sometimes applied to the quinsy, or
what in animals is termed anticor ;
sore throat.

ANGIOSPERMOUS. Having the
seeds enclosed within a covering or
pericarp.

ANGLE BERRY. In farriery, a
sort of fleshy excrescence, to which
cattle and some other animals are
subject under diflerent circumstan-
ces, and are supposed to proceed
from a rupture of t!ie cutaneous ves-
sels, which give vent to a matter ca-
pable of forming a sarco7na, or fleshy
excrescence. They frequently ap-
pear upon the belly and adjacent
parts, hanging down in a pendulous
maimer.

AN GUST ATE. Narrow, dimin-
ishing rapidlv in breadth.

ANGUSTURA BARK. The bark
of the Ciisparia fcbrijnga of South
America : used as a tonic.
24

ANHYDRITE. Anhydrous gyp-
sum.

ANHYDROUS. Without water ;
a chemical term to express the en-
tire absence of water in a salt or acid
subslanof.

ANI^"'VL. Any object capable of
voluntary motion ; a function de-
pendant on the nervous system,
which is peculiar to animals and ab-
sent in plants.

ANIMAL ACIDS. Acids existing
in animals, or produced froin their
tissues. The principal are the oily
acids, choleic, lactic, and uric, which

ANIMALCULES. Infusorials.

ANIMAL MANURES. See Urme,
Miumre.

ANIMAL POISONS. The bites
of venomous reptiles, rabid dogs, the
contagious diseases produced by de-
caying meat, cheese, infected cattle,
glanders, are all called animal poi-
sons. They usually produce great
prostration, and call for the use of
ammonia and stimulants.

ANIONS. See Electrode.

ANISE SEED. PimpincUa amsvm.
The aromatic seeds of a well-known
umbelliferous plant. The oil is a
grateful aromatic to the stomach.

ANISOTOMID.E. A family of co-
leopterous insects, having monili-
form or beaded antennae, sub-elon-
gate, slender at the base, gradually
increasing towards the apex, with a
terminal club-shaped multiarticulate
joint ; palpi various, generally fdi-
form ; head small and ovate ; body
convex, never linear.

ANKER. A small wine barrel of
10 gallons, or 8^ imperial measure.

ANNOTTA, ARNOTTA. Roucon.
A red dye, obtained by fermenting the
pulp of the seeds of the Bixa orcUana,
a tree of the West Indies. In the
dairy a colouring matter is used un-
der this name, which is manufactured
from madder or carrots.

ANNUALS. Plants which perfect
seeds in one year and die, as wheal,
rye, &c.

ANNULUS. An organ resembling
a ring, as the collar which surrounds
the stem of some mushrooms.

ANT

ATR

ANODE. The way by which elec-
fricity enters substances throui^h
vvliicii it passes: opposed to cathode,
tlie road or way by wliich it pocs out.

ANODYNE. A driia; which allays
pain, as opium, camphor, henbane,
ike

AXON A. The custard apple-trees.
The cherimover is of tliis i^enus.

ANTACIDS. Medicines which
neutralize the acid of the stomach in
disf'asp, as chalk, carbonate of soda.

ANTENNA, Avtew^e. The hair-
like, jointed organs on the heads of
insects. They are very moveable,
and are supposed to be organs of sen-
sation.

ANTEPECTL'S. In insects, the
under side of the main trimk, in which
the first pair of legs is inserted

ANTS. The family Fonmcida,
hymenopterous insects. They are
injurious to meadows by their hills,
and also devour fruits. The anthill
is readily destroyed by digging it up
in the depth of winter and scattering
the earth ; the exposure will thus de-
stroy the entire cidony.

ANTHELMINTICS. Drugs which
are used to destroy intestinal worms.
Turpentine, wormseed oil, pink-root,
and aloes are the most important.

ANTHER. The bilobate organ,
containing pollen, situated at the
summit of the filament, the two con-
stitiitmg the male organ, or stamen
of [dants.

ANTHODIUM. A head of flow-
ers, as in the thistle or sunflower ;
a capitulum.

ANTHOZANTHU.M. A genus of
grasses, of wliich A odoratum is the
sweet-scented vernal grass. See
Grasses. It is an annual, and of lit-
tle importance.

ANTIDRACHIIJM. The forearm.

ANTICLINAL AXIS. The line
lying between strata which dip in op-
posite directions.

AXTICOR. An inflammation of
the throat and gullet in horses, at-
tended with fever and prostration ; a
kind of quinsy.

ANTIDOTE. A remedy against
Q poison.

ANTIMONY. The sulphuret ; a

black metallic drug, used in the dis-
eases of cattle as an alterative in
skill diseases. An ounce is given to
a horse.

ANTIMONY TARTRATE. See
Tartar Emetic.

ANTIPHLOGISTIC. Remedies
opposed to an inflammatory state.

ANTISEPTICS. Substances
which prevent putrefaction.

ANTISPAS.MODICS. Remedies
which cure spasms or cramps, as
opium, camphor, asafcetida, &c.

A-NTITROPAL. When in a seed
the radicle of the embryo is turned
to the end farthest away from the
hilum. This, although a compara-
tively unusual position of parts, is
nevertheless the normal position, if
the e.xact nature of the development
of an ovule is rightly understood.

ANTRUM. A cavity.

AORTA. The great arterial ves-
sel which issues from the left ventri-
cle of the heart, and by its branches
distributes blood to every part of the
body.

APATITE. A greeni.sh, crystal-
line mineral found in primary rocks,
consisting of a phosphate and silicate
of lime. It is found in the Eastern
and Northern States, hut only in small
quantities. In Spain and Norway
large quantities are developed. It
has been spoken of as a manure in
the place of hones.

APERIENTS. Gentle purgatives.

APETALOUS. Without corolla.

APEX. The summit.

APHANTPTERA. An order of
apterous insects, with rudimentary
elytra, and undergoing a change of
form. The flea {Pulex irritans) is of
this kind.

APHIS, APHIDES (pi). A fami-
ly of hemipterous insects, common-
ly called " plant-lice," inhabiting trees
and plants, and living on their juices ;
remarkable for the anal saccharine
secretion, but more especially for a
peculiarity of their generative econo-
my, particularly described by Bonnet,
and which consists in the first fecun-
dation of the female influencing not
merely the ova immediately develop-
ed thereafter, but those of the females
25

APP

resulting from that development, even I
to the ninth generation, which are ;
successively impregnated and pro-
ductive without any intercourse with
the male insects. Certain coleopter-
ous insects which prey upon and keep
in check the aphides, are termed aph-
idiphatri and aphidivora (^ayu, leal,
voro, ideroiir). For a figure, see In-
sects. Aphides are very numerous
in species, most plants having a dif-
ferent kind. They are readily de-
stroyed hy fumigations with tobacco,
Cayenne pepper, or sulphur, a solu-
tion of whale-oil soap, or water-slack-
ed lime sprinkled upon them.

APHYLLUS. Leafless, without
fully-developed green leaves.

APIARY. A bee-house.

APIS. The generic name of the

bee.

APOCARPOUS. When the car-
pels of a fruit do not adhere together.

APOCRENIC ACID. See Humus.

APOPLEXY. The staggers. See
Horse, Sheep, Ox.

APOPHY'SIS. A protuberance,
process, or projection. In anatomy,
restricted to processes of the osseous
system.

APOSEPADINE. A white crys-
talline body obtained from decayed
chcGsc 1

APOTHECIUM. The shield of

lichens. , j

APPETITE. Want of appetite .
and voracious appetite are important 1
symptoms in the di-'eases of horses |
and cattle ; e.\ercise, change ot sta- I
ble. ventilation, and a new kind of |
food and gentle purgation should be '
tried for the first; the second may
arise from worms, and should be in-
vestigated.

APPLE. The cultivated fruit of
the Pyrus mains, or crab ; the tree be-
longs to the natural family Rosacea.
The apple, like most other hardy
trees, may be propagated by seeds,
cuttings, suckers, layers, or ingraft-
ing ; by seeds for obtaining new va-
rieties, and by the other modes for
extending the number of such as are
in esteem.

The following kinds are of differ-
ent values, but ripen at different
i6

APP

times, and represent the best set in
cultivation.

Summer Apples, ripening from July
to September :
Eaklv H.\Rvest, Princes Yellow
Harvest, July Pippin.— Frmt medium
size ; bright straw colour ; flavour
fine : ripe in July and August

E.\kly Red Jlne.\ting, Red Mar-
craretle. Strawberry. — Rather small ;
very rich and fine : ripe in August.

yuM.MER QuuEN, Early Queen. — j
Fruit large and oblong ; "striped with
red on a yellow ground ; high fla-
voured and fine : ripe in August.

Summer Peafmain, American Sum-
mer Pearmaut, Early Summer Pear-
jnam.— Too well known to need any
I description : ripe in August.
I Williams Apple — A beautiful
I fruit, of medium size and oblong
1 form ; colour deep red ; flavour live-
I ly and very pleasant. First of Au-
gust. A native of Roxbury, Massa-
chusetts.

Maiden's Blush— One of the hand-
somest fruits in the country. Size
large, roundish shape ; skin pale
greenish-vellow, tinged with a blush ;
excellent" for table use, drying, or
cooking : ripe in August and Septem-
ber.

Autumn Apples.
! Porter Apple.— Fruit large; ob-
! long shape ; skin bright yellow, with
I a red blush : ripe in October, and
I commands the highest price in the
I Boston market.

I Fall Pippi.n, Gulden Pippin, Hol-
land Prppm, Col ben's Fall Pippin,
i Vandine — Of all fall apples, this
; stands at the head of the list. Fruit
' large, and of a roundish oblong form ;
i skin smooth and yellowish green, tin-
ged with orange ; flesh tender, with
1 rich juice : ripe in October, and keeps
i till January and February.
I Seek-no-farther, Raniho, or Ro-
i „,aniic.— This fruit is much cultiva-
1 ted about Philadelphia. Shape flat,
1 resembling the Vanderveerc, but is a
i better fruit ; skin pale yellow, streak-
ed with red ; flesh tender and spright-
! Iv during the fall : is both a fall and
! winter apple.

APPLE.

Stroat, Siraut. — A fine fall apple,
'introduced by the late Judge Biiel, of
Albany : in use from September to
December.

Winter and Spring Apples.

Esopus Spitzenburg. — Fruit large
and oval shape ; colour red, covered
with light yellow spots ; flesh of the
finest flavour for dessert or cooking,
and keeps till February.

Baldwin, Baldwin Pippin. — In the
Boston market this fruit has long
brought the highest prices. Colour
bright red, tinged with yellow ; flesh
juicy, rich, sweet, and most agreea- j
ble flavour: ripe in November, and
keeps till March.

Bell-flower. -^ A beautiful fruit,
long celebrated about Philadelphia as
their finest winter fruit : ripe in Oc-
tober, and keeps till March.

Blue Pearmain. — A well-known
fruit about Boston. Large size ; col-
our red, covered with a blue bloom ;
flavour delicious, and keeps till Jan-
uary.

HUBBARDSTON NoNESUCH. A mOSt

popular new fruit, lately brought out
in Massachusetts, often commanding
$5 per barrel in the Boston market :
ripe in November, and keeps till Feb-
ruary.

Ladv Apple, Pommc d'Api. — Fruit
small ; of pale yellow colour, deeply
tinged with red on one side ; flesh
crisp and pleasant : ripe in Novem-
ber, and keeps till April.

Monstrous Pippin, Gloria Mundi,
Ox Apple. — Fruit of enormous size,
sometimes weighing 28 ounces ; of a
pale yellowish-green colour ; spright-
ly flavour : ripe in October, and keeps
till January.

Newton Pippin. — Of this most val-
uable api)ie there are two varieties,
the yellow and the green ; no differ-
ence in quality ; keeps till May, and
retains its flavour ; the most valuable
variety tor shipping to Europe.

Rhode Island Greening. — Fruit
large ; skin greenish yellow ; flesh
slightly acid and of fine flavour : keeps
from November till April.

RiBsTON Pippin, also called Formo-
sa Pippin, and Glory of York. In

England esteemed very highly ; me-
dium size, and globular form ; colour
yellow, mottled with red next the
sun : keeps till February.

RoxBURv Russeting. — A fine old
native of .Massachusetts ; fruit large
and of a slightly flattened form ; col-
our brownish-yelhiw russet, with an
occasional blush ne.xt the sun ; skin
rough : keeps well till June and July.
Raised in great quantities near Bos-
ton for exportation, &c.

SwAAR Apple. — A celebrated win-
ter fruit in some parts of New- York ;
of fine flavour ; skin greenish-yel-
low, tinged with a blush : keeps till
March.

Wine Apple, Hay's Winter, Large
Winter Red, Fine Winter. — A beauti-
ful fruit, highly esteemed in the Phil-
adelphia market : keeps till February.

Hollow-core Pippin. — A new va-
riety raised in Jefferson county, Ohio.
It resembles the yellow Newton pip-
pin in its fine flavour : keeps till April
and .May.

Ohio Pearmain. — A new and beau-
tiful variety in Ohio ; good size ; stri-
ped red and yellow ; quality excel-
lent : keeps till .May.

Cider Apples.

Harrison and Camfield. — Both
long raised in the neighbourhood of
Newark, New-Jersey, and Hugh's
Virginia Crab, much cultivated in
Pennsylvania and Ohio, are decidedly
the most valuable varieties for cidei
to be found in the country.

In the west and other portions of
our vvidely-e.\tended country many
new varieties of choice apples are
constantly coming into use. The
above are varieties found at most of
the nurseries in the Eastern States.

Besides these, there are a large
quantity cultivated throughout the
country of every shade of merit. The
Newton pippin, Baldwin, Rhode Isl-
and greening, and Roxbury russet-
ing are the most valuable for expor-
tation, both on account of their fla-
vour and hardihood. They ccmmand
from ©9 to §15 the barrel in Eu-
rope.

Directions for ■planting and mana-
27

APPLE.

fring apple orchards, chiefly from Ken-
rick :

" The seeds of the apple should be
sown in autumn in a rich soil. When
the young plants appear in spring,
they should be carefully thinned to
the distance of 2 inches asunder, and
kept free from weeds till of sutficient
size to be removed.

" At I or 2 years of age they are
taken up, their tap-roots shortened,
that they may throw out lateral roots ;
they are transferred to the nursery,
set in rows about 4 feet asunder, and
at 1 foot distance from each other in
the row, in a rich and loamy soil. In
the summer following they are inoc-
ulated, or they are ingrafted or in-
oculated the year following.

"Size and age for transplanting to
the Orchard. — An apple-tree, when
finally transplanted to the orchard,
ought to be at least 6 or 7 feet high,
with branches in proportion, and full
2 years from tiie bud or graft, and
thrifty. Apple-trees under this size
belong properly only to the nursery.

" Distance. — The distance asunder
to which apple-trees should be finally
set, when transplanted to the orchard,
depends upon the nature of the soil,
and the cultivation to be subsequent-
ly given. If the soil is by nature ex-
tremely fertile, 40 feet distance may
be allowed, and even 45 and 50 feet
in some very extraordinary situa-
tions ; for before the trees become
old, they will completely shade the
ground. If, however, the soil is not
very extraordinary by nature, or so
rendered by art, this distance would
be too great : for the trees would be-
come old, and their growth would be
finished before the ground could be
covered by their shadow : 30 feet only
may therefore be allowed in land usu-
ally denominated of good quality, and
but 20 to 25 feet in land of ordinary
quality. But where economy of time,
of land, and of all things else is con-
sulted, but one half this distance will
answer for a series of years.

"The quincunx mode is recom-
mended for close arrangement, and
short-lived trees may be set in the
intervals.
28

" The period of growth, or the dura-
tion of the apple-tree, is comparative-
ly limited ; this is sufficiently evident
from the perishable nature of its tim-
ber.

" Soil and Situation. — A rich soil,
rather moist than dry, is that adapted
to the apple-tree.

" On such a soil, whether on the
plains, or in the valley, or on the
sides and summits of our great hills,
and even in situations the most ex-
posed, the apple-tree will flourish.

" Management of the Land. — If the
ground intended for the orchard can-
not conveniently be kept wholly in a
state of cultivation during the first
years, a portion, at least, ought to be.

" A strip of land to each row of 8
or 10 feet in width, well manured,
may be kept cultivated, and the vege-
tables which may here be raised will
amply repay the expense and labour
bestowed during the first 4 or 5 years.
After this, if Uie trees have grown
well, as they probably must liave
done, cultivation at a distance in the
intervals becomes even more impor-
tant than within the limited distance
of a very few feet from the trunk of
the tree ; for, on examination, it will
be found that the small fibres or
spongelets, by which alone the tree
derives all the nourishment it re-
ceives from the earth, are now re-
mote l>om the trunk of the tree ; they
are now to be found seeking food be-
yond the limits of its shade, and it
becomes necessary that the whole
grouncl should be kept in a high state
of cultivation for the 4 or 5 following
years. After tliis period it may oc-
casionally be laid to grass, which,
however, should be broken up at fre-
quent intervals, the land being always
kept in good heart.

''Pruning. — if the branches of a
young tree, issuing at and above the
requisite height, be made, by pruning,
to diverge from the trunk in every di-
rection above the horizontal, and the
interior of these be carefully kept
from any interference with each oth-
er for a few years, little pruning will
ever afterward be necessary.

" Heavy pruning is seldom neces-

APPLE.

sary or advisable ; but when, as in
the case of grafting, or of heading
clown for a new growtii, it becomes
unavoidable, it should always be per-
formed in that interval lietween the
time the frost is coming out of the
ground in sprmg and the opening of
the leaf

" For that moderate pruning, which
alone is generally needful, June and
July, and during the longest days of
sunmier, is the very best time ; for
wounds of all kinds heal admirably at
this period, the wood remaining sound
and bright ; and even a tree debarked
at this season recovers a new bark
immediately.

" Trees ought not to be pruned in
February and March, at the time the
frost is coming out of the ground.
This is the season when most trees,
and particidarly the vine and sugar-
maple, bleed most copiously and in-
juriously. It causes mveterate cank-
er, the wounds turn black, and the
bark, for perhaps several feet below,
becomes equally black, and perfectly
dead in consequence of the bleed-
ing."

Mr. Pell, who has an orchard of
20,000 Xewton pippins, has succecd-
Cvl, by the following method, in indii- '
cing the trees to bear crops every '
year :

" Three years ago in April, I \
scraped all the rough bark off from
several thousand trees in my orchani.
and waslied the trunks and limbs
within reach with soft soap, trimmed
out all the branches that crossed j
each other early in June, and paint- i
ed the wounded part with white-lead i
to keep out moisture, then split open
the bark by running a sharp-pointed ■
knife from the ground to the first set
of limbs in the latter part of the
same month, wiiich prevents tlie tree |
from becoming bark-bound, and gives ;
the inner wood an opportunity of ex- j
panding. In July I placed one peck
of oyster-shell lime around each tree,
and left it piled about the trunk un-
til November, during which three
montlis the drought was e.vcessive.
In November the lime was dug in
thoroughly. The following year
C3

(1842) I collected from those trees
1700 barrels of fruit, some of which
was sold in New-York for S4 per
barrel, and others in London for 89.
After gathering the fruit in October,
I manured the same trees with sta-
ble manure, and covered it imme-
diately with earth. Strange as it
may appear, this year they are lit-
erally bending to tiie ground with the
finest fruit I ever saw. The other
trees in my orchard, not treated as
above, are barren, next year being
their bearing year."

Fruit for exportation and spring
use must be allowed to rij)en well,
be plucked with the hand, and care-
fully exposed on the barn floor to dry
for 15 to 20 days ; they should then
be placed in clean barrels, and stored
in a dry cellar not subject to frost.
In shipping, they should never be
jolted. They should be placed be-
tween decks, in an airy situation.
Fruit grown in dry seasons always
keeps best.

The products of the apple-orchard
are so numerous that there is no lo-
cality in which it may not be made
profitable. Not only does tiie Iruit
ctmimand a good price, but ciJer and
vinegar are easily obtained, while
hogs flourish on the fallen fruit, de-
stroying, at the same time, the Iruit
caterpillar. The pomace, or refuse
of the cider-mill, is very acceptable
to cows and swine, or contributes to
enrich the manure heap. See Cuter.

Indeed, the value of apples as food
for hogs is little appreciated ; but
there is abundant evidence furn.shed
by practical men that they are almost
as valuable as potatoes. The flesh
is very firm and fine in swine thus
fattened.

Insects. — Numerous insects affect
the apple and pear tree, either bo-
liiig tiie trunk, destroying the young
leaves, or inhabiting the fruit. The
fruit caterpillar {Torlrix pomonana)
causes the fall of many apples before
the ripening season. The moth [Jig-.
/), whose eggs produce the destruc-
tive worm, is to be seen in the even-
ings of June and July flying about the
trees, or on the wmdows of the house.
29

APPLE

Its outer winjs are marked with
gray and brown lines arran<red in del-
icate waves, with one larf,'e brown
spot on each, siirrouiulod with a yel-
low maririn ; the head and lliorax are
brown ish-<,'ray, strijjcd ; the under
wings and abdomen are of a satin
orange colour. Tiiey deposite an
egg on several young fruit, and pre-
fer early varieties. A worm is pro-
duced in 4 days, which enters the ap-
ple, eating towards the core, and
finally through the fruit. In three
weeks or more the caterpillar (a) es-

capes, but before this the apple usu-
ally falls to the groimd, and it seeks
a shelter among tlie rough hark of
the tree or oilier suitable place to
spin a cocoon (c). Tlie chrysalis, or
grub (il), is of a mahogany colour ; it
remains concealed until tlie next
spring before leaving its nest as a
moth. It is stated by European wri-
ters that there is another moth, wliich
produces two generations annually,
m the spring and fall.

Smoking the trees during the ap-
pearance of the moth with tobacco,

pitch, and other pungent vapours, is
used with some success. The col-
lection of fallen fruit once or twi.ce a
day secures the worm, which may
be destroyed ; but they instinctively
leave the apple soon after its fali.
Rags, or straw bands tied around the
stem, serve as a decoy to the cater-
pillar to form his cocoon under their
shelter. The figures from Kollar rep-
resent this troublesome insect, which
infests pears and other fruits like-
wise : it is the codling moth of Euro-
pean writers.

■The caterpillars which exist in
such large quantities in webs at the
junction of the branches, and devour
the spring foliage of apples and most
trees, are the larva? of the Clissio-
campa 7icus/ria, Americana, and other
species ; they are readdy destroyed
by either collecting the nests and
burning them, or by applying a sponge
dipped in strong hartshorn, a solution
of sulphuret of lime, or any other
powerful poison. They are called
lackey or tent caterpillars by Euro-
pean writers.

The Cankerwoem, green looper cat-
80

crpillar. destructive to the buds of ap-
ples and other trees, is the larva of
the Geomcira Irumata (or Phalaena),
the winter moth. The figure repre-
sents (a) the male, and (i) the female

moth. The male is winged, but the
female crawls only ; she may be seen
ascending the trunk of trees in the
fall to deposite her eggs in the au-
tuinnal buds : and is of an ash-gray
colour. The caterpillars are at first
gray, but afterward light green ; tlrey
devour flowers, leaves, and fruit ;
and when they take up their abode
on any part, construct a small web

AJ'R

or cell for protection. Abont May '
tliey bi>gin lo Iciivo the tree, desceiul-
iti;: liy a iliread to the soil ; here they
hiiry themselves lo become puppa;,
an 1 reappear as moths from August
to Xoveiiiher. The destruction of
the female moths is attempted by
fastening strips of paper smeared >
with tar round tlie trunk, which ar- [
rests their ascent. Kollar rccom- '
mends the construction of a box
around the lower part of the trunk,
covered on all sides with a projecting
top, to be kept smeared vvitii tar. The
caterpillars are also fumigated with
tobacco, &c., sinoke. Other geome-
ters also infest fruit trees.

Apple-borer. The Saperda bivit-
cafa. Say. See Boras.

The Appi.E-wEEvrL, Curculio {An-
thoiwinus) pomoiuni, is of a grayish

colour, deposites her eggs in the
flower buds in spring; the grub is
small, wiiite, with a black head, it be-
coming yellow. The flowers and fruit
are destroyed by them. The curcu-
lio may he shaken from the tree in
spring, and destroyed by chickens.
'1 he trees are also subject to aphides,
American blight, other caterpillars,
(Sec.

APRICOT. (Armeniaca vulgaris.)
The following remarks are by Mr.
Pell:

"This fruit does exceedingly well
when budded towards the end of Ju-
ly, on plum stocks two years old.
The peach answers very well like-
wise When three years old, I set
them out in a very rich black mould.
I tind they do much better under
glass than in the open air. In either
case they should be disbudded in the
month of May, and all the superflu-
ous shoots taken cff In November
they should be shortened to sixteen
laches ; by so doing lue trees will be

AR..\

kept vigorous and healthy. Their
principal enemies are the cur(-uiius,
wasps, and flies, which may he kept
off l)y means of nets."'

The Moorpark and Turkey are both
esteemed varieties, as also the fol-
lowing : breda, gold blotch, musk
Schuylers, orange, peach, and violet.
Lindley recommends grafting on the
mussel plum stock, 'i'he position o.
the tree ought to be sheltered and
late. It answers admirably in the
South, where it is grown as a stand-
ard, but in New- York it requires a
warm wall.

APRIL. This is the great month
for plougiiing and seeding crops in
the North ; the land should be pre-
pared for potatoes, beets, and root
crops, as well as corn. Tobacco seed
is sown early, and farther south the
young plants of cotton and sugar-
c-ane are hoed and weeded. The gar-
den and orchard are to be closely at-
tended to.

APTERANS, APTERA. Wing-
less insects.

APYREXIA. The cool or quiet
stage of intermittent fevers.

AQUA FORTIS. Nitric acid, usu-
allv dilute.

AQUA REGIA. A mixture of ni-
tric and muriatic acids.

AQUA TIC PLANTS. Such as
grow submerged

AQUEOUS HUMOUR. The fluid
in the anterior chamber of the eye

ARABLE LAND, so called 'from
the Latin word arare, '■ to plough."' is
that part of the land v.bich is chiefly
cultivated by means of the plough.

Land in general is divided into ara-
ble, grass land, wood land, common
pasture, and waste. 1 he first of these
is by far the most important in agri-
culture. In this article we shall brief-
ly explain the princ-iples on which are
founded the most improved methods
of cultivating arable land, by which
the natural produce of the soil is great-
ly increased, and many productions
are obtained in perfection which are
foreign to the soil and climate.

1 . We shall consider the nature and
properties of various soils.

2. The best modes of preparing and

81

ARABLE LAND.

improving the natural soil, so as to
increase its produce.

3. The most advantageous succes-
sion of crops, so as to obtain the
greatest returns with the least dimi-
nution of fertility.

1. Soils. — When the surface of the
earth is penetrated, we generally find
that the appearance, texture, and col-
our vary at different depths. There
is a layer of earth nearest the surface,
of greater or less thickness, which
covers the more solid and uniform
materials which lie below it. This
may be particularly observed wherev-
er there are natural or artificial exca-
vations or pits. A distinct line, near-
ly parallel to the surface, generally
marks the depth of the upper soil, and
separates it from the subsoil. The
soil is more or less composed of mi-
nute parts of various kinds of earth,
mixed with animal and vegetable sub-
stances in different states of decom-
position ; and to these, in a great
measure, it owes its colour, w-hich is
generally darker than that of the sub-
soil. Except where iron, peat, coal,
or slate abound in the soil, a dark
colour is an indication of correspond-
ing fertility. The rich soil of gardens
long cultivated and highly manured is
nearly black. As the soil is the bed
in which all vegetable productions are
to be reared, and in which they are to
find their proper nourishment, its tex-
ture and composition become objects
of great importance to the cultivator ;
and, without a competent knowledge
of these, no practical rules can be laid
down or depended upon.

All soils are composed of earthy
and metallic oxides, saline substan-
ces, vegetable and animal matter, and
water. The earths are chiefly clay
or alumina, flint or silica, and lime.

Magnesia, barytes, and other earths
are occasionally met with, but in so
few instances that they may be omit-
ted in the list.

Of the metals, the most abundant
is iron in the state of peroxide. The
other metals are rarely found near the
surface.

Saline substances form a small part
of a soil, but an important one.
8S

Potassa exists in almost every ve-
getable, soda in a few, and ammonia
is produced by the decomposition of
animal matter ; but, from its volatile
nature, it is not long retamed in the
soil, except when it forms a fixed
compound with other substances.

The vegetable acids, as a general
rule, are perhaps limited to small por-
tions of acetic acid in combination
with some base, as lime or potash.

The mineral acids arc found united
with earths and alkalies, in the statu
of neutral compounds.

These saline substances have a
powerful effect on vegetation ; and a
knowledge of their proportions in the
soil, and of their various qualities, is
indispensable in order to modify or
correct their action by other substan-
ces for which they have an affinity.

Water, in a state of combination,
or of mere mechanical diffusion, is
essential to the growth of all plants :
without it and atmospheric air there
is no lite, either animal or vegetable.

The Earths. — Clay is called alumina
because it is obtained in its purest
state from alum, in which it is com-
bined with the sulphuric acid : it is
the basis of all strong and heavy soils.
When clay is minutely divided, it is
easily suspended in water ; when
dried slowly, and stirred while dry-
ing, it becomes a fine powder, soft
to the feel ; and when kneaded with
water, a tough, ductile mass, easily
moulded into hollow vessels which
retain liquids. This property of being
impervious to water gives the specific
character to clay as an ingredient of
the soil. In a pure and unmixed state
it is absolutely barren. When clay is
heated to a great degree it parts with
the water combined with it ; it is then
said to be baked, as we see in bricks.
It is no longer diffusible in water.

Silica, or the earth of flints, suffers
no change in water. It consists of
crystals, or fragments of very hard
stone, forming gravel or sand accord-
ing to their size ; and the finest sili-
cious sand, when examined with a
magnifying glass, has the appearance
of irregular fragments of stone wjih-
out any cohesion between them.

ARABLE LAND.

Silicious sand holds water in its in-
terstices by simple cohesive attrac-
tion in proportion to its fineness. It
lets water pass through it rapidly, ei-
ther by filtration or evaporation. Its
use in the soil is to keep it open, to
let the air and water, as well as those
other substances on which the growth
of plants depends, circulate through
it. Unmixed, it dries so rapidly that
no vegetation can continue in it, un-
less a constant supply of moisture be
given by irrigation. A small addition
of clay much improves light sands.

Lime in its pure state is familiar
to every one as the basis of the mor-
tar used in building. It is produced
by burning marble, chalk, limestone,
or shells with a great heat. In the
stones which are formed principally
of lime it is comi)ined with some acid,
most generally carbonic acid, which
separates from it by the operation of
burning, in the form of an air or gas,
hence called fixed air, from its being
thus /an/ in a stone. These stones,
of various degrees of hardness, are
now ail classed under the name of
carbonates of lime.

Lime unites readily with water,
which it also absorbs from the atmo-
sphere. It then becomes slacked. By
uniting with carbonic acid, it returns
to Its fbrmer state of carbonate, with
this difference, that, unless much wa-
ter he present, it remains a fine im-
palpable powder. Pure lime is solu-
ble in water, though sparingly ; a pint
of water cannot dissolve more than
about twenty grains : the carbonate
is not soluble in water. Carbonate of
lime has a powerful effect on the fer-
tility of a soil, and no soil is very pro-
ductive without it. It is consequently
used extensively as an improver of
the soil, otherwise called a manure ;
but its use in this respect, and the
mode in which it acts, will be given
in the articles Mwcre and Lime.

Carbonate of lime, as an earth, is
neither so tenacious as clay nor so
loose as sand. In proportion to the
fineness of its particles, it approaches
the one or the other; when the parts
are large and hard, it takes the name
of limestone or calcareous gravel.

Its distinguishing feature is its sol.
ubility in acids, which it neutralizes,
depriving them of their noxious qual-
ities in the soil. A proper mixture
of these three earths, in a due state
of mechanical division, forms a soil
well fitted to the growth of every
species of plants, especially those
which are cultivated for food ; and
nothing more is required than a prop-
er climate as to heat, a proper degree
of moisture, and sufficient nourish-
ment, to make all the plants generally
cultivated thrive most luxuriantly in
such a mi.xture. which is usually call-
ed a loam.

But there are some soils which, be-
sides a proper mechanical texture and
mi.xture of earths, contain a large pro-
portion of a natural manure, which
renders them extremely fertile. This
is a substance produced by the slow
decay of animal and vegetable mat-
ter. It can be separated from the
other parts of the soil, and has been
accurately analyzed and described by
many of the most experienced chem-
ists, particularly by Fourcroy. Davy,
Chaptal. and Theodore de Saussure.
(See Rccherchcs Chimiqucs sur la Ve-
gitation, Paris, 1804, 8vo.) This
substance has been called vegetable
mould; but, as this is not a very dis-
tinct term, we shall, after Thacr and
other eminent writers on agriculture,
adopt the name of humus when speak-
ing of it. Humus is a dark, unctuous,
friable substance, nearly uniform in
its appearance. It is a compound of
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitro-
gen, which are the elements of all an-
imal and vegetable substances. It is
the result of the slow decomposition
of organic matter in the earth, and is
found in the greatest abundance in
rich garden mould, or old. neglected
dunghills. It varies somewhat in its
qualities and composition, according
to the sub.stances from which it has
been formed and the circumstances
attending their decay.

Besides the four essential elements
in its composition, it also contains
other substances in smaller quanti-
ties, viz , phosphoric and sulphuric
acids combined with some base, and
89

ARABLE LAND

also earths and salts. It affords tbod
to plants. It is diminished by the
process of vegetation, and wasted by
being carried into the ocean by the
waters, or it is carried into the atmo-
sphere by the agency of the oxygen
of the air, which converts it into gas-
eous matter, chiefly carbonic acid.

Humus, in tiie state in wiiicb it is
usually found in the eartii, is not sol-
uble in water, and we might have
some difficulty in comprehending how
it enters into the minute vessels of
the roots of plants ; but here the ad-
mirable provision of nature may be
observed. Humus is insoluble and
antiseptic ; it resists farther decom-
position in itself, and in other sub-
stances in contact with it. It re-
mains for a long lime in the eartli un-
impaired ; but no sooner is it brought
into contact with the atmosphere by
the process of cultivation, than an
action begins. Part of its carbon,
uniting with the oxygen of the atmo-
sphere, produces carbonic acid, wliich
the green parts of plants readily ab-
sorb ; while its hydrogen, with the
same, forms water, without which
plants cannot live ; and in very warm
climates, where this process goes on
more rapidly, the moisture thus produ-
ced keeps up vegetable life when rains
and dews fail. The residue becomes
a soluble extract, and in that stale is
taken up readily by the fibres of the
roots. Hence we see the great impor-
tance of frequently stirring the sur-
face of the earth between vegeta-
bles.

We can now readily understand
the great importance of humus, and
of those rich manures which are
readily converted into it, when not
immediately absorbed by plants. But
it has still another property, highly
important to fertility : it renders stiflT
clays porous, and consolidates loose
sands. It does so more than lime or
any other earth. Hence a soil with
a considerable portion of humus is
much more fertile than the quantity
of alumina or of sand in its compo-
site jn would lead one to expect, as
we shall see when we come to the
analysts of soils of known fertility ;
8i

and we see the great advantage of
animal and vegetable manures, not
only as nourishment to vegetables,
but as mechanical improvers of the
texture of soils.

The greatest enemy of humus is
stagnant water : it renders it inert
and astringent, as we see in peat ;
and soils abounding with vegetable
matters, from which water is not
properly drained, become sour, as is
very justly said, and produce only
rushes and other useless and unpal-
atable plants. The remedy is simple
and obvious : drain well, and neutral-
ize the acid with lime or marl ; by
these means abundant fertility will
be restored.

In very light soils humus is seldom
found in any quantity, being loo much
exposed to the air, and rapidly de-
composed ; the extract is washed
through them by the waters, and, as
they waste manure rapidly, they are
called hungry. Such soils are very un-
profitable until they are improved and
consolidated by clay or marl, which
makes them retain their moisture.

With calcareous earths humus acts
well, provided they are pulverized
and of sufficient depth.

In order to ascertain the probable
fertility of a soil, it is very useful to
analyze it, and find out the propor-
tion of its component parts. To do
this with great accuracy requires the
knowledge of an experienced chem-
ist. See Analysis.

Mr. Thaer has given a classifica-
tion of soils of known qualities, which
we think worthy of notice. It is as
follows :

^

^

._ ^

-*J

No.

jh' ^

|i

2 1 1

3 ^

1

'•" t

'•^ £

s'.^ i

i. i_

>

—

c

w C.

"~r

1 1

74

10

~~*yi

TTm

loo

2

i Firsiclass of strong J

SI

6

4

»y.

98

3

( wheat soils . . \

79

10

4

6>J

96

4

40

2-2

36

4 "

90

S

( Rich light sanil ia I
\ n:i:ur;il grass . )

14

49

10

27

?

6

Rich barley land

•20

67

3

10

78

7

Onod whe.it land ■

r,S

36

2

4

77

8

Wheat land .

56

30

12

2

75

9

Do. .

HO

38

^

2

70

10

I>o

48

.10

5

2

65

11

r>9

68

.30

<c J

2

60

1-:

Good o.nrley land .

.38

00

w'^

2

60

13

Do. second quality

33 1 fi.T

'r C

•3

60

14

Do

S8 1 70

■~ 3

.2

40

1.'^

Oat land .

irtV.^ T.=i

'c ^

ll.<

■ ?/0

16

Do. ...

18,g| 80

>

IM

20

ARABLE LAJN'D.

Below this are very poor rye lands.

Ill all these soils tlie depth is sup-
posed the same, and the quality uni-
form to the depth of at least 6 inch-
es ; the subsoil sound, and neither i
too wet nor too dry.

Xos. 1, i. and 3 are alluvial soils,
and, from the division and the inti-
mate union of the humus, are not so
heavy and stiffas the quantity of jlay J
would indicate.

No. 4 IS a ricdi clay loam, neither
too heavy nor too loose : a sod ea-
sily kept in heart by judicious culti- j
vation

Xo. 5 is very light and rich, and
best adaped tor gardens and or- |
cliards, hut not for corn ; hence its ]
comparative value can scarcely be
given.

rs'os. 6, 7, and 8 are good soils ;
the quantity of carbonate of lime in '
Xo. 8 compensates for the smaller i
portion of humus. Tiiis land requires
manure, as well as the others below. [
In those from No. 9 downward lime |
or marl would he the greatest iin- '
provement. Xos. 15 and 16 are poor
light soils, rccpiiring clay and mucii
manure ; but even these lands will
repay the cost of judicious cultiva-
tion, and rise in value. :

The last column, of comparative
value, is the result of several years'
careful valuation ofthe returns, after
labour and seed had liecn deducted.

Few old sods contain more than 4
or 5 per cent, of humus, even when
in very good heart; and 2 per cent.,
with a good loamy texture, will ren- '
der a sod lit for corn with judicious
cultivation. The texture is of most
importance, as may be seen by com-
paring Xos. 7 and 8 with X'o. 6. If
this is of good quality, dung will soon
give the proper supply of humus. '

The depth of the soil and the na-
ture of the subsoil greatly affect its
value. However rich it may be, if
there is only a thin layer of good soil
over a sharp gravel or a wet clay, it
can never bo very productive : in the
first case, it will he parched in dry
weather : and in the latter, convert-
ed into mud by every continued rain.
If the subsoil be loam, six inches of,

good soil will be sufficient. With a
foot of good soil, the subsoil is ol' lit-
tle consequence, provided it be dry,
and the water can find a ready outlet.
The exposure, with respect to the
sun, and the declivity ofthe ground,
are very important circumstances,
and equivalent to an actual differ-
ence in the climate. A gentle de-
clivity towards the south, and a shel-
ter against cold winds, may make as
great a difference as several degrees
of latitude.

2. CfLTIV.iTIOV OF THE SoIL. The

better the soil, the less cultivation it
requires to produce tolerable crops ;
hence, wliere the land is very rich,
we find in general a slovenly culture ;
where the ground is less productive,
more labour and skill are applied to
compensate for the want of natural
fertility. The simplest cultivation is
that of the spade, the hoe, and the
rake, and on a small scale it is the
best ; but spade husbandry cannot
be carried to a great extent without
employing more hands than can be
spared from other occupations. The
jjlough, drawn l)y oxen or horses, is
the chief instrument of tillage, and
has been so in all ages and nations
of which we have any records. Its
general form is familiar to every one,
and requires no minute description.
The various kinds of ploughs in use
at difierent times, and the improve-
ments which have been made and
are attempted daily, will be noticed
in a separate article (see Plough).
Suffice it to say, at present, that a
plough should, as much as possible,
imitate ihe work done with a spade.
It should cut a slice from the land
l)y its coulter vertically, and by the
share horizontally lift it up, ami turn
it quite over by means ofthe mould-
board ; and the art ofthe ploughman
consists in doing this perfectly, and
with such a depth and width as
suit the soil and the intended pur-
pose. In tenacious soils the slice
will be continued without breaking,
especially if bound by the fibres and
roots of plants ; the whole surface
will be turned over, and the roots
exposed to the air. It is of great
85

ARABLE LAND.

consequence that each slice be of the
same width ami thickness, and the
sides of it perfectly straight and par- ,
allcl. Tlie plane of the coulter must
be perfectly vertical, and that of the ;
share horizontal, in order that the
bottom of the furrow may be level,
without hollows or balks, which are
irregularities produced by the rising
or sinking of the plough, or inclining
it to either side. There are various
modes of ploughing land, either quite
Hat, or in beds or stitches — that is,
in portions of greater or less widtli,
with a double furrow between them,
somewhat like beds in a garden.
Sometimes two ridges are set up
against each other, which is called
ridging or banting ; the land then is
entirely laid in high ridges and deep
Jurrows, by which it is more exposed
to the influence of the air, and kept
drier: this is generally done before
winter, especially in stiff, wet soils.
Sometimes two or more ridges are
made on each side, forming narrow
stitches. When the ground is to be
ploughed without being laid in stitch-
es, and all tiie ridges inclined one
way, the mould-board of the plough
is shifted at each turn from one side
to the other. The double mould-board
plough of Barnaby and Mooers docs
this effectively. When gjass land or
stubble is ploughed, care must be ta-
ken to bury tbe grass and weeds com-
pletely, and the slice cut off by the
plough must be turned over entirely,
which is best done by making the
width of the furrow greater than the
depth. When the grass and weeds
are rotten, and the ground is plough-
ed to pulverize it, a narrow, deep fur-
row is best ; the earth ploughed up
is laid against the side of the prece-
ding ridge, which forms a small fur-
row between the tops of the ridges,
well adapted for the seed to lodge in
and to be readily covered with the
harrow.

Nothing has divided both practical
and theoretical agriculturists more
than the question whether the land
should be ploughed deep or shallow;
but a very slight attention to the pur-
puses for which laud is ploughed, and

as

to the nature of the soil, will readily
reconcile these apparently contradic-
tory opinions. A deep, ricii, and stiff
soil can never be moved too much
nor too deep : deep ploughing brings
up rich earth, admits tlie air and
water readily, and gives room for
the roots to shoot, while the rich
compact soil affords moisture and
nourishment. Wherever trees are to
be planted the ground should be stir-
red as deep as possible, even in a poor
soil : for grass and corn, this is not
always prudent ; their roots seldom
go above three or four inches deep,
and if they find suflicient moisture
and hurnus, they require Utile more
depth.

V\'henever the soil below a certain
depth is of an inferior quality, there
can be no use in bringing it up ; and
where the soil is light and porous,
the bottom had much better not be
broken.

The great object in ploughing land
is to divide it, expose every part of
it to the influence of the elements,
and destroy every plant or weed but
those which are sown in it. To do
this perfectly requires several plough-
ings.

Where the soil is good, with a po-
rous subsoil, the greatest care should
be taken not to go too deep ; but
where the subsoil is compact and im-
pervious to water, but not wet for
want of outlet or draining, it is use-
ful to stir the soil to a great depth,
but without bringing it to the sur-
face, which may be done by a plough
without a mould-board following a
common plough in the same furrow.
This is an excellent mode of drain-
ing, and, at the same time, keeping
a reservoir of moisture, which in dry
weather ascends in vapours through
the soil and refreshes the roots.

The mode in which the soil is pre-
pared most perfectly for the recep-
tion of the seed is best shown by fol-
lowing the usual operations on fal-
lows : After the harvest, the plough
is set to work and the stubble plough-
ed in. The winter's frost and snow
mellow it, while the stubble and weeds
rot below'. lu spring, as soon as ths

ARABLE LAND

weather permits, it is ploughed again, '
the lirst ridjjcs being turned over as
they were belore ; tliis completes the i
decomposition of the roots and weeds.
It is then stirred with harrows or oth-
er instruments, which tear up the
roots which remained, and some of
these, not being easily destroyed, are
carefully gathered and burned, or put
in a heap to ferment and rot, a por-
tion of quickhme being added. An- I
oVlier ploughing and stirring follows, '.
at some interval, till the whole ground
is mellow, pulverized, and free from
weeds ; manure is put on, if required,
and immediately spread and ploughed
in : the land is then prepared for the
seed. I

Various instruments have been in- '
vonted to stir the earth and mix it
wiihovit so often using the plough,
and also to loosen and separate roots
and weeds ; of these the principal
are the cultivator or scarifier, which
enters but a few inches into the
ground, and moves a great surface
by means of iron teeth of various
constructions.

This instrument divides the soil,
but does not turn it over ; it is well
calculated to destroy roots and weeds,
and let in the air ; but, evidently, is
only adapted to tolerably loose and
mellow soils, where there are no
large stones.

AN'hen the soil turned up by the
plough is in large, hard lumps, a roll-
er, sometimes with spikes in it, is
drawn over the land to break the
clods ; but this is seldom necessary
except where very stifTsoils have been
ploughed when too wet. and the ridges
have dried, and been ploughed again
in dry weather. Deep wet clay soils
should be carefully watched, to know
Avhen is the proper time to plough
them. Nothing pulverizes them like
frost ; and if they are kept from wet
by careful draining and numerous
water-furrows in autumn, they will
be loose and friable in spring ; tiiey
had better not be touched than work-
ed when too wet. On light soils the
plain roller is used to advantage to
produce firmness, without which the
plough cannot so well turn the ground

over completely, but merely pushes
it to the right and left.

The iniluence of the atmosphere
on the soil, and the increased fertili-
ty produced by pulverizing and stir-
ring heavy lands, has led to the no-
tion adopted by Jethro Tiill, that la-
bour might entirely supersede the
necessity of manure ; hence the ori-
gin of the horse-hoeing husbandry,
which at one time was so highly
thought of as to be called, by way of
distinctiiui, the neio husbandry.

There are some soils which are
so mixed with pebbles and stones
that the foregoing observai ions will
scarcely be applicable, and the in-
struments must be adapted to their
texture. The only inconvenience
found from tiiem in good soils is that
they occupy the room of better earth,
and wear out the instruments used,
which, in consequence, are made
stronger and blunter. When there
is a crop to be mown with the scythe,
the stones must be removed from the
surface.

"When the land has been duly pre-
pared, the seed is sown. This is
done sometimes before the last
ploughing, but then the manure
should have been ploughed in be-
fore ; for, except in planting the po
tato, which is not a seed, but a bull),
' the manure should always be deeper,
and not in contact with the seed.
When the seed is ploughed in, the
furrow should not be above two or
three inches deep and eight or nine
v,-ide ; and it is only in particular
soils that this mode is to i)e recom-
mended. Tlie most common method
is to sow the seed on the land after
the last ploughing, and draw the har-
rows over to cover it. When the
land has been well ploughed, the seed
will mostly fall in the small furrows
made by two adjoining ridges, and
rise in reaiular rows ; but by far the
most perfect way is to sow it at a
regular depth, by means of a ma-
chine, and in rows at regular distan-
' ces. See Drill.

The proper season for sowing each
kind of gram, the choice of seed, and
^ other particulars, will be given under
87

ARABLE LAND.

the name of the difTorent seeds usu-
ally sown. As a general rule, it may
be observed, that the smaller the
seed, the Jess it must he covered,
and clover or grass seed is not usu-
ally harrowed in, but only pressed in
vviih ihe roller.

3. Sltckssion of Crops, or Rot.\-
TioNs. — It has been found by expe-
rience that, besides the general ex-
haustion of huniu.s, each kind of crop
has a specific effect on the sod. so
that no care or manure can make the
same ground produce equal crops .)f
the same kind of grain for any length
of time without the intervention of
other crops. Whether this be owing
to any peculiar nourishment neces-
sary to each particular kind of plants,
or because plants not indigenous de-
generate in a foreign soil, the fact is
certain with respect to most crops
usually raised, and particularly red
clover. This points out the advan-
tage of varying the crops, according
as they are found to succeed best
after each other. In general, all
kinds of grain succeed best after a
crop which has been cut before the
seed has ripened or the stem is dried
up. Those plants which have a na-
ked s'.em with few leaves thrive best
after leguminous plants, which have
more succulent stems and more
leaves, and which bear their seeds
in pods, as pease, beans, tares, or
vetches ; or after esculent roots,
which sirike deep into the gro:ind. as
carrots, parsnips, beet-roots, and tur-
nips. Fr(un this circumstance, con-
firmed by universal experience, the
different systems of rotation have
had their origin, taking the nature of
the soil into consideration.

The Norlolk rotation is, 1. Tur-
nips, well manured ; 'Z. Barley ; 3.
Clover ; 4. ^^"lleal : by which a suf-
ficiency of food for sheep and cattle
is obtained without natural pastures,
and the land, manured every fourth
year at least, is kept in a regular
state of progressive improvement

A very comuion rotation in Scot-
land is, fallow, wheat, clover, or
grass, fed one, two, or three years;
liien oats, pease, or beans, and w heat
38

again, if the land is clean and in good
heart ; for there is no rule better es-
tablished than that of never allowing
the soil to be exhausted beyond a
certain point, where manure and til-
lage can readily recruit it. The
greedy cultivator is sure to pay dear-
ly in the end for every crop lorced
from the land unreasonably.

The Flemish husbandry proceeds
much on this principle. The great-
est attention is paid to manuring and
weeding. Much more manual labour
is bestowed, and tlie crops seem
nuire certain, varied, and abundant.
That it is not unprofitable, w-e may
conclude from the wealtli of the peas-
ants, the comfort of the labourers,
and the sleek appearance of the cat-
tle. From the very interesting ac-
count of Flemish agriculture in the
work of Mr. Van Aeli)roek, of Ghent,
we learn with what great care the
soil is cultivated in Flanders. After
ploughing lands, every intervening
furrow is deepened and cleared with
the spade, the earth being thrown
over the bed sow n. Liquid manure,
chiefly the urine of animals and drain-
ings of dunghills, is carefully col-
lected, and is carried on and distribu-
ted over the poor light soils by means
of water-carts, before sowing, and
again when the crop is come up. By
this means such lands are made to
yield crops of rape seed, clover, lu-
cern. flax, and corn, equal in luxu-
riance to those on the richest soils.
Fallows are rendered unnecessary by
the careful destrucl.on of weeds; in
short, it is a garden culture on an ex-
tended scale. All the land is in till-
age, except where rivers occasion-
ally overflow, and render the mead-
ows rich and profitable. The cattle
are mostly kept in stables, and fed
with green food cut and brought to
them,, by which means one acre of
clover, lucern.or other artificial grass
will maintain five times as many
beasts, or more, as an acre of the
best pasture. But the greMt objtct
is to increase manure, especially in a
liquid slate, which is care.ully pre-
served in reservoirs, without loss or
waste, till wanted for the land. This

ARB

AKO

pvptpm is also followed in Switzer-

l.uul

In llolstein, on moderately good
soil, they adopt the following course :
1. Oats, on newly l)roken-i!p grass
land ; 2. A fallow to destroy grasses
and weeds, and aeeeierate the de
composition of their roots ; 3. Wheat,
with or without manure, according
to the state of tiie land ; 4. Beans,
barley, or oats ; 5. Wheat, manured,
unless it has been done for the beans
the year before : 6. Grass seeds pas-
tured for three years or more, when
the rotation begins again.

We have now given a brief outline
of the manner in wliich aralde land
may be cultivated and improved. If
we should be asked whether so much
attention and labour upon land of a
proper quality will be repaid by the
value of tlie produce, we shall an-
swer, without any hesitation, in the
affirmative, provided the cultivator
is [)ossessed of knowledge, judgment,
and experience, and devotes all his
time to the superintendence of his
farm. — (IV. L. Rham.)

ARAC.E, AROID.E. The natural
family of plants, including the arum,
Indian turnip, and skunk cabbage.

AIIACHNIDANS, ARACHNIDA.
A class of apterous, spider-liko con-
dylopes, having the head confluent
with the chest, and the body, conse-
quently, consisting of but two seg-
ments, with eight legs, smooth eyes,
and the sexual orifices situated on
the thorax, or anterior part of the
abdomen.

ARATION. Ploughing.

ARBOR. The principal spindle or
axis of a machine.

ARBORESCENT. Inclining to,
or becoming woody.

ARBORrCULTURE. The culti-
vation of trees.

ARBORETUM. A place for the
cultivation of trees.

ARBOR VIT.E. rhuja occidcnta-
lis. A well-known coniferous ever-
green, of small size, but very duralde.
It abounds in the Northern States,
ap'J has oeen much recommended as
a l'3dge. Tiie jilants are best rai.?ed
fiora seed. Tliere is a species from

China mnch admired in the shrub-
beries of Rnrope.

ARBUSTUM. An orchard or vine-
yard.

ARBUTUS. A genus of handsome
evergreen shrubs of the natural fam-
ily Ericaceae. The fruit is succulent,
but austere, and in the A. uncdo a
beautiful object. The Arlnitus nn-
drachnc is the most admired of this
genus. Tlie A. vra vrsi yields a use-
ful medicine. They are much cul-
tivated as shrubbery plants in Eu-
rope, and belong to the first class for
beauty.

ARCESTHIDA. A small succu-
lent cone, as the juniper berry.

ARCHIL. A purple dye-stuff pro-
cured from the Rocclla tinclona and
fudformis, lichens growing on the
rocks of the Canary Islands.

ARCHITRAVE. The chief beam
or structure resting immediately upon
the columns of an edifice, the lowest
member of the entablature ; also call-
ed the epistvlium.

ARCUA'rE. Bent like a bow.

ARECA. An East Indian palm, the
nut of which is chewed with the betel.

ARENACEOUS. Sandy, relating
to sand.

AREOL-E. In entomology, the
small spaces between the nervures
of the wings.

AREOMETER. An instrument for
taking specific gravities. See Hi/-
drometcr.

ARGIL, ARGILLACEOUS. Clay,
clavey.

ARILL.^, ARIL. ARIEL. Amem-
branous prolongation of the placenta
over a seed, as the mace of the nut-
meg.

AR.M OF A HORSE. The upper
part of the fore legs.

ARMILLA. The coloured circle
of the lower end of the fore leg, above
the tarsus of birds.

ARMY A^'OR.M. Sec CoHun, Dis-
eases of.

ARNOTTO. See Annolta.

AROMA, AROMATIC. A plea.?-
ant spicy odour, usually due to a vol-
atde oil.

AROMATIC HEED. Acorns rala-
mus. Sweet Hag, a common indige-
89

ARR

XRT

nous wafer plant, the rhizome of
which is of a spicy odour. It is the
Calamus oromaticus of the druggists.

ARPENT. The French acre of
51,691 sqare feet.

ARRACACHA. The South Amer-
ican name for an umbelliferous plant,
the Arracacia escuknla of botanists,
whose flcsliy sweet roots are cultiva-
ted in Columbia and Jamaica, in the
mountainous parts of those countries,
in the same way as parsnips and car-
rots in Europe. The roots are of
large size, and in quality are, when
cooked, between a sweet chestnut
and a parsnip. Attempts to intro-
duce it into common European cul-
tivation have uniformly failed. —
{Brandc.)

ARRACK. A whiskey of unpleas-
ant odour, obtained by distilling the
liquor of the fermented mush of rice.
It is sometimes applied to other spir-
ituous liquors.

A R R O W-G R A S S. The genus
Trigluchin. They are small marsh
grasses, perennial, and flowering in
July ; some grow on salt marsh.
They are eaten bv cattle.

ARROW-HEAD. Sagntaria sa-
gittifolia. A common indigenous,
perennial, tuberose plant, with ar-
row-shaped leaves, growing in brooks.
It is cultivated by the Chinese for its
roots, whicli are mealy.

ARROW-ROOT. Marnnta anai-
dinacea. A herbaceous plant of the
family Canna;, with fleshy peretmial
roots, readily propagated by root-cut-
tings, which should be set a foot to
eighteen inches apart, in drills. It is
cultivated in Bermuda, the West In-
dies, and Florida. The roots are dug
when a year old, washed, beaten into
a pulp, then mixed with water, and
agitated ; the struigy parts are then
se|)aratcd by the hand. The starch, or
ur'oic-rool, remains suspended in the
water ; this is next strained through
a linen cloth, and then allowed to set-
tle, by which the starch subsides, and
the water is removed : it is washed
a second time, and dried. Arrow-
root is a nearly pure starch, of agree-
able flavour, but little nutrition. Good
potatoes, rasped into a pulp and treat- ,
40

ed the same way, produce a starch,
which is often used to adulterate the
genuine article.

ARROW- WOOD. Vihirnum den-
latum. A small shrub with straight,
stiff branches and blue berries : the
wood is said to have been used by
the Aborigines for arrows.

ARSENIC. Arsenious acid, white
oxide of arsenic. ' A violent irritant
poison, used injudiciously to destroy
rats, and as an application to ulcers.
The safest antidote is the recently-
prepared hydrated oxide of iron : by
precipitating a solution of per-nitrate
of iron by solution of potash. Lime-
water is much less certain.

ARTEMISIA. The genus of
wormwoods.

ARTERIOTOMY. The opening
of an artery to let blood.

ARTE R Y. The vessels which
convey red blood are so called.

ARTESIAN WELLS, or fount
ains, are those springs or wells which
constantly overflow their summits.

ARTHRODIC. An articulation of
bones, in which the head of one is
received into a shallow cavity of the
other, so as to permit considerable
motion. This is the case with the
upper arm and shoulder.

ARTICHOKE. Ci/nara scolyrmis.
A plant having the appearance of a
gigantic thistle, cultivated for the
flower-head, which is cut before flow-
ering, boiled, and served with butter.
They are propagated by seed and ofT-
sets. If by the former, sow the seed
m rows, a foot apart, as soon as the
frost is out of the ground. Thin the
plants to a foot apart in the row,
and, in the fall of the year, put out
the plants in clunips of four in rows,
three feet apart, and the rows six
feet asunder. They will produce
their fruit tlie next year. When
winter approaches, earth the roots
well up, and, before the frost sets in,
cover all well over with litter fiom
the yard or stable. Open at the
breaking up of the frost ; dig all the
ground well between the rows ; lev-
el the earth down from the plants.
You will find m;iny young ones, or
offsets, growing out from the sides ;

ART

ASH

pull these off, and, if you want a ne\r
plantation, put them out as you did
tlie original plants : they will bear,
though later than the old ones, that
same year. By great care, they may
be made to bear three years.

ARTICHOKE, Jkrusai.em. HcU-
anthus iuhcio.ius. A small sunflower,
with nutritious tubers. It yields
from 150 to 200 bushels of roots, less
in size than potatoes ; the lops, cut
before flowering, also produce abun-
dant fodder. Hogs root up the tu-
bers greedily, and thrive well upon
them. When steamed or boiled, they
are palatable. It is one of the plants
found by Boussingault to draw its
nitrogen almost entirely from the
air ; hence it is recommended as an
ameliorating crop, when turned in
before the tubers are formed.

It is usually propagated by sets
from the roots in April, grows in any
moist soil, especially such as is sandy
and light : the cultivation is the same
as for the potato. When raised for
its tuber, it is liable to become
troublesome, from the germinating
power of even the smallest pieces
left in the soil. It keeps in the ground
all winter, or may be preserved un-
der sand. In the .Middle States it
thrives well. It is extensively used
in France as provender for cattle,
hogs, &.C., and is equal to potatoes in
nourishment.

ARTICULATA, ARTICULATES.
A term applied by Cuvier to a primary
division of the animal kingdom, char-
acterized by an external skeleton in
the tbrm of a series of rings artic-
ulated together and surrounding the
body ; by an internal gangliated ner-
vous system, the ganglions being ar-
ranged symmetrically along the mid-
dle line of the body, and by having
distinct respiratory organs. Insects
and various worms are of this order

ARTICUL.\TED. Jointed In
botany it signities a slight connexion,
such as tint of the leal with the stem
in exogens, which allows ihera to fall
ortwhen dead.

ARTICLLATION. The connex-
ion of the bones of the skeleton by
joints.
D8

ARUM. The genus of the Indian

turnip.

ARUNDO. The reed plants. Sev-
eral species, growing on sand, bind it
together : aruiidinaceous, reed-likc.

ARVICOLA. The genus of liold-
mice.

ASAFCETIDA. A fetid gum res-
in obtained Irom the root of the Ferula
asiiJiE/ida, whence it exudes, by in-
cision, in the form of a milky juice,
which, when dried by exposure to
the sun, acquires a mottled appear-
ance and pink colour. It is a native
of the south of Persia, and is used in
medicine as a stimulant and antispas-
modic in hysteric and nervous disor-
ders, and in spasmodic cough, asth-
ma, and flatulent colic.

ASCARIS, (pi.) ASCARIDES. In-
testinal worms. See Worms.

ASCI. Little membranous bags
containing sporules. Ascidium, tlie
leaf-pitcher.

ASCITES. Dropsy of the belly.

ASH-TREE. Fraxinus cxcclawr.
European ash, a handsome tree, with
valuable timber. The weeping ash
is a variety. This tree is a native
of America, hut not very abundant.
The white ash (F. acuminala) is a val-
uable and common tree of the United
States. A sweet gum (inaiuta) exudes
tVom many species, especially from
the F. ornus of Italy, and commands
a high price at the druggists as a lax-
ative medicine.

ASHES. The incombustible part
of animal and vegetable substances.
In agriculture several varieties are
used, which will be briefly described.

Wood ashes are most abundant from
leaves, bark, and joung twigs. The
composition differs wiih the tree and
soil. The following analyses from
Sprengel will serve as a general guide :

Red
BeecU.

Oak.

.S...U11

Kir.

l-Mili Vme.
(Hi-rtli.rr.)

.Silica .

^■ii

■W-JJ

(jd'J

7-.<U

Al.iii.ina . .

2:« )

Ovide 1)1" Iron . .

3-77 S

8-14

17-03

11-10

OxiileorMan^nese

3-,-«)

2-7."»

!.,.,« . r .

2.i-yO

17-38

23-18

13-60

Magnesia

5-0l>

1+1

alii

■•-:«

P..t;i»l. . . .

ii-ll

I6-.'0

•2-iU

14-10

Soila .

3:JJ

6-7i

■2-i-2

20-75

Sulphuric Acid .

7-M

3-36

2-2:1

3-4.1

Plio.pliuric Acid

b-Hl

!•<«

2-7.'i

0-<.10

(.;l,l,.r,,.e . .

184

3 41

C-.n

CarLouic Acid . .

noo

i:-37

.11, 1-

1 7.r.o

100

100

11)0

HIM

41

ASHES.

Ashes are used with advantage to
every crop, but t'is[)cc;ially a^ a dress-
in;: to that intended for ^namiiicous
plants and llie cereaiia; but turni|)s,
potatoes, ilie wiiite field carrot. and ev-
ery crop, ha.s been beneliled by them.
The application should differ with
the object in view ; six bushel-s are
enouj;h to advance a clover or lucern
crop in the spring, but 15 to 20 bush-
els are sown as a dressing for an an-
nual crop, as grain, barley, &c. Large
doses should not be applied to the
land with seed or upon young growth,
as the carbonate of potash present
sometimes injures them. They tell
best on land rich in vegetable mat-
ter, upon which the potash and soda
acts. On clayey soils ashes general-
ly ])roduce more rapid effects than
on lighter kinds.

The action of all ashes is twofold,
partly due to the solui)le portions,
and partly to the insoluble. The
chloride of sodium, or common salt,
the carbonate and sulphate of potash,
are soluble, and produce immediate
effects on the crop; but the phos-
phates and silicates, as well as car-
bonate of lime, require time to dis-
solve and benefit the crop. Hence
it has been observed that some lands
are permanently improved by ashes,
and some crops immediately benefit-
ed, as the leguminous plants. — {Sprcn-
gel.) In those soils which already
contain much alkali, as the detritus
of primitive and transition coun-
tries, seashores, lands near salt
springs, the soluble parts of ashes
will be of little moment ; and the
leached remains may be altogether
superior, for few soils contain so
much phosphoric acid as not to be
improved by an addition as manure.

Leached, or Washed Wood Ashes. —
Where wood ashes are washed for
the manufacture of the pot and pearl
ash of commerce, this insoluble por-
tion collects in large quantities. It
is also present in the refuse of the
soap-makers, where wood ash is em-
ployed for the manufacture of soft
soap. The composition of this insol-
uble matter varies very much, not
only with the kind of wood from

^9

which the ash is made, but also with

the icntpentiurc it is allowed to attain
in burning. The former fact is illus-
trated by the following analysis, made
by Berlhier, of the insoluble matter
left by the ash of five different spe-
cies of wood carefully burned by him-
self:

i

_j

-i -Z ^

J

.M

_i

fc

"i

?£

S

o

1-2

C2

i£

CO

CO

Silica

3*

■i-O

bb

130

4-tj

ft-8

Lime

64-8

Sl-8

bi-Z

•:7-2

42-3

42-6

.M^snesia .

OH

2-2

3-0

8-7

10-5

7-0

Oxide of Iron

.—.~

01

0•.^

22-::

01

1-5

Oxide of Mans-inese

0-li

3-5

b-:^

0-1

45

I'liosf.lioric A>:lJ .

0-8

2S

4-3

1-p

1-0

n-7

Carbonic Acid

39*

:irt-8

31-0

21-.T

.3S-0

32-9

Carbon .

4-S

'jy-b

ITO

itm

IIJI)

yy7

luo

The numbers in these several col-
umns differ very much from each
other ; but the constitution of the in-
soluble part of the ash he obtained
probably differed in every case from
that which would have been left by
the ash of the same wood burned on
the large scale, and in the open air.
This is to be inferred from the total
absence of potash and soda in the
lixiviated ash, while it is well known
that common li.Kiviated wood ash con-
tains a notable quantity of both. This
arises from the high temperature at
which wood is commonly burned,
causing a greater or less portion of
the potash and soda to combine with
the silica, and to form insoluble sili-
cates, which remain behind along
with the lime and other earthy matter
when the ash is washed with water.
It is to these silicates, as well as to
the large quantity of lime, magnesia,
and phosplioric acid it contains, that
common wood ash owes the more
perma7icnt effects upon the land, which
it is known to have produced. When
the rains have washed out, or the
crops carried off the more soluble
part from the soil, these insoluble
compounds still remain to exercise
a more slow and enduring influence
upon the after-produce.

Stdl, from the absence of this sol-
uble portion, the action of lixiviated
wood ash is not so apparent and en-
ergetic, and it may therefore be safe-
ly added to the land in much larger
quantity. Appliea at the rate of two

ASHES.

tons an acre, its effects have been
observed to cominue for rifteeii or
twenty years. It is most benelicial
upon clay soils, and is said especial-
ly to promote the growtli of oats.

Kelp is the name given to the ash
left by sea-weeds when burned. As
a natural mixture, which can be ob-
tained at a cheap rate, and has been
proved to be useful to vegetation in
a high degree, it is very desirable
that accurate experiments should be
instituted with the view of determin-
ing the precise extent of its action,
as well as the crops and soils to which
it can be most advantageously and
most economically applied.

Like wood ashes, kelp varies in
composition with the species and age
of the sea-weeds from which it is
prepared, and like them also, it con-
sists of a soluble and insoluble por-
tion. Two samples, analyzed by Dr.
Ure, consisted of

! though the variable proportion of its
i constituents will always cause a de-
gree of iHH-ertainty in regard to the
j action of the ash of marine plants,
yet if the quantity of chloride ol po-
tassium It contains be, on an average,
nearly as great as is stated above in
the analysis of Gay Lussac, kelp will
I really be the cheapest form in which
I we can at present apply potash to the
land.

StiatL- Ashes. — The ashes obtained
by burning the straw of oats, barley,
wheat, and rye contain a natural
mixture of saline substances, which
is exceedingly valuable as a manure
to almost every crop. The propor-
tion of the several constituents of
this mixture, however, is diflerent,
according as the one or the other
kind of straw is burned. Thus, 100
parts of each variety of ash, in the
samples analyzed by Sprengel, con-
sisted of

SolaO:c FufliuH.

Carbonate of Sod-i, with
Sulphuret of Sodiun;
SulpliHte of Soda .
Common Salt .
CUloride of Potassium ;

JnsolubU Portion.
Carbonate of Lime
Silica . . . .
Alumina and Oxide of <
Iron . . . ]
Gypsum
SulpUur and toss

Besides these constituents, how-
ever, the soluble portion contains io-
dide of potassium or sodium in va-
riable quantity, and the insoluble
more or less of potash and soda in
the state of silicates and phosphates.

Kelp may be applied to the land in
nearly the same circumstances as
wood ash, but for this purpose it
would probably be better to burn the
sea-weed at a lower temperature than
is usually employed. By this means,
being prevented from melting, it
would be obtained at once in the
state of a fine powder, and would be
richer in potasU and soda.

It might lead to important results
of a practical nature were a series of
preci.\e experiments made with this
finely-divided kelp as a manure, es-
pecially in inland situations ; for

Heisker.

Rona.

Gay Lus<ac.

P(ita«h

Oats.

Barley. [Wheat.

11) e.

tt.pe.

l.VJ

:5-4

06

1-.'

8n

5o

Soda .

trace

0-9

08

0-4

11-2

80

19-0

Lime .

2-«

10-5

6-8

li-4

16-9

< .n«0

Magnesia .

0-4

1-4

0-9

OM

31

36-5

Silica .

80-0

T.'S-S

SIS

Hi-:

2-1

53 0
24*

W-0
lO-O

O.xide of Iron .
0.xiile of Manga- )

trace
trace

0-J 1
0-3'

2'5

0-9

2-3

8-0

Pliospboric Acid

0-2

3-3

4-8

1-8

9-9

9-0

10-0

Sulphuric Acid . ■

1.4

2-i

1-0

61

l:!-3

Chlorine .

()-l

1-3

0-9

0-h

11-4

Carbouic Acid .

. .

11-0

C-0

8-5

T"

100

ii;<i

The most striking differences in
the above table are the comparative-
ly large quantity of potasii in the oat
straw ; of lime in that of barley ; of
phosphoric acid in that of wheat ; of
sulphuric acid in that of rye, and
of all the saline substances in rape
straw. These differences are not to
be considered as constant, nor will
the numbers in any of the above col-
unms represent correctly the com-
position of the ash of any variety of
straw we may happen to burn, l)ut
they may be safely depended upon as
showing the general composition of
such ashes, as well as the general
differences which may be expected
to prevail among them.

That such ashes should prove use-
ful to vegetation might be inferred,
not only from their containing many
43

ASHES.

saline substancps which ave known
to act beneficially when applied to
the land, but from the fact that they
have actually been obtained from
vegetable substances. If inorganic
matter be necessary to the growth
of wheat, then surely the mixture of
such matters contained in the ash of
wheat straw is more likely than any
other we can apply to promote the
growth of the young wheat plant. A
question might even be raised wheth-
er or not, in some soils rich in vege-
table matter, the ash alone would not
produce as visible an effect upon the
coming crop as the direct application
of the straw, either in the dry state,
or in the form of rotted farmyard
manure ; and this question would
seem to be answered in the affirma-
tive by the result of many trials of
straw ashes which have been made
in England. In that country the ash
of five tons of straw has been found
superior in efficacy to ten tons of
farmyard manure. This is perfectly
consistent with theory; yet, as vege-
table matter appears really essential
to a fertile soil, and as the quantity
of this vegetable matter is lessened
in some degree by every corn crop
we raise, it cannot be good husband-
ry to manure for a succes.sion of ro-
tations with saline substances only.
The richest soil by this procedure
must ultimately be exhausted. On
the other hand, where much vegeta-
ble matter exists, and especially what
is usually called men vegetable mat-
ter, it may be an evidence of great
skill in the jiractical farmer to apply,
for a limr, the ashes only of his straw,
or soiTie other saline mixture to his
land.

The practice of burning the stubble
on a winoy day has been found in
Yorkshire to produce belter clover,
and to cause a larger return of wheat ;
for this purpose, however, the stub-
ble must he left of considerable length.
In Germany, rape straw — which the
above tal)le shows to be so rich in
saline and earthy matter, and there-
fore exhausting to the land — is spread
over the tield and burned in a similar
manner. The destruction of weeds
44

and insects which attends this prac-
tice is mentioned as one ol its col-
lateral advantages.

It is not advisable, as I have al-
ready said, wholly to substitute the
ash for the straw in ordinary soils,
or in any soils for a length of time ;
yet that it may be partially so sub-
stituted with good effect, or that
straw ashes will alone give a large
increase of the corn crop, and there-
fore should never be wasted, is shown
by the following comparative experi-
ments, conducted, as such experi-
ments should be, during an entire ro-
tati(m of four years. The quantity
of manure applied, and the produce
per imperial acre were as follows :

C *>!* C to

I8>i cwt. ifilg cwt.
:iO>£ bush, riwa^ bush.
■;0.wt. 21 LWt.
38 btish. ]40 bush.

The kind of soil on which this ex-
periment was made is not stated, but
it appears to show, as we should ex-
pect, that the effects of straw ash
are particularly exerted in promoting
the growth of the corn plants and
grasses which contain much siliceous
matter in their stems ; in short, of
plants similar to those from which
the ash has been derived.

Theory nf Ihe action of Straw Ash. —
That it should especially promote
the growth of such plants appears
most natural if w'e consider only the
source from which it has been ob-
tained, but it is fully explained by a
farther chemical examination of the
ash itself The soluble matter of
wood ash, in general, contains but a
small quantity of silica, while that
part of the straw ash which is taken
up by water contains very much.
Thus a wheat ash, analyzed by Ber-
thier, contained of

per cent.

Soluble salts " . . 19

Insoluble matter . • .81
100
and that which was dissolved by wa-
ter consisted of

ASHES.

per cent.

Silica 35

Chlorine 13

Potash and soda ... 50

Sulphuric acid .... 2

Too

Sn that it was a mixture of soluble
silicates and chlorides with a little
sulphate of potash and soda. These
soluble silicates will find an easy ad-
mission into the roots of plants, and
will readily supply to the young stems
of the corn plants and grasses the
silica which is indispensable to their
healthy growth.

Turf or peat ashes, obtained by the
burning of peat of various qualities,
are also applied with advantage to
the land in many districts. They con-
sist of a mixture in which gypsum is
usually the predominating useful in-
gredient, the "alkaline salts being
present in very small proportion.
Tlie following table exhibits the com-
position of some varieties of ashes
from the peat of Holland and from
the heath of Luneburg, examined by
Sprengel :

Dutch Ashes

Lunebnrs Ashes

(gray)

(reddish).

^.

■S i?

M ^

-3^

Producing lit-

S"^

£ S

tle effect.

.S ^

> 5

a T

— C"

•* g"

U c-

Silica .

471

55-H

704

31-7

43-3

Alumina .

■Jo

3-5

41

51

97

Oxide of Iron .

6li

5-4

41

17-7

9-3

Do of Manganese

1-0

4-3

0-2

o-.->

3r,

Lime .

13-rt

8-fi

Rl

31-9

71

M tgnesla .

4-H

1-C

3-9

1-0

4 6

Potash

0-2

0-2

01

01

.^—

Soda .

1-0

3-9

0-4

0-1

Gypsum

Sulpliuric Acid .

7-2

6-4

3-4

6-2 0 2
Pho3.ofLime

Phosphoric Acid

•2-0 0-8

1-3

1-2 0 2
Common Salt

riilorine .

1-2 3-0

0-5

0-1 01

Carbonic Acid .

41 6-4

5-5

4-4 12-0

Clianed Turf .

li-t; — -

lOtlO 1000

i(MO

lOO-Oi IIHJO

In the most useful varieties of
these ashes it appears, from the above
analyses, that lime abounds, partly
in combination with sulphuric and
phosphoric acids, forming gypsum
and phosphate of lime, and partly
with carbonic acid, forming carbon-
ate. These compounds of lime, there-
fore, may be regarded as the active
ingredients of peat ashes.

Yet the small quantity of saline
matter they contain is not to be con-

sidered as wholly without effect ; for
the ashes are often applied to the
land to the extent of two tons an
acre, a quantity which, even when
the proportion of alkali does not ex-
ceed one per cent., will contain 45
lbs. of potash or soda, equal to twice
that weight of sulphates or of com-
mon salt. To the minute quantity
of saline matters present in them,
therefore, peat ashes may owe a por-
tion o) their beneficial influence, and
to the almost total absence of such
compounds from the less valuable
sorts their inferior estimation may
have in part arisen.

In Holland, when applied to the
corn crops, they are either ploughed
in, drilled with the seed, or applied
as a top-dressing to the young shoots
in autumn or spring. Lucern, clo-
ver, and meadow grass are dressed
with it in spring at the rate of 15 to
18 cwt. per acre, and the latter a
second time with an equal quantity
after the first cutting. In Belgium
the ashes are applied to clover, rape,
potatoes, flax, and pease. In Lune-
burg, the turf ash which abounds in
oxide of iron is applied at the rate of
3 or 4 tons per acre, and by this
means the physical character of the
clay soils, as well as their chemical
constitution, is altered and improved.

In England peat is in many places
burned for the sake of the ashes it
yields. The soil from beneath which
the turf is taken abounds in lime,
and the ashes are said to contain
from one fourth to one third of their
weight of gypsum. They are used
largely both in Berksliire and Hamp-
shire, and are chiefly applied to green
crops, and especially to clover, at ihc
rate of 50 bushels.

Coal ashes are a mixture of which
the composition is very variable ;
they consist, however, in general, of
lime, often in the state of gypsum, of
silica, and of alumina, mixed with a
quantity of bulky and porous cinders
or half-burned coal. The ash of a
coal from St. Etienne, in France, af-
ter all the carbonaceous matter had
been burned away, was found by Ber-
tUier to consist of

ASI

ASP

per rent.

Alumina, insoluble in acids . 62

Alumina, soluble .... 5

Lime 6

Magnesia 8

Oxide of Manganese ... 3

Oxide and Sulpliuret of Iron 16

ioo

Such a mixture as this would no
doubt benotit many soils by the alu-
mina, as well as by ihe lime and mag-
nesia it contains ; but in coal ashes
a small quantity of alkaline matter,
chiefly soda, is generally present.
The constitution of the ash of our
best coals, therefore, may be con-
sidered as very nearly resembling
that of peat ash, and as susceptible
of similar applications. When well
burned, it can, in many cases, be ap-
plied with good effects as a top-dress-
ing to grass lands which are over-
grown with moss, while the admix-
ture of cinders in the ash of the less
perfectly burned coal produces a fa-
vourable physical change upon strong
clay soils.

Cane Ashes. — I may allude here to
the advantage which in sugar-grow-
ing countries may be obtained from
the restoration of the cane ash to
the fields in which the canes have
grown. After the canes have been
crushed in the mill, they are usually
employed as fuel in boiling down the
sirup, and the ash, which is not un-
frequently more or less melted, is, I
believe, almost unilormly neglected ;
at all events, is seldom applied again
to the land. According to the prin-
ciples I have so often illustrated in
the present lectures, such procedure
must sooner or later exhaust the soil
of those saline substances which are
most essential to the growth of the
cane plant. If the ash were applied as
a top-dressing to the young canes, or
put into the cane holes near the roots
— having been previously mixed with
a quantity of wood ash, and crushed if
it happen to have been melted — this
exhaustion would necessarily take
place much more slowly. — (Johnson.)

ASILL'S. A Linnaean genus of
dipterous insects, in which the mouth
is furnished with a horny, projecting,
46

straight, two-valved sucker, and gib-
bous at the base : antenna; filiform,
approximate, of two articulations ;
body oblong and conical in shape.
The insects of this genus prey on
other insects, especially those of the
dipterous and lepidopterous orders.

ASPARAGIN. The white crys-
talline principle found in the juice of
the asparagus, supposed to be a di-
uretic. It is resolved, by boiling in
water with magnesia, into ammonia
and as par lie acid.

ASPARAGUS. Asparagus officina-
lis. A perennial plant growing on
sandy meadows near the sea. The
young shoots (torus) form an esteem-
ed vegetable, and are susceptible of
high cultivation. They may be raised
from roots or seed. The seed is sown
in April, in rich soil an inch deep, in
rows eighteen inches apart, and the
ground kept clean. In two or three
seasons the roots will be large enough
to transplant to permanent beds. The
new plantation is made in March or
April ; the ground must be light, deep,
and rich, and well dug. The beds are
made six feet wide, with alleys of two
feet between them ; three rows of
root-stools are placed in each bed, at
the depth of six inches and distance
of a foot. Every spring the bed is
forked or loosened, and a dressing
of well-rotted stable manure mixed
with the upper soil. The roots send
up abundant shoots when kept moist
with water during the season, if suf-
ficient rain does not fall. A sprink-
ling of salt with the manure is a very
great improvement. Indeed, in Spain,
asparagus is cultivated in beds sub-
ject to inundations of the sea. All
animal manures increase the growth.
To enlarge the size of the shoot, they
place, in Germany, small flower pots
or other tubular vessels over the earth
as soon as the shoot appears ; it grows
into these, and, being deprived of light,
remains white and tender, attaining
the size of the vessel in some cases.
Sixteen rods of bed will yield 200 to
300 heads a day during the season.
The beds last, with management, a
long term of years ; indeed, some are
known forty years old.

ASP

To force Asparagus. — Such plants
must be inserted in hot-beds as are
five or six years old, and appear of
sufficient strength to produce vigor
ous shoots ; when, however, any old
natural ground plantations arc intend-
ed to be broken up at the proper sea-
son, some of the best plants may be
selected to be plunged into a hot-bed,
or any spare corner of the stove i)ark-
beds. The first plantation for forcing
should be made about the latter end
of September : the bed, if it works
favourably, will begin to produce in
the course of four or five weeks, and
will continue to do so for about throe,
each light producing in that time 300
or 400 shoots, and atfording a gather-
ing every two or three days. To
have a regular succession, therefore,
a fresh bed must be formed every
three or four weeks, the last crop to
be planted in March or the early part
of April : this will continue in pro-
duction until the arrival of the nat-
ural ground crops. The last-made
beds will be in production a fortnight
sooner than those made about Christ-
mas.

The bed must be substantial, and
proportioned to the size and [lumber
of the lights, and to the time of year,
being constructed of stable dung or
other material. The common mode
of making a hot-bed is usually follow-
ed. It is the best practice to plant
the asparagus in mould laid upon the
tan, which, or some other porous
matter, is indispensable for the easy
admission of the heat from the linings.
The bed must'be topped with six or
eight inches of light, rich earth. If a
small family is to be supplied, three
or four lights will be sufficient at a
time ; for a larger, six or eight will
not be too many. Several luindred
plants may be inserted under each, as
they may be crowded as close as pos-
sible together; from 500 to 900 are
capable of being inserted under a
Ihree-ligiit frame, according to their
size In planting, a furrow being
drawn the whole length of the frame,
against one side of it the first row or
course is to be placed, the crowns
upright, and a little earth drawn on

ASP

to the lower ends of the roots ; then
more plants again in the same man-
ner, and so continued throughout, it
being carefully observed to keej) them
all regularly about an inch below the
surface : all round on the edge of the
bed some moist earth must be bank-
ed close to the outside roots.

If the bed is extensive, it will
probably acquire a violent heat ; the
frames must therefore be continued
off until it has become regular, oth-
erwise the roots are liable to be de-
stroyed by being, as it is technical-
ly termed, scorched or steam- scalded.
When the heat has become regular,
the frames may be set on, and more
earth be applied, by degrees, over the
crowns of the plants, until it acquires
a total depth of five or six inches.
The glasses must be kept open an
inah or two as long and as often as
possible, without too great a reduc-
tion of temperature occurring, so as
to admit air freely and give vQut to
the vapours, for on this depends the
superiority in flavour and appearance
of the shoots The heat must be kept
up by linings of hot dung, and liy cov-
ering the glasses every night with
mats, &LC. The temperature at night
should never be below 50°, and in
the day its maximum at 62°. In
gathering, for which the shoots are
fit when from two to five inches in
height, the finger and thumb must be
tiirust down into tiie earth, and tiie
stem broken offal the bottom. This
excellent vegetable possesses some
diuretic properties. Its juice contains
a peculiar crystallizable substance,
which was discovered by Vauquelin
and Robiquet, and named by them
Asparagm.

ASPARAGUS STONE. A variety
of apatite. Sec A putite.

ASPEN. Populus trcmula and
tremuloides, species of the great ge-
nus of poplars, remarkable for their
lightness and shade. The timlier is
white, soft, and readily decays.

A S P E R G 1 L L U M. One of the
commonest mildew plants. See Mil-
dew.

ASPIDIOTUS. A genus of insects
resembling the bark-Iice, or scale in-
M

ASS

AST

sects, and of the same habits and
family. They are found on the ole-
ander, rose, bay, cactus, and other
plants.

ASPHODEI-E.E. The family of
plants to which the onion iiehings.

ASS. A well-known and useful do-
mestic animal, whose services might
be rendered even still more useful for
various purposes of husbandry if he
were properly trained and taken care
of

He is extremely hardy, both with
regard to the quantity and quality of
his food, contenting himself with the
most harsh and disagreeable herbs,
which other animals will scarcely
touch. In the choice of water he is,
however, very nice, drinking only of
that which is perfectly clear, and at
brooks with which he is acquainted.
Animals of this sort require very
little looking after, and sustain lal)()nr,
hunger, and thirst beyond most oth
ers. They are seldom or never sick, !
and endure longer than most other
kinds of animals. They may be made
useful in husbandry to plough light
lands, to carry burdens, to draw in
mills, to fetch water, cut chaff, or
any other similar purposes. They
are also very serviceal)le in many
cases for their milk, which is excel-
lent for those who have suffered from
acute diseases, and are much weak-
ened. They are used for the purpose
of breeding mules.

The structural difference between
the horse and the ass is trifling : in
all essential points the organization
is the same ; and, with the exception
of the lengthened ears of the ass,
their form, size, and proportions in a
wild state, they dither but little ; con-
sequently, they possess conditions
more favourable to the multiplication
of species than those afforded by any
other nearly allied animals. The ass
is, properly speaking, a mountain ani-
mal ; his hoofs are long, and furnish-
ed with extremely sharp rims, leav-
ing a hollow in the centre, by which
means he is enabled to tread with
more security on the slippery and
precipitous sides of hills and precipi-
ces. The hoof of the horse, on the
4a

contrary, is round, and nearly flat
underneath, and we accordingly lind
that he is most serviceable in level
countries ; and, indeed, experience
has taught us that he is altogether
unfitted for crossing rocky and steep
mountains. As, however, the more
diminutive size of the ass rendered
him comparatively less important as
i a beast of burden, the ingenuity of
mankind early devised a means of
remedying this delect, by crossing
the horse and ass, and thus procu-
ring an intermediate animal, uniting
the size and strength of the one with
the patience, intelligence, and sure-
footedness of the other.

The varieties of the ass, in coun-
tries favourable to their development,
are great. In Guinea the as^es are
large, and in shape even excel the
native horses. The asses of Arabia
(says Chardin) are perhaps the hand-
somest animals in the world. Their
coat is smooth and clean ; they carry
the head elevated, and have fine and
well-formed legs, which they throw
out gracefully in walking or gallop-
ing. In Persia, also, they are finely
formed, some being even stately, and
much used in draught and carrying
burdens, while others are more light-
ly proportioned, and used fur the sad-
dle by persons of quality, frequently
fetching the large sum of 400 livres,
and, being taught a kind of easy, am-
bling pace, are richly caparisoned,
and used only by the rich and luxu-
rious nobles. With us, on the con-
trary, the ass, unfortunately, e.xliibits
a stunted growth, and appears rather
to vegetate as a sickly exotic than to
riot in the luxuriant enjoyment of life
like the horse.

The diseases of the ass, as far as
they are known, bear a general re-
semblance to those of the horse. As
he is more exposed, however, and left
to live in a state more approaching to
that which nature intended, he has
few diseases — (Jolmson.)

ASTRINGENT. In farriery, a
term applied to such remedies as
have the property of constringing, or
binding the parts, as oak bark, sugar
of lead, &c.

ATO

ATMOSPHERE. The bulk ot air '
which surrounds our globe, supposed
to reach forty-five miles above its sur- [
face. It is the receptacle of every |
volatile substance rising from the i
earth ; but, in virtue of its peculiar i
composition, vapours and gases dil'-
fuse themselves throughout the mass i
with great rapidity, so that the com-
position of the whole is maintained ;
nearly uniform at all times and places, j
Its chemical composition is 79 parts
nitrogen, 20 8 oxygen, 4 to 6 parts in ,
ten thousand of carbonic acid, about
one part in sixty thousand of ammo-
nia, according to Liebig, besides mi- j
nute quantities of various vapours, ;
microscopic seeds, and saline mat- j
ters. Water, in the form of vapour,
is also an important constituent, fluc-
tuating in quantity with the tempera-
ture of the air, and increasing as the ;
warmth. In the development of plants
the air is as important as the earth, '
indeed more so, since many vege-
tables can live suspended, without
contact with the earth, while none !
can exist without a full supply of air. ,
The loosening of soils is in a great
measure beneficial from the intro-
duction of air. The various ingre-
dients enumerated have not an equal
importance in agriculture ; for the ni-
trogen is almost inactive ; the oxy-
gen is the great agent of destruction
as regards plants, causing the decom-
position of all vegetable structures ;
the carbonic acid and ammonia are
the great sources of food, and al-
though they are present in minute
proportions, they are abundantly dis-
tributed for the purposes of vegeta-
tion. For the history of these gases,
see them severally.

ATOM. In chemistry, the ultimate
particle of a body, which combines
with other atoms. Theoretically,
these are of a determinate magni-
tude in every case. The figure of
the atom is not worthy of consider-
ation, some supposing it spherical,
others elipsoidal. Atoms are simple
or elementary when they cannot be
separated by chemical forces, and
compound when they are liable to de-
composition. Chemical compounds
E

ATO

consist of a definite number of atoms,
bound together by chemical force or
affinity ; but the value of this force is
different in different compounds. In
consequence, however, of the union
of atoms in invariable weights, deter-
mined by experiment, each chemical
body has attached to it a distinct pro-
portional weight, termed its atomic
weight, equivalent, or combining num-
ber. The study of these is the es-
sential of all chemical inquiries : it is
this remarkable adherence to a pre-
cise weight in all cases of combina-
tion which gives exactness to our in-
vestigations, and forms the difference
between a mere mixture and chem-
ical union. The following are the
atomic weights or proportionals of
the various elementary bodies inter-
esting to agriculture :

Hydrogen (H.) . . . . 1-

Oxygen (0.) 8-

Nitrogen (N.) 14-

Carbon (C.) 6-

Sulphur (S.) 16-

Phosphorus (P.) . . . .31-

Chlorine (CI.) 35-5

Silicon (Si.) 22-

Potassium (K.) . . . .39-

Sodium (Na.) 23-

Calcium (Ca.) 20-5

Magnesium (Mg.) . . . 12-7
Aluminium (Al.) .... 13-7

Iron (Fe.) 27-

Manganese (Mn.) . . . 27-7

These are on the basis that hydro-
gen is 1-, and may be understood by
the following case : Water is a com-
pound of one atom of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen ; and, supposing
a given quantity weighs nine grains,
we know, by the laws of chemical
combinations, that it contains one
grain of hydrogen and eight grains
of oxygen ; or, if the weight of water
be other than nine grains, these con-
stituents are united in the rigorous
proportion of 1 to 8.

Another scale is constructed on
the basis of oxygen as 100. In this
the equivalent numbers are altered,
but not their proportions.

Chemical combinations are not,
however, always in the simple ratio
49

ATO

of one atom of each component, but
are often in highei ratio, as 1 to 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, or 2 to 3, 5, 7, &c. Those
are, for the most part, less permanent
than the simpler compounds.

Tiie atomic weight is not only fixed
for the first product of two element-
ary bodies, but for all other second-
ary, tertiary, or quaternary com-
pounds resulting therefrom. Thus,
ammonia consists of one atom nitro-
gen (14) and three atoms of hydrogen
(3), and its equivalent is therefore 17.
Bemg a strong alkali, it combines
with many substances, and always in
the proportion of 17.

In the above table, the letters in
parentheses designate the signs or
symbols used in chemistry for the va-
rious bodies against which they are
set. Whenever any of Iheni are used
alone it always means one atom :
thus, N, C, H, mean one atom of ni-
trogen, carbon, hydrogen. In com-
plicated bodies, as oxalic acid, a for-
mula is written with the symbols,
and numbers set against each to des-
ignate the number of atoms, thus :
(HO, C.2 O3) ; or, sometimes, (H-|-0,
2 C-|-3 O), the parentheses indicating
an intimate union ; or one of the
components of a complex bodv, thus :
;2 C + 3 0) + (Ca + O) + 2 (H +0)
means a compound consisting of ox-
alic acid, which is the first term, uni-
ted to lime, which is the second, uni-
ted to two atoms of water, which is
the last term, the whole formula rep-
resenting the exact composition of
oxalate of lime. Whenever the pa-
rentheses enclose a formula, and any
figures are placed without it, the fig-
ure represents the number of atoms
of the compound, thus : (S-|-3 O) is
sulphuric acid ; 2 (S-f 3 O) is two at-
oms of sulphuric acid ; 3 (S-|-3 0)
three atoms, &c. The use of sym-
bols greatly reduces the labour of
writing and reading chemical pro-
cesses.

ATOMIC THEORY. The theory
of Dr. Dalton, that chemical union
takes place only in definite atoms.
See Atom.

ATOMIC WEIGHT. The equiva-
lent or combining weight. See Atom.
50

AUG

ATROPIA The poisonous alka-
loid of the deadly night-shade.

ATROPHY. In farriery, a mor-
bid wasting and emaciation, attended
with a great loss of streagth in ani-
mals.

ATTRACTION. In physics, the
force which draws bodies together ;
it is usually, if not always, of electri-
cal origin. Attraction is divided into
mechanical, as gravity and cohesion ;
and chemical, as alfinity ; the first
being the force tending to unite mass-
es and similar particles, the latter the
force producing chemical union. In
chemistry it is so far supposed to be
an electrical effect, that one of the
atoms or groups of every compound
is supposed to bain an opposite state
of electricity from the other, and they
are respectively termed the electro-
negative and electro-positive ele-
ments or components. Acids, oxy-
gen, chlorine, are electro-negative
bodies ; metallic oxides electro-posi-
tive. Chemical attraction acts only
at insensible distances, and is assist-
ed by heat, solution, and minute di-
vision ; it is, indeed, frequently de-
stroyed by the hardness and insol-
ubility, as well as gaseous form, of
bodies.

AUCHEXIA. The region of the
neck,^ in mammals, below the nape.

AUGER, BORING. An implement
for boring into the soil. An auger of
the above kind, when made of a large
size, and with different pieces to fix
on to each other, may be very useful-
ly applied to try the nature of the
under soil, the discovering springs,
and drawing off water from lands,
&c. In order to accomplish the first
purpose, three augers will be neces-
sary : the first of them about three
feet long, the second six, and the
third ten. Their diameters should be
near an inch, and their bits large,
and capable of bringing up part of
the soil they pierce. An iron handle
should be fixed crossways to wring it
into the earth, from whence the in-
strument must be drawn up as often
as it has pierced a new depth of about
six inches, in order to cleanse the bit
aiid examine the soil. — {Jo.knson.)

AUG

AUG

AUGER. DRAINING. An instru-
ment employed fur the purpose of
boring into the bottoms of drains or
other places, in order to discover and
let off water. It is nearly similar to
that made use of in searching for
coal or other subterraneous minerals.
Tiie auger, shell, or wimble, as it is
variously called, for excavating the
earth or strata through which it pass-
es, is generally from two and a half
to three and a half inches in diam-
eter ; the hollow part of it is one foot
four inches in length, and construct-
ed nearly in the shape of the wimble
used by carpenters, only the sides of
the shell come closer to one another.
The rods are made in separate pieces
of four feet long each, that screw into
one another to any assignable length,
one after another, as the depth of the
hole requires. The size above the
auger is about an inch square, unless
at the joints, where, for the sake of
strength, they are a quarter of an
inch more.

There is also a chisel and punch,
adapted for screwing on, in going
through hard gravel or other metal-
lic substances, to accelerate the pas-
sage of the auger, which could not
otherwise perforate such hard bod-
ies. The punch is often used, when [
the auger is not applied, to prick or
open the sand or gravel, and give a
more easy issue to the water. The
chisel is an inch and a half or two !
inches broad at the point, and made ;
very sharp for cutting stone ; and the
punch an inch square, like the other
part of the rods, with the point sharp-
ened also.

As it is remarked by Johnstone, in
his account of Elkington's mode of
draining, to judge when to make use
of the borer is a difficult part of the
business of draining. Many who have
not seen it made use of in draining
have been led into a mistaken no-
tion, both as to the manner of using
it and the purposes for which it is ap-
plied. They think that if, by boring
indiscrimmately through the ground
to be drained, water is found near
enough to the surface to be reached
by the depth of the drain, the proper

direction for it is along these holes
where water has been found, and thus
make it the first implement that is
used. The contrary, however, in
practice, is the case, and the auger
IS never used till after" the drain is
cut, and then for the purpose of per-
forating any retentive or impervious
stratum lying between the bottom of
the drain and the reservoir or strata
containing the spring. Thus it great-
ly lessens the trouble and expense
that would otherwise be requisite in
cutting the trench to that depth to
which, in many instances, the level
of the outlet will not admit. The
manner of using it is simply thus : In
working it, two, or, rather, three men
are necessary ; two stand above, on
each side of the drain, who turn it
round by means of the wooden hin-
dles, and when the auger is full they
draw it out ; and the man in the bot-
tom of the trench clears out the earth,
assists in pulling it out, and directing
it into the hole ; and he can also as-
sist in turning with the iron handle
or key, when the depth and length of
rods require additional force to per-
form the operation. The workmen
should be cautious, in boring, not to
go deeper at a time, without drawing,
than the exact length of the shell,
otherwise the earth, clay, or sand
through which it is boring, after the
shell is full, makes it very difficult to
pull out. For this purpose, the exact
length of the shell should be regular-
ly marked on the rods, from the bot-
tom upward. Two flat boards, with
a hole cut into the side of one of
them, and laid alongside of one an-
other over the drain in the time of
boring, are very useful for directing
the rods in going down perpendicu-
larly, for keeping them steady in bo-
ring, and for the men standing on
when performing the operation.

AUGUST. In this month the
stacking of hay and other crops har-
vested is to be attended to. Root
crops have been laid up, and the land
cleared of weeds. Turnips for an af-
ter crop may be sown, if the weather
be not too dry. Buddingmay be done
with advantage. Preparations are to
51

AVE

BAG

be made for collecting cotton. The
tobacco crop begins to ripen i)y the
end of the month. Rice is cut.

AURELIA, AURELTAN. The
pupa or nymph of the higher in-
sects.

AURICLE. The external ear.
The venous chambers of the heart.

AURICULAR. Appertainmg to
the ear.

AURICULATE. When the base
of a leaf is lobed on each side the
midrib.

AUSCULTATION. The exami-
nation of the sounds within the body
to detect diseases, &,c.

AUTOPSY. Examination by the
eye. It is generally used to desig-
nate examinations of the body after
death, for the discovery of the causes
of disease.

AVENA. The generic name of a
family of grasses, of which the A.
sativa, oats, and A. elattor, Andes
grass, are best known. Several spe-
cies, as the A. flavcsccns and pubcs-
cens, are found in English meadows,
and the latter is well worthy of cul-
tivation ; it is the downy oat grass of
agriculturists.

AVENUE. Any broad, gravelled,
or properly-made road, bordered by
trees. A side road, or approach to
a house.

AVERRUNCATOR. In arbori-
culture, an instrument for cutting off
the branches of trees, consisting of
two blades fixed on the end of a rod,
one of which has a moveable joint,
which, by means of a line fixed to it,
operates like a pair of scissors. In
the improved forms of tliis instru-
ment, the point on which the moving
or cutting blade turns, instead of be-
ing confined to a circular opening,
works in a longitudinal one ; in con-
sequence of which, instead of a crush-
ing cut, like that produced by com-
mon hedge shears, a draw cut is form-
ed, which leaves the section from
which the branch or shoot has been
amputated as clean as that produced
by a pruning knife.

AVERSE, AVERSUS. Turned
back.

AVES. See Ornithology.
53

AVLVRV. A place to keep bird-s
in. Green-houses are usually se-
lected.

AVOIRDUPOIS. A weight hav-
ing sixteen ounces to the pound, in
distinction to Troy weight, which has
only twelve. The following is a tab-
ular view of this weight :

16 drams make 1 ounce.

16 ounces
28 pounds

4 quarters
20 cwt.
drs. ozs.

16=

256=

7,168=

1 pound.
1 quarter.
1 cwt.
1 ton.

lbs

I qrs.
28= 1= cwt.

1 =

16=r

448=

28.672= 1,792= 112= 4= I ton.
573,440=35,840=2240=80=20=1

5760 Troy grains make 1 pound
Troy, and 7000 Troy grains 1 pound
Avoirdupois ; hence 175 pounds Troy
are equal to 144 pounds Avoirdupois.

AWN. The stiff beard or bristle
of some grasses, arista.

AWNING. A covering of some
kind of cloth, to protect plants, dec,
from sun or rain.

AXIL, AXILLA. The armpit.
Tlie angle between a leaf and the
stem. Buds placed here are termed
axillary.

AXIS, AXLE-TREE. The spindle
or central rod around which parts of
machinery, &,c., revolve or are de-
veloped.

AZALEA. A genus of small or-
namental shrubs with large, trumpet-
shaped flowers, of the family of the
honeysuckles.

AZOREAN FENNEL. Anethum
azonc.um. A kind of fennel

AZOTE. Nitrogen.

B.

BACCA. A berry.

BACCIFEROUS. Bearing berries,
as the currant.

BACK. The spine. The back of
a horse should be straight, in order
that it may be strong ; when it is hol-
low, or what is termed backed, the
animal is generally weak.

BACK, SORE. A complaint which
is very common to young horses when

BAL

BAL

they first travel. To prevent it, their
hacks should be cooled every time
tliey are baited, and now and then
washed with warm water and wiped
dry with a linen cloth. The best cure
for a sore back is a lotion of 1 drachm
of sugar of lead with 1 pint of vinegar
and water.

BACK SINEWS, SPRAIN OF
THE. This is often occasioned by
the horse being overweighted, and
then ridden far and fast, especially if
his pasterns are long ; but it may oc-
cur from a false step, or from the
heels of the shoes being too much
lowered. Sprain of the back sinews
is detected by swelling and heat at
the back of the lower part of the leg,
puffiness along the course of the sin-
ews, extreme tenderness so far as
the swelling and heat extend, and
very great lameness.

The first object is to abate the in-
flammation, and this should be at-
tempted by bleeding from the plate
vein, by means of which blood is
drained from the inflamed part ; next,
local applications should be made to
the back of the leg, in the form of
fomentations of water, sufEciently
hot, and tVequenlly repeated ; at the
same time, as much strain as possible
should be taken from the sinew, by
putting a high calkin on the heel of
the shoe.

BACK-RAKING. An operation
in farriery, by which hardened fa;ces
are withdrawn from the rectum.

BACON. See Hog.

BAGGING. A mode of reaping
corn or pulse with a hook, in which
the operator effects his object by stri-
king the straw, or haulm, mstead of
drawing the hook through it ; in oth-
er words, it is separating the straw,
or haulm, from the root by chopping,
instead of bv a drawing cut.

BAKING OF LAND. Clayey
lands, when ploughed wet, become
incrusted or baked : seed cannot
break through the crust, and should
be again sown.

BALANCE FOR ANALYSIS.
This important instrument may be
considered as consisting of an inflex-
ible rod, or lever, called the beam,
E 2

1 furnished with three axes ; one, the
I fulcrum or centre of motion, situated
j in the middle, upon which the beam
turns, and the other two near the ex-
' tremities, and at equal distances from
the middle ; these last are called the
points of support, and serve to sus-
! lain the pans or scales. The points
of support and the fulcrum should be
in the same right line. The arms of
\ the lever being equal, it follows that,
I if equal weights be put into the scales,
no efiect will be produced on the po-
sition of the balance, and the beam
will remain horizontal.
[ If a small addition be made to the
I weight in one of the scales, the hori-
zontality of the beam wdl be disturb-
ed, and after oscillating for some time,
it will, on attaining a state of rest,
fonn an angle with the horizon, the
extent of which is a measure of the
delicacy or sensibdity of the bal-
ance.

What we have now stated will
serve to dlustrate the principle of the
balance. Its mode of construction
will be best understood by a dia-
gram :

One of the best form is here repre-
sented. The parts are all so arran-
ged that it can, at pleasure, be lifted
off the points of support. This is ef-
fected by aid of the two uprights,
which are elevated by a small lever
at the bottom. The scale pans are
made of brass or platma.

In order to try the goodness of a
pair of scales, the scales should be
taken off the beam to ascertain if the
53

DAL

liAK

beam balances without them ; they
should then be put on agam and after-
ward reversed, or each scale hung
on the end of the beam opposite that
which it before occupied. Equal
weights should then l»c put into the
opposite scales, and these should, in
like manner, be reversed or changed ;
and if the beam maintains its hori-
zontal position under all these chan-
ges, it may be relied on as being good
and perfect. The pivots or fulcrum
upon which the beam turns ought to
be sharp, or kuife-edgcd, as it is term-
ed, and they should be of steel well
hardened, as well as the interior of
the ring in which they move : this
confines the fulcrum to a minute line,
and prevents friction. In beams for
nice purposes, the pivots ought not
to be too much elevated above the
centre of gravity ; lor, althougli this
centre will generally be found an inch
or two below the pivots in strong
warehouse beams, in order to bring
them to a speedy equilibrium, by
which time is saved, yet, for accurate
weighing, the nearer the centre of
gravity is brought into the straight
line that would connect the tops of
the two scale eyes and the under
side of the pivot the better, although
such a beam will occasion great loss
of time by its vibrating a long time
before it becomes stationary.

BALL, or BOLUS. In farriery, a
well-known form of medicine for
horses or other animals, which may
be passed at once into the stomach.
They should be made of a long, oval
shape, and about the size of a small
egg, being best conveyed over the
root of the tongue by the hand. This
method of admmistering medicines is
preferable, in most cases, to that of
drenches. I subjoin the recipes for
a few of those balls most commonly
used by the farmer :

jMild Physic Ball.

Barbadoes aloes . . 6 drachms.
Powdered ginger . . 2 "
Castile soap ... 2 '*
Oil of cloves ... 20 drops.
Sirup of buckthorn sufficient to

form a ball.

54

Strong Physic Ball.
Barbadoes aloes . . 8 drachms.
Ginger, powdered 2 "

Castile soap ... 2 "
Oil of cloves ... 20 drops.
Sirup of buckthorn sufficient to

form a ball.
Calomel Ball for a Horse.

Calomel 1 drachm.

Aloes, powdered . . 6 "
Ginger, powdered . 2 "
Castile soap ... 2 '•
Oil of Cloves ... 20 drops.
Sirup of buckthorn sufficient to

make into a ball.

Diuretic Ball.

Castile soap .... 4 ounces.
Nitre, powdered . . 2 "
Spirit of turpentine . 4 "
Anise seed powder and treacle suf-
ficient to make into eight balls.

Cordial Ball.
Cummin seed, powdered 4 ounces.
Anise seed, powdered . 4 "
Caraway seed, powdered 4 "
Ginger, powdered . . 2 "
Honey sufficient to make into balls
the size of a hen's egg.

BALM. The plant Melissa offici-
nalis, of a pleasant aromatic odour ;
its medicinal virtues are trifling.

BALSAMS. Exudations from cer-
tain trees of a resinous nature.

BANANA. A tall herbaceous, en-
dogenous plant, the Musa sapientum
of botanists, having broad convex
lea^'es with fine oblique veins, and
growing in a tuft from the top of a
stem formed by the union of the broad
bases of the leaves. The fruit ri-
pens in succession in large clusters
weighing many pounds. It is of the
same nature as the plantain. It is a
native of the West Indies, where it
contributes essentially to the food of

ill dflSSGS

BANKS OF RIVERS. See Em-
bankmcnt.

BANNER, \^XILLUM. The up-
per petal of pea flowers.

BARB. A general name for horses
imported from Barbary. The barb,
one of the most celebrated of the Af-

BAR

BAR

rican racers, is to be met with through-
out Barbary, Morocco, Fez, Tripoli,
and Bornou. It seldom exceeds four-
teen hands and a half in height. The
countenance of the barb is usually
indicative of its spirit, and the facial
line, in direct contradiction to that of
the Arabian, is often slightly rounded ;
the eyes are prominent ; the ears,
though frequently small and pointed,
are occasionally rather long and
drooping ; the neck is of sufficient
length ; the crest is generally fine
and not overladen with mane ; the
shoulders are llat and oblique ; the
withers prominent, and the chest al-
most invariably deep ; the back is
usually straight ; the carcass mod-
erately rounded only ; the croup long,
and the tail placed rather high ; the
arms and thighs being commonly
muscular and strongly marked ; the
knee and hock are broad and low-
placed ; the back sinews singularly
distinct and well marked from the
knee downward ; the pasterns rather
long, and the feet firm, and but mod-
erately open.

The barb requires more excitement
to call out his powers than the Ara-
bian ; but when sufficiently stimula-
ted, his qualities of speed and endu-
rance render him a powerful antago-
nist, while the superior strength of
Lis fore hand enables him to carry
tin- greater weight of the two. The
(Jodolphin barb, which was imported
from France into England at the con-
clusion of the last centur\', about 25
years after the Darley Arabian, w-as
one of those most worthy of note.
The former appears to have rivalled
the latter in the importance of his
get. He was the sire of Lath, Cade,
Babraham, Regulus, Bajazet, Tar-
quin, Dormouse, Sultan, Blank, Dis-
mal, and many other horses of racing
note ; and, without doubt, the English
blood-breeds were more indebted to
the Darley Arabian and the Godol-
phin barb than to all the other East-
ern horses which had previously en-
tered the country. — {Blame's Eiicyc.
Rural Sports, p. 243.)

BARBERRY BUSH. Bcrhcris vul-
garis. An indigenous thorny shrub,

bearing bunches of pale yellow droop-
ing flowers in May, which are suc-
ceeded by oblong scarlet berries, ri-
pening in September. Sharp, three-
cleft thorns rise at the base of each
leaf-bud. The barberry makes good
hedges. It may be propagated by
seed, or by layers, which should re-
main two years before they are re-
moved. The gross shoots, if the
shrub stands singly, should be pruned
away, and it will fruit better. The
berries are gratefully acid, and the
juice, when diluted with water, may
be used as lemonade in fevers. The
fruit, made into conserve, is good.
It is also excellent as a pickle and
preserve.

There is no good reason for sup-
posing that this bush produces mil-
dew in wheat. It is very liable to
rubigo, a parasitical fungus, but not
the uredo of grain. The root con-
tains a good yellow dye, and is emetic.

BARILLA. The ashes of sea-shore
plants, containing about 20 per cent,
of soda. The cheap manufacture of
soda has nearly destroyed the culti-
vation of barilla plants. It is used to
manufacture hard soaps. See Soda.

BARK. The rind or covering of
the woody parts of a tree. The bark
of trees is composed of three distinct
layers, of which the outermost is
called the epidermis, the next the pa-
renchyma, and the innermost, or that
in contact with the wood, the cortical
layer. The epidermis is a thin, trans-
parent, tough membrane ; when rub-
bed offit is gradually reproduced, and
in some trees it cracks and decays,
and a fresh epidermis is formed, push-
ing outward the old : hence the rea-
son why so many aged trees have a
rough surface. The parenchyma is
tender, succulent, and of a dark green.
The cortical layer, or Hber, consists
of thin membranes encircling each
other, and these seem to increase
with the age of the plant. The liber,
or inner bark, is know^n by its white-
ness, great flexibility, toughness, and
durai)ility : the fibres in its structure
are ligneous tubes. It is the part of
the stem through which the juices
descend, and the organ m which the
55

b.\Jl

generative sap, from whence all the
other parts originate, is received from
the leaves. The bark in its intersti-
ces contains cells, which are filled
with juices of very varying qualities :
some, like that of the oak, remarka-
ble for their astringency ; others, like
the cinnamon, abounding with an es-
sential oil ; others, as the Jesuits'
bark, containing an alkali ; some mu-
cilaginous, many resinous.

M. Saussure found in 100 parts of
the ashes of the barks of various trees
the following substances :

Soluble sitlts .
Earthy phosphates
Eartliy carbouates
Silica ....
Metallic oxides .

Poplar

From this analysis the farmer will
see that the earthy and saline ingre-
dients of the bark of forest trees must
be considerable fertilizers : it is only
to the slowness with which refuse
tanner's bark undergoes putrefaction
that its neglect by the cultivator must
be attributed. It might certainly,
however, be mixed with farm-yard
compost with very considerable ad-
vantage ; and in its half putrefied, or
even fresh state, it produces on some
grass lands very excellent effects as a
top dressing ; and in instances where
carriage is an object, even its ashes
would be found, from the quantity of
earthy carbonates and phosphates
which they contain, a very valuable
manure.

The different uses of barks in tan-
ning and dyeing are numerous and
important. The strength or fineness
of their fibres is also of consequence :
thus woody fibres are often so tough
as to form cordage, as exemplified in
the bark of the lime, the willow, and
the cocoanut ; the liber of som»trees,
as, for example, the lime and the pa-
per mulberry, is manufactured into
mats ; and it is scarcely requisite to
refer to hemp and flax for spinning
and weaving. The bark of the oak
is used for affording tannic acid in the
manufacture of leather. The follow-
ing table of Davy will show the rela-
tive value of different kinds of bark
56

BAR

to the tanner; it gives the quantity
of tannic acid afforded by 480 lbs. of
different barks in that chemist's ex-
periments :

Avcrape from the entire bark of lbs.

Middle-sized oak, cut in sprin? . . 29

, cut in autumn . . 21

Elm 13

Common willow (large) . . . .11

Ash 16

Beech 10

Sycamore H

Lombardy poplar 15

Birch 8

Blackthorn 16

White interior cortical layers of oak bark 72

The difference of seasons makes a
considerable variation in the produce
of tannic acid : it is the least in cold
springs. The tannic acid most abounds
when the buds are opening, and least
in the winter ; 4 or 5 lbs. of good oak
bark, of average quality, are required
to form 1 lb. of leather.

Cork is the bark of a species of
oak ( Quercus suber) Which grows abun-
dantly in the south of Europe.

The Quercitron bark is the produc-
tion of black oak {Quercus tincioria).

BARK CLEANING. Fruit-trees
sometimes become infested with li-
chens or moss ; the rough bark offers
an asylum for grubs, eggs, and cater-
pillars, all which injure, and often
destroy the tree. To prevent these,
the bark should be scraped in the
spring with an old hoe or cooper's
knife, and afterward washed with
strong lye, brine, whale oil soap dis-
solved in water (1 lb. to 3 gallons),
lime-water, soft soap, &c.

BARK-BOUND. Trees, the bark
of which appears stretched over the
wood, and which does not split off
kindly, are said to be bark-bound.
Cutting a slit through it from the
branches to the root relieves the
tree, and, when the wound is kept
clean from insects, does good. It
should be done in March or April,
when frosts are over.

BARKING IRONS. Instruments
for removing the hprk of oak ana
other trees. They consist of a blade
or knife for cutting the bark, while
yet on the trunk, across at regular
distances, and of chisels or spatulae,
of different lengths and breadths.

BAR

for separating the bark from the
wood.

BARKING OF TREES. The oper-
ation of stripping off the bark or rind.
It is common to perform the opera-
tion of oak-barking in the spring
months, when the bark, by the rising
of the sap, is easily separated from
the wood. This renders it necessa-
ry to fell the trees in these months.
The tool commonly made use of in
most countries is made of bone or
iron. If of the former, the thigh or
shin bone is preferred, which is form-
ed into a two-handed instrument for
the stem and larger boughs, with a
handle of wood fixed at the end. The
edge being once given by the grind-
ing stone, or a rasp, it keeps itself
sharp by wear.

The cutters should be provided with
ripping saws, widely set, with sharp,
light hatchets, and with short-handled
pruning hooks. The barkers are pro-
vided with light, short-handled ashen
mallets, the head being about eight
inches long, three inches diameter in
the face, and the other end blunt,
somewhat wedge-shaped ; with sharp
ashen wedges, somewhat spatula-
shaped, and which may either be
driven by the mallet, or, being formed
with a kind of handle, may be pushed
with the hand.

The large pieces are set up on end,
or they are formed into small pyrami-
dal stacks. Due attention must be
paid to turning the bark according to
the state of the weather. Good hay
weather is good barking weather.
It is chiefly by the high brown colour
of the inner rind, and by its astrin-
gent effect upon the palate when
tasted, that the tanner or merchant
judges of its value. If these proper-
ties be lost through neglect, or by the
vicissitudes of the weather, themner
bark becomes blanched, or rendered
white.

After it is in a proper state, that
is, completely past fermentation, if it
cannot conveniently be carried off
the ground and housed, it must be
stacked. An experienced husband-
man who can stack hay can also stack
bark ; but it may be proper to warn

BAR

him against building his stack too
large, and to caution him to cover it
well.

BARK LICE. Scale insects. In-
sects of the genus Coccus, many of
which yield a rich dye, as the C. cacti,
or cochineal of Mexico. They are of
an oval or roundish form, and small in
size, rarely exceeding one fourth of
an inch. They infest the young bark
commonly, but are also found on the
leaves and roots of some plants. The
female undergoes no winged trans-
formation, but the male does. In the
spring the lice are found like dead
shields on the young branches, ar-
ranged in rows ; under these appa-
rently inanimate bodies the eggs of a
new generation are concealed, which
shortly put on life, and come forth
of the oval figure of the family ; they
insert their slender beaks into the
young bark or leaves, and begin to
draw the sap with such activity that
it drops from them and the punctures
to the ground, attracting ants to as-
cend the tree. After a season, the
cocci attach themselves to some spot
on the bark, and emit downy threads
to make fast. Here a transformation
ensues, which gives wings to the
male, and only a new coat to the fe-
male. After a time, differing with
the species, the male comes forth re-
•duced in size, but the female is sta-
tionary. Impregnation ensues, her
body swells, the eggs are placed un-
der her, she dies, and the crust of her
body forms their winter protection.
But in some varieties two generations
appear in one year. The apple-tree
louse hatches from the end of May to
the middle of June : they are whitish ;
in ten days they fasten themselves,
and begin to throw out bluish down ;
and there appears two broods in the
year.

They are destroyed by birds of the
icren genus, ichneumon flies, and by
washing the bark early in June. See
Bark Cleaning. When they infest the
roots, applications must be made to
those parts.

BARK MILL. See Mill.

BARK, SPENT, from the tanners,
forms a good manure whea rotted
67

BAR

with farm-yard manure, or made into
a compost with lime, &c. It is also
used for hot-hods.

BARK 8T(3VE. A glazed house
for tropical plants, heated by bark
beds.

BARLEY. Hordcum distichum. It
is readily distinguished from other
grain by its pointed extremities, and
by the rough appearance of its outer
skin.

Fig

BAH

Botanists place barley in the fam-
ily of the (jramiiic(E,a.n(i Linnaeus has
classed it in the second order of his
third class {Triandria digijma), having
three stamina and two styles in the
flower.

Of all the cultivated grains, barley
is perhaps that which comes to per-
fection in the greatest variety of cli-
mates, and is, consequently, found
over the greatest extent of the habi-
1.

a. Winter barley.

b. The same, witli part of the seed pulled off the rachis.

c. A side view of the last, to show the shape of the rachis.

d. The three perfect grains adhering together by the base, as pulled off the rachis
58

BARLEY.

table world. It bears the heat and
drought of tropical regions, and ri-
pens in the short summers of those
which verge on the frigid zone. In
genial climates two crops of barley
may be reaped in the same year : one
in spring, from seed sown the prece-
ding autumn, and one in autumn from
a spring sowing.

Agricultural writers in general
have distinguished the different spe-
cies of barley, either from the time
of sowing them, into winter barley
and spring barley, or, from the num-
ber of rows of grains in the ears, into
six-rowed, four-rowed, and two-row-
ed or flat barley. Another distinction
may be made between those which
have the corolla strongly adhering to
the seed and those in which it separ-
ates from it, leaving the seed naked,
from which circumstance these are
called naked barleys. There seem,
in fact, to be only two very distinct
species of barley generally cultiva-
ted : one which produces three per-
fect flowers, and as many seeds uni-
ted at the base, at each joint of the
rachis, or middle of the ear, alternate-
ly on each side (Fig. 1) ; and another,
in which the middle flowret is perfect
and the two others barren, forming a
flat ear, with only one row of grains
on each side, as spring barley {Fig.
2). The first species has sometimes
the middle flowret small or abortive,
and consequently only four rows of
grains, giving the ear a square ap-
pearance ; but that this is only an
occasional deviation is proved by its
returning to the perfect ear with six
rows, in rich soils and under proper
cultivation.

In some varieties of both kinds the
seeds stand more apart from each
other, and at a greater angle with the
rachis ; the ear is also shorter, giv-
ing it the appearance of a bat or fan,
whence it has been called Battledore
barley ; it is also known by the name
of Sprat barley. In others the co-
rolla separates from the seed when
ripe, and the awns fall off: these are
the naked barleys. Each of these
has been in repute at different times.

Winter barley is mostly sown in

Fig. 2.

a. An ear of common spring barley.

b. The same, with the grain partly pulled off.
d. The single grain, with the remnant of the

two abortive flowers.

those countries where the winters
are mild and the springs dry, as in
the south of France, Italy, and Spain,
or in those where the snow lies deep
all the winter, and where the sun is
powerful immediately after the melt-
ing of the snow in spring. In cli-
mates where the winter consists of
alternate frost and thaws, and the
early part of spring is usually wet,
the young barley is too apt to suf-
fer from these vicissitudes, and the
spring-sown barley gives the more
certaui prospect of a good crop ; but
59

BARLEY.

the grain of the latter is seldom so
heavy as that wliich has stood the
winter.

The Siberian barley, a variety of
which, with naked seeds, has been
highly extolled by foreign agricultural
writers, especially by Thaer, under
the name of Hordeum coclcste, seems
to be a superior sort in rich soils, not
only for its heavy and nutritious grain,
in which particulars it is said to ap-
proach to the quality of rye, but also
for its succulent stems and leaves,
which make it by far the best sort to
sow for the purpose of green food for
cattle and sheep ; and if fed off early
the roots will, in a rich soil, shoot out
an abundance of fresh stems, and pro-
duce a good crop of grain at harvest.

The barley most commonly culti-
vated is that which has only two
rows. It is almost universally sown
in spring.

Particular varieties have been in
great repute at different times, when
first introduced, and then seem to
have degenerated and lost their su-
periority. Of this kind is the Molda-
vian barley. This barley was much
sought after some years ago ; and
lately the Chevalier barley {Fig: 3),
so called from the gentleman who
first brought it into notice. It is said
that, having observed an ear of bar-
ley in his field greatly superior to the
rest, he carefully saved the seed, and
cultivated it in his garden till he had
a sufficient quantity to sow it in a
field. It has since been extremely
multiplied and diffused through the
country. Some eminent maltsters
and brewers have declared that it
contains more saccharine matter than
any other sort ; and the trials hither-
to made have convinced many agri-
culturists that it is not only heavier
in the grain, but also more produc-
tive. In 1832, Mr. Coke, of Norfolk,
who was always foremost in all agri-
cultural experiments and improve-
ments, sowed a considerable portion
of land with this barley, and the re-
sult is said to have been perfectly
satisfactory. In the j^ear 1833 the
writer of this article sowed two acres
of Chevalier barley in the same field
60

FHg.3.

[Chevalier Barley.]
with some of the best of the common
barley. The soil was poor, hght sand,
but in good order, and very clean.
The produce of the whole was nearly
the same, four quarters per acre ; but
the Chevalier barley weighed 57 lbs.
per bushel, while the common weigh-
ed only 52. This gives the farmer
an advantage of nearly ten per cent.
The sample was very fine, and the
whole that he could spare was eager-
ly purchased by his neighbours, for
seed, at his own price. It is long in
the ear and very plump, and the plants

BAKLEV

tiller* 30 much, that half a bushel may
be saved per acre in the seed. This
is probably owing to its grains being
all perfect, and vegetating rapidly.
The straw, like that of the other long-
eared barleys, appears weak in pro-
portion to the ear : it is said also to
be harder, and not so palatable to cat-
tle. These are circumstances which
experience alone can ascertain. That
hitherto it has had a decided superi-
ority over the common sorts, no one
who has tried it fairly in well-pre-
pared land seems to deny ; but un-
less great care be taken in cultiva-
ting picked parcels for seed, selecting
the finest ears and plumpest grain, it
will probably share the fate of its pred-
ecessors— degenerate, and lose its
reputation. Might not the cultivation
of the various kinds of grain purpose-
ly for seed be more generally prac-
tised, and form a distinct branch of
agriculture ? Thus the good qualities
of any grain might be perpetuated,
new varieties might be produced, and
the defects corrected by cultivation,
as is the case with horticultural
plants.

The sprat or battledore barley ( Fig.
4), also called Putney barley, from
having been once extensively cul-
tivated near that place, is in much
esteem in Germany. It is the Hor-
dcum Zeocriton ; also called German
rice, or rice barley, not from any re-
semblance it bears to rice, but be-
cause, when deprived of its skin and
made into pot barley, it swells by
boiling, and makes a good substitute
for rice in broths and puddings.

All kinds of barley require nearly
the same soil, and, whether they are
sown before winter or in spring, the
ground must be well prepared, and
the soil pulverized by repeated plough-
ings and harrowings, or by the opera-
tion of those instruments which have
been invented for this especial pur-
pose, in order that the fibres of the
roots, which are very minute and del-
icate, may penetrate the soil easily in
search of nourishment.

Fig. 4.

' A plant IS said to tiller when it produces
several stems from the crown of the root at the
■urface of the (oil.

F

[Sprat (or Battledore) Barley.]

The soil can scarcely be too dry
on the surface at the time of sowing ;
and, provided a few showers supply
the moisture necessary to make the
seed vegetate and spring up, there is
DO great danger to be apprehended
from too dry weather. Barley has
been known to grow and ripen when
not a single shower refreshed the soil
from the day it was sown to that in
which it was reaped.

The quantity of barley sown for-
merly was four bushels per acre ;
but if the land is duly prepared and
the seed good, from two to three
bushels are an ample allowance, espe-
cially if sown by the drilling machine.

The proper time for sowing barley
depends much on the season and the
61

liAlM.EV

state of the land. The best practical
rule is, to sow as soon in March as
the ground is dry. The early-sown
crops are in general the heaviest, es-
pecially the sorts which ripen later :
they require less seed, having more
time to tiller before the hot weather
draws up the stems. There are, how-
ever, seasons when the later-sown
crops are the best. A good rule is to
sow a quick-growing sort when the
sowing is unavoidably deferred, and
in this case more seed must also be
allowed.

The depth at which the seed should
be deposited depends on the nature
of the soil and on the season. Win-
ter barley need only be slightly cov-
ered, and will tiller astonishingly in
good light soils. But in stiff soils the
seed, buried deep, may have much
difficulty in germinating, the air not
having sufficient access, and the first
shoot not being able to pierce the
compact soil above it. As a general
rule, a depth of one inch and a half
is most likely to enable the seed to
sprout well, and give a sufficient hold
of the land by the roots to avoid the
danger of lodging. After sowing bar-
ley it is useful to pass a light roller
over the land, across the beds, if
there are any, to press the earth on
the seed, and prevent too great evap-
oration of the moisture. When the
plants begin to tiller, another rolling,
and in some cases a slight harrow-
ing, to loosen the surface and thin
out the plants where they grow too
close, are very useful. This also is
the best time to sow clover and grass
seeds, if not done with the first roll-
ing. After this no attention is re-
quired to the crop till harvest, unless
some docks or tliistles should make
their appearance, which must then be
carefully pulled up.

The practice of sowing clover, rye
grass, or other seeds with the barley,
is almost universal, and is considered
as one of the great modern improve-
ments in agriculture. There is no
doubt a great advantage in having a
profitable and improving crop to suc-
ceed the barley without farther till-
age ; and clover prepares the land
63

admirably for wheat. Still there are
some doubts whether this be profita-
ble in all cases. Tliere are seasons
when the clover materially injures
the barley by its luxuriance ; and in
wet seasons at harvest it is very dif-
ficult to dry the straw sufficiently,
mixed as it is with the succulent
stems of the clover, or to prevent its
heating in the stack. The clover, as
far as the barley is concerned, may
be looked upon as a weed, which, like
all other weeds, must take a part of
the nourishment from the crop, and
check its tillering. If the clover is
sown late among the barley, the dan-
ger is less. It will not be able to
grow so high as to do much injury,
but the fear of losing the plant of clo-
ver makes most farmers prefer sow-
ing it soon after the barley.

In Flanders, clover is seldom or
never sown with barley, but chiefly
with rye ; but they sow a species of
white carrot instead in the sandy
soils. These push out very little of
the green top, but shoot their fibres
downward, which form the rudiments
of the carrot. After harvest, the
ground is well harrowed, and water-
ed with liquid manure. The carrots,
which could scarcely be observed
above ground, soon spring up, and a
good crop is secured before winter,
extremely useful for feeding cattle
and swine, and greatly increasing the
urine of cows and bullocks, the fa-
vourite manure for light soils in that
country.

As soon as the ears of the barley
begin to droop and lose their purple
hue, acquiring a light straw colour,
before the grain is quite hard, it should
be reaped. This is usually done by
mowing it with a scythe, having a
cradle fixed to it so as to lay the
swathe regularly ; but where there is
a sufficient supply of labourers, at
reasonable wages, it is far more prof-
itable to have it reaped with the sick-
le, or, what is better, with the Hai-
nault scythe, a short, broad scythe,
used with one hand, while a light
hook is held in the other to lay the
straw even, so as to be readily tied
up into sheaves. A little practice

BARLEY.

enables a man to reap twice as much
corn in the same time with this in-
strument as with the reaping hook.
Binding into sheaves is a great ad-
vantage ; much less corn fs shed,
which, in the common method of ra-
king into heaps, often amounts to
more than would fully sow the same
extent of land. The sheaves set up
on end are in less danger from the
weather, and when the stack is budt
all the ears may be laid inward and
much grain saved, which, if on the
outside, would soon be the prey of
birds : smaller stacks may be made,
and the danger of heating entire-
ly avoided. The stacks should be
built on frames, supported by stone
or cast-iron pillars, with Hat caps on
them to keep out vermm ; and, in
large stacks, it is useful to have a
kind of open cage in the middle, to 1
allow the admission of air to the cen- 1
tre. This dries the grain better than |
a kiln, and when the stack is proper- ■
ly thatched with straw, the crop may
be considered as safe till it is carried
into the barn to be thrashed.

Barley requires care in thrashing,
to break off all the awns close to the
grain. A thrashing machine does not
accomplish this perfectly by only once
passing the straw through the roll-
ers ; it is consequently usually put

through a second time, especially if
it has not been tied into sheaves. It
is often necessary, after the barley
is thrashed, to effect this by another
operation, which is called hummeliyig,
for which purpose several different
kinds of instruments are used. A sim-
ple one consists of a cylinder com-
posed of small bars of iron, and placed
on an axis, which is rolled backward
and forward over the grain ; or,
I where a thrashing machine is used,
a plate of iron, perforated like a nut-
meg grater, is fixed to the inside of
I the drum in which the beaters re-
[ volve, and the awns are effectually
! broken off by this rough surface

The diseases to which barley is sub-
ject while growing are those which
attack all other grain — the smut, the
burned ear, blight, and mildew ; but
it is less liable to these than wheat.
The greatest enemy is a wet harvest.
It is so apt to germinate with the
least continuance of moisture, that,
even before it is reaped, it often ex-
hibits an ear in full vegetation, every
grain having sprouted (see fissure)
It is then of little value, and even
when this is checked by dry weather
or in the kiln, the grain is so impaired
as to be fit only to feed fowls and
pigs. A strong plant of clover, by
keeping the wet longer about the bar-

tPremature germination of an ear of barley.]

63

bAii

BAR

ley, often contributes to increase tliis
evil, as lias boon hinted before.

The principal use of barley in this
country is to convert it into malt for
brewing and distilling. The best and
heaviest grain is chosen for this pur-
pose, and, as it must have its germi-
nating power unimpaired, the least
discoloration, from rain or heating in
the stack, renders it suspected, and
consequently not so saleable. It is,
however, still fit for being ground
into meal for feeding cattle and pigs.

The produce of barley, on land
well prepared, is from 30 to 50 bush-
els and more per acre, weighing from
45 to 55 lbs. per bushel. It is said
to contain 65 per cent, of nutritive
matter ; wheat contains 78 per cent.
A bushel of barley weighing 50 lbs.
therefore contains about 32 lbs. of
nutriment, while a bushel of wheat
weighing 60 lbs. contains 47 lbs.
Good oats weighing 40 lbs. contain
about 24 lbs. of nutritive substance,
so that the comparative value of
wheat, barley, and oats, in feeding
cattle, may be represented by 47, 32,
and 24, the measure being the same.
The experiments on which this cal-
culation is founded were carefully
made by Einhof, and confirmed, on a
large scale, by Thaer, at his estab-
lishment at Mijgelin, the account of
the results being accurately kept.

On all pood loamy soils barley is a
more profitable crop than oats, and
is supposed to exhaust the soil less.
On stiff, cold clays it does not thrive
so well, and there oats are to be pre-
ferred. In some districts, where the
best barley is grown, the farmers sel-
dom sow oats, and many prefer buy-
ing them for their own u.se, with the
additional expense of market and car-
riage.

Barley in its green state makes ex-
cellent spring food for milch cows ;
it comes in early, and greatly increas-
es the milk. It is also very good for
horses, provided it be given sparing-
ly at first, as it purges them ; but af-
ter a little time, when the stomach
becomes accustomed to it, it increas-
es their flesh and condition wonder-
fully, and is much more wholesome

than the usual spring physic, as it an-
swers the purpose of gently clearing
the intestines without any risk of ir-
ritation. For sheep it is more nour-
ishing than rye, and comes earlier ;
when fed off quite close in April, it
will spring up again, and, on good
land, produce a fair crop of grain.

M. Theodore de Saussure has care-
fully analyzed the ashes produced by
burning barley and its straw, and we
shall close this article with the re-
sult of his experiments. — {Recherches
Chimiqucs sur la Vegetation, Paris,
1804.)

The grain reduced to ashes with its
skin gave, out of 100 parts, 18 of ash-
es, which contained :

Potass ....

Phosphate of potass

Sulphate of potass

Muriate of potass

Earthy phosphates

Earthy carbonates

Silica

Metallic oxides .

Loss

18
9-2
15
025

32-5
0

35-5
0-25
2-8
100

1000 parts of the straw produced 42
of ashes, containing :

Potass .

Sulphate of potass

Muriate of potass

Earthy phosphates

Earthy carbonates

Silica

Metallic oxides .

Loss

16
35
05

7-75
125
57
0 5
225
100
These products no doubt vary in
different soils ; but the proportion of
silica in the straw and in the skin of
barley is remarkable. This barley
grew in a chalky soil. — ( W. L. Rham.)
BARLEY, POT. Barley of which
the outer husk or skin has been re-
moved.

B A R L E Y, P E A R L. The small
round kernel which remains after the
skin and a considerable portion of the
barley have been ground off.

BARLEY GRASSES. Grasses of
the genus Hordcum. They are coarse,
and of little moment in agriculture.
BARM. Leaven, yeast.

BARN.

BARN. A building in wliieh prod-
uce is stored to protect it from the
weather and keep it in safety. In all
countries where the climate does not
permit the corn to be thrashed in thc
field and immediately put into a gran-
ary, it is necessary to protect it
from the weather ; and the most ob-
vious method is, to hare capacious
buildings for that purpose. Accord-
ingly, all well-appointed farms hare
one or more of these buildings, which
formerly were made of such dimen-
sions as to be capable of containing
the whole produce of tlie farm, wheth-
er hay, corn, or straw. A great sa-
ving has been effected by the mode
of stacking hay and corn in the open
air, protected only by a slight cover-
ing of thatch. In consequence of
this improved practice, modern barns
are made of smaller dimensions, and
their principal use is to contain the
wheat in the straw which is intended
to be thrashed out immediately ; so
that if the barn is capable of contain-
ing a thrashing floor and as much
wheat in the sheaf as is usually put in
a single stack, it answers all tiie pur-
poses of a larger barn ; and thus the
expense of the farm buildings is great-
ly diminished.

The principal use of a barn being
to thrash the corn in, its construction
must be adapted to the mode in which
that operation is performed. As many
smaller seeds, such as clover and the
grasses, cannot so well be thrashed
by a machine, a floor, upon which
they may be thrashed with the flail,
is an indispensable appendage to a
farm ; and the barn is the most con-
venient place to have it in. This floor
is commonly placed in the middle,
with its length equal to the width of
the barn. It also allows the wagons
or carts, when loaded with the prod-
uce of the harvest, or of the corn
taken from a stack, to be drawn over
it and unloaded immediately in the
barn. For this purpose, large double
gates are placed at each end of the
floor, of such dimensions as to allow
a loaded wagon to be drawn m on
one side, and, when unloaded, taken
out at the other. When the width
F •:

of the barn is not sufllcienl for the
length of the floor, a porch is added
on one side, or both, and in these the
gates are placed. Those parts of the
barn which are on one side of the
thrashing floor are called the bays,
and in these the corn is placed till it
is thrashed. Where there are porch-
es, the roof of the barn is generally
brought down to the line of the porch ;
and thus convenient sheds are formed
on each side. One of the defects of
this construction is, that the drawing
of loaded wagons on the floor mate-
rially injures it, even where the pre-
caution is taken of spreading straw
over it. In consequence of this, many
barns have been constructed without
the large gates, and the corn is thrown
from the wagon outside, through an
opening called a pitch hole, into the
barn. This has the inconvenience of
loss of time, and the risk of damaging
the corn in showery weather. The
best plan, therefore, is to have a
passage for the wagons under the
roof, at the end of the barn, where
they can with ease and safety be un-
loaded ; and if a thrashing machine
is used, a floor raised about seven
feet above the ground will contain
the machine at one end, and the un-
thrashed corn at the other ; the low-
er part may be appropriated to va-
rious useful purposes ; that part which
IS immediately under the machine
receives the corn and straw after
they are separated, and contains the
winnowing machine. (See Fig. I.)
A, the place for unloading the corn ;
B, a floor seven feet from the ground,
on wliich the wheat in the straw is
stored ; C, the place of the thrash-
ing-machine at the end of the floor ;

D, a chamber under the floor, into
which the thrashed corn and the
straw fall, and the corn is winnowed ;

E, the shed for the horses to work
under ; F, a place under the floor, in
which agricultural implements are
kept : it may be converted into a sta-
ble. Double gates at each end of A
will shut the whole up ; or the end B
may be closed by a partition with
double doors in it. The windows are
latticed.

65

In this case the seeds may be
thrashed on the raised floor, which
must be made stronj^ and well joint-
ed, to prevent the dust beating
through, and steadied by pillars or a
partition below. In small farms,
where there is no thrashing machine,
this construction is not so advanta-
geous, the raised floor being unneces-
sary ; still, it would be better not to
draw the wagons on the floor. The
thrashing floor may be placed at one
end of the barn, the wagons unloaded
at the other, and the corn deposited
between them.

A common thrashing floor is usu-
ally from eighteen to twenty feet
long, and from twelve to fourteen
wide ; the size must depend on the
number of men who thrash at the
same time, this operation being more
rapidly performed by three or four
men, beating in regular time, than if
they worked separately.

Thrashing floors are usually made
of stone, brick, oak, or tempered
earth. The first are the most dura-
ble, and where stone can be obtained
at a reasonable price, they are, in the
end, the cheapest ; but they are apt
to bruise the corn, and on that ac-
count are not so generally adopted.
Brick floors have tlie same inconve-
nience, besides that of readily imbi-
bing moisture, and making the grain
feel cold and damp, which diminishes
the value of the sample. Earthen
floors, when carefully laid, and the
materials well incorporated, are both
66

cheap and durable, provided the soil
on which they are laid is dry natural-
ly or made so artificially. But earth-
en floors have always the mconve-
nience of wearing into dust of a gritty
nature, which, mixing with the corn,
deteriorates it, and renders it less fit
to be ground into fine flour. Hence,
in spite of the first cost and frequent
repairs, wood floors are preferred.
Some nicety is required in laying
floors, that they may not be subject
to rapid decay, owing to the confine-
ment of moist air below them. The
planks should be two inches and a
half thick, the edges well joined by
doicdling, or •ploughing and tong^ieing.
Dowells are pins of half an inch di-
ameter and six inches long, driven
three inches deep into holes of the
same diameter in the edge of the
planks, and received into correspond-
ing holes in the adjoming planks, so
as to keep them close together and
their surfaces even. Ploughing and
tongueing is done by means of a
groove in each edge, into which a
slip of lath is driven, half in each
groove. This produces the same ef-
fect of joining the planks close, be-
sides completely preventing any dust
from passing between the joints.
The planks are driven close by means
of wedges, and are laid on sleepers,
to which they are fastened by a few
iron spikes driven into each, and
which rest on a foundation of brick-
work, so that the floor is eight or ten
inches from the ground. This inter-

BARN.

val has been sometimes filled up with
stones or gravel, under the idea of
preventing the nestling of rats ; but
this is not a good practice. A free
current of air under the floor is the
only method of securing it from damp,
and consequent dry rot. This should
be provided by means of openings
through the walls or under the sills.
Iron gratings will keep out the rats ;
but even should they find their way
under the floor, they must be huuted
out and destroyed by dogs.

The outer walls of barns are built
of stone or brick, or consist only of
wood.

The roof of a barn should be con-
structed according to the approved j
rules of carpentry, so as to produce I
the greatest strength with the small- j
est quantity of timber. This is a |
point seldom attended to by country
carpenters, who imitate the old roofs,
in which strong beams, resting on
the walls horizontally, generally bear
the whole weight of the roof without
regard to the advantage gained by
proper trussing. Even in the most
temporary shed the strength may be
greatly increased by using the mate-
rials judiciously. It is usually shin-
gled. The common covering in Eng-
land is thatched straw, which has the
great inconvenience of affording shel- j
ter for rats, who soon nestle in it,
and are not easily driven out.

The more the air circulates the I
better the corn is preserved. Barns !
should, therefore, have numerous
openings, and the wheat, when put !

into them, should not be pressed
down close to the walls, as recom-
mended in many agricultural works,
but so placed as to allow the air, to
circulate freely. In this manner, it
will keep well, without acquiring the
close and musty smell which so much
deteriorates that long kept in a barn.
Hay is now seldom put into a close
barn, experience having shown that
it keeps much better in the open air
in ricks. But where a considerable
quantity of hay is tied up in trusses
for the market, it is extremely useful
to have a building with a roof to pro-
tect them from the wet, and to load
the carts under shelter. For this
purpose, a kind of barn is contrived,
which some call a Dutch barn, but
which may very properly be called a
skeleton barn, being the frame of a
barn witliout the boarding. The an-
nexed figure will convey a better idea
of it than any description. At the
time of haymaking, this barn is ex-
tremely useful to draw a load of hay
in suddenly on the appearance of a
shower ; and hay put into either side
will be preserved as well as in a stack.
But for this purpose another building
is in use in Holland, to which the
name of Dutch barn is more appro-
priate, and of which we also annex a
figure. This consists of a roof sup-
ported by strong poles, like masts,
A A, on which it can be raised or
lowered at will. The usual form is
that of a pentagon ; the poles are at
the angles, and kept upright by means
of a strong still on a brick foundation,

67

13AK

BAR

30

S4

16. .

8 -

and pieces, B, acting as spurs, framed
into the poles. The roof is light and
covered with thatch. At each angle
is a strong block of wood, with a
round hole in it, sufficient to let the
poles pass through ; these blocks are
kept at any desired height by means
of iron pins passed through 'holes
made in the poles, and on which the
blocks rest. To raise the roof, a
small jack is used, an instrument well
known by its use in raising heavy
wagons when the wheels are taken
oft". This is placed on an iron pin at
some distance below the roof, and the
corners are raised gradually, one after
the other, at opposite angles, the pins
being moved each tune one hole high-
er. The chief use of this Dutch barn
is to contain hay, which may be pla-
ced in safety, in any small quantity,
as soon as made, the roof being raised
as the quantity increases, and grad-
ually lowered as it is taken off for the
cattle, which is always from the top.
In small dairy farms in Holland, this
building is found so useful that few
68

are without one. Four posts are
quite enough.

BARN 0^yL. This bird is a val-
uable destroyer of rats, mice, and
small vermin.

BAROMETER. Of all the mete-
orological instruments the barometer
is the most useful to the cultivator.
Although its principal object is to in-
dicate the pressure of a column of air,
the variations of this same pressure
are so intimately connected with di-
vers other atmospheric phenomena,
that one can almost daily recur to its
indications with profit.

The barometer in its simplest form
is a tube curved into a siphon {Fig. 1),
closed at the upper end, with a pear-
shaped enlargement at the lower end,
completely void of air, and partly fill-
ed with mercury. When the tube is
placed in a perpendicular position, the
metal, after some oscillations, settles
itself at a height which represents the
weight of the atmosphere, and which
varies more or less, according as that
weight augments or diminishes

BARUMETEIl.

Pig. I.

Fig. 2.

A

By an ingenious mechanism, Tor-
ricelli adapted to the siphon barome-
ter a dial {Fig. 2), upon which a nee-
dle indicates the movements of the
mercury. This instrument, which is
quite common, can nevertheless be
consulted with advantage.

The barometer ( Fig. 3) presents this
difference from the preceding, that
the tube, instead of being recurved,
plunges perpendicularly into a basin
partly filled with mercury. It is fix-
ed to a scale, graduated on one side
in inches and tenths.

The mercury in the barometer is
seldom to be seen so low as 28 inch-
es, or higher than 30^^. It indicates
as follows :

31 inches . . Very dry weather, hard frost.

30J . . . . Settled fair, settled frost.

30 ... . Fair, frost.

29i . . . . Changeable.

29 ... . Rain, snow.

28i .... Much rain, much snow.

28 ... . .Stormy weather.

The straight barometer is better
than the weather-glass. In mount-
ains the mercury never reaches 30J^
inches, but remains alwavs at a dis-

tance below, proportionate to the
height of the place above the level of
the sea. In foretellmg changes of
weather, the act of falling or rising in
the mercury is better than an inspec-
tion of its height. The following rules
by Mr. Walker are as good as any
extant :

1. The barometer rising, may bo
considered as a general indication that
the weather, comparatively with the
state of it at the time of observation,
is becoming clearer.

2. The atmosphere apparently be-
coming clearer, and the barometer
above raui, and rising, show a dispo-
sition in the air for fair weather.

3. The atmosphere becoming clear,
and the barometer above changeable,
and rising, indicate fair weather.

4. The atmosphere clear, and the
barometer near fair, and rising, de-
note continued fair weather.

5. Our prognostic of the weather
is to be guided relatively, thus : if,
notwithstanding the sinking of the
barometer, little or no rain follow, and
it afterward rise, we may expect con-
tinued dry weather.

6. If, during a series of cloudy,
rainy weather, the barometer rise
gradually, though yet below rain, es-
pecially if the wind change from the
south or west towards the north or
east points, clear and dry weather
may be expected.

7. The weather for a short period,
viz., from morning until evening, may
commonly be foretold with a consid-
erable degree of certainty. If the ba-
rometer has risen during the night, and
is still rising, the clouds are high and
apparently dispersing, and the wind
calm, especially if it be in or about
the north or east points, a dry day
may be confidently expected. The
same rule applies for predicting the
weather from evening till morning.

8. The barometer should be ob-
served occasionally thrice in the day,
or oftener when the weather is
changeable, in order to notice wheth-
er the mercury be stationary, rising,
or sinking ; for, from this circum-
stance, together with the direction of
the wind and the apparent state of

69

BAR

the air at the time, is information to
be collected, and a continuance of the
same, or a sudden change of the
weather, to be foreseen.

Lastly, observe always, the higher
the mercury shall stand in the scale
in each instance, and the more regu-
larly progressive its motion sliall be,
the stronger will be the indication ;
likewise, the more the wind inclines
towards the north or east points, the
greater will be the disposition in the
air for fair w-eather. The indications
of rainy weather will obviously be
the direct reverse of those rules which
predict fair weather. Frost is indi-
cated in winter by the same rules
that indicate fair weather; the wind
being in or about the north or east
points, and the thermometer sinking
towards 30. A fall of snow seldom
comes without a previous frost of
some duration, and is indicated by
the sinking of the barometer, espe-
cially if the mercury be below change-
able, and the thermometer at or near
the freezing point. When the tem-
perature of the air is about 35, snow
and rain sometimes fall together ; at
a warmer temperature than 35 it sel-
dom snows, or rains at a colder tem-
perature. Thunder is presaged by
the same rules which indicate rain,
accompanied by sultry heat, the ther-
mometer being up to 75. Storms,
hurricanes, and high winds, are indi-
cated by the barometer falling sud-
denly, or sinking considerably below
much rain. The barometer is known
to be rising or sinking by the mercu-
ry having either a convex or concave
surface, or by the perceptible rise or
descent of the mercury, if at the time
of observation the barometer be gen-
tly rapped. If at any time the weath-
er should differ widely from the in-
dications of the barometer, it maybe
presumed, as it is sometimes known
to happen, that a particular spot is
affected by local circumstances. Af-
ter a long-continued series of wet
weather, we may, when the weather
becomes fine, expect an uninterrupt-
ed continuance of dry weather. If,
after a long series of wet weather,
the barometer rise above changeahlc,
70

BAR

and the wind veer steady to the north
or east points, a continued duration of
fair weather may be expected. Slow
and progressive variations in the
barometer, with a fixed and steady
state of the wind, indicate permanen-
cy with the change. The barometer
standing at or above fair, denotes
generally fair weather, although the
atmosphere wear at the time an un-
favourable aspect.

The greater coincidence there is of
the circumstances enumerated in the
rules above mentioned, the stronger
may our confidence be in the expec-
tation of fair weather ; and in the
continuance of it when present, by
the barometer, while high, remaining
stationary, or varying but little, and
the state of the atmosphere and di-
rection of the wind disposed to be set-
tled. In this variable climate there is
no reliance to be placed on any rules
beyond those above mentioned, for in-
dicating the weather for any length of
time together, or for any distant pe-
riod. Combined with a careful exam-
ination of the direction of the wind,
and the amount of vapour in the air,
barometrical observations become a
valuable means of forming an opinion
on the state of the weather a few
hours in advance.

BARRAS. The resin which flows
from the bark of fir-trees.

BARREL. An English beer meas-
ure of thirty-four gallons. In the
Southern States, a measure of corn
equal in the ear to ten bushels, or five
bushels shelled. A barrel of flour con-
tains 196 pounds.

BARREN FLOWERS. Those
which contain stamens only ; they
are easily known by the absence of
the swelling under the (orarium) flow-
er. By high cultivation flowers be-
come barren, and contain no stamens :
when these bear fruit, it is without
seeds ; hence the well-known seedless
varieties of orange, grape, &c.

BARREN LAND. In agriculture,
land in which the plants general-
ly cultivated do not prosper or arrive
at maturity. This barrenness may
arise from various causes. The tex-
ture of the soil may be such that the

BARREN LAND.

moisture essential to vegetation can-
not be retained, or that the fibres of
the roots cannot penetrate in search
of food. The first is the case in loose
silicious sands, the second in rocks
and indurated clays. It is seldom
that either of these soils can be ren-
dered productive, so as to repay the
expense of cultivation, unless under
particular circumstances. The most
barren sands will become productive
by irrigation, and in that case the la-
bour api)licd to improve their texture,
by the admixture of more tenacious
earth, may be occasionally repaid.
The vine may be made to grow in the
fissures of the hardest rocks, where
the climate is favourable ; and ter-
races may be formed, by which the
soil brought on may be retained ; but,
in general, loose sands and rocks ought
to be left to their natural state of bar-
renness.

We shall endeavour to give, as
briefly as possible, an outline of the
various means by which even the
poorest soils may be rendered capa-
ble of adding something to the gen-
eral stock of food. The question as
to the policy of cultivating such lands
is not here considered. Our object
is to show how barren lands may be
improved whenever such improve-
ment may be deemed expedient.

Some lands are barren in conse-
quence of noxious ingredients in the
soil, which, by their chemical action
on the food of plants, or on their mi-
nute fibres, prevent their growth and
render them sickly and abortive.
These, having been ascertained by
careful analysis, must be deprived of
their noxious qualities by chemical
means, one of the most obvious of
which is liming. Nature has supplied
a general and complete antidote to
acid combinations, in lime, one of the
most abundant mineral productions.
There are few bad soils which lime
will not improve. The most com-
mon substances found in barren soils
are different combinations of metals,
principally iron, with sulphur and
acids ; quicklime either decomposes
all these or renders them innocuous.
Another substance is tannin, or the

astringent principle, which is of vege-
table origin, and, by preventing the
solubility of vegetable fibres, trans-
forms them into an inflammable sub-
stance well known by the name of
peat or moss. This, likewise, is
readily corrected by the same means.
But the different substances of which
a soil is composed may be perfectly
innocuous to vegetation, and yet the
barrenness may not be the less, if the
supply or circulation of moisture be
deficient or excessive. This must,
therefore, be the first consideration,
before any improvement is attempt-
ed ; and if sufficient moisture cannot
be supplied, or superfluous removed,
all other attempts will only be lost
labour. In tropical climates, irriga-
tion is the chief source of fertility ;
and the most expensive works have
been constructed, both in ancient and
modern times, to supply the land with
water as occasion requires. In north-
ern and moister climates, the founda-
tion of all improvements in the soil is
a proper outlet to superfluous water.
These two subjects will l)e treated
in the articles Irrigation and Drain-
ing.

Supposing, then, that the moisture
has been regulated, and that the land
is to be brought into cultivation, the
first thing to be done is to remove ob
structions and impediments, whether
they be rocks, stones, trees, or shrubs,
or only the heath and coarse grasses
which generally cover waste lands.
Rocks may be quarried or blown, and
so may stones too large to be remo-
ved whole, and the fragments will
often be useful in building the neces-
sary farm offices, or making fences to
divide the land into fields of conve-
nient dimensions, and especially to
keep ofl" animals from destroying the
crops. A simple method of getting
rid of large stones is to dig a deep
hole by the side of them, as near as
possible, and roll them in, so that
they may be buried at least two feet
below the surface. If the nature of
the stones is lamellated, and they
will split, wedges of iron driven into
holes made in the direction of the
layers readily divide them into flat
71

BAKUEN LAND.

pieces pxtrciricly (!()nveniont for use.
A very powerful wcd^e for tins pur-
pose is an iron cylinder cut through
the axis into two pieces, between
which a thin iron or steel wedge is
inserted ; a hole is bored in the stone
of a diameter eipial to that of the
cylinder, and when this cylinder and
wedge are put into it, the wedge is
driven in with repeated smart strokes
of a hammer. Several such wedges,
placed in a line, will split large mass-
es of the hardest granite, and, next to
gunpowder, are the most efficacious
instruments for that purpose. Trees

must be grubbed up by the roots ; and
it saves labour to cut the roots below
the ground while the tree is standing,
and draw the tree over by means of
ropes fixed to the top ; the stem be-
comes a lever, by which the roots
are more easily drawn out. Useless
slirubs are readily cut down, and
serve for fuel ; their roots are seldom
difficult to grub up ; a simple and
powerful instrument for this purpo.-sc
is a very strong iron three-pronged
fork, having the prongs twenty inches
long, and a strong ashen handle,
twenty feet long, fixed firmly into it,

-:^^e3r^^

to the end of which a rope is fasten-
ed ; this is driven obliquely under the
roots, and, by means of a log as a
fulcrum, it forms a lever when pulled
down by the ropes.

There are two methods by which
the heath and grass of the surface
may be got rid of: by mowing them
close to the ground and ploughing in
the roots, or by paring the surface
and burning it. Each mode has had
its strenuous advocates, and has been
alternately praised and reprobated.
A little consideration will soon settle
this point. If the soil consists of clay
or loam containing the yellow ore of
iron, and if the ashes, after the sods
have been burned in heaps, are of a
72

bright red colour, the efiect of burn-
ing the surface will be generally ad-
vantageous, even where the soil is
already deficient in vegetable matter ;
for the fire will do more good in cor-
recting the crude qualities of the soil
than the small quantity of vegetable
matter which is dispersed would have
done had it been decomposed in the
most favourable manner ; and the
tough roots which are reduced to
ashes would have taken a very long
time to decay, and would have been
a constant impediment to the plough.
But if the soil is a sharp sand, and
the ashes are white and loose, burn-
ing destroys the small portion of ve-
getable matter in the soil, without

BARREN LAND.

compensating the loss by any advan-
tage, and in this case burning the sur-
face is inexpedient. The grass must
be ploughed in, and not too deep at
first, that it may soon rot ; a coating
of lime ploughed in will accelerate
the decay of the grass. This kind
of soil requires the addition of veue-
table and animal matter to supply the
humus in which it is deficient, and

SaB

the principal attention must be direct-
ed to this object.

When the surface is very uneven,
so as to form hillocks and hollows, in
which water is apt to stagnate, lev-
elling is a necessary process. If the
soil is loose and sandy, it may be
very expeditiously levelled by an in-
strument in use in Flanders, which
they call a molkbart. It is a large

wooden shovel, shod with iron, hav-
ing a long handle ; about the middle
of this shovel, which is convex at the
bottom, are two hooks, one on each
side, to v.hich chains are fixed, which
unite at the bar to which the traces
of a horse or horses are to be attach-
ed : a rope fixed to the end of the
handle completes the instrument. A
man accustomed to the use of it
raises the handle, and the shovel en-
ters the ground, and is filled by the
horse gomg on. By depressing the
handle, the load is made to slide on
the rounded bottom of the shovel till
it arrives at the place where it is to
be deposited. By letting the handle
go, retaining the rope, the whole is
upset instantly, turning over on the
edge ; the handle strikes on the bar,
and the load is left behind in a heap.
By puhing the rope the whole instru-
ment resumes its original position,
and is brought back to the place from
which the earth is to be taken again,
without any loss of time or the slight-
est stoppage of the horses. About
five cwts. of loose earth may be thus
G

moved at each time. By means of
this machine the small fields in Flan-
ders are raised about two feet or
more in the centre, and the ground
laid convex, sloping in every direc-
tion to let the water run off.

The land being now enclosed, fen-
ced, and drained where requisite, ob-
stacles to the plough removed, and
in a tolerably level state, it remains
only to consider how it may be most
advantageously cultivated, so as in
the end to repay the first and great
outlay. Some lands which have lain
waste for ages for want of a proper
spirit of enterprise are found to con-
sist of a tolerable depth of moderate-
ly fertile earth. These must be treat-
ed like a garden newly formed, and
trenched as deep as possible ; mere
exposure to the air and frost will oft-
en make them highly productive, and
in this case the only caution neces-
sary is not to exhaust them at first.
It is too common an error with those
who have made a great outlay to be
impatient, and expect too rapid a
replacement of the capital laid out.
73

BARREN LAND.

This makes them sow grain crops in
preference to roots and legumes ; and
as fresh eartli is generally very pro-
ductive, especially in straw, they im-
agine the land to be of a better qual-
ity than it really is, and soon exhaust
it, by which they lose infinitely more
in the end than if they began with
roots and green crops, and raised a
quantity of manure by the stock fed
on them. Lime excites new land
wonderfully, and no manure is more
active, provided there be vegetal)Ie
matter in the soil, or added at the
same time. Bone-dust will raise a
better crop of turnips than lime alone,
and is chiefly of use in raising the
first crop of turnips. It should there-
fore be used sparingly, unless obtain-
ed cheap, and only on light loams or
sands. Mixed with ashes in a heap,
and allowed to heat, it becomes much
more efficacious.

Nothing has so rapid an effect in
removing sterility as the free use of
the urine of cattle, and the draining
of dunghills, collected and allowed to
ferment in covered tanks ; but this
can only be obtained by keeping cat-
tle stalled and fed with provender
brought to them. This is the great
secret of the fertility of the once poor
barren heaths of Flanders. In differ-
ent situations it may not be practica-
ble to procure sufficient manure, at
least at first, and the progress will he
much slower. In this case the seeds
of rye, tares, beans, buckwheat, and
other succulent plants must be sown,
and the crop ploughed in when in blos-
som : potatoes and other roots may
be raised, to be consumed by cattle
and swine, in sheds built for the pur-
pose near at hand, and every means
that ingenuity can devise must be re-
sorted to in order to make as much
manure as possible. This is not to be
applied to the land at once, but mixed
up in heaps with parings of the sur-
face, with the ashes of roots burned,
and with lime, and when thoroughly
incorporated by frequent turning, mix-
ing, and repealed watering with li-
quid manure, a good coat should be put
on the land at once, as far as it will
go ; for one acre brought into a tol-
74

erably fertile state will repay the cost
better than many imperfectly impro-
ved ; and by proceeding gradually in
this way, more land will be brought
into a state fit for cultivation at the
end of a few years, and at less ex-
pense, than could have been done by
beginning with too much at first.

"\Vliat has been said of poor land,
or sandy loam, is applicable to every
kind of unproductive soil, difference
of composition and texture being kept
in view. Poor, wet, stiff lands must
be divided by deep ditches, ploughed
in high ridges, and be as much as pos-
sible exposed to the wind and frost :
grasses must be sown sucii as suit
the soil. Paring and burning the sur-
face are here generally useful in the
first instance, and may sometimes he
repeated with advantage. Such soils,
in the end, are best calculated for per-
manent meadows ; but it is essential
to get them into a sound and fertile
state by tillage and manuring, and by
clearing them of all the roots and
seeds of weeds before they be laid
down with grass seeds, which must
therefore be done with a first crop
after a clean fallow, or, which is still
better, without any crop of corn at
all. and kept free from coarser grasses
by hand-weeding. Inoculating grass
is by far the readiest way of produ-
cing a permanent sward. See Grass
Lu7id.

There is another kind of barren soil,
which extends over large tracts, well
known by the name of peat, or moor.
This, being chiefly composed of ve-
getable matter, is too loose in its tex-
ture foranyvigorousvegetation ; but,
besides, it is of an insoluble, astrin-
gent nature, highly unfit for the in-
crease and nourishment of plants.
Moors being generally situated in val-
leys between mountains, draining off
the superfluous water is the first and
indispensable operation before any
improvement of them can be thought
of. The next thing is to compress
the soft soil into a more solid state,
and for this purpose any kind of earth
or gravel is useful by its mere me-
chanical pressure. The surface may
be burned in sods, and the ashes will

BAR

BAR

groatly improve the remainder. Lime,
marl, and sliells are the specific cor-
rectors of the quality and texture. By
the help of these, tlie soft mass is
gradually condensed, and a more com-
pact soil formed. Tlie great ohject
is to prevent the ahsorption of too
much moisture by the still unconsol-
iilated mass, which is effected by cut-
ting numerous and deep ditches in
every direction, with proper outlets
kept carefully open, at the same time
guarding against the opposite extreme
of drying this spongy substance too
much. If it is dry at top, and moist,
but not boggy, a foot below the sur-
face, it will be in the best state to im-
prove and consolidate. It is surpri-
sing how soon a peat moss, of little
more solidity than a bog, can be ren-
dered perfectly firm, and bear even
loaded wagons on its surface. It
often happens, where there is a com-
mand of good water which can be
brought above the level of the old peat
moss, that it may be converted into
a most productive water meadow.
All that is required is, that the upper
soil, artificially produced, be not bro-
ken through, and that the bottom be
well drained. The great value of the
peat and muck as a manure is a stim-
ulus to the ditching.

We have only given brief hints and
outlines to those who may be inclin-
ed to render lands productive which
have hitherto been barren. The cer-
tain cost and probable improvement
must be well calculated and compa-
red to avoid disappointment and loss.
As these depend on the peculiar cir-
cumstances of each case, it is impos-
sible to give any general idea of them ;
but, by beginning on a small and ex-
perimental scale at first, and proceed-
ing cautiously, new modes of lessen-
ing the expense of many of the oper-
ations will be suggested, errors will
be avoided, and some certain practi-
cal ground of calculation will be ob-
tained.— {W. L. Rh(im.)

BARROW. In agriculture, a
mound of earth, sometimes called
pies, or camps, under which potatoes
or other roots are stored for protection
from frost. They are usually made

by excavating the ground, which
should be high and dry, about one foot
and a half deep, from four to five
wide, and of a length proportionate
to the number of bushels to be stored.
The earth dug out is thrown evenly
on both sides the hole. Before sto-
ring, a layer of straw is put down by
some farmers ; but this is unnecessa-
ry : the potatoes, &c., are next piled
up in a rounded form, with the great-
est height, of three or four feet, in the
middle of the mound ; straw is laid
over them, and the dry earth of the
excavation piled on from two to two
and a half feet, and flattened with the
spade. Round the barrow a ditch is
dug, deeper than the floor within, to
drain off water. Whatever is stored
should be sound, and previously well
aired. Where the crop is large a
number of barrows are made. They
should be placed in a northeastern
exposure, for it is not frost that is
injurious to vegetables so much as
sudden thaws, produced by the direct
rays of the sun. In taking out pota-
toes, &c., for the market or use, if
they be found frozen, thaw in spring
water before selling.

{In machines.) Barrows are light
carriages to be moved by the hand.
When furnished with a wheel they
are termed wheelbarrows, and are of
many forms.

BARS. In farriery, those portions
of the crust or hoof of horses that
are reflected inward, and form the
arches situated between the heels
and the frog.

Bars of a Horse's Mouth. — The
fleshy rows that run across the upper
part of the mouth, and reach almost
to the palate. They form that part
of the mouth on which the bit should
rest, and have its effect.

BAR-SHOE. A particular kind of
shoe, which is sometimes of necessi-
ty used to' protect a tender frog from
injury, the hinder part of the shoe be-
ing thickened and hollowed over the
frog ; but unless it is made exceed-
ingly heavy it will soon be flattened
down, and in the mean time it will
most injuriously press upon the heels.

BARYTA. The oxide of barium,
75

BAT

BEA

an alkaline earth closely resembling
lime, but not very abundant. Many
of its salts are isomorphous with those
of lime.

BASALT. A rock of groat hard-
ness and volcanic origin, containing
iron, lime, and sand. It does not dif-
fer from trSp except in colour, and
occasionally in putting on the colum-
nar form. The Palisades of the
Hudson are a range 40 miles long of
this rock.

BASE. In chemistry, a term used
to designate those substances which
readily combine with acids, as alka-
lies, metallic oxides, &:c. In general
terms, all substances which readily
combine with others.

BASE. In architecture, a pedes-
tal.

BASIL. A fragrant, aromatic, her-
baceous plant, the Ocymum hasilicum,
a native of India, whose leaves are
much used in cookery for the purpose
of giving a savoury flavour to dishes.

Basket, a vessel made of in-
terwoven twigs of willow, osier, birch,
splits of white oak, or of straw, grass,
or rushes.

BASS. The inner bark of the lime
or linden tree {I'dia glabra), used by
gardeners to bind plants, and, in the
form of mats, to protect trees, frames,
&c.

BASSORIX. A peculiar gum, re-
sembling gum tragacanth ; insoluble,
but swelling in water. It is sometimes
called Cekasin.

BATH. In chemistry, sand, wa-
ter, or oil heated in a metallic vessel
for the purpose of communicating a
steady and regulated heat to ciiemi-
cal vessels in distillation, drying, or
evaporation.

BATRACHIANS, BATRACHIA.
(Gr. (SiiTpaxoc, a frog.) An order of
Reptilia, including the frogs and toads,
and all reptiles which, like them, have
naked skins and external bfanchiee in
the early stage of existence ; those
batrachia which retain the gills or gill-
apertures throughout life are called
" perennibranchiate," or " amphib-
ious."

BATTATAS. A name for the
sweet potato.

BATTENS. Slips of wood two to
four inches broad.

BAULK. A piece of whole timber
squared. In ploughing, stri[)S of un-
ploushed land between furrows.

BAI'ME'S AREOMETER, or HY-
DRO.METER. A hydrometer, the 0
of which is pure water at 68° Fahr.,
and the 15° the density of a mixture
of 15 parts common salt and 85 parts
water, by weight. See Hydrometer.

BAY. The term for a colour in-
clining to chestnut. In reference to
a horse, this colour has various shades,
from the very light bay to the dark
bay, which approaches nearly to the
brown ; but it is always more gay
and shining. There are also coloured
horses that arc called dappled bays.
Bay horses have black manes, which
distinguish them from the sorrel, that
have red or white manes. There are
light bays and gilded bays, which are
somewhat of a yellowish colour. The
chestnut bay is that which comes near-
est to the colour of tfie chestnut.

BAY. A common name for the
laurels, especially Lauras nobilis.
Bay-berry is the Ni/rica cerifera.

BAY OF A BARN. The place
where the mow is stored.

BAY SALT. Salt made by evap-
orating sea water in the sun. The
best is from Turk's Island. It is pre-
ferred for putting up pork and provis-
ions.

BEAGLE. The old hare-hound,
now becoming superseded by the har-
rier.

BEAK. Rostrum, the prolonged or
sharp termination of a fruit.

BEAM. A stout, horizontal tim-
ber used to resist or sustain weight.

BEAM OF A PLOUGH. The up-
per shaft to which the irons are fasten-
ed. It should be of good ash or oak.

BEAM-TREE. Pyrus aria. A
small tree with tough wood.

BEANS. Plants belonging to the
natural family LcgumhioscE. Two
genera are commonly included under
this name, Vtcia and Phascolus, of
w'hich several species and numerous
varieties are cultivated. The genus
Phaseolus produces generally run-
ners, or pole beans, but this depends

BEANS.

Early Mazasjan.
Broad Windsor.
Sword Loner Pod.

much on soil, for the Ph. nanus is a
busli bean. Tlie Vicia faba is the pa-
rent of many varieties known under
the general title of English dwarfs.
English dwarfs : varieties :

I Green Nonpareil.
Horse.
Heligoland.

Of these, all but the last two are
cultivated in the garden, and the
horse and Heligoland in the field.
They are sown as soon as the frost
is out of the ground, for the late
plants are destroyed by heat before
they bear well.

AH the varieties thrive best on
strong clay soils, heavy marls, and
deep loams of a moist description.
In such soils the produce is some-
times 30 to 60 bushels per acre, but
an average crop on moderate land is
about half that quantity. On very
rich land beans have produced extra-
ordinary crops by being sown broad-
cast and very thick, the stems being
brought up to a great height in fa-
vourable seasons. A small field of
very rich land, in the county of Sus-
sex, England, was sown in the year
1832 with four bushels of the small
tick bean, which came up so thick
that the proprietor thought of thin-
ning out the plants by hoeing, but he
was advised to see what the produce
would be. and when they were thrash-
ed out there were eighty-one bushels
of beans. He had the ground accu-
rately measured, and it was found to
be one acre and twenty-nine perches,
which makes the crop above sixty-
eight bushels per acre.

Beans are propagated by seed,
which may be sown broadcast, drill-
ed, or dibbled ; if sown broadcast,
three or four bushels of seed per
acre will be required, which should
be ploughed or harrowed in ; if drill-
ed, two or two and a half per acre
will be sufficient. Beans are tolera-
bly hardy, and will bear moderate
dry frosts, but they suffer much from
alternate frosts and thaws.

The following, from the late Judge
Buel's agricultural tracts, gives all the
necessary information on the culture
and produce of this valuable crop :

" Field Culture, of Beans. — Beans
may be cultivated in drills or in hills.
They are a valuable crop, and with
good care are as profitable as a wheat
crop. They leave the soil in good
tilth. The China bean, with a red
eye, is to be preferred. They ripen
early, and are very productive. I
cultivated beans the last year in three
different ways, viz., in hills, in drills,
and sowed broadcast. I need not
describe the first, which is a well-
known process. I had an acre in
drills, which was the best crop I ever
saw. My management was this : On
the acre of light ground, where the
clover had been frozen out the prece-
ding winter, I spread eight loads of
long manure, and immediately plough-
ed and harrowed the ground. Drills
or furrows v>ere then made with a
light plough, at the distance of two
and a half feet, and the beans thrown
along the furrows about the 25th of
May, by the hand, at the rate of at
least a bushel on the acre. I then
gauged a double mould- board plough,
which was passed once between the
rows, and was followed by a light,
one-horse roller, which flattened the
ridges. The crop was twice cleaned
of weeds by the hoe, but not earthed.
The product was more than forty-eight
bushels by actual measurement."

A sprinkling of three or four bush-
els of gypsum is advantageous.

The beans are collected with a
plain scythe or sickle before they are
fully ripe, but turned yellow. In this
way loss by scattering seed is avoid-
ed. The whole is cured by exposure
in swarth and cock, and made into
light stacks, until the time serves for
thrashing. The beans are obtained
either with the flail, treading out, or
passing through the thrashing ma-
chine, set sufficiently coarse for the
purpose. If the straw, or haulm, be
well cured, it answers as good coarse
Ibod for cattle and pigs during the
winter.

Beans are also raised in Germany
for soiling, and cut during the sum-
mer season when in pod. They are an
exceedingly acceptable food, and may,
by proper management in sowing
77

BEANS.

several lots at difTeicnt times, be kept
in cutting order for three months.
The Heligoland, horse, and English
tick hcaii are the favourites for field
culture.

Value of Beans. — This crop is not
so extensively cultivated as it de-
serves. In common with other legu-
minous crops, it is of advantage in
opening the soil by its long roots, in
absorbing much of its food from the
atmosphere, and leaving the soil in ad-
mirable tilth, iireparatory to a grain or
tobacco crop ; but tlicse good points
are insignificant in comparison with
the great value of beans and pease as
food for horses, sheep, and, indeed,
all animals.

The proportion of nutritive matter
in beans, compared wilh other grain,
is, according to Einhof,

Or in a Bu.-sliel.
about 47 Its.
" 39
" 33
" 23
" 45
" 49
" 54

Not only is there so great a propor-
tion of nutritive matter, but that pres-
ent is remarkably rich in the azotized
or flesh-making ingredients, often as
much as twenty to thirty per cent, of
casein being present in .seeds grown
on a rich soil. Von Thaer, as the
result of his comparative estimate,
obtained by feeding cattle, gives to
field beans a value equal to one third
of rich wheat and two thirds of In-
dian corn or barley. In feeding, it is
best to crush or grind the beans and
pease.

Kidney beans, or French beans
{Phascolus vulgaris). Of the dwarf
kidney, the varieties are

By weight.

Wheat

74 per cent.

Rye

70

Barley-

. 65 "

Oats

. 58

Beans

. 68

Pease

. 75 "

Kidney

beans

. 84

Early China.
Early Cluster.
Early Dun-coloured
Early Half Moon.
Early Mohawk.
Early Rachel.
Early St. Valentine
Early Yellow
Weeks.

Red Cranberry.

Warrington.or Marrow.

Refugee, or Thousand
to One — good fur pick-
ling or laying down in
salt.

Rob Roy.
Six Large While Kidney,
or Royal Dwarf.

The pole, or runners, are varieties
of the Fh. iimeiisis and muliijlorus.
They are
78

Saba, or Carolina. Red Cranberry.

Dutch Case Knife. White Cranberry.

Largo White Lima. White Dutch Run-
Speckled Prolific Lima, ners.
Asparagus, or Yard Scarlet Runners.
Long. London Ilorlicultural.

A choice new variety, under the
name of turtle-soup bean, has been
recently cultivated with great suc-
cess.

Nearly all of these are confined to
tlie garden except the refugee and
C'liina, the cultivation of which last
is similar to that already detailed for
beans. I therefore only introduce
such observations as belong to garden
culture.

The soil for them may be anything
rather than wet or tenacious ; for in
such the greater part of the seed de-
cays without germinating, while those
plants which are produced are con-
tracted in their produce. A very
light mellow loam, even inclining to
a sand, is the best for the earliest
sowings, and one scarcely less sili-
cious, though moister, is preferable
for the late summer crops ; but, for
the later ones, a recurrence must be
made to a soil as dry as for the early
insertions. For the early and late
crops, a sheltered border must al-
ways be allotted, or in a single row
about a foot from a south fence, other-
wise the situation cannot be too open.

Dwarfs. — The sowing commences
with the year. I'hey may be sown
towards the end of January, in pots,
and placed upon the flues of the hot-
house, or in rows in the mould of a
hot-bed, for production in March ; to
be repeated once every three weeks,
in similar situations, during Februa-
ry and March, for supplying the table
during April, May, and June. At the
end of March and April a small sow-
ing may be performed, if fine open
weather, under a frame without heat,
for removal into a sheltered border
early in May. During May, and thence
until the first week in August, sow-
ings may be made once every three
weeks. In September, forcing re-
commences : at first, merely under
frames without bottom heat, but in
October, and thence to the close of
the year, in hot-beds, &c., as in Jan-

BEANS.

uary. Sowings, when a removal is
intended, should always be perform-
ed in pots, the plants being less re-
tarded, as the roots are less injured,
than when the seed is inserted in
patches or rows in the earth of the
bed. It is a good practice, likewise,
to repeat each sowing, in the frames
Without heat, al'ter the lapse of a week,
as tbe first will often fail, when a sec-
ond, although after so short a lapse
of time, will perfectly succeed. In
every instance, the seed is buried one
and a half or two inches deep. The
rows of the main crops, if of the
smaller varieties, may be one and a
half; if of the larger, two feet apart,
the seed being inserted, either in
drills or by the dibble, four inches
apart ; the plants, however, to be
thinned to twice that distance.

If any considerable vacancy occurs,
it may always be filled by plants care-
fully removed by the trowel from
where they stood too thick. A gen-
eral remark, however, may be made,
tliat the transplanted beans are nev-
er so productive or continue so long
in bearing (although sometimes they
are earlier) as those left where rais-
ed. The rows of the earlier crops
ire best ranged north and south. The
seed inserted during the hottest pe-
riod of summer should be either
so iked in water for five or six hours,
htii in damp mould for a day or two,
or the drills be well watered previous
to sowing. The only after-cultiva-
tion required is the destruction of
weeds, and earth to be drawn up
round the stems.

The pods of both species are al-
ways to be gathered while young;
by thus doing, and care being had not
to injure the stems in detaching them,
the plants are rendered as prolific and
long-lived as possible.

Rmuiers. — As these are more ten-
der, and the seed is more apt to de-
cay than those of the dwarfs, no
open ground crop must be inserted
before the close of April, or early in
May, to be continued at iiiter\'als of
four weeks through June and July,
which will ensure a supply from the
middle of this last month untd Oeto-
G2

ber. Some gardeners force them in
a similar manner to the dwarfs ; they
certainly require similar treatment ;
but they will endure a higher temper-
ature by a few degrees. They are so
prolific, and such permanent bearers,
that three open-ground sowings of a
size proportionate to the consump-
tion will, in almost every instance, be
sufficient. ,

The runners are inserted in drills,
either singly, three feet apart, or in
pairs, ten or twelve inches asunder,
and each pair four feet distant from
its neighbour. The seed is buried
two inches deep and four inches apart
in the rows, the plants being thinned
to twice that distance. If grown in
single rows, a row of poles must be
set on the south side of each, being
fixed firmly in the ground ; they may
be kept together by having a light
pole tied horizontally along their tops,
or a post fixed at each end of a row,
united by a cross-bar at their tops ; a
string may be passed from this to
each of the plants. If the rows are
in pairs, a row of poles must be placed
on each side, so fixed in the ground
that their summits cross, and are tied
together. They are sometimes sown
in a single row down the sides of bor-
ders, or on each side of a walk, hav-
ing the su[)port of a trellis-work, or
made to climb poles which are turn-
ed archwise over it.

As the plants advance to five or
six inches in height, they should have
the earth drawn about their stems.
Weeds must be constantly cleared
away as they appear. When they
throw up their voluble stems, those
that straggle away should be brought
back to the poles, and twisted round
them in a direction contrary to that
of the sun : nothing will induce them
to entwine in the contrary direction,
or from left to right.

For the production of seed, forty or
fifty plants of the dwarf species will
be sulficient for a moderate-sized fam-
ily, or thirty of the runner. They
must be raised purposely in May, or
a like number from the crop in that
month may be left ungathered from ;
for the first pods always produce the
79

liKA.XS.

finest seed, and ripen more perfect-
ly. In autumn, as soon as the plants
decay, they must be pulled, and, when
thoroughly dried, the seed beaten out
and stored. — {G. W. Jolmso^i's Kitch-
en Garden.)

The bean, as an esculent vegeta-
ble, is wholesome and nutritious in a
fresh state, and may be readily pre-
served for winter store or sea voy-
ages by salting in casks. For this
purpose, the large, flat-podded, Dutch

white runner is preferred. In Hol-
land and Germany, where large quan-
tities are salted in almost every fam-
ily, a machine is used for cutting them
expeditiously, which greatly resem-
bles a turnip-slicer, and may, with
a slight alteration, be used also for
slicing cabbages when making the
national German preparation of sour
krout (sauer kraut). It consists of a
wheel or disk (see ^^-r^re). A, in which
two or four knives are set at a small

angle with the plane of it, so as to
shave otC a thin slice obliquely from
the beans, which are held in a box, C,
with several partitions, in which they
are kept upright, so as to slide down
in proportion as they are cut : thus
80

six or eight beans are sliced at once,
and very rapidly, merely by turning
the handle, 13, and supplying the box
with beans in succession. A much
more economical means would be to
throw the beans into a hopper hold-

BEA

BEE

ing two or three pecks. The sliced
heans fall on the table below, and are
immediately put in a cask with alter-
nate layers of salt. "When the cask
is full and well pressed down, a board
and heavy weight are placed on them.
As the beans ferment, the liquid pro-
duced is poured off, fresh salt added
to the surface, and a linen cloth press-
ed close to keep out air ; afterward
the top of the cask and its weight are
returned, and the whole kept for use.
They are washed in fresh water wlien
used, and form a wholesome vegeta-
ble dish in winter.

BEAXS, DISEASES OF. The dis-
eases are the rust, or mildew, which
is a minute fungus that grows on the
stems of leaves, attributed to cold
fogs and frequent sudden transitions
of weather, and the black dolphin or
fly, also called the collier, an aphis of
a bluish colour : it is devoured by
lady-birds {Coccinella septctnpunctata,
and other species). For the mildew
no remedy has yet been found. "When-
ever it has attacked the plants, gen-
erally before the^ods are filled, the
best method is to cut dou-n the crop
in its green state ; and if it cannot be
consumed in the farm-yard, to plough
it into the ground, where it will de-
cay rapidly, and be an excellent ma-
nure for the succeeding crop of wheat.
If allowed to stand, the crop will not
only be unproductive, but the weeds
will infest the ground, and spoil the
wheat crop by their seeds and roots,
which will remain in the soil. When-
ever the tops of the beans begin to be
moist and clammy to the feel, it is
the forerunner of the aphis. They
should then be immediately cut off,
and this, if done in time, may save
the crop from the ravages of the in-
sects ; but the most eflectuai way to
prevent any disease from attacking
the plants in their growth is to have
the ground in good heart, and well
tilled ; to drill the beans at a suffi-
cient distance between the rows to
allow the use of the horse-hoe, and
thus to accelerate the growth of the
plants, and enable them to outgrow
the effect of incipient disease, which
seldom attacks any but weak plants.

BEANS, SOUTHERN. Several
varieties are cultivated in Virginia,
Georgia, and Southern States, under
the name of pease, as cow pea, corn-
field pea, Indian pea, <Scc. They are
hardy, grow on stiff lands, and ame-
liorate their condition ; planted with
corn, they twine about the stem with-
out hinderance to it. On rich soils
they run too much to leaf; but in
poorish clay may be cultivated as a
field-crop without support, if in a
well-drained situation. The yield is
large, and the bean agreeable to
horses and all animals. The green
plant is occasionally turned in as a
fallow crop.

BEAR BERRY. The Arctostaph-
yhis {arbutus) uva ursi. A small ever-
green shrub of northern America and
Canada, used as an astringent and
tonic.

BEARD. The awn of barley, &c.

BEARER. In building, any upright
which supnorts timbers.

BEAR'S FOOT. The hellebore.

BEASTS. In farming, neat cattle.

BEDS. In geology, seams of stra-
ta, as coal beds.

BED STRAW. The Galium ve-
rum, yellow goose-grass, a perennial
weed, the juice of which is acid, and
sometimes used to curdle milk in the
place of rennet.

BEECH. Fagus sylvatica, var.
Americana, white beech, and F.ferru-
ginea, red beech, are handsome Amer-
ican trees, especially the latter, which
is the larger, and more like the Euro-
pean tree. The wood is firm, but li-
able to insects ; the bark yields suffi-
cient tan for leather ; but the mast,
or nut, is the most valuable, from the
excellent oil it contains, which is ex-
pressed in Europe for table use. Hogs
fatten more rapidly upon beech mast
than any other common food ; the fat
is, however, oily. The beech prefers
rich alluvial soils, and yields a large
amount of potash in its ashes. The
timber cut in the sap is said to be the
most durable.

BEER. The fermented infusion

of malt, flavoured with hops. But

other sweet infusions, treated in the

same way, or without hops, are also

81

DEES.

termed beers, as persimmon bP(»r,sas- I and industry. Natural History.—
safras liquorice, and sarsaparilla root There arc three orders of bees in
5egr. ' each hive ; the queen (u), drone (i),

BEES. Avis mcllifica. A familiar j and labourint^ bee (c) ; there is but
insect, much admired for its instinct ! one queen, distinguished by a longer

body and greater size than all the
other inhabitants ; she is the only fe-
male in the hive, and is, therefore,
watched with great interest by the
others, who attend her in her duties,
and live only in peace while assured
of her presence. The drones are the
males : they are larger and nearer
spherical than the labourers, and
without stings. After their duty is
performed in autumn, the drones arc
expelled from the hive by the labour-
ers, and killed or driven abroad to die.
There are from 300 to 1000 drones in
the hive. The labourers form the
rest of the inhabitants, and vary in
number from 5000 to 20,000. They
are smaller than the rest, armed with
a sting, and neuter in sex, or, more
correctly, they are females in which
the ovaries are undeveloped. The
neuters divide themselves in compa-
nies to carry on the business of the
hive ; some collecting honey, others
building the comb, and another body
nursing the young. The bees which
go abroad seek for three distinct kinds
of matter, viz. : honey, farina or bee
meat, and propolis. The first, which
also contains more or less wax, is
obtained from flowers, and in part
converted into wax by the insect it-
self The farina is stored up in cells
as food for the young, and is of a
whitish colour, altogether differing
from hone*'; propolis is a resinou*
8«t

exudation gathered from difTerent
trees, as the black gum, wherewith
the bee closes crevices in the hive
and stops the cells of the young. As
soon as flowers begin to expand, the
labourers and queen bee are aroused
from the lethargy of winter and re-
commence the labours of the hive.
The queen lays about 50 eggs a day,
for six or eight weeks : these are all
neuters. Having finished this depos-
ite, she then lays the eggs of drones,
and lastly, those for queens. At this
season she produces but one egg a
day ; the number of queen eggs va-
ries from 3 to 20 ; they are deposited
in large conical cells called royal
cells. The working community in
the mean time introduce food into
each cell, taking care to furnish the
future queens with regal fare, differ-
ent from that of the neuters. In
three days the eggs are hatched and
produce a worm, which feeds upon
the bee bread stored- in its cell, and
at the end of a few days spins itself
a web and enters upon a series of
transformations, ending, in 21 days
from the deposite of the egg, in the
production of a young bee ; this eats
its way through the propolis that clo-
ses its cell, and is nourished by the
nursing bees until it is strong enough
to enter on the labours of the hive.
In due time tiie queen eggs are con-
1 Ttftd into bees. As soon as the

BEES.

old queen perceives evidence of this,
she becomes uneasy, and communi-
cates her apprehension to tiie neu-
ters, many of which share in her
anxiety : thus she collects many faith-
ful followers, and leaves the hive,
carrying ofT the Jirst swarm, which is
always led by the old queen. The
first young queen now comes forth,
and quickly discovers the cells of her
sisters, which she attempts to de-
stroy, but is hindered by the bees ;
whereon she runs to and fro among
the hive and succeeds in carrying off
another swarm. After this, the next
queen usually succeeds in destroying
her rivals, and remains in the old hive.
The first swarm may be known by
the presence of drones in June, soon-
er or later, according to the season.
This is the swarming season, and
measures are now to be taken to re-
cover the bees and form new hives.
The two swarms come out at in-
tervals of a few days ; occasionally
there are more, but they are not suf-
ficiently numerous to form a new
hive, and should be returned. The
bees come out in large numbers, and
make their way to an adjoining bush
or tree, where they accumulate in a
dense cluster, usually on one branch.
The loaded brancli is now to be care-
fully cut without disturbance, and the
whole swarm laid upon a white cloth,
or a table, on the ground, and a hive
inverted over tlie bees ; if everything
is favourable, the swarm enters the
new hive, and may be removed in a
few hours to the stands ; but this is
not always the case, for should there
be more than one queen present, the
swarm is kept in great turmoil, and
battles ensue until the number is re-
duced to one ; but in these conflicts it
sometimes occurs that all the queens
are killed, and the young swarm re-
turns to the parent hive to wait for a
new sovereign. The skUful apiarian,
therefore, always takes care, before
hiving a s%varm, that the queen is
present, and only one, removing ev-
ery other and putting her to death
instantly. In the swarming season,
certain ancient practices prevail, of
beating iron pans, shouting, blowmg

trumpets, and throwing sand into the
air, intended as a means of frighten-
ing the bees and hindering thern from
flying too far from the hive ground ;
but it is unnecessary if sufficient
shrubs be in the neighbourhood. The
hive in which the new swarm is re-
ceived should be provided with cross
sticks in the upper part, to afford
them a starting point for their archi-
tecture ; it should be without chinks
or crevices, lor these have to be fill-
ed by the colony with propolis, and
cause a waste of time ; moreover, to
give them a fair start, they should be
fed with sirup for a few days. The
labourers begin at the roof with their
comb, arranging a number of different
parallel structures in the direction
marked out by the sticks introduced.
The cells have an hexagonal section
and are prismatic in form, so arran-
ged as to admit of the introduction of
honey until full, when they are sealed
with wax: in the lower division of
the hive, the cells for eggs are arran-
ged ; these are filled with the farina,
or bee bread. About August, the
bees of the preceding year die, the
drones are expelled, and the hive is
fully under the control of the new
generation ; honey is stored as long
as flowers are abundant, and where
buckwheat and clover abound this
takes place into October. As soon,
however, as flowers become scarce,
the colony begins to consume its own
sweets, and should be supplied with
sirnp. The position of the apiary
should be sheltered from the great
heat of the day, and rapid alternations
of temperature ; they love plenty of
free air, but should not be liable to
chilly winds. In the winter they
should be removed to a dry cellar,
lest, being tempted by an occasional
gleam of sunshine, they leave the
hive and suffer death. The temper-
ature should be above the freezing
point. As then they require less food
to sustain life, it is advisable, also, to
keep the hives covered with straw,
&e., provided always there be a free
drangiit of air, for an entire colony is
frequently suffocated by stopping up
the door of tlie hive. The hivea
83

BEES

should not be taken out until the
wealher is becoming settled and flow-
ers are expanded.

The quality of the honey made de-
pends upon tlic food supplied. Many
plants are reputed to yield poisonous
honey, as the dwarf and great laurel
{Kalmia anguftlifoHa and latifolia), the
mountain laurel {Rhododendron 7naxi-
mus), the moor wort {Andromeda ma-
riana), wild honeysuckle {Azalea niidi-
flora), Jamestown weed {Datura stra-
monium), &c.

Fruit-trees, the linden, tulip-tree ;
varieties of clover, especially white
clover; aromatic herbs, as thyme,
mint, and marjoram ; turnip, mustard,
and cabbage blossoms, are extremely
grateful ; buckwheat imparts a harsh
taste. Water is also relished by these
insects, so that they prefer a position
near a limpid rill. It is also advised
by some to place a vessel of water
near their hive, into which floating
sticks should be introduced to serve
them as standing places to drink from.

The quantity of honey varies with
the season and the size of the swarm.
Thirty pounds is a good yield where
the bees are not destroyed ; of this,
from a pound to a pound and a half
will be wax.

The honey is removed with or with-
out the destruction of the insects;
the latter method is accomplished by
suffocating the colony with the fumes
of burning sulphur, but is rarely prac-
tised in the United States, and is,
moreover, without economy.

Partial deprivation with tiie com-
mon barrel hive is performed about
the beginning of September. Having
ascertained the weight of the hive,
and, consequently, the quantity of
honey-comb which is to be extracted,
begin the operation as soon as even-
ing sets in, by inverting the full hive
and placing an empty one over it ;
particular care must be taken that
the two hives are of the same diam-
eter, for if they difler in their dimen-
sions it will not be possible to effect
the driving of the bees. The hives
being placed on each other, a sheet
or large table-cloth must be tied round
them at their junction, in order to
84

prevent the bees from molesting the
operator. The hives being thus ar-
ranged, beat the sides gently with a
stick or the hand ; but particu.ar cau-
tion must be used to beat it on those
parts to which the combs are attach-
ed, and which will be found parallel
with the entrance of the hive. Tlie
ascent of the bees into the upper hive
will be known by a loud humming
noise ; in a few minutes the whole
community will have ascended, and
the hive with the bees in it may be
placed upon the pedestal from which
the full hive was removed. The hive
from which the bees have been driven
must then be taken into the house,
and the operation of cutting out the
honey-comb commenced. Having ex-
tracted the requisite quantity of comb,
this opportunity must be embraced of
inspecting the hive, and of cleaning it
of any noxious matter. In cuttmg
the combs, however, particular atten-
tion should be paid not to cut into two
or three combs at once, but, having
commenced the cutting of one, to pur-
sue it to the top of the hive ; and this
caution is necessary for two reasons :
if you begin the cutting of two or
three combs at one time, were you
to abstract the whole of them, you
would, perhaps, take too much ; and,
secondly, to stop in the middle of a
comb would be attended with very
pernicious consequences, as the hon-
ey would drop from the cells which
have been cut in two, and then the
bees, on being returned to their native
hive, might be drowned in their own
sweets. The bees, also, in their re-
turn to their natural domicil, being
still under the impression of fear,
would not give so much attention to
the honey which flows from the divi-
ded cells ; and, as it would fall on the
board, and from that on the ground,
the bees belonging to the other hives
would immediately scent the wasted
treasure, and a general attack on the
deprivated hive might be the conse-
quence. The deprivation of the hon-
ey-comb being effected, the hive may
be returned to its former position,
and, reversing the hive which con-
tains the bees, and placing the depri-

BEE

vated hive over it, they may be left
in that situation till morning, when
the bees will be found to have taken
possession of their native hive, and,
if the season proves tine, may replen-
ish what they have lost.

BEES, DISEASES OF. In the
spring they are subject to a dysen-
tery, known by the abundance of ref-
use, and an odour of putrefaction
within the hive, which should smell
like wax. It is said that a little bran
dy added to their sirup food cures
this complaint. They are also at-
tacked by a louse, which makes them
irritable, but which may be removed
from their bodies by brushing them
with the feather of a pen.

BEE HIVE. The dwelling of
the bees. The simplest form is a
small barrel of four gallons, or the
hollowed part of the trunk of a tree.
or a thimble of rye straw holding
about three pecks, and of a conical
figure. Whatever the structure, it
should be tight, solid, and dry, and so
arranged as to admit of inspection.
There is no subject on which so much
ingenuity has been expended as the
construction of beehives, the object
being the separation of honey with-
out disturbance to the labourers. The
annexed is as good as any of these
improved hives, as it has the follow-
ing recommendations: 1st. It is ca-
pable of enlargement or contraction ;
2d. May be opened without disturb-
ance, for cleaning, taking honey, &c.
It is known as the section hive, and
consists of two, three, four, or more
trays of similar size, fitting one above
the other, as C C D {Fig. 1). These
trays may be fourteen inches square
and five deep (Fig. 2), the uppermost
being provided with a cover to keep
off rain. Through the bottom of each
tray or box, slits, or holes about three
fourths of an inch large, are perfora-
ted, the number being such that the
bees may pass readily into an upper
compartment to manufacture. The
apertures, C C, repre.sent doors for
the bees, as well as windows through
which to examine their work, and
should be covered when not used. D
is the entrance first used, until the
IT

BEE

bees are settled in the upper divis-
ions. The compartments are fasten-
ed together temporarily by buttons,
and should be made tight by cement
or coarse wax. To use this hive, the
doors are all closed but the lower-
most, into which the bees enter ; they
ascend from tray to tray, until they
reach the uppermost, and here begin
their work upon sticks properly pla-
ced ; or, instead of making this divis-
ion open, there are placed over the
chinks jars, small boxes, or other re-
ceptacles, into which the honey is to
be collected : the bees work in these
As soon as they are engaged, an upper
door can be opened for their accom-
modation, and the progress of the
work can be watched through proper
openings of glass, and byremoviPEf the
top. As soon as these boxes are filled,
they can be taken out by passing a
sharp knife between the lowest edge
85

BEE

Biid the bottom of the division. The
hccs arc now occupit'd in the com-
partment brhiw, and, should the sea-
son be propitious, may also fill that
with honey. Under tiiese circum-
stances, it will be advisable to lift up
the hive, after closing the doors, and
add another tray beneath. If this
hive be sufficiently enlarged in spring,
the young bees can be prevented from
swarming, or the fresh swarm can
be separated with the upper divisif)ns,
and carried to a new stand. The
hive should be kept perfectly clean,
and free from insects, and every crev-
ice tight.

BEES, INSECTS THAT INJURE.
They are troubled with a louse (Brau-
la ccera) of the size of a flea, and re-
sembling the Hippobosca. These pro-
duce great uneasiness. They may be
removed by brushing a feather over
the bees infested. The most impor-
tant enemy is, however, the Miller,
or Honey-comb Moth (Galleria cereana),
the caterpillar of which, of a dirty
white colour {Fig. 1) and brown head,
Fig. 1.

Caterpillar on a piece of lionej-comb.

eats the honey-comb. The caterpillar
grows to twelve lines' length, protects
itself from the stings of the bees by a
tubular web, and eats only at night.
It is changed to a brown grub in ten
to twenty-eight day^, and the moth in
fourteen more days, two generations
occurring in the year. One moth
appears in the spring, the other gen-
eration in July. The male {Fig. 2) is
Bnialler than the female {Fig.'i); he

BEE
Fig. 3.

is of a clay yellow above, and yellow-
ish brown on the abdomen ; the col-
our of the upper wings ash-gray ; the
under wings lighter, and of a brown-
ish tint. The female has a rusty
brown back and head ; the under
wings almost white ; she lays her
eggs in the dirt, at the lower part of
the hive, and in chinks, from whence
the young crawl into the hive. The
miller and its caterpillars are to be de-
stroyed by repeatedly inspecting the
hives in spring, and clearing them
out. Hives are also constructed with
inclined or wire gauze bottoms, from
which all the feculent matters of
the bees fall, so that the miller can-
not lay her eggs ; for she will not ven-
ture within the hive. Ants, spiders,
and wasps are also very destructive
to hives.

BEE-STING. The bee leaves its
sting in the wound. It should be ex-
tracted, and the part rubbed with soap
and a little dilute spirit of hartshorn
(ammonia).

BEET. A plant of the genus Beta,
in the natural order Chenopodea of
Jussieu.

There are two distinct species of
beet commonly cultivated, each con-
taining several varieties ; the one call-
ed Beta cicia or hortensis, producing
succulent leaves only ; the other, the
Beta vulgaris, distinguished by its
large root. The cicla is chiefly cul-
tivated in gardens as a culinary ve-
getable, and forms one of the princi-
pal vegetaides used by agricullural la-
bourers and small occupiers of land in
many parts of Germany. France, and
Switzerland. A variety known by the
name of Swiss chard i)r()duccs numer-
ous large, succulent leaves, which
have a very solid rib running along
the middle. The leafy part, being
stripped off and boiled, is used as a
substitute for greens and spinach, and

86

BEET

the rib and stalk are dressed like as-
paragus ; they have a pleasant, sweet
taste, and arc more wholesome than
the cabbage tribe. In a good soil the
produce is very abundant ; and if cul-
tivated on a large scale in the field,
this species of beet would prove a val-
uable addition to the plants raised for
cattle.

The second species, the Beta vul-
garis, or beet-root, has been long cul-
tivated in gardens, especially that va-
riety called the red beet. It thrives
best in a rich, light, dry soil, and, from
the length of its tap-root, requires a
considerable depth. The white beet
is an excellent root, and is preferred
by many to the larger and more com-
mon intermediate varieties. It has
been lately in great repute in France
and Belgmm for the manufacture of
sugar.

The common field beet for cattle
has been long known in Germany.
The German name is mangold u-urzcl,
or mangold root, but it is commonly
pronounced mangel icurzcl.

The improved variety of this beet,
which grows to a very large size in
good soil, has a red skin, and, when
cut through, appears veined with red
in concentric circles. The principal
part of the root rises often a foot !
and more above the ground, and the
leaves, which are large and succulent,
spring from the crown of the root.
There is a limit, however, beyond
which the root does not improve in
quality as it increases, and the roots
of a moderate size contain more sac-
charine and nutritive matter in the
same bulk than the larger. This is
particularly the case with those vari-
eties from which sugar is extracted.
The soil best adapted for the beet-
root is a deep, sandy loam, naturally
rich. The application of liquid ma-
nure during the growth of the plant
greatly increases the roots ; but it is
also said to make them more watery,
and for the sugar beet it is not recom-
mended. It has been clearly demon-
strated that azotized manures dimm-
ish the sugar of beets. The seed,
which should be ch(jsen from the
most perfect plants, is sown ia May,

at four to five pounds the acre ; it
should be steeped three or more days
in water before planting. It is found
by experience that those plants of
beet which grow from seed sown
where they are to remain have larger
roots, in general, than those which
are transplanted ; the seed is there-
fore usually drilled, or dibbled, in
rows, from twenty-four to thirty inch-
es distant ; the seeds are put in about
an inch deep, and when they are dib-
bled the holes are about four inches
asunder, and two or three seeds are
put in a hole. After they come up
and are out of danger of frost or in-
sects, they are thinned out so as to
leave the plants a foot asunder. If
the ground be well prepared there is
little fear of the plants not coming up,
or of their being destroyed by the fly,
as is too often the case with turnips.
A sprinkling of liquid manure along
the rows, about the time that the
plants first appear above ground, will,
in general, secure an abundance of
them ; and this may be done with
much less trouble than would be im-
agined by those who have never prac-
tised it. It requires only a water-cart,
with a large cask and two leathern
hose, kept at a proper distance from
each other by a stick between them,
so that they may pour the liquid ma-
nure over two rows at once. If the
field be not above a mile from the
tank, a man and horse will water two
acres in a day ; and if the distance is
half a mile, four acres ; the expense
will be amply repaid in the crop.

On a very large scale this may not
be so practicable ; but wherever a
field of beets is nqar the home-stall, it
should never be omitted ; the evident
advantage of it will soon remove any
objection arising from trouble or ex-
pense. When the plants are three
inches above ground, and thinned,
tiie intervals between the rows may
be stirred with the plough, grubber,
or horse-hoe, and the intervals from
plant to plant in the row with the
hand-hoe. The ground cannot be
kept too fine and open, provided the
soil be not extremely porous, and the
weather very dry. It is a common
87

BEET.

practice to throw the earth from the
rows against tlie roots ; but the most
experienced cuUivaiors do not ap-
prove the method ; on the contrary,
they recommend drawing the earth
from the plants, or at least laying the
whole ground level, ^\'here the soil
is naturally rich and deep, the drills
may be made on the level ground ;
but if the sod is shallow, or the sub-
soil of a barren nature, it is best to
raise small ridges, as is done for tur-
nips, and bury the dung under them,
by which means the roots have more
room to strike downward. As soon
as the outer leaves begin to droop,
they may be gathered and given to
cattle, but a tuft should be left in the
centre to carry on the vegetation, or
else the roots will not increase. This
practice of gathering the leaves is
strongly recommended by some, and
they assert that the root does not suf-
fer in the least, although the leaves
are reproduced ; but here we would
give this caution, founded on experi-
ence and observation. The drooping
leaves, if not gathered, will decay and
fall off; they have performed their
office, and therefore to gather them
before they wither is a real economy ;
but to strip off fresh and growing
leaves must injure the plant, and the
juices required to replace them are so
much taken from the growth of the
roots. "When fodder is very scarce,
this may be a sacrifice worth making ;
but if the object is to reserve the roots
for winter food, the leaves should re-
main on the plant as long as they look
fresh and growing, until near the time
of taking uj) the whole crop ; the top
may then be cut off an inch above the
crown of the root, and will be excel-
lent food for the cows and pigs.

The roots are generally taken up
and stored for winter some time be-
fore there is any danger of consider-
able frost, the top having been remo-
ved. The roots are then either stack-
ed in a barn or root-house, with al-
ternate layers of straw, and the sides
and top protected from the frost by
straw placed all round, in which way
they wdl keep well and fresh till
spring ; or they are placed in trench-
88

es two feet deep and six feet wide,
with a layer of straw at the bottom
and against the sides : they are heap-
ed up in these trenches to the height
of three feel above the ground, form-
ing a ridge at top, and then covered
all over with straw, over which the
earth taken out of the trench is spread
and made smooth, sloping like the
roof of a house. A small trench is
dug all round this heap, with a prop-
er outlet to prevent, any water from
soaking in; the heaps. are made of
any length, according to the quantity
of roots to be stored, and the two ends
are secured with straw and covered
with earth like the sides. When it
is required to take out the roots for
use, an opening is made at the end,
a sufficient quantity is taken out, and
the end is secured again with straw
and earth as before. When the roots
have been put in dry, and some time
has been allowed for a slight fermen-
tation, and the steam produced has
been allowed to escape before the
heap was finally covered in, they will
come out quite fresh and juicy till late
in spring ; but if the proper precau-
tions are neglected, they will often rot
or become musty, and then the cattle
will not readily eat them. There are
few crops so valuable for winter food
for cattle as the beet.

" Expense of an Acre of Sugar Beets.
Use of an acre of land well prepared for
beets, and manured or managed in the

previous crop $12 00

Ploutjhing 4 00

Cnliivating, horse cultivator and hand,

2 hours 50

Twice more before sowing . . . 1 GO
Seed, S2 25 ; sowing with a machine,

73 cents 3 00

First hoeing 4 00

Second hoeing, thinniug, and transplant-
ing, to supply deficiencies . . 4 90
Ilneing again, and loosening the ground

with machines . . . . . 2 00
Harvesting 9 00

$39 50

" Make the rows two feet four inch-
es apart, and then a cultivator can be
used in hoeing. If the beets stand one
foot apart in the rows, and weigh two
and a quarter pounds each, the yield
will be twenty tons. In rich ground,
at that distance, a great number will

BEE

BEE

weigh loar or five pounds each ; twen-
ty tons is a good crop, probably a large
crop, but not extremely large, for in
some cases twenty-five or thirty tons
to the acre have been raised in this
country. At the above expense of
$39 50 to the acre, with a yield of
twenty tons, the cost would be two
dollars per ton. We make this esti-
mate to show how cheap beets may
be raised under favourable circum-
stances, such as good land at a fair
price, convenient machinery and im-
plements, and the most prudential
management in the culture, with la-
bour at a moderate price, and a fa-
vourable season." — ( Cultivator.)

It is said that cows fed entirely
on beets become too fat, and give
less milk ; but this would be no objec-
tion with the cow-keepers, who unite
the fattening of their cows with the
milking, and like to have tliem ready
for the butcher as soon as they are
nearly dry. For bullocks they are
excellent : for horses, Swedish tur-
nips are preferable. The proportion-
al value of hay, potatoes, Swedish tur-
nips, and beets, in feeding cattle, ac-
cording to Einhof, whose statements
Tnaer has found to agree with his ex-
periments, is as follows : 18 tons of
mangel wurzel are equal to 15 tons
of ruta baga, or 7\ tons of potatoes,
or 3| tons of good meadow hay, each
quantity containing the same nourish-
ment ; but the roots may be grown
upon less than an acre, whereas it
will take two or three acres of good
meadow land to produce the equiva-
lent quantity of hay ; and of all these
root crops, the least exhausting for
the land is the beet. The white beet
has been chiefly cultivated for the ex-
traction of sugar from its juice. It
is smaller than the mangel wurzel,
and more compact. We have given
it to cattle, and are satisfied with the
result ; but we have not made suffi-
ciently accurate experiments to de-
cide which sort is the most advanta-
geous. The crops vary from GOO to
1200 bushels. The beet, especially
the white Sicilian, is better than man-
gel wurzel. They are improved l)y
steaming, but must be fed up in two
H 2

or three days, or they ferment. Seed
plants are set out in May and gatlier-
ed in September. It will probably be
found that the nature of the soil will
make the scale turn in favour of the
one or the other ; but for the manu-
facture of sugar, the smaller beet, of
which the roots weigh only one or
two pounds, are preferred by Chap-
tal, who, besides being a celebrated
chemist, was also a practical agricul-
turist, and a manufacturer of sugar
from beet root.

BEET SUGAR. This manufac-
ture sprung up in France, it having
been found that from the juice of the
beet root a crystallizable sugar could
be obtained. We here give a brief
account of the process : The first op-
eration is to clean the roots ; some
effect this by washing, but Chaptal
prefers scraping and paring them
with a knife, although by this means
one sixth part of the root is wasted,
as the scrapings mixed with earth
cannot be safely given to cattle, and
even the pigs eat but little of it ; but
it adds to the manure, and is there-
fore not altogether lost. Six tons of
beet root are thus reduced to five,
which are next to be rasped and re-
duced to a pulp. This is done by a
machine consisting of a cylinder of
tinned iron, two feet in diameter, and
eighteen inches in the axis, on which
it is turned by machinery. On the
circumference of this cylinder are
fixed, by means of screws, ninety
narrow plates of iron, rising three
fourths of an inch from the surface
and parallel to the axis, at equal dis-
tances all round ; the outer or pro-
jecting edges of these plates are cut
into teeth like a saw ; a slanting bo.x
is fixed to the frame on which the
axis of the cylinder turns, so that the
roots may be pressed against these
plates. The cylinder is made to re-
volve rapidly, and the roots are thus
scraped, the pulp falling into a vessel,
lined with lead, placed below. When
two such cylinders are made to re-
volve 400 times in a minute by a suf-
ficient power, whether water, wind,
or horses, two and a half tons of roots
are ground down in two hours. It is
80

BEET SUGAR.

necessary that this operation should
proceed rapidly, or else iht; pulp ac-
quires a dark colour, and an incipient
fermentation takes place, which great-
ly injures tlio future results. As the
pulp is ground it is put into strong
canvass bags, and placed under a
powerful press to squeeze out the
juice. The residue is stirred, and
subjected to a second and third jjress-
ure, if necessary, till every particle
of juice is extracted. As the liquor
is pressed out it runs into a copper
until it is two thirds filled. The
strength is ascertained by Bauine,
which shows the specific gravity of
the liquid. The fire is now lighted,
and, by the time the copper is full,
the heat should be raised to 178° of
Fahrenheit's thermometer, but no
higher.

in the mean time, a mixture of lime
and water has been prepared by grad-
ually pouring as much water upon 10
pounds of quicklime as will make the
mixture of the consistency of cream.
This is poured into the copper when
the heat is steadily at 178^, and is
well mixed with the juice by stirring
it. The heat is then increased till
the mixture boils, when a thick and
glutinous scum rises to the surface.
As soon as clear bubbles rise through
this scum, the fire is suddenly put out
by water poured on it, or by a proper
damper. The scum hardens as it
cools, and the sediment being depos-
ited, the liquor becomes clear and of
a light straw colour. The scum is
then carefully taken off with a skim-
mer having holes in it, and is put into
a vessel till such time as the liquor
remaining in it can be pressed out.
A cock is now opened about five inch-
es above the bottom of the boiler,
and all the clear liquor is drawn off.
Another cock lower down lets out the
remainder until it begins to appear
cloudy : what still remains is after-
ward boiled again with what is ex-
tracted by pressure from the scum.
The clear liquor is now subjected to
evaporation in another boiler, which
IS wide and shallow. The bottom is
^ut slightly covered with the juice at
(^rst, and it boils rapidly. As the wa-
90

tor evaporates, fresh juice is let in.
When a certain degree of inspissa-
tion or thickening has taken place, so
as to show five or six degrees of
strength on Baumo, animal charcoal
is gradually added till the liquor ar-
rives at 20 \ One hundred weight of
charcoal is required for the juice of
two and a half tons of beet, which is
now reduced to about 400 gallons.
The evaporation by boiling continues
till the saccharometer marks 2.5 ■-, and
a regular sirup is obtained. This is
now strained through a linen bag,
and the liquor is kept flowing by
means of steam or hot air, and assist-
ed by pressure. In two or three hours
all the clear sirup will have run
through.

The sirup thus prepared is again
boiled and skimmed until it is suffi-
ciently concentrated, which is known
in the following manner : The skim-
mer is dipped into the sirup and drawn
out ; some of the thick sirup which
adheres to it is taken between the
thumb and forefinger, and held there
till the heat is reduced to that of the
skin ; the finger and thumb are sep-
arated, and if the sirup is of a proper
strength, a thread will be drawn out,
which snaps, and has the transparen-
cy of horn, or, rather, barley sugar :
this is called the proof. The fire is
then put out and the sirup is carried
to the cooler, which is a vessel ca-
pable of containing all the sirup pro-
duced by four operations or boilings.
Here the sugar is to crystallize ; as
soon as this commences, the whole is
well mixed and stirred, and, before
it becomes too still", earthen moulds,
of the well-known sugar-loaf shape,
and of the size called great banlards,
are filled with the crystallizing mass,
of which a little at a time is poured
into each. When they are full, they
are carried to the coolest place on
the premises. As the crystallization
goes on, the crust formed on the top
is repeatedly broken, and the whole
is stirred till the crystals are collected
in the centre : it is then allowed to go
on without farther disturbance, in
three days it is so far advanced, that
the pegs which were put into the

BEE

BEN

holes at the point of the moulds may
be removed and the molasses al-
lowed to run out. In a week this is
mostly ran off White sirup is now
pull red on the top of the moulds,
wlitch filters through the mass and
carries part of the colouring matter
with it. The process that follows is
exactly that in common use in refi- ;
ning West India sugars. .

Although most of the operations
are nearly the same as those by which
the juice of the sugar cane is pre-
pared for use, much greater skill and
nicety are required in rendering the
juice of the beet root crystallizable,
on account of the smaller quantity ;
of sugar that it contains. But when
this sugar is refined, it is impossible :
for the most experienced judge to
distinguish it from the other either
by the taste or appearance. Five
tons of clean roots produce about 4ir
cwt. of coarse sugar, which give
about 160 lbs. of double-retined su- i
gar, and 60 lbs. of inferior lump sugar :
the rest is molasses. The dry resi- ,
due of the roots, after expressing the
juice, consists chiefly of fibre and mu-
cilage, and amounts to about one
fourth of the weight of the clean roots
used. It contains nearly all the nu-
tritive part of the root, with the ex-
ception of 4^ per cent, of sugar, which
has been extracted from the juice. |
Two pounds of this dry residue and
half a pound of good hay are consid-
ered as sufficient food for a moderate-
sized sheep for a day, and will keep
it in good condition, and cattle in
proportion. |

By allowing the juice of the beet
root to undergo the vinous fermenta- .
tion, and by distilling it, a more prof-
itable result will be obtained in a very '
good spirit. A kmd of beer may also
be made of it, which is said to be
pleasant in warm weather and whole-
some. !

Another mode of making sugar
from beet root, practised in some
parts of Germany, is as follows, and
is said to make better sugar than the
other process. The roots, having
oeen washed, are sliced lengthways,
Btrung on packthread, and hung up

to dry. The object of this is to let
the watery juice evaporate, and the
sweet juice, being concentrated, is
taken up by macerating the dry sli-
ces in water. It is managed so that
all the juice shall be extracted by a
very small quantity of water, which
saves much of the trouble of evapo-
ration. Professor Lanipadius obtain-
ed from 1 10 pounds of roots 4 pounds
of well-grained white powder sugar,
and the residuum afforded 7 pints of
spirit. Achard says that about a ton
of roots produced 100 pounds of raw
sugar, which gave 55 pounds of re-
fined sugar and 25 pounds of treacle.
This result is not very different from
that of Chaptal.

The manufacture of beet sugar in
the United States cannot be made
profitable, but may be useful in fami-
lies, as the remaining mush is so val-
uable for cattle and pigs. They may
be cultivated between 39 and 44 de-
grees north advantageously.

BEETLE. A common term used
to designate the larger CoUoptcra,
with hard wing cases. See Insects.

BEETLE. A large mallet used to
drive stakes, &c. ; it is furnished
with two or more handles, so as to
be driven by several persons.

BELLADONNA. The deadly night
shade, Atropa belladonna.

BELT. Trees arranged for shel-
ter. Belting in the West is the prac-
tice of chopping away the bark of a
tree around the stem to the extent of
some inches. The wound should
pass freely into the sap wood, other-
wise the tree will not be killed.

BELVIDERE. A small place at
the top of a house for a lookout.

BEN NUTS. The seeds of an
Arabian plant called Moringa aptera ;
they yield an oil called oil of ben,
and have been employed m syphilitic
diseases.

BEN, OIL OF. The expressed
oil of the nut of the Moringa aptera.
This oil is remarkable for not becom-
ing rancid by age ; and as it is per-
fectly insipid and inodorous, it is used
for extracting the fragrance of cer-
tain flowers, such as jessamin, or-
ange, &.C. The same tree furnishes
91

BEN

BET

the Lignum ncphriticum, supposed to
be useful in certain affections of the
kidneys.

BENE. The Sesasum orientale.

An annual plant of the family Big-
noniacccB. It is successfully cultiva-
ted south of Pennsylvania. The seeds
abound in oil, which is readily ex-
pressed. They are very nutritious,
and eaten by the Italians roasted,
boiled, and made into flour resem-
bling buckwheat. The oil is good,
and may be substituted for common
olive oil. The seed is sown in drills
three or four feet apart, in April. The
plant grows like cotton, and attains
the height of four or tive feet, bearing
numerous seed-vessels, full of the
small seed, which is not larger than
flaxseed. The crop ripens gradually,
and is taken in September; 15 to 20
bushels are given per acre, from which
40 to 50 gallons of oil maybe obtain-
ed. The oil may be sold for 81 to
$1 25 the gallon. Negroes are fond
of the seeds in any form. The ex-
pressed oil-cake would be admirable
food for fattening boss and cattle.

BENOT. A double mould-board
plough.

BENT GRASS. The genus Je'os-
tis, the stem of which is much bent,
and inclined to become creeping and
subterranean. Creeping grasses are
best exterminated from arable lands
by heavy liming and the introduction
of two or three crops of corn, or such
other plants as are frequently tilled, i

9i

BENTS. Withered grass stems
remaining in the pasture after the
seeds have dropped.

BENZAMIDE. A compound of
benzoyl and amidogene.

BENZOIC ACID. A vegetable acid
found in balsams and some grasses.

BENZOIN. The concrete exuda-
tion of the Styrax benzoin of the East.
It is a resin combined with benzoic
acid.

BENZULE, BENZOYL. The hy-
pothetical radical of benzoic acid and
other compounds, formula Ch Hj O^
=Bz.

BERBERRY. See Barberry.

BERGAMOT. The Ckrus berga-
viia. Cultivated in the south of Europe
for the fragrant oil of the rind of its
fruit. The oil is volatile, and consists
of IOC 8H. It is a species of lemon,
and might be introduced into Flori-
da.

The Mentha citrata, a common spe-
cies of mint, easily cultivated, yields
an oil nearly as fragrant as the ber-
gamot.

BERMUDA GRASS, DOUB
GRASS. Cynodon dactylon. Atall, re-
pent grass, flourishing on sandy lands,
and an object of cultivation in the
South. It affords abundant pasturage
for sheep, and binds together the loose
soil. The levees of the Mississippi are
planted with it. Many distinguished
farmers on the south shores of the
Mississippi speakhighly of this grass;
it is, however, difficult to eradicate.
Mr. Afileck considers it most nutri-
tious, and in his latitude (Washing-
ton, Miss.) it yields three cuttings, or
from "five to eight tons of hay per
acre from a moderately good mead-
ow." It is destroyed by frost and
propagated by roots, as it does not
ripen seeds in his localitv.

BERRY, or BACCA.' In botany,
a fruit filled with pulp, in which the
seeds are imbedded, as the currant,
gooseberry, &c.

BETEL. The leaf of an acrid nar-
cotic pepper, chew^ed by the natives
in the East Indies.

BETULA. The generic name of
the birch family. The populi/uha
(white), exceUa (yellow) rubra (red).

BIL

BIR

and lenta (black or cherry), are all
fine trees, especially the red, the tim-
ber of which is much used for cabi-
net purposes ; and the black or cher-
ry, which has the colour of mahog-
any, and is both used here and ex-
ported to Europe. B. ■papyracea, or
paper birch, yielded the bark for the
canoes of the Indians. The wood of
all is durable, and less affected by
changes of temperature than most
timbers. The juice of the European
B. alba is sweet and easily ferment-
ed •, it forms their birch wine. Va-
rious parts of the plant are ])ut to a
variety of economical uses ; the bark
forms paper, vessels, &c. ; the twigs,
brooms and rods, while the leaves
are considered good fodder.

BEVEL. An instrument to take
angles.

BEVEL GEER. In mechanics,
a species of wheel- work, in which the
axles of two wheels working into
each other are neither parallel nor
perpendicular, but inclined to one an-
other in a certain angle. Wheels of
this kind are also called conical, be-
cause their teeth may be regarded as
cut in the frustum of a cone.

B I. From biSy twice, a common
prefix to words meaning two, or
twice, as bi-partite, bin-oxide.

BIBULOUS. Absorbent. In chem-
istry, blotting paper is often termed
bibulous paper.

BIENNIAL. This term is usual-
ly applied to plants which grow one
year and flower the next, after which
they perish. Many biennials, if sown
early in the spring, will flower in au-
tumn and then perish, thus actually
becoming annuals.

BIESTINGS. The first milk after
calving.

BIFURCATE. Two-pronged, or
forked.

BIGNONIAS. The trumpet flow-
ers. Bignonta radicans, and other
shrubby climbing plants, belong to
this handsome genus.

BIGG. A winter barley.

BIIvH. Acomtum ferox. A very
poisonous Eastern monkhood.

BILABIATE. Two-lipped, or pe-
talled, applied to flowers.

" BILBERRY. Whortleberry.

BILE. The secretion of the liver.
It is intended, according to Liebig,
to prepare certain portions of matter
to furnish fuel for the maintenance
of the animal heat ; any interruption
in its production is attended with
great lassitude, sickness, fever, and
yellowness of the eyes and skin.
Moist, marshy places, and food rich
in oil, as butter and fat, produce bil-
ious attacks. Calomel is the best
medicine in these cases, 10 grains at
first, and more if it does not quickly
relieve. Fall and spring are the sea-
sons most obnoxious to bilious at-
tacks in new countries. Sometimes
biliary calculi or stones are form-
ed.

The composition of the bile is very
complex, according to the analyses of
some physiologists. Liebig, howev-
er, regards it as a natural soap, near-
ly consisting of choleate of soda.

BILL. A hatchet with a curved
point.

BILLET. A small log or block of
wood.

BIN. A box for corn, oats, &c.

BIND- WEED. A common name
for most climbing plants, but espe-
cially directed to the convolvulaceous
species.

BINES. Running stems.

BiOGELLATE. When an insect's
wing is marked with two eye-like
dots.

BIPINNATE. Leaves that are
doubly pinnate ; in which the second-
ary stalks or petals are pinnated.

BIRCH. See Betvla.

BIRD. The preservation of birds
as a means of destroying insects has
lately attracted some attention. It
is proposed to destroy the hawk tribe
only, leaving crows, ravens, sparrows,
wrens, bluebirds, and all others ; for,
although many of these occasionally
take seed and injure fruit, they, for
the most part, live on insects and
small vermin, and the I'armer is much
more assisted by their labours than
injured by their depredations. Mr.
Swainson remarks that whereas nu-
merous crops are devastated by in-
sects, no one has ever heard of such
93

BIT

BLA

evils being brought about by birds.
To the apiarian the bee martin is,
however, an unquestionable source of
annoyance, although the same bird
and all the genus are destructive to
other insects.

BIRDLIME. A glutinous sub-
stance extracted by boiling the bark
of the holly-tree ; a similar substance
may be obtained from mistletoe, from
the young shoots of elder, and some
other plants.

BIRD PEPPER. The small pep-
per, Capsicum haccatum, growing on a
shrub : it yields the hottest Cayenne
pepper. It is cultivated in Florida
and the Indies.

BIRD'S FOOT TREFOIL. A Eu-
ropean genus (Lotus) of small clovers,
growing in pastures, and preserving
their verdure in the hot weather from
their long roots. They are inferior to
clover, and, with the exception of L.
villosus, which is an object of cultiva-
tion in France upon light soils, are nev-
er raised artificially. There does not
appear to be any true species of this
genus in the United States, and its in-
feriority to clover does not make it
desirable to introduce them.

BIRD'S CHERRY. The Prunus
padus. A small, wild cherry, indige-
nous in England.

BIRD'S MOUTH. In building, an
interior angle or notch, cut across
the grain at the extremity of a piece
of timber for its reception on the
edge of another piece ; as a rafter,
for instance, is received on a pole
plate. Bird's mouth signifies, also,
the internal angle of a polygon, its
external angle being called a bull's
nose.

BIRD'S NEST. Indian pipe. Mo-
notropa uniflora.

BISEXUAL. In plants, having
stamens and pistils in the same flow-
er.

BISHOPING. A cant word for
disguising the age of a horse.

BISON. Bee Buffalo.

BISTORT. The Polygonum his-
torta. An acrid plant when fresh.

BISULCATE. ^^'ith two fissures,
two-hoofed.

B I T. The iron part of the bri-
94

die, which goes into the mouth of a
horse.

BITTER AL.MOND. A variety of
the almond of a bitter taste.

BITTER PRINCIPLE. An obso-
lete term in chemistry, signifying that
the dried juice of a plant contained a
bitter ingredient. The bitterness does
not depend upon any general princi-
ple, but upon a particular body, some-
times present in no other plant, as
quinine, strychnine, &c.

BITTERN. The residue after
evaporatmg sea water and removing
the salt. It contains sulphate of mag-
nesia and chloride of magnesia, as
well as small quantities of soda, pot-
ash, and bromides. It would unques-
tionably be a valuable manure, and
should be tried in small quantities
wherever the opportunity offers.

BITTER SPAR. Crystallized dol-
omite. Carbonate of lime and mag-
nesia.

BITTER SWEET. An extensive
genus (.So/awMm), the berries of which,
of a red and dark colour, are very
poisonous.

BITUMEN. A mineral pitch. Sev-
eral varieties, as petroleum, asphal-
tum, mineral tar, and naphtha, are dis-
tinguished.

BIXA. The genus yielding the B.
orellana or arnotta.

BLACK. As a colour for horses*,
this is not preferred : there are said
to be fewer good animals of this colour
than any other. It is supposed that
those of a high gloss and white legs
are the best kind.

BLACKBERRY, or BRAMBLE.
This term is generally used to indi-
cate the Rubrus villosus, or common
erect, and R. tnvialis, creeping dew-
berry. The fruit is wholesome, and
commands a good price in cities, so
that near Boston they are cultivated.
It makes excehent jain and preserves,
as well as a good wine. The tall
bramble is a good adjunct to the com-
mon rail fence in arable land ; but its
decaying branches injure meadows.
In other parts of the field they are a
serious nuisance, especially the creep-
ing plant, and require grubbing for ex-
termination, followed by a sufficient

BLA

BLA

ploughing to break up the smaller
roots. The roots are astringent.

BLACKBIRD. Notwithstanding
his occasional depredations, he is a
valuable friend to the farmer, by the
destruction he makes among insects.
The most common species is the
Qiiisralis rersicoloi-.

BLACK CANCER. The decayed
blotches on turnips.

BLACK DOLPHIN. The dark-
coloured aphis, which injures beans,
pease, cabbages, and numerous garden
vegetables. Dusting with lime is a
very valuable remedy, as well as cut-
ting off the infested stems, when it is
practicable, and burning them.

BLACK DYES. The substances
used in dyeing blacks are logwood,
weld or woad, fustic, suinach, gall-
nuts, and oak apples, with copperas
or sulphate of iron ; but any other
astringent may be introduced. The
finest blacks are first dyed of a deep
blue.

BLACK FLY. The small black
beetle {HalUca ncmorum) whicli infests
cruciferous plants, and especially the
turnip. See Insects.

BLACK GU.M. Xyssa multijlora.
A tree sometimes attainmg fifty to
seventy feet, and twenty inches in di-
ameter. It grows south of Philadel-
phia. The wood is solid, and little
liable to split ; hence it is used for
naves or hubs, and in ship-building for
the caps of masts. The berries are
dark, and relislied by birds. The X
aquatica, or tupelo, is less in size, and
grows as far as New-Hampshire. It
is valuable as a dense wood, and used
by carriage-builders.

BLACK LEGS and BLACK MUZ-
ZLE. See Shccfi, Diseases of.

BLACK OATS, are more hardy,
and ripen earlier than the common
grain. Thev are otherwise inferior.

BLACK THORN. The European
sloe {Prunus spinosa). Sometimes the
Crateegus flava is called by this name
in America.

BLACK TWITCH, or COUCH. |
Agroslis alba. Marsh couch grass, j

BLACK WALNUT. See Walnut.

BLACK WASH. A lotion of cal- !
omel and limewater. I

BLACK WATER. See Sheep.
BLADE. A shoot or spire of grass,
wheat, &c.

BLADE BONE. The scapula, or
broad bone of the shoulder.

BLAIN. Infan-iery, inflammation
of the tongue, a disease in cattle,
which frequently affects them in the
spring of the year or beginning of
summer. The disease is neither so
frequent nor so fatal in the horse
as it is in cattle ; but it does some-
times occur, and the nature of it is
frequently misunderstood. The horse
will refuse his food, hang his head,
and a considerable quantity of ropy
fluid will be discharged from the
mouth. On examining the mouth,
the tongue will be found considerably
enlarged, and, running along the side
of it, there will be a reddish or dark-
ish purple bladder, which sometimes
protrudes between the teeth. The
neighbouring salivary glands are en-
larged, and the discharge of saliva is
very great, while the soreness of the
swelled and blistered part causes the
horse obstinately to resist every mo-
tion of the jaws. The cure is very
simple : the bladder must be deeply
lanced from end to end ; there will
not be any great flow of blood This
will relieve or cure the horse in twen-
ty-four hours. If he can be spared
from his work, a dose of physic will
remove the stomach affection and any
sliglit degree of fever that may have
existed. If the disease is neglected,
the swelling will at length burst, and
corroding ulcers will eat deeply into
the tongue, and prove very difficult to
heal. — {Clatcr's Farriery).

BLANCHING. In gardening,
the whitening of the stems, stalks, or
leaves of plants, by tying them togeth-
er, or earthing them up so as to ex-
clude the light, and thus to diminish
the intensity of tlieir native proper-
ties and make them sweet.

BLAST. A flatulent disease of
sheep.

BLASTEMA. The embryo.

BLASTING. The art of removing
portions of rock by the explosion of
gunpowder. For this purpose, a cy-
lindrical hole is made in the rock in a
95

BLE

BLE

direction correspondinfj with the stra-
ta, and of greater or less depth, ac-
cording to the material. Tiie diame-
ter varies from one to one and a half
inches, as tlie rock is harder. Into
this is next placed a charge of pow-
der occupying ahoiit one third of the
depth, and furnished with a tin tuhe
containing the fuse or slow match.
After the powder, small pieces of rock
or paper are rammed, and then sand
is driven in, to fill the hole, and the ex-
tremity of the fuse lighted ; the work-
man retires to a place of safety, and
allows the explosion to take place.
In this way houlders, which impede
cultivation, and are too large to be
lifted away, may be broken up, and
the fragments removed for fences, «&c.
Stumps of large trees may also be
torn up by blasting, the charge being
contained in a tin case, and inl:rodu-
ced beneath the stump ; or the wood
maybe bored with an inch auger, and
the charge inserted into the wood it-
self.

BLATTA. The cockroach genus.

BLAZE. A white mark or star in
the face of a horse or other animal.

BLEACHING. This process con-
sists in a series of operations, by
which the natural colours of various
substances are discharged so as to
Avhiten them. It is effected either
by the action of various solvents, aid-
ed by exposure to light, air, and moist-
ure, upon the bleaching ground, or by
the aid of chlorine. Cotton is more
easily bleached than linen, in conse-
quence of its being originally whiter,
and having a less powerful attraction
for the colouring matter. In bleach-
ing these goods upon the old princi-
ple, warm water is first liberally ap-
plied to remove the weaver's paste
or dressing ; they are then bucked, or
boiled in a weak alkaline lye ; and
after having been well washed, are
spread out upon the grass, so as to be
freely exposed to the joint agencies
of light, air, and moisture ; the buck-
ing and exposure are alternately re-
peated, as often as necessary ; the
goods are soured, that is, immersed in
water slightly acidulated by sulphuric
acid ; lastly, they are very thoroughly
96

washed and dried. By these opera-
tions the texture of the goods is, to a
certain extent, impaired, and much
time is required to complete the pro-
cess, which, also, cannot be carried
on in the winter months. But the
exposure upon the bleaching ground
is now, to a great extent, discontinu-
ed ; and the same effect is obtained,
after the process of bucking, by the
action of weak solutions of chlorine,
or of chloride of lime, which, if skil-
fully used, can scarcely be said to in-
jure the goods more than the long-
continued exposure. The theory of
bleaching has not been satisfactorily
developed ; but, from such experi-
ments as have been made in refer-
ence to it, it appears to be a process
of oxidation, and to depend upon some
peculiar influence of nascent oxygen
upon the colouring matter.

The colour of manufactured wool
depends partly upon its own oil, and
partly upon the applications made to
it in the loom. These are got rid of
in the fulling-mill by the jonu action
of fullers' earth and soap ; the cloth
is then well washed and dried, and is
tolerably white ; if the slight yellow
tint which it retains is objectionable,
it is prevented by adding a little stone
blue to the washing water, or by ex-
posure to the fumes of burning sul-
phur ; this latter method, however,
gives it a harsh feel, and if afterward
soaped, its yellowishness returns.

The colour of raw silk depends up-
on a natural yellow varnish, which is
got rid of by boiling it in wliite soap
and water, and by repeated rinsings.
Certain articles of wove cotton, such
as stockings, are bleached as usual,
and finished by the action of sulphu-
rous acid, or the fumes of burning sul-
phur. Straw is also whitened by a
similar operation ; and hence bleach-
ed straw hats are apt to have a disa-
greeable sulphurous smell.

BLEACHING POWDER. Chlo-
ride of lime.

BLEEDING. An operation fre-
quently necessary in the disorders of
different kinds of cattle, particularly
horses. Such horses as stand much
in the stable, and are full-fed, require

BLI

DLI

bleeding more than those which are | BLIND, jMOOX. Cloudiness of
in constant exercise ; but especially , the eye, ending in cataract,
when their eyes look heavy and dull, j BLINDNESS. A deprivation or
or red and inflamed ; and when they | want of sight, originating from vari-
look yellow, and the horse is inflamed ous causes ; a complaint more fre-
in his lips and the inside of his mouth ; quent in horses than in neat cattle or
or when he seems hotter than usu- sheep.

al, and mangles his hay. These in- j Bli>idness tn horses may be discern-
dications not only show that bleed- j ed by the walk or step "being uncer-
ing is required, but hkewise lower ; tain and unequal, so that they dare
diet. The spring is the common sea- 1 not set down their feet boldly; but
son for bleeding horses ; but period- , when they are mounted by an expert
ical bleeding should never be prac- 1 horseman, the fear of the spurs will
tised. In summer it is often neces- frequently make them go resolutely
sary, to prevent fevers, always choos- ! and freely, so that their blindness can
ing the cool of the morning for the , hardly be perceived. Another mark
operation, and keeping them cool the by which horses that have lo.st their
remaining part of the day. Some \ sight may be known is, that when
farriers bleed horses three or four i they hear anybody enter the stable,
times a year, or even oftener, by way j they prick up their ears, and move
of prevention, taking only a very them backward and forward in a par
small quantity at a time, as a pint or ticular manner.

a pint and a half. There is, howev- 1 Blindness in Sheep. — A complaint
er, this inconvenience from frequent that sometimes occurs in these ani-
bleeding, that it grows into a habit, mals from their being much exposed
which, in some cases, cannot be easi- to either great dampness or long-coa-
ly broken off without hazard ; and, tinned snows.

besides, horses become weak from j BLINKERS. The leathers attach-
frequent bleeding. The vein in the ed to the bridle of carriage-horses to
neck is usually opened, but that un- ' direct their sight forward,
der the eye or in the leg is better, BLISTERING. In farriery, the
when the inflammation is near those ! operation of stimulating the surface
parts. I t'i some part of the body of an ani-

BLEMISH. In farriery, any kind ' mal, by means of acrid applications,
of imperfection in a liorse or other j so as to raise small vesications upoa
animal. it- It is frequently employed for the

In horses, blemishes consist of bro- j purpose of removing local affections
ken knees, loss of hair in the cutting ; of different kinds, such as hard, indo-
places, mallenders and sallenders, j lent tumours.

cracked heels, false quarters, splents, { BLISTER FLY. The bright
or excrescences which do not occa- green and golden fly usually employ-
sion lameness ; and wind galls and ed is the CaiUhans vesicatona, im-
bog spavins, where they prevail to ported from Europe ; but there are

several insects indigenous which pos-

any great degree.

In forestry, the knots on the out-
side of trees, and shakes internally,
are termed blemishes.

BLIGHT. A general term for the
diseases of trees and crops, whether
produced by temperature, moisture,
insects, or parasitic fungi. See Rust,
Mildcic. Smut. Plant Lice, &c.

BLIGHT, AMERICAN. The Eri-

sess equal power, as the potato flies
(C. vitata and cincrca) and the black
cantharis (C atrata).

The potato flies are seen in Au-
gust, morning and evening, among
the foliage of the potatoes ; the head
is red, and the back black, with a yel-
low stripe ; and in the cinerea the
whole is black, with a gray hair, or

osoma (aphis) lanigera, or woolly plant i down. The wing cases (elytra) are

lice; they infest the apple and pear i hard. They are shaken off the vines,

tree occasionally. : killed by being thrown in hot water,

1 97

BLO

and then dried in the sun. When
well dried, tliey keep for years in
closed bottles.

BLISTER LIQUID. A liquid com-
posed by adding a gallon ofspirit of tur-
pentine to a pound of powdered flies,
and macerating llie whole for a month.
•when the clear liuid will form a strong
liquid blister. If so powerful an ex-
ternal stunulanl be not required, this
liquid may be diluted with an equal
part of spermaceti oil.

BLISTER OliNTMENT. One
ounce of powdered blistering flies ;
four ounces of lard. One ounce of
this, well rubbed in, is sufficient to
blister a horse's leg.

BLOOD. The fluid which circu-
lates through the body, giving nour-
ishment to all parts. It consists of
albumen, fibrin, red globules, fatty
matters, water, and saline substan-
ces. As a manure, its importance
depends on the large quantity of am-
monia it exhales. It is always pref-
erable to use it in compost, with ash-
es, charcoal, fine earth, and vegeta-
ble matters. Its effects are principal-
ly stimulant when used alone. The
composition of blood is nearly identi-
cal with that of flesh.

BLOOD-i^OOT. Sanguinaria Can-
adensis. This root is of a red colour.

BLOOD-SHOT. In farriery, a pop-
ular term for that red appearance
which the eye exhibits when inlia-
med. The best treatment is to bathe
the eye with a lotion composed of one
drachm of white vitriol (sulphate of
zinc) dissolved in half a pint of water.

BLOOD SPAVIN, or BOG SPAV-
IN. In farriery, a swelling of the
vein that runs along the inside of tiie
hock of the horse, forming a soft tu-
mour in the hollow part, often attend-
ed with weakness or lameness of the
hock. Clater {Farriery, p. 272) says,
a blister is the proper application.

BLOOM, or BLOSSOM. The flow-
er, in the most perfect state, consists
of an outer green envelope {the calyx),
in the interior of which are the col-
oured leaflets {petals), surrounding
a number of thread-like bodies {the
aiamens), and containing a central
body or pistil. Of these parts, the
98

BLU

stamens and pistils are essential, al-
though ihey do not always grow in
the same flower. The calyx and pe-
tals {corolla) serve only to protect the
inner organs from rain, which de-
stroys their function when excessive.
Other plants, however, have none of
the envelopes, but are furnished with
especial means of preserving the sta-
mens. The name of a plant is, for
the most part, known by the figure
of its blossoms. Large numbers of
genera possess flowers of the same
kind, and are constituted into Natu-
ral families ; as the Caryophyllaceaj,
with flowers like the pink ; Rosaceaj,
with flowers like the single rose ;
Crucifera;, with flowers like the rad-
ish ; Umbelliferag, with flowers like
the parsnip, &c.

BLOW FLY. The Musca cama-
ria. It deposites eggs upon meat,
which in a few hours become mag-
gots, and hasten the decay rapidly ;
gauze cloths are used to keep them
off; salt or Cayenne pepper serves
as a preventive, by indisposing the
fly to lay eggs on surfaces smeared
with thein.

BLOWN. In farriery, a diseased
slate of the stomach and bowels of
cattle, caused by the sudden extrica-
tion of air in large quantities from
some of the grosser kinds of green
food. See Horcn.

BLUBBER. The cellular sub-
stance in which whale oil or fat is
stored. It is often used with advan-
tage in composts of ashes and peat,
and yields ammonia during decay.

BLUEBIRD. Sylva smlis. A
familiar insectivorous bird that should
be encouraged on farms.

BLUE DYES. These are indigo,
Prussian blue, logwood, bilberry, mul-
berries, elder-berries, privet-i)erries,
and some other berries whose juice
becomes blue by adding a little alkali.
Indigo, Prussian blue, and logwood
are principally used, and are prepared
for the purpose. When the berries
are used, one pound is boiled in water
and mixed witli one ounce of alum,
of copperas, and of blue vitriol, and
the stuffs passed through sufficiently
] often to acquire a proper colour.

13 01

I]U.\

BLUE GRASS. The valuable per-
ennial Kentucky grass, or Poa pra-
ten.iis, is considered the best indige-
nous grass of the United States. It
forms a thick, dense sward, yielding
a fair amount of very nutritious hay.
It is adapted especially for permanent
hillside meadows, growing well in a
drained soil. Half a bushel of seed
is sown either with a fall crop or with
oats in spring : it is customary to mix
clover or timothy with it, which fur-
nishes grazing sooner, and preserves
the young grass. In two years it
takes entire possession, and forms a
close mat of delicate herbage. It
flourishes well in New- York State and
far to the south. In Kentucky they
sometimes grow it in wood land as
well as in open pasture. The wood
blue grass is a variety (P. sylvestris).

There is another grass {Poa com-
pressa), also called blue grass, and
common in the Northern States ; but
it is scanty, and very inferior to the
rich Kentuckv kind.

BLUE STONE and BLUE VIT-
RIOL. The sulphate of copper. It
is used as a caustic to sores, and as
a steep for wheat, to save it from
smut.

BOG. This term is commonly used
in agriculture to designate a hole or
morass containing much vegetable
mud or muck ; often the deposites are
extensive, and many feet deep. A
peat bog contains peat chiefly.

When bogs become consolidated
or compressed, they are called peat
mosses. See Peat.

BOG EARTH. This earth often
contains twenty or thirty per cent, of
vegetable matter, and when well bro-
ken with lime, and by exposure to air,
forms a rich soil.

BOIL, or, commonly, BILE. A
tumour containing matter, or pus. It
is the result of local inflammation.
It should be brought to a head by
poultices of flour or linseed, and,
when soft and fluctuating, opened
freely with a lancet. The wound
should be kept clean, and closed with
sticking plaster, or protected by a rag.

BOILING POINT. The tempera-
ture at which fluids boil. Thus, wa-

ter at 212"^, alcohol 176-, oil of tur-
pentine 310^, tuther 'JG^, mercury
6G2^ Fahrenheit.

BOLE, or BOLL. A Scotch meas-
ure of four bushels.

BOLE OF TREES. The trunk.

BOLETUS. Fungi, forming fleshy
masses, attached to the trunks of
trees, and filled with holes on the
lower side. One species, B. bovinus,
is said to be eaten by cattle. The B.
iff7iarius and fomentarius, dried and
prepared with saltpetre, forms the
German tinder, or amadou.

BOLTER. A sieve used to sep-
arate bran from flour or meal, urged
by machinery in grist mills. For
coarse purposes, wire-work is some-
times used ; but bolting cloths for
flour are of linen or hair, and of sev-
eral degrees of fineness.

BOLT-HEAD. A glass vessel, or
flask, used in the laboratorv.

BOLTING FOOD. This is a prac-
tice which brings about indigestion in
animals as well as in men, and must
be hindered by feeding the animal
separately, and at shorter intervals,
and using chopped food or meals.

BOLUS. See Ball.

BO.MB AX. A genus of large trees
producing a short cotton.

BON'ES. The frame-work of the
higher animals. Bones consist of
fifty-six per cent, mineral, and the
rest gelatinous and destructible mat-
ter. The mineral portion contains,
on an average, fifty per cent, of phos-
phate of lime, or bone earth ; of this,
twenty-four per cent, is phosphoric
acid, and the rest lime. The destruc-
tible animal matter is partly removed
by long boiling, and used as a size.

The value of bones as manure ari-
ses from the combination of animal
matter and phosphate, but is chiefly
due to the latter. They are applied
usually in coarse powder, ground at
suitable bone mills, which are now
to be found near all our large cities.
The price in Baltimore and New-
York is forty cents the bushel. Some-
times, pieces, or broken bones, from
half an inch to an inch long, are used
as a permanent dressing.

The amount of dust to be applied
99

DON

per acre is ten or twenty bushels for
five years' rotation, or, in composts,
two or four bushels annually. The
effects are most remarkable on sandy
and light soils ; but all lands are im-
proved by it when the addition is in-
dicated. The test, when bones are
necessary, is easily discovered ; for
soils which produce defective grain
are always much benefited by them.

The value of bone dust arises from
the fact that all seeds contain a large
quantity in their ashes, and the soil
is naturally but poorly supplied. Seed
crops are well known to exhaust
lands rapidly, and chiefly because they
remove the bone earth or phosphates
of the soil. Those lands which are
well furnished with this substance
naturally produce rich clover and
wheat : such are marls, some second-
ary limestones, and stiff clays, and
show less the application of bones.

The dust is to be scattered with
seed, and not ploughed in deep ; for it
has a tendency to sink naturally, and
as it is very slowly dissolved by rain
water, it should not be placed out of
the reach of plants. Compared with
farm-yard manure, one bushel is
equivalent to three cart loads, wher-
ever it is well applied.

All plants, the shells of lobsters
and eggs, and the fine shell marl of
ponds contain bone earth ; and in
Spain a mineral is extensively found
consisting of nearly pure phosphate
of lime ; but the principal source is
from bones. Guano often contains
twenty-five per cent, of phosphates.
The action of this substance, in what-
ever combination it may exist, is al-
ways the same.

Bones which have been boiled be-
fore grinding are very little mferior
to the recent, except when applied to
very poor soils, where the putrescent
animal matter is required. Recent
bones are best for turnips, cabbages,
and similar crops ; but the boiled va-
riety answers for grass, grains, pease,
beans, &c., the manure being adapted
for every crop cultivated for seeds.

BONES, DISSOLVED. For the
purpose of obtaining the full action
of bone dust in the shortest time, it
100

DON

is dissolved in oil of vitriol (sulphuric
acid) or in muriatic acid. The strong
acids are used for this purpose at the
rate of fifty to sixty pounds of acid
to two bushels of dust. The acid
should be slightly diluted if it black-
ens the bones. They should be stir-
red with a wooden stick, and the op-
eration conducted in a large crock
of coarse earthen-ware. The great
causticity of the acid renders it a
nice process. The solution should
be taken up with fine soil or mould,
and one half applied to an acre as a
top dressing, care being always taken
that before use it has lost its acid
qualities.

In this way a soluble phosphate of
lime and sulphate of lime are formed :
the latter remains at the bottom of
the vessel, and is a fine plaster of
Paris ; it should be stirred up with
the mixture when the soil is added.
When fresh bones are used, the gel-
atin also thickens the solution. This
preparation of bones is now superse-
ding the common application in Eng-
land and Scotland for turnips. When
employed, it should be sown with the
seed, or used as a top dressing to
y»ung plants. It will be found an
admirable ingredient for composts in-
tended to bring forward seed crops.

BONE EARTH. Phosphate of
lime chiefly.

BONE MILL. The following ac-
count of a mill for breaking bones into
small fragments is from Mr. Rham :

The mill to break and grind bones
consists of two iron or steel cylin-
ders, with grooves running round
their circumference, the projections
being cut so as to form strong teeth.
These turn upon one another by
means of machinery, so that the
teeth of one run in the groove be-
tween the teeth of the other, as may
be seen in the annexed cut.

The bones put in the hopper, O, are
seized by the teeth of the two upper
cyUnders, and broken in pieces, which
fall in betw-een the lower pair, where
they are reduced to a smaller size.
From these they fall on a slanting
board, D, and slide into the wire cyl-
inder. AH the smaller pieces pass

BONE MILL

a!

Side elevation.

through the interstices of the wire ;
those which have not been sufficient-
ly broken come out at the end, and
are returned into the upper hopper.
Where a machine of this description
I 2

can be attached to a water or wind
mill, or to a steam-engine, the bones
are broken at a small expense ; when
horses are used the expense is great-
er ; and a hand mill can only be of
101

use where there is a great super-
abundance of manual lal)our, and only
a small quantity of bones required.

A A is the frame of a bone mill
strongly fixed to the floor ; B, the
axis of the machinery, which is turn-
ed by the lever G C, to which the
power is applied ; E E is a horizon-
tal wheel with bevelled teeth moving
a vertical wheel, F, on the axis of
which one of the cylinders with
grooves and teeth is fixed. At the
other end of the axis is a smaller
wheel, G, turning a similar one, H,
on the axis of the other cylinder, ma-
king the toothed surfaces turn to-
wards each other, and thus crushing
between them the bones which the
hopper, O, supplies. Another pair of
cylinders, similar to the first, but with
smaller teeth, are turned by means of
the intermediate wheel, I, working in
the wheel, L, fixed to the axis, on
which is a larger \\heel, M, working
in a pinion which turns the cylindri-
cal sieve, N. The arrows indicate
the direction of the motion.

BONE SPAVIN. A disease of the
hock joint in horses, brought on by
over exertion. While forming there
is continued lameness. Blisters and
rest sometimes effect a perfect cure.
Spavined horses are useful for slow
work ; they are most inconvenienced
in the act of rising.

BORAGE. Burago officinalis. A
rough weed growing two feet high.
It is used as a fallow crop in Ger- 1
many, and, according to Lampadius,
contains nitre. It seems to be admi-
rably adapted for this purpose.

BORAX. Borate of soda, used as
a flux in welding steel, &c.

BORDER. In gardening, the edg-
es of beds. They are frequently well
trenched and manured, so as to be
made the richest parts of the garden ;
hence, when we are directed to plant
in borders, it is usually meant that
deep, good soil, and free space are re-
quired.

BORECOLE, or KALE. A species
of winter cabbage with divided leaves
and open heads. The principal varie-
ties are, Grcm Srolch Kale, German
Curled, Purple, Jerusalem, CcEsarean
108

BOR

Kale, and Thousand-headed Callage.
The last two grow to four feet, and
yield large numbers of sprouts.

The seed is sown in May : plants
are set out in .July. 'J'hey will be
found best after slight frost, and may
be kept like cabbages during wmter.
The stocks, in spring, send out abun-
dant tender shoots. An ounce of
prime seed will yield nearly four
thousand plants. They are so infe-
rior to other plants of the cabbage
kind as to be scarcely worth cultiva-
tion.

BORERS. Beetles and other in-
sects, the worms of which -burrow
into the bark, wood, or roots of trees.
There is a large number of genera
and species, some peculiar to one tree
or shrub, others common to several.
The perfect beetle is usually seen in
June and July, either about the trunk,
or searching for food in flowers, iS:c.
Their place while buried in the tree
is known by the holes they leave
through the bark. They reside often
two years in this way as worms and
grubs. 'VMiere woodpeckers are en-
couraged in orchards, the trees are
kept pretty free from their ravages ;
but in New-England they do much
damage, and are sought for, and de-
stroyed by iron wires, small augers,
and other direct means. Catching
the mature beetle is much more ad-
vantageous, and taking care to have
the bark well cleaned, and washed
with whale oil soap, lime-water,
pitch, strong lye, &c., at the time
the eggs are deposited in July. The
eggs are usually deposited on the
trunk near the ground.

Many of the borers belong to the
Capricorn family, having long anten-
n£e. The fol-
lowing figures
represent two
common bo-
rers. A, the
female apple-
tree borer. B,
the peach-tree
borer.

The locust, ^ Apple tree Borer

and all the vari- (Supcvda buuuna).
eties of pine and fir trees, are severely

BOX

BOT

B. Peach tree borer {S:geria cxitiosa). 1, female

infested with peculiar borers. These
also deposite their eggs about July.

BORING. In draining, rods are
frequently thrust into the subsoil for
the purpose of ascertaining the nature
of the earth, or the existence of wa-
ter or springs. See Auger.

BOS. The generic name of rumi-
nating quadrupeds, having the char-
acters of the ox and buffalo. The or-
igin of the domestic ox is unknown.

BOTANY. That department of
knowledge which investigates the
forms, varieties, and functions of
plants in a natural state. It is de-
rived from SoTavT}, an herb.

Structural botany, or Organogra-
phy, details the figures of the differ-
ent parts of plants, both internal and
external. We learn from this de-
partment that the interior of vegeta-
bles is either made up of small cells,
resembling the cavities of the honey-
comb (cellulares), or consist also of
tubes and veins, as the higher plants
(vasculares). The cells are destined
either to store up starch, wood, res-
ins, or other products of vegetation ;
the tubes to convey sap and fluids.
In a complete system of organogra-
phy, the minutest shades of difference
between leaves, roots, &c., are detail-
ed with uninteresting prolixity.

Physiological botany teaches the

use of the leaf, root, flower, seed, &c.

It will be fully illustrated under the

various parts of the plant.

Descriptive botany is that portion

C, male; 3, case in which the pupa (4) is enclosed.

of the science which is devoted to de-
scribing and recognising plants. In
this there are two methods of proce-
dure, the Linnaean and Jussieuan :
the former is the simplest, the latter
the most perfect, and will be intro-
duced in the cases of the leading agri-
cultural families, as the bean tribe,
cabbage tribe, &c.

To understand Linnasus's classifi-
cation, it is necessary to state thai
perfect flowers consist of four parts :
1st, an external green or coloured
wrapper seen on the bud, called the
calyx, consisting of one or more leaf-
lets ; 2d, an inner similar system
of flower petals, called the corolla ;
3d, a number of thread-like bodies
carrying a head ; these are the sta-
mens, the head being called the an-
ther ; 4th, a central thread-like body,
single, or divided into several parts,
called the pistil, whereof the extrem-
ity is the stigma. The pistil is only
tlie upper part of the young fruit, or
ovarium. In all these points there is
much diversity : sometimes neither
calyx nor corolla is present ; again,
the" stamens, which are also consid-
ered the male organs of the flower,
may be in one plant, and the pistil,
[ or female organ, in another, or in dif-
I ferent parts of the same plant. It is
' well known that unless the yellowish
' dust, or pollen, given off by stamens
j can reach the stigma, no seeds are
! formed, and that fruit is only produ-
1 ced in female plants, or such as con-
103

LOTANY.

tain the pistils. Linncciis divided the I These divisions are also called
vegetable world according to the I classes and orders, the first being
number of stamens and pistils in the | constructed from the number and po-
flower; so that, to know to w^tiat sition of the stamens, the orders by
tribe a specimen belongs, we have j the number, ttc, of the pistils. Ev-
enly to count these parts, and search ] ery plant, therefore, belongs to a
for the name in the proper works un- i class and order, unless it be diaecious.
der the general division ascertained. | The classes are as follows :

Class.
I.
TI.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

XIU.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

Styled.

1 stamen ... Monaudria.

2 stamens Diandria.

Triandria.

Tetrandria.

Penlandna.

Hexandria.

Heptaiidria.

Octandria.

Enneandria.

Decandria.

Dodecandria.

Icosandria.

Polyandria

Didjiiamia.

Tetradynamia.

10 "

12 to 19 stamens

20 or more stamens, inserted into the calyx

20 or more stamens, inserted into the receptacle

2 long and 2 short stamens

4 long and 2 short stamens

stamens united into a tube Monadelphia.

stamens united into two parcels by filaments Diadelphia.

stamens united by their filaments into several parcels . . . Polyadelphia,

stamens united by their anthers into a tube Syiigeuesia.

stamens united with the pistil ........ Gynandria.

stamens and pistils m separate flowers, but on the same plant . . Moncecia.
stamens and pistils in separate flowers and on separate plants, one

male, the other female ........

stamens and pistils, separate in some flowers and united in others, ) p i

either on one plant or on two j olyganna.

stamens and pistils not clearly developed Cryptogamia.

Diaecia.

The orders are as follows :

1 style or stigma .

2 styles or stigmas .

3 " "

4 " " .

5 " " .

6 " "

7 " " .

8 " " .

9 " "
10 " "
12 "

. Monogynia.
. Digynia.
. Trigynia.
. Tetragynia.
. Peutagynia.
. He.\agynia.
. Heptagynia.
. Octagynia.
. Enneagynia.
. Decagynia.
. Dodecagynia.
. Polygynia.

More than 12 styles

Besides these, which are ascertain-
ed by simple enumeration of the
styles, Linnaeus divided some of the
classes below the thirteenth into pe-
culiar orders. Thus,

The orders of the class Didynamia
are two : 1st. Gymnospermia, in which
the seed vessel or ovary is divided
into four lobes, each giving one style
or pistil, and containing one seed ;
2d. Angiospcrma, with a perfect ovary,
two-celled, and many-seeded.

In class fifteenth, Tetradynamia,
the orders are : 1st. Siliquusa, plants
with long pods, as the cabbage ; 2d.
miiculosa, Willi short pods.
104

Class nineteenth, Syngenesia, is
divided into five orders : 1st. Polyga-
mia (cgualis, each flower of the col-
lection is furnished with stamen and
pistil ; 2d. Pohjgamia siiperflua, the
florets round the circumference or
disc hermaphrodite, but the central
female only ; 3d. Polygamiafrustranca,
the disc florets hermaphrodite, the
central steril ; 4th. Poli^gamia ncccs-
sarla, the florets of the rays or cir-
cumference male, those of the centre
female ; 5th. Polyganiia scgregata has
several florets, either simple or com-
pound, but with a proper calyx, in-
cluded within one general calyx.

Class twenty-third, Polygamia, is
divided into two orders, as the plants
are monaecious or diacious.

In Cryptogamia there are five or-
ders, which are, how'ever, in no way
connected with the female organs :
1st. Filices, or ferns ; 2d. Musci, or
mosses ; 3d. Hcpatica, or liverworts ;
4th. Alg(e, or sea-weeds ; and, 5th.
Fungi, or mushrooms.

To discover the name of any plaut,

BOT

BOU

or ascertain if it agrees with a par-
ticular description, the first step is to
learn how many stamens it contains ;
this gives us the class. Under this
head, in the Flora {Eaton s, Torrafs,
or any other dictionarij of plants), we
find a certain number of' orders : the
place of the plant among these is
known by examining the pistils.
Thus we have reached the class and
order under which will he arranged
a description of all the known or com-

mon genera ; these are to be read
carefully, each point of structure be-
uig compared with the specimen ;
thus the genus is known, and under
this the species are found, which usu-
ally differ in the form of the leaf and
stem.

The following general view of the
vegetable kingdom is an introduc-
tion to the natural ystem of Jus-
sieu, improved by Dr. Lindley and
others :

According to their Fruits and Flowers.

I. Having flowers and sexes (Phaneroga- \
mous) ..... (

(a). Least number of seed lobes (Co- [
ti/ledons) 2 . . . )

Class 1 . Dicotyledons (2 seed lubes always) or
2. Gymnosperms (seeds naked) or

(i). Least number of seed lobes, 1 J or

Class 3. Monocotyledons (Iseed lobe) or

(c). Acotyledons ... or

Class 4. Rhizantks .... or

II. Having neither flowers nor sexes . !

Class 5. Cryptogamic plants

BOTRYOIDAL. From .3orpff, a
bunch of grapes. In botany, any flow-
ers, &c., clustered together.

BOTS. A family ^of two-winged
or dipterous insects, the larvje or
maggots of which infest the intes-
tines, wounds, &c., of domestic ani-
mals. The maggots are whitish and
conical, of half an inch or more in
length, and adhere with great force
to the maw of horses, &c. They are
taken into the stomach in the form
of eggs, which the insect lays on the
knees {Gastcrophilus egui) and other
parts of the animal, which, being bit-
ten off, are swaUowed, and developed
in the body. The animal attacked
looses appetite, becomes restless,
bites his sides, coughs, becomes stiff
in the neck, staggers, breathes with
difficulty, and may die in the worst
stages.

They are to be hindered by order-
ing the groom to remove the eggs
in the fall, as soon as they are laid.
It is also advisable, as a preventive,
to administer, in the spring, a quart
of milk with a good dose of molasses,
and, shortly after, a quarter of a pound

According to their Development.
' Theirstems (axis) increasing symmetrically
i n density and breadth, as well as in length
(Pleurogens).

Stem in concentric bauds {Exogens).

Veins of leaves netted.

Veins of leaves netted or forked.

j Stem a confused mass of cellular tissue and

( wood.
r Veins of leaves parallel, and not netted.
T Vegetation like mushrooms.
r Fungoid flowers.

( The stems, or axis, increasing by simple

( elongation, or irregular expansion.
r Acrogens.

of Glauber salts, by which the bots
are pretty freely evacuated.

Sheep are pestered with a hot fly
{Cephalemyia oris), which deposites its
eggs in the nostrils ; the worms
hence crawl into the upper parts of
the nose and produce great irritation.

BOTTOM. In horsemanship, en-
durance.

BOTTOM HEAT. In horticul-
ture, heat produced by fermenting
dung, leaves, bark, &c., applied under
beds of earth, &c., for raising or
forcing plants requiring a temperature
higher than that of the air.

BOUND. In veterinary medicine,
a term applied to the bowels, to indi-
cate want of natural action ; to the
skin or hoof, to indicate tightness or
constriction. A tree is said to be
bark bound when the bark cracks
and is constricted.

BOULDER. A massive rock, dis-
similar from the adjacent rocks in
mineral character, and supposed to
have been transported by great floods,
icebergs, &c.

BOUT. In ploughing, one course
of the plough.

-^ 105

it 11 A

BRA

BOWEL DISEASF.S. Tiio most
prominent arc inflammations. These
are of two kinds, of the interior and
of the outer membrane of the intes-
tines. The first is produced by bad
food, inattention to diet, and is at-
tended with a hot skin and purging ;
the animal is in some degree weak-
ened, but may be restored l)y the use
of moderate bleeding ; gruel is also
administered with soothing medi-
cines and astringents : it is seldom
fatal. The second kind (peritonitis)
is extremely violent ; it is brought on
by sudden application of cold, when
heated, to the stomach, as in passing
a small stream in winter, &c. In
farriery it is called the red colic, and
is often fatal in twenty-four hours.
The animal paws violently, is ex-
tremely sensitive over the stomach,
struggles, groans, lies on his back, is
costive, the legs and flanks are cold,
he shivers involuntarily, and sweats.
These violent symptoms soon sub-
side, and he becomes so weak and
anxious as scarcely to stand. As
soon as the disease appears, copious
bleeding must be had to produce al-
most fainting, blistering fluid must
be well rubbed over the skin of the
stomach, and Glauber salts given.
He should be kept quiet, and clothed.
This treatment will soon show its
good effects, after which he must be
fed scantily, and kept warm and cpiiet.

BOX DRAIN. A drain with square
sides, presenting the section of a box :
it is usually of tiles or bricks.

BOX-TREE. The Buzus scmpcr-
virens and bukarica produce the dense
yellow wood used by engravers, and
also for making rules, combs, but-
tons, flutes, &c. The best wood is
obtained from Southern countries, as
Spain and Turkey. The dwarf box
is a variety of B. scmpcnnrens.

BOX OF WHEELS. The iron
cylinder in which the axis turns.

BRACCATE. Bracca, breeches.
In ornithology, when the feet are con-
cealed by long feathers descending
from the tibia>.

BRACHALYTRA from (Spaxvc,
short, and e/.vrpov, shealh). The name
of an extensive group of coleopterous
lOG

insects, including all such as have the
elytra so short as not to exceed one
third the length of tlie abdomen.

BllACHINUS. A genus of coleop-
terous insects, now the type of a fam-
ily (Brachmidcc), including those sin-
gular beetles which, from their defen-
sive anal explosions, are termed
" bombardiers."

BRACHIUM. The lower portion
or forearm of the fore extremities.

BRACT. In botany, the small
leaflet situated under the flower.
The flowers of grasses, sedges, &c.,
are bracts which receive the names
of glumes and paleae.

BRAIRD. In Scotch books, the
starting of young seedlings.

BRAKE. An implement to bruise
flax and hemp. The wooden pincers
used by coopers and others. The
snaffle used with horses. A large
harrow.

BRAMBLE. The genus Rubrus.
See Blackberry.

BRAN. The outer membrane of
wheat, &,c., rubbed off in the mill.
When first used, bran produces a lax-
ative effect on horses and other ani-
mals. For milch cows and calves it is
an admirable fodder, in consequence
of the large amount of bone earth it
contains ; it is fattening, as it yields
four per cent, of oil. As a general
article of food, Boussingault makes
nine pounds equal ten pounds of prime
hay. The quality of bran will, how-
ever, differ with the economy of the
miller. From good wheat, w ell bolt-
ed, there should not be more than
seven per cent, of bran.

BRAND IN CORN. See Burned
Ear.

BRANDY. Liquor distilled from
the dregs of wine : it contains fifty per
cent, alcohol ; the colour is fictitious,
as the spirit is nearly transparent.
Burned sugar is the usual colouring
matter.

BRASSICA. The generic name
of the cabbage, rape, broccoli family ;
they belong to the Crucifercz of Jus-
sieu, and Tetradijnamia siliquosa of
Linnajus.

BRAWN. The salted and pre-
pared flesh of the wild boar.

BKE

BREAD. There are three varie-
ties extensively used in the United
Stales, wheat, corn, and brown or
Graham bread. Wheat bread is leav-
ened, or rendered light and spongy by
yeast, which is worked into the dough,
and connmiinicates to the starch of
the flour, at a temperature above 60^
Fahr., a fermentation called the pan-
ary fermentation, in which sugar and
alcohol are formed in small quantity,
and the gluten of the flour diminishes
even to two per cent. In these chan-
ges, carbonic acid gas is given off,
and, rising through the dough, pro-
duces the cellular texture. When
the process goes on too long, vinegar
is produced, and the dough becomes
sour. The heat of the oven stops the
panary fermentation, and hinders far-
ther change. Town bakers, by using
every expedient to accumulate gas in
their loaves, produce a spongy, taste-
less bread.

Corn bread contains no gluten, and
will not rise with yeast. It is mere-
ly mixed with enough water to be al-
most as soft as sticking paste, and
baked at once.

Graham bread is commonly bread
containing a little bran, but some-
times bi-carbonate of soda and salt
are added.

BREAD FRUIT. Artocarpus insi-

aa. A tree of the Eastern Archipel-
ago, now cultivated in the W^est In-
dies also, the fruit of which, cut into
slices and roasted, resembles bread,
and is much used as a substitute.

BRE

BREAD ROOT. The I'soralia es-
culcnta, and other species, indigenous
in Missouri and throughout the West.
The roots are eaten boiled and raw
by the Indians. They are of a tena-
cious, solid structure, and insipid.

BREAKING. The education of
horses and other animals. It should
not commence too young, or they
want spirit ; or too late, or they be-
come unmanageable.

BREAKING UP. The ploughing
of leys.

BREASTING. Breasting up a
hedge is cutting the face of it on one
side, so as to lay bare the principal
upright stems of the plants.

BREASTPLATE. A strap run-
ning across the chest of the horse, to
hold the saddle tight.

BREAST PLOUGH. A large
spade or shovel, the handle of which
is furnished with a cross-piece,
against which a man presses, and
drives the implement forward through
peat or turf, cutting off long slices.
It is used chiefly in paring turf to be
burned for improvement.

BRECCIA. A conglomerate form-
ed with angular fragments of stones.
Some are calcareous, others silicious.

BREECH WOOL. The coarse
short wool of the breech of common
sheep.

BREECHING, or BREECHIN.
That part of the horse's harness at-
tached to the saddle, and hooked on
the shafts, which enables him to push
back the cart or other machine to
which he is harnessed.

BREED. A variety among ani-
mals.

BREEDING. The following is
from Mr. Rham :

Breeding is the art of multiplying
the domestic animals rapidly, and, at
the same time, improving their quali-
ties.

Any breed of animals will perpetu-
ate itself, provided there is a suffi-
ciency of proper food for them ; and
the varieties found in a wild state
must depend in some degree on the
climate and the products of the coun-
try in which they are found. Care
and domestication also produce va
107

BREEDING.

rieties whit-li arc much more useful
or profitable thcin the wild breeds ;
and in the selection of the best indi-
viduals to propagate a useful race,
and in the rearing of the young, con-
sist the art of the breeder.

"Without entering into particulars,
which vary with every species of
animal, and with the different varie-
ties of the same species, we shall lay
down certain principles which expe-
rience has proved to be correct, and
which, being attended to, will greatly
promote the improvement of all the
different animals usually bred for the
use of man, whether for his suste-
nance or for his pleasure. The first
thing which is to be kept in view is the
chief purpose for which the animal is
reared, whether for labour, strength,
or for speed ; whether merely for a
supply of animal food, or to produce
the raw materials of manufacture. In
each of these cases distinct qualities
are required, and it is seldom that
two of these objects can be combined
in the greatest perfection.

Having then determined the pui*-
pose for which any species of domes-
tic animal is designed, every quality
must be attended to which furthers
this view ; and, except under very
peculiar circumstances, the animals
intended to keep up the stock by their
produce must be chosen with those
qualities in the greatest perfection
which are essential to the end. In all
animals a perfect conformation of the
bodily frame is essential to the due per-
formance of the vital functions. The
skeleton of the animal should there-
fore be as perfect as possible. The
capacity of the chest, and the healthy
nature of the lungs, are points which
must never be overlooked, whatever
may be the purpose for which the
animal is bred ; for although a defect
may be in some measure counteract-
ed by a judicious choice of the indi-
vidual coupled with the defective an-
imal, it is only where there is no al-
ternative or choice that any defect in
the bodily frame of an animal kept
for breeding should be overlooked.
In spite of every care, the defect will
appear in the offspring ; sometimes
108

not till after several generations. If
it were possible to find individuals
without fault or defect, no price would
be too great for them ; and for those
that have been carefully selected for
several generations, it is real econo-
my to give a very liberal price. In
horses bred for racing or for the
chase experience has fully proved the
truth of this rule ; and no one who
pretends to breed race-horses would
breed from a mare which had a nat-
ural defect, or a horse whose whole
pedigree was not free from fault. For
mere swiftness, the shape of the ani-
mal, whether horse or greyhound,
must combine strength with great
activity. The chest must be deep,
the lungs free, and the digestive, or-
gans sound but small, to add as little
weight to the body as is consistent
with the healthy functions of nature.
The legs should be long and slender,
and the bones compact and strong ;
but the principal thing to be attended
to is the courage, and no quality is
so hereditary. A horse or hound of
a good breed, if in health, will die of
exertion sooner than give up the
chase. Any defect in courage in an
animal intended for great occasional
exertion renders him unfit to be se-
lected to continue an improved breed ;
and, whatever may be his pedigree,
he has degenerated.

With respect to animals whose
strength and endurance are their
most desirable qualities, a greater
compactness of form is required, a
greater capacity of the digestive or-
gans, and, according to the climate
to which they may be exposed, a
more suitable covering. Whether it
be to ward of!' cold or great heat, a
thick covering of hair is equally ser-
viceable in both cases. Hardiness
of constitution is hereditary, like oth-
er qualities ; and the manner in which
the young are reared tends greatly to
confirm or diminish this. An animal
of which the breed originally came
from a warm climate, like a tender
exotic plant, wants artificial warmth
for the healthy growth of its limbs ;
while the indigenous and more hardy
breeds may be left exposed to the

BREEDIXG.

elements. An abundance of whole-
some food and pure water is essen-
tial to the healthy state of every ani-
mal, as well as exercise proportioned
to its strength. These are circum-
stances which it is obvious must be
carefully attended to. There are
others, the result of long experience,
which are equally necessary to be
known, but which are not so obvious.
These vary according to the species
and variety of the animals bred, and
it is seldom that the same breeder is
equally successful in rearing different
species of animals.

In the animals selected to breed
from, there are points, as they are
called, which are peculiar conforma-
tions, some of which are connected
with the natural formation of the
skeleton, and others appear to be the
result of an association derived from
the known qualities of certain indi-
viduals. That high withers and a
freely-moving shoulder-blade in a
horse are connected with his speed,
is readily perceived, and that the
length of the muscles of the quarter,
and the manner of their insertion,
should affect his power, is equally
evident ; but it is not so apparent
that the manner in which the ears
are placed on the head, the shape of
the nose or jaw, and the insertion
of the tail higher or lower, has an im-
portant effect on the value of the an-
imal, independently of any arbitrary
idea of beauty. A breeder who should
not attend to these circumstances in
the animals chosen to perpetuate the
breed would tind, to his cost, that it
is more than mere taste which has
determined these points. It is the
result of observation and experience
that certain breeds are invariably
distinguished by certain peculiarities,
and that these are almost as invaria-
bly connected with good qualities, ap-
parently quite independent of the
parts on which these points appear.

There is an indication of the dispo-
sition of an animal in the eye, in the
shape of the head, and in the manner
in which it is carried, which seldom
deceives an experienced judge. He
will not risk introducing a vicious or

. .K

: sulky disposition into his breed, which
might counterbalance all the good
qualities the animal might possess,
and introduce a greater hereditary
i fault than any imperfection of form.
I But nothing is so deceitful as the
prejudices which exist with respect
I to peculiarities and colours. In some
' countries no ox or cow would be
' thought good of its kind that was not
red or brown without spots ; in oth-
I ers a certain portion of white is es-
! sential. This is owing to the common
' colour of the breeds most esteemed
I in each country. Tlie reason of the
i prejudice is the association of the
I colour with some defect, and those
i who breed for profit by sale must be
i ruled by the taste of their customers.
' The rational mode of proceeding is
to be well acquainted with the anat-
, omy of the kind of animal which we
: make the subject of our attention ; to
learn by experience what are the pe-
culiar qualities of the different breeds,
; distinguished by any particular fea-
i ture, and whether these qualities
have any apparent connexion with
I the peculiarity in make or colour.
' We may then be guided by the knowl-
edge thus acquired in our choice of
individuals to perpetuate the breed,
and not only preserve the useful qual-
; ities which they already possess, but
gradually improve them. No greater
i mistake can be committed than that
of making what are called violent
crosses, such as coupling a very spir-
ited male with a sluggish female, an
animal with large bones with one of
very slender make, a long-limbed
I animal with a compact one. By such
i crosses the first produce has often
appeared much improved ; but nature
IS not to be forced, and if the breed
is continued, innumerable deformi-
: ties and defects are certain to follow,
[ The safe way is, to choose the ani-
I mals as nearly alike in their general
I qualities as possible, taking care that
j where there is a defect in one it ex-
i ist not in the other, which would in-
; fallibly perpetuate it. A defect can
j never be remedied by means of an-
j other of an opposite kind, but, by
I great attention, it may be diminished
109

BREEDING.

gradually, and at last disappear en-
tirely. This refers, however, to de-
fecls, not to peculiar qualities. Cows,
for example, may produce either milk
or fat in abundance from similar food ;
and a breed of cow which secretes
too much fat, so as to be deficient in
the milk necessary to rear the calf,
may be improved by selecting such
as give more milk, and by crossing
the breed with these ; but we must
be careful not to choose individuals
•which differ much in sliape from the
breed to be improved. Every at-
tempt to unite opposite qualities is
generally attended with a bad re-
sult. If a breed has too great an
aptitude to fatten, so as to endanger
the fecundity of the mother or the
health of the offspring, the only rem-
edy is to diminish the oily nature of
the food ; and if, on the otlier hand,
a difficulty is found in fattening cows
which are of a peculiarly good breed
for the dairy, the loss on the old cow
sold half fat will have been amply
repaid by the milk she has given ;
and the bull-calves which are not
wanted to rear for bulls, if they are not
profitable to fatten as oxen, must be
fatted off young and sold for veal.
But it is not a necessary consequence
of an abundant produce of milk that
the cow, when dry, will not fatten
readily, although a great propensity
to fatten renders the breed less fit
for the dairy. The Ayrshire, which
are good milkers, fatten well when
dry, and tiie oxen of that breed are
as kind feeders as any.

Many breeders have an idea that
coupling animals which are nearly
allied in blood produces a weak race ;
others consider it as a prejudice, and
among those who held the latter
opinion was the famous breeder
Bakewell. Without deciding tliis
point, we should recommend avoid-
ing too near a relationship, provided
individuals equally perfect can be
found of the same breed more dis-
tantly related. Every individual has
some peculiar defect, and his de-
scendants have a tendency to this
defect. If two immediate descend-
ants are coupled, this defect will
110

probably be confirmed ; whereas by
uniting the descendants of different
individuals the defect of either of the
parents may never break out ; but
sooner than retrograde by coupling
an inferior animal with one in an im-
proved state, we should not liesitate
to risk the consequences supposed to
arise from what is called breeding in
and in, that is, coupling animals near-
ly related in blood, especially if only
on one side, such as the produce of
the same male by different females,
or of a female by different sires.

The qualities which distinguish
animals in which the muscles and
bones are required to be much exer-
cised, as dogs, horses, and working
oxen, are very different from those
of animals destined to accumulate
mere tender flesh and fat for human
food. In the former there must be
spirit, activity, and quick digestion ;
in the latter, indolence and proneness
to sleep are advantageous. In the
first, the lungs must play with ease,
and the muscles be strong, and not
encumbered with fat. In the second,
the lungs must be sound, as they are
essential to all the secretions, and
the digestive power must be good,
but slow. The food must not be ac-
celerated through the bowels by ex-
ercise, but the absorbent vessels of
the intestines must draw all the nonr-
isiiment from the digested food. The
more the muscles are impeded with
fat, the better the animal will repay
the food given him. To choose an
animal to breed from whose produce
shall get fat readily, we must attend
to this part of the constitution, and
care little about spirit and activity.
The tendency to secrete bone, and
those parts which are called offal by
the butchers, as being of inferior val-
ue, is a defect. Good flesh and fat
are the great objects.

The manner in which the more sol-
id parts of the body are formed, and
the greater consumption of food, in
proportion to the increase of weight
which takes place in young animals,
while bones and horns are grov^ing,
prove that it is much more expensive
to produce bone than flesh, and mus-

BRLIEDLNG.

cular fibre than fat. Hence it is ev-|
ident that the greater profit is in fat- 1
tening annuals that have finished their i
growth ; and also that there is a su- ;
periority in those breeds which have
small bones and no horns. This is j
an important point to be attended to j
by a breeder, as is also the time when j
the bony secretion is completed. A |
breed of animals that will cease to
grow, or have attained their full size .
of bone at an early age, will be much ■
more profitable to the grazier than one
of slower growth. It is in this respect
chiefly that certain breeds of sheep
and cattle are so far superior to oth-
ers. The principles which apply to
cattle are equally applicable, mutatis
mutandis, to sheep. In no case are
strong bones or horns of much im-
portance to the sheep in its domestic
state. The principal objects are wool
and flesh, which appear to be depend-
ant on distinct and, perhaps, incom-
patible qualities. The attempt to
unite the two is perhaps the reason
why the Spanish breed, which has
been improved when transported into
Saxony, has degenerated in England,
so that even its crosses are not in re-
pute. It is a matter of mere calcula-
tion, whether sheep kept for their
wool chiefly are more profitable than
those which give an increase of meat
at the expense of the quality of the
wool. A breeder of sheep who at-
tends only to the quality of the wool
will not have his attention taken off
from the main object by any deficien-
cy in the carcass, or the disposition
of the animal to increase in flesh and
fat. It is possible that mixed breeds
may be more profitable than the pure.
Fine wool may not repay the breeder
and rearer of sheep so well as mod-
erate wool and good meat. But the
principle we contend for is that of
producing the most perfect animal of
any one variety existing, by correct-
ing individual defects gradually, and
avoiding fanciful crosses, which may
destroy in one generation all the ad-
vantages obtained in a great many.
Hence it is a matter of great impor-
tance to consider well the qualities of
the individuals with which you begin

your improvement, and to know that

these qualities have existed in their
progenitors, and are not merely acci-
dental. If crossing appear necessa-
ry, let it be done very gradually and
cautiously. No experienced breeder
would ever expect to improve the
fleece of a sheep of the Leicester
breed or the carcass of the Merino by
a direct cross between these two
breeds. The offspring would most
probably lose all the good qualities
for which each hreed is noted, and
produce a mongrel breed worth little
in comparison. But a cross of Meri-
noes with South Downs, or Leicester
with Costwold, might produce new
and useful breeds, and these, carefully
selected, as has been done, have pro-
duced mixed breeds, which by great
attention may become very valuable.

■\Mien it is determined what breed
of animals you wish to perpetuate and
improve, the individuals which are to
be the parents of the stock cannot be
too carefully selected. The more
nearly they are alike in form, colour,
and exterior appearance, the more
likely they are to produce a distinct
race. They should neither be above
nor under the usual size. They should
be of such an age as to have entirely
ceased growing, and be arrived at
perfect maturity ; and, whatever may
be their good qualities, they should
not be selected, if they are the prod-
uce of very aged parents, at least on
the female side.

In horses and horned cattle many
breeders prefer a male rather less in
size than the female, and pretend that
the fuetus has more room to develop
its members in what they term a roomy
female. There may be some truth in
this, but equality of size, or rather the
due proportion established in nature,
seems most likely to produce a well-
formed offspring. Any considerable
deviation from this is generally at-
tended with defect. Nothing is more
common than for a country gentle-
man who has a useful, favourite mare,
not particularly well bred, when any
accident has rendered her unfit for
work, to have her covered by some
very high-bred stallion, expecting to
111

BRE

BRE

Iiave a very superior foal. Sometimes

lliis succeeds, but in genera! it ends
in disappointment, especially if tlie
mare be small. A much more certain
way is to choose a half-bred stallion,
nearly of the size of the mare, and
having those good points which the
mare already possesses. In this case
there is every probability of rearing a
well-proportioned and useful animal,
instead of a cross-made one, as the
breeders call them, probably from the
very circumstance of these crosses not
succeeding in general. We advert to
this as a fact which many of our read-
ers may know from experience.

To give in a few words the rules
which result from what we have very
brietly stated :

Choose the kind of animal which
you wish to breed from, having dis-
tinguishing qualities ; keep these con-
stantly in view, and reject all individ-
uals in which they are not as perfect
at least as in the parents. Select the
most perfect forms, and let the de-
fects be corrected gradually. Have
patience and perseverance, and avoid
all attempts at any sudden alteration
by bold crosses. If possible, breed
two or more famdies of the same
kind, keeping them distinct, and only
occasionally crossing the one with the
other. In this manner a very impro-
ved breed may be produced. The near-
er you approach to perfection, the
more ditficult will be the selection, |
and the greater the danger of retro- j
grading. Hence in very highly bred
stocks it is often almost impossible to
keep up the perfection of the breed,
and a fluctuation in the quality of the
produce will take place. The more
improved the breed is, therefore, the
greater attention must be paid in the
selection of those which are to con-
tinue it. And for want of this, al-
most every breed, however reputed
it may have been at one time, grad- J
ually degenerates, and loses its great i
superiority. I

As every farmer and occupier of
land is more or less a breeder, if he
be only a breeder of pigs, these ob-
servations may be useful. In the ar- j
tides on each particidar species of j
112

animal, these general principles are
applied, and more particular direc-
tions are given.

BREEDIXG IN AND IN. This
is very injurious ultimately both in
animals and man.

BREEDING PONDS. Ponds for
raising j-oung fish ; they should have
shallows with reeds and sedges. Pike
and pickerel are in the habit of devour-
ing the spawn when they can reach It.
BREEZE FLIES. The bot flies,
JSslridcB.

BREWING. The making of beer.
This consists of the following opera-
tions : 1st. The malt, properly ground
or crushed, is put into a large tub
with a false bottom, perforated by nu-
merous holes, and furnished with a
faucet. Over the malt, water, heated
from 170= to 185°, is poured, and the
whole well stirred or mashed together
for some time. It is then allowed to
settle, and the infusion drawn off into
another tub. If two varieties of beer,
ale and small beer, be desired, this
first portion is kept separate, other-
wise it is mixed with the second
infusion. The second mash-water
should be nearly 200° Fahrenheit.
Four bushels of malt are treated to
one and a half barrel, or fifty-one gal-
lons of water, each mashing. The
second infusion, after standing to set-
tle, is also drawn off, and the two to-
gether form the sweet wort.

2d. The worts, mixed or separate,
and even mixed with a third int'usion,
are next transferred to the boiler, and
hops added. The amount of hops de-
pends partly on the taste and partly
on the strength of the beer ; for com-
mon beer four pounds to the four bush-
els will answer. For the strongest
ales as much as twenty-eight pounds
are used. This mixture is boiled an
hour and a half or more, until the
fluid begins to assume a bright colour.
3d. It is then drawn oil" into cool-
ers, or at once into the fermenting
tuns. When cooled to about 60°
Fahrenheit, two pounds of fresh yeast
are added to every thirty-four gallons
of wort, and the tun kept at the same
temperature. As soon as fermenta-
tion is fairly established, and its first

Bill

BRI

violence somewhat subsided, the li-
quor is transferred to suitable casks,
the bunghole of which is left open as
long as yeast is cast up, and afterward
securely fastened. As soon as the
beer or alcoholic fermentation ceases,
vinegar begins to form, and the w'hole
sours.

A wort may be prepared from any
sweet juice or germinated seed, and,
treated in the same way, will make
beer. The strength of ales depends
on the large quantity of sugar in the
wort. Porters are coloured by brown
malt, molasses, &c. Numerous bit-
ters, many very injurious, as Cocculus
Indicus, are used instead of hops.

BRICKS. Blocks of burned clay
eight inches long, four wide, by two
and a half deep. Larger moulds are
made for particular purposes. Build-
ings have been recently erected of
unburned bricks, which appear to be
cheap, substantial, and durable when
protected on the outside by cement
or mortar. The following account
of the method employed in Geneva,
New- York, gives all the necessary
details :

The materials are two parts clay,
one sand, with straw and water, as in
ordinary brick-making. It is well
trodden or worked by oxen until
sticky. With the materials for one
thousand bricks three hundred pounds
of straw are mixed. The bricks are
moulded with an ordinary wooden
frame, of the size intended for the
wall, so as to form it one brick deep.
For a building thirty feet in height,
bricks eighteen inches square, and six
deep ; for lower cottages, twelve inch-
es square will answer. The mould is
dipped in water, sanded, and then fill-
ed with clay, and struck with a piece
of wood. The fresh-made brick should
be sanded if the day be hot. They are
set flat on the dry ground on boards,
and towards night the sets are cov-
ered with boards. The next day they
are set on end, with spaces between
the bricks, and after four days of fine
weather they are piled up with air
spaces, and covered with boards. In
a fortnight they are ready for use.

The foundations are set in stone or

K2

burned bricks, two feet above the

earth, and the first course of blocks put
down in water-liine. Interior parti-
tions are put up with bricks of the ordi-
nary size. Windows and doors should
not be fixed permanently at once, but
left until the building is well set. Fix-
tures to the wall are fastened into
timbers introduced during the build-
ing. Fire-places m.ust be of burned
brick. The roof must project suffi-
ciently to keep water from running
into the materials.

A coating of water-lime or cement
completes the building, which is said
to be warm and perfectly free from
dampness, and very much cheaper
than wood. " A house in Geneva,
New- York, twenty-one by twenty-
seven feet, and two stories high, cost
less, when completed, than four hun-
dred dollars."' For a fuller account,
see the Home Missionary for Septem-
ber, 1844.

BRICK EARTH. Any stiff clay,
containing fifty to seventy per cent,
of real clay, and the rest sand : the
latter of these answers also for tiles.
It is either blue or red.

BRIDLE. A contrivance made of
straps or thongs of leather, and pie-
ces of iron, in order to keep a horse
in subjection, and direct him in trav-
elling. The several parts of a bridle
are the bit or snaffle ; the head-stall,
or leather from the top of the head to
the rings of the bit ; the fillet, over
the forehead and under the fore-top ;
tlie throat-band, which buckles from
the head-band under the throat ; the
nose-bands, going through the loops
at the back of the head-stall, and buck-
led under the cheeks ; the reins, or
long thongs of leather that come from
the rings of the bit, and which, be-
ing cast over the horse's head, the ri-
der holds in his hands.

BRIMSTONE. Roll sulphur, made
by melting and casting common sul-
phur. vSee Sulphur.

BRINING GRAIN. Grain and the
seeds of grasses, &c., are often pre-
pared, before sowing, by being intro-
duced into a strong brine, which may
be heated to 150° Fahrenheit, or even
higher. The brine is made by adding
113

BKr

BRO

common coarse or refuse salt to \va- 1
ter until it is strong enough to float j
an egg. The brined seed is afterward
dusted with ncwly-slackcd lime, and
sown. The great benefit is the de-
struction of the seeds of smut, rust,
mildew, and other blights : when heat
is added, the eggs of many insects
are also killed. Stale urine is also
used with great effect in the same
way, as well as strong wood-ash lye.
The plan of brining is extensively
resorted to throughout England and
Scotland with great success ; indeed,
so beneficial does small doses of salt
appear, that on the seashore, and on
farms where refuse salt is used, smut
is almost unknown. A solution of one
pound of salt to one gallon of water is
recommended as a wash or sprinkling
for plants infested by mildew and oth-
er fungi by the late Mr. Cartwright. It
is, however, injurious to some vege-
tables. Brining has been often found
to save a field from rust and smut
when all other grain was infested.

BRISTLES. The stiffhair of hogs.
Independently of their economical val-
ue, they constitute a manure as good
as old woollen rags, containing, in-
deed, the same substances, and yield-
ing ammonia by decay. Wliere they
can be had in sufficient quantities,
one half to three fourths of a ton is a
heavy manuring for five years for hops,
turnips, cabbages, tobacco, hemp, flax,
wheat, corn, and rich plants gener-
ally. The same applies to all kinds
of waste hair or wool.

BRITISH GUM. Starch heated to
600' Fahrenheit, by which it becomes
brown and soluble in cold water.

BRITTLE HOOF. An aftection
of the horse's hoof, very common, es-
pecially in summer, in England, from
bad stable management. A mixture
of one part of oil of tar and two of
common fish oil, well rubbed into the
crust and the hoof, will restore the
natural pliancy and toughness of the
horn, and very much contribute to the
quickness of its growth. — {Youatl on
the Horse.)

BRIZA. The generic name of
the quaking grass (B. media). It is a
poor perennial grass.
114

BROAD-CAST SOAVING. The
distribution of seed or manures over
land by casting with the hand or by
a maciiine. The sower carries a bas-
ket on tlie left arm, and throws with
his right hand as he walkes along be-
tween the lands or ridges of the field,
sowing one half its width in going,
and the other half in returning on the
other side. Small seeds are usually
cast with some earth. It requires ex-
perience and good ploughing to seed
well, for unless the ridges between
each furrow are well marked, so as
to present grooves to receive seed,
they will not grow in rows ; but when
the furrows are nicely laid the plants
appear as regularly as if drilled. Of
late it has been customary to dispar-
age sowing by broad-cast, in conse-
quence of the waste of seed, the ten-
dency to weeds in the ground, and
the difficulty of exterminating them.
To avoid these evils, drills are intro-
duced. The broad-cast method is cer-
tainly altogether inapplicable to tur-
nips or any other crop requiring hoe-
ing, or liable to destruction from
weeds, and is now seldom practised in
such cases ; but wheat, grains, grass-
es, fallow crops, &c., are thus sown
most readily and very effectively.
Machines for broad-casting are of lit-
tle utility where the farmer has a lit-
tle experience.

BROCCOLI. An improved variety
of cabbage, the flower buds of which
are eaten. It differs from the cauli-
flower only in the looseness of the in-
florescence. The varieties are nu-
merous, the early white and white
cape being best ; but the purple cape
is the only kind much cultivated. The
seeds of the last are sown towards
the end of May in the Middle States,
and later in the South ; for winter
supplies later sowmg will be neces-
sary. An ounce of seed produces
3000 to 4000 plants. Transplant in
July, or when the plants are large
enough, into very rich, dunged, and
mellow earth ; plant 18 to 24 inches
apart each way ; moisten the earth
frequently with fluid manure : hoe
and keep clean during their growth.
They will be in season in September

BRO

BRO

and October. For winter kintls, it will
be necessary to take plants up as
soon as slight frosts appear, lay them
in light soil, and place them in frames,
to ripen during winter and early
spring. In tlie Southern -Slates the
winters are mild enough to allow of
their growth abroad.

BROKEN KNEES. See Horse,
Diseases of.

BROKEN WIND. Prof. Youatt
attributes this incurable nuisance in
horses to stuffing them with too much
coarse provender, and working soon
after meals. Horses are granivor-
ous, and should rest at least one hour
after food, be fed three times daily,
and not once or twice.

BROMINE. An elementary brown
fluid, of a rile odour {Spuuog), extract-
ed from salt-water and sea-weeds.
It is very similar to chloriiie in its
properties ; hitherto used only by Da-
guerrian artists. Its scarcity makes
it very expensive.

BROMUS. A genus of grasses, of
which B. secalinvs, common cheat, or
chess, is most famous. Many species
exist in America, but they are not of
value in permanent meadows.

BRONCHIA, i^poyxo^, the throat.)
The ramifications of the windpipe in
the lungs.

BRONCHITIS. Inflammation of
the bronchia. See Horse, Diseases of.

BRONCHOTOMY. The operation
of openins the trachea low down.

BROOD-MARES. Mares should
not breed till three years old. When
taken care of they bear twenty years.
They heat in spring, and carry young
about eleven months. May is the
best month for covering.

BROOM. The European shrub
Spartium scoparium, which bears
bright-yellow papilionaceous flowers,
and is hence cultivated in shrubber-
ies. It is used also as a cover for
game and shelter to young planta-
tions. iS. jnncenm, Spanish broom,
is prettier, and fragrant. 5. mono-
spermnm bears white flowers. These
are common, except the last, through-
out the United States.

BROOM-CORN. The Sorsrhum
saccharatum. Another plant, the S.

dora, is the Indian millet. The cul-
tivation of broom-corn for the manu-
facture of brooms and for seed is of
great profit in the Yalley of the Con-
necticut, Mohawk, and in New-.Jer-
sey. It would be still more profita-
ble in the South, as in these localities
the frost sometimes hurts the plants
before the seed ripens.

The best variety is the New- Jer-
sey, which yields upward of 1000 lbs.
of broom, and much seed, per acre.
The North River yields 720 lbs. The
pine-tree variety is earliest, but small
and thin. The seed crop averages from
50 to 80 bushels. The best alluvial
soils are chosen, and well manured.
The seed is planted in May. at the rate
of a tea-spoonful to the hill, the hills
being three feet by eighteen inches
apart, so as to allow the cultivator to
run between the rows. The hills are
dunged with old compost immediate-
ly before sowing. It is hoed or work-
ed three times, like corn. Seven to
ten plants are left in the hill ; the
thinning takes place at the first hoe-
ing. The crop is harvested at the
first frost. The stems are bent, or
partly broken 2.V feet from the ground,
and left to dry for a few days ; the
stalks are next cut. at six or eight
inches from the brush. The produce
is next dried in the barn on scaffolds,
or in any convenient way. The best
broom is cut when of a yellowish
green. The seed is removed by pull-
ing the panicles or brooms through a
scraper, which tears them ofl^. Mr.
Allen, of Massachusetts, who has had
much experience in this matter, rec-
oiiunends the following contrivance :

The lower board rests on the barn
floor; the upper is moveable by a
hinge, and can be set at any height ; it
is intended to grasp the three upright
rods, B ; the central is of stout iron,
the side ones of elastic steel. The
115

BllU

panicles are forced down between
these rods, and tlicn pulled towards
A ; thus the seed is torn ofT, and slides
down the ui)pcr hoard into the barn.

The seeds are worth twenty-five to
thirty cents the bushel, and arc con-
sidered equal to oats. The broom
sells at from four to six cents the
pound. It is a very profitable crop,
and will remain so, from the large
exportations of brooms. The large
quantity of seed it produces consti-
tutes it a very exhausting crop.

BROOM GRASS, or STRAW.
The genus Andropoiron, so called from
the little tufts of hair or beards on
their flowers. They are not introdu-
ced into culture, and have little eco-
nomical value.

BROWN DYES. The common-
est are the decoctions of oak bark,
common bastard marjoram, walnut
peels, horse-chestnut peels, and cate-
chu. Oak bark and walnut (English
walnut is best) give dyes without
mordants, but are brightened by al-
um. Catechu (1 lb.) combined with
blue vitriol (4 oz.) gives a bronze
when used in a boiling solution. The
tints of brown are, however, so nu-
merous, that it is more common to
use madder as a basis for the red
tints, fustic for the yellows, and use
solution of iron and copper as mor-
dants, and even a gall-nut hath after-
ward, to reach the proper shade.

BROWSE. The young branches
of trees, shrubs, &c. {v.) To feed.

BRUCHUS. A Linnaean genus
of coleopterous insects, of the tribe
Hhyncophora, now the type of a fam-
ily {Bruchula-), with the following
characters : upper lip distinct ; head
produced anteriorly into a broad, flat-
tened snout ; palpi filiform ; antenna
filiform or serrate ; eyes notched ;
wing-sheaths not covering the ex-
tremity of the body. The insects of
this family deposite their eggs in the
young grains or seeds of legumin-
ous plants ; the time of the hatching
of the eggs is when the seeds have
approached to maturity, and then the
larvae begin to feed voraciously upon
them. One species, the Bruchus gra-
narius, infests our pease ; and the rav-
IIG

BUG

ages of this insect and the Bruchvs
pisi have been so extensive as to call
for legislative interference.

BRUCIA. A vegetable alkaloid,
simihir to strychnine, and poisonous.

BRUMALIS. (Bruina,ici?t(er.) Ap-
pertaining to winter.

BRYONY. Bryonia dioica. K climb-
ing herb, of a poisonous nature.

BUCK. The male of deer, rab-
bits, &c.

BUCK-BEAN. Menyanthcs trifoli-
ala. A swamp plant, with handsome
flowers and bitter leaves. The latter
are used as a substitute for hops, and
are a mild tonic.

BUCK-EYE. Two western trees
bear this name, the Pavia lutea and
Ohiocnsis; they belong to the same
family as the horse-chestnut. They
are wholly ornamental, the wood be-
ing of no value as timber.

BUCK-THORN. The Rhamnus ca-
tharticus. A prickly shrub, suitable for
hedges. It is indigenous in New-
York, and easily cultivated by seeds,
slips, or suckers. The berries are ca-
thartic and griping. The R. infecto-
rius, a similar shrub, produces the fa-
mous French or Persian yellow ber-
ries used in dyeing. It might be read-
ily cultivated south of Maryland, as it
grows in Provence.

BUCKWHEAT. The grain pro-
duced by the Polygonum fagopyrum
(rt), tartaricum (b), and a few other
species. In the United States the
first only is cultivated ; but it is said
a new wild Italian species yields more
abundantly. The seeds are small,
dark, and angular. From twenty to
thirty bushels are obtained from the
common kind per acre. Buckwheat
is usually sown on rocky places or
poor soils, of a silicious or calcare-
ous nature ; but it grows well nearly
anywhere. It may be sown in May
for a full crop ; or immediately after
wheat, rye, or oats, for a fall crop ; or
still later, to be fallowed in the fall.
From 1 to U bushels are necessary to
the acre. It soon starts in a dry,
warm soil ; flowers in July or earlier,
and continues producing flowers for
some time. As it is a native of Per-
sia, the least frost is injurious ; it

BUG

7^y , ~-Ki.-

should therefore be cut early in Oc
tober, or at the end of September.
As the seeds scatter, some recom-
mend pulling by the roots ; but a cra-
dle-scythe answers every purpose. In
consequence of the succulence of the
stems, it requires to be sweated in
cock ^vhen dried for fodder, and
should be threshed as early as con-
venient. The stalk, well cured, is a
good rough fodder, and forms a valu-
able addition to the cattle-yard. ]\I.
Antoine has shown, on the most au-
thentic data, that it is very superior
to common straw, and of half the
value of prime hay.

As a fallow crop, it is very valua-
ble, from the size (2 feet) if attains
on poor sands, and the ease with
which it ferments and yields food to
the next crop. The flowers are
sought by bees, but form a dark, rath-
er harsh honey. It is also cut in
flower for soiling milch cows, and is
very good mixed with clover, but too
much is apt to produce drowsiness.
Poultry and all cattle eat the seeds or
meal. It is rather superior to oats,
as the following composition shows ;

Woody fibre 25

Starch 50

Albumen, &,c 145

Oil 04

Salts 1-5

Water 160

TocT

BUD

Its ashes sometimes contain an
exoess of potash salts, sometimes of
lime, thaee being isomorphous.

The scods are ground into meal
for making buckwheat cakes, which
are highly relished throughout the
country. In Germany malt is made
with them, and beer and spirits.
Birds, especially pheasants, are very
fond of them. The Maine farmer
recommends the cultivation of buck-
wheat to destroy couch grass ; the
first crop is to be ploughed in when
flowering, and another seeded upon
it at once ; from the last, grain may
be collected.

Some species of polygonum yield
good yellow dyes, as the Siberian ;
others, as the bistorta, are acrid and
poisonous.

BUD. The growing point of a
branch, consisting of young unex-
panded leaflets or flower petals.
Winter buds contain a small store of
starch and albumen at their base to
sustain the leaflets in spring. Flower
buds are usually developed on spurs or
in the axils of leaves, while leaf buds
are seen on the vigorous shoots. All
buds are in contact with the inner
bark of trees, and with the young
wood, from which latter they derive
sap for development. Adventitious
or latent buds are such as break out
from the bark of trees without hav-
ing any external sign or eye ; they
are, however, marked on willows by
roughnesses on the bark, in other
trees by knaurs. In all that respects
structure and function, the eyes ot
potatoes, dahlias, the bulbs of tulips,
onions, and all seeds are perfect buds,
tliese different parts being modifica-
tions of the same general plan.

The development of lower buds in
trees or branches is readily effected
by cutting away the upper, which, as
they are more excitable, usually take
the first start, and, using all the sap,
hinder the growth of the lower eyes.

BUDDING. The insertion or in-
oculation of the buds of one tree into
the branches or stock of another.
The buds are to be taken from the
year's shoot about midway, and from
a healiiiy, full-bearing "tree. The
117

BUD

BUF

time is from July to September,
as soon as buds are well formed.
The incision into the slock is through
the bark down to the new wood and
in the form of a T; this can be made
with any knife, but the following is
called a buddinc knife :

The bark must be raised at the an-
gles, and should separate readily from
the wood. The bud is cut along with
a b abouthalf an inch of bark
(a), and slightly into the
wood, so that the part im-
mediately below the eye
may be so furnished, and
not hollow. The wood re-
moved is only to ensure
the heart of the bud, and as little as
possible is left in the insertion. The
part above the eye is then cut straight
(i), and the bud introduced between
the lips of the wound on the stock,
down to the new wood, and pushed
in firmly, the upper cut part corre-
sponding very nicely with the hori-
zontal incision. A bass riband, a
strip from the shuck of corn, or any
other bandage that does not hold wa-
ter, is then cast round the stock two
or three times above the bud, and
gradually brought round so as to bind
the insertion tightly, except over the
eye. The riband must be loosened
in two or three weeks if the bud
swells, so as to give room for growth.
Spring budding is also practised, the
winter's bud of a tree being inserted
at the time of sap rise ; the only dif-
ference in this case is, that the inci-
sion is inverted thus J^, and care is to
be taken that the bud has been cut a
few days, so as to be rather behind
the vegetation of the stock.

The stock or branch after budding
is to be lopped down by a clean trans-
verse cut at about three buds above
the insertion, all the lower buds being
removed. In spring, or when the in-
sertion starts, it is to have full room,
and as it gathers strength, the upper
natural shoots from the buds left are
to be pruned, and finally cut altogeth-
er away towards midsummer, if the
msertion has taken well.
118

Budding is practised to secure
choice varieties of fruits, to mix or-
namental kinds on the same tree, and
to improve shrubbery. But the pro-
cess is seldom successful unless the
stock and variety are of the same
species or nearly allied. The only
difhculty in the way is the entrance
of rain water into the wound of the
stock ; to hinder this effectively, it is
well to add a little cement of tallow
and wax over the incision, or to use
bass dipped in such a mixture while
warm.

In the dahlia, orange, and some
other trees cultivated for dwarfs, the
bud is inserted on a piece of the root
instead of a stock ; this is, however,
termed grafting, as it is introduced in
the cleft fashion.

BUFFALO. The American buffa-
lo or bison (Bos Amcricanus), once in-
habiting the central portions of the
United States, are now driven be-
yond the Mississippi. They are found
in immense flocks, and are very timid
and retired, except in the rutting sea-
son, when the bulls become fierce and
pugnacious. Tlie animal is remark-
able for a hump on the back between
the shoulders, for a long mane, broad
chest, and great strength of head and
neck. The buffalo breeds readily with
domestic oxen, but the young of the
bull buffalo is too large for the pelvis
of the common cow ; hence the mix-
ture can only be made by crossing
the wild cow by the domestic ox.
Captain Jenkins, of Missouri, has sev-
eral half-breeds of this kind, which
promise to be capital draught ani-
mals, large, heavy, hardy, and easily
sustained.

The skin is handsome, black, and
glossy, and a considerable article of
trade. The hide, tanned, is said to
be softer, thicker, and less pervious
to water than the ox hide.

BUFFALO BERRIES. The fruit
of the Shcphardia (or Hippophcc) argcn-
tea, silver-leafed shephardia. A hand-
some, thorny, small tree of Missouri.
It is diaecious, the fruit scarlet, of the
size of currants, in profuse clusters.
It is said to be rich in flavour, and ex-
cellent for pies and preserves.

BUR

BUS

BUFFALO GRASS. A Western
indigenous grass of small size, form-
ing a delicate mat. and growing on
dry, gravelly soils. The s^ama grass
is sometimes called by this name.

BUG. A common word, meaning
any insect, hut properly applied only
to the bedbug (Cimex Icctularius),
which is the upe of an extensive
family of filthy insects which accumu-
late from neglect of cleanliness and
laziness. Solutions of corrosive sub-
limate in water, ointments with the
same poison, and fumigations with
tobacco are used with success in de-
stroying these insects. Boiling wa-
ter poured into the crevices of beds,
and repeated every week during
spring, is very efficacious.

BUHR-STONE. The mill-stone for
flouring ; it possesses great hardness
with little brittleness, is cellular, of a
bluish gray, and feebly translucent.
The best kind has a texture nearly
half cellular, and is entirely silicious ;
the pieces or panes of rock are bound
together by hoops of iron when set
up for use. The great and valuable
supply of buhr-stone is from near Par-
is in the lacustrine deposite, above the
gypsum. It is the latest rock forma-
tion known.

Buhr-stone has been discovered in
Georgia, near the South Carolina
boundary, about forty miles from the
sea. It lies above shell limestone.

BULB (from 3o?.6oc). A rounded
body, having the properties of a bud,
usually growing in the ground, but
sometimes produced by the flower
stalk. Bulbs are lumcated, as the
onion, and squamous or scaly, like the
lily. Many bulbs, when cut down
through the centre, and planted in
pieces, produce several plants. On-
ions are cultivated in this way in
Russia. The adjectives bulbous, hul-
bosus, are formed from bulb. The
fleshy, solid root-stock of orchis is
not a bulb, hut cormus.

BULBODIU.M. An underground
stem resembling the root-stock.

BULL. The excellence of the bull
should be well considered in breedinii.

BULLACE. A wild plum of alight
colour.

BURDOCK. Arctium lappa, and
bordana. Troublesome, long-rooted
weeds, difficult to eradicate. Their
medicinal (pialities are imaginary.
BURNED CLAY. See Clai/.
BURNED EAR. The disease pro-
duced in grain by the Urcdo carho. It
resembles smut, but does not attack
the interior of the seed. It is most
common on heavily-dunged lands in
moist situations. Bnmng, especial-
ly in a brine containing a little blue
vitriol, is efficacious in destroying its
effects on grain.

BURNET SALAD. Potcnum stni-
guisorba. It grows on the poorest
calcareous soils, and is perennial. It
may be propagated by cuttings or
seeds. The leaves taste and smell
like cucumbers ; hence its use in
salads. It is relished by sheep.

BURNS. A lotion of clear lime-
water and linseed oil applied with a
rag, and cautiously guarding from ex-
posure to air, dust, or to injury, by a
bandage, is the best treatment.

BURSA MUCOSA. Small bags
contaming a fatty mucus, situated be
tween the joints in all animals.

BUSH. Any shrub which natural-
ly throws out branches near or under
ground. Wild bushes are destroyed
by grubbing, by cutting down during
summer, or by tearing up with oxen.
July is the best month for cutting
thein down.

BUSH DR.'VINING. Placing bush-
es in the water-way of drains : the
tops should be against the current.
It answers well enough for twelve or
more years, but is not so permanent
as other means.

BUSH HARROWING. Drawing
a bush attached to a chain over bro-
ken lands or seeded fields ; or, when
a weight is used, and tborny branch-
es, it is sometimes employed to scar-
ify meadows and prune the grass
roots. An old gate may be used as
a frame, or the more substantial con-
' trivance figured on the next page.
! BUSHEL. A measure containing
4 pecks, 8 gallons, or 32 quarts. It
should contain 80 pounds of water,
or 2218192 cubic inches of capacity,
I to constitute an imperial bushel. Tho
113

BUTTER.

old Winchester bushel contained only
2150 42 cubic inches.

BUSTARD. Oils tarda. A large
gallinaceous fowl indigenous to Eu-
rope and Asia, often weighing twen-
ty-five to twenty-seven pounds, and
of delicious flavour. It has not yet
been domesticated.

BUTTER. The preparation of
butter is an important part of rural
economy. Butter is the fat or oleagi-
nous part of the milk of various ani-
mals, principally of the domestic cow.
The milk of the cow is composed of
three distinct ingredients : the curd,
the whey, and the butter ; the two
first form the largest portion, and the
last the most valuable. The compar-
ative value of the milk of different
cows, or of the same cows fed on
different pastures, is estimated chief-
ly by the quantity of butter contained
in it ; and in this respect some breeds
of cows are far superior to others.
The union of the component parts of
milk is chiefly mechanical, as they
separate by subsidence according to
their specific gravities, the cream be-
ing the lightest, and the curd the
heaviest ; the curd, however, re-
quires a slight cliemical change for
its separation from the wliey, which,
at the same time, produces a peculiar
acid, called the lactic acid. From the
moment that milk is drawn from the
cow it begins to be affected by the
air and changes of temperature, and
circumstances almost imperceptible
to our senses will materially affect
its quality ; hence the importance of
extreme care and attention in every
step of the process of the dairy, es-
pecially in making butter.

The cows should be milked in the
cool of the morning and evening ;
120

they should not be n)ueh driven im-
mediately before milking, and it is
best to bring them to tlie place of
milking some time before the opera-
tion begins. In some situations it is
better to milk them in the pastures,
and carry the milk home ; in others,
to drive the cows gently to the cow-
stall. In mountainous countries the
first mode is generally adopted, be-
cause the cows are apt to leap down
steep places, and shake the milk in
their udder more than is done by car-
rying it in the pail.

As the slightest acidity or putres-
cence immediately causes an internal
chemical action in milk, it is of the
greatest importance that the place
where the cows are milked, and the
persons employed, should be of the
greatest purity and cleanliness. The
milking house should be paved with
stone or brick, and no litter or dung
be permitted to remain in it. It
should be w^ashed out twice a day,
immediately before each milking,
which, besides en.suring cleanhness,
produces a refreshing coolness high-
ly useful to the milk. The teats of
the cows should be washed clean
with water and a sponge. The ves-
sels into which the milk is drawn
from the cow should be made of very
clean wood ; they should be scalded
immediately after having been used,
and then exposed to the air, so as to
be perfectly dry by the next time of
using them. Tin vessels are prefer-
able to wood, because they are not
so easily tainted, and are more easily
kept clean. Where these are used
they should always be kept bright, by
which means the least speck of dirt
is immediately discovered.

The milk, as soon as it is brought

BUTTEH.

into the dairy, is strained through a
fine sieve or cloth, in order to remove
any extraneous matter, and it is then
poured into shallow pans or troughs.
The best pans are of iron, carefully
tinned. Such pans are cool in sum-
mer, and in winter allow of the appli-
cation of heat, which is often very
useful to make the cream rise. When
leaden troughs are used, they are
generally fixed to the'wall, and have
a slight inclination towards one end,
where there is a hole with a plug in
it, by drawing which the thin milk is
allowed to run off slowly, leaving the
cream behind, which runs last through
the hole into the pan placed under to
receive it. The milk in the pans, or
troughs, is generally four or five inch-
es in depth, which is found most con-
ducive to the separation of the cream.
The place where the milk is set should
have a thorough draught of air, by
means of opposite windows. The
sun should be carefully excluded by
high buildings or trees, and the floor,
which should always be of brick or
stone, should be continually kept
moist in summer, that the evapora-
tion may produce an equal, cool tem-
perature. A small stove in winter is
a great advantage,, provided smoke
and smell be most carefully avoided,
and the temperature be accurately
regulated by a thermometer. All
these minutiae may appear superflu-
ous to those who have no practical
knowledge of the dairy ; and many
dairymen, who cannot deny the truth
of what we have stated, may excuse
their deviation from these rules by
saving that good butter is made with-
out so much care and trouble. This
may be true ; but they cannot ensure
good butter at all times ; and when
cleanliness and order are brought to a
regular system the trouble disappears.
When' the milk has stood twelve
hours, the finest parts of the cream
have risen to the surface, and if they
are then taken off by a skimming
dish, and immediately churned, a very
delicate butter is obtained ; but, in
general, it is left twenty-four hours,
when the cream is collected by skim-
ming, or the thin milk let off by ta-
L

' king out the plug m the trough. All
the cream is put into a deep earthen
jar. Stone-ware is the best. .More
cream is added every day, till there is
a sufficient quantity to churn, which,
in moderate dairies, is every two
days. It is usual to stir the cream
often, to encourage a slight acidity,
by which the process of churning is
accelerated. This acidity is some-
times produced by the addition of
vineg:ar or lemon juice ; but, howev-
er this may facilitate the conversion
of the cream into butter, we would
not recommend it, as the quality is
decidedly injured by it, especially
butter which is to be salted. It has
been asserted by some authors that
butter will not separate from the but-
ter-milk until acidity is produced, and
no doubt there is more or less of
lactic acid in all butter-milk ; but per-
fectly fresh cream, which has stood
only one night, and is churned early
next morning, will generally produce
excellent butter in a quarter of an
hour or twenty minutes in summer,
and no acid taste can be discovered
in the butter-milk. That the state
of the atmosphere with respect to
temperature has a powerful influence
on the making of butter, is a well-
established fact.

The common method employed to
separate the butter from the thinner

' portion of the cream is by strong
agitation. The common instrument
is the churn, which is a wooden cask
rather wider at bottom than at the
top, covered with a round lid with a
hole in the centre. Through this
hole passes a round stick, about four
feet long, inserted in the centre of a
round, flat board with holes in it ;
the diameter of this board is a little
less than that of the top of the churn.

\ Various improvements have been
made on this machine. The cream
should not fill above two thirds of the
churn. By means of this stick, held
in both hands, and moved up and
down, the cream is violently agitated,
passing through the holes in the board
and round its edge every time the
stick is raised or depressed, and thus

, every portion is brought into contact
121

BUTTER.

with the air. In the course of an
hour's churning, more or less accord-
ing to circumstances, small kernels
of butter appear, which are soon uni-
ted by the pressure of the board
against the bottom of the churn, and
form a mass of solid butter. The
butter is collected with the hand, and
placed in a shallow tub for the next
operation. The butter-milk is set
aside for the pigs, or for domestic
use. The butter is still mixed with
some portion of butter-milk; but much
of its quality for keeping depends on
the perfect separation. The most
usual way is to spread it thin in a
shallow tub, beating it with a flat
•wooden spoon, and washing it repeat- -
edly with clear spring water until all
milkiness disappears in the water
•which is poured ofT. Some experi-
enced dairymen pretend that the but-
ter is deteriorated by much wash-
ing, and, therefore, express the but-
ter-milk by simply beating the butter
•with the hand, kept cool by frequent-
ly dipping it in cold water, or with a
moist cloth wrapped in the form of a
hall, which soaks up all the butter-
milk, and leaves the butter quite dry.
This operation requires the greatest
attention, especially in warm weath-
er ; and no person should work the
butter who has not a very cool hand.
The less it is handled the better, and
therefore a wooden spoon or spatula
is much to he preferred. The pres-
ence of any curd renders butter liable
to putrefaction, and is, to a great ex-
tent, the cause of the unpleasant taste
of that made carelessly in summer.

The greatest portion of the butter
that is made, especially at a distance
from large towns, is immediately salt-
ed and put into casks, which usual-
ly contain fifty-six pounds, and are
called firkins. The quality of the salt
used is of great importance ; if it be
pure, the butter will keep its flavour
for a long time ; but when it is im-
pure, and contains hitter and deliques-
cent salts, the butter soon becomes
rancid. The Dutch are very particu-
lar in this point. They use a kind of
salt which is made by slow evapora-
tion, and perfectly crystallized. The
122

salt is intimately mixed with the but-
ter. From three to five pounds are
sufficient for a firkin of fifty - six
pounds. The following mixture has
been found superior to salt alone in
curing butter : half an ounce of dry
salt, pounded fine, two drachms of su-
gar, and two drachms of saltpetre, for
every pound of butter. It is used in
Goshen, Orange county, New-York.
The casks are made of clean white
wood. They are carefully washed
inside with strong brine made hot,
and rubbed over with salt. The but-
ter, being quite dry, is pressed close
into the cask, a small layer of salt
having been first put on the bottom.
Every addition is carefully incorpora-
ted with the preceding portion. If
there is not a sufficient quantity to
fill the cask at once, the surface is
made smooth, some salt is put over
it, and a cloth is pressed close upon
it to exclude the air. When the re-
mainder is added at tlie next churn-
ing, the cloth is taken off, and the
salt which had been put on the sur-
face carefully removed with a spoon.
The surface is dug into with a small
wooden spade, and laid rough, and
the newly-salted butter is added and
incorporated completely. This pre-
vents a streak which would other-
wise appear at the place where the
two portions are joined. When the
cask is full, some salt is put over it,
and the head is put in. If the butter
is well freed from all the butter-milk,
and the salt mixed with it quite dry,
it will not shrink in the cask, and it
will keep its flavour for a long time.
Should there be an appearance of
shrinking, the cask must be opened
and melted butter poured round it, so
as to rill up the interstices between
the butter and the cask ; in this w-ay
it will not suffer in its quality. There
is a mode of preserving butter for do-
mestic use without salt, in the follow-
ing manner : the butter is set in a
clean pan over the fire and melted
very gently ; it is not allowed to boil,
but is heated very nearly to the boil-
ing point. Experience has shown
this lieat to be attained when the re-
. flection of the white of the eye is dis-

BUTTER.

tinctly seen on the surface of the but-
ter on looking down into the pan. All
the watery particles are then evapo-
rated, and the curd, of which a por-
tion always remains in the butter,
and which is one cause of its becom-
ing rancid, falls to the bottom. The
clear butter is poured into an earthen
vessel and covered over with paper,
and a bladder or a piece of leather is
tied over the jar to exclude the air.
When it is cooled it much resembles
hog's lard. It has lost some of its
flavour, but it is much superior to salt
butter for culinary purposes, and es-
pecially for pastry.

The Devonshire method of making
butter differs materially from the
common process which we have de-
scribed, and is peculiar to that coun-
ty. The milk, instead of being set
for the cream to rise, is placed in tin
or earthen pans holding about eleven
or twelve quarts each. Twelve hours
after milking, these pans are placed
on a broad iron plate, heated by a
small furnace. The milk is not al-
lowed to boil, but a thick scum rises
to the surface. As soon as small
bubbles begin to appear where a por-
tion of this is removed with a spoon,
the milk is taken off and allowed to
cool. The thick part is taken off the
surface, and this is called clouted
cream. It is a sweet, pleasant sub-
stance, more solid than cream, but
not so solid as butter, and is consid-
ered as a dainty by all those who have
been early accustomed to it. A very
slight agitation converts it into real
butter, after which it is treated ex-
actly as we have before described. It
does not keep well. It does not ap-
pear that there is any peculiar advan-
tage in the Devonshire method.

Another method of making butter,
which is more generally adopted, is
to churn the milk and cream together.
In the Dutch method the milk is put
into deep jars in a cool place, each
meal, or portion milked at one time,
being kept separate. As soon as
there is a slight appearance of acidi-
ty, the whole is churned in an upright
churn, which, from the quantity of
milk, is of very large dimensions.

The plunger is therefore worked by
machinery moved by ahorse, or some-
times by a dog walking in a wheel,
which he turns by his weight. When
the butter begins to form into small
kernels, the contents of the churn are
em[)tied on a sieve, which lets the
butter-milk pass through. The but-
ter is then formed into a mass, as de-
scribed before. This, from Professor
Trail's experiments, is the most eco-
nomical method, as the quantity of but-
ter is great and the butter-milk rich.

In Scotland the following method
is pursued : the milk is allowed to
cool for six hours, and then put into
a clean vat. As long as it remains
sweet, more milk may be added, but
not after any acidity is produced. It
is then covered and allowed to get
sour, till it coagulates at the top ; this
coagulum is called the lappa; Avhich
must not be broken till the butter is
churned. When the clotted milk is
put into the churn, warm w^ater is
added so as to raise the temperature
to 70^ or 80=, the whole being grad-
ually stirred in. When this is prop-
erly conducted, the butter-milk will
be very pleasant and wholesome, with
a sub-acid taste, the whey and curd
not being separated from each other
for some time after. The butter is
said to be fully equal to that made
from cream alone. — (Quarterly Jour-
nal of Agriculture, Dec., 1834.)

The quality of the butter depends
on some very minute circumstances,
which escape the notice of all super-
ficial observers. The smallest parti-
cle of putrescent matter accidentally
added, and even mere effluvia, give
a turn to the chemical action going
on from the moment the milk is ex-
posed to the air, and they taint the
cream more or less. The quantity
of pure cream which rises when the
milk is set in the pans, as well as its
quality, is infhienced by these circum-
stances. When the milk curdles be-
fore the cream is separated, it is al-
most impossible to prevent some por-
tion of the curd being mixed with the
butter. In its perfectly fresh state
the taste is not affected by this ; but
the butter will not keep fresh above
123

BUT

twenty-four hours, and when salted
soon becomes rancid. Thus a great-
er quantity is produced, but of inferior
quality. When cheese is made of
the milii from which the cream has
been taken, it will be found most
profitable not to attempt to take off
all the cream by repeated skimming ;
for more will be gained in the better
quality of the cheese than by an in-
crease in the quantity of the butter
at the expense of the quality.

It is an acknowledged fact that,
such are the niceties of the dairy,
great experience alone can ensure a
produce of superior quahty, and this ,
experience would be more readily
acquired if the circumstances were |
accurately observed and noted. We i
would recommend to those who have |
extensive dairies to mark by the ther-
mometer the temperature of the milk
and cream in the different stages of j
the process, occasionally to test the
acidity of the butter-milk by means of i
alkalies, and to note any peculiarity ]
in the atmosphere by an electronic- j
ter. A few observations carefully :
noted, repeated, and compared would
throw more light on the true causes [
which favour or oppose the produc- ;
tion of good butter than all the guess-
es that have hitherto been made.

The quality of the butter depends
materially on the nature of the pas-
ture. The best is made from cows
fed in rich, natural meadows. Cer-
tain plants which grow in poor and
marshy soils give a disagreeable taste
to the butter. When cows are fed
with cut grass in the stable, the but-
ter is inferior, except in the case of
some artificial grasses, such as lu-
cerne. Turnips and other roots given
to cows in winter communicate more
or less of a bad taste to butter, which
is corrected in some degree by means
of a small quantity of water and salt-
petre added to the milk ; and also, it
is said, by giving salt to the cows
with their food. But there is no but-
ter made in winter equal to that which
is made where the cows are fed en-
tirely with good meadow hay, especial-
ly of the second crop, called after-math
hay, which contains few seed stalks.
121

BUT

According to the accounts of the
produce of butter from different coun-
tries and various breeds of cows, we
may state that, on an average, four
gallons of milk produce sixteen oun-
ces of butter ; and to make the feed-
ing of cows for the dairy a profitable
employment, a good cow should pro-
duce six pounds of butter per week
in summer, and half that quantity in
winter, allowing from six weeks to
two months for her being dry before
calving ; that is, one hundred and
twenty pounds in twenty weeks after
calving, and eighty pounds in the re-
mainder of the time till she goes dry ;
in all, about two hundred pounds in
the year. If she produces more, she
may be considered as a superior cow ;
if less, she is below par. To produce
this quantity the pasture must be
good, and we must allow three acres
to keep a cow in grass and hay for a
year, which is not very far from the
mark.

An inferior kind of butter is made
in some cheese dairies from the oily
portion of the milk skimmed from the
whey, which is set in pans, like milk,
after the cheese has been made. It
is totally unfit for salting and keeping.
It is known by the name of whey but-
ter.—{W. C. Kham.)

BUTTERFLY. Insects of the ge-
j nus Papilio (Lin.) in the imago state,
i Many of them are produced from the
j caterpillars most injurious to culti-
I vated plants and trees, as the goose-
berry and cabbage butterflies.
1 BUTTERNUT. A tree of the wal-
j nut genus, Juglans cinerca. It is dif-
! fused throughout the United States.
The wood is of a reddish colour,
1 light, soft, but very durable, and not
liable to attacks from insects. It is
highly esteemed for turnings in the
Eastern States, and is abundantly
used for panelling for carriages, and
; building generally. The inner bark
is cathartic, and a decoction is used
} by housewives.
■ BUTTERS, VEGETABLE. The
solid oils of the cocoa, nutmeg, palm,
chocolate. &c., are so called.
: B U T T 0 N-\\' O O D. False syca-
more. The Platanus occidenlalts, west-

CAB

CAB

em plane-tree, the largest, and one of
the handsomest trees of America. It
reaches its full dimensions only in the
rich alluvion of the middle Western
States, on the banks of the Ohio.
The wood is soft, and decays rapidly
when exposed, but is serviceable for
sheltered carpentry. The tree in the
Northern Slates has been much in-
jured by early frosts and insects.

BUTTS. The short ridges which
are made by the plough in the cor-
ners of irregular fields.

BUTYRIC ACID. An oily vola-
tile acid found in rancid butter, and
having a rancid smell ; it is soluble
in water, alcohol, and ether : boils at
212 . It consists of Cs Hju On HO
(ch). It is formed by the oxidation
of the component of butter called
butyrine, and yields by distillation
from lime butryone, a neutral vola-
tile liquid.

BUXUS. The generic name of the
box plants. See Box-tree.

BYRE. A cow-shed for feeding,
&c.

BYSLINS. The first milk of the
cow after calving.

BYSSUS. A general name for the
thread-like mould of cellars and cav-
erns of vegetable origin. They be-
long to many genera, and to the fami-
ly of fungi.

C.

CABBAGE. The varieties of
cabbage, coleworts, broccoli, are all
derived, by cultivation, from the
Brassica olcracea, a sea-shore plant,
indigenous to Europe. It belongs
to the cruciferous family of Jussieu,
and Tetradynamia siliqunsa of Lin-
naeus.

In agriculture, they may be divided
into three classes : 1st. Those that
form heads. 2d. Those that grow
erect without forming heads. 3d.
Those that are napiform, as KoJd
rabe.

Of Cabbages which form Heads. —
These may be divided into early,
midsummer, and autumn kinds. Of
the first, the early dwarf, early York,
early sugar loaf, early imperial are
the best. The midsummer kind are
L2

the large York, large sugar-loaf, Ber-
gen, drumhead, flat Dutch, and the
autumn, the late glazed red, and the
varieties of Savoy. The seeds, in
ordinary culture, are sown in April ;
but for early crops they are sown in
September, and covered by a frame
during winter ; or in a frame in Feb-
ruary, care being taken to supply
light and air without admitting frost.
An ounce of seed yields from 3000 to
4000 plants. In the garden, where a
succession is required, seeds must be
sown every two weeks from Februa-
ry to May. The seeds start in a
week, and are fit to transplant in six
or seven weeks. There is, however,
no advantage in transplanting too
soon, as the young plants are very
liable to be destroyed by the cutworm
and insects during June and early in
July. They are set in rows 16 inch-
es to 2 feet apart, allowing sutficient
room for hoeing, ploughing, &c. The
Bergen are set 30 inches apart. It
is economical to place an extra plant
between each, to be cut for collards.
At this rate, the acre contains about
6000 plants. The soil must be very
fine, and well dunged, for no vegeta-
ble is more improved by putrescent
manures. In planting, it is necessa-
ry to use a trowel to open the ground,
and not a stick to ram a hole. The
process of dipping the roots in a sem-
ifluid mass of fine earth and water,
with half a pound in four gallons of
crude nitre, and of whale-oU soap, is
highly recommended as ensuring a
vigorous start for the plants, and be-
ing very serviceable in keeping off
worms. A bucket with this mixture
can be readily carried by the planter.
The ground must be ploughed, hoed,
or thoroughly stirred three tunes du-
ring their growth, weeds being de-
stroyed, and the soil kept fine. Du-
ring a dry season they require water-
ing, and will be much benefited by
the use of fluid manures. The soil
they most relish is a moistish loam,
made very rich with putrescent ma-
I nures. Extensive fields of cabbages
are cultivated near New- York city ;
the early kinds and large Bergen,
\ Savoy, and red being most preferred.
125

CAB

CAB

The following is an estimate of the
expense, by Mr. Wyckoff, for an acre :
40 loads street manure, SU) ; labour
in distributing, 83 ; ploughing, har-
rowins, and hoeing, S9 ; or in all, §28.
The field contained 6000 plants, and
3000 heads sold in market realized
S66. As soon as frosts set in the
cabbages must be put up for protec-
tion. This is done by burying them
up to the head in a dry, warm situa-
tion, stripping off decayed or broken
open leaves, and packing them close-
ly together, taking care that they are
free from moisture. A low shed is
then to be formed over them with
straw, pine brush, boards, <kc., so as
to keep out the sun and frost, at the
same time that air circulates freely.
In the depth of winter it may be neces-
sary to place straw around the sides
of the shed ; or, the cabbages being
cut, may be stored in a root cellar.

Nutritious Value. — Cabbages are
seldom raised as food for stock in
the United States, although it is com-
mon enough to throw to hogs, &c.,
the under leaves which have begun
to decay. In Germany and France
they are extensively used as fodders.
Two general kinds are employed,
the open-leaved and hearted : of the
first kind, according to Antoine's ta-
bles, 541 pounds are equal to 410 of
green clover, or 100 of grass hay ;
but the hearted cabbage, according
lo Boussingault, is much more valua-
ble, 370 pounds being equal to 100
l)Ounds of hay. The amount of food
procured from some of the cow cab-
bages is immense, often amounting
during the year to upward of 100,000
pounds of leaves the acre.

Specific jSIanures. — The cabbage
family are especially improved by
well-decayed manures and by gyp-
sum, or particularly by solutions of
crude nitre and Glauber salts, one
pound in about four gallons of wa-
ter, applied by a flowering-pot, when
transplanted ; and subsequently they
will be found of the greatest utility.

Seeds. — To obtain fine seeds, put

out some of the heads which have

been kept through winter ; as soon

as the weather permits, thin down

126

the flower-stems to a few at the sides.
Take care to keep the varieties sep-
arate, or they become mixed and
spoiled.

! It should be remarked of the cab-
j bage stems kept over till spring, that,
if they be set out, numerous eyes will
develop, which afibrd early greens,
and may be kept bearing a long time
by hindering them from seeding.
1 2d. Of the open-leaved Varieties. —
The principal varieties cultivated in
Europe are the tree, or thousand-
headed ; the cow cabbage, or Caesa-
1 rean cole ; the Jersey cole ; the Wo-
burn kale, and Poiiou cabbage. They
are sown in autumn in beds, planted
out from November to February, are
ready for plucking in April, and con-
I tinue to afford leaves for forage du-
' ring the summer, the stems running
j up to six and more feet. They stand
! the winters of France, and might be
grown in the .Middle and Southern
: States. It may be very questionable
— when the rich land necessarj', and
! the labour of cultivation are consider-
: ed — whether they will be ever grown
' in the United States.
j 3d. Of napiformCabhages. — Several
j hybrid varieties between the turnip
! and cabbage have been produced ;
I these either have a swollen root and
cabbage head, as the Kohl rabe, or they
I produce a turnip-like head. They
j are little cultivated, and resemble
turnips, but are much less infested
by insects.

CABBAGE, DISEASES OF.
Clubbing of the roots arises from
worms, and is produced by growing
them too long in one locality. See
Anbury. Cabbage lice are the same
as bean lice. See Aphis. They are
destroyed by infusion of tobacco,
lime dust, salt. Worms of various
kinds infest the leaves ; the leaves
should be stripped off and burned, or
soot, tobacco, lime, &.C., used to de-
stroy them. Cutworms are caught
before sunrise, and should be de-
stroyed, or the foregoing noxious
substances should be worked in about
the roots with a trowel. Slugs are
to be similarly treated.

CABBAGE, PREPARED. Saucr

OAC

CAP

kraut. This is prepared in the fol-
lowing manner : the cabbages are
sliced thin by hand, or by a machine.
The bottom of a cask, of which the
head has boon taken out, is covered
with salt, and a layer of thin-sliced
cabbage, six inches thick, is laid over
it ; on this a quantity of salt is spread,
and another layer of cabbage, mixed
with some juniper berries and whole
pepper ; and thus salt and cabbage
alternately until the cask is filled. A
round board is then put into the cask,
so as nearly to fill it, and on this a
heavy weight of stone or metal is
laid. As the cabbage ferments and
sinks, the cask is filled up with fresh
salt and cabbage. After some time
the expressed juice is poured o(f,
some water, with salt dissolved in it,
is poured over, and changed until it
ceases to rise with a scum and fetid
smell ; the cabbage is then in a fit
state to be kept. A cloth is laid over
it, and over this the round board and
weights. When any portion is taken
out for use, a sufficient quantity of
brine is allowed to remain over the
mass to exclude the air, and the
cloth, board, and weights are replaced
as long as any cabbage remains.
This saucr kraut, when washed with
soft water, and stewed with bacon
or salted meat, is a very wholesome
dish, and much relished by those who
have been early accustomed to it.
In long voyages it has been found to
he an admirable preservative against
the sea-scurvy.

CABBAGE TREES or PALMS.
Palm-trees which, like the palmetto,
form edible buds, which are used as
food.

CACHECTIC. A bad state of
body, bringing about boils, skin dis-
eases &c

CACHMERE GOAT. The Cach-
mere goat is a native of Persia.
There are many varieties, differing
in colour and in the quality of the
fleece ; the principal points of the
most approved breeds are large ears,
limbs slender, and, above all, the
wool or hair being straight, silky, and
white.

They have been successfully intro-

duced into France by M. Ternoaux,
and also into England by C. T. Tow-
er, of Essex, who purchased four,
two males and two females, of M.
Terneaux, of Paris. The soil on
which they were kept in England was
moist, and the situation much ex-
posed ; they have, nevertheless, con-
tinued in liealth and multiplied rapid-
ly, his flock increasing from four to
twenty-seven in six years ; the fe-
males producing every year a kid,
and sometimes twins. They breed
very early, often bearing young be-
fore they are twelve months old.
They show no impatience of the cold,
and are very healthy, requiring only
an occasional shelter in very rough
weather. In spring, summer, and
autumn they graze like sheep, and
during winter are fed with hay and
refuse vegetables. The shawls made
in England from the produce of Mr.
Tower's goats will, for fineness of
texture, vie with those brought from
Persia. There is no doubt that it
may be successfully introduced into
this country. Being remarkably tame,
they can be kept in flocks at as little
expense and trouble as the common
goat or sheep ; they eat almost every-
thing, even potato tops, weeds, and
bushes of all kinds, taking but little
from the pastures that other animals
would feed on. We hope some of
our enterprising farmers will turn
their attention to this animal by im-
porting it, as it can be easily obtain-
ed, and, no doubt, wdl bear the trans-
portation and change of climate with
very little risk.

CACTUS. A tribe of fleshy plants,
some of which are celebrated for
their splendid flowers and pleasant
acid fruit resembling the gooseberry.

CADUCOUS. Deciduous, falling
off, temporary.

CESAREAN OPERATION. The
removal of a foetus from its mother
by cutting mto the womb.

C A F FEIN. A slightly bitter,
white, silky principle obtained from
coffee, tea, guarana, and pauUinia.
It is the same as theme. Liebig finds
it to consist of Cg Hs N: O O-HO.
He has shown that it may act as food
127

CAL

in increasing the amount of bile form-
ed, by furnishing nitrogen thereto.
To the same end asparas^mc and theo-
bromine, analogous principles, are
also destined.

CALAMINE. A powdery mineral,
sold by druggists as an absorbent for
ulcerous sores and extensive burns.
It is an impure carbonate of zinc,
prepared by roasting. An ointment
made with lard is sometimes used to
promote the healing of sores.

CALANDRA. The genus of wheat
weevils. See Wheat.

CALCARATE (from calcar, a
spur). Flowers having a spur like
the larkspur are so called. The spur
is also called a nectar htm by Linnsus.

CALCAREOUS. Containing car-
bonate of lime, as calcareous marl,
soils, sand, &c. See Lime.

CALCINATION. The burning of
substances to ashes.

CALCIUM. The metallic base of
lime, which is an oxide of calcium.
Its equivalent is 20, and tlierefore
lime is 28. A few electro-negative
bodies, as sulphur, chlorine, fluorine,
form salts directly with the metal,
and are called sulphuret, chloride,
fluoride of calcium. See Lime.

CALC SPAR. Crystallized car-
bonate of lime.

CALCULUS. Any solid, stony
concretion formed in the bladder,
gall-duct, (Stc.

CALEFACIENT. Medicines that
produce the sensation of warmth, as
alcohol, are so called.

CALENDAR. A monthly record.

CALF. The young of the cow.
Calves dropped in March and April
are best for raising. If they are to
be kept, they should run with the
cow, in a meadow, for three to six
weeks, and afterward be fed on but-
ter-milk with meal, and separated into
a good meadow. Those which are
to be slaughtered are generally re-
moved from the cow at once, put up
into a small enclosure and feeding
stall, and supplied with milk and
messes of meal until fat. The males
are castrated at thirty days for steers ;
the operation is very simple, one inci-
sion being made on each side the bag.
128

CAL

CALF, DISEASES OF. These
are principally :

1. Nnvcl III. — The best treatment
for this dangerous disease is, 1st, to
administer two or three doses (each
about a wine-glassful) of castor oil ;
and, 2dly, cordials, which may be
made of two drachms of caraway
seeds, two of coriander seeds, and
two of powdered gentian ; bruise the
seeds, and simmer them in beer or
gruel for a quarter of an hour : give
these once or twice a day.

2. Constipation of the Bowels. — For
this, doses of castor oil, of two or
three ounces, are the best remedy.

3. Diarrhcca, or Scouring. — The
farmer may rely on the following mix-
ture. Let him keep it always by him ,
it will do for all sucking animals :

Prepared chalk . . 4 ounces.
Caneha bark, powdered 1 "
Laudanum .... 1 "

Water 1 pint.

Give two or three table-spoonfuls, ac-
cording to the size of the animal, two
or three times a day.

4. Hoose, or Catarrh. — Good nurs-
ing, bleeding, and then a dose of Ep-
som salts, with half an ounce of gui-
ger in it. — (Youatt on Cattle.)

CALKERS, or CALKINS. The
parts of a horseshoe turned down-
ward.

CALLUS. AVhen the bone of an
animal is broken by accident, nature
restores the union by depositing a
quantity of bony matter around the
loose extremities, and thus fixing
them. This deposite is called a cal-
lus ; it is absorbed after the limb is
re-established.

CALOMEL. The sub-chloride of
mercury. An admirable medicine,
producing an increased secretion of
bile and purgation. In bilious at-
tacks, a dose of ten grains is one of
the best medicines. It is a compo-
nent of many cattle medicines (see
Ball), in the dose of one drachm for
a horse.

CALORIC. This name is given
to the cause of heat, which is un-
known. Calorific, capable of produ-
cing heat, as the calorific rays of the
sun, which are found in the red aud

CAM

CAN

orange parts of the spectrum lormcd
by flint glass.

CALVING. The act of bringing
forth a calf. Tiie cow should not
be disturbed, and have comfortable
quarters. A warm drink is usual-
ly given afterward, containing meal.
She should be kept quiet, and rather
underfed for a few days.

CALX. An old term for any earthy
body produced bv burning.

CALYCANTHUS FLORIDUS.
The Carolina allspice : a fragrant
shrub, with moroon-coloured flowers.

CALYX (from Ka?.v^, a cup). The
outer green case of flowers. It pro-
tects the internal parts. It is col-
oured in plants like tulips, hyacinths,
&c.

CAMBIUM. A gummy fluid form-
ed in spring in our forest-trees. It
affords the materials out of which
the new wood and bark are partly
made, and disappears in a short time.

CAMELLIA. A genus of ever-
green shrubs, of which the C japon-
ica produces beautiful flowers, now-
diversified by cultivation. It requires
a green-house for successful gi-owth,
but may be grown out of doors, near
a south wall, covered with glass and
matted during severe weather. It is
propagated by cuttings, layers, and
grafts. Flowers from Januar>- to
March in the house. The C. oleifera
is much cultivated by the Chinese for
its oil, obtained by pressing the seeds.

CAMOMILE. The Anthemis no-
bilis furnishes the drug of this name.
It is exotic, but grows readily in the
Middle States. The plant is peren-
nial and hardy, yielding three or four
crops of flowers, which are bitter
and tonic. It grows on poor, dry
lands ; is propagated by seeds, root
cuttings, and layers. An infusion is
very nauseous to many insects.

CAMP. A mould in which to keep
potatoes, roots, &.C., during winter.
See Barrow.

CAMPANULATE. Bell-shaped :
applied to flowers of that figure, as
the Canterbury hell.

CAMPHOR. A solid essential oil,
consisting of C^o, Hn-|-2 HO. It
is a nervous sedative, soothing pain.

It is obtained in the crude slate by
distilling the twigs, roots, &c., of
several plants, chiefly the Laurus
camphora and Dryobalanops camphora,
trees of tropical Asia. It is purified
by sublimation in Europe and Amer-
ica. Michaux is disposed to believe
that the Laurus camphora, a large
evergreen, might flourish in Florida.
Camphor is peculiarly disagreeable
to the insects which infest cloth and
woollen goods. The solution in al-
cohol is the commonest form of the
medicine. A solution in oil is an
admirable embrocation to painful
sprains, rheumatisms, &:c.

Camphor is found in numerous
herbs, especially peppermint, rose-
mary, thyme, lavender, &c. The
quantity is, however, too minute to
yield a commercial supply.

CANADA THISTLE. Carduus ar-
ve7isis. Its perennial roots render it
a great nuisance. The introduction
of two-hoed or worked crops, with
much tillage, is the most eflectual
remedy. Large doses (thirty bush-
els) of salt, or a heavy liming (one
hundred bushels), on
a clean fallow is
much reputed as a
means of clearing
lands of weeds and
insects.

CANARY
GRASS. Phalaris
Canariensis. An an-
nual grass, yielding
the canary seeds for
birds. The seeds are
sown as soon as the
frost is out of the
ground : they require
a good dry loam. In
September the plants
are fit to cut. The
heads are exposed to
the air in heaps for
some time, to assist
the thrashing. The
yield is from twen-
ty-five to forty bush-
els ; the straw is
poor and scanty.

CANCELLATE. Full of cells ; as
the ends of the long bones.

129

CAP

CAP

CANCER. A malignant tumour,
at first hard and painful, afterward
ulcerous, attacking glands chiefly.
The only remedy is extirpation, which
should be done as soon as its nature
is discovered. Cancer of the eye is
common in cattle.

CANDLE. The best mixture for
dip and mould candles is equal parts
of sheep and beef fat. Lard must
be avoided.

CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE.
Myrica ccrifera. Abounds through
the United States. The berries are
boiled in water, and the wax rises
to the top : it is excellent for can-
dles. The labour is said not to be
repaid by the profits of their collec-
tion.

CANIS. The generic name of the
dog species. See Dog.

CANKER. A disease of the bark
of old trees, or such as are in a
bad situation. It is sometimes at-
tended with an exudation of fluid, at
others not. The bark gradually dies,
falls off, and the wood becomes dry
and dead. Judicious pruning, an
application of resinous grafting ce-
ment to all wounds, and tillage about
the roots, are necessary. Young
trees planted in old, cankered or-
chards, are soon infected.

CANKER IN HORSES. The
separation of the hoof from the fleshy
parts of the leg, attended with a dis-
eased growth. Pressure and caus-
tics are necessary, with rest, for a
cure.

CANKER-\VORM. The caterpil-
lars which infest and devour the buds
of fruit-trees, especially those of the
Gcometra brumata. See Apple Can-
ker-icorm.

CANNABIS SATIVA. Hemp,
which see.

CANTER. An artificial pace to
which horses are broken. It is con-
sidered much less fatiguing than the
trot.

CANTHARIDIS. The blistering
fly, which see.

CAOUTCHOUC. Indian rubber.

CAPERS. A prickly shrub of
southern France and Italy, the Cap-
paris spinosa. The young buds are
130

daily stripped offand cast into strong
vinegar slightly salted, to produce
the commercial capers. They re-
ceive a greenish tint from the use of
copper sieves in separating the dif-
ferent-sized pickled buds for sale.
The plant would grow well south of
Maryland. It is highly ornamental
for green-houses.

CAPILLARY ATTRACTION.
Some fluids rise in fine glass tubes
much higher than their level. This
elevation is said to be owing to ca-
pillary attraction. It occurs to great-
er extents as the tubes are finer, and
is an affinity exerted by the sides of
the glass upon the fluid. The cause
has been shown to be electrical, and
to depend upon the electrical condi-
tions of the tube and fluid. If there
be no affinity, the fluid sinks. The
minute tubes of plants assist in draw-
ing up the sap by this attraction.

CAPILLARY VESSELS (from
capillus, a hair). The minute ves-
sels which exist over every part of
the bodies of animals and plants.

CAPITUIAJi\I. That species of
inflorescence in which the flowers
are grouped together into a head, as
in clovers.

CAPON. A male bird that has
been castrated : it is increased in
size therehv.

CAPRIFICATION (from caprifi-
cus, a inldjig). The practice of prick-
ing the green fig with a piece of
stick touched with olive oil, to hasten
the maturity. It is regularly observ-
ed in the culture of the Levant figs.

CAR

CAR

CAPROIC ACID. One of tlic
rancid acids of butter, having the
smell of goats. Capric acid is very
similar.

CAPSICUM. The generic name
of the Red pepper, which sec.

CAPSULE. In botany, a dry,
membranous seed-vessel, generally
splitting spontaneously into several
parts, or valves. In chemistry, a thin
porcelain, Wcdgewood ware or me-
tallic basin for evaporating lluids.

CAPUT MORTUUM. Anoldterm
designating the dregs left in any
chemical process.

CARAWAYS. The seeds of Ca-
rum cariii. They should be free from
dust, and strongly aromatic. Are
used in confections and medicine.
They are grateful to the stomach,
and slightly stimulant. The seeds
are sown in drills six inches apart,
in April. The land must be good,
rich loam. The plants must be weed-
ed and hoed when young. They
flower in June, and the seeds ripen
in autumn. The roots are perennial,
and yield well for three years. As
much as twenty hundred weight of
seed is taken from an acre in good
tilth. They are an exhausting crop.
Near London, coriander, cara\vays,
and teazles arc sometimes sown to-
gether, twelve pounds of each being
used. The coriander is cut in July,
the caraway in July next year, and
the teazles in August.

CARBON. An elementary body,
found pure in anthracite and the dia-
mond, and nearly pure in lamp-black
and charcoal. It combines readily
with oxygen, and burns, forming car-
bonic acid when air is abundant. Its
ctjuivalent is 6. It forms about half
of the dry substance of all animal and
vegetable bodies, and hence the char-
~-al they yield when heated in closed

ssels.

CARBONATES. Minerals or salts

^ntaining carbonic acid. These are
all readily known by the effervescence
they produce when thrown into strong
acids. Tlie principal native carbon-
ates are marble, limestone, and chalk,
which are carbonates of lime.

CARBONIC ACID. The gas form-

ed by burning charcoal in the open air.
It is also given out from fermenting
beer, &c., and putrefying bodies. It
is colourless, heavy, incapable of sus-
taining combustion, sufibcating, and
solui)lc in water. It is formed of 1
atom of carbon (6) and 2 of oxygen
(16), and unites with oxides in the
proportion of 22. The air contains
4 to 6 parts in 10,000. Fertile soils
containing vegetable matter give it
off during its decay. It is one of the
principle articles of vegetable food :
from the carbonic acid they obtain the
carbon of their wood, sugar, and oth-
er principles. Light decomposes it
in plants, and a part of its oxygen is
thrown out by the leaves.

The dissolved carbonic acid in rain
and spring water is invaluable in
the sod, serving to disintegrate hard
rocks, and dissolve minerals neces-
sary for plants. It is this gas that
gives sprightliness to beer, soda wa-
ter, and Champagne.

CARBONIC OXIDE. An inflam-
mable gas consisting of 1 atom car-
bon and 1 oxygen.

CARBONIFEROUS. Relating to
coal. Coal bearing.

CARBURETS. Compounds in
which carbon is united with a metal
or other body. Plumbago, cast iron,
are carburets of iron.

CARBURETTED HYDROGEN.
Marsh gas, and the gas used for light-
ing cities.

CARCINOMA. A cancerous tu-
mour.

CARDAMOMS. The seeds of the
Alpinia cardamomum of the East In-
dies. They are aromatic.

CARDIAC (from KapSca, the heart).
Relating to the heart.

CARDOON. The Cynara cardun-
cidus. The stalks of the blanched
inner leaves are used as salad, in
soups, &c. The seed is sown in
April, in rich earth ; it requires near-
ly a month to start ; the plants
must be thinned to five inches apart.
Transplant in June, and allow four
feet each way ; dress each plant like
celery. As they grow, tie up the
•leaves, and earth up several times ;
they may thus be obtained two feet
131

CAR

high. They are to be taken up du-
ring winter, like celery. They are
in perfection from autumn through
the winter. An ounce of seed pro-
duces GOO young plants ; for seeds
protect the plant, without any blanch-
ing, through the winter, and it will
flower in the following July.

CARDUUS. The generic name of
numerous thistles.

CAREX. The genus of sedges and
rushes.

CARIES. Mortification or ulcera-
tion of any bone. It gradually pro-
duces the destruction of the part, and
can only be arrested by scraping out
every diseasedtportion.

CARMINATIVE. Any medicine
that dispels flatulency and relieves
the uneasiness of the stomach. The
best are caraways, ginger, anise seed,
cardamoms, especially as tinctures,
or dissolved in alcohol.

CARNIVORA. The race of ani-
mals that live on animal food.

CAROB, A tree cultivated in
Southern France for the pods it pro-
duces. These contain a reddish pulp
of a sweet, amylaceous nature, and
are a foot long. They are used as
food for men and horses.

CAROTID ARTERY. The large
arteries that carry red blood to the
head. There is one on each side the
neck, known by its strong pulsa-
tions.

CARPEL (from Kop-uoc, fruit).
Each division or cell of a fruit is a
carpel. The number of carpels, or
carpellary leaves, is as the number of
divisions m the pistil, which is the
uppermost part of the carpel.

CARROT. The Daitcus carota im-
proved by tillage, of the natural fam-
ily UmbellifercB. The carrot requires
a deep, dry, sandy loam, which should
be prepared by subsoiling ; they are
also much improved by humus in the
soil, and come best after a crop to
which a heavy manuring has been
given. The best field kinds are the
white, the long red, the Altringham,
and the orange ; of these the white
is most prolific and valuable. The
amount of seed is three to five pounds
the acre ; it must be steeped well, or
132

CAR

kept in moist mould until it has ger-
minated, and sown in drills one inch
deep and one foot apart. For a full
crop, April is the time of planting ;
but a fair yield can be obtained by
sowing immediately after wheat, or in
June. The plants must be well work-
ed, weeded, and thinned out to five
inches ; but it is erroneous to pull the
leaves for fodder. In October, or
when the ground is beginning to
freeze, they can be raised by turning
the earth from the roots by a plough,
and drawing them b}^ hand. They
are to be topped, and stored in the
cellar, or a proper barrow or camp ;
they will keep well till spring. A
good crop is 600 bushels ; but 400 is
more common. There is no peculi-
arity in garden culture, except that
the early orange must be sown soon-
er ; the long orange is the best fall
crop.

Expeyise of Cultivation. — Colonel
Meacham, who succeeded in obtain-
ing 1000 bushels of carrots per acre
for several years, estimates the ex-
pense per acre at S35. This culture
adapts the land admirably for wheat
or barley.

Value as Food. — It is extensively
used in England, and to some extent
in the Eastern and Northern States,
as horse fodder, and is well adapted
to oxen, hogs, &c. The carrots should
be boiled or steamed, or, if given
raw, sliced with a vegetable cutter.
According to Antoine's tables, 276
pounds equal 100 of hay (see Fod-
ders) ; they make twice as good fod-
der as turnips, and nearly equal to
potatoes. Carrots and hay are a
good fodder for horses, or, when
given alone, about fifty pounds pre-
pared will be necessary each day.
They are very fattening.

Special Manures. — The ashes of the
carrot are, per cent., potash and so-
da, 45 ; lime, 10 ; sulphuric acid, 2-7 ;
phosphoric acid, 514. It is, there-
fore, remarkable for its affinity for
alkalies. Hence, ashes, common salt,
and gypsum are eminently useful as
manures. An abundance of well-
rotted leaves and muck should he
added.

CAR

Seeds. — These are procured by set-
ting out fine roots in the spring.

CART. Tlic one-horse two-wheel-
ed carriage of husbandmen. They are
considered superior to the wagon by
Scotch farmers. A cart load is gen-
erally about thirty to thirty-five bush-
els of manure. Mr. Rham remarks :
"For agricultural purposes, various
kinds of carts have been invented.
The capacious tumbril for carting
earth and dung, with broad wheels to
prevent their sinking in soft ground,
is too generally known to require de-
scription. The best constructed carts
have iron axles with the ends or arms
turned smooth, and very slightly con-
ical. The boxes in the naves of the
wheels, which receive the arms, are
made of cast iron, and ground smooth,
so as to require only a small quantity
of grease or oil to make the wheels
run easily, without allowing any play
or side motion. It is usual to give
the axle a bend at the place where it
enters the wheel, by which means
the planes of the wheels are made to
diverge from each other, and give
more room for the body of the cart ;
but this is decidedly wrong. It is
clearly proved that the draught is
least when the arms are quite hori-
zontal ; and if tlle^vheels are slightly
dished, that is, if the spokes are driv-
en into the nave obliquely, so as to
throw the rim a little beyond the per-
pendicular, the lower part of the
spokes in each wheel will slightly di-
verge, and give greater steadiness
to the whole. When the axle is bent,
the rim of a broad-wheeled cart must
be slightly conical, in order that it
may rest ilat on the gi'ound ; and it
is easily proved that in this case the
load is dragged on the road at every
revolution, along a space equal to the
difference between the greater and
lesser circumference of the rim of
the wheel, giving unnecessary work
to the horses, and greatly injuring
the roads. The light Scotch cart,
drawn by one horse, is justly consid-
ered as the most advantageous for
transporting earth, lime, or dung, es-
pecially in hilly countries. It is low
and short, so that the horse draws
M

UAS

very near the centre of gravity, and
there is little power lost by obliquity.
The loads may be so adjusted as to
bear more or less on the horse, ac-
cording to the declivity ; and expe-
rience has proved that more weight
can be transported by a given number
of horses, when each is attached to
a single Scotch cart, than when three
or four draw together, except it be on
very level and hard roads, or when
the horses move at a quick pace.
The objection made to single-horse
carts, tliat each requires a man to
drive it, is obviated in .Scotland,
where the horses are trained to fol-
low each other, and one man can at-
tend to several carts and horses."

CARTHAMIJS. See Saffloiccr.

CARTILAGE. The same as gris-
tle. It is almost identical in compo-
sition with skin, and yields, when
perfectly dry, eighteen per cent, of
nitrogen. Liebig regards it as pro-
tein, combined with ammonia.

CARYA. The generic name of
the Hickory.

CARYOPHILLOUS. Flowers like
the ■p'mk and clove are so called.

CASCARILLA BARK. A drug
having tonic and aromatic quahties.

CASEOUS. Relating to caseum.

CASEUM. Pure curd of milk. It
is also found in beans, pease, and le-
guminous plants, and in small quan-
tity in most seeds. It differs from
albumen and fibrin only in not being
coagulated by heat, and containing
more sulphur. Cheese is caseum, for
the most part ; like other protein bod-
ies, it is capable of sustaining life.
When moist, it decays and putrefies
like animal matter, but is preserved
when dry, or prepared with salt.

CASSAVA. The starch obtained
from the roots of the Jatrophamanihot
of the West Indies. See Tapioca.

CASTANEA. The generic name
of the chestnut-tree.

CASTOR-OIL PLANT. The Ri-
cinus communis, commonly called Pal-
ma Chrtsli from the leaves. In the
East Indies it is a tree, but becomes
an annual in the United States, and
is cultivated as far north as New-
Jersey, and abundantly in the West.
133

Cat

The seeds are sown in hills like corn,
and hoed until they arc two feet high.
The time of sowing is in April and
May: the ground must be rich. The
seeds are enclosed in capsules at the
summits, and are easily thrashed out.
The crop is stated at twenty to twen-
ty-five bushels the acre. The oil is
separated in two different ways : 1st.
By boiling the bruised seeds enclosed
in a bag. and skimming off the oil as
it rises, and, finally, pressing the bag.
2d. By heating the seeds in iron trays
slightly, so as not to char, pressing
under a screw, collecting the oil,
and boiling in water, taking care to
separate all the white parts, and re-
serving the pure limpid oil only. This
is placed in barrels. The seeds yield
about one fourth of their weight of
good oil. The price fluctuates con-
siderably.

CASTOR OIL. An admirable
purge for animals, especially calves : ,
four to six ounces is enough for a
strong ox. It is now used for burn-
ing and machinery, as well as for can-
dles, when prepared by the separa-
tion of the fluid parts from the stearin.

CATALPA. The Bignoma calalpa,
a middling-sized tree, nearly fifty feet
high, growing in the Middle States
and South, remarkable for its large
flowers and leaves. The wood is du- ,
rable, and makes good posts and fen-
ces, and is said, by Dr. G. B. Smith
and others, to be more lasting than
locust or mulberry. It grows very i
rapidly.

CATARACT. In farriery, a dis-
ease in the eyes of horses, in which
the crystal! ne humour is rendered
opaque, and the vision impeded or
destroyed. The only certain method
of cure in these complaints is to re-
move the lens by means of extract-
ing or couching. By the first-men-
tioned operation, an incision is made
into the eye through the white mem-
brane, and the opaque lens taken out ;
by the second, it is depressed by the
point of a couching needle thrust into
the eye, and, being carried to the low-
er part of the chamber of the eye or
vitreous humour, it is left there to be
absorbed. The first operation is the ^
134

CAT

more effective, but the more hazard-
ous of the two, owing to the inflam-
mation which succeeds. The second
is tedious and sometimes fails, but it
is less free from the risk of inflam-
mation.

CATARRH. A cold. The irrita-
tion of the mucous membrane of the
nostrils.

CATCH-DRAINS. The lower
Qitches of irrigated lands, which re-
ceive the water that has flowed over
their surface, and return it to the
stream.

CATECHU. A drug of a very as-
tringent or binding nature. It is also
used in dj'eing browns and in tanning.

CATERPILLAR. The worm, or
larva, which is hatched from the eggs
of butterflies and moths. They are
peculiarly obnoxious, from feeding on
the leaves, fruit, and bark of trees.
The most effective method of exter-
minating them is to keep the tree
regularly cleaned by washing with
lye, brine, soft soap, and removing
every appearance of cocoon or net-
work about the branches. The ap-
plication of strong hartshorn to the
caterpillar nests is practised by Mr.
Pell with great success. Lime is also
very hurtful to them. Caterpillars,
after a season, depending on their
species, either spin a cocoon and re-
tire therein to change into a grub, or
burrow into the earth or trees, and
undergo a transformation therein.
The grub changes in spring to a but-
terfly or moth, which lays some five
hundred eggs, which in a few days
become caterpillars : thus, in three
generations, if untouched, thirty mill-
ion worms are produced.

CATHARTICS. Medicines pro-
ducing increased defecation. Aloes,
castor oil, senna, jalap, Glauber
salts, Epsom salts, calomel, are the
principal cathartics. They should be
used very sparingly, as they produce
habitual costiveness after a time.

CATKIN. A pendulous spike of
flowers, which falls after a season, as
in the willow. Amcnluin is the more
common designation.

CATSUP. Mushroom catsup is
readily made by placing a bushel or

CAT

more prime mushrooms in a tub with
sufficient salt, to cover them slightly,
and adding water enough to cover the
whole. The brine becomes black and
well-liavoured in a week, when the
mushrooms must be thoroughly press-
ed, and the whole liquor bottled and
sealed. It is improper to add pepper
or spices.

CATS-TAIL GRASS. An Eng-
lish name for timothy and other grass-
es of the genus I'licum.

CATTLE. In its most extensive
sense, the word cattle denotes all the
larger domestic quadrupeds which are
used for draught or food. In the usu-
al acceptation of the word, it is confi-
ned to the ox, or what are called black
cattle, or horned cattle. But as many
varieties are not black, and several
have no horns, the name of neat cat-
tle is more appropriate. The rearing
and feeding of cattle are very impor-
tant branches of agricultural industry.
Much of the success of a farmer de-
pends on the judicious management
of live stock, without which his laud
cannot be maintained in a proper state
of fertility. The breeding and fatten-
ing of cattle are generally distinct oc-
cupations. It is of tlie greatest im-
portance to the breeder, as well as to
the grazier, to ascertain the qualities
of each different breed of cattle, to de-
termine which is best suited to his
purpose, and which will bring him the
greatest profit.

The different British and Irish
breeds have been generally distin-
guished from each other by the length
of the horn. The long-horned breed
is supposed by many to be indigenous.
Others consider the middle horned as
the old breed. The former was chief-
ly found in a district of Yorkshire call-
ed Craven, and was greatly improved
by the skill of Robert Bakewell, of
Dishley Farm, in liCicestershire, and
hence they are called the Dishley
breed. The distinguishing characters
of this breed are, Ictng horns growing
downward from the side of the head,
and ending in straight points parallel
to the jaw. In order to give an ade-
quate idea of the qualities of this im-
proved breed, we must consider what

CAT

breeders and graziers call the fine
points of an ox. These are certain
forms and appearances, which are ei-
ther anatomically connected with a
perfect conformation of the body, and
especially of the organs of respiration
and of digestion, or which are con-
stantly associated with the peculiar
qualities of certain breeds, so as to be
proofs of their purity. Of the first
kind are, a wide chest, well-formed
barrel, strong and straight spine, hip-
bones well separated, and length of
quarter, all which can be proved to
be essential to the perfect functions
of the body. Small and short bones
in the legs give firmness without un-
necessary weight. A thick skin, well
covered with hair, ensures proper
warmth, and its soft, loose feel indi-
cates a good coat of cellular substance
underneath, which will readily be fill-
ed with deposited fat. All these are
indispensable points in an ox which
is to be profitably fatted, and, what-
ever be the breed, they will always
indicate superiority. Other points,
such as colour, form of the horns,
shape of the jaw, and setting on of
the tail, with other particulars, are
only essential in so far as experience
has observed them in the best breeds,
and as they are indications of pure
blood. Tiie eye is of great impoi--
tance ; it should be lively and mild,
indicating a healthy circulation, with
a gentle and almost indolent temper.
An animal that is not easily disturbed
will fatten rapidly, while one that is
restless and impatient will never ac-
quire flesh. Among the ancients, a
deep dewlap was considered as a
great beauty in an ox. In some of
our best breeds there is scarcely any.
The rump of the Freyburg cows rises
high towards the tail, while a straight
back, from the neck to the tail, is in-
dispensable in a well-bred British ox.
Having established a breed which
has many superior qualities, attention
is paid to maintain its purity ; and to
those who cannot ascertain the pa-
rentage, certain marks are satisfacto-
ry proof of |)urity of blood. The new
Leicester oxen were noted for the
smallness of the bone and their apti-
135

CATTLt;.

tude to fatten {Fig. 1). Their flesh
was fine-grained, the fat being well
intermixed in the muscles. At the
time when Bakewell died, about 1795,
no other breed could be brought into
competition with his improved long-
horns. But whether his successors
have not paid the same attention to
keep up the qualities of the breed, or
it has degenerated in comparison,
they have since lost much of their rep-
utation, and the short-horned breed
has now the superiority. Good long-
horned cattle are, however, occasion-
ally seen in the midland counties.
One defect of the breed was, that the
cows gave but little milk ; and this
may be the reason for now preferring
the short-horns. The Teeswater or
Holderness breed of cattle {Fig. 2)
Fig. 2.

was produced by the importation of
cows from Holstein or Holland, and
careful breeding and crossing. They
now much excel the original stock.
Tlie principal improver of the Tees-
water breed was Mr. Charles Collins.
By his care a breed has been produ-
ced which is unrivalled for the dairy
and for fattening readily. Almost ev-
136

erygood breed now in existence tra-
ces its pedigree to his bulls, especial-
ly one of the fiist he used, called Hub-
back. The famous ox exhibited thir-
ty years ago, under the name of the
Durham ox, was of this breed. By
careful crossing with a Galloway cow,
an improved breed was produced,
which was in such repute that, at a
sale of Mr. Collins's stock of short-
horns, October 11, 1810, a famous
bull, called Comet, sold for 1000 guin-
eas, and 48 lots of bulls, cows, and
calves realized £7115 17^. — {Library
of Useful Knowledge, " Cattle," page
233.) The short-horned cattle {Fig. 3)
Fig. 3.

Sliort-liorn (Diirliam).

are mostly light coloured, some quite
white, but most are speckled with red
and white, without any large, distinct
spots. The horns are very short. In
the cow, the points turn inward to-
wards each other. Some of the finest
bulls have merely a tip of a horn
standing out from each side of the
forehead. In the carcass they have
every point which we have before
enumerated as essential to perfection.
From numerous importations of

CATTLE.

Durhams, this breed is now diffused
into many parts of the United States,
especially New-York, Pennsylvania,
and Kentucky.

' Besides the two breeds above men-
tioned, there are several in great re-
pute in particular districts, which al-
most dispute the superiority with the
short-horns. Of these, the Devon-
shire breed is the handsomest. The
colour of this breed is invariably red,
with a very fine head, small bone,
and glossy hide. The oxen, although
not so heavy as some, are the best
for the plough on light lands ; they
walk nearly as fast as horses, and
will work almost as well in pairs.
The cows (FiiT- 4) are good milkers,

any deficiency m quantity being made
up by the richness of the cream. The
oxen fatten readily, and their flesh is
of the best quality.

It is supposed that the fine oxen
of New-England are derived from this
breed.

The Sussex breed is only dislin
guished from the Devon by being
rather stronger, and not so fine in
the head and horn.

The Herefordshire breed is larger
and heavier than cither of the prece-
ding, the horns longer, and more
turned outward ; the colour is red,
but the belly and the face are gener-
ally white, and there is often a white
stripe along the back. This breed has
many excellent qualities, and fattens
well ; the cows {Fig. 5) are of use for

the dairy, but yield only a small quan-
tity of milk. The Herefordshire oxen
are i)est suited to the rich pastures
of their native county, where they
grow to a great size, and increase
fast. These are the principal Eng-
lish breeds.

The principal indigenous Scotch
breeds are the "West Highland, the
Galloway, the Angus, and the Shet-
land. There is a doubt whether the
Ayrshire {Fig. 6) should be classed

among the pure Scotch cattle. Their
great resemblance to the short-horn
in all but the size leads one to suppose
that they are a cross of a smaller
breed by a short-horn bull, but they
M2

have very good qualities, and are ex
cellent for the dairy or for stalling.

A great many cattle are bred it
the various islands which lie on th(
western coast of Scotland. They arf
137

CATTLE.

mostly of a small, black breed, called
Kyloes. They are very hardy, and,
when brought into good pasture, fat-
ten rapidly, and produce the finest
and best-flavoured beef They are
found in the greatest perfection in
the Isle of Skj-e, and are sent annu-
ally in large droves from their native
islands, and dispersed through Scot-
land and England. If they do not
produce so great a ■weight of beef as
many other breeds, they always bring
the highest price in the market, and
require but a very short time to get
fat. The Galloway is a peculiar
breed, which has many good quali-
ties : it has no horns ; the body is
compact, and the legs short ; and few
breeds can vie with the Galloway
oxen and heifers in aptitude to fatten.
There is a peculiar roundness in all
the parts of the body, which makes
the animal look well in flesh even
when he is lean. The skin is loose,
and the hair soft and silky to the
touch. They are mostly black, but
some are of a dun colour, which shows
a connexion between this breed and
the polled Suffolk ; it is only the col-
our which distinguishes them. Many
of the Galloway heifers are spayed,
and get very fat at an early age. The
Galloway cows are not very good
milkers, in which respect they differ
from the Suffolk, but their milk is
very rich.

The Angus doddie is also a polled
breed, and has been long in repute.
It is probably a variety of the Gallo-
way, to which it bears a strong re-
semblance, but it has been found in
Angus from time immemorial.

These are the principal breeds of
cattle in Britain. By selecting those
which are best suited to each situation
and pasture, the industrious farm-
er may add considerably to his prof-
its, and, at the same time, enrich his
land with the manure. In purchas-
ing cattle, it is very necessary that
the age should be readily ascertained:
the surest mode of doing this is by
examming the teeth. A calf has
usually two front teeth when he is
dropped, or they will appear a day or
two after his birth ; in a fortnight he
138

will have four, in three weeks six,
and at the end of a month eight.
After this, these milk-teeth, as they
are called, gradually wear, and fall
out, and are replaced by the second
and permanent teeth. At two years
old the two middle teeth are replaced ;
the next year there will be four new
teeth in all ; at four years there are
six permanent teeth, and at five the
whole eight are replaced. The milk-
teeth do not always fall out, but are
sometimes pushed back by the sec-
ond set ; and in this case they should
be removed with an instrument, as
they impede ma.stication and irritate
the mouth. After six years old the
edges of the teeth begin to wear flat,
and as they wear off the root of the
tooth is pushed up in the socket, and
the width of the teeth is diminished,
leaving interstices between them :
this begins in the middle teeth, and
extends gradually to the corners.
At ten years old the four middle
teeth are considerably diminished,
and the mark worn out of them. Af-
ter fifteen years of age few cows can
keep themselves in condition by pas-
turing, but they may continue to give
milk, or be fattened by stalling and
giving them ground food. Horned
cattle have rings at the root of their
horns, by which the age may also be
known. The first ring appears at
three years of age, and a new one is
formed between it and the scull ev-
ery year after. But this mode of
ascertaining the age is not so sure
as by the teeth, deception being much
easier by filing off the rings.

In order to learn by experience
what breed of cattle is most profita-
ble, it is very advantageous to weigh
them occasionally and note their in-
crease. Experience has shown the
proportion between the saleable quar-
ters and the offal in different states
of fatness, and tables have been con-
structed by which the nett weight
is found by mere inspection. Multi-
plying the live weight by 0 605 gives
a near approximation to the neat
dead weight in an ox moderately fat
and of a good breed. When an ox
is fat, his weight niay be very nearly

CATTLE.

guessed by measuring: his girth im-
mediately behind the fore legs, and
the length from the tip of the shoul-
der to the perpendicular line which
touches the hinder parts, or to a wall
against wiiich the animal is backed.
The square of the girth in inches and
decimals is muliipHed by the length,
and the product multiplied by the de-
cimal -238. This gives the weight
of the four quarters in stones of four-
teen pounds. This rule is founded
on the supposition that there is a
certain proportion between the nett
weight of the quarters and that of a
cylinder, the circumference of which
is the girth, and the axis the length,
taken as above. The proportion has
been ascertained by observation and
repeated comparison. The measure-
ment will, at all events, indicate the
proportional increase during the pe-
riod of fattening.

Cattle are not subject to many dis-
eases if they have plenty of food and
good water, and are kept clean. Air
is essential to them ; and although
cows will give more milk, and oxen
will fatten better when kept in warm
stalls in winter, they are both less
subject to diseases when tliey are
kept in open yards, with merely a
shelter from the snow and rain.

The most economical mode of
feeding cattle is evidently by allow-
ing them to seek their food on com-
mons and uncultivated pastures, but
it is only in particular situations that
it is the most advantageous. Cattle
fed on commons add little to the
stock of manure, except when they
are kept in the yards or stalls in win-
ter ; even then their dung is of little
value if they are merely kept alive
on straw or coarse hay, as is gener-
ally the case where the stock is kept
on commons or mountains in sum-
mer. When they feed in enclosed
and rich pastures, their dung falling
in heaps on the grass does more harm
than good. The urine fertilizes the
soil in wet weather when it is dilu-
ted, but in dry weather it only burns
up the grass. If we calculate what
would be the amount of dung collect-
ed if the cattle were kept in yards or

stables, and fed with food cut for
them and brought there, and also the
loss of grass by treading on the pas-
tures, we shall have no doubt wheth-
er the additional labour of cutting the
grass and bringing it home daily is
not amply repaid by the saving ; but
if we also take into account tlie va-
riety of artificial grasses, pulse, and
roots which may be grown with ad-
vantage on land unfit for permanent
grass, and the quantity of arable land
which may thus be kept in the high-
est state of cultivation, we shall be
convinced ttiat the practice of those
countries where the cattle are con-
stantly kept at home is well worthy
of imitation. It may be of use to the
health of the animals to be allowed
to take a few hours' air and exercise
in a pasture near the stable, but there
is no advantage in their having any
grass crop there ; on the contrary,
the barer of grass the surface is, the
better. They will relish their food
better wiien they are taken in after a
few hours' fasting. A bite of fresh,
short grass might, on the contrary,
give them a dislike to their staler
food. When cut grass is given to
cattle in the stalls, it is best to let it
lie in a heap for at least twelve hours
before it is given to them. It heats
slightly, and the peculiar odour of
some of the plants, which oxen and
cows are not fond of, being mixed
with that of the more fragrant, the
whole is eaten without waste. Ex-
perience has shown that many plants
which cattle refuse in the field, where
they have a choice, have nutritious
qualities when eaten mixed with oth-
ers in the form of hay. There are
few deleterious plants in good grass
land or meadows, and these are read-
ily distingni-shed and weeded out.

The amount of hay, or its equiva-
lent, necessary to sustain oxen is
about two per cent, of their weight
daily ; when fattening, four per cent.
is often given. The accumulation is
seldom more than two and a half
pounds daily in fattening.

The quantity and quality of the
dung of cattle which are stalled and
well fed are so remarkable, that its
139

CAT

CAT

value makes a considerable deduc-
tion from that of the food given, es-
pecially of green food, such as clover,
lucern, and every kind of leguminous
plant : we shall not be far wrong if
we set it at one fourth. This sup-
poses a suflicientquantily of straw for
litter, and an economical collection
of the liquid parts in proper reser-
voirs or tanks. In order to make the
feeding of cattle advantageous, the
buildings must be conveniently placed
with respect to the fields from which
the food is to be brought. Aloveable
sheds, with temporary yards, which
can be erected in different parts of a
large farm, according as different
fields are in grass or roots, are a great
saving of carriage, both in the bring-
ing of food to the cattle and carrying
the dung on the land. A clay bottom
should be selected, in a dry and rath-
er high spot, if possible. But if per-
manent buildings for cattle, con-
structed of rough materials and
thatched with straw, were erected
in the centre of about forty acres of
arable land, in different parts of a
large farm, it would probably be a
great saving in the end.

Good water is most essential to
the health of cattle, and that which
has been some time exposed to the
air seems the best for them. When
they are fatted in stalls on dry food,
they should always have a trough of
water within reach. A piece of rock-
salt to lick, or some salt given with
their food, is highly conducive to
their health, and will restore their
appetite when it begins to flag. Rub-
bing the hide with a wisp of straw
or a strong brush, as is done to hor-
ses, may appear a useless labour, but
it is well known that there is no bet-
ter substitute for that exercise which
is essential to health. Where labour
is not regarded, as is always the case
when the owner of the cattle attends
upon them himself, the curry-comb
and the brush are in regular use, and
the advantage derived from the use
of them is undeniable.

Where the farmer distils a spirit
from his grain, it is a great advan-
tage to have a distillery attached to
140

his establishment, especially in a re-
mote situation ; and not only is the
fattening of cattle on the refuse of
the distillation a source of profit, but
the manure extends fertility around.
The produce in spirits and in cattle
is easily transported to a great dis-
tance, and almost the whole of what
is produced by the land returns to it
in the shape of manure. The same
may be said of the manufacture of
sugar from beet-root, which has been
lately so much extended in the north
of France.

CATTLE, DISEASES OF. See
Ox.

CATTLE, NATIVE. Much dis-
cussion exists as to the propriety of
importing cattle from abroad, or un-
dertaking an improvement of the na-
tive. The fine steers of New-Eng-
land are said to be descended from
the Devon stock, and retain many of
their traits, while they are improved
in milking qualities; but most of the
other native stock is small, and infe-
rior to the choice English breeds.
But the size is probably due to the
carelessness with which they are
treated, and argues no inherent de-
fect, in proof of which it may be sta-
ted that the New-York butchers pre-
fer native animals for the shambles ;
and many instances may be quoted
of cows yielding as much milk as
even the Durham breed. The estab-
lished foreign breeds are already
brought up to a state of excellence,
while our cattle are unimproved, and
tlie occasional existence of fine ani-
mals is enough to guarantee high
perfection when they shall be regu-
larly bred. See Breeding.

Since, however, so many Durham
bulls have been introduced into New-
York, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky,
it is very useful to obtain a cross
with the native cow to increase the
milking and fattening qualities, and
also to advance in the process of
improvement by using the best for-
eign blood ; at the same time, a per-
manent and extensively diffused
choice breed cannot be expected un-
til our own stock are looked to in
part at least : this is the proper way

CAU

of securing a race suited to our cli-
mate and pasture. To attain this ob-
ject, the prominent agricultural so-
cieties have ofTered prizes at their
fairs for improved native stock.

CAUDATE (from cauda, a tail).
Furnished with a tail-like appendage.

CAUDEX. The body of a root.

CAULIFLOWER. An improved
cabbage, the flowers of which form
a mass of great delicacy. The va- ^
rieties cultivated in the United States |
are the early white, late white, and pur- |
j)le. Sow the seed in September in
clean, rich soil, prick out in five
weeks, and set in another bed four
inches each way. As soon as the ,
weather is cold, set a frame about
the seedlings, and in winter protect
with dung outside, &c., so as to keep ■
out frost, but let in plenty of air and
light. Early in March set out under
hand frames, or in pots in the green-
house. "When the weather is set- ;
tied, put out, with balls of earth at-
tached, in the richest spot, two and a
half feet each way. They must be
hoed, earthed up. and watered, if ne-
cessary. Trim off the outer leaves
as the cauliflower forms ; they will
be mature in June. This is the best
way, but plants may be sown in hot-
beds in February, or even in May, in
the open air. They are, however, in-
tolerant of cold and heat, and form
small hearts during the summer.
Those planted in May flower in Oc-
tober. An ounce of good seed yields
from three to four thousand plants.
Cauliflowers left for seed must be
kept away from any other cabbage
variety, and the seeds collected as
rapidly as they ripen.

CAULLS (from Kav7.or). A stem.
From this word comes cauliferous.

CAUSTIC. Any application that
destroys the flesh or skin to which
it is applied. The most powerful
caustics are lunar caustic (nitrate of
silver), red precipitate (nitrate of mer-
cury), caustic potash: blue stone is
also used. Sometimes a solution of
blue stone or lunar caustic is applied
to stimulate an ulcer or slowly re-
move excessive growth. Caustics
are chiefly used to subdue irregular

CED

growths of flesh, and to destroy ul-
cers.

CAUSTIC, LUNAR. Nitrate of
silver, sold in sticks, ready for use as
a caustic ; when used in solution, ten
grains are mixed with an ounce of
water.

CAUTERY, or ACTUAL CAU-
TERY. The application of a red-hot
iron to a diseased part, as fungous
growths, &c. It is too often used
injudiciously.

CAVIARE. The salted roe of the
sturgeon, prepared and dried. It is
an unwholesome food used in Russia.

CEDAR. There are two species
of Cuprcssus known in the forests of
the United States under the names
of black cedar, or cypress (C. disti-
cha), and the white cedar ( C. thyoides).
They both yield good timber.

The C. disticha is abundant in the
swamps of Virginia and the South,
and forms the only tree in immense
swamps on the Mississippi. In these
localities it often rises 130 feet, and
attains 30 to 40 feet girth at the earth,
running up like a cone. The wood
is extremely durable, and in high re-
pute for shingles and posts. It is fell-
ed in winter, and allowed to dry thor-
oughly before being split. The trees,
which grow, in a great measure, in
water, have light barks, and are call-
ed ichife cypress, while those of drier
soils are caUed black cypress, and yield
a firmer and more resinous wood.

The u-hite cypress, C. thyoides, is ev-
ergreen, grows seldom 70 feet high,
and is about three feet in diameter.
It is abundant in New-Jersey, Mary-
land, and Virginia, but not farther
south. It inhabits salt and other
marshes in dense forests. The wood
is light, soft, of a rosy colour, aromat-
ic, easily worked, and very durable. It
is used by turners, and forms the most
valuable shingles, sometimes called
juniper shingles, which last 35 years.

CEDAR OF LEBANON. Abies
cedrus. A tree of immense dimen-
sions, value, and beauty, native on
the Lebanon Mountains. It is natu-
, ralized in Europe, and is a splendid
ornament in English parks. The
wood. is very durable. It may be cul»
141

CEL

CEX

tivated with ease in the United States
as an ornament.

CEDAR, RED. The Juni perils Vir-
giniana is so called ; it is found on
the sea-coast from Maine to ilie Gulf
of Mexico ; attainin<r, in the South,
40 feet, but is small inland. It is ev-
ergreen and ornamental. The wood
is very dural)le, lij,'lit, and odorous,
red in colour, but scarce in quantity :
the best is from Florida.

CELERY. The improved small-
age, or Apium frravcolens. Several
varieties are cultivated ; the lohite
solid is the best for the table, the red
solid for cooking ; NorlVs giant, ncic
white, lion\s paw, and cclcriac {A. ra-
paceum) are also raised ; the last pro-
duces a root like the turnip, which is
sliced, and eaten with vinegar. Ear-
ly celery may be raised from seeds
60wn in a cold bed, like cabbages.
The general crop is sown in March
or April, in a rich border, protected
from great heat. The drill is the best,
run six inches apart. Transplant,
when three inches high, into rich
soil, and after a month into trench-
es dug one spade deep, ten inches
wide, and four feet apart. Place at
the bottom of each trench three inch-
es of rotten dung, and mix it well
with the soil ; leave the earth taken
out piled up between the trenches, to
be afterward fdled in as the plants
grow. Trim the roots and side leaves
of the celery before setting in the
trench, and place them four to six
inches apart. Sometimes two or
more rows are planted in one wide
trench. As the plants grow in the
trenches, hoe them, and when well
grown to one foot high i)egin to earth
in ; this must be done wlien the soil
is dry. Place a board against the
plants, and throw in soil enough to
reach nearly to the central b\id ; do
this on each side and along the row.
Earth up every two weeks, as the
celery grows, taking care to collect
together the leaves each time. When
blanched for thirty inches it is fit for
Use. Late winter celery may be put
in trenches in August, and earthed in
October. Market gardeners plough
out their trenches, increasing tlie dis-
143

tance between them. One ounce of
seed yields upward of ten thousand
plants. The winter store is kept in
sand, and covered with straw ; sud-
den liiawing destroys the celery. If
the wiiole root is taken up uncut,
the stump, after cutting off the head,
will again sprout in a warm cellar,
and yield a second supply of small,
hut very sweet and tender celery.
Seeds are readily obtained by leaving
a few plants in the seed-bed, which
will flower in July, and bear an abun-
dance of seeds in umbels.

CELL. In physiology, the mi-
nute cavities in plants and mem-
branes : the size ditlers from the one
thousandth to the one hundredth of
an inch. It may contain air, or fluids
and solids. The cell is the first struc-
ture of all membranes, but subse-
quently it may be converted into a
tube. They are originally spherical,
but become changed by pressure into
cubes, dodecahedrons, and other fig-
ures.

CELLULAR TISSUE. The mem-
brane or tissue in plants and ani-
mals which consists of cells contain-
ing gas chiefly, as the pith. It exists
between all muscles, and under the
skin in animals.

CEMENT. A Mortar, which see.

CEMENTATION. A process of
making steel, by surrounding plates
of iron with charcoal powder and
heating to a high point.

CENTIGRADE. A division into
one hundredths, as the centigrade
thermometer.

CENTIPEDE. Creeping, wing-
less insects with many feet ; they at-
tack the dead roots of plants.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY. An
imaginary point in the centre of any
mass which has the same weight ot
matter arranged on at least two sides.
When any substance is balanced on
a jioint, as the finger, the centre of
gravity lies immecliately above that
point. In falling to the earth, all sub-
stances take such a path that the
centre of gravity descends in a
straight line. No object can remain
firm except a line drawn from the
centre of gravity to the earth fall

CHA

GIIA

within its base ; the instant it falls
on the outside the body tumbles over.

CENTRIFUGAL (fVum ccntnim,
the centre, and/u^;o, 1 retreat). Used
in botany to describe an inflorescence
in which the uppermost or central
flowers bloom first.

CENTRIPETAL (from centrum
and pctro, I seek). That inflorescence
in which the outermost or lowest
buds develop first ; it is the most
common.

CEPHALIC (from /ce^a?.;/, a head).
Relating to the head.

CERACEOUS (from c^ra, wax). In
botany, waxv.

CERASIN. The gum of the cher-
ry and other trees, which does not
dissolve, but swells in water ; it is
the same as bassorin.

CERATE. An ointment contain-
ing wax.

CEREALIA. A term applied to
wheat, barley, rye, oats, corn, millet,
or grain plants.

C E R I N. That portion of wax
which dissolves in boiling alcohol.

CERUMEN. The wax formed in
the ears of animals. An accumula-
tion produces deafness, that may be
partly cured by syringing the ears
with tepid water.

CERUSE. White-lead, which see.

CERVICAL (from cervix, the neck).
Belonging to the neck.

CESPITOSE, CESPITOSUS
(from cespcs, a turf). Producing
many stems from one root.

CHAFF. The husks of grain or
straw cut in small pieces.

CHAFF ENGINES. The English
name for Straw-cutters, which see.

CHALCEDONY. A semi-transpa-
rent, silicious mineral, usually milky
and nodular.

CHALDRON. A measure of 36
bushels, heaped.

CHALK. A geological formation
abounding in Europe, but absent in
the United States. It belongs to the
uppermost portions of the secondary
formation, and consists of a large pro-
portion of carbonate of lime.

CHALYBE.\TE. Medicines or
mineral waters containing iron : they
are tonic.

CHAMOMILE. Anthemis nobilis.
The flowers are used in medicine as
a bitter ; or an extract is made of
their boiled liquor. See Camomile.

CHAMPIGNION. The French
name for mushrooms ; also the Aga-
ricas orcades, an English species,
tougher, but more highly flavoured
than the common mushroom ; it is
good when dried, and used in powder
as a condiment, or made into catsup.

CHANGE OF SEED. Practical
men have discovered that highly im-
proved seeds, especially of wheat,
corn, &c., brought from a distance,
gradually deteriorate if the soil is un-
suited. Thus, the white May wheat
becomes red on the red soils of Vir-
ginia ; the delicate six weeks' corn
of Canada becomes a three months'
hard corn in the South. General
Harmon has shown that many of the
choicest English wheats produce im-
perfect grain in New-York ; and it
must be evident that whatever im-
provement, in plants and seeds has
been attained by high culture, will be
lost unless that culture is maintained.
Instead, therefore, of changing seed,
it is best to improve our own, and
keep the land up to the proper tilth ;
and if we introduce new varieties, to
take care to introduce, also, high cul-
ture. Seeds of the same state, or a
similar soil and climate, deteriorate
less rapidly than foreign grain. By
changing seed and always buying
choice kinds, fine grain may be ob-
tained for one or two seasons, even
from indifferent lands.

CHARCOAL. Vegetable matter
burned in a place without access of
air. Near large cities a strong vine-
gar (pyroligneous acid) is made from
green wood, by distilling it in iron
vessels ; fine charcoal remains in the
vessel, and is thus obtained for com-
bustion. On the farm, the produc-
tion of charcoal must be on a cheaper
and more wholesale scale. Logs of
wood are piled either horizontally or
vertically into a dome-shaped mass,
a chimney being left in the centre
about four or five inches square, and
the rest covered close with sods and
earth a foot deep, so that no smoke can
113

CII.V

escape through it ; a small flue or i
channel for air may also be left along
the ground, under the wood, on the
windward side, and passing to the
central chimney : this is the simplest
construction. Sometimes a pit or |
walled space is used, in which the 1
wood is laid, flues being sunk to con- !
vey air to the bottom, and a central '
chimney left, the top being covered
with earth, ashes, or cinders. The
kiln is fired by placing in the central
chimney leaves, straw, or twigs well
lighted, and allowing the draught to
remain open until the upper logs of
wood are well fired, afterward closing
the under flue. As soon as the flame
dies away, the wood being red-hot j
above, close the top of the chimney
and let the fire smoulder. It requires
from six to ten days to burn a kiln,
and constant attention must be paid.
Hard wood requires most time. The .
average yield is 16 per cent, of coal,
but hard woods, well burned, some-
times furnish 25. Box, lignum vitcc,
mahogany, chestnut, and oak yield
most. In this process, nearly all the
carbon of the wood is left, the oxygen
and hydrogen uniting in combustion
to form water, and the object in view
is to keep out atmospheric air, which
would cause the combustion of the
carbon also.

Properties. — Charcoal possesses
many remarkable properties. 1st. It
has the power ofremoving fetid smells
from water, meats, and manures ;
hence it is used in disinfecting priv-
ies and manures. 2d. It removes the
colour of many fluids, and is used in
clarifying juices and solutions, espe-
cially in refining sugar. 3d. It is re-
markably porous, and absorbs from
the air and other media, gases : 1
cubic inch of fresh box-wood was
found by .Saussure to absorb and con-
dense 90 of ammoniacal gas, 35 of car-
bonic acid, 9i of oxygen, and 7^ of
nitrogen : this property gives it great
value in putrescent composts, and as
a manure. 4th. Charcoal is nearly
unchangeable in common air at the
ordinary temperature, but burns,
when heated to redness, into carbon-
ic acid, if abundance of air be present.

CHA

5th. Being a very bad conductor of
heat, it is used to line refrigerators
and small ice-houses.

As a Manure. — Charcoal, in small
lumps or coarse powder, has been
highly recommended of late as a top
drcss"ing. About 40 bushels the acre,
over grass lands, or among young
plants, as turnips, has been known
to produce a heavy increase. Its
success will, however, depend upon
the goodness of the soil, and its
wants. Wherever an increased sup-
ply of ammonia from the air is want-
ing, the charcoal does good. The
fresh -burned article also contains
much sahne matter, soluble in water.
The best, and perhaps only advisable
way of using it, is to compost the pow-
der with night soil, urine, blood, and
other putrescent bodies ; it tends to
dry up the fluids, and retains the am-
monia formed during their decay.
Such composts added to the soil, re-
tain their virtue much longer than
the bodies when used alone. The
charcoal yields to roots of plants the
gases it has absorbed. But it has
been shown by numerous gardeners
that charcoal powder, kept moist with
rain water, is a good soil for many
flowers, and capable of sustaining
vigorous vegetation, and that slips
take root readily in it. Besides its
absorbent action, charcoal will loosen
tough soils and increase their warmth
by its black colour : it adds to the
tilth by giving greater porousness.

Great dijiculti/ has been found in
obtaining powdered charcoal ; this
is readily obviated by crushing the
lumps in a rough bark mill, which
every farmer can set up with an old
stone, turning around a post and
pressing on a few flag-stones. See
Mill.

CHARCOAL. AXIMAL. BONE
BLACK, IVORY BLACK. These
terms are used chiefly to indicate
bones charred by heat. It is prepa-
red extensively for sugar refiners, be-
ing much more valuable in remo-
ving colours than common charcoal.
Sometimes it is made by placing
bones in an open iron vessel and
heating until they are sufticientlv

Giii:

CUE

black ; hut the most economical way-
is to introduce crushed bones into
iron retorts and distillinff ; l)y this
means a strong Iclid ammonia is ol)-
tained from them, which is very val-
uable in the arts, and the bones yield
more bone black. Common animal
charcoal contains 80 to 85 per cent,
of phospliate of lime and mineral
matter. Tiie refuse of the sugar re-
fuiers is a very valuable manure, and,
mixed with composts, much superior
to the recent bone black, from the
mixture of blood and other putres-
cent matters used. In France it is
so highly esteemed, that purchases
are made in New-York city for ex-
portation to Havre, and the refuse
is imitated by artificial mixtures of
powdered charcoal and bullocks'
blood. It is of great service in pro-
ducing vigorous growth, strong plants,
and fine seeds. From 150 to 200
pounds, in compost, are suflicient for
an acre of land in high order : in gar-
dens more is used.

CHARD. A variety of Beet, which
see.

CHARLOCK. Several weeds of
the Cruciferous family ; difficult to
extirpate except by mowing before
they llowcr. They are annuals.

CHARRING. Burning so as to
produce a crust of charcoal. It is a
good way of preserving the butts of
posts inserted in the ground or wet
places.

CHASE. A row of trees or hedge
plants.

CHAT POTATOES. A term in
England for the small, imperfect po-
tatoes, fit onlv for liogs.

CHEAT, or CHESS. The Bromus
fccalinus (see Bromus). Supposed to
be degenerate wheat by the ignorant.
It is a troublesome grass, only to be
extirpated by cleaning the grain thor-
oughly of the chess seeds. It is
called Darnel occasionally in Eng-
land.

CHEESE. In making cheese
there are certain general principles
which are essential, hut slight varia-
tions in the process produce cheeses
of very different qualities ; and al-
though the most important circum-
N

stance is the nature of the pasture on
which the cows are fed, yet much
depends on the mode in which tho
different stages of the fabrication are
managed ; and hence the great supe-
riority of the cheeses of particular
districts or dairies over those of oth-
ers, without any apparent difference
in the pasture. By skill and great
attention excellent cheeses are made
in places where the pastures are not
considered so well adapted to pro-
duce milk of a proper quality ; and in
those countries where the cows are
chiefly kept tied up in stalls, and are
fed with a variety of natural and ar-
tificial grasses, roots and vegetables,
superior cheese is often made.

The first process in making cheese
is to separate the curd from the whey,
which may be done by allowing the
milk to become sour ; but the cheese
is inferior in quality, and it is diffi-
cult to stop the acid fermentation and
prevent its running into the putrefac-
tive. Various substances added to
milk will soon separate the curd from
the whey. All acids curdle milk.
Muriatic acid, or spirits of salt, is used
with success for this purpose in Hol-
land. Some vegetables contain acids
which readily coagulate milk, such as
the juice of the fig-tree, and the flow-
ers of the Galium verum, or yellow
lady's bed straw, hence called cheese-
rcnnct. Where better rennet cannot
be procured, they may be substituted
tor the most natural curdler of milk,
which is the prepared stomach of a
sucking calf This rapidly coagu-
lates the milk ; and the only difficul-
ty is in keeping it from putrefaction,
which begins from the instant the
stomach is taken from the calf The
preparation of the rennet, as it is call-
ed, IS a most important part of the
process of cheese-making. The fol-
lowing may be considered as the sim-
plest, and perhaps the best. As soon
as a sucking calf is killed the stom-
ach should be taken out, and if the
calf has sucked lately, it is all the bet-
ter. The outer skin should be well
scraped, and all fat and useless mem-
branes carefully removed. It is only
the inner coat which must be prc-
115

CHEESE.

served. The coagulated milk should
be taken out and examined ; and any
substance besides curd loiiiid in it
should bo carefully removed. The
serum left in it should be pressed out
with a cloth. It should then be re-
placed in the stomach with a large
quantity of the best salt. Some add
a little alum and saltpetre ; others
put various herbs and spices, with
the view of giving the cheese a pe-
culiar flavour, but the plain, simple
salting is sufficient. The skins, or
veils, as they are called, are then put
into a pan, and (-overed with a satu-
rated brine, in whicli they are soaked
for some hours ; but there must be
no more liquor than will well moisten
the veils. They are afterward hung
up to dry, a piece of flat wood being
put crosswise into each to stretcli
Ihein out. They should be perfectly
dried, and look like (jarchment. In
this state they may be kept in a dry
place for any length of time, and are
always ready for use. In some places,
at thi' time of making cheese, a piece
of a veil is cut off and soaked for
some hours in water or whey, and
the whole is added to ihe warm milk.
In other places, pieces of veil are put
into a linen bag and staked in warm
water, until the water has acquired
sufficient strength, whicli is proved
by trying a portion of it in warm milk
The methoil employed in Sw tzerland
is as follows : A dry veil is taken and
exammed ; it is scraped wiili a knite,
and where any veins or pieees of
tough iiiembrdiie ajjpear they are re-
moved 1 he whole surface is exam-
ined and w.ished carelully, if any
dust or tiirt h.is adhered to it ; but,
otherwise it is only wijied with a
cloth. -A haiidl'ul of salt is then put
into it, and the edges ol the veil are
folded over and secured with a wood-
en skewer stuck thnujgh it. In this
state it forms a ball of about three
inches' diameter, and is laid to soak
twenty-four hours in a dish contain-
ing aliout a quart of clear whey, which
has been boiled, and all the curd
taken out. The next day the veil is
well squeezed, and pui into fresh
whey, the first infusion being put
146

into a proper vessel ; the second is
afterward mixed with it and bottled
for use. Half a pint of this liquor, of
a proper strength, is sufhcient to cur-
dle forty gallons of milk. Experience
alone enables the dairyman to judge
of the strength of his rennet ; for this
purpose he takes in a Hal ladle some
milk which has been heated to about
95^ of Fahrenheit, and adds a small
measure of rennet By the rapidity
with which it curdles, and the form
of the flakes produced, he know.- its
exact strength, and puts more or less
into the caldron in which the milk is
heated for curdling. A simple instru-
ment might easily be invented by
which the exact degree of strength
might be ascertained, and a rule giv
en to guide the less experienced ; but
as long as a man feels a superiority
ac()uired by exierience alone, he is
not likely to encourage any contri-
vance which would place others on a
level with himstdf From this cause
even the thermometer has .lOt been
introduced generally into any great
dairy, nor have any certaui rules been
given to ascertain the exact heat le-
quired in the milk, when the reniiei
is added, to form the best curd.

There are different kinlsofrhees*'.
accor'ling to the mode of preparing
it ; soft and rich cheeses are not in-
tended to be kept long ; hard and dry
cheeses are adapted to be kept and
stored for provisions. Of the first
kind are all cream cheeses, and those
soft cheeses called Bath and Yo.k-
shire cheeses, which are s 'Id as soon
as made, and if kept too long become
soft and putrid. Stilton and Gruyere
cheeses are intermediate; Parme-
san, Dutch, Cheshire, Gloui-ester-
shire, and snnilar cheeses are in-
tended for longer keeping. The
poorer the cheese, the longer it will
keep ; and all cheese that is well
cleared from whey and sufficiently
salted will keep for years The
small Dutch cheeses called Edam
cheeses are admirably adapted lor
keeping, and form an important arti-
cle in the victualling of snips.

The Gruycrc and Parmesan cheeses
only differ in the nature of the milk,

CllLLiyE.

and in the dectree of heat given to
tlie curd in diflerent parts of ihe pro-
cess. Gniyere clieese is entirely
made from new milk, and Parmesan
fuom skinnned milk. In the first no-
thing is added to give flavour ; in the
latter saflYon gives both colour and
flavour : tiie process in both is ex-
actly similar. A large caldron in
the shape of a bell, capable of hold-
ing from 60 to 130 gallons of milk,
hangs from an iron crane over a
hearth where a wood fire is made.
The milk, having been strained, is
put into this caldron, and heated to
nearly blood heat (95^ to 100 ). It
is then turned off the fire, and some
rennet, prepared as stated above, is
intimately mixed with the warm milk
by stirring it with a flat wooden
skimming dish, which is turned round
in the milk. A cloth is then laid over
the caldron, and in half an hour, more
or less, the coagulum is formed.
This is ascertained by pressing the
skimming dish on the surface, when
the whey will appear on the part
pressed. If it is longer than an hour
m coagulating, the milk has been too
cool, or the rennet not strong enough.
The weather has a great influence on
the process of the dairy, and there is
much yet to be learned by accurate
observations with meteorological in-
struments. When the curd is prop
erly formed, it is cut horizontally in
thin slices by the same skimming
ladle. Each slice, as it is taken off,
is placed along the side of the cal-
dron which is nearest to the opera-
tor ; by this means every portion of
the curd rises successively to the
surface, and is sliced thin. The
whole is then well stirred, and the
caldron replaced over the fire. A long
staff, with a small knob of hard wood
at the end, and which has smaller
cross pieces or sticks passed through
holes in it at right angles to each
other near the end, is now used to
stir and break the curd, and the heat
is raised to about 135". The caldron
is again swung off the fire, and the
curd is stirred with the staff, which
is moved round with a rejiuhir rota-
tory motion. Alter fatirnng in this

manner nearly an hour, the curd is
found divided into small dies about
the size of a pea, which fi-el elastic
and rather tough under the finger.
The whey, of which a portion is re-
moved occasionally, now floats at
top, and the curd is collected in the
bottom by giving a very rapid rota-
tory motion to the contents of the
caldron by means of the staff. A
cloth is now introduced into the bot-
tom, and all the curd collected over
it ; it is raised by the four corners,
and laid on an instrument like a small
ladder, which is placed across the
mouth of the caldrnn. The whey
runs out through the cloth, which is
a common cheese-cloth woven with
wide interstices ; and the curd in the
cloth is placed in a shape or hoop
made of a slip of wood four inches
and a half wide, the two ends of
which lie over each other, so that
the diameter can he increased or
lessened. A cord fixed to one end
of the hoop is passed with a loop over
hoops on the outer surface of the
other end, and prevents the ring from
opening more than is required. The
curd is pressed into this ring with the
hands, and the ends of the cloth are
folded over it. A round board, two
inches thick, and strengthened by
cross pieces nailed on it, is placed
over the curd, and the press let down
upon it.

The cheese-press is a simple long
board or frame forming a lever, load-
ed at one end and moving in a frame
at the other.; it is lifted up by an-
other lever connected with it, and let
down on a strong stick, which stands
with its end on the centre of the
board last mentioned. The weight
is thus easily removed or replaced.
The hoop containing the cheese is
placed on a similar board, and from
it the table of the press slopes to-
wards a wooden trough, which re-
ceives the whey as it runs out. In
an hour after this the curd is ex-
amined ; the edges, which are press-
ed over the ring, are pared off, and
the parings are put on the centre of
the cheese ; a fresh cloth is substi-
tuted, and the whole cheese is turned.
117

CHEESE.

The ring, which opens readily by un-
hooking the cord, allows tiie clieesp
to come out, and is put on again and
tightened. This is repeated two or
three times in the day. In the even-
ing, a small portion of finely powder-
ed salt is rubbed on each side of the
cheese, and it remains in the press
till the next morning. It is now
again rubbed with salt, and placed
on a shelf with a loose board under
it. The wooden ring remains on the
cheese for two or three days, and is
Ihen taken off. This is the whole
process.

During the next six or eight weeks
the cheeses are turned and wiped
every day, and a small quantity of
fine salt is sifted on the surface and
rubbed in with the hand until it will
take no more. The cheese-room is
always very cool, and little light is
admitted. A free circulation of air
is essential. The cheeses are in per-
fection in about six months, and will
keep two years. A quantity of elas-
tic fluid is disengaged in the ripening,
and forms those round cells which
are a peculiar feature in these chees-
es. The smaller and rounder the
cells, the better the cheese is reck-
oned. They should contain a clear
Bait liquor, which is called the tears ;
when these dry up, the cheese loses
its flavour. These particulars will
give any one unacquainted with the
dairy a tolerable notion of the pro-
cess of cheese-making in general.

In Cheshire the making of cheese
is carried on in great perleclion, and
the greatest pains are taken to ex-
tract every particle of whey. For
this purpose, the curd is repeatedly
broken and mixed, the cheeses are
much pressed, and placed in wooden
boxes which have holes bored into
them. Through these holes sharp
skewers are stuck into the cheese in
every direction, so that no particle
of whey can remain in the curd. The
elastic matter formed also escapes
through these channels, and the en-
tire cheese is a solid mass without
holes, which in this cheese would be
looked upon as a great defect. The
salt is intimately mixed with the
118

curd, and not merely rubbed on the
outside. This checks internal fer-
mentation, and prevents the forma-
tion of elastic matter.

Gioucestcr and Somersetshire chees-
es are similarly made, with this dif-
ference, that the curd is not so often
broken, or the cheese skewered, and
a portion of the cream is generally
abstracted to make butter. After
the curd has been separated from the
whey and is broken fine, warm water
is poured over it for the purpose of
washing out any remaining whey, or
perhaps to dissolve any portion of
butter which may have separated be-
fore the rennet had coagulated the
milk ; for although cream adds to the
richness of cheese, butter tends to
make it rancid.

Stil(on cheese is made by adding
the cream of the preceding evening's
milk to the morning's milking. The
cream should be intimately incorpo-
rated with the new milk ; great at-
tention should be paid to the tem-
perature of both, and much of the
quality of the cheese depends on this
part of the process. To make this
cheese in perfection, as much de-
pends on the management of the
cheese after it is made as on the
richness of the milk. Each dairy
has some peculiar method which is
considered best ; and it is certain that
there is the greatest difference be-
tween cheeses made in contiguous
dairies. The rennet should be very
pure and sweet. When the milk is
coagulated, the whole curd is taken
out, drained on a sieve, and very mod-
erately pressed. It is then put into
a shape in the form of a cylinder,
eight or nine inches in diameter, the
axis of which is longer than the diam-
eter of the base. When it is suffi-
ciently firm, a cloth or tape is wound
round it to prevent its breaking, and
it is set on a shelf It is occasional-
ly powdered with flour, and plunged
into hot water. This hardens the
outer coat, and favours the internal
fermentation, which ripens it. Stil-
I ton cheese is generally preferred
I when a green mould appears in its
. texture. To accelerate this, pieces

CHEESi:.

of a mouldy cheese are sometimes
inserted into lioles made for the pur-
pose by the scoop called a tastc7; and
wine or ale is poured over for the
same purpose ; but the best cheeses
do not require this, and are in per-
fection when the inside becomes soft
like butter, without any appearance
of moulduiess. In making very rich
cheeses, the whey must be allowed
to run otf slowly, because, if it were
forced rapidly, it might carry otf a
great portion of the fat of the cheese.
This happens more or less in every
mode of making cheese. To collect
this superabundant butter, the whey
is set in shallow pans, as is done
with milk when butter is made ; and
an mferior kind of butter, called ichcij
hiiitei\ is made from the cream or fat
skimmed off.

Cheeses are frequently coloured, a
practice which probably arose from
the notion of making the cheese look
richer ; but now it deceives no one.
Yet if some cheeses were not colour-
ed, they would not be so marketable,
owing to the association that subsists
between the colour and the qualify
of the cheese. The substance used
for colouring is most commonly ar-
notto, which is ground fine on a
stone, and mixed with the milk at
the time the rennet is put in. The
juice of the orange carrot and the
flower of marigold are also used for
this purpose. This last gives a more
natural tint than the arnotto, which
is too red.

Dutch cheeses are made in a very
similar manner to the Gloucester
cheeses, but the milk is generally
curdled by means of muriatic acid or
sjiirits of salt ; and great care is ta-
ken to prevent fermentation, and to
extract the whole of the whey. For
this purpose, the curd is repeatedly
broken and pressed ; and before it is
made up into the round shape in
which it is usually sold, the broken
curd is well soaked in a strong solu-
tion of common salt in \\-atcr. This
diffuses the salt throughout the whole
mass, and eflectually checks ferment-
ation. When the clieeses are finally
pressed, all the whey which may re-
N 2

main is washed out with the brine ;
salt is likewise rubbed over the out-
side, and they are set to dry on
shelves in a cool place. The flavour
of the cheese is perhaps impaired by
the stoppage of the fermentation ;
but it never heaves, and it acquires
the valuable quality of keeping well
even in warm climates. From the
place where this cheese is commonly
made, it is known by the name of
Edam cheese. A finer cheese is
made at Gouda and other places, by
iinitating the process in making Gru-
yere cheese ; but this cheese is al-
ways full of small cavities, and will
not keep so long as the Edam. The
little clieeses made from cream and
folded in paper, called Neufchaicl
cheeses, can be easily imitated, being
nothing more than cream thickened
by heat, and pressed in a small mould.
They undergo a rapid change, first
becoming sour and then mellow, in
which state they must be eaten.

The green Swiss cheese, common-
ly called Schabziegcr, is made in the
canton of Glarus, and is by many
persons highly esteemed. The curd
is pressed in boxes with holes to let
the whey run out ; and when a con-
siderable quantity has been collected,
and putrefaction begins, it is worked
into a paste with a large proportion
of a certain dried herb reduced to
powder. This herb, called in the
country dialect Zieger kraut (curd
herb), is the Melilotus officinalis, which
is very common in most countries,
and has a peculiar aromatic flavour
in the mountains of Switzerland The
paste thus produced is pressed into
moulds of the shape of a common
flower-pot, and the putrefaction be-
ing stopped by the aromatic herb, it
dries into a solid mass, which keeps
unchanged for any length of time.
When used it is rasped or scraped,
and the powder, mixed with fresh
butter, is spread upon bread. It is
either much relished or much dis-
liked, like all those substances which
have a peculiar taste and smell.

\^'hen a cheese which has been
much salted and kept very dry ig
; washed several times in soft water,
149

CllEtSK.

and then laid in a clolh moistened
with wine or vinej^ar, it gradually
loses its saltness, and from being
hard and dry becomes soft and mel-
low, provided it be a rich cheese.
This simple method of improving
cheese is worth knowing. It is gen-
erally practised in Switzerland, and
cheeses are kept stored there for
many years ; if they were not very
salt and dry, they would soon be the
prey of worms and mites. A dry
Stilton cheese may thus be much im-
proved.

CHEESE, EXPORTATION OF.
The exportation of cheese to Eng-
land is becoming very heavy ; 179.389
cvvt. were imported into Great Brit-
ain in 1844, nearly one third being
from the United States. The cheese
to imitate is the Cheshire, but if Stil-
ton could be produced it would pay
a heavy profit.

CHEESE-CLOTH. A coarse open
cloth or towel placed inside the vat ;
it should be wrung out in boiling wa-
ter after use, and dried.

CHEESE, CONNECTICUT. The
following account from the American
AgricuUiLrist gives the process for
the preparation of a very excellent
cheese :

" On a farm capable of supporting
twelve cows, two cheeses of about
10 lbs. each may daily be made, in
the months of May, June, and July.
The evening's milk is kept untouched
till the next morning, when the cream
is taken off and put to warm in a brass
kettle, heated in order to bring it to
the temperature of new milk from the
cow. The cows being milked early
in the morning, the morning's new
milk and the night's milk prepared
as above are put into a large tub to-
gether, with the cream. Then a por-
tion of rennet, which has been soak-
ed in water milk-warm the evenmg
before, and sufficient to coagulate the
milk, is put into the tub, after which
it is covered up warm and left to
stand about half an hour, or till co-
agulated, at which time it is turned
over with a bowl to separate tlie
whey from the curd, and broken soon
after with the hand and bowl in very
150

small particles ; the whey being sep-
arated by standing some time, is ta-
ken from the curd, which smks to the
bottom. The curd is then collected
into a part of the tub, and a board is
placed thereon which weighs from
60 to 120 lbs., to press out the whey.
When it is getting into a more solid
state, it is cut and turned over in sli-
ces several times to extract all the
whey, and then weighted as before.
These operations may occupy about
an hour and a half. It is then taken
from the tub and broken very small
by the hand, or cut very fine by a
cheese knife, and put into a cheese
vat, enlarged in depth by a hoop to
hold the quantity, it being more than
the bulk when finally put to the press.
The side is pressed well by hand, and
with a board well weighted placed at
the top. The cheese is thus drained
of its whey, then snifted out of the
vat, having a cloth first spread on the
top of it, and reversed on the cloth
into another vat, or even into the
same, which, however, must be al-
ways fresh scalded, and thus made
warm before the cheese is returned
into It. The top part is now broken
down to the middle, has salt mixed
with it, is reversed as before, then
pressed by hand, weighted, and has
the remaining whey extracted. This
done, the cheese is again reversed
into a scalded warm vat, with a cloth
beneath the cheese ; a hoop is also
put round the upper edge of the
cheese and within the sides of the
vat, the cheese being first enclosed
in a cloth, and the edge of it put with-
in the vat. Finally, it is put into a
press of thirteen p5unds weight and
pressed very hard. In four hours it
is shifted and turned, and after four
hours again treated in the same man-
ner. After this it is taken out and
carried to the drying-room, and turn-
ed every day until it grows hard."

CHEESE-KEEPING. The ripen-
ing of cheeses is all important in
impfoving their flavour. A constant
temperature of from 50^ to 65° Fah-
renheit is the proper degree, but this
can only be attained in caverns and
cellars built for the purpose. Cheea-

cHn

CITE

PS are kept well when covered with
a cotton cloth and whitewashed.

CHEESE MAGGOT. Tlie larva
of a dipterous fly {Piophila casci) found
in decaying cheese.

CHEESE MITES. Minute, wing-
less insects {Arams siro) with eight
legs. Their introduction into chees-
es is very mysterious, as they appear
when no wounds are to be seen on
the outside.

CHEESE, PINE.\PPLE. The fol-
lowing is the plan of Mr. Davenport,
of New-York, who received the prize
of the Annerican Institute:

" In all cases the milk and rennet
should he sweet. When the curd is
properly produced, break it up very
line, cook it well, but not to overheat.
Season w-th clean pure salt. Put
the cheese or curd into the press or
mould, which is of pineapple shape,
with a neck, and open in the centre,
and fastened together by clamps or

' clasps. Fill the mould full, also the
neck, and |)ress with a round follow-
er to lit the neck. Keep it in the
press twenty-four hours, take the
cheese out and cut off the neck, and
sear it over ; then dip it in hot whey
to form a hard rind, and draw over
them tightly a net with interstices of
a diamond shape, which forms the
indenture. Suspend them from the
neck, and keep them so for four weeks ;
then take them out of the nets, and
set them on trenches on shelves, and
in three months they are cured and
fit for market. Pack them in cases
of ten each, with partitions between
them."

CHEESE PRESS. The most
common kind is described in the ar-
ticle Cheese. Numerous improved
machines occur, but the followmg. by
Baird, is in all respects equal, if not
superior, to the rest, and extensively
used in the English cheese counties.

151

CHE

CHL

" The form containing the curd is ]
put on the bottom plate, a, and the
top phite, B, is made to descend and !
press on it. There are two ways of
doing this : one quick and easy, until
the resistance becomes great ; and
the other slower, but more power-
ful, and used for tlie conclusion of
the operation. On tlie axis, c, of tlie
■wheel, D, there is a pinion of eight
teeth (not seen in the engraving)
which works in the rack, r. On the
axis, E, there is another pinion of
eight teeth (concealed by the other
parts), which acts in the wheel, d, of
twenty-four teeth. This axis, e, may
be turned by the winch handle, h,
three turns of which will make the
rack descend through a space corre-
sponding to eight of its teeth. In
this way the plate, b, may be lower-
ed to touch the cheese, and to com-
mence tlie pressure ; but when the
resistance becomes considerable, the
second method of acting on the rack
must be resorted to. On the axis, e,
besides the pinion before mentioned,
there is a fixed ratchet wheel, f ; the
lever, i, forked at the end, which
embraces f, is also placed on this
axis, but turns freely round it. In
the forked part of f there is a ratchet
or click, G (better seen at g *), which,
turning on the pin, k, may be made
to engage in the notches of the ratch-
et wheel, F. By means of this ar-
rangement, when I is raised up, and
G engaged in f, the axis, e, and its
pinion will be turned round with great
power on depressing the end, i, of the
lever ; and by alternately raising and
depressing i, any degree of pressure
required may be given to the cheese ;
after which, if it be wished to con-
tinue the pressure, and to follow
the gradual shrinking of the cheese,
the lever is to be raised above the
horizontal position, and the weight,
w, hung on, which will cause it to
descend as the cheese yields. By
inserting the pin, p, this effect may
be discontinued, and the farther de-
scent of B prevented." — • {Highland
Soc. Trans., vol. x., p. 52.)

CHEIROPTERA (from xeiP> '^^
ha7id, and nrepov, a wing). Animals of
152

the hat kind, whose wings are mem-
branous, stretched from the hand and
arm to the hind legs and side of the
body. Bats are, for the most part,
insectivorous, and therefore worthy
of preservation bv farmers.

CHELOXIAN.S (from x'^'>-<^vv, «
tortoise). All tortoises, turtles, &c.,
which are covered with a double
shell.

CHEMISTRY {Chama, Arh., to
burn). The science which investi-
gates the nature of matter, and the
laws which govern the movements
of its atoms. The inanimate and ani-
mate world are the scenes of its re-
searches. The miner, dyer, and man-
ufacturer owe their success to chem-
istry, and the farmer is destined to
be more benefited by this science
than other professions. The soil,
plants, and manures are all topics of
chemical examination, and, without
knowing their nature, no person can
practice agriculture except by guess,
and in an empirical way.

It is a subject of immense extent,
and in this work I have confined my-
self to the practical points. See An-
alysis, Affinity, Atom, Oxygen, Carbon,
Ammonia, Phosphorus, &.C.

CHENOPODIACE/E. A family of
plants, of which the Chcnopodmm is a
genus. They are herbaceous, grow-
ing on very rich lands, have a solita-
ry carpel, stamens of the same num-
ber as the divisions of the calyx, with-
out bracts or petals. The wormseed
{Ch. anthdminticum) is the only me-
dicinal species. Beets, spinach, and
goose foot belong to this family ; the
leaves, and indeed the whole plant,
are mucilaginous, and may be eaten
as food when not unpleasant to the
palate.

CHERIMOYA. The fruit of the
Anond chcrimolia, a tree of tropical
America.

CHERRY. Prunus cerasus. The
tree grows well in the United States,
and prefers a deep loam in a free ex-
posure. The wood is firm, and used
for cabinet purposes. The stocks
are raised from seed, and budded or
grafted : for dwarfs, the morello stock
is preferred. The stock may be bud-

CilERKV.

dedthe first year, and will bear in the
fifth. They may be trained as espa-
liers or left as standards. The fol-
lowing are select varieties :

D.ivenport's Early Bl.^ck, Neio
May Duke. — This variety is consid-
ered as one of the finest and most
productive of early cherries known, j
The fruit is of medium size, heart- |
shaped, of a dark, glossy black col- \
our : flesh firm, and of a pleasant,
sub-acid flavour. It ripens a week :
or ten davs earlier than the May
Duke.

May Dl'ke, Earhj Duke, Holman's
Duke, June Duke. — Fruit roundish,
and grows in clusters ; skin very
dark red ; flesh soft and juicy : ripe
in June.

American Amber, Early Amher,
Neio Honey. — Fruit beautiful, and of
medium size ; dark pink or amber
colour ; flesh rich, sweet, and fine ;
ripe in June.

Elton.— This excellent variety was
raised by Mr. Knight in 1806 ; the
tree is very vigorous and productive ;
the fruit is j^elty large, heart-shaped ;
pale glossy yellow in the shade, but
marbled with bright red next the sun ;
flesh firm, sweet, and rich : ripens
soon after the May Duke.

F L o R E N c E. — A very fine heart-
shaped cherry, of a yellow amber col-
our, marbled with bright red in the
shade, bright red next the sun ; flesh
tolerably firm, juicy, rich, and sweet :
ripe end of June and in July.

Ambree de Choisv. — A middle-
sized, roundish fruit, highly deserving
of cultivation ; skin transparent, red,
mottled with amber ; flesh amber
coloured, tender, and sweet. It bears
well as a standard, and ripens its fruit
in June.

Knight's Early Black. — Colour
rich, dark hue ; flesh firm, juicy, and
sweet : ripe in June.

0.x Heart, i/armo?i's Heart, White
Bigarrcau. — Fruit large, heart-sha-
ped ; colour pale yellow and white,
mottled with red ; flesh white, firm,
and well flavoured : ripe in June.

Manning's Black Bigarreau. — A
new variety from the nursery of the
late R. Manning, of Salem, Mass.

Fruit large, flesh sweet, and of pe-
culiarly fine flavour : ripe in July.

Yellow Spanish, Graffion, Impe-
rial, White Orleans, Turkey Bigar-
reau.— Fruit very large, heart-shaped ;
amber colour, red next the sun ; flesh
firm, sweet, and fine flavoured ; one
of the very best varieties ; tree an
abundant bearer : ripe in July.

Black Eagle. — A handsome va-
riety ; fruit of globular form ; skin
dark purple ; flesh tender, rich, and
of fine flavour : ripe in July.

Blatk Tartarian, Black Russian,
Ronald's Large Black Heart. — Large,
heart-shaped, and of very superior
quality ; colour dark shining purple
or black ; flesh firm, purple, and
sweet ; tree very productive : ripe in
June.

Elkhorn, Black Ox Heart, Large
Black Bigarreau. — Fruit large, and
heart-shaped ; an excellent variety
for market : ripe second and third
weeks in July.

Archduke, Royal Duke, Portugal
Duke. — A large, globular-formed red
cherry ; like the .May Duke, it grows
in clusters, but the tree grows more
vigorously than that variety, and
yields an abundance of fruit, which
hangs a long time on the tree, im-
proving in flavour in July.

Napoleon Bigarreac. — One of the
finest varieties ; fruit white, with red
spots ; size large, flesh white, solid,
and sweet : ripe in July.

"White Bigarreac. — One of the
largest and finest varieties. Fruit
heart-shaped ; skin yellow, with a red
cheek ; flesh firm and fine flavoured ;
ripe in July.

Late White Heart. — Middle size,
pleasant flavour, valuable as a late
variety : ripe the last of August.

White Tartarian. — An elegant
fruit ; pale yellow, approaching to
amber next the sun ; fine flavour,
and a good bearer : ripe in July.

Downer's Late Red, Downer's Fa-
vourite.— Fruit large and round ; col-
our light red, flesh firm and fine : ripe
after most other varieties are gone

MoRELLo, English Morello. — Fruit
of medium size, round ; of a dark-
red colour, nearly black at maturity ;
153

cur:

flesh deep red, tender, juicy, and
blended with an agreeable acid ; ri|)c
in July, and bangs some time on tlu>
tree. This variety is excellent for
preserves and lor brandy.

The fruit appears on spurs pro-
duced on branches two and three
years old ; the spurs are formed year
by year along the bearing branches :
the morello on the last year's shoots,
and seldom on that three years old.
Ch(?rry-trees, unless topped, become
very liigh, and require 30 to 40 feet
between them.

Diseases. — Exudation of gum is
cured by improving the soil, and pru-
ning less carelessly. The aphis, of a
green colour, is often troublesome,
causing the leaves to curl, and pro-
ducing, according to some naturalists,
hottey dew. Fumigations with tobac-
co* sulphur, and pepper are recom-
mended, as well as washing by a gar-
den engine, and throwing up tobacco
infusion. The red spider is removed
by the same means. It is, however,
a healthy tree, and less subject to
disease than many others. The trunk
is sometimes attacked by borers.

CHERRY, WILD. Pninus Vir-
giniana. This tree is found as far
north as Maine, but reaches perfec-
tion in rich lands in the Middle States,
especially Pennsylvania ; and also in
Virginia and Ohio. Trees have been
measured 100 feet high and 16 in
girth. The wood is brown, bright,
and, near branches, well marked. Ii
is much used for cabinet purposes,
and is durable. The fruit is small
and bitter, but flavoured like ratatia,
from the presence of oil of bitter al-
monds, and is sometimes mixed with
morello cherries for the manufacture
of cherry brandy and cordials. The
young tree is an excellent stock for
budding or grafting. The bark, infu-
sed in water, forms a popular tonic
and nervous remedy. For other va-
rieties, see Primus.

CHERT. A silicious mineral re-
sembling flint.

CHERVIL. ChccropkyUum sati-
vum. A pot-herb resembling pars-
ley, used by the French and Dutch in
soups and as salads. The seeds are
154

CUE

sown in spring, in drills eight inches
apart, the plani.s thinned to eight inch-
es apart, and ke|)i free of weeds. It
flowers in the fall.

CHES.SEL. The cheese vat. It
is made of white oak, bound by iron
hoops, and perforated with holes to
allow the whev to drain out.

CHEST FOrNDER. An irrita-
tion or inflammation of the mem-
branes in the chest. See Horse.

CHESTNUT. The American
chestnut {Castanea Americana) very
nearly resembles the famous Europe-
an tree {Castanea vesca), except in its
altitude and the size of the fruit. The
European, also called the Spanish or
Italian chestnut, is of immen.se size
and longevity, trees being known
which have a girth of 60 feet. The
wood, except in very old trees, is ad-
mirable, being more durable than oak
in moist situations. The bark is also
used in tanning. It prefers a dry,
loose soil, abounding in silicious mut-
ter and potash.

The European variety is easily rais-
ed from seed, grows rapidly, and bears
in seven years. The fruit is five limes
larger than that of ours, and com-
mands a good price in the market.
Chestnuts are used boiled, roasted,
and raw. In Southern France, Italy,
&c., they constitute the bread of a
large population. Michaux gives the
following directions for the cultiva-
tion of the chestnut :

" After the ground has been care-
fully loosened with the plough and
harrow, lines are drawn six feet
apart, in which holes about a foot in
depth and diameter are formed, at the
distances of four feet. A che.stnut is
placed in each corner of the hole,
and covered with about three inches
of earth. As the soil has been thor-
oughly subdued, the nuts will spring
and strike root with facility. Early
in the second year, three of the young
plants are removed from each hole,
and only the most thriving is left.
The third or fourth year, when the
branches begin to interfere with each
other, every second tree is suppress-
ed. To ensure its success, the plan-
tation should be begun in March or

CHI

April, with nuts that have been kept
in the cellar during the winter, in sand
or vegetable mould, and that have al-
ready becrnn to germinate."'

CHEWING THE CID. The an-
imals which chew the end are term-
ed by naturalists Ruminants, and in-
elu<le the ox, deer, camel, and slie(>p.
They are furnisiied with four pouches
or stomachs ; the grass gathered on
the field is swallowed and reaches
the first pouch, is moistened by wa-
ter from the second, and afterward
moulded into round balls, which are
thrown up into the mouth and leis-
urely chewed, and re-swallowed into
the third stomach, to be digested in
the fourth. Such animals are essen-
tially herbivorous, and require rest
during rumination. Any interference
with this process is a sign of disease.

CHIASTOLITE. A mineral re-
sembling soap-stone.

CHICA. A red colour obtained by
boiling the leaves of the Bifr/wnia chi-
ca, straining, and allowing to cool,
when it settles as an insoluble red
matter. It is permanent, insoluble
in water, but soluble in oils and lyes.
The Indians use it to anoint their bod-
ies. It mav be useful in the arts.

CHICKEN. See Poulinj.

CHICK PEA. An exotic, legu-
minous annual, resembling the vetcii :
the Cicer aricfrniim o\'hoia.nists. They
have been raised m the Middle States
with success. It is the Gaibanza of
Spain, and Poiscluca of thv French,
and reputed as the most delicious pea.
The ground dry pea is also used in
soups, and the roasted grain is said
to be a good substitute for coffee. It
prefers a rich, sandy loam, is grown
in rows, does not climb, attains the
iieight of about eigiiteen inches; the
pods contain two peas, and the yield
i.s small. As they come to most per-
fection in the South, they must be
sown in June in the Middle States.

C H I ( M) 11 Y. Cichormm intyhus.
An indigenous perennial plant, with
fine blue composite flowers. (<Sef

The following is from Mr. Rham :
" It has a fusiform root like a car-
rot, from the crown of which large

CHI

and succulent leaves spread out, with
deeply-indented edges. The whole
plant is bitter and aromatic. It is fre-
quently used as a salad, especially
when blanched. For this purpose,
the roots are taken up in the end of
autumn ; they are then placed in sand
or liijht mould, in a cellar from which
the light is excluded, the leaves hav-
ing been cut ofTpreviously within half
an inch of the crown. Fresh, slender
leaves soon grow out of the root, and,
being deprived of light, they are much
more delicate and tender than those
which grow in the open ground. The
bitterness, also, is thus lessened, and
they form a very pleasant winter sal-
ad, which, from the long, slender, and
matted state of the leaves, the French
call bar be dc capucin (monk's beard).
It is pleasanter to the taste than com-
mon endive.

" The luxuriant growth of the leaves
of the chicory, and their speedy re-
production after they have been cut,
suggested tlie more extensive culti-
vation of this phint ;is fond for f-attle
and sheep, who arc fond of the h-aves.
M. Crelte de Panuel, who (uiltivated
it near Paris in a rich soil, produced
extraordinary crops. The first year
he cut it only twice, but afterward
four and five times in a year : it pro-
duced more green food than any oth-
er plant cultivated lor this purpose
Arthur Young was so struck, with it
155

cm

cm

that he strongly recommended it to
the notice of British agriciilturists ;
and in the qtioiies sent to various
parts of tlie cotnitry l)y the Board of
Agriculture, one was whether cliico-
ry was cultivated in the district as
groon food for cattle. But, notwith-
staiuiing its abundant produce, it has
not been found so much superior to
other green food as to make its culti-
vation general. Some accurate ex-
pernnents on a large scale were made
in France, at the national farm of
Rambouillet, to ascertain the value
of chicory compared with lucern and
other green food. The chicory was
declared inferior, giving a disagreea-
ble taste to milk and butter when
cows are kept upon it. For sheep it
is very good, and a small portion mix-
ed with their other food may probably
be a preservative against the rot.

" Chicory is now chiefly cultivated
in Belgium and Germany, for the pur-
pose of preparing from tlie root a pow-
der which can be substituted for cof-
fee. This has become a very consid-
erable article of commerce.

"To have the roots in perfection,
the seed should be sown, or, rather,
drilled, in April, like that of the car-
rot. If sown sooner, they are ajit to
run to seed. The land should be rich,
deep, and light. The plants should be
thinned out to six inches in the rows,
and most carefully weeded. In Sep-
tember the leaves should be finally
gathered and the roots taken up,
which may be done with a common
potato-fork. They are then cleaned
by scraping and washing, split where
they are thickest, and cut across in
pieces about two or three inches long.
These pieces are dried by means of
a slow oven or a kiln. Some nicety
is required in drying, to prevent the
root from being scorched, and to keep
the proper flavour. In this state it is
sold to the merchants, packed in bags.
It is afterward cut or chopped into
small pieces, roasted exactly as cof-
fee, and ground in a mill. Chicory is
said to exhaust the soil, and to require
fresh ground to prevent its degenera-
ting. Unless the soil is rich and light,
the roots will not come to a good size
156

in one season, and old roots become
tough and stringy. It is only the young
roots that are fit to be prepared for
commerce. They lose a great por-
tion of their weiglit in drying. The
best preparation of tlie land for chic-
ory is grass or clover, 'i'lic manure
should be laid on before it is jilough-
ed up in autumn, which will acceler-
ate the decomposition of the roots.
The land should be ploughed very
deep in spring, and laid light ; the sur-
face harrowed fine, and the chicory
seed drilled in rows twelve inches
apart, and rolled. Liquid manure
spread over the ground will much
accelerate the growth of the plants,
which must be thinned out like tur-
nips or carrots, to six or eight inches
from plant to plant."

About thirteen pounds of seed are
used to the acre.

CHIGOE, or CHIGGER. An apter-
ous minute insect, which abounds in
southern and tropical America. It
penetrates the skin of the foot, grow-
ing to some size, and producing in-
tolerable itching. Unless destroyed
by tobacco juice, or picked out with
a needle, it finally brings about ulcer-
ations.

CHILIAN CLOVER. The Alfal-
fa. It is common lucern.

CHINE. The back bone.

CHINQUAPIN. Casfanea pumila.
A small tree and bush seldom found
north of Delaware. The fruit is small
and like a chestnut. It is seldom
wood is obtained lYom the chinqua-
pin : what there is is very durable.
In neglected new lands in Virgmiait
is a great nuisance.

CHINTZ, or CHINCK BUG. The
following is from Mr. Pleasants of
Virginia :

"The chinck bug is a much more
formidable enemy with us than the
wheat worm, or even the Hessian
tly. They (the chinck bugs) attack
both corn and wheat crops, the lat-
ter in May, the former generally in
the month of June. They continue
to injure the wheat by extracting the
sap as long as there is a particle of
it in the stalk. The consequence is,
%vhere they are numerous, the grain,

CHI,

CHU

when harvested, is nearly worthless
and the straw vastly injured. By the
time the wheat is cut, the bugs (then
flies) take wing, and immediately
spread over the neighbouring corn-
fields, concealing themselves under
the blade slips, under the roots, tkc,
where they dcposite millions of eggs,
which are hatched in eight or ten
days, and continue through rapidly
succeeding generations to prey upon
the sap as long as anything green re-
mains upon the stalk, finally taking
shelter for the winter under the bark
of stumps and logs, under large clods,
&c., to be ready for the work of de-
struction the next season. "When
first hatched, they are very small, and
red as cochineal. They grow very
rapidly, and in a week attain half the
size of a bedbug; in a week more,
they acquire wings, fly, and spread
themselves over the field, depositing
their eggs generally. They are, in
the last state, about twice the size of
a flea, have white wings, and tl.eir
bodies being dark, have a speckled
appearance. I have been thus minute
in describing these insects, because I
observe they have never been seen
in Maryland." Their destruction is
attempted by running ditches across
the field, filled «ith straw, and, as
soon as the bugs are seen thereon,
setting fire to it. The bugs come
from forests, and are destro3-ed by
occasionally burning the dry leaves.

CHIVES, or GIVES. Allium schct-
twprasum. A small species of onion
growing in tufts. It is propagated
by dividing the roots, set out in May
and June eight inches apart, and eight
or ten offsets together. Keep free
from weeds. The leaves may be used
for soups. In the fall, as soon as the
tops die, dig the chives and store for
winter.

CHLORINE (from ;f/l«j30f, green).
A green - coloured elementary gas,
produced artificially. It is pungent,
poisonous, and of great chemical ac-
tivity. It exists only in combination
in nature : equivalent 35 45. When
combined with metals the substances
are called Chlondcx, as chlonde of
sodium (common salt), chloride of hy-
O

j drogen (muriatic acid). The latter is
a powerful acid, much used in the
j arts, and known under the name of
spirits of salts. Chlorine also unites
with lime and soda, forming feeble
compounds, the chlorides of lime and
soda ; these, especially tlie former,
I are extensively used in bleaching,
! from the continual escape of the chlo-
' rine. They are also disinfecting for
the same reason. Chlorides are oft-
en erroneously called Muriates. Chlo-
rine unites with five equivalents of
oxygen, and forms the Chloric Aad.
One of its salts, the chlorate of pot-
ash, is of great value in the arts

CHLORITE. A mineral of a green-
ish colour, common in slates, &c. It
is chiefly a silicate of magnesia and
iron.

CHLORO. In chemistry, a prefix
to substances containing chlorine, as
chloro-carbonic acid, iScc.
*CHLOROPIiYL (from;tlwpor and
(pv?./.ov, a leaf). The green colouring
matter of leaves. It closely resem-
bles wax, and is converted in the fall
into a true yellow fat. The presence
of chlorophyl is essential to the
healthy functions of the leaf, which
ceases to absorb carbonic acid from
the air when yellow or red. The au-
tumnal tints of leaves depend on a
change of this colouring matter, the
yellow being called Zanlhophyl, and
the red Erythrophyl. Chlorophyl is
also called chromule by some authors.
The tints of many flowers depend
upon its compounds, which assume
every variety between reds, yellows,
and greens. Chlorophyl has been
very recently shown to be analagous,
in its phvsical characters, with indigo.

CHLORURETS. The old name
for Chlorides.

CHOCOLATE. A preparation
made by triturating the roasted cocoa
beans at a temperature of 130= Fah-
renheit, and mixing with cinnamon,
cloves, vanilla, or other spices.

CHOKE DAMP. The suffocating
vapour existing in the bottom of wells,
cess-pools, and mines of wood coal.
It is an air containing much carbonic
acid, and may destroy life. Free
exposure to pure air and artificial
157

CHU

warmth are the means to be used in
restoring persons overcome with this
va|)our.

CHOLESTERINE ((romxo7.v, hilc,
and rrrmp, suet). A fatty matter re-
sembling spermaceti, found in the bile
and biliary concretions.

CHOLEICACID. Liebig regards
the animal matter of the bile as cho-
leic acid, the secretion being a soap
formed by its union with soda. Cholic
and choloidic acids are separated by
alcohol and other solvents, and are of
secondary consequence. Redtenba-
cher has recently discovered tu-cnty-
mx per cent, of sulphur in choleic acid.

CHONDRINE. Gristle, or carti-
lage. It consists of protein with wa-
ter, or, according to Liebig, protein
-|-20, -|-4 water.

CHORD. A straight line drawn
between the two extremities of the
arc of a curve. The chord of an arch
is its span.

CHOROID MEMBRANE. The
membrane of the eye within the white
coat.

CHROMATIC (from A'P"^«'. col-
our). In optics, relating to colour.

CHRONIC (from .ypoi'Of, time).
Diseases which are slow in their prog-
ress are called chronic.

CHRYSALIS. The grub or inac-
tive state of changeable insects. The
terms pupa and aurealian are synony-
mous. Some are enclosed in cocoons,
others are destitute of covering, and
buried in the earth or in trees. Moths
usually have rounded and butterflies
angular chrysales.

CHURN. The barrel in which the
butter of milk is separated. The
fommon plunging churn is described
in the article Butter. Another form
is a barrel with paddles moving upon
a central axis, which is turned by a
handle on the outside. Churns are
moved by horse or dog power, water,
and even steam-engines. A simple
plan is to affix the rods of several
plunging churns to a cross-bar attach-
ed to a lever, one end of which is fast-
ened to a wall or tree by a moveable
joint ; by moving the free end of the
lever, all the sticks are raised or de-
pressed together, and thus four or
158

CIC

more churns are set in action by one
person. The French use a churn
made of tin, which being placed in a
tub of warm water, can be warmed
directly, and be made to yield butter
in from ten to twelve minutes.

CHURNING. From a series of
experiments made for the Highland
Agricultural Society, it appears that
temperature of 50° or 55° Fahrenheit
is the best for the process (with
cream), and about two hours' work.
If the churning be continued after the
formation of butter it becomes soft,
and sometimes looses its colour.
When the whole milk is used it should
be warmed to 65° Fahrenheit. As
this point is easily managed in sum-
mer as well as in winter, it is best to
use the entire milk. An additional
argument is, that more butter is ob-
tained, Mr. Ballantyne having shown
that more than five per cent, is ob-
tained m summer from milk than
cream.

CHYLE. The milky fluid result-
ing from digestion. It is almost iden-
tical with milk, and owes its white
colour to fat suspended in it. The
chyle is carried directly into the veins,
and serves to repair the blood em-
ployed in maintaining the functions
of the bod^. It is alkaline, and con-
tains albumen and fibrin.

CHYLIFICATION. The produc-
tion of chyle.

CHYME. The solid parts result-
ing from digestion, which are first
Avhite from admixture with chyle, but
ultimately become converted into fec-
ulent matter. Chyme is slightly acid,
from the presence of lactic acid.

CICADA. A genus of insects re-
lated to the grasshopper and locust,
but inhabiting trees ; they make a
shrill sound. The dry fly of the
South is a species (C. cankularts).
The cicada;, by puncturing trees and
allowing their sap to exude, do much
harm ; the C. or>ii produces, in this
way, the manna of the druggists, by
wounding the Fraxinus ornus, or
manna ash-tree. The seventeen-
year locust is the C. septendecim.

CICATRIX. The scab of a wound
in the act of healing.

i;iD

CICHORIUM. The generic name
of a number of composite plants, of
which the C. intyhus is chic-ory or
succory, and C. endira, endive.

CIDER. The fermented juice of
apples. The Harrison, Newark
Sweeting, Hugh's Virginia Crab, and
Granniwinkle are the best cider ap-
ples ; but any fruit serves that is
well flavoured and becomes sweet in
the pomace. The apples should be
ripe, mashed well in a mortar or mill,
and the crushed mass kept until thor-
oughly sweet (from two to six days) :
it is then placed m a frame surround-
ed by straw and put under the press.
The juice should be put in barrels, in
a cool place, to ferment, and as soon
as the feculent matter (pulp) contain-
ed in it has overflown (about four
days), it should be racked or decant-
ed into a clean cask furnished with
a vent peg, bunged up, and placed in
a cool cellar. It is advisal)le to se-
cure the decanted cider from becofn-
ing sour and running into vinegar, by
burning a little sulphur in the new
cask immediately before pouring in.
Tiie liquor will be fit for bottling in
February. Some persons add sugar
and spirits to the cider, but they tend
only to increase its intoxicating ef-
fects. Old cider, made without such
addition, contains from seven to nine
per cent of alcohol.

By allowing the juice to remain in

CI\

the first cask it speedily becomes
sour, and vinegar is lapidly formed as
long as air finds access. As soon as
the juice is intenselysour, bung up ibe
barrel, or the acetic acid evaporates,
and only a flat water is left behind. '

The refuse pomace is sometimes
moistened with water, and pressed
again to form water cider. It is eat-
en by hogs and cows while fresh ; or,
if in great excess, may be carried to
the farm-yard to add to the manure
heap. Every part of the apparatus
must be kept clean by washing with
hot water and scrubbing.

CIDER MILL. Several contri-
vances are used for the purpose o-f
crushing the apples ; a larjre trunk of
a tree, hollowed, serves for a small
family, the fruit being beaten by a
wooden beetle. The following are
more elTective mills : Fig. 1 pre'sents
compartments for varieties of aa-
Fi^. 1. *^

pie ; the large millstone, a, is drawn
around in the groove and crushes ev-
ery particle of fruit. Fig 2 is a mill
of similar construction, but more sub-
stantial ; b is the swinging tree.

f^^^

Another irtill, figured under the ar-
ticle Crushers, is also used for this
purpose. The mill {Fig. 2) above
would be of great service on the farm
to crush corn, roots, bones, charcoal,
&c., as well as fruit.

CILIA (from cihum, the eyelash). Mi-

nute hairs on the margins of leaves,
angles of the bodies of insects, &c.
Cii'iiite is a derivative.

CI.MEX. The general term for in-
sects resemliling the bedbug

CINEREOUS (from cinis, ash).
Ash coloured.

159

cm

CINNAMON Laurus annamo-
tnum. This is a small tree, from
twenty to thirty feet hij^li. iiidiucnotis
to Coylon and the Eastern islands,
but cultivated in Cayenne, Egypt,
and Brazil. The spice consists of"
the inner hark of the branches ; its
flavour is due to an essential oil ea-
sily distilled.

ClNyl'EFOIL. Several species
of l\)tciiiilla with yellow flowers are
so called. They are weeds, the roots
of which are astringent.

C 1 11 C I N N A T E. In botany, the
manner in which the buds of ferns
and some other plants are folded, re-
sembling a crosier.

CIRCULATION. In physiology,
the route which the fluids or blood
of animals and plants lake through
the system. It differs with the spe-
cies of animals, but is nearly uniform
in the highest classes.

Tke circulation of the blood in man
and quadrupeds may be said to com-
mence on the right side of the heart,
from whence it is driven along the
■pulmonary arteries into the structure
of the lungs; being here changed by
the action of air, the bright crimson
blood is conveyed by the pulinotiary
vans into the left side of the heart,
and thence driven by its contraction
along the aorta and throughout the
body in the sy.stem of vessels called
arteries. The arterial blood ultimate-
ly reaching the skin and membranes,
moves through them and becomes of
a dark colour ; in this state it enters
the vcinx, and is conveyed back to the
heart qgain to pass through the same
course. The circulation in the lungs
is termed the lesser or pulmonic cir-
culation ; that through the body, the
systemii. circulation. The object of
thK movement is to supply every part
with its proper nourishment. The
force which accomplishes it is the
chemical action taking place in the
minute or capillary vessels. See Dr.
Draper's work on Vegetable Chemistry.

CIRCULATION IN PLANTS.
Fluid entering the roots of plants
rises by capillary action along the
cellular tissue or new wood in trees,
and diffuses itself over the leaves ;
160

CLA

here a chemical change occurs, and
it is driven along the under side of the
leaf to the space between the bark
and new wood, where the changed
fluid or sap diffuses itself and sup-
plies the young buds, and also de-
scend-s to the roots, forming new
wood and rootlets in its passage.
The force producing this circulation
is. like the former, due to chemical
changes m a great measure.

CIRRUS. A tendril.

CITRIC ACID. The sour princi-
ple of lemons. See Acids.

CITRON. A variety of lemon, the
fruit of which is much larger and with
a thicker rind, used for preserving ;
the pulp is less, and acid as in the
lemon.

CITRUS. The generic name of
the orange, lemon, and lime tree.

CLARIFICATION. The process
of clearing or refining fluids, by which
they are freed from sediment. The
white of egg, the clear portions of
blood, clay, and charcoal powder are
the best clarifiers.

CL.A.RY. A species of sage {Sal-
via sclarea). It is seldom cultivated
in the United States, being inferior
to that aromatic herb.

CLASPERS. Tendrils.

CLASS. A general division of nat-
ural objects.

CLA V ATE (from clava, a club).
Club-shaped. A descriptive term in
botany.

CLAVICLE. The collar bone.

CLAY. The earth which is form-
ed from the decomposition of slates,
shales, and minerals containing much
alumina. It is a hydrated silicate of
alumina, usually coloured red or blue
by metals, hut sometimes, as in pipe
clay and porcelain clay, of its natural
white or gray colour. It is very plas-
tic, adhesive, and tenacious of water,
so that in soils containing seventy
per cent, it is almost impossible to
produce a good Ullage. 11 also pos-
sesses the properly of forming feeble
combinations with the ammonia of
the air or soil. Clay soils, when
manageable, are usually fertile, from
the presence of other minerals occur-
ring in them, so that in practice it is

CJ-A

customary to value soils by the pro-
portion of this earth.

Chemically, the alumina is a feeble
base, uniting with acids, and is found
as a phosphate and sulphate, as well
as silicate. Clay can hardly be said
to furnish food to plants directly, but
is of consequence in giving texture
and absorbency to soils.

CLAY, BURNED. See Clay Soils
and Turf.

CLAYING LANDS. This is the
spreading of clay over soils which are
too sandy. It is an important remedy
for loose lands ; but the expense is
too heavy to justify the practice, ex-
cept in garden culture. The clay
should be carried on in the fall, to
mellow during winter; 100 or more
loads to the acre will be necessary
for a good result : the addition is per-
manent. If marl can be obtained, it
is very preferable.

CLAY SOILS. A clay soil con-
sists of a large proportion of alumina
united to silica of various degrees of
fineness. When the sand is very
fine, and intimately mixed with the
alumina, the clay, although stiff in
appearance, is fertile in proportion to
the humus which it contains, or which
is artificially added to it. It then
forms that class of rich wheat soils
which produce many successive abun-
dant crops without change or manure.
It has a strong afiinity for water,
which prevents the plants that grow
in it being injured by drought ; and
it has a sufficient degree of porous-
ness to allow superfluous moisture to
percolate v.ithout making it too soft.
All that is required for such a soil is
a porous substratum of rock or grav-
el ; and where this is not the case,
sufficient under-drains must be made
to produce the same effect. Clay
soils are of a compact nature, which
retains the water ; hence they require
expensive draining and manuring to
render them productive. This has
made lighter soils, which are more
easily worked, to be generally pre-
ferred, although naturally less adapt-
ed to the growth of wheat ; and the
mode of cultivation of the light soils
has advanced more rapidly towards
O 2

CLA

perfection than that of the clays ; yet
the latter will undoubtedly repay the
outlay best when once they are
brought to a certahi state of improve-
ment. When clay soils are well
drained, and when the effect of nox-
ious salts has been removed by liming,
burning, and frequent stirring, it wdl
be found that a much smaller (juantity
of manure will produce a more cer-
tain return in grass or corn than on
any light soil. The great difficulty is
to choose the time when stiff clays
are to be worked ; and here it may
be observed that ploughing some-
times does more harm than good.
When clay is wet, especially in the
beginning of summer, and it is plough-
ed in the regular process of fallow-
ing, the tough, moist slice cut out by
the plough is set on edge, and the
sun bakes it into a hard mass like
brick. In this state it is not im-
proved by exposure to the air, which
cannot penetrate this hard substance.
It would be much better to plough
out deep water-furrows with a plough
made on purpose, and wait until tiie
moisture is reduced by gradual per-
colation and evaporation, so that the
plough should raise a slice ready to
break and crumble as it is turned
over. This should be done imme-
diately before winter, and then the
frost will so divide and mellow the
soil that, provided it he kept free
from superfluous water by under-
drains and water-furrows, it will have
the appearance of the finest mould
wlien worked with the harrows in
spring. To plough it again would be
to spoil all. It should have received
the necessary manuring in autumn,
and be ready for the seed to be sown
on this pulverized surface. The
horses which draw the harrows or
the sowing machines should be made
to walk in the furrows, which should
afterward be deepened out with a
plough constructed for the purpose.
A free course and outlet sliould be
formed (or all surface water ; for no
maxim is more true than this, that
slifT clays are never injured by a con-
tinuance of dry weather, unless they
were in a wet state immediately be-
IGl

CLAY SOILS.

fore. The dryest clay contains suf-
ficient water to siii)|)iy the roots of
plants for a long tnne ; but wet clay,
in drying and slirndcing, destroys the
texture of the roots l)y meclianical
pressure. Tiiis may be of use when
weeds are to be eradicated, and in
that case a different mode of proceed-
ing may be rccommerulcd ; but when
good seed is sown the clay should be
in such a state as to crumble under
the harrows. Experience has taught
the ploughman that clay soils should
be laid m round lands or stitches ;
and much of the produce of a tieJd
depends on the skill with which this
is done. It is not only the surface
which should lie in a rounded form,
but the bottoms of the furrows should
lie in a regular curve, without small
ridges or inequalities between them,
so that, when heavy rains penetrate
through the whole thickness which
the plough has raised, the water may
find its way into the intervening fur-
rows without being retained by the
small ridges left by an unskilful
ploughman. The slightest inclina-
tion of the plough to either side
makes an inclination in the bottom
of the furrow. An inequality in the
depth does the same. The usual
method is to increase the depth of
the ploughing from the crown of the
stitch to the outer furrow. If the
land has been cross-ploughed or drag-
ged level before the last ploughing,
this may answer the purpose ; but if
the stitches are only reversed, and
the centre of the new stitch is to be
where the water-furrow was before,
it requires twice ploughing to bring
the stitch to its proper form ; and this
is not always done, for fear of tread-
ing the land too much. Hence it is
always preferable, where it can be
done, to lay the land flat by cross-
ploughing and harrowing before it is
raised in stitches. The narrower the
stitches are the dryer the land will
lie. The most convenient width is
five bouts, as it is called, that is, five
furrows on each side of the centre,
which, allowing nine inches for each
furrow, makes seven and a half feet,
leaving eighteen inches for a water
162

furrow, which is deepened into a nar-
row channel in the middle.

"\\'e have been thus particular in
describing the management of clay
land, because it seems not so gener-
ally understood, and there is great
room for improvement in the com-
mon modes of cultivation. Fallow-
ing for wheat is the old system on
clay soils, and continues to be so in
nine farms out of ten ; but it often
happens that, in a wet season, the
whole advantage of the repeated
ploughings is entirely lost : the land
sown with wheat is neither enriched
nor improved by all the tillage be-
stowed upon it, and it is as full of
weeds as it was when first broken up
from the preceding stubble. The bet-
ter system is to clean the land well
in summer, after it has borne a crop,
and to lay it up high and dry for the
winter, having given it the proper li-
ming ; to sow it with oats and grass
seeds in spring, keep it in grass as
long as is convenient, and break it
up in autumn. Wheat may then be
sown ; or it may have the benefit of
another winter's frost, and corn may
be drilled in spring. Clay land will
bear a repetition of the same crops
much oftener than lighter lands ; but
every scientific agriculturist knows
the advantage of varying the produce
as much as possible, making plants
of different families succeed each
other. The cereal grasses are of
one family, which is the reason why
wheat, barley, oats, rye grass, &c., do
not succeed so well after each other
as after leguminous plants or clover,
and that turnips, besides cleaning the
land by the repeated hoeings given
them, are so good a preparation for
corn. A good rotation for stiff clays
is yet a desideratum in agriculture ;
and although we will not affirm that
fallows can be entirely dispensed
with, we are persuaded that they
might be separated by much larger
intervals than is usually done ; and
if advantage is taken of early sea-
sons, most lands may be kept clean
by what is called a bastard fallow
immediately after harvest, without
losing a crop. We will go farther,

CLAY SOILS

and assert that, instead of three
crops in four years, which is the com-
mon method, and an improvement on
the old system of two crops and a
fallow, five might easily be obtained,
especially if clovers are considered
as crops. For example: L Oats or
barley ; 2. Clover ; 3. Wheat ; 4. Tri-
folium cut in May, and succeeded by
spring rye, cabbages, or potatoes. At
ail events, the trifolium or winter rye
may always be had in the year in
which the land is to be cleaned by
repeated ploughings, as they may be
cut early in summer, and leave ample
time for the operations.

The most profitable management
of a stiff, wet clay soil, after thorough
draining it, is to cultivate it on the
convertible system, that is, to have
it three years in grass and three
years under the plough, unless a per-
manent and good sward can be ob-
tained upon it, in which case it will
give the surest return by remaining
iii grass. A preliminary course of
cropping', with ample manuring, will
so much improve the texture of the
surface that a much better herbage
will grow upon it ; and when this is
well established, it may be left so
until it degenerates.

The effect of burned clay as a ma-
mire has been highly extolled, and
not without some reason in particular
situations. Clay by burning alters its
nature : it becomes insoluble in wa-
ter, and loses its attraction for it ; it
then resembles silicious sand, and
may greatly improve a very strong,
retentive clay, tempering it and ren-
dering it more porous. To burn clay,
it is dug out in lumps and dried ;
heaps are made of these at regular
distances in a field, vrilh a small cav-
ity in the centre, into which dry brush-
wood is introduced. This being light-
ed, the fire is allowed to burn very
slowly, and the smoke kept in by add-
ing a sod wherever it bursts out.
When the heap is once burning, more
clay may be added, even without be-
ing dry, and the combustion goes on
without other fuel. It must be so
managed as to bake the clay without
oeating it too much ; and when the

heaps are cooled and opened, the
whole should appear pulverized, and
of a red colour if oxide of iron exists
in the soil. A coat two or three inch-
es thick spread over a field, and
ploughed in, will greatly improve its
texture ; but sufficient animal or ve-
getable manure must be added to
make it fertile.

An improved method of burning
clay has been adopted in Northum-
berland. Instead of building a kiln,
gratings or arches of cast iron are
used to form a vault or funnel for the
fuel, and over this funnel the clay is
built. The grated arches are made
about two feet and a half long, two
feet diameter, and about fourteen
inches high. One grating is to be
filled with brush-wood, stubble, or
any other cheap fuel, and the clay, as
it is dug, built upon it to a convenient
height, leaving small vacancies, or
hormg holes, to allow the heat to
penetrate to the middle and outer
parts of the clay. When a sufficient
quantity is built upon the first gra-
ting, another is added at either end,
or at both, filled with similar fuel, and
the clay built upon them as before.
This process is continued until ten,
twelve, or a greater number of the
gratings have been used, when one
end is built up or covered with clay,
and at the other, under the last gra-
ting, a fire is made of coals or fagot-
wood. The end at which the fire is
made should face the wind if possi-
ble, and if the process has been prop-
erly conducted the clay will be effec-
tually burned. By commencing with
a centre grating in the form of a cross
(see Fig.), the workman may build

1S3

CLI

CLO

from four ends in the place of two ;
tliis contrivance will afford a facility
in the work, and have a draft of wind
at two entrances.

CLEANING. The after-birth of
cows, ewes, 6:c.

CLEARING LANDS. The remo-
val of obstructions to tillage. Much
information on this subject Avill be
found in tlie article Barren Lands.
The heavy operation is the removal
of trees. Two methods are in com-
mon use : either to cut a ring of bark
and wood out around the trunk, at a
foot or two from the ground, and kill
the tree, or to cut it down altogether
during the early summer, and leave
the trunk to dry on the ground. In
the first case, grasses, and, indeed,
corn can be cultivated among the
dead trees, and thus the land is made
to produce sooner ; but there is risk
from the fall of limbs. The dead for-
est can be burned during summer,
the ashes serving to enrich the land
for some time. When the trees are
felled they are divided into lengths
of twelve feet or more, and drawn
out of the cleared space, or split and
burned, a suitable amount of fence-
rails being obtained. In both these
operations the stumps remain to dis-
figure the land ; it has therefore been
proposed to draw the trees down by
a strong chain made fast to their up-
per limbs, and pulled by oxen or a
windlass. This will scarcely answer
with large trees, unless the roots are
cut through by an axe. The cultiva-
tion of cleared lands is necessarily
very imperfect ; corn, tobacco, hemp,
and cotton are found the best crops.

CLEAVAGE OF MINERALS.
Minerals which have a regular crys-
talline form can only be split or cleav-
ed with ea.se in planes corresponding
to their sides ; hence, to discover the
shape of the crystal, the mineral is
split.

CLEFT GRAFTING. See Graft:

CLEFTS. In farriery, cracks in
the heels of horses.

CLEVIS. The draught iron of the
plough.

CLIMATE. The temperature and
164

liability to winds, rain, &c., of any
place. Those places always enjoy
the mildest climates which are situ-
ated near seas, lakes, or large bodies
of water ; they also receive most
rain. Climate exerts the most im-
portant effects on plants, so that they
refuse to grow at places very remote
from their original stations ; but by
long-continued attention, and the use
of seeds obtained from the highest
limits, a few have been naturalized
even far north. One very interesting
result takes place in the cultivation
of plants in the extreme limits of
their zone. They usually bear fruit
much sooner (in annuals), and the
fruit is increased in delicacy and pulp.
This is true of staple crops also,
which are better in their most north-
ern positions than in the original
place of growth, as cotton, hemp, and
flax. But the rule does not apply to
oily or saccharine plants ; and many
annuals become perennials in north-
ern positions.

CLINANTHIUM. The flat sur-
face in which many composite flow-
ers are arranged, as the sunflower.

CLINKSTONE. A hard, slaty
mineral.

CLOACA. The common cavity
in which the intestines and urinary
apparatus terminate in fish, birds,
reptiles, and some larger animals.

CLOD-CRUSHERS. See Roller.

CLOTHING HORSES. It keeps
the coat fine, and in northern lati-
tudes is very useful in preserving
health.

CLOUD. A mass of vapour, simi-
lar to a fog, suspended in the air. The
height varies with the density, but
seldom exceeds two miles. Clouds
differ in form, transparency, &c., ac-
cordmg to the amount of vapour of
water they contain and the wn)d
which drives them. Meteorologists
divide them into three classes: 1st.
Cirrus, which is a light, branching
cloud ; 2d. Cumulus, a conical mass
of clouds; 3d. iSVra/us, which consists
of horizontal layers. Every variety
occurs, compounded of these primarj
forms.

Clouds owe their origin to a par

CLO

CLO

tial condensation of the vaponr of
water, wliifh air naturally contains.
The condensation is produced by cold
and the operation of winds blowini,'
in directions contrary to one another.
CLOUTED CREAM. The clout-
ed cream of Devonshire is a well-
known delicacy. It is made by heat-
ing the milk on the hearth, or by
means of a stove, to a degree a little
below the boiling-point, when the
clouted cream rises to the top like a
thick scum, and is taken off when
cooled. This cream being merely
stirred briskly with the hand or a

I stick, is converted into butter. It is
I universally admitted that the butter
I thus produced is inferior to tliat
which is made from the cream which
has risen slowly and spontaneously,
and in all the largest and best dai-
ries in the vale of Honiton the cream
is never clouted, except to be eaten
in that state as a luxury.

CLOVER. A name given to dif-
ferent species of trifolium. Dutch
clover is T. repcns ;{b) purple clover
is T. pratense ,-(a) cow grass, or per-
ennial clover, is T. 7nedtum..{d)
Its abundant produce, its destruc-

tion of annual weeds, which it smoth-
ers by its broad foliage, and especially
the beauty of the wheat sown after
it, recommend it as an indispensable
part of an improved rotation of crops.
There are various kinds of clover,
which all go under the botanical name
of trifolium, from the three leaves
which grow together, or, rather, the
form of the leaf, which has three
heart-shaped parts. They are an-
nual, biennial, or perennial plants.
The annual clovers, with the excep-
tion of the Trifolium incarnalum {Tre.-
jlc incarnat ox farouchc),{c) introduced
from the south of France, are not so
generally cultivated as the biennial,
which produces a greater crop, and
being sown along with the spring
grain, comes up the first year under
its shade, and gives two full crops in
the second. In good land it will some-
times stand another year, but it falls

off in quantity;
and unless other
artificial grass-
es or perenni-
al clovers have
been sown a-
mong it, to fill
up the places
where the bien-
nial clover has
failed, it is sel-
dom profitable
to allow it to
remain on the
ground more
than one year
after that in
which it is sown. It should be
ploughed in in the fall in clay lands
for a spring crop, but if fallowed ear-
ly, wheat can be grown on the fresh
ley.
The most approved variety of the
16.)

CLOVER.

biennial clovers is the common red
or broad clover {Tnfolium ptatcnse),
which is usually sown wilh barley or
oats, or sometimes among wheat or
rye in spring, at the rate of ten to
thirteen pounds of clover seed. Clo-
ver is often perennial. The time for
cutting is when the flowers are just
expanded ; the hay is more abundant
and better by upward of ten per cent.
The first crop is generally mown and
made into hay. In this process great
care is taken not to i)reak off the
tender leaves of the plant in drying;
the swarth is not shaken out as is
done with meadow grass, but merely
turned over ; and if the clover can
be dried and put in a stack without
any shaking, it is so much the more
valuable. When clover is soaked
with rain, no hope of an improvement
in the stack must induce the farmer
to carry it together so long as the
least moisture remains. If it be al-
lowed to stay in the field till perfectly
dry, even when it has been soaked
repeatedly and is nearly black, and
is then trod hard in a rick with a
sprinkling of salt over each layer, it
will be readily eaten by cattle in win-
ter, and be far more nutritious than
that which, having been stacked in a
moist state, will infallibly come out
musty. A very good method in those
seasons when a continuance of dry
weather cannot be reckoned upon —
particularly when the second crop is
cut in September — is to take advan-
tage of two or three dry days to cut
the clover, and turn it as soon as the
dew is completely dried off the upper
side ; the next day do the same, and
in the evening carry the green, dry
clover and lay it in alternate layers
with sweet straw, so as to form a
moderately-sized stack. A ferment-
ation will soon arise, but the dry
straw will prevent all danger from
too much heating, and, acquiring the
flavour of the clover, will be eaten
with avidity by the cattle. To those
who make clover hay for the use of
their own stock in winter, we recom-
mend this as preferable to the com-
mon method, even when there is less
danger from the weather. The pro-
166

cess of curing by sweating is very
well adapted to clover.

It is usual to sow timothy in a
small proportion with clover seed,
especially where clover, having been
often repeated on the same land, is
apt to fail.

The most profitable use of clover
is to cut it green for horses and cat-
tle. With a little management, green
food may be given to all the stock
from the first day of April to October.

The land which has borne clover
is in a very good state for producing
corn or wheat. In the regulai: Nor-
folk rotation, clover should recur
I every fourth year ; but after a few
rotations this is found to be too quick
! a recurrence, and other grass seeds
! or pulse are substituted. The Flem-
ish do not sow clover again on the
same ground sooner than in eight or
ten years.

The white or Dutch clover (Trifo-
lium repens) is a perennial, which
grows rapidly, and fonns excellent
pasture ; but its bulk is not sufficient
to make it profitable to mow for hay.
It is excellent for sheep, which thrive
well upon it. A liglit, calcareous
soil is best adapted for white clover,
but it also grows well on heavy land,
provided the bottom be sound and
dry.

Another perennial clover, called
cow grass {TrifoUum medium), is
found in all rich meadows : it is oft-
en sown in conjunction with the
white clover in laying down arable
land to grass. The lesser yeUow
trefoil (Tnf'olivm minvs) and the hop
trefoil ( Trifolium procumbcns) are also
valuable varieties found in good pas-
tures.

The only annual clover which is
cultivated is the French clover {Tri-
folium incarnaliim) mentioned be-
fore. It is a most valuable addition
to the plants usually sown for fodder,
from the short time in which it ar-
rives at perfection if sown in spring;
so that, where clover has failed, this
may be sown to fill up the bare pla-
ces. Its principal use is to raise
very early food for ewes and lambs,
which it does with very little trouble

CLO

CLO

or expense. Immediately after har-
vest the stubble is scarified and har-
rowed, so as to raise a mould ; the
trifolium is sown at the rate of six-
teen to twenty pounds per acre, and
well rolled in. It springs up and
stands the winter well, and with the
first genial weather in sprmg it grows
rapidly. It makes excellent hay, and
what is left produces seed most abun-
dantly in the end of May or beginning
of June, being off the ground in good
time to plough the land and clean it
for turnips. It is far superior to stub-
ble turnips as an intervening crop,
and more rapid in its growth than
tares. On light land a crop of buck-
wheat is readily obtained alter it. It
has the property of smothering an-
nual weeds by its rapid growth, and
for this reason is not so well adapt-
ed for sowing with other crops. The
Italian rye grass {LoUum pcrcnnc)
may be sown with it, and will grow
as rapidly. After the tnfolmm has
been cut, this will continue and give
an excellent second crop

In France and m the United States
plaster is considered as a specitic ma-
nure for clover. It is sown by hand
over tho plant in spring, and in some
situations the advantage is evident,
in others scarcely observable. The
quantity used is about one bushel to
the acre.

On good land an acre of clover will
produce as much as three tons and a
half of dry hay ; that is, two tons
the first cutting, and one and a half
the second. Greater crops are ob-
tained on very highly manured land.
The value of a ton of clover hay to
feed horses with is about fifteen or
twenty per cent, more than good
meadow hay.

When clover is intended to be left
to ripen its seeds, it should be mown
early, or fed off by sheep in May.
The first crop is seldom free from
various seeds of other plants which
rise among the clover : by feeding it
down or mowing it these are destroy-
ed, and the clover, which grows more
rapidly than most other plants, ri-
ses again without any mixture of
weeds. When the blossom is thor-

oughly withered, and the seed is
nearly ripe, the clover is mown and
left to dry on the ground without
much shaking. In very dry weather
it may be housed or stacked in a
week ; but the process is much re-
larded by showers. It is well knuwn
that the subsequent stock suffers if
the clover is allowed to stand for
seed. As the calyx of the fiower of
clover envelops the seed closely, it is
difficult to separate them. There are
various machines for this purpose,
one of which consists of two fine-
rodded hurdles, made to rub on each
other while the heads pass between
them. I'he principal clover mill for
separating the seed is by J. Ritten-
house, price sixty dollars. Clover is
generally thrashed on the floor, but if
the heads, after being separated from
the haulm, are put together in a heap
and pressed, a slight fermentation
takes place, and this makes the calyx
brittle, so that it breaks into dust,
and the seed comes out readily ; it is
then easily cleared by the fan. The
yield is four to five bushels the acre.

When the seed is not intended for
the market, the trouble of clearing it
from the husk may be saved, espe
cially in the Trifolium incarnaium
It will grow as well when sown with
the husk as when cleaned, and it is
easy to find the proportion required
to be sown in that state by allowing
fur the weight of the husk.

CLOVER, VARIETIES. Numer-
ous plants are more or less cultiva-
ted resembling clover, hence some
confusion has arisen in the popular
names. Thus, the Chilian clover is
lucern. Bokhura clover is sweet clo-
ver {Mcliloli/s major) ; it is a coarse
plant, rising to six and ten feet, but
if cut four or five tiiTies in the season,
when about two feet high, it yields
an immense quantity of good herbage
for soiling. 'Jlie seed should be sown
in spring in drills eighteen inches
apart. It should be kept free from
weeds when young, thinned out by
the hoe, and cut close to the ground.
It is perennial, and will stand the
winters of Virginia, and probably of
Penn.sylvania. The mature stems
1G7

clo

make good hemp when rotted and 1
broken. Two pounds of seed the
acre is al)undanlly cnoush.

"Mr. James Gowcii, who resides at
Mount Airy, near Philadelphia, has
been much in the practice of keep-
ing up a considerable stock of uncom- |
raoiily line cattle, and soiling them in
sunm'ier upon lucern, rye, and red
clover. He has raised patches of the
melilotus, and from his observation
says, 'there is no grass or plant I
have yet seen that all'ords to me such
promise as the sweet-scented or Bok-
hara clover.' " — {Cultivator, Novem-
ber, 1842.)

CLOVER, GIGANTIC. The
same as Bokhara clover.

CLOVER, ALSIKE. TrifoUum hj-
bridum. A supposed hybrid between
the white and common red clover.
It is very hardy, withstanding tiie
winters of Sweden, perennial, but
runs close to the ground, and is only
fit for pastures, es()ecially for sheep.
Numerous small species of trifolium,
medicago, melilotus, and other legu-
minous plants are known vulgarly
under the names of yellow, sweet,
&c., clovers, but they are scarcely
worthy of attention to the cultiva-
tor.

CLOVER, MACHINE FOR
GATHERING. A simple contri-
vance for gathering the seed heads
is much used, and is figured below.
It is of wood, but the teeth may be
made of wrought iron, and the wheels
removed with advantage. It is drawn
by one horse, and managed by a boy.
The hand gatherer (a) is used for
emptying the barrow, or for collect-
ing pease, beans, &.c.

CLOVES. The unexpanded blos-
soms of an Eastern tree, the Eugenia
caryophyllata. They contain an oil
higldy aromatic, and grateful to the
stomach in minute quantities. It is
a tropical production.
168

COC

CLUPEA. The generic name of
tlie herring and shad fishes, ancho-
vies, sprats, &c. : most of the species
are migratory.

CLUSTER. A bunch. A raceme
in botany.

COAGULATION. The formation
of a solid body of a jelly-like charac-
ter.

COAL. Numerous varieties ex-
ist : that of Pennsylvania and Wales
(Eng.) is anthracite, difficult of com-
bustion, producing no flame, but in-
tense heat : it is nearly pure carbon.
Bituminous coal, such as that of Vir-
ginia and Ohio (Liverpool coal), con-
tains hydrogen as well as carbon,
and gives off gas and flame in burn-
ing. Wood coal resembles charred
wood, and shows the marks of wood :
it produces much light.

All coal is of vegetable origin, be-
ing, indeed, the remains of plants and
trees. The chief beds of it are ar-
ranged in a curved form ; hence the
term coal basins. This variety lies
above the old red sandstone, and is
covered with sandstones and con-
glomerates. It is, therefore, a sec-
ondary formation, and, according to
the New-York geologists, does not
exist in this state.

COAL TAR. A tary fluid of a
complicated nature, produced during
the distillation of bituminous coal for
gas. It is a cheap and excellent
paint for iron- ware, railings, &c ,
and has latterly been used on wood-
work. It preserves the timber, but
it is doubtful whether the colour may
not prove injurious by causing warp-
in?.

COBBLES. Small round stones.
COCCINELLA. The generic
name of the lady-bird insects. They
are of great service to the farmer and
orchardists in destroying plant lice
{Aphides), on which they prey.

COCCULUS INDICUS. A poi-
sonous Eastern berry used in medi-
cine ; it is sometimes employed, to
cause intoxication, in beer, or thrown
into fish ponds to stupily fish, which
can be caught by the hand while suf-
i feriug from its effects. The poison-
^ ous principle is picrolojcia.

\

coc

GOF

COCCUM. Adry elastic seed cov-
ering.

COCCUS. Tiie bark lice or scale
insect family. See Bark Lice.

COCCYX. The termination of
tlie spinal column.

COCHLXEAL. The Coccus cadi,
a Mexican insect. The fine article
should be of a grayish exterior, and
the lines of the body clearly defined.
The brilliant scarlet of cochineal is
fixed in dyeing by a mordant of alu-
mina and solution of tin, and bright-
ened by cream of tartar.

C O C H L E A T E (from cochlea, a
shell). Twisted like some shells.

COCK-CHAFFER. See Insects.

COCKLE. The weed Asrrostem-
ma githago, which grows amid wheat,
and whose black seed impair the col-
our of flour if not well separated by
screening. It is an annual, to be de-
stroyed only by a succession of fod-
der crops cut for soiling before flow-
er, or by clean fallows.

COCK'S-FOOT GRASS. The or-
chard grass. See Grasses.

COCOA GRASS. Dr. Cartwright
thus writes in the American Agricul-
turist :

" There is a repent pla'nt called the
cocoa in Louisiana and .Mississippi,
which, instead of running on the sur-
face of the earth, runs down into it
to the depth of four or five feet, and
horizontally a little under the sur-
face, mole fashion, and at short in-
tervals throwing up a bunch of thick,
coarse grass. A better idea of this
plant can be formed by calling it a
subterraneous strawberry. It bears
nuts under ground the size of straw-
berries. Their bitter taste distin-
guishes them from the nut grass,
called sweet cocoa. The bitter cocoa
grows so fast, that double the num-
ber of labourers are required to culti-
vate the lands infested by it. All
those who, ignorant of this pernicious
repent, have purchased cocoa lands,
have paid dearly for the want of a lit-
tle practical information, as they are
nearly all bankrupt. Many have
wisely abandoned their cocoa planta-
tions. No means have been discov-
ered of extirpating this pernicious
P

repent when it once gets fixed in the
soil."'

It certainly would be exterminated
by hoed crops, or long-rooted peren-
nial plants, as clovers. ISotwith-
standing its vivacious nature, it is a
grass of great value to the grazier
and sheep raiser. It is somekmes
called nut grass.

COCOON. The web which cov-
ers the chrysalis of an insect.

CCELIAC (from koi/mc, hollow).
Relating to the belly or abdomen.

COFFEE. The berries of the
Cojfcca Arabica, a tropical shrub.
The coffee plant thrives between
the tropics in situations where the
mean and nearly constant tempera-
ture is between 22° and 26^ C. (71-5="
and 80^ F.).

Coffee is rarely sown in a nursery ;
the seeds are made to germinate still
surrounded by their natural pulp, and
wrapped up in leaves of the banana.
The young plants, after seven or
eight days of germination, are put
into the ground. In the Valley d'Ara-
gua an acre of ground of good quality
is generally laid out with about 1040
plants. The coffee plant flourishes
in the course of the second year ;
when left to grow unimpeded, it will
attain a height of from 23 to 26 feet,
but it is seldom allowed to grow so
high, its upward progress being check-
ed by pruning. The planters of ^"en-
ezuela generally keep it at a height
of from five to six feet. The shrub
receives the care of the planter du-
ring the first two years ; the ground
must be kept free from weeds, and
the giowth of parasites must, above
all, be prevented. To thrive, the cof-
fee plant requires frequent rains up
to the time of flowering. The fruit
bears a strong resemblance to a small
cherry, and is ripe when it becomes
of a red colour, and the pulp is soft
and very sweet. As the berries nev-
er ripen simultaneously, the coffee
harvest takes place at different times,
each requiring at least three visits
made at intervals of from five to six
days. A negro will gather from ten
to twelve gallons of fruit in the course
of a day.

169

COF

COF

Two beans are found in the inte- |
rior of each berry ; in order to free
these from the pulp which surrounds
them, they are passed through a kind
of mill, and the coflee is steeped in
water for twenty-four hours in order
to free it from the mucilaginous mat-
ter which adheres to it : it is then
dried by being spread out upon a floor
under a shed. In the coflee planta-
tions of Venezuela which I visited, I
saw them proceed in another way :
the berries were exposed to the sun
upon a piece of ground somewhat in-
clined, and spread out to about three
inches in thickness ; the pulp soon
enters into fermentation, and a very
distinct vinous odour is exhaled, and
the juice altered either flows away
or dries up ; at the end of a fort-
night or three weeks the berries are
all dry and shrivelled, and they then
undergo two triturations, one to ob-
tain the seeds or beans, the other to
detach a thin pelUcle which surrounds
them. Three bushels of berries will
yield from 85 to 90 pounds of mar-
ketable coffee.

During the destruction of the sugary
matter contained in the pulp of the
berry, a considerable quantity of spir-
it is produced and dissipated. M.
Humboldt, struck with the readiness
with which the berry of the coffee
plant runs into fermentation, express-
es his surprise that no one ever
thought of obtaining alcohol from it.
In an old work, however, I find the
following passage ■. "The inhabitants
of Arabia take the skin which sur-
rounds the coffee bean, and prepare it
as we do raisins ; they form a drink
with it for refreshment during the
summer."* This vinous liquor ap-
pears to enjoy all the exciting prop-
erties which are esteemed in the in-
fusion of coffee.

The cofl^ee plant continues to pro-
duce to the age of forty to forty-five
years ; it bears to a considerable ex-
tent even in the third year. Some
shrubs yield from 17 to 22 pounds of
dry coflee beans ; but this is a very
large quantity. An acre of land in
the Valley d'Aragua, planted with
about 1040 shrubs, will yield about
170

940 or 950 pounds, which is at the
rale of somewhat less than one pound
per shrub.

Coffee contains the same active
principle as tea, coffeine, but in less
proportion ; the researches of differ-
ent chemists have also shown the
presence of a particular acid called
coffeic acid, of fatty matters, a vola-
tile od, a colouring matter, albumen,
tannin, and alkaline and earthy salts.
— {Boussiuiraidl.)

COFFEE-TREE. The Gymnocla-
dus Canadensis. A leguminous tree,
the beans of which have been slight-
ly used for coffee ; they are nutri-
tious, but rather sickening, and are
said to destroy flies with great cer-
tainty when a decoction is exposed
in proper places. The foliage of the
tree is like that of the black walnut.

The tree often attains 60 feet, and
15 inches diameter ; it has few branch-
es, and those thick : its presence is
said to indicate the richest soils. The
wood is rosy, compact, and as dura-
ble as the locust, and like it, contain-
ing very little sap wood.

COFFER DAM. In architecture
and bridge-building, a case of piling,
water-tight,' fixed in the bed of a riv-
er for the purpose of laying the bot-
tom dry for a space large enough to
build the pier on. CotTer dams are
formed in various ways, either by a
single enclosure or a double one,
with clay or chalk rammed in be-
tween the two to prevent the water
from coming through the sides. They
are also made either with piles only,
driven close together, and sometimes
notched or dovetailed into one an-
other ; or, if the water is not very
deep, by piles driven at a distance of
five or six feet from each other, and
grooved in the sides with boards let
down between them in the grooves.
In order to build in coffer dams, a
very good natural bottom of solid
earth or clay is required ; for though
the sides be made water-tight, il'the
bed of the river be of a loose con-
sistence, the water will ooze up
through it in too great a quantity to

* Mem. of the Academy of Inscriptions, vol.
xxiii., p. 214.

{

COL

permit the operations to be carried
on. It is almost needless to remark
that the sides must be very strong
and well braced in the inside to re-
sist the pressure of the ambient wa-
ter.— {Hnltoii's Tracts, vol. i.)

COFFIN BONE. The bone which
lies encircled within a horse's hoof".

COHESION. The force which
binds together similar particles ; it
is supposed to be electrical. The
strain which any wood or metal bears
is a measure of its cohesion.

"The following is a tabular view
of the absolute cohesion of the prm-
cipal kinds of timber employed in
building and carpentry, showing the
load which would rend a prism of an
inch square, and the length of the
prism which, if suspended, would be
torn asunder by its own weight :

Teak 12,915 lbs. — 36,049 feet

Oak 11,880 —32,900

Sycamore . . . 9,630 — 35,hll0

Beech 12,225 — 38,940

Ash 14,130 — 42,080

Elm 9,720 — 39,050

Memel fir ... . 9,540 — 40,500

Norway fir . . . 12,346 — 55,500

Larch 12,240 —42,160

"The metals differ more widely from
each other in their cohesive strength
than the several species of wood or
vegetable fibres. According to the
experiments of Mr. George Rennie
in 1817, the cohesive power of a rod
an inch square of different metals, in
pounds avoirdupois, with the corre-
sponding length in feet, is as fol-
lows :

Ca-st steel . . . 134,256 lbs. — 39,455 feet
Swedish malleable

iron 72,064 — 19,740

English ditto . . 55,672 — 19,740

Cast iron .... 19,096 — 6,110
Cast copper . . . 19,072 — 5,093
Yellow brass . . 17,959 — 5,180
Cast tin ... . 4,736 — 1,496
Cast lead. . . . 1,824 — 346"
{Brande's Encycl.)

COKE. The cinder of bituminous
coals after being heated for gas.

COLCHICUM. Colchicum offici-
nale. Meadow saffron, a bulbous plant,
growing freely in moist, sandy loams.
The bulb and seeds are of the high-
est value as a medicine in gout and
rheumatism. In large doses it is
poisonous.

COM

COLE. See Colza.

COLEOPTERA (from Kn-Xto<:, a
sheath, and Trrepov, a wing). Insects,
the outer wings of which are hard or
horny, the inner wings being large
and very delicate. Borers, lady-birds,
curculios, &c., belong to this race.
The hard outer wings are called ely-
tra.

COLEWORT. See Cabbage.

COLIC. In common parlance, an
irritation of the stomach or intes-
tines, causing pain, and readily alle-
viated by a slight purge or by lauda-
num.

COLLAPSE. A loss of strength.

COLLAR BLADE. The haims.

COLLEY. The Scotch sheep
dog.

COLLIQUATIVE. An excessive
evacuation, diminishing the strength.

COLLUM. The point where the
roots diverge from the stem of plants.

COLLYRIUM. An eye-wash.

COLOCYNTH. The pulp of the
Cucumis colocynth, a plant similar to
the cucumber, bearing round fruit of
great bitterness and purgative pow-
er. The cultivation is similar to that
of melons.

COLON. The large intestines.

COLOPHONY. The dark resin
remaining after the distillation of the
spirit from rosin.

COLT. A young horse, ass, &c.

COLT'S FOOT. A vile perennial
weed.

COLUMBARIUM. A pigeon-
house.

COLZA. Two or more varieties
of plants of the open cabbage kind
{Brassica arvensis and campestris) are
cultivated under this name in Ger-
many and France. They are usually
sown in drills, but sometimes broad
cast for eating off in the fall. The
most common object in the cultiva-
tion of colza is the seed, which yields
a coarse oil like rape, and is obtained
by pressure. The cake is very simi-
lar to that from rape, and used like
it for fodder and manure. The treat-
ment is precisely similar to rape,
which see.

CO.VLV (from keu, to lie down). A
propensity to sleep, amounting to a
171

COM

CON

disease or stupidity. Comalusc is a
derivative.

COMBINATION. In chemistry,
the chemical union of atoms, wliere-
by the sensiljle properties of the com-
bining parts are altered. It takes
place in niathemalical proportions.
See Atom.

COMBUSTION. Burning. The
chemical change of a body, attended
with lieat or light. For combustion,
the body must be surrounded with a
medium which enters, in part, into
the change, such as oxygen, chlorine,
&c.

COMFREY. The Symphytum offi-
cinale, a rough perennial plant, with
coarse, rough leaves and large roots.

The American Agriculturist thus
writes :

" We learn by the Portsmouth
Journal that Mr. Robinson is of
opinion, from an imperfect experi-
ment made by him on a small patch
of ground, that he will be able next
year to gather, at two cuttings, eight
tons of leaves of the comfrcy root to
the acre, which, he says, is excellent
food for stock. The root is consid-
ered very nutritious for man or beast ;
and Mr. Rich, of Troy, N. H., asserts
that it can be harvested every two
or three years, and will yield over
2000 bushels per acre. We should
think it advisable to try the experi-
ment of a rod or two square of grow-
ing comfrey in this vicinity. It is
cultivated by transplanting the roots,
which grow wild in the fields, to any
ground deep ploughed and well pul-
verized."
172

COM.MISSURE. In anatomy, a
junction or union.

C O M O 8 E. Ending in a tuft or
brush, like the top of a tree.

COMPASy. An instrument used
by mariners and surveyors to obtain
the bearing of any place. The essen-
tial part is a magnetic needle, which
plays over a card marked into the
points of the compass. The follow-
ing figure gives the full divisions : N
signifies north, S south, E east, W
west, and b by or towards.

v^ »/> "^ « 4; .^

COMPOSIT.E. Plants like the
sunflower, dandelion, lettuce, &;c.,
the flowers of which are grouped to-
gether on a flattish surface. They
are very numerous, and form the
Syngcncsia of Linnaeus. Few are cul-
tivated ; most are valueless weeds ;
but chamomile, wormwood, and a
few others yield bitter medicines.
Their ashes abound in potash.

COMPOST. Any compound of
manures, usually of vegetable matter
for the most part. See Peat, Lime,
Ves'c tabic Matter, &.e.

COMPRESSIBILITY. This qual-
ity depends on the natural pores of
bodies, which enable the solid parts
to approach nearer under great force.

CONCAVE. Having a hollowed
surface. Concave surfaces in mir-
rors produce a magnifying effect, and
condense heat and light.

CONCEPTACLES. The seed
cases of ferns, lichens, &c.

CONCHOID (from Koyxn, a shell).
Like a shell. The name of a curve.

CONCRETE (from concresccre, to
coalesce in one mass). In architecture
and engineering, a mass composed of

cox

cox

stone chippings or ballast cemented
together tlirough the medium of lime
and sand, usually employed in ma-
king foundations where the soil is
of Itself too light or boggj-, or other-
wise insufficient for the reception of
the walls. The essential quality of
concrete seems to be, that the mate-
rials used should be of small dimen-
sions, so that the cementing medium
may act in every direction round
them, and that the latter should on
no account be more in quantity than
is necessary for that purpose. Ar-
chitects and engineers have much
varied the proportions of lime and
sand used. If the lime, which should
be fresh and ground to powder, be
good stone lime, it will bear three or
four times its measure by bulk of
sand. These and the ballast or gal-
lots, as the stone chippings are called,
should be thoroughly turned over and
mixed together. If the foundations
be wet, the mixture will want very
little if an}" water ; indeed, some-
times the ballast only is wetted, and
then covered over with the lime and
sand. It is then filled into the bar-
rows, and run on to be dropped from
a stage into the foundations. This
latter operation should be performed
at as great a height as possible above
the level of the trench, in order that
the whole of the different particles
of the composition may be compress-
ed together so as to occupy the least
possible space. The stones employ-
ed should not exceed the size of a
common hen's egg. The mass very
quickly sets and becomes extremely
hard. On the top of it, which is kept
as level as possible, a tier of stone
landings is laid, and very often
throughout the length a chain of tim-
ber is buried in the footings, whose
durability is requisite only while the
work is settling; over the landings
and timber thus laid, the latter, it is
to be observed, occupying but a very
small portion of the thickness of the
footings, and quite buried in them,
the walls are carried up. — (See Daty
OH Artificial Foundations, and Tottcn
on Mortars, Cements. &.C.)

CONDENSATION. The render-

ing a body more dense, most com-
monly applied to the conversion of
vapour into the fluid form.

CONDENSER. Any machine by
which the compression of gas, &c.,
can be effected.

CONDITION. In horsemanship,
the health and good appearance of a
horse or other animal.

CONDUCTOR. In physics, any
substance which allows the passage
of heat, light, or electricity is said to
conduct it.

CONDYLE (from kov6v, a cup).
The rounded ends of the long bones.

CONFERVA. An extensive fam-
ily of small water weeds, forming the
green slime on stagnant waters.
They nourish innumerable insects
and animalcules.

CONGELATION. The act of
passing into the state of ice or other
solid forms from the fluid.

CONGESTION. In farriery and
medicine, an increased accumulation
of blood or other fluid in any part.
It is to be relieved by bleeding, cup-
ping, leeches, or counter irritation.

CONGLOMER.VTE. In geology,
a compound stony mass containing
pebbles, &c., cemented together by
iron, calcareous or other matter.

CONIC. Relating to a cone, small-
er at one end than the other.

CONIFER-E. Trees bearing
cones, as the pines, firs, cedars, &,c.
The wood of all is useful, and they
grow usually upon poor soils.

CONTROSTERS. A tribe of birds
with strong conical bills, as crows
and finches.

CONIU.M. The genus containing
hemlock, which see.

C O N N I V E N S. In botany, any
covering or arrangement by which
the parts of a plant or flower are hid-
den ; as the flowers of the fig by the
connivent receptacle.

CONSERVATORY. In horticul-
ture, a glazed structure, in which
exotic trees and shrubs are grown
in a bed or floor of soil. It is distin-
guished from an orangerv' by its hav-
ing a glazed roof, while that of the
latter is opaque ; and from a green-
house, by tlie plants being planted in

17a

CON

COP

the free S(«I, and thus growing np
from the floor, wliile in the green-
house the plants are grown in pots
placed on shelves, or on a stage or
series of shelves rising one above
another. Above a century ago, for
example, in the time of Evelyn, the
term conservatory was applied to
those garden buildings now called
orangeries, and in modern horticul-
ture employed only for the preserva-
tion of exotic plants, such as orange-
trees, &c., which are in a dormant
state during winter. The green-
house and the modern conservatory
were then not in existence. They
are exclusively employed for the
preservation of plants which are in a
growing state during the winter. The
largest conservatory in the world, at
the present time (1841), is that erect-
ed at Chatsworth in Derbyshire, for
palms and other tropical plants, which
covers above an acre of ground, and
is sixty feet high.— (Brande's Ency-
clopedia. )

CONSTIPATION. Costiveness,
want of regular evacuations from the
bowels.

CONSTITUTION. The general
strength and liability to disease of
any person or animal.

CONSTRICTOR. Any muscle
which has the power of closing the
openings of the body.

CONTRACTION OF THE
HOOF. In farriery, a distorted
state of the horny substance of the
hoof in cattle, producing all the mis-
chiefs of unnatural and irregular
pressure on the soft parts contained
in it, and, consequently, a degree of
lameness which can only be cured by
removing the cause. Contraction of
the hoof rarely happens, however,
except to those animals whose hoofs,
for the convenience of labour, are
shod. — {Johnsoji.)

CONVERTIBLE HUSBANDRY,
or MIXED HUSBANDRY. A term
implying frequent change in the same
field from tillage crops to grass, and
from grass back to tillage crops ; an
alternation of wheat, rye, &.C., with
root and grass crops.

CONVOLVULACE.E. A family
174

of plants, including the bind weed,
sweet potato, and jalap. The stems
are commonly twining, and the large
roots purgative ; the flowers are oft-
en beautiful and large.

CONVULSIONS.' An unnatural
action of the muscular system pro-
duced by a derangement of nervous
power. Staggering is a convulsion
originating in an excess of blood be-
ing diverted to the head, and is re-
lieved by bleeding ; the use of hot
baths to the lower extremities is also
useful. Worms frequently produce
convulsions.

COOLER. The large vats of brew-
ers are so called.

COOMB. A measure of four
bushels.

COOP. A cage for poultry, of bas-
ket-work or laths.

COPAL. A resinous body which
forms an excellent varnish when dis-
solved in linseed oil, and mixed with
turpentine.

COPING. The top course of a
wall, usually of stone, and wider than
the wall, to save it from rain.

COPPER. A red ductile metal,
remarkable for its conducting power.
The sulphate, or blue vitriol, is used
as a caustic in farriery, in dyeing, and
sometimes as a steep to kill insects
and parasites, &c., on wheat and
grain. A solution of blue vitriol, at
the rate of one ounce to enough wa-
ter to thoroughly soak a bushel of
wheat, is esteemed the most certain
preventive to smut, rust, and mildew,
and has been long used in Germany,
Switzerland, and the northeast of
France. The black oxide is of great
service in analysis.

COPPERAS. Green vitriol, sul-
phate of iron. Blue copperas is sul-
phate of copper, or blue stone.

COPPICE. A young wood. Wood
cut every few years.

COPROLITE (from /coTrpof, excre-
ment, and 7udoQ, a stone). The fos-
sils resembling cones, which are
found in the ancient calcareous for-
mations, and shown by Professor
Buckland to be the petrified excre-
ments of former animals. They have
1 been discovered in the green sand of

COR

New-Jersey. Liebig called the atten-
tion of farmers to coprolites as a ma-
nure containing sixteen to twenty
per cent, of bone earth.

CORALS. The calcareous basis
of some marine animals. Coral sand
has been used freely in France in the
same way and with similar eflects as
marl. It may contain two per cent,
of bone earth.

CORDATE. In botany, heart-
shaped. Like the heart on playing
cards.

CORD. A measure for wood, equal
to four feet high and wide, and eight
feet long.

CORD GRASSES. Coarse, salt-
marsh grasses, of the genus Spartma.

CORDIAL. A stimulating, sto-
machic medicine.

COREOPSIS. A yellow compo-
site garden flower, the fresh flowers
of which yield a yellow dye.

CORIANDER. The Cormndrium
sativum, an umbelliferous plant culti-
vated for its aromatic seeds, which
are used in confectionery and medi-
cine. The soil must be dry. " The
sowings are generally performed in
April in drills eight inches apart, and
half an inch deep ; the plants to re-
main where sown. The only culti-
vation required is to thin them to
eight inches' distance, and to have
them kept clear of weeds throughout
their growth. They will perfect their
seed in early autumn, being in flower
during June."

CORK. The bark of the Spanish
oak, Alcornoque {Quercus subcr). It
would flourish wherever the live oak
grows, but requires a dry granitic soil,
and might be made a source of great
profit to the Southern States. The
tree is evergreen, not very large (six-
ty-five feet), yields fine sweet acorns,
and begins to supply good cork at
forty years. The cork is stripped
every eight or ten years afterward.
It is taken in July, a perpendicular
cut being made the length of the
trunk, and a circular one above and
below, down to the new bark, but not
into the young wood. The tree of
100 years furnishes from 200 to 400
pounds of cork. The young oak

COR

plantations are set with vines, which
last for twenty-five years.

CORMUS. The solid swelling be-
neath the stem of some plants. See
Bulb.

CORN. In Europe, wheat, or a
mixture of pease, beans, and oats.

CORN, BROOM. See Broom Com.

CORN, INDIAN. Zea mays. An
annual cereal plant of great impor-
tance to American agriculture.

Varieties. — These may be divided
into two classes : 1st. Table corn.
2d. Field corn.

The esteemed table corns are. Ear-
ly Golden Sioux, Canadian, Early
Tuscarora, and Sweet Corn. The
White Hominy and Dutton also an-
swer for late sorts when green.

Field Corn. — The varieties are
very numerous, and designated by
the number of rows, the colour and
shape of the grain. The clear white
or yellow is always preferred ; a long
heavy grain, large ear, small cob, and
those of early maturity. The favour-
ite northern varieties are of the Si-
oux kind, of a yellow gourd-seed
grain, the Dutton, and several kinds
of flint and Canadian corn. In the
Middle States the yellow gourd-seed
and Virginia white gourd-seed, of
twenty-four to thirty-six rows, are
chiefly cultivated.

Other Varieties. — A small corn (Zca
caragua) is used for parching ; it is
called pop corn and Valparaiso.

Baden, or Tree Corn. — This created
much attention at first, and is worthy
of cultivation, but with that care
which was taken in its production.
Mr. Baden's account is from the New-
England Farmer, and is a lesson on
the improvement of any variety of
grain or plant.

" I have the pleasure to say that I
have brought this corn to its high
state of perfection by carefully se-
lecting the best seed in the field for a
long course of years, having especial
reference to those stalks which pro-
duced the most ears. When the corn
was husked, 1 made are-selection, ta-
king only that which appeared sound
and fully ripe, liavmg a regard to the
deepest and best colour, as well as to.
173

CORN, INDIAN

the size of the cob. In the spring, be-
fore shelling the corn, I examined it
again, and selected that which was
the best in all respects. In shelling
the corn, I omitted to take the irreg-
ular kernels at hotli the large and
small ends. I have carefully follow-
ed this mode of selecting seed corn
for twenty-three years, and still con-
tinue to do so. When I first com-
menced, it was with a common kind of
corn, for there was no other in this
partofthe country. If any other per-
son undertook the same experiment,
I did not hear of it ; I do not believe
others ever exercised the patience to
bring the experiment to the present
state of perfection. At first I was
troubled to find stalks with even two
good ears on them ; perhaps one good
ear and one small one, or one good
ear and a ' nubbin.' It was several
years before I could discover much
benefit resulting from my efTorts ;
however, at length the quality and
quantity began to improve, and the
improvement was then very rapid.
At present I do not pretend to lay up
any seed without it comes from stalks
which bear four, five, or six ears. I
have seen stalks bearing eight ears.
One of my neighbours informed me
that he had a single stalk with ten
perfect ears on it, and that he intend-
ed to send the same to the museum
at Baltimore. In addition to the num-
ber of ears, and, of course, the great
increase in quantity unshelled, it may
be mentioned that it yields much
more than the common corn when
shelled. Some gentlemen, in whom
I have full confidence, informed me
that they shelled a barrel (10 bushels
of ears) of my kind of corn which
measured a little more than six bush-
els. The common kind of corn will
measure about five bushels only. 1
believe I raise double, or nearly so,
to what I could with any other corn
I have ever seen. I generally plant
the corn about the first of May, and
place the hills five feet apart each
way, and have two stalks in a hill.

" Early last spring I let George
Law, Esq., of Baltimore City, have
some of this seed corn ; he sent it to
17G

his friend in Illinois, with instructions
how to manage it. A few weeks since
he informed me that the increase was
120 bushels to the acre ; that there
was no corn in Illinois like it, and
that it produced more fodder than any
other kind. I have supplied many
friends with seed corn, but some of
them have planted it with other corn,
and will, I fear, find it degenerate.

" I have lately been inquired of if
this corn was not later than any oth-
er kinds. It is rather earlier, cer-
tainly not later. Corn planted in moist
or wet soils will not ripen so quick as
that planted on a dry soil. In the for-
mer there will be found more damp-
ness in the cob, although the kernel
may appear ripe in both. In the two
last years, the wet seasons have in-
jured much corn that was early loft-
ed or housed."

Culture of Indian Corn, by Judge
Buel. — " The soils adapted to the cultxire
of Indian corn are such as are perme-
able to heat, air, and the roots of the
plant, and embrace those denomina-
ted sandy, gravelly, and loamy. Corn
will not succeed well on grounds that
are stiff, hard, or wet. The roots
grow to as great length as the stalks,
and the soil must be loose to permit
their free extension.

" The manures jiscd are generally
yard and stable dung, and plaster of
Paris (sulphate of lime). The first
ought to be abundant, as upon the
fertility which it induces depends the
profit of the crop. Long or unfer-
mented manure is to be preferred. It
decomposes as the wants of the plant
require it ; while its mechanical op-
eration, in rendering the soil light and
porous, is beneficial to the crop. It
should be equally spread over the
whole surface before it is ploughed
under. It then continues to afford
fresh pasture to the roots till the corn
has matured, and is, in its place, to
benefit the succeeding crop. If put
into the hills, the roots soon extend
beyond its influence; it does not so
readily decompose, and the subse-
quent crop is prejudiced from its par-
tial distribution in the soil. In a ro-
tation of four or five years, in which

CORN, INDIAN,

this crop receives the manure, twen-
ty-five or thirty ordinary loads may
be applied to one acre with greater
profit than to hcu or three acres. Ev-
ery addition tells in the product ; and
there is scarcely any danger of ma-
nuring too high for this favourite crop.
Gypsum is applied broad-cast before
the last ploughing or harrowing, or
strewed on the hills after hoeing. I
pursued the first method, at the rate
of a bushel to the acre.

" The best preparation for a corn crop
is a clover or other grass lay, or lea,
well covered with long manure, re-
cently spread, neatly ploughed, and
harrowed lengthwise of the furrow.
A roller may precede the harrow with
advantage. The time of performing
these operations depends upon the
texture of the soil and the quality of
the sod. If the first is inclining to
clay, or the latter tough or of long
continuance, the ploughing may be
performed the preceding autumn ;
but where sand or gravel greatly pre-
ponderate, or the sod is light and ten-
der, it is best performed in the spring,
and as near to the planting as conve-
nient. The harrow, at least, should
immediately precede planting. All
seeds do best when put into the fresh-
stirred mould. Stiff lands are me-
liorated and broken down by fall
ploughing, but light lands are rather
prejudiced by it. When corn is pre-
ceded by a tilled crop, the ground
should be furrowed, and the seed de-
posited in the bottoms of the furrows.
Where there is a sod, the rows should
be superficially marked, and the seed
planted upon the surface. Where the
field is flat, or the subsoil retentive
of moisture, the land should be laid in
ridges, that the excess of water which
falls may pass off in the furrows.

" The time of planting must vary in
different districts and in different sea-
sons. The ground should be suffi-
ciently warmed by vernal heat to
cause a speedy germination. Natu-
ral vegetation affords the best guide.
My rule has been to plant when the
apple is bursting its blossom buds,
which has generally been between
the 1 2th and 20th of Mav.

" Preparation of the Seed. — The en-
emies to be combated are the wire-
worm, brown grub, birds, and squir-
rels. Of these, the first and last two
prey upon the kernels, and against
these tar offers a complete protection.
I soak my seed twelve hours in hot
water, in which is dissolved a few
ounces of crude saltpetre. When the
corn has been thus soaked, I take for
each half bushel of seed half a pint of
tar, put it into an iron vessel with
water, and heat it till the tar is dis-
solved, when it is turned upon the
seed in steep. The mass is well stir-
red, the corn taken out, and as much
plaster added as will adhere to the
grain. This impregnates and partial-
ly coats the seed with the tar. The
experience of years will warrant me
in confidently recommending this as
a protection for the seed.

^^Thc manner of planting is ordinari-
ly in hills, from two and a half to six
feet apart, according to the variety
of corn, the strength of the soil, and
the fancy of the cultivator. The usu-
al distance in my neighbourhood is
three feet. Some, however, plant in
drills of one, two, and three rows,
by which a greater crop is unques-
tionably obtained, though the expense
of culture is somewhat increased.

" Thcguantityof seed should be dou-
ble, and may be quadruple of what is
required to stand. It is well known
that a great difference is manifest in
the appearance of the plants. Some
appear feeble and sickly, which the
best nursing will not render produc-
tive. The expense of seed and the la-
bour of pulling up all but three or four
of the strongest plants in a hill, it is
believed, will be amply remunerated
by the increased product. If the seed
is covered, as it should be, with fine
mould only, and not too deep, we may
at least calculate upon every hill or
drill having its requisite number of
plants.

" The after culture consists in keep-
ing the soil loose and free from weeds,
which is ordinarily accomplished by
two dressings, and in thinning the
plants, which latter may be done the
first hoeing, or partially omitted till
177

CORN, INDIAN?

the last. The practice of ploughing
among corn and of making large liills
is justly getting into disrepute ; for
the plougli bruises and cuts the roots
of the j)lants, turns up the sod and
manure to waste, and renders the
crop more liable to suffer by drought.
The first dressing should be perform-
ed as soon as the size of the plants
will permit ; and the best implement
to precede the hoe is a corn-harrow,
adapted to the width of the rows,
which every farmer can make. This
will destroy most of the weeds and
pulverize the soil. The second hoe-
ing should be performed before or as
soon as the tassels appear, and may
be preceded by the corn-harrow, a
shallow furrow of the plough, or, what
is better than either, by the cultiva-
tor. A slight earthing is beneficial,
providing the earth is scraped from
the surface, and tlie sod and manure
not exposed. It will be found bene-
ficial to run the harrow or cultivator
a third, and even a fourth time, be-
tween the rows, to destroy weeds and
loosen the surface, particularly if the
season is dry.

" In harvesting the crop, one of three
modes is adopted, viz. : 1. The corn is
cut at the surface of the ground when
the grain has become glazed or hard
upon the outside, put immediately into
stocks, and, when sufficiently dried,
the corn and stalks are separated,
and both secured. 2. The tops are
taken off when the corn has become
glazed, and the grain permitted to re-
main till October or November upon
the butts. Or, 3. Both corn and stalks
are left standing till the grain has fuh
ly ripened, and the latter become dry,
when both are secured. There are
other modes, such as leaving the butts
or entire stalks in the field after the
grain is gathered ; but tliese are so
wasteful and slovenly as not to mer-
it consideration. The stalks, blades,
and tops of corn, if well secured, are
an excellent fodder for neat cattle.
If cut, or cut and steamed, so that
they can be readily masticated, they
are superior to hay. Besides, their
fertilizing properties as a manure are
greatly augmented by being fed out
178

in the cattle-yard, and imbibing the
urine and liijuids wiiicii always there
abound, and which are lost to the
farm, in ordinary yards, without an
abundance of dry litter to take them
up. By the first of these methods the
crop may be secured before the au-
tumnal rains ; the value of the fodder
is increased, and the ground is clear-
ed in time for a winter crop of wheat
or rye. The second mode impairs the
value of the rorage, requires more la-
bour, and does not increase the quan-
tity or improve the quality of the
grain. The third mode requires the
same labour as the first, may improve
the quality of the grain, but must in-
evitably deteriorate the quality of the
fodder. The corn cannot be husked
too promptly after it is gathered from
the field. If permitted to heat, the
value of the grain is seriously im-
paired.

''Sowing Seed. — The fairest and
soundest ears are either selected in
the field, or, at the time of husking, a
few of the husks being left on, braid-
ed, and preserved in an airy situation
till wanted for use.

" In making choice of sorts, the ob-
ject should be to obtain the varieties
which ripen early and aflx)rdthe great-
est crop. I think these two proper-
ties are best combined in a twelve-
rowed kind which I obtained from
Vermont some years ago, and which
I call Button corn, from the name of
the gentleman from whom I received
it. It is earlier than the common
eight-rowed yellow, or any other field
variety I have seen, and, at the same
time, gives the greatest product. I
have invariably cut the crop in the
first fourteen days of September, and
once in the last week in August. The
cob is large, but the grain is so com-
pact upon it that two bushels of sound
ears have yielded five pecks of shell-
ed grain, weighing 62 lbs. the bushel.

"/« securing the fodder, precaution
must be used. The butts become wet
by standing on the ground, and if pla-
ced in large stacks or in the barn, the
moisture which they contain often in-
duces fermentation and mouldiness.
To avoid this, I put them first in

CORN, INDIAN

stacks so small that the whole of the
butts are exposed upon the outer sur-
face ; and, when thoroughly dry, they
may be taken to the barn, or left to
be removed as they are wanted to be
fed out, merely regarding the propri-
ety of removing a whole stack at the
same time.

One ploughing (suppose a clover lay)

Harrowing and planting

Two hoeings, 4 days and horse team

Harvesting, two days .

Cutting and harvesting stalks

Rent ■ .

I Acre of In-

$2 00

2 00

3 75
1 50
1 50
5 00

$15 75

"(i) The following table exhibits
the dilTerence in product of various
methods of planting, and serves also
to explain the manner in which large
crops of this grain have been obtained
I have assumed in the estimate that
each stock produces one ear of corn,
and that the ears average one gill of
shelled grain. This is estimating the
product low ; for while I am penning
this (October), I find that my largest
ears give two gills, and 100 fair ears
half a bushel of shelled corn. The
calculation is also predicated upon the
supposition that there is no deficien-
cy in the number of stocks, a contin-
gency pretty sure on my method of
planting.

L An acre in hills, 4 feet apart
each way, will produce .

2. The same, 3 by 3 feet

3. The same, 3 by 2J feet .

4. The same, in drills at 3 feet,

plants 6 stalks, one inch
apart in the drills .

5. The same in do., 2 rows in

a drill, 6 inches apart, and
the plants 9 inches, and 3
feet 9 inches from centre
of drills, thus .

Hills, bush. qts.

2,722 42
4,840 75
5,808 93

29,040 113 14

30,970 120 31

6. The same in do., 3 rows in
a drill, as above, 3 feet
from centre of drills . 43,560 170 5

"The fifth mode I have tried. The
ground was highly manured, the crop
twice cleaned, and the entire acre
gathered and weighed accurately the
same day. The product in ears was
103 baskets, each 84 lbs. nett, and 65

lbs. over. The last basket was shell-
ed and measured, which showed a
product on the acre of 1 18 bushels 10
quarts. I gathered at the rate of
more than 100 bushels the acre from
four rods planted in the third method
last summer, the result ascertained
in the most accurate manner. Corn
shrinks about 20 per cent, after it is
cribbed. The sixth mode is the one
by which the Messrs. Pratt, of Madi-
son county, obtained the prodigious
crop of 170 bushels per acre. These
gentlemen, I am told, are of opinion
that the product of an acre may be
increased to 200 bushels.
" Cutting the Stalks. — Forafewyears
past I have not cut my corn-stalks un-
til the corn was harvested, guessing
that it was a course preferable to the
one commonly pursued in this part of
the country, of topping the stalks
while in a green state. But for the
purpose of settling this point more
clearly, and with as little trouble as
the case would admit, I selected,
about the 5th of September, a row of
corn in a field of about five acres, in-
tending to take one that would aver-
age in quality equal to the field
throughout, that I might, at the same
time, be able to ascertain, with tol-
erable certainty, the product of the
whole field. The manure having been
spread on the surface of the ground,
and harrowed in lengthwise of the
furrows, and the corn planted across
I the furrows, made it apparently less
I difficult to select an average row.
. On this row I cut the stalks from half
I the hills ; beginning at one end, and
I cutting the first hill, then leaving the
I next uncut, and so proceeding alter-
nately, cutting one, and leaving the
next uncut, through the row. I had
intended to confine the experiment to
this row, but finally was led to extend
it so far as to include four rows ; and,
numbering them agreeably to the or-
der in which they were standing in
the field, this row may be called No.
2. There were ninety-two hills in
the row, and the stalks were cut from
forty-six hills, all of them in the man-
ner that is here termed jointing, i.e.,
cut off betweeu the ear and the first
179

CORN, INDIAN.

joint above tlie ear. I Ihoiight they
were somewhat more ripe than is
usual at tlie tiino of cutting; a few
of them were nearly dry. The soil
was a sandy or gravelly loam, ancient-
ly covered with pine, oak, and chest-
nut. In hoeing the com, no hills
were made, but some care was taken
that the surface of the ground should
remain as level as possible through
the season.

"My estimate of the number of hills
on an acre was made in the following
manner ; and, if I am wrong in my
calculations, I shall be corrected by
some of your readers.

" In an area of 200 feet square (or
40,000 square feet), there were sixty-
two rows, with fifty-four hills in a
row, making 3348 hills. This is equal
to 3646 hills per acre, each hill occu-
pying nearly twelve square feet of sur-
face. There were about four stalks
of corn in a hill. In estimating bush-
els, I have allowed the lawful weight
of fifty-six pounds to the bushel.

" At the time of harvesting, the corn
was husked in the field. The forty-
six hills from which the stalks had
been cut gave forty-eight and a half
pounds of ears ; and the forty-six hills
on which the stalks had not been cut
gave sixty-two pounds of ears. The
number of ears in the two cases was
about the same ; those from the un-
cut hills were evidently the best filled
out and the most hale ; on a large
proportion of them the kernels were
so closely wedged in as to make it
difficult to bend the ear at all with-
out breaking it. There was very lit-
tle mouldy corn in either case ; a few
ears were gathered, mostly from the
cut stalks, but the whole quantity
was so small as to make it question-
able whether cutting the stalks had
much effect in this particular.

" Both parcels were carefully laid
aside in a dry chamber for about sis
or eight weeks, at the expiration of
which time they were again weighed,
and the parcel of ears from the uncut
hills had lost in drying about two per
cent, more than the other, affording
some evidence that the sap continued
to circulate for a greater length of
ISO

time in the uncut than in the cut
stalks. Theuncuthilis gave 42 pounds
8 ounces dry shelled corn, equal to 14
ounces 12} grains per hill, or 60 bush-
els and eight pounds per acre. The
parcel from the cut hills gave 33
pounds 7 ounces, equal to 11 ounces
10 grains per hill, or 47 bushels and
18 i)ounds per acre, making a loss of
12 bushels and 46 pounds per acre by
cutting the stalks ; conclusive evi-
dence that, while the sap is in circu-
lation, nature does not assign the
stalks an unprofitable office. The
product of this whole row, taken to-
gether, cut and uncut hills, was equal
to 53 bushels and 41 pounds per acre.

"The product of row No. 3, taken
by itself (containing ninety-two hills,
on one half of whicli the stalks were
cut on the same day the others were),
would not show the practice of cut-
ting stalks quite so destructive in its
effects as that exhibited in row No. 2.
Its whole produce was 77 lbs. 9 oz.
dry corn, equal to 55 bushels and 10
pounds per acre, or 1 bushel and 25
pounds per acre more than row No. 2.

" Not satisfied with resting the ex-
periment here, I gathered the corn
on rows Nos. 1 and 4, i. e., the rows
each side next adjoining Nos. 2 and
3, and on which none of the stalks
had been cut. These rows, taken
together, contained 186 hills, and
their product of dry shelled corn was
171 lbs. 13 oz., equal to 14 oz. 12^
grs. per hill, or 60 bushels and 8
pounds per acre, precisely the same
average yield as tliat part of row No.
2 on which the stalks had not been
cut. This exact coincidence, howev-
er, I think, may be numbered among
those cases which rarely happen.

" The difference between the two
rows on which half the stalks were
cut and the two rows on which none
of the stalks were cut was 5 bushels
38} pounds per acre. If this differ-
ence arose from cutting half the
stalks (and I know of no other rea-
son), then cutting the whole would
have reduced the crop 11 bushels and
21 pounds per acre, or from 60 bush-
els and 8 pounds to 48 bushels and
43 pounds per acre.

CORN, INDIAN.

" To recapitulate, row No. 2, on which the
experiment was commenced, taken by itself,
is as follows, viz. :
40 hills, on which the stalks had

not been cut, gave 42 lbs. 8

oz. dry shelled corn, equal to,

per acre ... 60 bush. 8 lbs.

46 hills, from which the stalks

had been cut, gave 33 lbs. 7

oz. dry shelled corn, equal to,

per acre . . . 47 " 19 "

Loss by cutting- the stalks, per
acre . . . . 12 " 46 "

The four rows, taken together, stand as fol-
lows :

Nos. 1 and 4, on which no
stalks were cut, gave an av-
erage of, per acre . . 60 bush. 8 lbs.
Nos. 2 and 3, from which half
the stalks were cut, gave an
average of, per acre . 54 " 25.V "
Loss by cutting one half the

stalks, per acre, . . 5 " 3Si "

On cutting all the stalks, would
make a loss equal to, per acre 11 " 21 "

" The difference in the result of the
two cases is 1 bushel and 25 pounds
per acre ; or in the two experiments
(if it may be so termed) there is an
average loss, by cutting the stalks,
of 12 bushels 5 j pounds per acre ; a
loss quite equal to all the expense
of hoeing and harvesting, especially
when we consider that in hoeing the
labour of making hills was dispensed
with.

" If I had cut all the stalks, and ob-
tained a crop of forty-eight bushels to
the acre, the very fact of having forty-
eight bushels would, I think, be con-
sidered by farmers generally, in this
section of the country, as proof posi-
tive that the stalks were cut without
injury to the crop. Or, if I had gone
one step farther, and made large hills
at an additional expense of one dollar
per acre, and thereby reduced the
crop to forty-five bushels per acre,
the forty-five bushels would be con-
sidered sufficient proof that making
hills (which, by-the-way. are usually
made equally large and high on wet
or dry land, without regardto soil or
situation) was labour well laid out ;
for although you occasionally give
us a large corn story, swollen a little,
perhaps, by guessing it off in baskets,
yet, judging from what we see and
know about raising corn, we call for-
ty-five bushels per. acre a. good crop.

" A measured bushel from the cut
hills weighed 57 lbs. 6 oz., one pound
less than from the uncut, the shrink-
age being very near equal to the
whole loss in weight.

" If this experiment is a fair test, it
seems that about twenty 'per cent., or
one fifth part of the crop, is destroyed
by cutting the stalks in the xcay they are
usually cut. If farther experiment
should establish this fact, I think
there are few farmers that will hesi-
tate long in deciding which is the
most valuable, one acre of corn or
five acres of top stalks. But this
twenty per cent, is not saved at the
expense of losing the stalks ; they
are worth as much, and, I think, more,
all things considered, after the corn
is harvested, than they are gathered
in the usual way. If, after being
bunched up in a green state, they heat
or become mouldy (a case of frequent
occurrence), they are utterly worth-
less, except it be for manure ; I know
of no animal that will eat them. But
after they have once been dried by
the frost and wind, a subsequent mod-
erate degree of niouldiness seems to
be no injury.

" The course which I have pursued
with them, and for the present I know
of no better, has been as follows ; In
the first place, they are cut off near
the ground, and for this purpose a
short scythe is found the most con-
venient instrument. The expense
of cutting in this manner, however,
is but a mere trifle, if any, more than
cutting the stub stalks in the spring,
and may, with propriety, be entered
as an item of expense against the
next crop, for which it is preparing
the ground. After cutting, they are
gathered into bunches of suitable
size for binding, and three good
sheaves of rye straw, if wet, will be
sufficient to "bind a ton. In gather-
ing them up and laying in bunches,
an active boy will do as much as a
man. In this way, the whole ex-
pense of gathering, binding, and load-
ing will not exceed 75 cents per ton.
As they are very bulky, for want of
barn room, I have them stacked near
the barn-yard ; and I think I may
181

COR

COR

safely say that my cattle eat more
pounds of stalks from an acre gather-
ed in this way than tliey would from
the same acre if gathered in the usual
way. It may be objected to this, that
they are not as good and nourishing
as others : as to that matter, I am
not able to say ; but, if the cattle are
good judges in the case (and I think
they ought to be admitted as such),
they are quite as good and quite as
nourishing, for they are eaten appa-
rently with quite as good a relish.
In addition to this, they are obtained
without breaking off ears or breaking
down hills in hauling out, occurren-
ces quite frequent in the other case.
They also furnish more than double
the quantity of bedding for the yard,
an item of no small moment in the
list of ' creature comforts ' during
our cold winters. And last, though
not least, they make more than double
the quantity of manure, the value of
which will "be duly appreciated by ev-
ery good farmer without argument.
It may be said that the butt stalks
can be gathered after harvest, and
furnish the same quantity of litter and
manure as in this case. That is true ;
but the expense of gathering both
parts in that way, from the butts be-
ing so short and inconvenient to bind,
would be three times as much as it is
to gather them whole. Thus, view-
ing the subject in various points, I
think this method of managing corn-
stalks is much better than the old
one ; and that a little observation and
experience will convince the most
skeptical that this branch of agricul-
ture is not yet brought to a state of
perfection ; that there is yet room
for improvement." — {Farmers In-
structer.)

Much discussion has arisen on the
Northern and Southern plan of cuUi-
vating corn : the first in hills of three
to five stems, the other in rows five
feet wide ; and also on the propriety
of hilling or planting level. The
Northern method is best, as the yield
shows, so far as closer planting is
concerned ; but the height of the
plants is very different, so that the
close planting of the North can hard-
182

1y be imitated. As to the planting
in drills, with water-furrows between
them, the propriety of this method
depends on the nature of the soil, for
stiff clays must be so managed, oth-
erwise the heavy rains would destroy
the crop ; but in light soils a level
surface is most advantageous.

For the value of maize as food, see
the articles Fodder and Food.

CORN FOR SUGAR. The stems
of corn, as they begin to turn in colour,
contain, according to some writers,
twelve to fourteen per cent, of sugar
in the juice, if the ears have been re-
moved as fast as they appear. The
juice is expressed precisely as from
the cane, and treated in the same
way ; perhaps it requires more rapid-
ity of movement. Six per cent, of
sugar is sometimes obtained from
the juice, and from 300 to 500 pounds
the acre. The question of economy
is the only one which embarrasses
the public : this has been settled ad-
versely, so far as regards the country
in which the sugar cane grows, by
Messrs. Tillotson, of Louisiana, but
is open for the Western and Middle
States, and in places where corn
sells at a low price and sugar is at
eight cents the pound ; we therefore
introduce Messrs. "Webb and Mapes's
account, from the Hon. H. C. Ells-
worth's report :

" Remarks on the Manufacture of Corn

Sugar, by William Webh, of Wtl-

nungton, Delaware.

" In common with many others, I

have felt considerable interest in the

plan for extending the cultivation of

sugar in temperate climates, and have

made many experiments, first upon

the beet, and recently upon maize or

Indian corn, in the hope of discover-

i ing some mode by which the desired

j end might be attained.

I " The results from the latter plant

1 have been extremely encouraging.

I The manufacture of sugar from it,

! compared with that from the beet,

\ offers many advantages. It is more

I simple, and less liable to failure ; the

machinery is less expensive, and the

i amount of fuel required is less by one

CORN FOR SUGAR.

half. The quantity of sugar produced
on a given space of ground is greater,
besides being of better quality. An
examination into the nature and pro-
ductive powers of these two plants
will show that no other results could
have been reasonably expected. It
is a well-established fact, that every
variety of production found in plants
is derived from the sap. It is also
ascertained that the principal sub-
.stanee found in the sap or juice of
many vegetables is sugar ; therefore,
the amount of saccharine matter pro-
duced by any plant of this description
may be estimated from an analysis
of the fruit, seed, &c., of such plant,
when ripe. The grain yielded by
corn, and the seed from beet, in the
second summer of its growth, are
nothing more than this sap or juice
elaborated by the process of vegeta-
tion, and presented to our view in
another form.

" Now, as it is contrary to the econ-
omy of nature to suppose that there
should be any loss of nutritive mat-
ter in this change of sap into seed or
grain, does it not follow that there
must be the same difference in the
quantity of sugar produced by the two
plants as there is between the nutri-
tive properties of beet seed and corn I

" The juice of maize contains sugar,
acid, and a gummy, mucilaginous
matter, which forms the scum. From
the experiments of Gay Lussac, The-
nard, Kirchoff, and others, it is pro-
ved that starch, sugar, and gum are
extremely similar in composition, and
may be as readily converted into each
other by chemical processes as they
are by the operation of nature. For
example ; starch, boiled in diluted
sulphuric acid for thirty-six hours, is
converted into sugarof greater weight
than the starch made use of

"This result goes to show that ev-
ery pound of starch found in the seed
of a plant has required for its produc-
tion at least one pound of sugar in
the form of sap. If it be objected
that this deduction is too theoretical
to be admitted, it may be an.swered,
that experiment, so fa- as it has gone,
has fully attested its correctness.

" The raw juice of maize, when
cultivated for sugar, marks 10 ' on the
saccharometer, while the avf^rage of
cane juice (as I am informed) is not
higher than 8°, an^ beet juice not
over 3°.

" From 9| quarts (dry measure) of
the former I have obtained 4 pounds
6 ounces of sirup, concentrated to
the point suitable for crystallization.
The proportion of crystailizable sugar
appears to be larger than is obtained
from cane juice in Louisiana. This
is accounted for by the fact that our
climate ripens corn perfectly, while it
but rarely, if ever, happens that cane
is fully matured. In some cases the
sirup has crystallized so completely,
that less than one sixth part of mo-
lasses remained. This, however, only
happened after it had stood from one
to two months. There is reason to
believe that, if the plant were fully
ripe, and the process of manufacture
perfectly performed, the sirup might
be entirely crystallized without form-
ing any molasses.

" This perfection in the manufac-
ture cannot, however, be attained with
the ordinary apparatus. Without any
' other means for pressing out the
I juice than a small hand mill, it is ini-
j possible to say how great a quantity
of sugar may be produced on an acre.
" The experiments have been direct-
ed more to ascertain the saccharine
quality of corn-stalk than the amount
a given quantity of ground will pro-
duce ; but the calculations made, from
trials on a small scale, leave no room
to doubt that the quantity of sugar
will be from 800 to 1000 pounds. This
amount will not appear unreasonable
when it is considered that the juice
of corn is as rich as that of cane, and
' the weight of green produce at least
equal.

" Mr. Ellsworth, in one of his pub-
lications, states, as the result of ac-
tual weighing and measuring, that
corn, sown broad-cast, yielded five
pounds of green stalks per square
foot ; this is at the rate of 108i tons
to the acre.

" My attention w-as first directed to
i maize as a material for sugar by ob-
183

CORN FOR SL'CAR.

Berving that, in some stalks, the juice
was extienich' sweet, while in others
it was weak and watery. On exam-
ination, it appeared that the latter
had borne large and perfect ears of
grain, while on the former these were
either small in size or entirely want-
ing. The natural conclusion from
this observation was that, if the ears
were taken off in tlieir embryo state,
the whole quantity of saccharine mat-
ter produced by the process of vege-
tation would be preserved in the stalk,
from which it might be extracted
when the plant was matured ; but
the idea occurred too late in the sea-
son to test it by expermient. A few
stalks, however, were found, which,
from some cause, had borne no grain ;
these were bruised with a mallet, and
the juice extracted by a lever press.
Some lime was then added, and the
desiccation, evaporation, &c., began
and finished in a single vessel. By
these simple means sugar of a fair
quality was produced, which was sent
to the horticultural exhibition of our
society in 1810.

" I have since been informed, by
Mr. Ellsworth, that Mons. Pallas, of
France, had discovered, in 1839, that
the saccharme properties of maize
were increased by merely taking off
the ear m its embryo state. An ex-
periment, however, which I instituted
to determine the value of this plan
resulted in disappointment : the quan-
tity of sugar produced was not large
enough to render it an object. The
reasons of this failure will be suf-
ficiently obvious on stating the cir-
cumstances. It was found that ta-
king the ear off a large stalk, such as
is produced by the common mode of
cultivation, inflicted a considerable
wound upon the plant, which injured
its health, and, of course, lessened
its productive power. It was also
found that the natural disposition to
form grain was so strong that sev-
eral successive ears were thrown out,
by which labour was increased and
the injuries of the plant multiplied.
Lastly, it appeared that the juice
yielded from those plants contained
a considerable portion of foreign sub-
184

stance not favourable to the object in
view. Yet, under all these disadvan
tages, from one hundred to two hun
dred pounds of sugar per acre may be
obtained.

" The manifest objections detailed
above suggested another mode of cul-
tivation, to be employed in combina-
tion with the one first proposed ; it
consists simply in raising a greater
number of plants on the same space
of ground. By this plan all the un-
favourable results above mentioned
were obviated, a much larger quan-
tity of sugar was produced, and of
better quality. The juice produced
bv this mode of cultivation is remark-
ably pure and agreeable to the taste.
Samples of the sugar yielded by it
are now in the Patent Office, with a
small hand mill by which the stalks
were crushed. Some of the same
kind was exhibited to our agricultu-
ral society in October, 1841, accom-
panied with an answer to an invita-
tion from its president. Dr. J. W.
Thompson, to explain the mode of
culture and process of manufacturing
the sugar. The molasses, after stand-
ing, as before mentioned, from one to
two months, became filled with small
crystals, which, on being drained, ex-
hibited a peculiar kind of sugar ; the
grain is small, and somewhat inferior
in appearance, but still is as sweet
and agreeable to the taste as can be
desired. A small sample of this su-
gar I have brought for your inspec-
tion. This product, from what was
thought to be molasses, is a new and
I unexpected discovery, and discloses
I an important fact in the investigation
I of this subject. It shows the supe-
' rior degree of perfection attained by
the corn plant, compared with the
cane, in any part of the Union. It is
' generally understood that the latter
cannot be fully matured in any except
' a tropical climate, and ihe proportion
' of molasses obtained from any plant
is greater or less according to the im-
maturity or perfection of its growth.
The sweetness of the corn-stalk is
a matter of universal observation.
Our forefathers, in the revolutionary
; struggle, resorted to it as a means to

CORN FOR SUGAR.

furnish a substitute for West India I
sugar. They expressed the juice, ]
and exerted their ingenuity in efforts
to bring it to a crystalUzed state ;
but we have no account of any suc-
cessful operation of the kind. In
fact, the bitter and nauseous proper-
ties contained in the joints of large
stalks render the whole amount of
juice from them fit only to produce
an inferior kind of molasses. I fuund,
on experiment, that, by cutting out
the joints, and crushing the remain-
ing part of the stalk, sugar might be
made, but still of an inferior quality.
The molasses, of which there was a
large proportion, was bitter and dis-
agreeable.

" From one to two feet of the lower
part of these stalks was full of juice ;
but the balance, as it approached the
top, became dryer, and afforded but
little. From the foregoing experi-
ments, we see that, in order to ob-
tain the purest juice, and in the great-
est quantity, we must adopt a mode
of cultivation which will prevent the
large and luxuriant growth of the
stalk.

"As we are upon the threshold of
this inquiry, many other improve-
ments may be expected in the mode
of operation ; for example, it may be
that cutting off the tassel as soon as
it appears on the plant will prevent
the formation of grain, and prove a
preferable means for effecting that
object.

" On the whole, there appears am-
ple encouragement for perseverance.
Every step in the investigation has
increased the probabilities of success,
no evidence having been discovered
why it should not succeed as well, if
not better, on a large scale, than it
has done on a small one.

" 1. In the first place, it has been sat-
isfactorily proved that sugar of an ex-
cellent quality, suitable for common
use without refining, may be made
from the stalks of maize.

"2. That the juice of this plant,
when cultivated in a certain manner,
contains saccharine matter remark-
ably free from foreign substances.

" 3. The quantity of this juice (even

Q3

supposing we had no other evidence
about it) is sufficiently demonstrated
by the great amount of nutritive grain
which it produces in the natural course
of vegetation. It is needless to ex-
patiate on the va^advantagcs which
would result fronnhe introduction of
this manufacture into our country.

" Grain is produced in the West in
such overflowing abundance that the
markets become glutted, and induce-
ments are offered to employ the sur-
plus produce in distillation. This bu-
siness is now becoming disreputable.
The happy conviction is spreading
rapidly, that the use of alcohol, as a
beverage, instead of conducing to
health and strength, is the surest
means of destroying both. Some oth-
er production, therefore, will be re-
quired, in which the powers of our
soil may be profitably employed. This,
it is hoped, will be found in the busi-
ness now proposed. Instead of dis-
tilleries, converting food into poison,
we may have sugar-houses, manufac-
turing at our doors an article of uni-
versal demand, not merely useful, but
necessary, furnishing as it does one
of the most simple, natural, and nu-
tritious varieties of human suste-
nance found in the whole range of
vegetable production.

" It is said that the general use of
sugar in Europe has had the effect to
extinguish the scurvy and many oth-
er diseases formerly epidemical. It
may be doubted whether a tropical
country can ever furnish a great
amount of exports, except through
the means of compulsory labour. It
appears, then, highly probable, that if
the inhabitants of temperate countries
wish to continue the use of sugar, they
must find some means to produce it
themselves. The beet appears to suc-
ceed well in Europe, and the manu-
facture from it is extending rapidly ;
but there is no hazard in making the
assertion that Indian corn is far bet-
ter adapted to our purpose. The fol-
lowing mode of cultivating the plant
and making the sugar is the best that
can now be offered. The kind of soil
best adapted to corn is so well under-
stood, that no directions on this point
1S5

CORN FOR SUGAR.

are necessary, except that it should
be rich — the richer the better ; if not
naturally fertile, manure must be ap-
plied, either ploughed in or spread
upon the surface, or used both ways,
according to the aMlity of the owner.
Nothing can form ^)etter preparation
for the crop than a clover sod well
turned under and harrowed fine im-
mediately before planting.

" Select for seed the largest and best
ears of any variety of corn not dispo-
sed to throw up suckers or spread out
in branches ; that kind most produc-
tive in the neighbourhood will be gen-
erally the one best adapted to the pur-
pose. The planting should be done
with a drilling machine. One man,
with a pair of horses and an instru-
ment of this kind, will plant and cov-
er, in the most perfect manner, from
ten to twelve acres in a day; the
rows (if practicable, let them run
north and south) two and a half feet
apart, and the seed dropped sufficient-
ly thick in the row to ensure a plant
every two or three inches. A large
harrow, made with teeth arranged so
as not to injure the corn, may be used
to advantage soon after it is up. The
after culture is performed with a cul-
tivator, and here will be perceived
one of the great advantages of drill-
ing : the plants all growing in lines,
perfectly regular and straight with
each other, the horse-hoe stirs the
earth and cuts up the weeds close by
every one, so that no hand hoeing
will be required in any part of the cul-
tivation. ' It is part of the system
of cane-planting in Louisiana, to raise
as full a stand of cane upon the ground
as possible, experience having proved
that the most sugar is obtained from
the land in this way.' As far as my
experience has gone, the same thing
is true of corn. This point must
therefore be attended to, and the de-
ficiencies, if any occur, made up by
timely replanting.

" The next operation is taking off the
ears. Many stalks will not produce
any ; but, whenever they appear, they
must be removed. It is not best to
undertake tbis work too early, as,
when the ears first appear, they are
186

tender, and cannot be taken off with-
out breaking, which increases the
trouble. Any time before the forma-
tion of grain upon them will be soon
enough.

" Nothing farther is necessary to be
done until the crop is ready to cut for
grinding. In our latitude, the cutting
may commence with the earlier va-
rieties about the middle of August.
The later kinds will be ripe in Sep-
tember, and continue in season until
cut offby the frost. The stalks should
be topped and bladed while standing
in the field. They are then cut, tied
in bundles, and taken to the mill.
The top and blades, when properly
cured, make an excellent fodder, rath-
er better, it is believed, than any hith-
erto used ; and the residuum, after
passing the rollers, may easily be dried
and used in the same way : another
advantage over the cane, which, af-
ter the juice is expressed, is usually
burned.

" The mills should be made on the
same general principle employed in
constructing those intended for grind-
ing cane. An important difference,
however, will be found both in the
original cost and in the expense of
working them. Judging from the
comparative hardness of the cane and
corn-stalk, it is believed that one
fourth part of the strength necessary
in the construction of a cane mill will
be amply sufficient for corn, and less
than one fourth part of the power will
move it with the same velocity. It
maybe made with three upright wood-
en rollers, from twenty to forty inch-
es in length, turned so as to run true,
and fitted into a strong frame-work,
consisting of two horizontal pieces,
sustained by uprights. These pieces
are mortised to admit wedges on each
side the pivots of the two outside roll-
ers, by which their distances from the
middle one may be regulated. The
power is applied to the middle roller,
and the others are moved from it by
means of cogs. In grinding, the stalks
pass through on the right side of the
middle cylinder, and come in contact
with a piece of frame-work called the
dumb returner, which directs them

CORN FOR SUGAR.

backward, so that they pass through

the rollers again, on the opposite side
of the middle one. The modern im-
proved machine is made entirely of
iron, three horizontal rollers, arran-
ged in a triangular form, one above
and two below ; the cane or stalk
passes directly through, receiving two
pressures before it escapes. The low-
er cylinders are contained in a small
cistern which receives the juice. The
latter machine is the most complete ;
the former the least expensive. These
mills may be moved by cattle ; but,
for large operations, steam or water
power is preferable. When the ver-
tical cylmders are turned by cattle,
the axis of the middle one has long
levers fixed across it, extending from
ten to fifteen feet from the centre.
To render the arms firm, the axis of
this roller is carried up to a consid-
erable height, and oblique braces of
wood, by which the oxen or horses
draw, are extended from the top of
the vertical axis to the extremities of
each of the arms. When horizontal
cylinders are propelled by animal
power, the upper roller is turned by
the cogs at one end, which are caught
by cogs on a vertical shaft. It is said
that, in the West Indies, the purest
cane juice will ferment in twenty
minutes after it enters the receiver.
Corn juice has been kept for one hour
before boiling without any apparent
injury resulting ; but so much delay
is not desirable, as it may be attend-
ed with bad effects.

"The process which has been em-
ployed in the manufacture of maize
sugar is as follows : The juice, after
coming from the mill, stood for a short
time to deposite some of its coarser
impurities. It was then poured off,
and passed through a flannel strainer,
in order to get rid of such matters as
could be separated in this way. Lime-
water, called mill\ of lime, was then
added, in the proportion of one or two
table-spoonfuUs to the gallon. It is
said by sugar manufacturers that
knowledge on this point can only be
acquired by experience ; but I have
never failed in making sugar from
employing too much or too little of

the lime. A certain portion of this

substance, however, is undoubtedly
necessary, and more or less than this
will be injurious, but no precise di-
rections can be given about it. The
juice was then placed over the fire,
and brought nearly to the boiling
point, when it was carefully skim-
med, taking care to complete this op-
eration before ebullition commenced.
It was then boiled down rapidly, re-
moving the scum as it rose. The
juice was examined from time to
time, and if there was any appear-
ance of feculent particles, which
would not rise to the surface, it was
again passed through a flannel strain-
er. In judging when the sirup is suf-
ficiently boiled, a portion was taken
between the thumb and finger, and
if, when moderately cool, a thread
half an inch long could be drawn, it
was considered to be done, and pour-
ed into broad, shallow vessels to crys-
tallize. In some cases, crystallization
commenced in twelve hours ; in oth-
ers, not till after several days ; and
in no case was this process so far
completed as to allow the sugar to be
drained in less than three weeks from
the time of boiling. The reason why
so great a length of time was re-
quired I have not yet been able to
discover. There is no doubt that
an improved process of manufacture
will cause it to granulate as quickly
as any other.

" Enough has been said to enable
any one so disposed to manufacture
sugar from maize.

" As to the profits of the business,
I shall make no positive assertions ;
experience on the subject is yet too
limited to warrant them ; and, as all
the facts in relation to it are now be-
fore the public, every one interested
can draw his own conclusions. It is
said, by those acquainted with the
cultivation of the cane, that that bu-
siness cannot be carried on profitably
on less than one hundred acres in
crop, and that attempts on a small
scale will be certain to fail, with a
great loss of time and labour. How
far this may be apphcable to corn re-
mains to be seen.

187

CORN FOR SUGAR.

'■'■ Some comparison between the
cultivation of cane and that of corn
may perhaps be interesting.

"The cane lands in Louisiana are
redeemed to agriculture by strong
embankments along the river, and by
numerous ditches, which extend back
into the swamp to a considerable dis-
tance beyond the line of cultivation.
The ground is still farther divided, by
smaller ditches, into lots of from one
to two acres in extent. It is ex-
tremely rich and productive, but the
expense of draining and keeping up
the embankments must be consider-
able ; this forms the first dilTerence to
be noted in the culture of the two
plants under consideration.

" The best season for planting cane
in Louisiana is in the fall, which is
also the time of harvest, when labour
is the most valuable, and the greatest
exertions are required to secure the
crop before it is destroyed by frost.

" But the most striking diffeience
will be found in the cost of seed, and
in the labour of planting. The cane
is propagated by layers ; these are
partly furnished from the tops of the
plants when cut for grinding, but are
principally ratoons. Of the latter, it
requires the produce of one acre to
plant three. The grain from one acre
of corn will be sufficient for planting
forty acres ; therefore, the difference
in the expense for seed will be as one
to thirteen.

" In planting cane, furrows are
made with the plough from two and
a half to three feet apart ; in these
the layers are placed in a double row,
and the earth drawn over them with
hoes to the depth of three or four
inches.

" In the spring, before the plants are
up, this covering is partly scraped off,
so as to leave them buried from one
to two inches. From this account,
it is evident that no more manual la-
bour will be required to drill fifty
acres in corn than to plant one acre
in cane. The labour of cultivating
the latter plant during its growth is
also greater, but this may be balan-
ced by the extra work required to
take off the embryo ears from the
183

corn. When cultivated in the mode
recommended, the stalk of corn is
soft, remarkably heavy, and full of
juice from bottom to top. The
amount of power required for grind-
ing them must be much less than is
necessary for cane, or, what is the
same thing, an equal power will do it
witli greater rapidity. The average
yield of cane, in Louisiana, is one
thousand pounds of sugar and forty-
five gallons of molasses per acre.
From the above comparative state-
ment, it would appear that one half
this amount of crop from corn would
be equally, if not more profitable.

" I wih only add, in conclusion, that
whether or not the sugar from the
corn-stalk may soon become an arti-
cle of profitable export, its manufac-
ture in the simplest form will enable
every family to supply tliemselves
with this article for common use,
now become so much a necessary of
life, and thus save a considerable bill
of expense yearly paid for foreign
sugars."

Mr. Mapes's Account. — "You re-
quest to know the best method of
crystallizing corn sirup, and I know
of no more ready method to afford
the information required than to de-
tail the entire mode which should be
pursued for its manufacture :

" 1st. To cut the cane as ripe as pos-
sible, but before any acetic acid is
formed ; litmus paper, touched to
the fresh-cut cane, will turn red if
acid.

" 2d. Express the juice without loss
of time, as everj' moment after cut-
ting will deteriorate its quality.

" 3d. A smallquantity of clear lime-
water (say one quart to a hundred
gallons of juice) should be added the
moment it is expressed, unless the
juice shows acidity with litmus pa-
per ; in that case, no lime should be
used, but a solution of sal soda, or
soda ash, should be added, until it is
precisely neutral.

" 4th. When the juice is neutral (free
from excess of acid or alkali) it should
be evaporated in such an apparatus
as would finish its charge in 30 min-
utes ; if the boiling power is too amall*

COR

COR

good crystallization cannot possibly
be obtained.

"The whole time occupied from the
cutting of the cane to finishina: its
boiling should not exceed one hour.

"5th. To know u-hcn the boiling isfiii-
ished, place a thermometer in the ket- I
tie, and continue to evaporate until }
it stands at 230^ Fahrenheit. If,
when placed to run off after cooling,
It should be found too freely boiled,
the next time boil to 240% or, if too
light to run off, to 238=', and so on.

" 6th. The kettle or boiler should be
so arranged that the moment it is
done its charge should be thrown
into a cooler capable of holding a
number of charges. The first charge
should be left in the cooler, with stir-
ring, until the second charge is thrown
in ; then with an oar scrape the crys-
tals found on the side and bottom of
the cooler loose, and gently stir the
whole mass together (the less stirred
the better) ; so continue, at the let-
ting in of each charge, to stir gently ;
and when all is in the cooler, let the
whole stand until it cools down to
175= ; then fill out into sugar moulds
of a capacity not less than 14 gal-
lons. When cooled in the mould
sufficient (say fourteen hours), pull
the plug out of the bottom of the
mould, and insert a sharp point near-
ly as large as the hole, some six inch-
es ; withdraw the point, and stand
the mould on a pot to drip.

"7th. If the sugar is intended to be
brown, leaving it standing on the spot
for a sufficient length of time, in a
temperature of 80^, will run otf its
molasses, and leave it in a merchant-
able shape ; it will probably require
twenty days ; it can then be thrown
out of the moulds, and will he fit for
use. When moulds cannot be ob-
tained, conical vessels of wood or
metal, with a hole at the apex, will
answer equally well.

"The above description will be suf-
ficient for any operator if strictly fol-
lowed ; but should any of your friends
wish to make the experiment on a
large scale, or to produce white in-
stead of brown sugar at a single op-
eration, they had better see me per-

sonally before commencing, as the
kind of kettle, and many otlier minor
particulars, will be important. The
above description, however, is fully
sufficient for the use of the farmer.
If the juice of corn-stalks be manu-
factured with the rapidity named in
the former part of this letter, no clari-
fication will be necessary, and scum,
which may rise during the boiling,
can be taken off with a skimmer ;
but in the large icaij both clarifica-
tion and filtration would be requisite,
as in large operations every part of
the kettle cannot be got at to skim.
Since I last saw you I have made
some experiments on the corn-stalk ;
and if your statements are correct as
to the quantity of juice which can be
obtained from the acre, then there
can be no doubt of its entire supe-
riority over the sugar-cane. I fear,
however, that the enthusiasm of those
who made the experiments you spoke
of has led them into errors. It is
true that the juice of the corn-stalk,
grown with a view to sugar making,
will yield a juice at 10'' Beaume. I
have arrangements to try the experi-
ments fully in the coming summer,
and when done will communicate the
result."

CORN FOR SOILING, or HAY.
Corn sown broad-cast or in close
drills has been much used of late for
soiling ; it is cut from four to six
weeks old, and is relished by cattle
when mixed with other fodders. It
should be gradually introduced into
their food, lest it produce scouring.
An acre thickly set produces upward
of SIX tons of dry fodder, and much
more, according to some farmers. It
is readily cured for hay by sweating
in cocks, but cannot be dried enough
by spreading in swarth only. As hay,
it is nearly equal to fine grass, and
readily eaten.

j Corn is remarkably free from de-
structive diseases ; the smut masses
j which affect the stems are seldom
sufficiently abundant to destroy the
crop ; the caterpillars that prey on
'■ the leaves occasionally destroy a
few young plants ; the cutworm, in
rich soils, is the severest enemy.
189

COR

The young stems are occasionally
infested with a caterpillar of a yel-
lowish colour, with a black head and
smooth, the larva of the Gortyna zcce,
or spindle-worm : they destroy the
plants wiiich they infest, but the
numbers are usually limited.

CORN, SPECIAL MANURES.
Poudrette, guano, and stable ma-
nure, composted with lime and bone
dust, are the great fertilizers for this
grain. It pre-eminently requires pu-
trescent matter and bone earth, with-
out which last the seeds are imper-
fect. The ash of Indian corn shows
how much phosphoric acid it con-
tains. {Analyzed by Lctellier.)
Potash and soda .... 30-8
Lime and magnesia . . . 18 3

Phosphoric acid 50' 1

Silica, <Stc 8

i¥o¥

A special mixture or compost of
poudrette or stable manure, bone
earth, and ashes would be very val-
uable.

CORN, MEASURING THE
BULK. The foUowmg rule for this
purpose is given by William Murray.
It is not to be regarded as strictly ac-
curate, but an approximation :

" Having previously levelled the
corn in the house, so that it will be of
equal depth throughout, ascertain the
length, breadth, and depth of the
bulk ; multiply these dimensions to-
gether, and their products by 4 ; then
cut off one figure from the right of this
last product. This will give so many
bushels, and a decimal of a bushel of
shelled corn. If it be required to find
the quantity of ear corn, substitute 8
for 4, and cut oflTone figure as before."

CORN LAWS. The exportation
of grains to England having much in-
creased, the following tables of the
tariff will be useful to many farmers :

" According to the English Corn
Law Act existing in 1842, corn in-
spectors are appointed in 287 tow-ns,
to transmit returns to the Board of
Trade, who compute the average
weekly price of each description of
grain, and the aggregate average price
for the previous six weeks, and trans-
mit a certified copy to the collectors
190

COR

of customs at the different outports.
The aggregate average regulates the
duty on importation according to the
following scale :

" If imported from any ForeignCountry.

" Wheat. — Whenever the average
price of wheat, made up and publish-
ed in the manner required by law,
shall be for every quarter

£. t. d.

Under 51 j., the duty shall be for every

quarter 10 0

51s. and under 52y 0 19 0

52^. — tbs 0 18 0

55s. — 56* 0 17 0

50^. _ 57, 0 16 0

57s. — 58* 0 15 0

58s. — 59* 0 14 0

59s. — 60i 0 13 0

60s. — 61s 0 12 0

61s. — 625 0 110

62s. — 63s 0 10 0

63s. — 64s 0 9 0

64s. — 65s 0 8 0

65s. — 60s 0 7 0

66s. — 69s 0 6 0

69s. — 70s 0 5 0

70s. — 71s 0 4 0

71s. — 72s 0 3 0

72s. — 73s 0 2 0

73s. and upwaid 0 10

" Barley. — Whenever the average
price of barley, made up and publish-
ed in the manner required by law,
shall be for every quarter

£. s. d.
Under 26s., the duty shall be for every

quarter 0110

26s. and under 27s 0 10 0

27s. — 30s 0 9 0

30s. — 31s 0 8 0

31s. — 32s 0 7 0

32s. — 33s 0 6 0

33s. — 34s 0 5 0

34s. — 35s 0 4 0

35s. — 36s 0 3 0

36s. — 37s 0 2 0

37s. and upward 0 10

"Oats. — Whenever the average
price of oats, made up and published
in the manner required by law, shall
be for every quarter

£. s. d.

Under 19s., the duty shall be for eveiy

quarter 080

19s. and under 20s 0 7 0

20s. — 23s 0 6 0

23s. — 24s 0 5 0

24s. — 25s 0 4 0

25s. — 26s 0 3 0

26s. — 27s 0 2 0

27s. and upvsrarJ .... ..010

*' Rye, Pease, aiid Beans. — Whenev-
er the average price of rye, or of pease,
or of beans, made up and published

COR

in the manner required by law, shall
be for every quarter

£ s. d.

Under 30*., the duty shall be for every

quarter 0 11 6

30«. and under 33j 0 10 6

33*. — Zis 0 9 6

ZAs. — 35s 0 8 6

35s. — 36s 0 7 6

36s. — 37s 0 6 6

37s. — 38j 0 5 6

38s. — 39s 0 4 6

39s. — 40s 0 3 6

40s. — 4Is 0 2 6

41s. — 42s 0 16

42s. and upward 0 10

" Wheat Meal and Flour. — For every
barrel, being 196 lbs., a duty equal in
amount to the duty payable on 38i
gallons of wheat.

" Oatmeal. — For every quantity of
18U lbs., a duty equal in amount to
the duty payable on a quarter of oats.

"Maize or Indian Corn, Buckwheat,
Bear or Bigg. — For every quarter, a
duty equal in amount to the duty pay-
able on a quarter of barley." — {John-
sun'' s Encyclopedia.)

CORN, EGYPTIAN. See Egyp-
tian Corn.

CORN MOTHS. See Grain
Weevils.

CORN SALAD. Fedia oUtoria .
Lamb lettuce. It is a mucilaginous,
pleasant herb, esteemed for the early
period it is found in market. Sow
the seed in drills six inches apart ;
weed carefully. The seeds are small
and light ; one pound serves for a
quarter of an acre. They are sown in
August or September, on clean, rich
land, covered with straw duruig cold
weather, and brought out at the ear-
liest period in spring. It might be
advantageously cultivated for soiling,
either sown late for spring or very
early for summer ; or it may be rais-
ed as a summer salad by sowing in
March.

CORN-SHELLER. See Sheller.

CORNEA. The transparent mem-
brane in front of the eye. Any opa-
city injures vision ; it should be care-
fully treated by bleeding and blisters.

CORNS, IN HORSES' FEET.
This disease is produced by some hard
substance pressing on the sole at the
quarters, as from shoes left on till the
heels become buried in the hoof ; the

COR

fibrous substance which lies betweeh
the sensible foot and the absolute
horny hoof becomes inflamed by the
pressure, and the inflammation pro-
duces a hardness of the spot, similar,
if I may so express it, to a knot in a
piece of soft timber. Palliate the evil
as well as you can by keeping the
hoof constantly pared away between
the corn and the ground, hut do not
wound in your vain endeavours to cut
it out ; avoid the hot irons, &c. ; let
a bit of sponge be softly put in, mere-
ly to keep out gravel and keep the
spot moist ; and when the season ar
rives, turn the horse out without any
shoes into a soft, marshy place,
where his feet must be in a constant
moist state for three months at least ;
by that time the hoof will be altogeth-
er renewed, the diseased part will
have grow^n out, and if there is no
new injury, there will be no new
corns. — {E. Maunscll.)

COROLLA. The coloured part of
flowers, usually. If there be no green
calyx, the coloured envelope is called
a perianthium. The corolla is either
in one piece, or monopctalous, or in
many, poli/petalous. The leaflets or
parts are also called petals. Many
natural famdies are easily determined
by the figure of the corolla, as the
Convolvulaceffi, Salviaceae, Rosaceae,
&c. See Botany.

CORONET BONE. The second
of the consolidated phalanges of the
horse's foot.

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. A
white crystalline salt, the chloride of
mercury. It is a fearful poison, one
to three grains producing death. The
antidote is, abundance of white of egg
given internally. A weak solution is
occasionally used to destroy vermin
and preserve wood, but it is too dan-
gerous to be trifled with.

CORRUGATE. To wrinkle. The
folds on the skin of some animals are
called corrugations.

CORTICAL (from cortex, the
bark). Relating to the bark.

CORUNDUM. A class of extreme-
ly hard crystalline minerals, compo-
sed of nearly pure alumina, as the
sapphire, ruby, and emery,

191

COT

COT

CORVUS. The generic name of
the crow and raven. They are om-
nivorous or carnivorous.

CORYMB. A hunch of flowers,
the lowest llowcr stalks of which rise
as hijih as the uppermost.

CORYZA. A running from the
nose.

COSMOGONY (from Koa/xoi, icorld,
and yovof, birlk). The speculations
concerning the origin of the earth.

COSTATE (from cos/a, a rib). Rib-
bed. In botany this term is used to
designate the bundles of woody fibre
in leaves, also called nerves and
veins. The numerals arc often prefix-
ed, as tricosiate, with three ribs.

COSTIVENESS. Want of proper
motion in the bowels. Glauber salts,
Epsom salts, and aloes are useful
purges.

COTTAGE. A small, low resi-
dence, often highly adorned, or ornee.
The following from Mr. Ellsworth's
Reports on building cheap Cottages
will be valuable :

" After selecting a suitable spot of
ground, as near the place of building
as practicable, let a circle of ten feet
or more be described. Let the loam
be removed, and the clay dug up one
foot thick, or, if clay is not fbund on
the spot, let it be carted in to that
depth. Any ordinary clay will an-
swer. Tread this clay over with
cattle, and add some straw cut six
or eight inches long. After the clay
is well tempered with working it with
the cattle, the material is duly pre-
pared for the making of brick. A
mould is then formed of plank, of the
size of the brick desired. In England
they are usually made eighteen inch-
es long, one foot wide, and nine inch-
es thick. I have found the more
convenient size to be one foot long,
seven inches wide, and five inches
thick. The mould should have a
bottom. The clay is then placed in
the moulds in the same manner that
brick moulds are ordinarily filled. A
wire or piece of iron hoop will an-
swer very well for striking offthe top.
One man will mould about as fast as
another can carry away, two moulds
being used by him. The bricks are
192

placed upon the level ground, where
they are suffered to dry two days,
turning them up edgewise the sec-
ond day, and then packed up in a
pile, protected from the rain, and left
to dry ten or twelve days, during
which time the foundation of the
building can be prepared. If a cellar
is desired, this must be formed of
stone or brick, one foot above the
surface of the ground. For cheap
buildings on the prairie, wood sills,
twelve or fourteen inches wide, may
be laid on piles or stones. This will
form a good superstructure. Where
lime and small stones abound, grout
made of those materials (lime and
stones) will answer very well.

" In all cases, however, before
commencing the walls for the first
story, it is very desirable, as well in
this case as in walls of brick, to lay
a single course of slate ; this will in-
tercept the dampness so often rising
in the walls of brick houses. The
wall is laid by placing the brick length-
wise, thus making the wall one foot
thick. Ordinary clay, such as is used
for clay mortar, will suffice, though
a weak mortar of sand and lime,
when these articles are cheap, is rec-
ommended as forming a more adhe-
sive material for the plaster. The
wall may safely be carried up one
story, or two or three stories ; the
division walls may be seven inches,
just the width of the brick. The
door and window frames being in-
serted as the wall proceeds, the build-
ing is soon raised. The roof may
be shingles or thatch : in either case
it should project over the sides of the
house, and also over the tico ends, at
least two feet, to guard the walls from
vertical rains. The exterior wall is
plastered with good lime mortar, and
then with a second coat pebble-
dashed. The inside is plastered with-
out dashing. The floor may be laid
with oak boards, slit, five or six inch-
es wide, and laid down without joint-
ing or planing, if they are rubbed over
with a rough stone after the rooma
are finished. Doors of a cheap and
neat appearance may be made by ta-
king two single boards of the length

COTTAGE.

or width of the doors ; placing these
vertically, they will till the space.
Put a wide batten on the bottom and
a narrow one on the top, witli strips
on the side, and a strip in the middle.
This door will be a batten door, but
presenting two long panels on one
side and a smooth surface on the
other. If a porch or veranda is
wanted, it may be roofed with boards
laid with light joints and covered
with a thick paper dipped in tar, and
then adding a good coat, after sprink-
ling it with sand from a sand-box or
other dish with small holes.

'• Houses built in this way are dry,
warm in winter and cool in summer,
and furnish no retreat for vermin.
Such houses can be made by com-
mon labourers, if a little carpenter's
work IS excepted, in a very short
time, with a small outlay for mate-
rials, exclusive of floors, windows,
doors, and roof

" The question will naturally arise.
Will the wall stand against the rain
and frost ' I answer, They have
stood well in Europe, and the Hon.
Mr. Poinsett remarked to me that he
had seen them in South America, af-
ter having been erected three hun-
dred years. Whoever has noticed
the rapid absorption of water by a
brick that has been burned, will not
wonder why brick walls are damp.
The burning makes the brick porous,
while the unburned brick is less ab-
sorbent ; but it is not proposed to
present the unburned brick to the
weather. A\'hoever has erected a
building with merchantable brick will
at once perceive the large number of
soft and yellow brick, partially burn-
ed, that it contains, brick that would
soon yield to the mouldering in-
fluence of frost and storms. Such
brick are, however, placed within,
beyond the reach of rain, and always
kept dry. A good cabin is made by
a single room twenty feet square. A
better one is eighteen feet v.-ide and
twenty-four feet long, cutting ofT
eight feet on one end for two small
rooms, eight feet by nine each.

" How easily could a settler erect
6uch a cabin on the Western prairie, |
R

j where clay is usually found about fif-

jteen inches below the surface, and

, where stone and lime are often both

; very cheap. The article of brick for

1 chimneys is found to be quite an

item of expense in wooden houses.

, In these mud houses no brick is

^ needed, except for the top of the

chimneys, the oven, and casing of

the fire-place, though this last might

be well disponed with. A cement,

to put around the chimneys, or to fill

any other crack, is easily made by a

mixture of one part of sand, two of

1 ashes, and three of clay. This soon

I hardens, and will resist the weather.

A little lard or oil may be added, to

make the composition still harder.

•• Such a cottage will be as cheap
as a log cabin, less expensive than
pine buildings, and durable for cen-
turies. I have tried the experiment
in this city by erecting a building
eighteen by fifty-four feet, two sto-
ries high, adopting the different sug-
gestions now made. Although many
doubted the success of the underta-
king, all now admit that it has been
very successful, and presents a con-
venient and comfortable building,
that appears well to public view, and
offers a residence combining as many
advantages as a stone, brick, or wood-
en house presents. I will add what
Loudon says in his most excellent
work, the Encyclopedia of Agriculture,
p. 74 and 75 :

" ' The great art in building an
economical cottage is to employ the
kind of materials and labour which
are cheapest in the given locality.
In almost every part of the world the
cheapest article of which the walls
can be made will be found to be the
earth on which the cottage stands,
and to make good walls from the
earth is the principal art of the rus-
tic or primitive builder. Soils, with
reference to building, may be divided
into two classes : clays, loams, and
all such soils as can neither be called
gravels nor sands, and sands and
gravels. The former, whether they
are stifT or free, rich or poor, mixed
with stones, or free from stones, may
be formed into walls in one of these
193

COT

modes, viz., in the pise manner, by
lumps moulded in boxes, and by
compressed blocks. Sandy and grav-
elly soils may be always made into
excellent walls, by ibrming a frame
of boards, leaving a space between
the boards of the intended thickness
of the wall, and filling this with grav-
el mixed with lime mortar, or, if this
cannot be got, with mortar made of
clay and straw.

" ' In all cases, when walls, either
of this class or the former, are built,
the foundations should be of stone or
brick, and they should be carried up
at least a foot above the upper sur-
face of the platform.

" ' We shall here commence by giv-
ing one of the simplest modes of
construction, from a work of a very
excellent and highly estimable indi-
vidual, Mr. Denson, of Watcrbeach,
Cambridgeshire, the author of the
Peasant's Voice, who built his own
cottage in the manner described be-
low ;

" ' Mode of building the Mud Walls
of Cottages in Cambridgeshire. — After
a labourer has dug a sufficient quan-
tity of clay for his purpose, he works
it up with straw ; he is then provided
with a frame eighteen inches in
length, six deep, and from nine to
twelve inches in diameter. In this
frame he forms his lumps, in the
same manner that abriekmakerfornis
his bricks ; they are then packed up
to dry by the weather ; that done,
they are fit for use, as a substitute for
bricks. On laying the foundation of
a cottage, a few layers of brick are
necessary, to prevent the lumps from
contracting a damp from the earth.
The fire-place is lined and the oven
is built with bricks. I have known
cottagers, where they could get the
grant of a piece of ground to build on
fur themselves, erect a cottage of
this description at a cost of from £15
to £30. I examined one that was
nearly completed, of a superior o.r-
der ; it contained two good lower
rooms and a chamber, and was neat-
ly thatched with straw. It is a warm,
firm, and comfortable building, far
superior to the one I live in ; and
194

COT

my opinion is that it will last for
centuries. The lumps are laid with
mortar, they are then plastered, and,
on the outside, once roughcast, which
j is done by throwing a mixture of
I water, lime, and small stones against
j the walls before the plaster is dry,
which gives them a very handsome
I a|)pcarancc. The cottage I exam-
; ined cost £33, and took nearly one
thousand lumps to complete it. A
labourer will make that number in
two days. The roofs of cottages of
I this description are precisely the
same as when built with bricks or
with a wooden frame. Cow-house
sheds, garden walls, and partition
fence are formed with the same ma-
terials ; but in all cases the tops are
covered with straw, which thethatch-
ers perform in a very neat manner.' "
COTTON. The hairs surrounding
the seeds of several varieties of Gos-
syptum, which are cultivated for the
staple in the Southern States of
America and elsewhere.

Varieties. — The most common is
the green seed {G. hcrbaceum) or up-
land cotton. The black seed, or Sea-
Island, is of longer and finer staple,
and supposed to be a variety of G.
arborcum ; it rises often to eighteen
feet, and bears well for four or five
years. The Nankin is the variety
suited for the manufacture of the im-
itation nankin. The Mexican and
Pettit Gulf are also upland kinds,
and in great favour, especially the
last ; they are varieties of G. hirsn-
tum. Aldridge or Okra cotton is a
new Alabama variety, growing with
very short stalks, tall, and yielding
largely.

Cultivation. — The following by Dr.
Philips, from the American Agricul-
turist, gives a full account of the
management of the upland cotton :

" If the land was in corn or cotton
the previous year, I run olFtlie rows
in the old water furrow with a short
plough, this year using two horses to
it, and running deep. With a turn-
ing plough I then throw to this two
furrows, one fnmi each side, intend-
ing to reverse the last beds.

" I leave the ground in this condition

COTTON.

until a day or two before I wish to
plant, and then break out the entire
surface between the rows and the
balk ; my reason for so doing is, that
the cotton plant grows olT faster on a
bed of some firnmess; the radicle, or
future root, will die oftener on a light
surface than when on hard earth, if
not so hard that it cannot penetrate ;
and by breaking out the middle late it
leaves the bed fresh, except a narrow
strip on the top, which is cleaned off
by planting, which gives the plant an
even start with grass and weeds.

" I begin to plant during the first
fine weather after the 20th of March,
though usually not before early in
April, some of my neighbours even
earlier than the 20th some seasons ;
I prefer to be a few days later, and
have all business well up, than to
haste in planting, and probably get a
bad stand from cold, and part of the
ploughing to be jumped over.

"I direct the cotton seed to be haul-
ed out, and dropped in two or three
heap-rows across the rows, at con-
venient distances, and in sufficient
parcels ; practice gives the hands a
pretty correct idea how much is re-
quired. I usually measure enough
for the first row, or an acre, seldom
planting over two bushels myself, and
often not over one, especially if the
seeds be bought. If the first furrows
have been settled by heavy rains, are
rough, or have many cotton stalks
on the row, an iron tooth harrow
should be run over them, drawn by
one horse, and with the row ; this
cleans off the row, and leaves it in '
fine condition for planting.

" I Blrike out the furrow for planting
with an opener. I am very particular
to open the furrows as straight as ,
possible, if on level land ; or a regu- I
lar curve, if on hilly or rolling land. '
The sower now follows with seed in
an apron, and scatters them along in
the narrow furrow by shaking the ;
hand, so as to cause each seed to fall .
separate, if possible. This furrow be-
ing from one half to three quarters
of an inch deep, cannot be covered
deep, which would be an injury, seed
coming up with more certainty if

lightly covered, the nature of the
seed requiring the leaves, which are
folded or rolled up with the radicle,
or root, in the centre, to rise up be-
fore the plume or future stalk can
start. The seed is well covered.

" I prefer planting about one half
the cotton crop some ten days before
the remainder, that too much neces-
sary work will not be required at the
same time ; if a rainy spell of weath-
er now, or any other backset should
cause detention in working over the
first time, grass and weeds will have
taken such hold, that the farmer will
find as hard work as in fighting fire ;
but if only the one half be planted
first, the last half will not be pressing.
I plant upland at four feet apart be-
tween the rows ; 2d low ground at
five feet distance. Any farmer will
find there is very much to be gained
by putting his land in fine order be-
fore he plants ; even if a few days
later planting than his careless neigh-
bour, he will soon overtake him in
cleaning his crop ; besides, his crop is
not checked in growth ; and he would-
do well to so pitch his crop that his
corn could get one working before
his cotton would require it.

" Before giving you the cultivation
of the plant, I will describe the seed
that I have found to be the best, not
only in producing, but in gathering
the largest weights per hand. The
seed is covered with a short, perfectly
white furze, called Mexican ; when
fresh it is small, but, after being cul-
tivated in the United States, it be-
comes longer, gradually losing the
white fibres, or changing to a germ.
The Pettit Gulf seed is the same, only
it is careluiiy selected and kept pure
by the planters in the vicinity of the
gulf hills near Rodney, this part of
the Mississippi River being called
Pettit Gulf This cotton not only
produces more, but the bowls (that
contain the cotton and seed) open
out wider, and it is therefore easier
gathered and picked.

" Many persons, in circling their

hilly land, do it a greater injury than

in ploughing up and down the hills,

because their furrows being inclined,

195

COTTON.

the water has only a longer distance
to flow, thus accumulating in quan-
tity, velocity, and force ; whereas, if
they were correctly run off, the wa-
ter should lie in tiic furrow as on
level land. In doing tiiis, the curve
should be as regular as the nature of
the land will permit, for the purpose
of admitting the ploughs to be run
close up to the plant, which could
not be if in a zigzag course.

" If the cotton seed be moistened
and rolled with ashes and earth, so
that the lint or furze be compressed,
the moisture of the earth being thus
brought directly in contact with the
hull or seed, it will vegetate earlier,
and will require less seed per acre.

" I throw up my cotton bed as flat
as I can to break out deep, and leave
the water furrow well open, thus
permitting the superfluous water to
steep from the bed, and the earth
to become warmer, this being ne-
cessary to the quick growth of the
plant.

" Cuhivalion. — Implements. — Scra-
ping cotton (it is termed shaving by
tobacco growers) is merely taking off
with a hoe the surface of the hill or
bed, so as to leave a clean surface ;
unless this be done well, whether i
grass or weeds be in sight or not, !
there will be a quantity of them before
the crop can be worked over again.

" A bull-tongue plough is about four
inches wide, shaped somewiiat like
the shovel plough, and used on the
same stock. I use a narrow shovel
about six inches wide, also a shovel
of the usual width ; the first is used
v/hen the crop is young, likewise the
bull-tongue. The harrow is a triangu-
lar frame of white oak, three by four
stuff, with nine iron teeth, straight,
twelve inches long, and made of three
fourth inch square bars.

" The sweep is the same described
by Dr. Cloud, though I prefer the sem-
icircular shape, thus, because it is not

so liable, in striking a cotton-stalk or
stick, to glance off and injure the cot-
ton ; it should be made with cutting
edge level, and laid with steel, the
back edge raised, so that when the
earth falls over, it falls to pieces ; the
ploughman should carry a file, and be
required to keep the sweep sliarp.

" The double shovel is a plough with
two moulds ; I prefer the moulds of
a parallelogram shape, and twisted
so as to throw the earth all one way :
see a cut of the stocking of one in
vol. ii., old series, of the American
Farmer, for Sept. 1, 1820.

" The scraper is an implement I have
tried to have constructed, so as to
shave off the bed each side of the cot-
ton plant, leaving four inches or less
of the former surface for the hoe
hands to clean. I think the difficulty
m those formerly used was, want of
weight to steady them.

" Our usual scraping is after the
plough, then a turning plough goes
ahead with the bar next to the row,
throwing the earth from the plant to
the middle of the row, and in conse-
quence of having to run two or three
inches deep, we dare not run near
the plant, owing to the bed crumbling
down, and the danger of covering the
plant by the earth falling from the
plough. I am as particular in this
part of our labour as is possible, su-
perintend it in person all the day, re-
quiring of the hands to chop through
the row, leaving one or more stalks,
and cleaning the side of the plants
next to hand, then another stand, of
a stalk or more, and so on, thus leav-
ing cotton plants about the width of
the hoe apart ; if the same hand
cleans the whole row, he will come
back on the other side, cutting up all
but one stalk in each bunch, and
cleaning the row next him as before.
I usually put two on a row, the best
hand chops through the row on his
side, the other reduces to a stand a
single stalk, and cleans the remain-
ing side ; I have now really a double
stand, that is, twice as many stalks
as I design to remain, thinking it
prudent not to reduce to a stand, as
casualties and carelessness may by

196

COTTON.

chance destroy a stalk or two ; and
being not over two or three inches
high, and ten to twelve inches apart,
they do not injure each other. When
I use the scraper, there is so little
hoe work, that each hand is required
to clean the row at one time by chop-
ping through to himself, sweeping off
the side of the plants, then with a
push of the hoe he cleans the oppo-
site side of the stalks, and reduces
to a single stalk at the same motion.
Our usual work is three quarters of
an acre per hand ; but with the scra-
per, and earth in the same condition,
from one to one and a quarter of an
acre is as easily done ; this is when
the crop is got into in due time, which
I make a point of doing as soon as I
have what I consider a full stand up,
never waiting for height or age of it,
and only wiien too cold. On referring
to my farm-book, I find I commence
reaping from fifteen to twenty days af-
ter sowing, owing to the season, and
whether earlier or later sown ; if the
seed be sown early, it is the longer
period, the earth being cool, and the
sun not powerful enough at this sea-
son to warm it.

" As soon as I can return for other
business, say in ten to fifteen days
at the outside, I throw earth to the
plant with the bull-tongue plough, run-
ning near and deep, and with any or-
dinary attention the plant is moulded
well with fine, light earth ; the soon-
er this can be done the better, the
light earth serving to protect the
stem of the plant, the furrow to drain
off moisture and loosen the earth,
and to give warmth. The plant be-
ing thus stinmlated, if the weather
be not too cold, will resume its green
colour if it has turned yellowish, and
commences growing ; the last half
of cotton requiring working, and if
rain falls about this time, it may not
be possible to get into it earlier than
ten days, but at all events we should
do so some five days before lioe
hands go into it to clean with the hoe.
The hoe follows this moulding with
the bull-tongue, levels the earth
around the pluut, and cuts up what
grass and weeds there may be pres- ,
R 2

ent. This working will take us into
May, when our heavy rains are over,
and when the plant begins to grow
off; if I find the earth to crack or be
hard, I follow the hoes, in a few days,
with the shovel-plough ; if the plant
will bear it, the large shovel, if not,
the small one, next to the plant, and
break out the entire middle deep and
thoroughly. This is the only time I ev-
er plough deeper, probably, than two
inches after pitching my crop, and I
do not use the turning-plough after
barring off. If the earth be light and
mellow, I use the double shovel-
plough, three furrows moulding the
plant and sweeping the entire middle.

" At this second working I reduce
to a stand, leaving the stalks about
twenty to twenty-four inches in ordi-
nary land ; on the richer land, from
two feet to thirty or even thirty-six
inches. After this working I keep
the earth stirred with a cultivator, or
sweep, or double shovel, or harrow,
keeping the bed of the row or drill
free from weeds and grass, throwing
a little earth at each working to the
plant, but not enough to be called a
ridge.

"I give the crop as many and as
frequent stirrings as I am able, sel-
dom less than three or four, with the
hoe and plough each, making it a
pomt to keep the ploughs in advance,
unless an unfavourable season, when
the earth is rather wet to plough, or
grass has grown too fast ; I tlien re-
verse it. The object in keeping
ploughs and hoes several days apart
is to give a chance for grass to die,
so that what has not been killed or
covered by ploughs can be cut out
with hoes.

" I endeavour to have my land in
good order before planting ; plough
as deep as my horses can pull the
plough, and commence to clean my
crop before grass has got started,
and by frequent stirring keep the crop
entirely under my control. I have
tried all the plans (except Dr. Cloud's,
and intend to give that a trial) of
pkinting and cultivating cotton, and
think I can make as much on the
same land with those implements that
197

COTTOX

merely stir the surface as others do
with the turning or shovel plough,
and can, with the same lahour, cer-
tainly cultivate more. I cannot per-
ceive that any labour will be saved
on the same space of land by manu-
ring, as the same acre will require
the same work ; but the plant, by be-
ing warmed with tlie manure, will
grow off faster, and if the crop can
be ever doubled on an acre, it will re-
quire only half the number of acres
for cultivation.

" I may err, as we all are subject
to error, especially in being wedded
to our peculiar mode of practice ; but
I think all practical planters will agree
with me that the first, and often
the second working of cotton, must
be slow and tedious, even should the
planting be in May. It is impossible
that the plant should grow off until
the fine roots or spongioles have
formed around the top roots to nour-
ish the plant ; in the mean time the
fibrous rooted plants are growing ;
we must therefore work early, and
every one who has followed hands
knows there is little dependance on
covering grass ; it must be cut up. I
therefore think we must scrape.

" My hoes are home-made, the
blade entirely steel ; I have some
here that have been used for the past
four years, and they have been used
for cutting down sprouts as well as
cutting up grass and weeds. My fore-
man of the crop is furnished with a
flat file, and is required to keep the
hoes sharp.

" I now sum up, commence clean-
ing the cotton early, clean it well, re-
turn as soon as possible, throw earth
or mould to the young plant ; if the
earth be hard, give a thorough plough-
ing ; keep the earth light and mel-
low, and the plants clear of grass and
weeds.

" Gathering and Drying. — After my
crop has grown so large as to meet
in the row, or to be injured by the
plough, I have the grass chopped out
with the hoe, especially if there has
been rain, for then tliere springs up
a grass called by the opposite names
of sour or saltpetre grass ; not that
198

I fear any injury to the crop, only as
furnishing more trash to get into the
cotton when gathering, or keeping
the earth wet in the mornings b):
dews. I forthwith prepare for gath-
ering cotton any leisure time, such
as making baskets, sacks, cleaning
up gin-house, &c.

" In all this country each hand has
a cotton sack and cotton basket for
picking ; the first made out of stout,
yard-wide Lowell goods, by cutting
off one and a third to one and a half
yards, doubling, and sewing one side
and end. On the open end attach a
strip of cotton doubled, long enougli,
when over the shoulder, to keep the
sack off the ground when standing
erect, this is sewed on each side, so
as when the right arm and head are
passed through, similar to the belt
of the bayonet or broadsword, the
weight rests on the left shoulder, and
the sack against the right hip. When
picking, the cotton is placed in this
sack until full, which will weigii from
fifteen to twenty pounds, and then
emptied into the hamper or basket,
placed in a central part of the day's
picking. This is made of young
white oak, some three to five or six
inches in diameter, growing in low
ground, by cutting of!" a piece about
seven leet long, quartering, and then
splitting into splits about three quar-
ters to an inch wide, and as thick as
a case-knife blade, and ribs somewhat
thicker. Take, according to size of
basket wanted, some
fifteen to twenty-two or
twenty-three of these
ribs, and lay them on
the ground crossing
each other thus, and
commence weaving in the splits as
near to the central point as possible,
by fastening to the bottom rib first,
running over and under until all
round ; insert an odd rib, for fifteen
or twenty will give an even number
of ribs, each long one making, in fact,
two, and, if an even number, the
splits will round all alike ; but by hav-
ing an odd one, the rib that was out-
side comes next inside, &c. After
the bottom is filled up the size want-

COTTON.

cd, double the ribs over on tlie bot-
tom, press on them with the foot all
round until they will assume, more
or less, an erect position, then con-
tinue around until the proper heigiit.
Now double down the rib so as to en-
close the last split, and run the end
down into splits, so as to make fast.
Get out now two pieces of the white
oak, about one tiiird of an inch thick,
take off the corners with a drawing
knife, put one on the inside, the oth-
er outside of the last split around the
top of the basket, and wrap it well
with thin, narrow splits, over and un-
der the last split. This basket should
do for two seasons ; the bottom of
iiiy largest is about twenty-seven
inches across, and about two feet
liigh, will hold about 150 pounds of
cotton, or three bushels of shelled
corn in the ear.

"The next thing is cotton-scaffolds
for sunning the cotton ; I only use
the shed attached to my gin-house,
sixty-two feet lonir and twelve wide.
Tiie best made use of by our neatest
planters are made of plank, attached
with hinges (like a folding-leaf table
reversed), and resting on a frame-
work, so that at night, or a rain threat-
ening, the leaves can be folded up
and shelter the cotton. The first of
these was described to me ten years
ago by the late Mr. William Bacon,
who was at that time the most sys-
tematic cotton planter 1 knew, a Nor-
therner. Other kinds of scaffolds are
made by cutting cane about five to
six feet long, and weaving together
with linn bark, of a tree called here
linn or wahoo, and laid cro&swise on
stakes and poles. Others split out
boards.

" The gin-house now undergoes a
rigid examination. The gin-stand
should be sent off to the gin-wright,
if necessary ; the band be put in or-
der, which should have been well
greased and hung up out of the way
in the winter ; the running gear train-
ed, plummed. and levelled, and the
house again thoroughly cleaned out,
as it is presumed it was done when
the last season's ginning was done.
I use a sixty-saw ginstand ; a light

draught for four mules, the runnintr
gear being Pliiladelphia castings fur
a twelve-foot wheel, fastened to a
wooden wheel by bolts and nuts. I
could give you a minute description
of number of cogs in wheel, and in
spur or trundle-head, size of band-
wheel, and speed of the saws ; but,
as I purpose to make an examination
into tliis matter the ensuing month
among my intelligent brethren in the
soutliwest part of this state, I will
postpone and communicate to you
hereafter in the East.

" To make fine cotton, there is cer-
tainly much depending on the gin-
stand, the speed, &c., in aid of which
there are a variety of improvements,
as the flue, false grates, and a thrash-
er, thougli of these hereafter ; for the
present, I think the flue will entirely
supersede all others. As I think of
concluding with my last article, and
have yet only given you two pages, I
will offer some views I have on the
handling of cotton, though their cor-
rectness is questioned by many ;
yet, as account sales are ' stubborn
things,' I may be allowed to hold on
until there is a demonstration to the
contrary.

" Cotton should be gathered from
the field as clean as possible, taken
to the scaffolds, and dried until the
seed will crack when pressed be-
tween the teeth, not crush or mash,
but crack with some noise. It
should be frequently turned over and
stirred (all the trash and rotten pods
taken out while this is being done),
so as to ensure its drying earlier.

" If seeds are wanted for planting,
gin the cotton immediately, and
spread the seed over the floor some
five inches thick, until perfectly dry.
If the cotton seed be not wanted,
pack the seed cotton away into the
house, to remain until a gentle heat
is discovered, or until sufficient for
ginning ; after it has heated until a
feeling of warmth to the hand, and it
looks as if pressed together, open out
and scatter to cool. This cotton will
gin faster, have a softer feel, is not
so iirittle, therefore not so liable to
break by rapidity of gin, and has a
199

COTTO.X.

creamy colour ; the wool has im-
bibed a part of the oil that has ex-
uded by the warmth of seed, and
is, in fact, restored to the original
colour ; for the oil being vegetable,
it is dissipated by sun and air, and
the colour by moisture (of rain and
dews) and light. 1 have known of a
number of sales made of this descrip-
tion of cotton, and even those who
are most strenuous against the heat-
ing admit it bore a better price. No
one supposes if cotton be put up wet,
dirty, trashy, with rotton pods, that
it is benefited. Having all things
ready for picking cotton, I com-
mence, as usual, early, as soon as
the hands can gather even twenty
pounds each. This is advisable, not
only in saving a portion of that from
being destroyed if rains should fall,
which often do at this season (about
the middle of August), but for anoth-
er reason : passing through the cotton
has a tendency to open out to sun
and air the limbs that have interlock-
ed across the rows, and hastens the
early opening. On low grounds, es-
pecially, much loss is incurred in
some seasons from the want of the
sun to cause an expansion of the
fibre within the bowl, so as to cause
it to open. The bowl is composed
of five divisions, in each of which
there is a parcel of cotton wool sur-
rounding each seed, there being sev-
eral in each loch of cotton. When
green, these fibres lie close to the
seed, and as it ripens, the fibres be-
come elastic, the bowl becoming hard
and brownish. The Sea Island has
only three divisions, as also the Egyp-
tian, which is only the Sea Island of
the best variety, with black seed,
smooth, and a yellowish tuft of fibres
on the small end ; they are both from
Pernambuco. Some of the cotton
we plant has only four divisions, but
I think five generally.

" There is a peculiar art in gathering
the cotton from the iiowl, which, like
handling stock, can only be acquired
by practice ; many gather equally fast
with either hand. The left hand
seizes the stem near the open bowl,
or the bowl between the two mid-
200

die finger.', the palm of the ham
up ; the fingers of the right hand are
inserted tolerably low down in the
bowl, a finger on each lock of cotton ;
then, as the fingers grasp it, there is
a slight twisting motion, and a quick
pull, which, if done well, will extract
the contents, the bowl being open,
and the bottom of the locks not gum-
my to adhere. There is a vast difler-
ence in hands, not the quickest ma-
king the best pickers ; a steady, clock-
like motion, with some quickness, is
necessary to gather fast. A neigh-
bour of mine, when a young man,
some ten years since, gathered 400
lbs., which was at that time the best
I had known ; this has been beaten
since, by aiding the hand in emptying
his sacks, and almost feeding and
watering him while at work.

" After weighing, if the weather be
fair, the cotton is consigned to the
scaffold, to the care of those who pick
out what trash and rotten parts are
left. After being dried as said, it is
taken into the upper part of the house,
and placed over the gin-stand, ready
to be turned into the hopper that leads
from this place to the gin-stand. My
gin-house is 32 by 62, framed, with
two floors. Below the first floor is
the running gear, where the horses
work ; in the second story we weigh ;
on a level is the shed lor sunning,
fronting the south, in which is the
gin-stand at one end, at the other the
press. In the garret is carried the
seed ; cotton over the gin-stand, and
the ginned cotton over the press.

"I never pick cotton if wet with
rain, but attend to other matters.
When the weather is good, I strive to
keep every one busy that can gather
anything like even a half hand's work.
All go out after daylight, but not long,
I assure you.

"When I commence ginning, there
is a small boy to drive each team,
there being four horses or mules, to
work in pairs ; one hand at the gin-
stand, who is kept pretty busy in put-
ting the seed-cotton on to the saws ;
another hand is retiuired to push the
cotton back from the flue of the gin-
i stand, rake cotton into the hopper,

COTTON.

and clear out seed and motes after
the gin drops them. With my gin-
stand, I have myself ginned lour bales
per day, and averaged over three bales
for a week together ; but it requires
constant attention. Though the la-
bour is light, yet it requires a good
hand to perform it. There is much
loss-work in this business ; frequent-
ly a part of the saws are running
tiirough seed, while others are almost
choked ; again, the roll is not full ;
again too full. In this way my gin-
ner, though an excellent servant, and
named after Cyrus of yore, is some-
times busy ginning out two bales, or
even less per day, while I, though
naturally lazy, and not disposed to
thwart nature in that prerogative,
never gin under three bales. The
plan is to keep the team steady, and
shake the cotton regularly over the
roll, so as to keep the roll regularly
full. I call the roll the cotton in the
gin-stand that is turned over and over
by the motion of the saws, from which
the saws pull off the article known in
commerce as cotton.

" The next and last thing is haling,
which I do by cutting off several pie-
ces from a bolt of bagging, about 4
feet 6 to 8 inches long, the length of
the bale being 4 feet 6 inches ; I then
cut out the bed-cloth, so as to have
the heading of each end on it, with-
out wasting, which is done by split-
ting the first end long enough for
head, say 2 feet 9 inches to 3 feet,
and cut off one piece ; then measure
the length of the bale, cut half across,
and split the same distance as their
end, and cut one end from the bolt
(leaving one half attached to the
bolt), so as to have both heads on the
same side of the cloth, thus : I then

L

split in two one of the first-named
pieces, and sew on to the side from a
to b ; this gives the bed-cloth ; the
two pieces each side of the long mid-
dle piece, when cotton is pressed
down, serve as half the sides of the
bale ; the first-named cloth being pla-

ced on top of the cotton before press-
ing, and turned down, is met by these
half sides, and, when sewed up, cov-
ers the bale ; the bed-cloth is laid
smooth and even on the bed-block,
and the doors of the press fastened
over it, when the press is full ; one
of the first cloths cut, called top-cloth,
is stretched under follower and on
cotton. My press is a single- screw,
inside press ; the horse walking ad-
joining to the walk of the teams work-
ing the running-gear of the gin-stand.
The bale is pressed above them on
the first floor, and the cotton is put
in the press on the upper floor. Four
hands, or, rather, three hands and a
youngster do the pressing, two get-
ting in the box and tramping the cot-
ton down, while the youngster throws
in the cotton, and the fourth sews in
the head, and prepares a bed-cloth.
We press 9 to 10 bales a day, aver-
aging generally 425 lbs., preferring
about tliat weight to any other.

" After running the press down, one
hand is employed in tying, while the
two others wind up the rope on a
windlass, to make it tight round the
bale, having grooves in the bed-block
and follower large enough for rope
to pass through easily ; one hand has
a needle three feet long, either of
white oak or iron wire, through the
eye of which is passed a piece of
twine, the ends tied together ; a loop
is formed, the rope passed through,
and made fast ; the needle is then
passed through the upper groove by
one hand, another pulls through the
opposite side ; he then returns it be-
low ; the hand that ties pulls through,
releases the twine, makes a knot in
the end of the rope, passes it over
the rope attached to the coil, and
makes a single knot ; the long end
then is passed over a pin in the shaft
to which the windlass is attached,
then this is turned over and over un-
til tight, the rope cut, and passed un-
der the rope on the bale, sometimes
tied, as if knitting a line on to a fish-
ing-hook, and so on until the ropes
are all tied. Mine are eight in num-
ber ; seven, however, are an abun-
dance."

SOI

COTTON.

Some planters top the cotton in 1 cases, one extreme produced another.

August.

CultivMtion of Sea- Island. — The fol-
lowing is by Mr. Spalding, of Sapelo,
from the American Agriculturist :

" The Sea-Island cotton was intro-
duced into Georgia from the Baha-
mas ; the seed was from a small isl-
and near St. Domingo, known as Ar-
guilla, then producing the best cotton
of the Western world. It in no way
resembles the Brazil cotton, which
is the kidney-seed kind, introduced
some years later, and which, after
trial, was rejected in Georgia. This
seed came in small parcels from the
Bahamas in the winter of 1785. It
gradually and slowly made its way
along the coast of Georgia, and pass-
ed into Carolina, from the year 1790
to 1792. The winter of 178G in
Georgia was a mild one, and al-
though the plants of the Sea-Island
cotton that year had not ripened their
seed — it being a perennial, and sub-
ject only to be killed by frost — it start-
ed the next season (1787) from the
roots of the previous year, its seed
ripened, and the plants became accli-
mated. Many changes have come
over this seed since that time, from
difference of soil, of culture, and lo-
cal position ; and, above all,^ from
careful selection of seed. But it re-
quires to be discovered that what is
gained in fineness of wool is lost in
the quality and weight of the prod-
uct ; for, in spite of a zeal and intel-
ligence brought to act upon the sub-
ject without parallel, the crops are
yearly diminishing, until to grow Sea-
Island cotton is one of the most prof-
itless pursuits within the limits of
the United States.

"The Culture. — When the Sea-
Island cotton seed was introduced in
1786, it was planted in hills prepared
upon the level field, at five feet each
way ; but it was soon learned that
of all plants that grow, it is, in its
first vegetation and early stage, the
most tender, liable to sutler by storms,
by wind, by drought, and by excess
of rain. The quantity of seed was
therefore increased, and the plants
multiplied, until, as in most other
208

For many years, however, among
experienced planters, the course is
to divide their enclosed fields into
two portions, the one at rest, the
other in culture.

" Preparing the Land for the Crop.
— Early in February, any hands not
engaged in preparing the previous
crop for market are employed in
cleaning up the rested fields, and
either in burning off the fennel weeds
and grass of the previous year, or in
listing them in at five feet apart, to
serve as the base of the future ridg-
es or bed. There is much difference
of opinion upon the subject of burn-
ing or listing in ; for myself, I am in-
clined to take the first opinion, be-
lieving that the light dressing of
ashes the field receives from burning
of!" is more beneficial to the soil than
the decay of the vegetable matter,
and renders it less liable to produce
what is a growing evil, the rust, a
species of blight much resembling
the rust or blight upon wheat, and
which takes place about the same
period, just as the plant is putting
out and preparing to ripen its fruit.

" Ridging. — The land being listed
in short lines across the entire field,
at five feet apart, the operation of
ridging is commenced about the first
of March. The ridges occupy the
entire surface ; that is, the foot of
one ridge commencing where the
other ridge ends, and rising about
eight inches above the natural level
of the land, thus presenting a sur-
face almost as smooth, and almost as
deeply worked as a garden-bed. This
ridging is carried on but a few days
ahead of the planting. The ridge, if
the operation has been carefully done,
is fiom two to two and a half feet
broad at top ; it is then trenched on
the upper surface with the hoe, six
inches wide, and from three to six
inches deep, depending upon the pe-
riod of planting.

"Planting. — In the beginning, if
the seed is covered more than two
inches, the soil will not feel the in-
fluence of the sun, and the seed will
not vegetate later; that is, in April,

COTTON.

up 10 the first of May, you must give I
from three to four inches of covering
to preserve the moisture, or there,
too, you fail from an opposite cause,
the wind and burnin5 influence of
the sun drying' the soil too much for
vegetation. In most countries, after
sowing the seed the roller is applied ;
but in cotton planting, in our ridge
liusbandry, the foot, in covering the
seed and pressing down the earth,
well supplies its place.

" Quantity of Seed per Acre. — A
bushel of seed is generally sown to the
acre ; I believe half a bushel is bet-
ter ; for where the evil comes, wheth-
er the worm, or wind, or drought, or
wet, there is no security in the many ;
but, on the contrary, where they
come up thin, they soon grow out of
the way of injury from any enemy.

"After Culture. — The cultivation
of Sea-Island cotton is carried on by
the hand hoe, and the quantity al-
ways limited to four acres to the la-
bourer. The operation of weeding
commences as soon as we finish
planting, because, in our flat and
sandy soils, the grass seed springs
with the first growth of the cotton,
and by the time we finish planting,
say the first of May, what we plant-
ed in March requires the hoe. The
land is kept in the operation of hoe-
ing and weeding, as far as may be,
at its original level, the beds neither
increased nor diminished, that rains,
which generally fall with beating
power and in redundant quantity in
the month of August, may as little
as possible injure the growing plants,
which are then in full bearing. The
young cotton is thinned out slowly
at from six to twelve inches apart on
the ridge by the 10th of .June. As
soon as the rains commence, which
is about the last of July, it is wise to
leave nature to lierseif and no longer
disturb the soil ; four lioeings, if well
done, and the grass well picked at
each hoeing, is enough, nor does any
after-growth of grass do injury.

" .\Ianuies and Soiling Stock. — For
ten years past great efforts have been
made by the Sea-I.<land planters in
manuring. Much of the alluvion of

our salt ri%'ers has been collected,
and sometimes placed directly in
heaps through the fields at rest, at
other times placed in cattle pens, on
which cotton seed and all waste ma-
terials are strewn, and the cattle
pounded upon it. But what is pre-
ferred is to pen our cattle near the
river at night, and cut salt grass,
which covers these alluvion lands,
and which is as nutritious as so much
clover. Many planters now employ
labimrers to cut the grass for horses
and cattle from the first of May till
the last of November ; the task re-
quired is generally a cord of grass to
the hand, and this quantity will an-
swer tor ten horses, or fifteen head
of cattle, for the night. Benefit has
resulted from this course in the ratio
of the extent to which it has been
persevered in. The last year, Mr.
Ruffin discovered that all South Car-
olina was underlayed by shell marl,
at various depths : from my own ob-
servation, and inquiries from others,
I find the same thing exists in Geor-
gia. Great benefits will result from
this, I have no doubt, hereafter, de-
pending much upon the discretion
that is used in the quantity applied,
which had better be too little, I think,
than too much.

" Amount of Crop per Acre, and
Picking. — It has been stated already
that five liundred pounds to the acre
are about the medium crop, which, at
twenty cents per pound (more than
the actual price for the last three
years), is to the planter 8100 for gross
crop ; and from this hundred dollars
is to be subtracted bagging, freight,
expenses of sale, clothing for his peo-
ple, medical attention, and too ol'ten
provisions. Is this man to be envied !

'•In picking the Sea-Island cotton

from the field, the same disproportion

exist.-i with his interior brethren as

in the other operations on the crop.

From the exposure to sea-wind, and

I the necessity of guarding against ev-

: ery possible injury to the staple, the

; fields have to be picked over every

two weeks, commencing in August

' and ending in December ; so that

i few planters receive from their peo-

203

COTTON.

pie more than twenty-five pounds of
cotton per day during the picking
season.

" Preparation for ihe Market. — The
Sea-Island cotton is now almost ex-
clusively separated from its seed by
the foot-gin: two wooden rollers,
placed the one over the other in a
frame. The rollers are one inch in
diameter, about a foot long, and are
inserted in an iron journal supported
by the frame ; upon this journal a
fly-wheel thirty inches in diameter is
placed ; the journal, after passing
through the fly-wheel, has a crank,
to which the treadle worked by the
foot is attached : the fly-wheel is to
give a circular motion by the tread
of the foot. This gin generally sep-
arates twenty-five pounds of cotton
per day to one hand. The whole la-
bour of preparing a bag of three hun-
dred pounds of cotton, in sorting the
cotton for the gin, in ginning, and in
moting after the gin, in again exam-
ining it, and in packing, my friend
Mr. Seabrook, of South Carolina, puts
down at fifty-four days' work. I
have estimated it at sixty. Thus a
bale of cotton worth §60 has cost,
after the cotton has been gathered
into the house, sixty days' labour.

" Locality of Sea-Island Cotton, Ori-
ginal Growth of the hands, and Abori-
gines.— The Sea-Island cotton of the
best quality is grown upon islands
bounded by the sea on one side, and
to the west by salt rivers and salt
marsh. These islands extend from
Charleston, in South Carolina, to the
River St. John's, in Florida, including
the whole coast of Georgia. This
space may be considered two hun-
dred and fifty miles, between wliich
points there is a safe navigation for
open boats, and for dragging vessels
of one hundred tons' capacity. These
islands were originally almost exclu-
sively covered with live oak, and from
them the navy of the United States
has been entirely built. These live
oak groves once swarmed w ith Indian
tribes, who communed with Sir Wal-
ter Raleigh and General Oglethorpe
with confidence and friendship. Ev-
erywhere you find barrens scattered
204

through the cotton fields, constructed
exclusively of oyster sliells. Indian
bones and Indian pottery, and other
remains, tell distinctly here, in ages
passed, that the red man lived and
died.

" Healthiness of Climate. — Volney,
in his American tour, says that 'the
climate of this coast is the best in
the United States, from Rhode Isl-
and south,' and this my own expe-
rience confirms ; carrying more men
into old age than any other I know
of Here, too, has been little change
of inhabitants for one hundred years
past, the son clinging to the home of
his childhood and to the grave of his
father."

The Gin and Wkippcr are concisely
described by Mr. Spalding.

'• The whipper, which is a very ne-
cessary instrument in the well pre-
paring of cotton, is made of wood, is
a long barrel composed of slats or
reeds (or it would be better made of
wire) six or eight feet in length, and
two feet in diameter, with one end
closed and the other open, and is sup-
ported at the two ends by feet of dif-
ferent lengths, so that the barrel, in
its horizontal position, declines al)out
one foot at the lower end ; a hopper
containing about a bushel rests upon
the upper side of the barrel, at the
upper enclosed end of it. This hop-
per lets the cotton that is to be clean-
ed fall into the barrel, through v.-hich
runs in its whole length a shaft,
which is turned by the hand by a
crank attached to the shaft at one
end. This shaft is intersected by
rods which reach to within an inch
of the barrel. The cotton, as it falls
from the hopper, is whirled round by
these rods until it escapes at the low-
er end of the barrel, by which time
any sand, or dirt, or leaves, or other
matter attached to the cotton has es-
caped through the spaces intention-
ally left between the slats or reeds,
which constitute the external rim of
this barrel or whipper. This whip-
ping was formerly performed as well
upon the cotton in the seed as after
it was separated from the seed ; but
the second operation of the whipper

COTTON.

has lately been discontinued under a
belief that it produced a stringy ap-
pearance in the cotton wool.

" The whipping of cotton at its first
gathering, and while attached to the
seed, is really beneficial, and should
never be omitted. When these op-
erations are completed, the harvest
may be considered as closed, and the
preparation of the cotton for market
really begins. Many machines have
been designed, and many forms of
the same machine adopted, for sep-
arating the seed from the Sea-Island
cotton, but all of them at last resolve
themselves into two wooden rollers
turning by opposite movements upon
each other. The rollers are from
half an inch to an inch in diameter,
and revolve from 100 to 500 times
in a minute ; the whole resolving
itself mto this simple rule, that the
smaller the rollers, and the slower
they revolve, the cleaner will be the
cotton separated from the seed, be-
cause, if the rollers are an inch in di-
ameter, and, above all, if they revolve
with a high velocity, they will take
in soft seeds, small seeds, and false
seeds, or motes, as they are called,
and in crushing them in their passage
through the rollers will stain and in-
jure the cotton in its appearance.

" Much money has been spent upon
costly machines propelled by horses,
by water, or by wind, first in the Ba-
hama Islands, and for many years in
Georgia and Carolina, but, at last,
most of the growers of Sea-Island
cotton have returned to their first
and most simple machine, to wit, two
wooden rollers, kept together by a
wooden frame and a square shaft,
upon which is fixed a wooden or iron
fly-wheel from two to three feet in
diameter. The iron cranks which
turn the rollers are connected by
strips of wood, with a treadle work-
ed by the foot ; this treadle runs un-
der the machine, and is connected at
the farther end of the floor of the
house by sockets, within which it re-
volves ; the man stands, therefore,
in the front of the rollers, with a
board between him and the roUers,
upon which he holds a large handful

of seed of cotton, which he presents
from time to time to the rollers that
are kept in motion by the pressure of
the foot upon the treadle ; this la-
bour, from habit, becomes easy, as
the feet are often changed in the op-
eration. The task expected from
the labourer with the machine (which
costs, when new and complete, ten
American dollars) is from twenty-five
to thirty pounds per day. Women,
from their careful attention in keep-
ing the rollers, while ihey revolve
upon each other, well supplied with
seed cotton, were unquestionably the
best ginners, as they are called from
the term gin applied to the machine ;
but in process of time it began to be
believed that the continued motion of
the feet produced a relaxed system
in women, which was likely to lead,
in the end, to abortion or miscar-
riage : men have, consequently, been
substituted for this work, one which,
being within doors, and exercising
both hands and feet without very
much labour, is preferred by them to
any other in the winter. To prepare
I the cotton for this ginning, or separa-
i tion from the seed, when taken from
, the house where it was put from the
, field, it is carefully looked over and
I separated, or sorted, as it is called ;
, the yellow cotton, the motes, any
hard cotton that may have passed
, through the whipper, are separated
from the white ; this is a work of
care and attention, and the future
[ appearance of the cotton much de-
pends upon the manner in which the
, work is done. Women are employ-
ed in this operation seated upon
benches, with tables before them ; the
seed cotton is spread in small par-
; eels, taken out of one basket, exam-
ined, and turned over to another, into
j which the person puts the entire of
i her day's labour. The quantity re-
quired to be thus examined and
cleaned in the day by each one is
from sixty to one hundred pounds,
j according to the care bestowed upon
! the cotton by the grower ; after this
! sorting it is exposed lightly and short-
' ly to the sun, that it may take off
I any dampness the cotton may have
205

COTTON.

acquired in the house ; it is then
passed from this drying immediately
to the gin, or machine that separates
the seed from the wool ; after going
through the gin, and being separated
from the seed, it is again turned over
to the women, who are generally in
a large room, well lighted with glass
windows. They sit with small ta-
bles before them, made either witli
open slats, reeds, or wire, when any
crushed seeds, and cotton burned or
blackened by the former machine, or
motes that have escaped the former
searches, are removed ; and to have
this work well done, thirty pounds is
all that is required per day from each
woman. After this third operation
it is considered ready to be bagged
for market.

" As soon as the attention of the
Southern States was called to the
profitable cultivation of cotton by a
few persons along the shores of Geor-
gia and Carolina, the cultivation be-
gan to be extended into the interior.
The small quantity of cotton that had
been grown for domestic uses was
exchanged for larger quantities, to
be prepared for sale. But the great
difficulty to be overcome in the prog-
ress to extension was to find out any
instrument by wliich the cotton wool
could be separated from the seed.

"By this time various machines
had been introduced for ginning the
Sea-Island cotton, but all of them end-
ed at last in two rollers revolving
upon each other, either longer or
shorter, and moving with, some more,
some less velocity. Those rollers
were but badly adapted to the hairy
cotton, or second variety, which soon
began to obtain the preference, in the
interior of Georgia and South Caro-
lina, over the first or smooth-leaved
variety, and merited to obtain that
preference, as giving, when separa-
ted from its downy seed, a finer and
stronger, although shorter fibre, and
as perfecting its fruit sooner, but
which it was almost impossible to
separate with the rollers, because the
down or fur upon the seed retained
the seed hanging upon the roller, and
denied admission to the rollers of the
20G

fresh cotton in the seed that was of-
fered. Many plans were suggested,
many substitutes for the rollers de-
signed. All succeeded in part, but
still they went on slow. Something
was desired to do much in a short
time ; something that was strong
enough to travel about without being
broken to pieces, and light enough to
move with its moving master. At
last such a thing was found in Miller
and Whitney's gin, probably not the
best machine that could have been
designed, but so operative to its end,
so efficient to its purpose, that it toolc
possession of the whole ground.
From thence forward no other ma-
chine was sought for, and Miller and
Whitney's gin is employed to separ-
ate the cotton seed from Virginia to
Louisiana, save where the roller gin
is used, and its use is now altogether
confined to the Sea -Island cotton,
whose superior value is supposed to
warrant the great increase of labour
necessary in that mode of ginning.
Miller and Whitney's gin was design-
ed by Mr. Whitney, and executed at
the plantation of Mr. Miller, sixteen
miles above Savannah, about the year
1795, and it seems to be derived from
two machines already used upon cot-
ton, a kind of cylindrical whipper, and
the circular cards, before that time
introduced in manufacturing cotton,
a wooden shaft or roller enclosed
within a wooden box. This roller or
shaft has, at every inch of its length,
a steel blade or saw about a foot in
diameter ; above these saws is a box
containing the cotton in the seed.
The box has the bottom of metal slits,
through which the saws pass about
an inch, and pulling off the cotton,
but sometimes cutting the fibres as
it passes. This revolving of the saws
carries the cotton in the box gradual-
ly round, until the seeds contained in
the box are freed of the wool attach-
ed to them, when it is emptied of the
seed and refilled with fresh cotton :
it too often leaves sonne of the fibre
behind it, which diminishes the quan-
tity as well as injures the quality, so
much so that the estimated difference
of the products in these two modes of

COT

COT

ginning are, with rollers, 300 pounds
to the 1000, and 250 pounds to the
1000 with Miller and Whitney's gin.
This gin having, at last, given a cheap
and expeditious mode of taking tlie
wool from the hairy American cotton
(for a gin that costs ten pounds ster-
ling will clean a bale a day with a
single horse acting upon the gin, with
a band wheel which any man can
make lor himself), the cultivation of
this description of cotton diverged in
all directions around Georgia as the
common centre ; it went north into
the two Carolinas ; it went west into
the hill country of all the Southern
States ; it was found capable of ad-
justing itself to the soil and climate
of the mterior country, which the An-
guiUa cotton had not been adapted
to; still the fibre of the hairy or short
staple cotton is better near the sea
than in the interior."

Diseases of the Plant. — AVet soils
are peculiarly injurious, producing
rot and rust.

The rot commences with a black or
brown spot on the bowl, which, in-
creasing, produces a putrefaction of
the whole. It is thougtit to be a fun-
gus, and to prevail in old varieties
during rainy seasons.

Rust is a disease of the leaves and
stalk. Spots or blotches of a brown
colour appear, which cause the parts
to dry up and almost crumble away.
It is produced by the Urcdo gossypit,
according to Dr. Leitner.

The sore shin is a disease of very
young plants in Upper Mississippi, by
•which the stems are very much inju-
red.

The louse, or Aphis, is often very
destructive ; sprinkling with slacked
lime and topping would be serviceable.

The green caterpillar eats into the
bowl, destroying the staple.

The army worm is another very de-
structive insect, of a brown colour
striped with white, and devouring the
leaves.

The cotton crop is rendered by
these causes very uncertain, and pe-
culiarly liable to destruction during
wet weather. The introduction of
liming is perhaps the best prevent-

ive, but the large worms can only be
destroyed by burning up the bowls or
plants infested, so as to iiitidcr the
propagation of the creatures. Not-
withstanding all these enemies, two
million bales were raised in 1S44.

COTTON SEED. The seeds
abound in a mild oil, and are very
nutritious. A bushel weighs thirty
pounds, and }ields two and one third
quarts of oil and twelve and a half
pounds fine meal. They are used as
food. in the Levant and East. The
proportion of oil is great, and readily
obtained by pressure ; the cake can
afterward be used with success in
fattening, and as a manure for new-
crops. To some extent, the whole
seed is used for cows and fattening
in the South, and is said to afford
well-flavoured milk.

COTTON, SPECIAL MANURES.
The application of calcareous marls
in South Carolina has revived worn
lands ; salt, also, in moderate quanti-
ties, improves the culture, but bone
earth will be the most serviceable.
Rich lands, or those well manured,
yield the heaviest supplies. By Dr.
"Shephard's analysis cotton wool con-
tains one percent., and the seed 3 85
per cent, of ashes thus constituted •

Wool. Seed.

Lime and Magnesia
Potash and (Soda?)
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid

30-31 — 2y-79

3109 — 19 40

12-30 — 45 35

1-22 — 116

64-92 93-TO

COTTON DYEING. Cotton and
linen have nearly the same affinity
for dyes, and will be introduced to-
gether here. Having been bleached,
the first step is to prepare them to
receive a good stain. Few colours
unite at once to form a permanent
dye, and madder fret with oil is the

'■ most permanent. There are five

' methods by which cloths are prepa-

1 red to retain colours.

1st. Galling. — Gall nuts or sumach,
or a mixture, is prepared for this pur-
pose. Two or three ounces of galls

I to one pound of cotton are coarsely
powdered, put into a copper contaiu-

, ing thirty gallons of water for one
hundred pounds of cotton, and boiled

! until the pieces of gall nut feel pasty.
207

COT

COT

The fire is removed, and the liquor I
passed through a hnir sieve -when
mudpratcly cool. A jiortion of the h-
quor is tlien drawn into a baih, the
yarn or cloth well soal<cd, wrung or
pressed out, and spread to dry. Some
fresh liquor is then added to the bath,
and fresh cotton used.

When sumach is used, double the
weight is added, and the liquor is
merely infused in hot water, and not
boiled. Where a mixture is used,
the galls and sumach are prepared
separately and the liquors mixed.

2d. Aliiming. — This preparation
serves for very many colours. Four
ounces of clean alum are used for
every pound of cotton ; the solution
is made in a copper of thirty gallons,
at 122° Fahrenheit, that amount of
water serving for one hundred pounds
of cotton. The cotton is introduced
into the liquor when at 98° Fahren-
heit, well worked, taken out, and
wrung or pressed, being placed to
dry in the shade. Cotton usually re-
quires a second, and even third im-
mersion before it is fully prepared ;
it should be kept moist for twelve
hours, and dipped only after two or
three days from the preceding pro-
cess. It must be well washed before
colouring to remove any uncombined
alum. This is so common a prepar-
ation that dyers keep the solution in
tuns to be drawn off and warmed
when wanted. The mordant is some-
times prepared for delicate colours by
addingone ounce of carbonate of soda
for every pound of the alum. Ace-
tate of alumma prepared with sugar of
lead, alum, and a little potash, is used
to produce fine madder reds, weld
yellovv's, and other brilliant colours :
it is used cold, and at 4° Baume.

3d. Mordants. — These are solu-
ble mineral bodies which possess a
twofold affinity for the staple and the
colour. Acetate of alumina, and iron,
and solution of tin are the most im-
portant. They are applied to certain
parts of the cloth to produce peculiar
colours, and are also employed in
different degrees of strength in-solu-
tion for the production of light or
deep tints. Thus acetate of iron
208

with madder brings out every shade
from pale violet to black. Hence
mordants are not only added by bath,
but mixed in a paste with starch or
gum to hinder them from spreading
over the surface of the web. In this
way more is used than stains the
cloth, and steps are to be taken after
the preparation is fixed to remove
any part of the mordant that is un-
combined ; this is done by scouring
in a bath containing fresh cow-dung,
which takes off the iron or alumina
without allowing it to mix with oth-
er parts of the web. The process is
called dunging.

4th. D'ye baths are of two kinds. —
Colour baths, which are used to ex-
tract the colour, except in the case
of madder, which is used in powder.
Dye baths are the solutions in wiiich
the web or yarn is pressed to attain
a stain ; thev usually require a heat
of 90= to 100° Fahrenheit, although
some are used cold. See the Col-
ours.

5th. Waslmig after Dyeing. — This
is a delicate operation, as the uni-
formity of tint depends on it. " A
well -planned dye-house should be
an oblong gallery, with a stream of
water flowing in an open conduit in
the middle, a series of dash wheels
arranged against the wall at one side,
and of dyeing coppers, furnished with
self-acting winces or reels, against
the other. Tiie washing may be done
by hand, by the rinsing machine, or
dash wheel, according to the stuff;
and they may be stripped of the wa-
ter either by the jack and pin, by the
squeezing roller, or by the press.
^^'ooden pins are placed in some dye-
houses on each side the wash cistern
or pool. They are somewhat coni-
cal, one foot and a half high, three
inches and a half in diameter at the
base, one inch and a half at the top,
and fixed firmly upright, and at a lev-
el of about three feet above the bot-
tom of the cistern, so as to be handy."
— {Ure's Encyclopedia.)

COTTON "GRASS. Several spe-
cies of Eriophoriim have a small cot-
tony tuft from their summits. They
are of trifling importance.

cow

COTTON, WILD. The silk weed |
{Asdcpias Syriaca). '

COTTO>^" WOOD. The Populus
CdJiadeyisis. See Poplar.

COTYLEDON. Tlie seed lobes.
Jussieu's followers divide the vegeta-
ble kingdom according to the number
of parts or cotyledons in any seed.
Thus dicotyledons, or plants with two
seed lobes, are the ordinary inhabi-
tants of the temperate zone. Mono-
cotyledons are the palms, grasses, &c.,
which are most luxuriant in tropical
regions, and possess but one seed
lobe. Acotylcdons are the same with
cryptogamic plants, and contain no
apparent cotvledons.

COUCH GRASS. Several varie-
ties of repent grasses, with perennial
stems, are so called, as Trttkum rc-
pens, Agrostis rcpens, &c. There is
but one way to destroy them : hoed
crops, thorough ploughing, with a har-
row to collect the fragments, and
heavy liming or salting.

COUGH. Horses and cattle troub-
led with cough should be sheltered,
bran and linseed oil administered, or
the bowels moved : bleeding is occa-
sionallv necessary.

COULTER. The knife of a plough.
It is also a corruption of cultivator,
and used to designate a one-pronged
cultivator used in the South.

COUNTER. The breast of a
horse.

COUPLES. Ewes and lambs are
counted bv couples.

COUPLINGS. Thongs of leather
to fasten two bodies together.

COURT PLASTER. Silk, usual-
ly of a black colour, rendered adhe-
sive by the following mixture : one
ounce of isinglass dissolved in the
smallest quantity of water, and half
an ounce of benzoin dissolved in al-
cohol. This is brushed over ten or
twelve times until a sufficient coat is
left.

COVER. Any sheltered place in
■which game can lie hid.

COVEY. A gang of partridges or
other game.

COW. "Oneof the most useful of
the domestic animals : her milk is
peculiarly adapted to nourish infants
S2

COW

and invalids, and requires no prepar-
ation to make it palatable or whole-
some. In the article Cattle we have
given an enumeration of the various
breeds of cows, and under Butler and
Cheese an account of their principal
produce. We shall here confine our-
selves to the proper management of
a cow, so as to make her most pro-
ductive, and to the most common dis-
eases to which this animal is subject.
" Where only one or two cows are
kept, especially where they are to be
maintained on a limited portion of
[ pasture, it is of great importance that
I a good choice be made when they are
purchased or reared. Some breeds,
I no doubt, are much superior to oth-
! ers ; but, as a general rule, there is a
i better chance of having a profitable
cow, if she be reared on the land on
which she is to be kept. When the
common breed of the country is de-
cidedly inferior, it may be profitable
to bring a cow from a distance, in
; which case it should be from some
district of which the pasture is rath-
er inferior to that to which she is
i brought, or, at least, not better. The
best breeds are found in the richest
pastures, but they do not thrive on
' worse. On poor land a small active
^ cow will pick her food and keep in
] condition, where a fine large cow-
would starve, or, at least, fall off rap-
idly. This is particularly the case in
the mountains, near the tops of which
no domestic animal will live but the
goat, and next to it the smallest breed
of cows. Where the pastures are poor
but extensive, cows give little milk,
and the number which can be kept
must make up for the produce of
each. Where, on the other hand,
cows are stalled, and fed on artificial
food brought to them in sufficient
quantity, large bulky cows give the
best return for the food ; at least, this
seems to be the opinion of the Flem-
ish farmers in general. Where cows
pick up the herbage growing by the
road-side, in forests, or are teth-
ered on a small portion of clover or
lucern, a small lean cow is preferred ;
and in general the cows commonly
met with, and which are bred in each
208

COV.'

district, seem the best adapted for
the mode in wliicli they are fed.
Whatever be Die breed or quality of
a cow, she should always have plen-
ty of food, without which no consid-
erable produce in milk can be expect-
ed. This food should be succulent
as well as nourishing, or else fat will
be produced instead of rnilk. A cow
well fed may be safely milked till
within a month of her calving. It is
better that she should be dry before
the new milk begins to spring in her
udder. A little attention will readi-
ly prevent her becoming dry too soon,
or being milked too long. Heifers
with their first calf should be allow-
ed to go dry sooner than older cows,
because their growth would be impe-
ded by the double drain of the milk
and the calf It is best to let a heif-
er go to the bull when nature prompts
her to it, provided she be not less
than fifteen or eighteen months old ;
for if they are thwarted in their first
heat, they are apt to become irregu-
lar ever after ; and it is advanta-
geous for a cow to calve regularly at
the same season of the year. The
best time is May, when the grass be-
gins to be succulent. In populous
places, where veal is considered a lux-
ury, the calves are kept and fattened
by letting them suck the cows, or by
giving them warm milk to drink.
Near large towns this is a profitable
mode of employing the milk, when it
cannot be sold for immediate con-
sumption.

" Her food must be raised in regu-
lar succession, and cut for her. The
earliest green food is rye, then clo-
ver, which may be made so to suc-
ceed each other as to give an ample
supply. Cabbages, beet root, pars-
nips, potatoes, and turnips will con-
tinue the supply during winter, and
the dung and urine of the cow, care-
fully collected, will be sufficient to
keep the land in condition.

" Where cows are allowed to be in
the open air, with proper shelter in
case of stormy and wet weather,
they are subject to few diseases.
They must be carefully looked to at
the time of calving, but except in ur-
210

COW

gent cases nature must be allowed
to perform her own office. A little
common sense and experience will
soon teach the possessor of a cow to
assist nature, if absolutely necessa-
ry ; and in case of difficulties the
safest way is to call in an experien-
ced person. Drinks and medicine
should be avoided ; a little warm wa-
ter, with some barley or bean meal
mixed with it, is the most comforta-
ble drink for a cow after calving.
The calf, and not the cow, should
have the first milk, which nature has
intended to purge its intestines of a
glutinous substance which is always
foimd in the new-born calf A very
common disease with cows is a dis-
ordered function of the liver, pro-
ducing a yellowish tint in the eyes,
and sometimes in the skin. A gen-
tle purge, consisting of half a pound
of Glauber salts, an ounce of ginger,
and two ounces of treacle, with two
quarts of boiling water poured over
them, may be given when it is milk-
warm, and repeated every other day ;
keeping the cow warm, if it be in
winter, by a cloth over the loins, and
in a shed. This will in general re-
store her health. The symptoms of
a diseased liver or lungs in a cow are
leanness, with a staring coat, a husky
cough with loss of appetite, a difficul-
ty of breathing, and a great diminu-
tion in the secretion of the milk. In
accidents or acute diseases the at-
tendance of the clever veterinary
practitioner is indispensable.

"Attention to food and exercise,
giving the first regularly and in mod-
erate quantities at a time, and allow-
ing the cow to use her own judgment
as to the latter, are the great secrets
of health ; and a healthy young cow
reared at home, or purchased of a
conscientious dealer, will probably
live to old age without ever having
had any disease. A cow is old and
unprofitable when she reaches twelve
or fourteen years."

COWAGE. The Dolichos pruricns,
the pods of which are set with small
bristles, which produce great irrita-
tion on the skin. It is an exploded
remedy for worms, and exotic.

CRA

COW-BANE. See Hemlock.

COWHERD. One who tends
cows.

COWISH, or BISCUIT ROOT. A
kind of potato found on the Colum-
bia River.

COW PEA. The Southern bean.

COWPOX. In farriery, a dis-
ease affecting the teats of cows.
This disease appears in the form of
small bluish vesicles surrounded by
inflammation, elevated at the edge
and depressed in the centre, and con-
taining a limpid fluid. By the use of
the virus of this disease has origina-
ted the present excellent system of
vaccination.

C O W-TIE . A provincial term ap-
plied to a short, thick hair rope, with
a wooden nut at one end and an eye
in the other, being used for tying the
hind legs of the cows while milking.

COW WHEAT. A very inferior
herbage plant of Flanders (Melamp]/-
rum pratense), with light yellow flow-
ers (see figure).

CRAB. The European crab-apple
is the Fyrus mains ; it is larger and
tarter than ours, which is the P. co-
ronana, an ornamental tree of fifteen
or eighteen feet. The American crab
furnishes good stocks for dwarfs, and
the fruit makes cider. It would also
furnish new varieties if cultivated.

CRACKS LN THE HEELS OF
HORSES. See Horse.

CRADLE. A frame consisting of
five or more long strips of wood, prop-

erly curved and bound together, to be
affixed to a scytlie for cutting wheat,
&c. The labourer cuts with a cradle
five or six times more than with a
sicklo

CRANBERRY. The Oxycoccus
macrocarpus, a bog plant in the North
and West, yielding a large, acid, red
berry, containing malate of lime. In
preserves and tarts it is highly es-
teemed, and there is an immense de-
mand for shipping and exportation.
Tliey are readily cultivated by trans-
planting, in spring, the cranberry sods,
or selecting plants and transferring
them to a hghtsoil, rather moist. The
runners can be layered, or seed sown
in spring. They grow rapidly, cover-
ing nearly everything, and are but lit-
tle subject to the attacks of insects.
The plants are set about 18 inches
apart, in rows, and kept clean at first.

The yield increases for several
years, and becomes as great as 400
bushels the acre in five years, al-
though 200 are a good average. The
fruit is gathered by rakes, which serve
to prune the plants at the same time.
When the berries are intended for
keeping, they should be rolled over a
gently inclined plane of wood, to re-
move such as are soft or rotten.
They keep well for a year in tight
casks, filled with water and headed
close. A barrel of four bushels in
England sells readily for $20. The
fresh fruit commands $1 50 the bush-
el in New-York.

Several varieties of tall cranberry
are found in the United States ; as
the Viburnum oxycoccus, and the Pa.m-
bina of Oregon ; but they are not cul-
tivated, the first being unfit for the
table.

The English Oxycoccus palustris is
said by Nicol to be superior to the
American ; it is readily cultivated on
the margins of ponds, and might be in-
troduced into the United States.

CRANK. " A mechanical contri-
vance for changing a revolving into
an alternate motion. An iron axis is
bent in some part of its length out of
its rectilinear direction. As the axis
turns, the bent part describes the cir-
cumference of a circle, and gives a
211

' CRE

reciprocating motion to a piston or
rod attached to it."

CRASSA.MENTUM. The clot of
blood ; fibrin, with red globules.

CREAM. The oleaginous part of
milk, mixed with some casein.

CREASOTE (from Kpsar, flesh, au-
fw, / save). A colourless, spiritu-
ous, and oily liquid obtained from
wood tar. It is singularly antiseptic,
imparting that property to smoke,
wood tar, &:c. It is of great price,
and used chieflvto subdue toothache.

CREMOC ARPIUM. A two to five
celled inferior fruit, cells one-seeded,
indehiscent, dry. When dry, separa-
ting from a common axis, as in the
Umbel! ifcr<x. '

CRENATE. The edges of leaves,
which are divided into curved notch-
es, are called crenate.

CREPITUS. A crackling noise
produced by pressing cellular tissue
containing air.

CRESS. Lepidium sativum. A
small salad herb similar to mustard.
It is sown thickly in drills and cut in
the first leaf For a supply, sow
every week in good, clean ground.

CRESS, INDIAN. Tropccolum ma-
jus ; Common nasturtium. A brill-
iant yellow-flowered climbing plant,
the fruit of which resembles capers.
Sow in April, in good, strong soil and
open situation ; put out in rows, al-
lowing three inches between each :
set sticks for them to climb. They
flower in June and July. The fruit,
which is admirable for pickling, is ta-
ken when full sized, but green, about
August. They are put in vinegar or
a suitable pickle as soon as gathered.
They require little attention when
once fairly started.

CRESS, WATER. Nasturtium of-
ficinale. A creeping, amphibious per-
ennial, indigenous in England. It is
of an agreeable flavour, and relish-
ed for breakfast. It is cultivated on
clear streams one or two inches deep,
with a sandy or gravelly bed. The
plants are set along the stream in
rows about 18 inches apart. They
grow readily, and bear cutting very
often. If planted near a spring head,
they live through winter and remain
213

CRO

for many years, affording a greai
quantitv of salad.

CRETACEOi:S {froxacreta, chalk).
Of the nature of chalk.

CRIB. A feeding-stall, or store-
house for corn.

CRIB BITING. A habit in horses
proceeding from derangement of the
stomach usually. Straps are used
to hinder it, but if the top of the man-
ger be furnished with a roller turn-
ing on its axis, they will not be able
to bite much of it away.

CRICK. A common term signify-
ing inability to move the muscles of
the part, as the neck.

CRICKET. A family of insects
resembling grasshoppers, but with
less perfect wings. The Gryllotalpa
brevipennis burrows like a mole, and,
with other kinds, lives on the tender
roots of grasses, &c. They do injury
to melons, pumpkins, &c., and some-
times accumulate in old meadows so
as to require extermination. Several
Acheta, as the A. nigra and ahhrcvia-
ta, are abundant, dwelling among
grass. They are only to be destroyed
by liming, fallows, and hoed crops.

CRINOIDEANS. A nearly extinct
race of crustaceous sea animals re-
sembling a lily. The fossils abound in
some limestones, as thatof Lockport.

CRISTATE (from Kspa^, a horn).
Having the appearance of a horn, or
crest.

CROP OUT. In geology, the ex-
posure of rocks above the suiface.

CROPPING. Gathering a crop.
Cutting the ears of anixirals, as dogs.

CROP, ROTATION OF. See Ro-
tation.

CROPS. The produce of the field.

CROSS BREED. The young of
animals of different breeds. Some-
times called a cross.

CROSS FURROW. A water-fur-
row running across the ridges or
lands. It is often deepened with a
spade, and opened with a double-
mould-board plough.

CROTALUS. A genus of snakes,
including the C. horridus, or rattle-
snake. They are all furnished with
1 a rattle, and their wounds are ex-
1 tremely dangerous. An instant ex-

CRO

CRU

cision of the part is the most certain
remedy. Spirits of hartshorn and
wine are necessary to save the pa- 1
tient from sinking.

CROTON OIL. An extremely ac-
tive purge, obtained from the seeds of ,
the Crolon tiglium, an Eastern shnil). j

CROUP. An acute inflanmiation \
of the throat and windpipe, attended
with a shrill wheezing and suffoca-
tion, occurring in children. It runs
its course rapidly, and must be treat-
ed with decision. Bleeding, leeches,
external irritations, and large doses
of calomel are most successful. Hogs
are subject to this disease, and are I
to be treated similarly, blood being \
drawn freely from the neck, by cut- [
ting to the jugular vein. j

CROW. Con-US corone. Too well ,
known to require description. The
crow is a remarkably intelligent and
suspicious bird, but easily domestica-
ted, and may be rendered useful on
the farm. He destroys insects, mice,
rats, and small vermin, but, unfor-
tunately, also delights in chickens,
eggs, and corn. His suspicious na-
ture renders it an easy matter to keep
him from fields by scarecrows and
moveable objects. Corn steeped in
stupifying drugs, as hellebore, or in
tar and nitre, either destroy him or
are rejected. Martins are well known
to annoy the crow. Buffon prescribes
two curious methods of destroying
them : 1st. By wrapping a piece of
paper in the form of a long cone,
smearing the interior with birdlime,
and placing a piece of meat in the
bottom : the crow, reaching after it,
fits the cone to his head, and become*,
blinded ; in this dilemma he flies '
straight upward into the air, until,
becoming fatigued, he alights nearly
at the spot whence he had flown,
and may be shot. The second meth-
od is that of pinning a live crow to
the ground by the wings, stretched
out on his back, and retained in this
posture by two sharp, forked sticks.
In this situation, his loud cries at-
tract other crows, who come sweep-
ing down to the prostrate prisoner,
and are grappled in his claws. In
this way each successive prisoner

may be made the innocent means of
capturing his companions.

CROWSFOOT. Several species
of ranunculas, which are acrid and
poisonous.

CROWS' NET. A net made of fine
packthread, used chiefly for catching
wild fowl, but which may be employ-
ed on newly-sown fields to entrap
crows, pigeons, and other birds that
destroy grain, or in stubble, where
this is sufficiently long to conceal
the network.

CROWN OF A LAND. The cen-
tral part of the ridge.

CRUCIBLE. A chemical vessel
used to expose bodies to a strong
heat. For coarse purposes, the Hes-
sian crucible, made of sand and clay,
is used. Porcelain crucibles are ne-
cessary for finer work, and where
the platinum will not answer, but are
destroyed by fixed alkalies. The
platinum crucible is the finest, from
the ease with which it may be clean-
ed and managed, but is unfit for the
treatment of lead, arsenic, mercury,
and a few other metals which alloy
with platinum. A black-lead crucible
is used for coarse work, and resists
a stronger heat than the Hessian.

In delicate operations the platinum
crucible is placed within another of
coarse porcelain, or in a muffle.

CRUCIFORM, or CRUCIFER-
OUS PLANTS. Cruciferce (from
crux, a cross). Plants which have a
flower consisting of four petals, ar-
ranged as a Maltese cross, as the
cabbage, cress, turnip, mustard, rad-
ish, &.C. They require rich land, are
wholesome, abound in pungent oil,
and when grown for seed are ex-
tremely exhausting. They are es-
sentially sulphur and potash, or soda
plants.

CRUOR. The clot of blood.

CRUPPER. The horse's rump;
the leather harness which passes un-
der the tail.

CRURAL (from cms, the thigh).
Belonging to the thigh or leg.

CRUSHERS FOR GRAIN, &c.
Mortars, mills on the same princi-
ple as the coffee mill, bark mills, and
grooved rollers running into one an-
813

cue

cue

other (Fig.), are variously used to
crush corn, corn cobs, and roots.

CRUSTACEANS (from cnista, a
hard covering). A tribe of animals
like crabs, lobsters, &c., with a crust,
and destitute of vertebrae. The crust
contains fourteen per cent, of phos-
phate of lime; the rest, carbonate of
lime and animal matter.

CRYPTOGAMIA (from kpvktoc,
concealed, and yafio^, marriage). An
immense tribe of plants, which have
no flowers or apparent sexual organs,
but produce sporules or minute seeds
in cases on their sides, backs, or on
stalks. Ferns, mosses, fungi, sea-
weeds, lichens, and the minute para-
sites which infest plants and dead
wood, as rust, mildew, rubigo, &c.,
are of this tribe.

CRYSTAL (from KpvaTa2.?iog, ice).
Any transparent solid with a natural
and regular geometrical figure.

CRYSTALLINE LENS. The
lens of the eye, which refracts light,
so as to produce clear vision. It is
situated internally, behind the aque-
ous humour.

CUCUMBER. Cucumis sativus.
A pleasant but indigestible edible.
The varieties are numerous, but the
early frame, early green cluster, long
prickly, and long green are most cul-
tivated. The West Indian gherkin
is another species.
214

As the cucumber grows so freely
in the United States, the process of
forcing is much more attended to for
early supplies than m Europe.

Forcing. — Begin ten weeks before
the fruit is wanted. The short prick-
ly, long green, and white-spined are
preferred. Seed should be two or
three years old. Sow in pots placed
over a warm bed. Water with tepid
water, and take care that chilled air
does not enter the frame. When the
second leaves are expanded, trans-
plant into larger pots ; place three
together. Carry, when one month
old, to the fruiting-bed. The fruiting-
bed is made on a dry spot, with fresh
dung, well turned and forked, and
four feet high. As soon as the bed
is settled, and in regular fermenta-
tion, add six inches of fine mould,
and if it remains mellow it will an-
swer, but if fire-fanged or caked,
more will be necessary. Hill the
mould to within eight inches of the
glass frame, and set three plants from
the pots in it, transplanting with the
ball of earth : these are enough for
one frame. Water with warmed wa-
ter, and darken until they are well
rooted. The temperature is kept
from 70° to 80° Fahrenheit, the steam
being allowed to escape when it rises.
As the heat lessens, add fresh dung
outside, cutting away the old. Form

cue

CUL

a bank two feet wide and a foot high
against the back of the frame. Give
the plants air whenever an opportu-
nity offers. Water in the morning.
Sometimes water in which guano or
bird dung has been steeped is used.
As the roots enlarge, add fresh, good
mould.

Stop the growth of the stems by
pinching off the buds at two joints,
and in this way keep stopping the
lateral shoots : this strengthens the
plant and causes it to perfect fruit
early. ]Mind that some female flow-
ers are left, or such as have solid
swellings under the blossom, for these
only bear fruit. Abercrombie thinks
it advisable to pluck the male blos-
som and shake it over the female, for
the purpose of securing a fall of pol-
len or farina. The fruit is fit to cut
16 to 20 days after settmg, and by
care may be obtained in succession
for two months.

Common Cultivation. — Sow in May
in slight hollows, four feet apart ;
manure the seed beds well with rot-
ten dung ; eight or nine seed to the
hill. Leave three plants in the hill ;
hoe and earth up ; cut away weeds ;
a little water in dry weather does
good. The soil should be light and
mellow. Pickling cucumbers may be
planted in July. Select the finest for
seed. The fruit is sometimes made
to grow in cylindrical moulds of pot-
tery.

Insects injurious to the Cucumber,
Melon, 4-c. — The striped bug. Gale-
ruca vilata. It eats the young foliage
and flowers ; it is yellow, striped with
black.

The Flea Beetle. Haltica pubesccns.
A small, black, active coleopterous in-
sect, which destroys the small plants.

The Squash Bug. Coreus Iristis. A
large angular hemipterous insect with
brown upper wings and orange belly,
collecting in groups under the fruit,
and destroying the leaves and fruit
of all tlie cultivated cucurbitacecB.

The black Worm. The larva of a
coccinella ; it cuts down the young
plants, and can only be caught m the
morning, as it retires into the earth
during the heat of the day.

Several species of aphis annoy the
plants. The large insects must be
caught in nets or with the hand ; soot,
tobacco water, solution of whale oil
soap ; infusion of wormwood. May-
weed, pennyroyal ; and slacked lime,
are all used with advantage. Placing
hens or turkeys with young broods in
a coop, and allowing the chickens to
run among the vines, is an admirable
expedient. All the foregoing insects
infest melons, cucumbers, and squash-
es also.

CUCUMBER-TREE. Some mag-
nolias are so called.

CUCUMIS. The generic name of
the cucumber, melon, &c.
I CUCURBITACE-E. A family of
plants, mostly vines, monoecious, with
mferior fruit, inhabiting warm coun-
tries. The melon, pumpkin, cucum-
ber, gourd, squash, colocynth, and bry-
ony are common examples.
I CUD. In cattle, the food in the
' first stomach, which is to be chewed
over again and passed into the third
to be digested.

CULEX. A genus of insects in-
cluding the gnat (C pipiens) and sim-
ilar creatures : it is the type of the
Culicidce, which contains moschetoes,
&c.

CULINARY VEGETABLES.
Plants cultivated in gardens, and
sometimes in fields, for culmary pur-
poses. They may be classed as leaf
plants, such as the cabbage tribe, spi-
naceous plants, salads, pot and sweet
herbs ; stalk plants, such as aspara-
gus, tart rhubarb, sea kale, &:c. ;
roots, such as the turnip, carrot, po-
tato, 6iC. ; seeds, such as the pea and
bean ; fruit, such as the cucumber,
pumpkins, squashes, &c. ; and the
entire plants, such as the onion, leek,
mushroom, &c. They may be other-
wise arranged, as the cabbage fami-
ly ; the leguminous family ; esculent
roots ; spinaceous plants ; alliaceous
plants ; asparaginous plants ; aceta-
rious plants ; pot herbs, sweet herbs,
plants used in tarts and confection-
erv, and edible fungi.

GULLET. Pounded glass. It is
: used in glass-making, for scouring pa-
[ per, and as a manure. It consists of
215

CUL

silicate of soda and lead, and is prob-
ably over-estimated as a manure.

CULM. Stems wliich, like the
straw of grain, sustain the flowers at
a distance from the leaves. It is also
used as a synonyrae for anthracite in
England.

CULMIFEROUS PLANTS. The
cerealia and grasses.

CULTIVATOR. The same as a
horse hoe. Cultivators consist of
one hoe or tine, or many. They are
used to loosen the soil in drill hus-
bandry, and pass where the plough
would be too cumbrous. They also
destroy weeds by scraping them from
the surface and cutting their roots.
The tines are of every form, either
curved forward like a claw, made

Fig. 1.

CUL

like a double mould-board in minia-
ture, long and sharp, or like sharp
hoes, according to the objects of the
farmer. The frame on which they
are fastened is like a triangular har-
row, and capable of being widened
at pleasure. The several kinds of
tines should be purchased with the
frame, so as to be inserted into the
mortices when wanted.

BcnienCs and Van Bergen's culti-
vators are well known in the Nor-
thern States. In Virginia, a strong
one-tine, or coulter, is used to prepare
new land. The following figures rep-
resent simple hoes and the most im-
proved ; they are all without patent,
being English or Scotch implements.

In Fig. 1 the hoe is intended for

cutting and scraping in a narrow! nips: the wheel regulates the deptn
space, as between carrots or pars- j of the hoe. Fig. 2 is used to scrape

a wide surface, and is valuable in
weeding ; the iron blade (b) inclines
downward, so as to cut the soil.
These can be made in any village.

Fig. 3 represents Weir's admirable
cultivator of nine coulters, or hoes ;
it may be used to stir the soil or to
open drills. The beam (a) moves on
the support (c), so as to regulate the
depth of the hoes.

Wilkie's horse hoe and drill har-
row {Fig. 4) is also a favourite im-
plement ; the first three hoes are so
fixed as to open drills, and the tinee
316

behind scrape the soil to a depth reg-
ulated by the grading of the front
wheel.

Finlaysotis cleaning cultivator or
harrow"(F/>. 5) is entirely of iron ; it
has the following advantages :

" 1. From the position in which
the tines are fixed, their points (a, a,
a, a, a) hanging nearly on a parallel
to the surface of the land, it follows
that this implement is drawn with the
least possible waste of power. 3.
From the curved form of the tines,
all stubble, couch, &,c., that the tines

CULTIVATOR.

may encounter in their progress
through the soil is brought to the

surface and rolled up to the face of
the tines, when it loses its hold, and is

thrown off (at h, b, b, b, b), always re-
lieving itself from being choked, how-

ever wet or foul the land. 3. The
mode by which this harrow can be

so easily adjusted to work at any
depth required renders it of great val-
ue; this is done as quick as thought
T

by moving the regulator (c) upward
or downward between the lateral
spring (d, c) ; and by each movement
217

CUL

CUP

npward into the openings (/, g, h, r, k)
the fore tines (/, /, /, /) will be allow-
ed to enter the soil about an inch and
a half deeper by each movement into
the different spaces, until the regu-
lator is thrown up to e, when the
harrow is given its greatest power,
and will then be working at the depth
of eight or nine inches. Also, the
axletree of the hind wheels is moved
between o and p, a space of seven or
eight inches, by a screw through the
axletree, which is turned by a small
handle (q), so that the hind part of
the harrow, by this simple mode, is
also regulated to the depth at which
it is found necessary to work. 4.
When the harrow is drawn to the
head or foot lands, the regulator is
pressed down to d, and the fore wheel
(to) is then allowed to pass under the
fore bar (n), by which the nose of
the harrow is lifted, and the points
of the fore tines (/, I, I, I) will then
be taken two or three inches out of
the soil, which affords the means of
turning the harrow with the greatest
facility. 5. Being made of malleable
iron, its durability may be said to be
endless ; whereas, if made of wood,
the priine cost would be entirely lost
at the end of every five or six years.
Lastly, the mode of working is so
easy, that any boy of ten or twelve
years of age is perfectly qualified to
manage it."

Cultivators are occasionally called
grubbers, scarifiers, harrows, &c., ac-
cording to the figure of the tines.

Several broad share cultivators for
Indian corn, beans, &c., have been
recently brought out by Mr. Langdon,
which clean a large surface, and, at
the same time, pulverize the soil
without penetrating deep enough to
disturb the growing roots. They re-
semble double mould-board ploughs.

CULVERT. " An arched channel
of masonry built beneath the bed of
a canal, for the purpose of conduct-
ing water under the canal. If the
water to be conveyed has nearly the
same level as the canal, the culvert
is built in the form of an inverted si-
phon, and acts on the principle of a
■water pipe. This word also signifies
218

any arched channel for water under
ground."

CUMIN. Cuminum cyminum. A
plant cultivated in Sicily for its bitter
aromatic seeds : used in confections,
and to flavour cheese. It is umbel-
liferous ; requires a dry, rich soil ;
bears the second year, and does not
differ in its management from cori-
ander.

CUNEATE, CUNEIFORM (from
cuneus, a wedge). Used in botany,
to describe any surface which is an-
gular, with the length considerably
exceeding the width.

CUPEL. " A shallow earthen ves-
sel, somewhat of a cup shape, gener-
ally made of bone earth. It is used
in the assays of the precious metals,
which are fused upon a cupel with
lead. Cupellation means the refining
of gold or silver upon a cupel.''''

CUPPING. In this operation a
cup-shaped glass is used, into which
the large flame of a spirit lamp is
momentarily introduced, so as to ex-
pel a great part of its air by dilata-
tion ; it is then instantly applied to
some part of the body, which is for-
ced into it by the external pressure ;
and on removing the glass a circular
red mark is left, from the propulsion
of the blood in the small vessels of
the part : this is called dry cupping.
It is generally followed up by making
a number of incisions in the part by
means of an instrument called a scar-
ificator, from which the blood oozes,
and from which a considerable por-
tion may be drawn by again applying
the cupping glass. Cupping, when
well performed, is not a very painful
or disagreeable operation, and is an
excellent mode of local blood-letting.
When the operator is not dexterous,
it is not only painful, but often dan-
gerous in its consequences. The
bleeding may generally be easily stop-
ped by a piece of lint or soft rag ;
but this should be looked after. —
{Brands' s Encyclopedia.)

CUPULIFERxE {from cupa, a cup).
A natural order of arborescent or
shrubby exogenous plants, inhabiting
all temperate and some hot climates.
They are distinguished by their amen-

CUR

CUT

taceons flowers and peculiarly veined
leaves from all European trees ; and
from other plants by their apetalous
calyx, fruit enclosed in a husk or cup ;
and by their nuts, which contain but
one cell and one or two seeds. This
order comprehends the oak, hazel,
beech, chestnut, and hornbeam, well-
known valuable forest trees.

GURACOA. A liqueur which de-
rives its name from the island of Cu-
racoa : it is prepared in great per-
fection by the Dutch. It derives its
flavour from Seville orange peel, with
a small quantity of cinnamon and
mace.

CURCULIO. A general term in
the United States for the coleopter-
ous insects which devour fruits, or the
larvae of which do so. They are par-
ticularly destructive to plums, apri-
cots, and peaches, as well as nuts.
The introduction of poultry into the
orchard, especially hens in coops with
broods, hogs, paving the ground, sha-
king the trees, and other expedients,
are used. Destroying every fruit
which they cause to fall is useful.
But suitable attention to the trees,
scraping, cleaning with suds, solution
of soft soap and whale oil soap, are
quite effective. See Insects.

CURD. The coagulum of milk.

CURL. A disease of potatoes,
which see.

CURRANT. The white and red
are improved varieties of Ribes ru-
brum, the blacks from R. nigriiin.
The most esteemed kinds are the
Dutch red and white, white crystal,
f Champagne, and black Naples. It is
propagated by slips, layers, suckers,
grafting, and seeds. A warm, loamy,
rich sod is best ; they thrive in free
exposures. They bear on two and
three years' spurs ; in pruning, cut
down new shoots to within three
eyes of the starting place. They
should be kept open, suckers remo-
ved, and not be allowed to branch
too low : four feet apart is a good
distance for bearing shrubs. The
i currant is very healthy, but subject
to many caterpillars, aphides, &c.,
which must be destroyed by slacked
lime, and keeping the branches clean

by a syringe. The fruit makes admi-
rable jellv, wine, and is readily kept.

CURRYING. The preparation of
leather by which it is polished and
rendered soft. See Tanniiiff.

CUSCUTA. The generic name of
the dodders.

CUSPIDATE (from ciispis, apoint).
Pointed, a term used in descriptive
botany.

CUSTARD APPLE. A West In-
dian fruit, the Anona reticulata.

CUT. An incision, best treated
with sticking-plaster only.

CUTANEOUS (from cutis, the
skin). Relating to the skin.

CUTICLE. The external delicate
membrane of the true skin ; the epi-
dermis of plants.

CUT WORM. This name is ap-
plied to any caterpillar dwelling in
the earth, which eats or cuts away
young plants of cabbage, corn, beans,
&c. They are naked, of a greasy
appearance, and ashy green ; are only
seen above ground before sunrise or
in cloudy weather. They abound in
lands which are rich, and have re-
mained in grass or clover for a long
time, and are referred chiefly to the
genus Agrostis, especially A. sujfusa,
latens, teltfera, but are also the worms
of other genera. The moths are
large, and of various shades of pink
and brown : they are formed in July
and August

Means of destroying them. — Soak-
ing seeds does no good in this case.
Working soot, tobacco, ashes, lime,
and other noxious substances into
the soil around the plants answers
on a small scale. Picking them be-
fore sunrise is recommended, but is
very tedious ; young chickens would
assist. Wrapping the leaves of oth-
er plants about young cabbages, &c.,
has also answered. But when the
soil is infested with these creatures,
it is best to add a good salting of 15
or 20 bushels the acre, or 50 bush-
els of fresh lime ; expose it to frost
in the fall, and give the worms no
rest bv frequent stirring of the earth.

CUTTING. When a horse cuts
or wounds one leg with the opposite
foot. The best remedy is to put on
219

CYN

DAI

the cutting foot a shoe of even thick-
ness from heel to toe, not projecting
in the shghtest degree beyond the
crust, and the crust itself to be rasp-
ed a little at the quarters. This shoe
should only have one nail on the in-
side, and that almost close to the toe.
— {Library of Useful Knowledge.)

CYAIsiTE (from Kvavor, blue). A
massive and crystallized mineral. It
has a pearly lustre, is translucent,
and of various shades of blue : it is
a silicate of alumina, with a trace of
oxide of iron. Only found in primi-
tive rocks.

CYANOGEN (from Kvavoc, blue,
and yiyvofiai, I form). A gas which
burns with a blue flame, the bicarburet
of nitrogen ; it is a compound radi-
cal, forming acids with oxygen {cyan-
ic) and hydrogen {hydrocyanic or prus-
sic). The gas is poisonous : it com-
bines directly with many metals,
forming cyanides.

CYANURIC ACID. A product of
the action of heat on urea, formu-
la C„ Nb Ofi.

CYCADE.E (from Cycas, a genus
of plants). A small family of dwarf
palms which are gymnospermous.
The Cycas circinalis yields sago.

CYCLOSIS (from kvkIoc, a circle).
A circulation of the elaborated sap in
the higher plants in delicate anasta-
mosing vessels. The latex circula-
tion.

CYDONIA. The generic name of
the quince-tree.

CYLINDER (from kv7uv6u, I roll).
A solid, the height of which exceeds
the diameter, which is constant ; it
offers a circular section at every part
when made at right angles to the axis.
As stacks are often nearly cylindrical,
their contents may be discovered by
the formula for a cylinder : the solid
contents are equal to the height mul-
tiplied into the area of the base or
section.

CYME. An inflorescence: the
flower stems spring from one part, but
are afterward variously subdivided.

CYNARACE.^. Plants like the
artichoke, thistle, &c., with the flow-
ers included in a scaly capilulum, also
called a cynaroccphalas.
220

CYNIPS. A genus of hymenop
terous insects without stings. They
insert their eggs in parts of living
trees, causing tumours, of which the
gall nut is a specimen.

CYNOSURUS. A genus of grass-
es, of which the C cristatus is con-
sidered a good sheep grass. See
Grasses.

CYPERACE.E (from Cypcnis, a
genus). The tribe of plants consist-
ing of rushes, sedges, and other marsh
grasses without nodes or joints.
They are of trifling value ; the Cype-
rus csculentus of Italy furnishes a
sweet nut or tuber.

CYPRESS-TREE. Cupressus
sempervirens. A hardy shrub, a na-
tive of the Levant, growing from fif-
teen to twenty feet high, which
throws out yellow blossoms in May.
Its wood is red, very hard, and sweet-
scented. It likes a good soil. Its
wood, from being sonorous, is used
for harps, violins, and other musical
instruments. Worms never attack
it.— {Phillip's Shrub., vol. i., p. 188;
M'Culloch's Com. Diet.)

CYPRESSES, AMERICAN. See
Cedar.

CYPSELA (from Kv\pElr], a bee-
hive). A one-celled, one-seeded, in-
dehiscent fruit. An Achenium.

CYSTIC (from Kvang, a bag or blad-
der). Appertaining to the bladder.
Cystic oxide, a rare ingredient in uri-
nary calculi.

D.

DACTYLIS. A genus of grasses,
of which D. glomerata, orchard or
cock's-foot, is the only important spe-
cies. See Grasses.

DAIRY. " The name usually given
to the place w-here the milk of cows
is kept and converted into butter or
cheese.

"A dairy-house should be situated
on a dry spot somewhat elevated, on
the side of a gentle declivity, and on
a porous soil. It should be on the
west or northwest side of a hill if
possible, or, at least, sheltered from
the north, east, and south by high
trees. In some countries where there
are natural caverns with an opening

DAIRY.

to the west, and springs of water at
hand, the best and coolest dairies are
thus prepared by nature. Artificial
excavations in the sides of freestone
roclvs are sometimes formed for the
purpose of keeping milk. Where no
such natural advantages exist, the
requisite coohiess in summer, and
equal temperature in winter, which
are essential in a good dairy, may be
obtained by sinking the floor of the
dairy some feet under ground, and
forming an arched roof of stone or
brick. In cold climates flues around
the dairy are a great advantage in
winter ; and an ice-house in warm
summers is equally useful. But these
are only adapted to those dairies
which are kept more as a luxury than
as an object of profit. Coolness is
also produced by the evaporation of
water, an abundant supply of which
is essential to every dairy. It is also
a great advantage if a pure stream
can be made to pass through the dai-
ry, with a current of air to carry off
any eflluvia, and keep the air contin-
ually renewed.

" As the milk suflers more or less
from being agitated, or too much
cooled, before it is set for the cream
to rise, the cow-house or milking-
place should be as near as possible
to the dairy, or, rather, it should be
under the same roof The milk may
then be brought immediately from
the cows without being exposed to
the outer air. The dairy-house should
consist of three distinct apartments
below, with lofts and cheese-cham-
bers above. The principal place is
the dairy, properly so called, sunk
two or three feet below the level of
the ground, with a stone or brick
bench or table round three sides of it
to hold the milk pans. This table
should be a little below the level
of the outer soil. Airholes covered
with wire should be made in the walls
a little above, and on the opposite
sides of the dairy ; and they should
have shutters sliding over them to
open or shut, according to the weath-
er. The floor should be of stone or
paving tiles, sloping gently towards
a drain to carry olflhc water. Great
T 2

care should be taken that no water
stagnates in this drain, which must
be kept as clean as the floor of the
dairy, and not communicate with any
sink, but run out into the open air : a
declivity from the dairy is essential
for this purpose. If this cannot be ob-
tained, it must run into an open tank,
and the water be regularly pumped
out. The windows of the dairy should
be latticed. Glazed windows may be
added for the winter, but they should
always be open except in very hot or
very cold weather. There may be
shutters to close entirely, but this is
not essential. If the windows are
made like Venetian blinds, the light
will be excluded without excluding
the air. The utmost purity must be
maintained in the air of a dairy ;
nothing should enter it that can pro-
duce the slightest smell. No cheese
or rennet should be kept in it ; and
particularly no meat, dressed or un-
dressed. Even the dairy-maid should
avoid remaining longer in it than is
necessary, and should at all times be
extremely clean in her person.

" The next important place is a kind
of wash-house, in which there is a
chimney where a large copper kettle
hangs on a crane to heat water in, or
milk when cheese is made. Where
wood is scarce, and pit-coal is the
common fuel, a copper may be set in
brick-work with a grate under it. In
this place all the utensils of the dairy
are kept, and scalded with boiling
water every day. It should have an
outer door, which may be to the south,
and benches outside, on which the
pails and other utensils may be set
to dry and be exposed to the air.
Between the last two apartments
may be another communicating with
! both, and forming a kind of vestibule,
where the churnmg may take place ;
and over them a cheese-room and
lofts, or any other useful chambers.
A veranda round the dairy is very
convenient, or on three sides at least.
j It shades from the sun, and adds to
the warmth in winter ; and the uten-
sils may be dried and aired under it
even in rainy weather. The foUow-
I ing description of a cow-house and
221

DAIRV^.

dairy under one roof combines all
that 13 useful, wilh considerable neat- i
ness internally and externally : It is I
a building about sixty feet long by I
thirty vide, with a veranda running ;
round three sides of it. The dairj-
room is sunk below the level of the j
soil, and is paved with brick. The
sides are covered with tiles, and the ,
arched roof with hard cement. The
cow-house has a broad passage in the
middle, and the cows stand with their
heads towards this passage, which is ,
paved with clinkers or bricks set on
edge. Their tails are towards the
wall, along which runs a broad gut-
ter sunk six or eight inches below the
level of the place on which the cows
stand. This gutter slopes towards
a sink covered with an iron grate,
which communicates by a broad arch-
ed drain with a vaulted tank, into
which all the liquid flows. The gut-
ter is washed clean twice a day be-
fore the cows are milked. The cows
stand or he on a sloping brick floor,
and have but a small quantity of litter
allowed them, w'hich is removed every
day and carried to the dung-heap or
to the pig-sties, to be more fully con-
verted into dung. Whenever the lit-
ter is removed, the bricks are swept
clean ; and in summer they are wash-
ed with water. The manner in which
the cows are fastened is worthy of
notice : Two slight pillars of strong
wood are placed perpendicularly about
two feet distant from each other, so
that the cow can readily pass her
head between them. On each of
these is an iron ring, which runs free-
ly up and down, and has a hook in its
circumference : two small chains pass
from these hooks to a leather strap,
which buckles round the neck of the
cow. Thus the cow can rise and lie
down, and move forward to take her
food, which is placed in a low man-
ger before the two pillars ; but she
cannot strike her neighbour with her
horns. The mangers or troughs are
of wood, or of bricks cemented to-
gether, and are kept as clean as all
the rest of the cow-house. In Swit-
zerland the cow-houses are similar,
but there is also a rack, the back of
222

which towards the passage shuts up
with a board on hinges. The Dutch
mode supplies more light and air to
the middle passage ; and as the food
is given frequently and in small quan-
tities, there is very little waste. The
following cuts will give a tolerable
idea of the whole arrangement. The
food is brought in carts, which are
driven at once between the cows.
What is not wanted immediately is
stored above, whence it is readily
thrown down before the cows. Thus
much trouble is saved, and one man
can feed and attend to a great many
cows. From November till iMay the
cows never leave the cow-house. In
summer, when the cows are out, if
they are in adjacent pastures, they
are driven home to be milked ; but
if the pastures are far otf, which is
sometimes the case, they are milked
there, and the milk is brought home ;
but this is not thought so good for
the butter, which is then always
churned from the whole milk, with-
out letting the cream rise. The finest
and best flavoured butter is always
made from the cream as fresh as pos-
sible ; and to make it rise well, the
milk should be set as soon as it is
milked, and agitated as little as pos-
sible. The greatest quantity is sel-
dom obtained when the quality is the
finest. When great attention is paid
to the quality, the milk is skimmed
about si.x hours after it is set ; and
the cream taken ofl'is churned by it-
self The next skimming makes in-
ferior butter. These particulars are
mentioned to show the necessity
there is of having the dairy as near
as possible to the cow-house.

♦■ The utensils of the dairy, such as
pails, churns, vats, &c., are usually
made of white wood, and are easily
kept clean by scalding and scouring.
Leaden troughs are used in large dai-
ries ; and if they are kept very clean
by careful scouring, they answer the
purpose better than wood. They
may be so constructed that the milk
may be let off gently before the cream,
which is collected by itself. This
saves all the trouble of skimming.
Brass pans have the advantage of

DAIRY.

A, A, A. passage throug-h the cow-house and dairy, ten feet wide, paved with bricks set on
edge, or Dutch clinkers. Tlie food is brought in this passage in a small cart and distributed to
tlie cows.

B, part of the above passage closed in with doors, and forming a vestibule to the dairy.

C, dairy-room, in which only milk, cream, and butter are kept. It is sunk three feet under
the level of the cow-hou«e, and covered with a brick arch ; it has one latticed window, and sev-
eral ventilators on a level with the place on which the milk vessels are set.

D, the room where the utensils are sculded, and where cheese is made ; in one corner is a
fire-place, with a large kettle or a copper set.

E, stairs to srn up to the cheese-mom M and loft N.

F, calf-pens, in which the calves are tied up to fatten, so that they cannot turn to lick them-
selves : a small trough witii poumlod chalk and salt is (ilaced in each |<en.

G, tlic place for Ihe cows without partitions ; each cow is tied to two poslsby two small chains
and two iron rings, which run on the posts. The chains are fastened to a broad lenthei strap,
wh;ch is buckled round th ■ iierk of each cow. II, H, two sinks, with iron gratings over them,
lu catch the urine from the gutters 1, I, which run ail the length of the cow-house on each side.

223

DAIRY.

K, the urine tank, vaultfd over wiih a door L, to clean it out, and a pump to pump up the liquid
manure. O, O, in the section, are places where the green food or roots are deposited for the
day's consumption. P, a hayloft.

being readily warmed on a chafing-
dish in winter. In Devonshire, tin
or brass pans are frequently used
instead of earthen-ware. Although
there is sonao danger in the use of
brass utensils, very little attention
will obviate it. It only requires that
they should be kept bright, in which
case the smallest speck of oxide or
verdigris would be perceptible. In
Holland the milk is invariably carried
in brass vessels. Cast-iron pans have
been invented, which are tinned in-
side. They are economical, but there
is nothing better or neater than well-
glazed white crockery-ware, of the
common oval form. Some recom-
mend unglazed pans for summer, but
they are difficult to keep sweet, as
the milk insinuates itself into the
pores, and is apt to become sour
there.

The most common use of cows is
to supply butter and cheese (see Butler
and Cheese), and sometimes to fatten
calves for the butcher ; but the most
profitable dairy is that which supplies
large towns with milk. In these dai-
ries the system is different. The
cows are mostly kept in stalls, and
fed with food brought to them. Some
dairymen possess several hundred
cows, and the arrangement of their
establishments is worthy of notice.
The cows are bought before or after
they have calved. They are seldom
allowed to go to the bull, but are kept
as long as they can be made to give
milk by good feeding. When they
are dry, they are often already suffi-
ciently fat for sale, or, at all events,
they soon fatten, and are sold to the
butcher. A succession of cows is
thus kept up, new ones arriving as
others are sold oflT. The cows are
milked twice a day ; and as it is
well known that the last drop of milk
is the richest, they are sure to be
milked quite dry, an essential thing
in a dairy. When there is more milk
than there is a demand for, it is set,
and the cream is sold separately, or
made into butter ; but this is seldom
done to any extent. The cows are
S24

fed on every kind of food that can
increase the milk : brewers' grains
and distillers' wash are preferred,
when they can be obtained. The
grains are kept in large pits, pressed
close, and covered with earth, under
which circumstances they will remain
fresh a long time. Turnips and beet
root are used in large quantities, but
hay is given sparingly. The cows
are generally placed in pairs, with a
partition between every two pair.
Each cow is fastened to the corner
of the stall, where she has a small
trough with water before her : thus
they cannot gore each other with their
horns. The great dairies are kept
very clean ; but the liquid manure,
which would be so valuable for the
market gardens, is lost, and runs ofi".
In Belgium the urine would be con-
tracted for at the rate often dollars
per cow per annum, which, in a dairy
of six hundred cows, would pay a
good interest for the money expend-
ed in constructing large vaulted cis-
terns under each cow-house.

There is no chance of profit in a
dairy of which the farmer or his wife
is not the immediate manager. The
attention required to minute particu-
lars can only be expected in those
whose profit depends upon it. A
proper attention to keeping correct
accounts of every expense will con-
vince any one of this truth. In a
dairy farm the great difficulty is to
feed the cows in winter. It is usu-
ally so arranged that the cows shall
be dry at the time when food is most
scarce, and they are then kept on in-
ferior hay, or straw, if it can be pro-
cured. It is a great improvement in
a dairy farm if it has as much arable
land attached to it as will employ
one plough, especially if the soil be
light ; but the mode of cultivating
this farm must vary from that of
other farms, since the food raised for
the cows must be a principal object.
Corn is a secondary object ; and the
cultivation of roots and grasses must
occupy a great portion of the farm.
When the grasses degenerate, a crop

DAI

DEC

or two of corn is taken, and the ro-
tation is chiefly roots, corn, and grass
cut for hay until it wears out. If
the roots are well manured, the land
keeps in excellent heart. The old
pastures are kept for summer feed-
ing. Where there is no arable land
near a dairy farm, it deserves mature
consideration whether it will be ad-
vantageous or not to allow some of
the pasture to be ploughed up. It is
often a dangerous experiment where
the soil is naturally heavy. Arable
land laid down to grass for the pur-
pose of the dairy seldom produces
fine-flavoured butter or good clieese ;
but clover-hay is excellent for young
stock, or to fatten otf the old cows.
Lucern is reckoned to make cows
give very good milk ; nothmg, how-
ever, can equal a rich old pasture, as
all dairymen agree."

The following estimates from Col-
man's Report on the Agriculture of
Massachusetts give the yield, expen-
ses, and profits of the dairy :

"In Tyringham, the average yLeld
of a cow is reckoned at, new milk
cheese 283 pounds, and butter at the
same time 57 pounds. A dairy of
twenty-eight cows gave 7912 pounds
of new milk cheese, and 1600 pounds
of butter. A large amount of pork
was fattened on this farm, but it is
difficult to say what portion of it is
to be credited to the dairy.

" In Shefiield, the average product
of twenty-eight cows was 394 pounds
of new milk cheese, and 50 pounds
of butter each.

" The product of a cow is thus sta-
ted by the excellent manager :

" Cow, Cr.
400 lbs. new milk cheese, at 8 cts . $32 00
Calf (kiUed at 3 days old) .... 1 00

50 lbs. butter, at 16 cts 8 33

Whey and butter-milk to make 100

lbs. pork 8 00

$49 33
Cow, Dr.
Winter keepin? . . . . $12 00
Oae acre of land, costing $50,

will pasture the cow . . 3 50
SaltSocts., 3bush. ofbran.SS 3 25
Interest on the value of cow,

at $25, 10 per ct. ... 2 50
Labour of milking, making

butter, cheese, &c. . . . 4 00 25 25

Balance in favour of cow . . $24 Oct"

DAMSON. A small variety of the

Plum.

DANDRUFF. Scales of skin, which
are brushed otT readily.

DAPPLE. Marked with various
colours.

DARNEL. Several grasses are
so called. The Cheat of the United
States goes under this name in Eu-
rope ; but it is principally applied to
the Lolium temulcntum, a trouble-
some weed.

DARTARS. In farriery, a sort
of scab or ulceration taking place on
the chin, to which lambs are subject.

DATE. The fruit of a palm {Phoe-
nix dacli/lifcra), remarkable for its nu-
tritious ness, and as aflx»rding food to
entire populations.

DATURA. The generic name of
the thorn apple or Jamestown weed,
a poisonous plant.

DAUCUS. The generic name of
the Carrot.

DEAD TOPS. The dead sum-
mits or branches of old trees. They
should be cut at a sound place, and
the wound covered with grafting wax
or clay.

DEAFNESS. A defect in hearing.
It is sometimes remedied by syrin-
ging the tube of the ear with tepid
water, by which a quantity of hard-
ened wax is washed out.

DEAL. Pieces of sawed pine or
fir wood, three inches thick, nine
wide, and twelve feet long.

DEBRIS. In geology, mineral
rubbish worn from a rock or forma-
tion.

DECAGON (from dena, ten, and
yuvia, an angle). Any solid having
ten sides and angles.

DECANDRIA (from 6eKa, ten, and
avrip, a male). The class of plants
having ten stamens.

DECANT. To pour ofl" the clear
fluid after a precipitate subsides.
Hence Decantation.

DECAPODS (from 6eKa, ten, and
Tzov^, a foot). Crabs with ten feet.
Animals like the cuttle-fish, with ten
tentacula, wherewith they walk.

DECAY. The destruction of or-
ganized bodies by natural causes.
The products depend on the presence
225

DEC

DEF

or deficiency of aii . In tlie first ease,
tlie process is called Ercmacausis ; in
the second, Fermentation, which sec.

DECIDUOUS. Parts which fall
off, such as hairs, horns, leaves, &c.

DECOCTION. Any mixture which
has been boiled.

DECOMPOSITION. In chemis-
try, the separation of the parts of any
compound, whether mineral or or-
ganic. Electricity and heat are the
principal forces used by chemists for
this purpose, and they are capable of
disturbing most combinations. Chem-
ical affinity, or the attraction which
one form of matter has for another,
is also an agent of decomposition.
Thus oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) has
a powerful attraction for water ; if
it be dropped on the human hand a
blister is instantly produced, and the
part blackens. This decomposition
is owing to the greater affinity of the
acid for water than the flesh of the
hand. In the same way some min-
erals act on each other, producing
change of composition, or decompo-
sing them. Decompositions may be
expected if one of the ingredients is
of a volatile or gaseous nature, or if
the agent added forms with one of
the original components a product
which is insoluble in water. Thus
sulphuric and oxalic acid decompose
every solution of lime, because they
form insoluble salts with lime. Car-
bonic acid, in its salts, is decomposed
by every fixed acid, because it is gas--
eous. Lime, potash, and soda de-
compose most salts of ammonia, be-
cause the latter is volatile.

DECOMPOSITION OF FORCES.
A problem in physics, in which it is
desired to know in how many differ-
ent directions several forces have
acted to produce a given result.

DECOMPOSITIOxN OF LIGHT.
The separation of a beam of light
by means of a prism of glass, into the
seven colours, red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, violet, which are
hence called the primary colours,
light being the result of their mix-
ture.

DECORTICATION (from de,from,
and cortex, bark). Talcing off the bark.
826

Scraping the bark, and even partially
removing it during the active growth
(June), has been found to invigorate
trees. It is often resorted to in bark-
bound trees which bear little fruit.
Care must be taken not to wound the
new Vv'ood or expose the sap.

DECOY. "A device by which
aquatic birds, chiefly ducks, are enti-
ced from a river or lake up a narrow,
winding canal or ditch, which, grad-
ually becoming narrower, at last ter-
minates under a cover of network, of
several yards in length. The birds
are enticed by the smoothness of the
turf on the margin of the canal,
which tempts them to leave the wa-
ter, and begin to dress their plumage.
When so engaged at some distance
up the canal, they are suddenly sur-
prised by the decoy man and his dogs,
who have been concealed behind a
fence of reeds ; and having again ta-
ken to the water, they are driven up
by the dogs till they enter within the
network which terminates the decoy,
and are then easily caught."

DECREPITATION. A chemical
term signifying crackling, and used
to describe the sound made by nitre,
salt, sulphate of potash, and other
salts, when thrown into the fire.

DECUMBENT. In botany, incli-
ned downward.

DECURRENT. In botany, a leaf,
a part of the lamina of which is at-
tached to the stalk of the plant.

DECUSSATE. To cross and in-
termingle, in anatomy.

DEER. The common species is
the Ccrvus Virginianus of naturalists ;
it is diffused throughout the United
States as far north as Canada. The
moose (C alecs) is the largest spe-
cies of the deer; it inhabits swamps,
and is confined to the most northern
parts of the States, and to Canada.
The reindeer (C. tarandus) is remark-
able for its immense horns, its value
to the inhabitants of the highest lat-
itudes, docility, and abstemiousness.
It is rarely seen in the States except
in Maine. Some other species are
found far in the nortliM^est.

DEFLAGRATION. A chemical
term, meaning very rapid combustion,

DET

DEW

as when nitre is thrown on red-hot
coals.

DEFLECTION. A terra in optics.
When a thin opaque body is placed in
the course of a ray of light, the ray
is bent out of its straight direction.
The phenomenon is also called dif-
fraction.

DEGLUTITION. The act of swal-
lowing.

DEHISCENT. A botanical term
signifymg the bursting open, when
dry, of seed vessels.

DELIQUESCENT. Saline sub-
stances which absorb so much moist-
ure from the air as to become fluid
are called deliquescent.

DELPHINIA. A vegetable alka-
loid from Stavesacre, or Delphinium.

DELPHINIC ACID. An oily acid,
obtained from whale oil, having a
rancid smell.

DENDROMETER (fromtJei'dpov, a
tree, dLadfiETpov,ameasure). An instru-
ment like an immense pair of com-
passes, to measure the height and
the girth of trees, for estimating the
amount of timber.

DENTATE (from dens, a tooth).
Toothed.

DENTIROSTERS. Birds having
a tooth-like notch on each side of the
upper mandible. They are very ra-
pacious.

DEOBSTRUENT. A medicine
given to remove any obstruction in
the bowels, &c.

DERBYSHIRE SPAR. Fluor
spar, or fluoride of calcium.

DESPUMATION. The act of
skimming the scum from any heated
fluid.

DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLA-
TION. The heating of bones, wood,
coal, &c., in iron vessels, at a high
temperature, to produce peculiar sub-
stances. From green wood, vinegar
and wood tar ; from bones, impure
ammonia ; from coal, gas, coal tar,
&c.

DETERGENTS. Medicines which
remove imparities and cleanse sores.

DETONATION. In chemistry, ex-
plosions on a small scale

DETRITUS. The broken and
pounded remains of rocks.

DEUTOXIDE, BINOXIDE. A
compound acting as a base, which
contains two atoms of oxygen

DEVON CATTLE. Esteemed for
draught. See Cattle.

DEW. The deposite of water from
the air produced by cold ; it becomes
frost when the cold is below 32° Fah-
renheit. As soon as the sun sets, the
heat imparted to the earth begins to
fall by radiation into space ; if clouds
be present, the heat is mostly return-
ed again ; if in a clear sky, it is lost,
and the earth's surface chilled. The
cold of the surface chills the air lying
above it, and causes a deposite of its
water ; hence the dew. Those bod-
ies which cool quickest receive most
dew; black soils more than light-col-
oured ; rough surfaces more than pol-
ished. Dew, therefore, only falls on
clear nights, and frost observes the
same rule. When the atmosphere is
loaded with water, the cooling of a
few degrees is sufficient to form dew ;
hence most falls near rivers and
streams.

DEW POINT. The temperature
at which dew falls. It is a very im-
portant fact in meteorology, and ea-
sily ascertained. Place in a clean
wine-glass, half full of water, a little
ice, untd a mist of dew is seen on the
outside ; remove the ice without wet-
ting the surface, plunge a thermome-
ter into the water, and observe the
temperature as the mist disappears :
the degree marks the dew point.
This is the simplest way, and as
good as any. The difference in de-
grees between the air and dew point
IS called the drying power, and shows
how much more moisture the air will
take. When they agree, the air is
tilled or saturated with moisture. The
amount of water in the atmosphere is
connected with the probability of rain,
the growth of plants, the occurrence
of mildew, rust, &c., and should be
measured by the farmer on important
occasions as a means of ascertaining
its relation to these pomts.

DEWBERRY. The creeping
blackben-y, which see.

DEWLAP. The fold of skin be-
low the neck of cattle.

ssa

DIA

1)113

DEXTRINE. Soluble starch, re-
Bcmbling gum, but having the prop-
erty of turning the plane of polariza-
tion to the right ; hence its name.
The descending sap and cambium
contain much dextrine. It consists
ofCi.Hu On.

DIACHYLON. A common and
useful sticking plaster for wounds,
made of litharge and resin spread on
linen.

DIADELPHIA, DIADELPHOUS
(from 6ic, twice, and ade7.(pLc, a brother-
hood). A Linnajan class, in whicli the
stamens are bound together into two
parcels.

DIAGNOSIS (from SiaytruaKu,
to discern). The determination, by
symptoms, of one disease from an-
other.

DIAMETER. The measure across
a circle or other regular figure.

DIAMOND. A rare gem, of or-
ganic origin, consisting of pure car-
bon, and crystallized in octohedrons,
dodecahedrons, and other derivative
forms. The hardest bodv in nature.

DIANDRIA, DIANDROUS (from
6lc, twice, and avjjp, a man). Plants
with two stamens. See Botany,

DIAPHANOUS (from 6ia, and (pa-
ivu, to shi7ie). Translucent : not quite
clear like glass.

DIAPHORESIS (from 6ia <popeu, I
carry through). Sweating, or perspi-
ration ; hence diaphoretics, medicines
which produce sweating.

DIAPHRAGM (from 6ia, and cjipaT-
Tu, I divide). Any substance which
divides a cavity. Thus, the muscle
which lies between the chest and ab-
domen is a diaphragm ; the matter
dividing the cells of shells ; the disks
which are inserted into microscopes
are also called diaphragms. Septum
is synonymous. Diaphragmitis is an

inflammation of the diaphragm in an-
imals.

DI ARRHCEA (from diappecj, Ifoio
through). Looseness of the bowels.
Chalk and binding medicines are rem-
edies. See Horse, O.r, Sheep.

DIASTASE (from 6ia, and larrnii, I
set). A condition in the decay of fibrin
and other protein compounds, which,
acting like a ferment, converts solu-
tion of starch into sugar. 1 part of
changed protein converts 2000 of
starch. It occurs in malting and ger-
mination. The existence of diastase
as a separate body is unknown, its ef-
fects being the result of change, and
not due to the presence of any specif-
ic agent. Its property is destroyed
by a boiling heat.

DIATHERMAL (from 6ia, and
^epfiT], heat). Bodies which allow ra-
diant heat to pass through them, as
rock salt.

DIATHESIS (from (haneriiiv, I dis-
pose). A predisposition to a partic-
ular class of diseases.

DIBBLE. An instrument to make
holes in the soil for the insertion of
transplanted vegetables, sowing large
seeds, onions, &c. It is commonly
no more than a rod, with a spade han-
dle, the lower part or point shod with
iron, and sharp. A man, carrying
one in each hand, walks backward,
dibbling a hole riglit and left, at suit-
able distances ; 3000 holes can be
made thus in a day. The following
is a simple and effective contrivance
used for beans, potatoes, &c. ; it is
so arranged that the side rods, point-
ed with iron {a, a), run a mark or drill,
into which the dibble afterward runs.
Several wheels may be fitted to one
axis, and thus a great deal of labour
done. It is adapted to light, mellow
soils ; and the saving of seeds and la-

S38

DIF

DKi

bour soon pays for the machine. A
number of these wheels drawn by a
horse has been recently introduced.

DICHOTO.MOUS (from 6ic, twice,
and TEfivu, I cut). Bifurcate. It is
used in natural history to indicate
a division into two parts, especially
when it is repeated several times, as
in some stems.

DICHROIS.M (from dig, and jpwua,
colour). Bodies which exhibit two col-
ours, as they are examined by reflect-
ed o) refracted light. Dichromatic
is a derivative

DICOTYLEbONS (from 6ic, and
KOTv7.i]6uv, a seed lobe). One of the
great divisions of the vegetable king-
dom, including most plants and trees ;
of temperate climates. They bear 1
seed with two lobes, like the bean,
have leaves freely veined, and the
trees grow with a conical trunk. The
term is synonymous with cxogens.

DIDELPH YS (from 6ig, and dtAcpvr,
icomb). A genus of animals resem-
bling > the opossum and kangaroo,
which bring forth minute young, and
afterward nourish them in an exter-
nal pouch. Marsupials.

DIDYNAMOUS (from Sir, and 6v-
vafiig, power). Flowers with four sta-
mens, two being longer than the rest.
See Botani/.

DIETETICS (from Siairaeiv, to
nourish). The study of varieties of
food. See Fodder.

DIFFERENTIAL THERMOME-
TER. A thermometer with two
bulbs, invented to measure differ-
ences in temperature, but seldom
used.

DIFFRACTION. See Deflection.

DIFFUSION OF GASES. Pene-
tration of gases. The expression of
a phenomenon which occurs when
one gas is set free into another.
They mutually expand or diffuse into
one another, so as to produce, in time,
an equal mixture. The rapidity of
diffusion differs with different gases.
By reason of this law, noxious va-
pours rising from the earth are pres-
ently diluted into the atmosphere.
The composition of the air is the re-
sult of the diffusion or admixture of
the several gases it contains. This
U

passage takes place through all po-
rous vessels, tissues, &c. In virtue
of this property, gases are said to act
as a vacuum towards each other.

DIFFUSUS. Spreading : used in
botany.

DIGESTER. A strong iron or
copper pot, the lid of which fits steam-
tight, and either screws on or is press-
ed by clamps, and is furnished with a
safety-valve. It is used for boiling or
digesting substances at a heat great-
er than boiling water, and is especial-
ly useful for extracting jelly and glue
from bones, skins, horns, &,c.

DIGESTION. In physiology, the
change through which food passes in
the stomach for the production of
chyme. Food received into the stom-
ach is speedily attacked by a peculiar
fluid therein, the gastric, which has
the power of rendering soluble the in-
soluble parts : this it effects by pro-
ducing a change nearly resembling
fermentation. The gastric juice is a
portion of the membrane of the stom-
ach in a peculiar state of change, re-
sembling diastase, and supposed to
owe its power to a principle called
pepsin, but being in reality active only
because in a state of change. The
food acted on by this agency is con-
verted into a pasty mass called chyme ;
this, passing into the bowels, is sep-
arated into a fluid part, chyle, which
is absorbed by the veins and absor-
bents of the intestines, and reaches
the blood to add to that fluid. There
j is reason to believe that starchy and
saccharine bodies are converted into
lactic acid, and in part into oils, by
digestion. The remaining thickened
chyme, receiving several excretiuns,
becomes mere feculent matter. The
process of digestion requires from one
to four hours, according to the food.
Raw substances are digested more
rapidly than boiled, fresh than salt.
It is best conducted when the body
and mind are in a state of rest.

DIGESTION IN CHEMISTRY.
The exposure for a long time of any
substance to the action of water or
a solvent at a gentle heat.
DIGGING. See Spade.
DIGITALIS. The generic name
229

DIS

DIS

of the foxglove (Z>. purpurea), a poi-
sonous sedative.

DIGITATE. In botany, any leaf
divided into several segments origi-
nating in a common centre.

DIGYNIA (from die, and yvvri, a
tooman). Flowers with two styles.
See Botany.

DILL. Anethum graveolens. An
umbelliferous plant, the seeds of
which are esteemed as a medicine.
They contain dill oil, which, being
distilled, is used in solution in water
for the gripes of infants. It is an an-
nual, requiring a dry, rich soil. Sow
in drills in March or April, keep clear
of weeds, thin out to ten inches ; they
fruit in September. Fresh seed must
be used for planting. The leaves are
sometimes used like parsley.

DILUENTS. Any fluid, as water,
which dilutes.

DILUVIUM, DILUTION. Accu-
mulations of gravel found upon the
ordinary rocks in manv places.

DINGLE. A small" vallev.

DICECIA, DIOICA (from 'du. tivice,
and oiKia, house). Flowers, the sta-
mens and pistils of which are on dis-
tinct plants, as the hop, hemp, &c.

DIOPTRICS (from (ha, and otvto-
uai, I see). That part of optics which
investigates the passage of light
through glasses, &c.

DIOSOOKEA. The generic name
of the yam See Sweet Potato.

DIPLOE (Greek). The cellular
layer between the outer and inner
layers of the scull bones.

DIPPLE'S ANIMAL OIL. A fe-
tid oil obtamed by the distillation of
bones, used as an antispasmodic.

DIPSACUS. The generic name
of the teasel.

DIPTERA, DIPTERANS (from
dif, ticice, and irrepov, a icing). Flies
or insects with two wings only. They
are furnished with a sucker.

DISCUTIENT (from discutio, I de-
stroy). Any application which has the
property of resolving or hindering the
formation of tumours or boils.

DISEASES. See them, or Ox, Horse,
IShcep.

DISK, Any flat, round body :
hence discoid. In botany, any space
230

existing between the insertion of the
stamens and the ovary.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT. Its

separation into the colours by a prism.

DISSEPIMENTS. The dividing

membranes formed in ovana by the

union of the sides of two carpels.

DISTEMPER. Frequently used in
the same sense as disease, but is par-
ticularly applied to cattle. In racing
stables it is the distinguishing name
for epidemic catarrh or influenza in
horses. Bleeding in the early stage
is recommended, and it is important
that the bowels should be evacuated
and sedative medicines given. (See
Horse). In dogs, distemper is one of
the most fatal diseases ; a little emet-
ic powder (three grains of tartar emet-
ic and one-grain of opium) is recom-
mended to be given. — {Clater's Far.,
p. 392).

DISTICHOUS (from 6ic, and otikoc,
a row). Two rows of seeds, leaves,
&c.. arranged side by side. A term
of frequent use in descriptive botany.
DISTILLATION. A chemical pro-
cess, whereby the more volatile parts
of a mixture are separated by heat.
It is conducted in a still of metal,
usually copper, except where a great
heat is necessary, as in destructive
distillation, when iron is used. Earth-
en-ware and glass are used for many
chemical distillations. Vessels of this
kind are called retorts or alembics. A
retort is of the figure of a large in-
verted comma ; if there be an aper-
ture over the bulb fitted by a stopper,
or to receive a tube, it is termed a
tubulated retort. (See Retort.) An
alembic consists of two parts, an up-
per cap, which carries the tube, or
beak, along which the distilled fluid
passes, and a lower vessel to contain
the matter for distillation. The cap
is well luted or fastened before use.
The heat employed is regulated to
the purposes of the operator. If the
object be to separate alcohol from wa-
ter, the heat must not rise above the
boiling of alcohol (176°). As the va-
pour rises, it is at first cooled along
the tube, or beak, of the retort, and
flows down it into the receiver ; but
the tube becoming heated, steps must

DOD

DOG

be taken to produce the condensa-
tion. This is managed in the labora-
tory by keeping pieces of wet rag on
the tube, or by passing it through an-
other larger tube of metal which is
cooled by a stream of water. In lar-
ger operations, the still beak enters
another long tube, which winds sev-
eral times in a bucket of water, and
is thus kept cool, the water being oc-
casionally renewed.

Distillation is employed to separate
alcohol, ether, vinegar, and other
products from mixtures ; to obtain
the essential oil of plants ; and when
much heat is used, to separate gas
from coal ; tar and vinegar from green
wood ; hartshorn from bones, whale-
bone shavings, &c. When a distilled
product is re-distilled, it is said to be
rectified.

DITCH. A trench cut in the
ground, usually round the fences of a
field. Trenches of this kind are form-
ed differently in various localities, but
they should always be made so as to
keep the water in them as pure as
possible.

DIURESIS (from 6ia, and ovp^u, to
make water). Excessive urination :
hence Diuretics, medicines causing
urination, as nitre, juniper berries,
turpentine, cubebs, &c. See Ball.

DIVARICATE. To spread out
widely.

DIVERGENT. Branches separa-
ted by an angle.

DIVISIBILITY. In chemistry, the
extent to which pieces of matter may
be divided is extraordinary ; thus, in
gilding, the thickness of gold on a
surface is often as little as 110,000th
part of an inch. But matter is not
infinitely divisible.

DOCK. Troublesome, long-root-
ed, perennial plants, of the genera
Rumex, Tussilago, &c. See Weeds.

DODDER. A weed consisting of
thread-like stems, which bind togeth-
er the plants among which it grows.
It is occasionally destructive to small
crops, such as flax.

DODECAHEDRON (from dcjSeKa,
twelve, and eS/ja, a seat). A solid
of twelve sides. In crystallography
there are two varieties : the rhombic

and angular dodecahedron, according
to the figure of the sides.

DODECANDRIA (from 6u<hKa,
twelve, and afr/p, male). The class of
plants containing twelve stamens.
See Botany.

DOE. The female of the fallow
deer.

DOG. A genus of animals (Ca«(>),
including innumerable varieties. The
farmer requires a good rat and ver-
min dog, of which the varieties of
terrier are the best ; a house-dog, as
the Newfoundland, bull-dog, or mas-
tiff; and herd-dogs, as the sheep-
dog, the Scotch sheep-dog, or the
Spanish shepherd's dog. The last is
said to be the most manageable and
trusty, as it is the strongest, being
nearly as large as a Newfoundland ;
but the instinct of the Scotch animal
cannot be readily surpassed. Hunting
and coursing dogs are merely useful
for pleasure, but of these the pointer
is an animal of rare instinct, and can
be taught to equal the best sheep-
dogs in caring for flocks.

Fig. 1 is the Scotch shepherd's dog,
or colly Characters ears partly

erect, head rather pointed, shaggy
coat, and thick tail. To this animal
large flocks are safely intrusted with-
out any shepherd. He is also capable
of managing cattle with great nicety.
Fig. 2, the English sheep-dog, is
larger. His colour is usually white

and black, with half-pricked ear:j. He
is an excellent cattle and farm dog.

Dogs should be kept clean and fed
with wholesome food, under which
circumstances they are very healthy.
Worming is an absurd and useless
custom. The mange in dogs is the
231

DOO

DRA

result of unclean) iness, and resem-
bles itc'i. It sliould be treated with
tar ointioent mixed with sulphur.

Madm^s. — Symptoms: at first the
dog lose.s spirits, neglects his food,
retires from his master, does not
bark, but murmurs, is irritable, his
ears and tail droop, he seems drow-
sy, in two or three days his tongue
lolls out, he froths at the mouth, the
eyes are heavy, he runs along pant-
ing, and in two or three more days
dies. Any animal bitten should in-
stantly have the part cut out, the
wound being allowed to bleed for a
short time.

Distemper is very contagious, usu-
ally commences with a cold, is fol-
lowed by fits or diarrhoea, great loss
of strength, and frequently death.
Treatment: first give emetics, and
then a large spoonful of salt dissolved
in water ; if looseness comes on, give
chalk in powder mixed with water.
A blister on the head is used when
the animal is very stupid and liable
to fits. The food should be good.

Other diseases are treated like
those incident to sheep.

DOG'S-TAIL GRASS. Cynosu-
rus cristatus. See Grasses.

DOG'S-TOOTH GRASS. Doub
grass. See Benmida Grass.

DOGWOOD. Connis Florida. A
small tree, remarkable for its flower-
like involucrum. It is found from
Massachusetts to Florida, usually on
the borders of woods. The bark is
medicinal and used as a febrifuge.
The heart wood, of a deep brown
colour, is hard, heavy, and compact.
Its chief use is for the cogs of wheels,
points of harrows, and similar purpo-
ses : the size is not sufficiently large
for other objects.

DOLERITE. A trap rock, con-
sisting of augite and feldspar.

DOLOMITE. Magnesian marble,
or granular limestone containing
magnesia.

DOLPHIN, BLACK. The Aphis
of beans, cabbages, &c. See Black
Dolphin.

DOOB, or DOUB GRASS. Cyno-
don dactylon. A perennial, creeping
grass of great value, acclimated in
232

the Southern States, and of celebrity
among the Hindoos. It flowers in
August, but does not always perfect
seed. It is propagated from roots.
This is also called Bermuda or Brah-
ma grass. See Bermuda Grass.

DORSAL. Belonging to the back.

DOVE. See Piecon.

DOVE-COTE. ^See Pigeon-house.

DOWNS. Elevated, open mead-
ows.

DRAGON FLY. The common
name for Libcllulas, Agrions, and oth-
er neuropterous insects. They are
devourers of insects, and therefore
friends of the farmer.

DRAGON'S BLOOD. A blood-red
resin imported from India, and used
to colour varnishes.

DRAINAGE. " As a certain quan-
tity of moisture is essential to vege-
tation, so an excess of it is highly
detrimental. In the removal of this
excess consists the art of draining.

" Water may render land unproduc-
tive by covering it entirely or partial-
ly, forming lakes or bogs ; or there
may be an excess of moisture dif-
fused through the soil and stagnating
in it, by which the fibres of the roots
of all plants which are not aquatic
are injured, if not destroyed.

'' From these different causes of in-
fertility arise three different branches
of the art of draining, which require
to be separately noticed.

" 1. To drain land which is flooded,
or rendered marshy by water coming
over it from a higher level, and hav-
ing no adequate outlet below.

" 2. To drain land where springs
rise to the surface, and where there
are no natural channels for the water
to run off.

" 3. To drain land which is wet from
its impervious nature, and where the
evaporation is not sufficient to carry
off all the water supplied by snow and
rain.

" The first branch includes all those
extensive operations where large
tracts of land are reclaimed by means
of embankments, canals, sluices, and
mills to raise the water ; or where
deep cuts or tunnels are made through
hills which formed a natural dam or

DRAINAGE.

barrier to the water. Such works
are generally undertaken by associa-
tions, few individuals being possess-
ed of sufficient capital, or having the
power to oblige all whose interests
are affected by the draining of the
land to give their consent and afford
assistance.

" All these operations require the
science and experience of civil engi-
neers, and cannot be undertaken
without great means. The greater
part of the lowlands in the Nether-
lands, especially in the province of
Holland, have been reclaimed from
the sea, or the rivers which flow"ed
over them, by embanking and drain-
ing, and are only kept from floods by
a constant attention to the works
originally erected.

"Where the land is below the level
of the sea at high water, and without
the smallest eminence, it requires a
constant removal of the "-vater which
percolates through the banks or ac-
cumulates by rains ; and this can
only be effected by sluices and mills.
The water is collected in numerous
ditches and canals, and led to the
points where it can most convenient-
ly be discharged over the banks. The
mills conuiionly erected for this pur-
pose are small wind-mills, which turn
a kind of perpetual screw made of
wood several feet in diameter, on a
solid axle. This screw fits a semi-
circular trough, which lies inclined at I
an angle of about 30" with the ho- '
rizon. The lower part dips into the i
water below, and by its revolution
discharges the water into a reservoir !
above. All the friction of pumps, and
the consequent wearing out of the
machinery, is thus avoided. If the
mills are properly constructed they re-
quire little attendance, and work night
and day whenever the wind blows. I
" In hilly countries it sometimes
happens that water, which runs down
the slopes of the hills, collects in the
bottoms where there is no outlet, and
where the soil is impervious. In that
case it may sometimes be laid dry by
cutting a sufficient channel all round,
to intercept the waters as they flow
down, and to carry them over or ;
U2

through the lowest part of the sur-
rounding barrier. If there are no
very abundant springs in the bottom,
a few ditches and ponds will suffice
to dry the soil by evaporation from
their surface. We shall see that this
principle may be applied with great
advantage in many cases where the
water could not be drained out of
considerable hollows if it were allow-
ed to run into them.

" When there are different levels at
which the water is pent up, the drain-
ing should always be begun at the
highest, because it may happen that
when this is laid dry the lower may
not have a great excess of water.
At all events, if the water is to be
raised by mechanical power, there is
a saving in raising it from the highest
level, instead of letting it run down
to the lower, from which it has to be
raised so much higher.

" In draining a great extent of land,
it is often necessary to widen and
deepen rivers, and alter their course ;
and not unfrequently the water can-
not be let off without being carried,
by means of tunnels, under the bed
of some river, the level of which is
above that of the land. In more con-
fined operations, cast-iron pipes are
often a cheap and easy means of ef-
fecting this. They may be bent in a
curve, so as not to impede the course of
the river or the navigation of a canal.
" The draining of land which is ren-
dered u-et by springs arising from under
the soil is a branch of more general
application. The principles on which
the operations are carried on apply
as well to a small field as to the great-
est extent of land. The object is to
find the readiest channels by which
the superfluous water may be car-
ried off; and for this purpose an accu-
rate knowledge of the strata through
which the springs rise is indispen-
sable. It would be useless labour
merely to let the water run into drains
after it had sprung through the soil
and appears at the surface, as igno-
rant men frequently attempt to do,
and thus carry it off after it has al-
ready soaked the soil. But the origin
of the springs must, if possible, be
233

DRAINAGE.

detected ; and one single drain or
ditch, judiciously disposed, nnay lay
a great extent of land dry if it cuts
off the springs before they run into
the soiL Abundant springs which
flow continually generally proceed
from the outbreaking of some porous
stratum in which the waters were
confined, or through natural crevices
in rocks or impervious earth. A
knowledge of the geology of the coun-
try will greatly assist in tracing this,
and the springs may be cut off with
greater certainty. But it is not these

Fi.

main springs which give the greatest
trouble to an experienced drainer ; it
is the various land-springs, which are
sometimes branches of the former,
and often original and independent
springs arising from sudden varia-
tions in the nature of the soil and sub-
sod. The annexed diagram, repre-
senting a section of an uneven sur-
face of land, will explain the nature
of the strata which produce springs.
" Suppose A A a porous gravel
through which the water filtrates
readily ; B B a stratum of loam or

clay impervious to water. The wa-
ter which comes through A A will
run along the surface of B B towards
S S, where it will spring to the sur-
face and form a lake or bog between
S and S. Suppose another gravelly
or pervious stratum under the last,
as C, C, C, bending as here represent-
ed, and filled with water running; into
it from a higher level ; it is evident
that this stratum will be saturated
with water up to the dotted line E, F,
F, which is the level of the point in
the lower rock, or impervious stratum,
D, D, where the water can run over
it. If the stratum B B has any crev-
ices in it below the dotted line, the
water will rise through these to the
surface, and form springs rising from
the bottom of the lake or bog ; and
if B B were bored through and a pipe
inserted rising up to the dotted line,
as c, 0, the water would rise and stand
at o. If there were no springs at
S S, the space below the dotted line
might still be filled with water rising
from stratum C, C, C. But if the bo-
ring took place at G, the water would
not rise, but, on the contrary, if there
■were any on the surface, it would be
carried down to the porous stratum
C, C, C, and run off. Thus in one sit-
uation boring will bring water, and
in another it will take it off. This
principle being well understood will
greatly facilitate all drainmgs of
234

springs. Wherever water springs,
there must be a pervious and an im-
pervious stratum to cause it, and the
water either runs over the impervi-
ous surface or rises through the crev-
ices in it. When the line of the
springs is found, as at S S, the obvi-
ous remedy is to cut a channel with
a sufficient declivity to take off the
water in a direction across this line,
and sunk through the porous soil at
the surface into the lower impervious
earth. The place for this channel is
where the porous soil is the shallow-
est above the breaking out, so as to
require the least depth of drain, but
the solid stratum must be reached,
or the draining will be imperfect.
It is by attending to all these circum-
stances that Elkington acquired his
celebrity in draining, and that he has
been considered as the father of the
system. It is, however, of much
earlier invention, and is too obvious
not to have struck any one who seri-
ously considered the subject. In the
practical application of the principle,
great ingenuity and skill may be dis-
played, and the desired effect may be
produced more or less completely,
and at a greater or less expense.
The advice of a scientific and prac-
tical drainer is always well worth the
cost at which it may be obtained.

" When there is a great variation in
the soil, and it is difficult to find any

DRAINAGE.

main line of springs, it is best to pro-
ceed experimentally by making pits a
few feet deep, or by boring in various
parts wbere water appears, observing
the level at which the water stands
in these pits or bores, as well as the
nature of the soil taken out. Thus
it will generally be easy to ascertain
whence the water arises, and how it
may be let off. When there is a
mound of light soil over a more im-
pervious stratum, the springs will
break out all round the edge of the
mound ; a drain laid round the base
will take offall the water which arises
from this cause, and the lower part
of the land will be effectually laid dry.
So, likewise, where there is a hollow
or depression of which the bottom is
clay, with sand in the upper part, a
drain laid along the edge of the hol-
low, and carried round it, will prevent
the water running down into it and
forming a marsh at the bottom.

" When the drains cannot be carried
to a sufficient depth to take the water
out of the porous stratum saturated
with it, it is often useful to bore nu-
merous holes with a proper auger in

Fig. 2.

■C'&S-A

ditch (h, h) across it and sinking holes
into the subsoil. One of these holes
is shown in Ftg. 2 (a, b), and the man-
ner in which it conveys the surface
water away. The bottom of the
drains is sometimes choked with
loose sand, which flows up with the
water, and they require to be cleared
repeatedly ; but this soon ceases after
the first rush is past, and the water

the bottom of the drain through the
stiffer soil, and, according to the prin-
ciple explained in the diagram, the
water will either rise through these
bores into the drains and be carried
off, and the natural springs will be
dried up, or it will sink down through
them as at G, in the section, if it lies
above. This method is often advan-
tageous in the draining of peat bogs,
which generally lie on clay or stiff
loam, with a layer of gravel between
the loam and the peat, the whole ly-
ing in a basin or hollow, and often on
a declivity. The peat, though it re-
tains water, is not pervious, and
drains may be cut into it which will
hold water. When the drains are
four or five feet deep and the peat is
much deeper, holes are bored down
to the clay below, and the water is
pressed up through these holes, by
the weight of the whole body of peat,
into the drains, by which it is carried
off. The cuts, Figs. 2 and 3, repre-
sent a common case of this kind ; h, h
(3) are the sides of a hill ; the swampy
lot below is filled with springs, which
are, however, drained by running a

rises slowly and regularly. The sur-
face of the peat being dried, dressed
with lime, and consolidated with
earth and gravel, soon becomes pro-
ductive. If the soil, whatever be its
nature, can be drained to a certain
depth, it is of no consequence what
water may be lodged below it. It is
only when it rises so as to stagnate
about the roots of plants that it is
235

DRAINAGE.

hurtful. Land may be drained so
much as to l)e deteriorated, as expe-
rience has shown.

" When a single large and deep
drain will produce the desired eflect,
it is much better than when there are
several smaller, as large drains are
more easily kept open, and last long-
er tlian smaller ; but this is only the
case in tapping main springs, tor if
the water is ditlused through the sur-
rounding soil, numerous small drains
are more effective : but as soon as
there is a sufficient body of water
collected, the smaller drains should
run into larger, and these into main
drains, which should all, as far as is
practicable, unite into one principal
outlet, by which means there will be
less chance of their being choked up.
WTien the water springs into a drain
from below, it is best to fill up that
part of the drain which lies above
the stones or other materials which
form the channel, with solid earth
well pressed in, and made impervious
to within a few inches of the bottom
of the furrows in ploughed land, or
the sod in pastures ; because the
water running along the surface is
apt to carry loose earth with it, and
choke the drains. When the water
comes in by the sides of the drains,
loose stones or gravel, or any porous
material, should be laid in them to the
line where the water comes in, and a
little above it, over which the earth
may be rammed in tight, so as to al-
low the horses to walk over the drain
without sinking in.

" It sometimes happens that the
water collected from springs, which
caused marshes and bogs below, by
being carried in new channels, may
be usefully employed in irrigating the
land which it rendered barren before ;
not only removing the cause of bar-
renness, but adding positive fertility.
In this case the lower ground must
have numerous drains in it, in order
that the water let on to irrigate it
may not stagnate upon it, but run olT
after it has answered its purpose.

" The third branch in the art of drain-
in ff is the removal of water from imper-
vious soils which lie flat, or in hollows,
2:3G

where the water from rain, snow, or
dews, which cannot sink into the soil
on account of its impervious nature,
and which cannot be carried olT by
evaporation, runs along the surface
and stagnates in every depression.
This is by far the most expensive
operation, in consequence of the num-
ber of drains required to lay the sur-
face dry. It requires much skill and
practice to lay out the drains so as
to produce the greatest effect at the
least expense. There is often a layer
of light earth immediately over a sub-
stratum of clay, and after continued
rains this soil becomes filled with
water, like a sponge, and no healthy
vegetation can take place. In this
case numerous drains must be made
in the subsoU, and over the draining
tiles or bushes, which may be laid at
the bottom of the drains, loose gravel
or broken stones must be laid to with-
in a foot of the surface, so that the
plough shall not reach them. The
water will gradually sink into these
drains and be carried ofT, and the
loose wet soil will become firm and
dry. In no case is the advantage of
draining more immediately apparent.
The average depth is 30 inches.

" It is very seldom that a field is ab-
solutely level ; the first thing, there-
fore, to be ascertained is the greatest
inclmation and its direction. For this
purpose, there is an instrument essen-
tial to a drainer, with which an accu-
rately horizontal line can be ascer-
tained, by means of a plummet, a
bricklayer's level, or a spirit level.
A sufficient fall may thus be found or
artificially made in the drains to car-
ry off the water. The next object
is to arrange drains so that each
shall collect as much of the water in
the sod as possible. Large drains,
except as main drains, are inadmis-
sible. The depth should be such
only that the plough may not reach it,
if the land is arable, or the feet of
cattle tread it in, if it be in pasture.
All the drains which are to collect
the water should lie as nearly at
right angles to the inclination of the
surface as is consistent with a suffi-
cient fall in the drains to make them

DRAINAGE.

run. One foot is sufficient fall for a '
drain 300 feet in length, provided the
drains be not more than twenty feet
apart. The main drains, by being
laid obliquely across the fall of the
frround, will help to take off a part of
the surface water. It is evident that
the drains can seldom be in a straight j
line unless the ground be perfectly
even. They should, however, never :
have sudden turns, but be bent grad- '
ually where the direction is changed.
The flatter the surface and the stiffer
the soil, the greater number of drains
will be required. It is a common
practice with drainers to run a main
drain directly down the slope, how-
ever rapid, and to carry smaller
drains into this alternately on the
right and left, which they call her-
ring-bone fashion. But this can only
be approved of where the ground is
nearly level, and where there is very
little Vail for the main drain. A con-
siderable fall is to be avoided as much |
as possible ; and every drain should \
lie obliquely to the natural run of the j
water. It generally happens that,
besides surface water, there are also
some land-springs arising from a va-
riation in the soil ; these should be
carefully ascertained, and the drains
should be so laid as to cut them off.
" In draining clay land, where there
is only a layer of a few inches of
looser soil over a solid clay, which
the plough never stirs, the drains
need not be deeper than two feet in
the solid clay, nor wider than they
can be made without the sides falling
in. The common draining tile, which
is a flat tile bent in the form of half
a cyUnder, and which can be made at
a very cheap rate, is the best for ex-
tensive surface draining. In solid
clay it requires no fiat tile under it ;
it is merely an arch to carry the loose
stones or earth with which the drain
is filled up. Loose round stones or
pebbles are the best where they can
be procured ; and in default of them,
bushes, heath, or straw may be laid.
In grass land the sod may be laid
over the drain, after it has been filled
up, so as to form a slight ridge over
it. This will soon sink to a level

with the surface. To save the ex-
pense of stone or tiles, drains are
frequently made si.x inches wide at
the bottom ; a narrow channel is cut
in the solid clay, two or three inches
wide and six deep («), leaving a shoul-
der on each side to support a sod,
which is cut so as to fit the drain, and
rest on the shoulders {h) ; this sod
keeps the earth from filling the chan-
nel (see Fiff. 4). It is filled up as de-

scribed before : such drains are made
at a small expense, and will last for
many years.

" Where the clay is not sufficiently
tenacious, the bottom of the drain is
sometimes cut with a sharp angle,
and a twisted rope of straw is thrust
into it. This keeps the earth from
falUng in, and the running of the wa-
ter keeps the channel open ; the straw,
not being exposed to the air, remains
a long time without decaying. It is
a common mistake to suppose that
in these drains water enters from
above ; it rises from below.

" The best materials for large main
drains, where they can be procured,
are flat stones which readily split, and
of which a square or triangular chan-
nel is formed in the bottom of the
drain. If the drain is made merely
as a trunk to carry off the water, it
is best to fill it up with earth, well
pressed in, over the channel made by
the stones. A very useful draining
j tile is used in Berkshire and other
' places, which requires no flat tile un-
der it, even in loose soils, because it
j has a flat foot to rest on, formed of
j the two thick edges of the tile, which,
I nearly meeting when the tile is bent
round, form the foot. The section of
1 the tile is like a horseshoe. It is
237

DRAINAGE.

well adapted for drains where the wa-
ter springs upward, and it is less apt
to slip out 01" its place than the com-
mon tile.

"In draining fields it is usual to
make the outlets of the drains in the
ditch which bounds them. The few-
er outlets there are, the less chance
there is of their being choked : they
should fall into the ditch at two feet
from the bottom, and a wooden trunk,
or one of stone, should be laid so that
the water may be discharged without
carrying the soil from the side of the
ditch. If there is water in the ditch,
it should be kept below the mouth of
the drain. The outlets of all drains
should be repeatedly examined, to
keep them clear ; for wherever wa-
ter remains in a drain it will soon
derange or choke it. The drains
should be so arranged or turned that

the outlet shall meet the ditch at an
obtuse angle towards the lower part
where the water runs to. A drain
brought at right angles into a ditch
must necessarily soon be choked by
the deposition of sand and earth at
its mouth. The channel or water-
way of drains is hable to the inroads
of rats, moles, and other vermin ;
they may be kept out by inserting
occasionally a piece of perforated tin
plate, or wire grates.

" As the draining of wet clay soils
is the only means by which they can
be rendered profitable as arable land,
and the expense is great, various in-
struments and ploughs have been
contrived to diminish manual labour
and expedite the work. Of these one
of the simplest is the common mole
plough (Fig. 5), which, in very stiff
clay, makes a small hollow drain, from

^^^\\\

Lumbert'a Mole Plough.

one foot to 18 inches below the sur-
face, by forcing a pointed iron cylin-
der horizontally through the ground.
It makes a cut through the clay, and
leaves a cylindrical channel, through
which the water which enters by the
slit is carried off. It requires great
power to draw it, and can only be used
when the clay is moist. In meadows
it is extremely useful, and there it
need not go more than a foot under
the sod. Five to ten acres of grass
land may easily be drained by it in a
day. It is very apt, however, to be
filled in dry weather by the soil fall-
ing in ; and moles often do much
damage to it by using it in their sub-
terraneous workings.

" But draining ploughs have been
invented which greatly accelerate the
238

operation of forming drains, by cut-
ting them out in a regular manner,
when they are immediately finished
with the usual tools and filled up.
See Drainivg Plough. It has done
wonders in some of the wet, stiff soils
in Sussex, and is much to be recom-
mended in all wet and heavy clays.
In stony land it cannot well be used.
The subsoil plough, introduced to
public notice by Mr. Smith, of Deans-
ton, may be considered, in some
measure, as a draining plough, for it
loosens the subsoil, so that a few
main drains are sufficient to carry
off all the superfluous moisture ; and
it has, besides, the effect of not carry-
ing off more than what is superfluous.
By means of judicious drains and the
use of the subsoil plough the stiffest

DKA

and wettest land may in time become
the most fertile.

"The tools used in draining are
few and simple. Spades, with taper-
ing blades of different sizes, are re-
quired to difi the drains of the proper
width and the sides at a proper an-
gle. When the drain begins to be
very narrow near the bottom, scoops
are used of different sizes, which are
fi.ved to handles at various anglcjs,
more conveniently to clear the bot-
tom and lay it smooth to the exact
width of the tiles, if these are used ;
for tiie more firmly the tiles are kept
in their places by the solid sides of
the drain, the less likely they are to
be moved.

Figs. 6, 7, 8, represent three of the
most common tools. A heavy plough
is first run in the line of the drain and
back, unless it be desirable to retain
the sod, which must be cut off" with
a spade. In the furrow so made a
hand enters with the spade a, which
is six inches wide at the top, four be-
low, and fourteen inches deep ; the
spits of earth are thrown to the right,
the turf being on the left side. An-
other workman follows with b, which
is four inches above and two or three
below, according to the intended size
of the channel of the drain. Lastly,
the scoop, c, is used to take out the
last portions of earth, and clear away
anv rubbish.

DRA

Fig. 8.

Fi?. 6.

Fig.J.

DRAINING PLOUGH. Several
massive ploughs have been construct-
ed for the purpose of opening the
greater part of the ditch at one stroke ;
they are double mould-board ploughs.
Figs. 1 and 2 represent two views
of Gray's draining plough. In 1 the

side is figured, and 2 is taken from
above, aa are wheels which, with the

front wheel, regulate the depth of the
furrow. A stout coulter, b, is fixed
S39

DRE

before the share to cut the way.
Perpendicularly on each side two
coulters, c, arc fixed, which cut in an
inclined direction to form the sides
of the drain : thoy can be set for any
required inclination. The earth thus
cut is divided by the share, half being
forced up each side of the mould-
board as the plou<,'li advances. It
requires six to eight strong horses to
draw it.

DRASTIC (from dpaariKoc, active).
Medicines which act violently.

DRENCH. In farriery, a large
drink or draught of any liquid reme-
dy given to an animal, usually by
means of a horn properly cut for the
purpose.

A drink is not so portable as a ball ;
it is more troublesome to give, and a
portion of it is usually wasted. Mr.
Stewart strenuously urges the follow-
ing propositions : 1. That draughts,
particularly when pungent or disa-
greeable, are dangerous. 2. That by
no care can the danger be altogether
avoided. 3. That no draught should
be given unless the horse be in dan-
ger of dying without it. 4. That the
safest way of administering draughts

DRI

is to give them when the horse is Ij--
ing. 5. That a draught is seldom or
never absolutely necessary but in dis-
eases that make the horse lie. 6.
That a bottle is a better drenching
instrument than a horn.

DRESSING. In farriery, the ap-
plication of plasters, &c., to wounds.
The application of manure.

DRILL. A long, straight line, in
which seeds or plants are set. Dnll
husbandry is the cultivation of crops
in drills instead of broad-cast.

DRILL MACHINES. Contrivan-
ces for the purpose of running: a drill
furrow, depositing seed therein, and
covering it with earth. They are
simple — making one furrow only, for
beans, pease, &c. — or compound, ma-
king many drills, for wheat, turnips,
&c. The principal difficulty in the
action of drills is the inequality of the
soil. Sometimes a contrivance for
the deposite of manures is added to
the machine, which becomes a seed
and manure dr*l. Adjustments for
the width of furrows are also intro-
duced in the more complex imple-
ments

Ftg. 1 represents the simplest drill

barrow, a is the hopper containing
seed ; the bottom is closed by a cyl-
inder, in which there are holes at
proper distances for one or more
seeds ; this is made to revolve by
a string or strap of leather passing

from the axis of the wheel to the
axis of the cylinder ; c is a coulter
which scrapes the furrow, and behind
it the seeds are deposited as the cyl-
inder turns round. Such a machine
has to be used upon land already pre-

Fig. 2

240

DRILL MACHLXES.

pared, and is run along the summit
of the furrows.

Fig. 2 is a much more important
single drill for beans, &c. It is fur-
nished with a circular coulter, c ; a
small double-moukl-hoard plough ; a
wheel, a, to regulate the depth of
furrow ; and an arrangement of le-
vers, b, by which the seed-cylinder is
thrown out of gearing in a moment
by the workman, as the barrow is
moving over the butts, &c. The re-
volving cylinder, in this case, is mo-
ved by an axis furnished with a cog-
wheel, set in motion by the wheel
itself. It is a very excellent ma-

chine, and can be used to prepare
the soil, or on level ground, without
previous ploughing.

Figs. 3 and 4 represent views of
a turnip drill barrow, with a contri-
vance for fluid manure, water, &c.,
to be deposited at the time of sow-
ing. The seeds are contained in a
cylindrical tin can, furnished with
holes at proper distances, b ; this is
set in motion by the band running
from the wheel, and deposites the
seed in a funnel, the front part of
which scrapes the drill ; a is the res-
ervoir of fluid, which discharges its
contents along the tube, d, immedi-

ately upon the seed sown ; after
the stream, the roller, e, serves
to cover the seed, and thus com-
pletes the operation. Figure
4 represents the seed cylinder,
funnel, and roller from behind.
The stream of fluid manure is
necessarily very fine.

Weir's manuring one-ro\o drill
IS figured in 5 and 6. It is a
great improvement on the cele-
brated Northumberland turnip
drill.
X

341

DRILL MACHINES.

" It has a manure hopper, a, and a
seed hopper, b, the same as the oth-
er; but the manure, in place of being
dropped along with the seed, is de-
posited in a deep gutter made by a
coulter, c, which goes before ; this
manure is covered by a pronged coul-
ter, (/, which follows the other ; next
comes the coulter which forms the
gutter for the seed, c. The seed is
thus deposited about one inch above
the manure. One roller of the eon-
cave kind goes before the machine,
and another light one of the common
kind follows after it ; or, without at-

tached rollers, the drill may be affixed
to one side of the common roller, be-
hind, which roller may prepare one
drill and cover the seed sown on an-
other each course."

The deposite of seed in this and
the best drills is managed by a re-
volving axis, turned by a cog-wheel,
which fits into a wheel on the axis
of the large wheel,/.

Morion's grain drill, for three or
five furrows, is shown in Ftg. 7. The
following is Loudon's account of this
machine :

" It is decidedly the simplest and

best of grain drills. In this machine
three hoppers are included in one
box, the seed escaping out of all the
three by the revolution of three seed
cylinders upon one axle ; and drills
of different breadths are produced
simply by the shifting of a nut, that
fixes a screw moving in a groove in
the under-frame, by which the dis-
tance between the two outside con-
ductors and the central one (which
is fixed) can be varied from nine to
ten or eleven inches ; and that the
two small wheels may always be at
the same distances respectively as
the conductors, there are two wash-
ers (hollow cylinders), an inch iu
breadth, on the axle-arms of each,
which may be transferred either to
the outside or inside of the wheels,
so as to make their distances from
the outside conductors nine, ten, or
eleven inches respectively also. The
small wheels may be raised or de-
pressed, so as to alter the depth at
which the seed shall be deposited, by
the action of a wedge, which retains
242

the upright part of the axle in any
one of a number of notches, which
are made similarly in both, and which
are caught by an iron plate on the
upper side of the arms which carry
the axles. This machine may be still
farther improved by increasing the
number of conductors to five instead
of three, the latter number giving too
light work to the horses."' — {Highland
Soc. Trans., vol. vii.)

Cooke's grain drill is seen in Fig.
8. It has been long employed with
Fig. 6.

DRILL MACHINES.

success in the light soils of Norfolk
and Suffolk, England. On the beam,
a, the coulters to prepare drills are
arranged, the whole being capable of
lateral motion, so as to compensate
for irregularities in the motion of the
horse. The arrangement by which
the grain is conveyed from the hop-
per, by small cups fixed on stems,
into the funnels, is also seen in the
section. The ends of the funnels
which deliver seed are free to move
a few inches, so as to overcome ine-
qualities in the ground. This imple-
ment is also arranged as a common
horse hoe, or scarifier, by taking off
the apparatus for sowing.

The most important machine of
this class is the lever drill, which is
calculated to sow at a uniform depth
in uneven soils ; it is, however, ex-
pensive.

In the annexed figure (9) the box
for sowing manure is not added, as it
is in the Northumberland drill. The
drill is supported on a frame and two
wheels. The box A, which holds the
seed, lets it down gradually into a
lower part, in which the cylinder,
which has the small cups fixed to its
circumference, is turned by the wheel
D. By means of the lever G this
may be raised so that its teeth are
freed from those of the wheel E, and
the motion of the cylinder is stopped.
The coulters which make the drills
are each fixed to a lever, at one end
of which, B, a weight is fixed to press
the coulter into the ground. Each
coulter has a separate lever, so that
it adapts itself to all the inequalities
of the soil. A chain proceeds from
the end of each, and may be wound
round a cylinder, C, by turning the
handles fixed to it at H, where there
is also a racket-wheel to prevent its
unwinding. The intent of this is to
raise all the coulters out of the ground
when the drill is not intended to act,
or is moved from place to place.
When the drill is used, the box A is
filled with seed, and the slide in it so
adjusted as to supply it regularly ;
the lever G, which was fixed down,
is raised, and the wheel D connected
with the wheel E. As the horses

proceed the cylinder turns, the cups
take up the seed, and throw it into
the funnels, K K, which conduct it to
the drill behind the coulter. A light
harrow or a bush-harrow follows,
which covers the seed. In very loose
soils the roller completes the opera-
tion.

Other forms and modifications of
this class of machines exist; thus, a
patent was taken out by Mr. Hornsby
for a drill to sow at intervals instead
of along the whole line. In the Uni-
ted States, drills have not been much
used ; BemcnVs is similar to the one
in Fig. 1, and is somewhat employ-
ed for beans. Messrs. Pennock, of
Pennsylvania, have a patent for a
grain drill of considerable merit and
success.

From the neglect with which such
contrivances have been treated, some
may suppose that they are not of
much value ; this is by no means the
case, as the following summary by
Mr. Binns shows :

1. The seed is delivered with reg-
ularity.

2. It is deposited at proper depths.

3. The weeds, during the growth
of plants, are destroyed wuth great
facility.

4. The plants cultivated receive
the undivided benefit of the soil and
manure, and have not to maintain a
constant struggle with weeds.

5. The land, by the process of hoe-
ing, is undergoing preparations for
another crop.

6. The necessity of summer fallow-
ing is avoided.

7. By admission of the sun and air
between the rows, a stronger and
healthier plant is produced, and of
course a heavier crop.

8. By stirring the soil it is more
susceptible of benefit from the atmo-
sphere, imbibing more oxygen, and
being both warmed and enriched by
the sun.

9. The roots shoot freely in pul-
verized soil.

10. By drilling, the farmer is en-
abled to have heavier crops of beans
and wheat on light land.

11. Clover and grass seeds answer

243

DRILL MACHLNES.

214

DRY

DUC

incomparably better in tlie pulveriza-
tion produced by hoeing, independent
of the clearness from weeds.

12. The drills give facility for de-
positing smaller portions of manure
with greater effect.

A saving of half the seed is also
effected. But, on the other hand, the
expense of hoeing wheat, &.c., very
much increases the price of cultiva-
tion ; although it is, according to the
evidence of practical men, repaid by
the large increase of crop.

The soils most benefited by this
operation are light, sandy, and calca-
reous ; on clays, the treading causes
too much stiffening.

Such crops as beans, pease, cot-
ton, turnips, carrots, and beets are
now most usually sown in drills with
the greatest advantage. Such rough
seeds as carrots require to be first
well rubbed with sand to remove the
spines.

DRILL ROLLER. A roller fur-
nished with a number of sharp rings
projecting from tlie surface, which
cut the earth and leave drills to sow
seeds in : it is only suitable on light
soils.

DROPSY. See Horse, &c.

DROSO.METER (from 6poao^, dew,
and //erpor, a measure). Any arrange-
ment for measuring or weighing the
quantity of dew falUng at any given
time. Dr. Wells's contrivance is the
simplest ; he exposed a known weight
of dry wool, and afterward weighing
it when saturated with dew, obtained
a measure of the increase of moist-
ure.

DRUPE. In botany, a one-celled,
one or two seeded, fleshy fruit ; as the
cherrv, plum, peach.

DRY DISTILLATION. The same
as Destructive Distillation.

DRYING OIL. This usually
means linseed oil which has been
boiled with white-lead. It forms the
basis of many paints.

DRY HOT. A rotting or decay of
wood, whereby it falls gradually into |
powder. It is produced by the action I
of numerous parasitical fungi, prob-
ably of the genus Sporolrichum. It is
Diost usually seen in the new wood, |
X Z

and in damp situations, and may he
perfectly prevented by saturating the
timber with several metallic solutions,
of which blue vitriol (sulphate of cop-
per), acetate of iron {pyrolignate), and
; corrosive sublimate are most certain.
I Allowing wood to be immersed in a
cream of lime, in tar, &c., for some
weeks, or perfectly drying and slight-
ly charring the timber, is an easy pre-
ventive. The methods of preser-
vation by using metallic solutions are
termed Kyanizing, and are now ac-
complished with extensive machines,
for the purpose of expediting the pen-
etration of the fluid. In these cases
the albumen of the wood, which is
most liable to change, is disorgan-
ized and rendered nearly incorrupti-
ble. See Preservation of Timber.

DRY STOVE. A hot-house, in
which the air is kept very dry for trop-
ical plants derived from arid climates,
as cactuses.

DUCK. Many species of the genus
Anas. The common duck is econom-
ical ; one drake serves eight females.
The house should be clean and pro-
vided with nests. They are very fond
of insects, and slugs, toads, &c. The
female lays from fifty to sixty eggs
during March to May ; she sets a
month, and should be sparingly sup-
plied with moist food and kept away
from disturbance. The young should
not be allowed to go to the water at
first, but supplied with a little in a
hole : the duck must be kept cooped.
The ducklings are first to be fed on
bread crumbs soaked in milk, and
subsequently used to meal and herbs.
The feathers are valuable, and should
be plucked as soon as the animal is
dead : September and October are the
best times. It is usual to hatch ducks'
eggs under hens, which are better
nurses. The Muscovy being larger,
is preferred to the common duck by
many, hut is not as tender.

DUCTILITY. The property of be-
ing drawn or beaten into a fine film.
Gold, platinum, and sdver are the
most ductile of metals.

DUCTS. The tubes or tubular
vessels found in the wood, roots,
leaves, &c., of plants, which do not
245

DWA

DYN

contain a fibre cipablo of unrolling.
They are marked with dots, bars, &c.,
and arc probal)ly the channels in
which some part of the ascending sap
flows.

DUMOSE (from dumus, a hush).
Bushy.

DUNES. Hillocks of drift sand
found on the seacoast of New-Eng-
land and elsewhere. They are very
destructive to agriculture, and are to
be arrested only by growing long-root-
ed reed grasses, trees, &c., on them.
Species of Arundo and Elymus have
thus been made to arrest their ad-
vancement towards cultivated lands.

DUNG. See Farm-yard Manure,
Nioht-soil.

DUODENUM. The intestine im-
mediately next to the stomach.

DURA MATER. The fibrous cov-
ering of the brain.

DURAMEN. The heart wood.

DURHAM CATTLE. See Cattle.

DWARF TREES. The art of cul-
tivating fruit-trees of moderate or
dwarf size in the place of large, nat-
ural standards is an important point
in horticulture. Dwarfs are procured
by grafting on slow-growing, small
varieties, as the apple or pear on the
quince stock ; by raising seedlings in
pots, and transplanting into poor, bar-
ren soils, or by causing a branch to
take root and allowing it to fruit as
early as possible. Lopping off the
upright branches is the more common
method of hindering trees from grow-
ing too lofty. Fancy gardeners often
procure ornamental dwarfs of the or-
ange by grafting a cutting with flow-
er buds on a root and allowing it to
fruit. The Chinese are very curi-
ous in the cultivation of ornamental
dwarfs ; the following is the method
employed by them :

" The extremity of a branch, two
or three feet in length, in a fruit or
flower bearing state — for example,
the points of the branches of a fir-
tree bearing cones, or of an elm bear-
ing blossom buds— tjeing fixed on, a
ring of bark is taken off at the point
where it is desired that the roots
should be produced. The space thus
laid bare is covered with a ball of
246

moist clay, which is kept moist by
being covered with moss, which is
occasionally watered. In the course
of two or three months in some trees,
and of a year or two in others, roots
are protruded into the ball of clay.
The branch may then be cut off be-
low the part from whence the roots
have been protruded, and the branch
being planted in a pot of poor soil,
and kept sparingly supplied with wa-
ter, it will remain nearly in its pres-
ent state for many years, producing
leaves, and, perhaps, flowers, annual-
ly, but never shoots longer than a few
lines."

DYEING. See Cottoyi Dyeing, and
the different colours.

DYER'S BROOM. See Wood
Wa.reyi.

DYER'S WEED. Weld.

DYKE. A low earthen wall ; an
embankment. In geology, a mass of
condensed mineral matter, such as
granite, porphyry, basalt, trap, &c.,
found intersecting strata, and evi-
dently produced by injection, in a
molten condition, through the strata.
They have been formp I during vio-
lent earthquakes, ant' are very im-
portant as forming an impervious
barrier to the drainage of land, and
giving rise to springs on hillsides.

DYNAMICS (from 6vvau.i^, power).
The science which examines the laws
and conditions of motion, in contra-
distinction to mechanics, which in-
vestigates the conditions of rest and
action of forces not producing mo-
tion.

DYNAMOMETER (from Swafiic,
and fiETpov, a measure). An instrument
for the purpose of measuring the
amount of strength or force exerted
in any draught, &c. In ascertaining
the draught for ploughs and other
agricultural implements, dynamome-
ters are now regularly introduced.
The commonest is Regnier's, consist-
ing of two semi-elliptical bars of steel
welded together at the ends, one of
which is affixed to the clevis of the
plough and the other to the hook of
the swinging trees. As draught is
made the springs are pulled closer
together, and set an index in motion

DYNAMOMETER.

over a clock face marked into pounds
and hundreds. Leroy's implement
is a strong spring enclosed in a
box of cast iron, and in every re-
spect similar to Salter's spring bal-
ance.

The objection urged against these
dynamometers is, that the inequali-
ties of the soil produces so much vi- i
bration in the index that no satisfac- j
tory measures can be made. The
following contrivance to obviate this |
is the best proposed :

" The improvement consists in the
attachment of a small brass pump !
filled with oil, the piston of which j
has one or two small apertures, i

There being no outlet from the pump,
it is evident that when any shock oc-
curs, caused by a stone, root, &c.,
the oil having to pass from one side
of the piston to the other, the sud-
denness is greatly diminished by the
resistance, producing a correspond-
ing effect upon the pointer, which, as
these shocks are rapid, vibrates near-
er the actual draught of the machine,
which is the object in view, and not
the measurement of any impediment,
but a mean result of the whole."

i'Vi,'-. 1 represents an extemporane-
ous dynamometer recommended by
Mr. Cone, in the American Agricul-
turist.

h is the beam of the plough ; c,
common swinging trees ; a is an
ordinary steelyard hitched on to the
clevis and trees : the end of the yard
is fastened to a line which passes
from the hook of a common spring
balance, d, the other end of which is
also attached to another line tied to the
left handle of the plough. When the
horses pull, the steelyard lies in the
line of draught, and therefore draws
upon the balance, the sliding rod of
which is pulled out to an extent pro-
portionate to the draught.

For the purpose of making uniform
implements, Mr. Cone proposes that
the steelyard be constructed so that
1 lb. shall equipoise 32 lbs. near the
point of suspension, as in Fig. 2.
Adopting this, the measure of draught
is readily made ; for if the spring is
drawn out to 10 lbs., we multiply by

32, and add 10 lbs., so as to make
the draught 330 lbs. ; the number of
lbs. indicated by the spring is always
added to the sum, for that weight
would be necessary at the beam end
to balance it, and must not be omit-
ted. Any steelyard answers ; and we
may fa.sten the line at any convenient
mark, taking care afterw^ard to mul-
tiply the weight on the yard by that
on the spring, and adding as many
247

EAR

Ihs. as would be necessary to balance I
the steelyard. This is, however, only
a coarse measure for the convenience
of the farmer, to enable him to ascer-
tain the draught of two different
ploughs, &c.

DYSENTERY (from <k>c, difficulty,
and evrepa, bowels). A looseness of
the bowels, attended with great pain
and loss of strength, and endemic.
See Horse, Ox.

DYSPEPSIA (from 6vc, difficulty,
and mnTL), I digest). Disordered di-
gestion, loss o( appetite, unnatural
appetite, &c. It is to be repaired by
simple diet, temperance, and exer-
cise.

DYSPNCEA (from dvg, difficulty,
and nvEco, I breathe). Difficulty of
breathing : a symptom of disease of
the chest or heart.

E.
EAR. In a horse, the ears should
be small, narrow, straight, and the
substance of them thin and delicate.
They should be placed on the very
top of the head ; and their points,
when pricked up, should be nearer
together than their roots. When a
horse carries his ears pointed for-
ward, he is said to have a bold or
brisk ear. In travelling, it is consid-
ered an advantage when the horse
keeps them firm.

EARS OF GRAIN. The spike
of wheat, corn, barley.

EARTH. In chemistry, those me-
tallic oxides which are colourless,
nearly or quite insoluble in water,
the metallic basis of which is obtain-
ed only with difficulty, and rapidly
oxidizes, are termed earths. The
entire list includes but ten species :
lime, magnesia, baryta, strontia, alu-
mina, glucina, thorina, zirconia, yt-
tria, and silica ; but of these lime,
alumina, and silica form the bulk of
the soils and rocks of the globe.
Magnesia is also rather abundant,
but most of the remainder are very
rare bodies. With the exception of
silica, which is an acid, they are ba-
ses. See the eartlis separately.

EARTHS, PHYSICAL PROPER-
TIES OF. The power of absorbing
24S

EAR

moisture and heat, of transmitting
fluids, and drying into dust or a hard
mass, are termed the physical quali-
ties of soils, and contribute, in a great
measure, to their fertility. This sub-
ject has been well investigated by
Mr. Schubler.

Capacity for holding Water. — If
soils of different kinds be wetted un-
til the fluid drops, it will be found
that

lbs. lbs.

100 of dry sand retain 25 of water.
100 of calcareous sand 29 "
100 of loamy soil . . 40 "
100 of clay loam . . 50 "
100 of strong clay . 79 "
100 of peat 100 and more.

Good soils hold from forty to fifty

per cent, of water.

Absorbing Poiver. — Soils not only

hold water, but absorb it from the air

unequally. Thus, a quantity spread

out to the same extent,

lbs.

of sand, absorbed . 0 of water,
of calcareous sand . 3 "
sandy loam ... 21 "
strong clay ... 30 "
garden mould ... 35 "
In the same way, they retain moist-
ure very unequally, sand losing it
four times more rapidly than mould.
Absorption of Gases. — A well-tilled
soil is continually absorbing from the
air gaseous matter, and its fertility
is, in a considerable degree, connect-
ed with this property. According to
Mr. Schubler, mould absorbs eleven
times, and clay nine times as fast as
sand.

I Absorption of Heat. — Black, well-

i tilled, and drained soils become more
rapidly heated, and to a greater de-
gree than such as are wet, of a light
colour, or baked. In the same way,
those that heat rapidly, cool rapidly,
and are more subject to frosts. By
experiments, mould cools in one third
the time, and clay in two thirds the
time of sand ; so that, if they be
equally heated, the sand will be warm
for hours after the mould is cold.

I Hence the latter absorbs dew and con-
tracts frost much more quickly than

, sandy soils.

EBU

EGG

Adhesiveness, or the toughness of
lands, is of moment in working. Mr.
Piisey measured the force necessary
to draw the same plough through dif-
ferent soils, and found it for a

peat soil .... 280 pounds,

sandy loam . . . 250 "

loamy sand . . . 230 "

clay loam . . . 400 "

strong clay . . . 661 "
When this is considerable in pomt
of expense, it appears that it requires
nearly three times as much money to
turn a clay as it does a sandy soil.

The physical qualities, when im-
perfect, can be modified. Sand, ve-
getable matter, charcoal, and lime,
are used to lighten soils ; clay and
marls to stiffen those already too po-
rous. The character of any field de-
pends, in a great measure, upon the
subsoil; for upon a very porous sub-
soil a stiff clay is good to retain a
large quantity of water, whereas very
light lands are greatly Improved by
an impervious subsoil.

EARTH E.\TING. Horses and
oxen frequently eat a small amount
of earth. This, if persevered in, in-
dicates disordered digestion. It is
supposed by Youatt that the earth
may serve as a gentle purge.

EARTH NUTS. Numerous bulbs
are edible, and hence are called earth
nuts. The principal is the Pindar,
which see.

EARTH-WORM. Lumbrictts ter-
restris. Earth - worms are, on the
whole, serviceable to soils, by loosen-
ing and perforating them, and are said
to injure plants and seeds but little.
They indicate rich soil. Salt, applied
at the rate often bushels the acre, or
a heavy liming, destroys them effect-
ually for a season.

EARTHY MANURES. Marl,
lime, clay, and sand are so called.
They should rather be termed amend-
ments, since they serve to give the
soil new mechanical qualities.

EARWIG. Forficula auricularis.
A troublesome insect in Europe, but
rare in the United States.

EBl.'LLITION. Boiling. The
boiling point of different fluids is oft-
en of great importance. Water boils

at 212^ alcohol at UG", sulphuric
acid at 600^, Mercury at 6G2-, lin-
seed oil at 640% oil of turpentine at
316^, nitric acid at 248^, and ether
at 100-.

EDULCORATION. A chemical
term, meaning the repeated washing
by pure water of precipitates or pow-
ders until they are freed from soluble
impurities.

EFFERVESCENCE. The dis-
turbance made in a fluid by the es-
cape of gas.

EFFLORESCENCE. Some salts,
like carbonate of soda or soda ash,
by exposure to air lose their trans-
parency, and become white, crum-
bling into powder. This is termed
efflorescence. The same expression
also designates the appearance of
crystals upon earthy, rocky, or other
mineral surfaces.

EGGS. The white is a solution of
albumen with soda, and contains 85
per cent, of water ; the yellow con-
sists of 28 75 fat, 17 5 albumen, 55
salts, and the rest water. They are
eminently nutritive. Eggs are pre-
served by being packed, with the
small end downward, in salt ; they
are also dipped into a cream of lime.
The box in which they are packed
should be turned upside down every
two or three weeks, to hinder the
yolks from settling. The duty on
eggs in England of two cents a dozen
may render their exportation profita-
ble ; immense numbers are now sent
there from France. Eggs are read-
ily hatched by artificial heat, and a
machine called the " Eccaleobion"
has been exhibited for this purpose,
in which steam is used.

EGG PLANT. Solanum melange-
na. The purple kind is used for culin-
ary purposes, and is much esteem-
ed by many persons : the white, bear-
ing a fruit very similar to a hen's
egg, is ornamental. The seed must
be sown in a hot-bed in March, and
the plants taken with a ball of earth,
and set out in warm weather (April
or .May), about two feet apart ; they
require a rich, warm soil, and bear,
in August and September, fruit often
as large as a large muskmelon. The
249

ELA

fruit of the white is usnl in France
as food. As they contain an acrid
principle, care is taken in the cooking
to remove it ; tiiis is done by warm-
ing thin slices in water, or allowing
it to steep in salt and water over
night, draining ofT the fluid, washing
well in fresh water, and then frying
in batter, &c. An ounce of good
seed yields 4000 plants. The ut-
most care is necessary to preserve
the young plants from being chilled
to death in the Northern States: it is
altogether a tender vegetable.

The S. i7isa7iiuni, or downy egg
plant, is occasionally cultivated in the
United States.

EGYPTIAN CORN. Sorghum.
An annual resembling broom corn,
but. producing a large, exposed ear,
with small, brown grains, condensed
together. It is to be planted and
managed like corn, but may be set
rather closer. The yield of grain is
from 75 to 100 bushels ; it is recom-
mended for poultry. The fodder ap-
pears to be inferior to that of Indian
corn, and, excepting the yield, there
does not seem to be anything to in-
duce the cultivation.

ELAIN (from eUiov, oil). The
fluid oil existing in fats, &c., which
may be separated by pressure, by cold,
or by digestmg in seven or eight times
its weight of boiling alcohol, which
acts upon the fat or tallow in such a
way that the elain floats above the
alcoholic solution, and the solid, or
stearin, sinks below when cold. See
Fats.

ELASTICITY. The power cer-
tain bodies possess of returning back
to their original bulk or position when
bent or compressed. Gases are the
most elastic bodies known, fluids the
least, and metals difTer exceedingly
in this respect.

Heating metals to a certain point
and suddenly cooling by immersion
in water imparts elasticity in some
cases ; steaming timbers also in-
creases the quality, for the time, in a
great measure.

" The principal phenomena of elas-
tic bodies are the following ; 1. That
an elastic body (the elasUcity being
250

ELD

supposed perfect) exerts the same
force in endeavouring to restore it-
self as that with which it was com-
l)ressed or bent. 2. The force of
elastic bodies is exerted equally in
all directions, but the effect chiefly
takes place on the side on which the
resistance is the least. 3. When an
elastic solid body is made to vibrate
by a sudden stroke, the vibrations
are performed in equal times, to
whatever part of the body the stroke
may be communicated. Thus, sono-
rous bodies always emit sounds of
the same pitch ; and the difference
of the pitch depends on the greater or
less frequency of the vibrations of
the sonorous body. 4. A body per-
fectly incompressible cannot be elas-
tic, therefore bodies perfectly solid
can have no elasticity ; and hence,
also, the small degree of elasticity
belonging to the liquids, which are em-
inently incompressible." — (Brandc.)

ELATER (from e/.arrjp, a Icaper).
A genus of spring beetles ; they are
vegetable feeders, the larvaj doing
occasionally much mischief to garden
plants by gnawing the roots. The
Elatcr noctducus is our common fire-
fly, the E. lineatus the wire-vvorra in-
sect.

ELATERIUM. Momordica clete-
riuni. Squirting cucumber. An in-
digenous annual vine, bearing a small
fruit like the cucumber, the juice of
which is a drastic purge.

ELBOW. The shoulder-joint of
cattle. A bend in carpentry.

ELDER. Two varieties are in-
digenous to the United States ; Sam-
buciis Canadensis, the common pest
of hedge-rows and margins of ponds,
and .S'. pubesccns, bearing a red berry,
common in the mountains of Penn-
sylvania. The black elder is of con-
siderable economical value ; the juice
of the berries, fermented with sugar,
forms an agreeable wine ; adecoction
of the fresh leaves is very obnoxious
to insects, and may be extensively
used in the garden ; it is also offen-
sive to moles. Sheep are said to se-
lect the leaves as a natural remedy
in rot. The plants, which grow from,
eight to fifteen feet high, are recom-

ELE

Er,E

mended as a cheap hedge. On the
other hand, it is a great nuisance on
wet lands, from the rapidity of its
growth, but may i)e destroyed by cut-
ting down two or three times during
the summer, and grubbing in the fall.

ELDER. BOX. A common name
for the ash-leaved maple.

ELECAMPANE, hmla Hdrnivm.
A naturalized composite perennial,
yielding roots with a bitter, aromatic
taste. It is of little importance.

ELECTIVE AFFINITY. A chem-
ical term, meaning the preference ex-
erted by a body to combine with an-
other in place of one already in union.
Thus, potash will unite with sulphu-
ric acid, although it be already com-
bined with iron ; the iron is separa-
ted, and gives place to the potash,
wliich is preferred or elected. It is
governed by electrical forces, like all
other cases of chemical union.

ELECTRICITY. A peculiar in-
fluence or force, which is made evi-
dent by attracting light bodies, pro-
ducing a spark, or jarring the body of
animals. Some consider it material,
although its weight cannot be meas-
ured ; hence the term imponderable,
applied to electricity, light, and heat.

"This truly extraordinary power of
matter, independent of the interest
that always belonged to it, has of
late years acquired much importance,
from its influence over chemical phe-
nomena and its connexion with those
of magnetism. When a clean glass
tube is rubbed with the dry hand, or
with a piece of silk, it attracts arrd re-
pels any light substances — such as
feathers, bran, or little pieces of pa-
per— which are brought near it ; a
stick of sealing- w^ax rubbed upon dry
flannel exhibits the same appearan-
ces, and, to a superficial observer,
seems to be exactly in the same state
as the glass ; and they are said to be
electrically excited. But, on more
close examination, it is found that
when the light bodies are atlractcd by
excited glass, they are repelled by exci-
ted sealing-wax, andiricc versa, so that
the glass and wax are said to be in
opposite electric states ; and hence the
terms vitreous and resinous, or positive

and negative electricity. But these
two states are always coexistent ;
thus, when the glass is rubbed by silk
the glass becomes positive, but the
silk becomes negative ; and in the
case of sealing-wax rubbed by flan-
nel, the wax is negative, but the flan-
nel is positive.

" A similar excitation of electrici-
ty is seen in an infinity of other ca-
ses ; as when we rub a cat's back
with the hand, or a piece of silk rib-
and is drawn briskly between the fin-
gers, or a sheet of paper rubbed with
India rubber, or a metal rod with a
silk handkerchief. These, and other
extraordinary phenomena connected
with them, are hypothetically refer-
red to the presence of a peculiar form
of matter, called the electric fluid; it
is supposed to appertain to all mat-
ter, but to become evident only when
in redundance or deficiency. When
glass is rubbed with silk, the equilib-
rium of the electric fluid is disturbed,
the silk imparts it to the glass ; and
hence the former, losing electricity,
becomes minus or negative, and the
latter, acquiring electricity, becomes
plus or positive. This is commonly
called ' Franklin's theory,' having
been proposed and defended by that
celebrated electrician. Others have
assumed the existence of two fluids
as essential to the explanation of
electrical phenomena ; both equally
subtile, elastic, and universally diffu-
sed, and each highly repulsive as to
its own particles, and attractive of
those of the opposite kind. Electri-
cal quiescence is referred to the com-
bination of these fluids and their con-
sequent mutual neutralization ; and
electrical excitation is the conse-
quence of either being free or in ex-
cess. It is supposed that they are
sejjarated by friction, and by all those
other causes which give rise to the
appearance of free electricity. Either
of these hypotheses may be adopted
as facilitating the explanation of elec-
trical phenomena, and as conferring
meaning (in terms which would oth-
erwise be unintelligible: of the two,
the sini[)l(>st, or that which refers the
piienomena to one fluid, js perhaps

ELECTRICITY.

tlie most generally applicable. Both
are, apparently, equally consistent
with facts ; but the existence of any
fluid, or form of matter, as the cause
of electrical phenomena, is at best
extremely problematical.

" There are two series of distinct
phenomena rei)rcsente(l by electrified
bodies : the one seems to result from
the accumulation of electricity upon
the surface of bodies ; they are com-
monly included under the term elcctri-
cilij of tension, and are well exhibited
by the common electrical machine
and its prime conductor. It affects
all neighbouring bodies ; and they are
thrown by it into a polar electrical
state, by what is termed induction :
it has a tendency to pass off in sparks
through the air, or gradually to escape
from points. The thumlor-storm fur-
nishes a magnificent specimen of this
state of electricity. The other state
of sensible electricity is that exhibit-
ed by electricity in mo/ion ; as when
a current of electricity is passing
through a w'ire or other conducting
medium ; in this case a \ast quantitij
of electricity may be concerned in the
phenomena without any apparent in-
tensity ; but while the current is con-
tinuous it produces magnetic phe-
nomena of a most extraordinary char-
acter ; and when the perfect conduct-
or is broken by the intervention of
certain other media, they suffer, in
some cases, chemical decomposition,
and in others become heated, and
even ignited. The phenomena of
electricity in motion are best exhib-
ited by the Voltaic apparatus.

" In all electrical experiments, re-
markable differences are observed in
respect to the transfer of the electric
fluid through different bodies : some,
such as the metals, allow its free and
nearly unimpeded passage through
their substance ; while others receive
and retain it more superficially, such
as glass, resin, and other substances
which exhibit attractive and repul-
sive powers when rubbed. Hence
the division of bodies into conductors
and non-conductors.

"Many most important electrical
phenomena depend, apparently, upon

induction, a subject which has been
ably studied by Faraday. We shall
here enter into such details only as
are required to render some of the
principal terms employed in discuss-
ing electrical phenomena intelligible.
"If P-f- represent a metallic sphere
in a highly positive -n- r t.
electric state, and N @
P a metallic conduct-
or in its vicinity in-
sulated upon a glass
stem, it will be found that the ex-
tremity N of N P is negative, while
the other extremity, P, is positive,
and that these opposite electricities
are greatest at the extremities of the
conductor, and gradually diminish to-
wards the centre line, C, which is
neutral. This extraordinary state of
excitation in N P is entirely depend-
ant upon the proximity of P -}- ; for
if P -j- be withdrawn, N P loses all
appearance of electricity ; and the
degree of excitement in it is directly
proportional to the extent to which
P 4" is excited, and (within certain
limits) to its nearness to N ; so that
fluctuations in the electricity of N P
will be observed in proportion as P -|-
is brought towards or removed from
N, provided they are not brought into
contact, and that no spark passes.
These phenomena have been theoret-
ically explained upon the supposition
that the free electricity in P -j- dis-
turbs the equilibrium of the natural
electricity of N P, and, by repelling it
from N to P, leaves the former minus
and the latter plus. Or, if we assume
the existence of two electric fluids,
then the free positive electricity of
P -\- repels the positive fluid of N P,
and attracts its negative fluid, throw-
ing it into an electro-polar state. If
N P, instead of being insulated, be
connected by its extremity, P, with
the ground, the accumulation at P
is prevented, while N retains its de-
ficient or negative state ; or, upon the
other theory, the positive fluid at P is
neutralized by a supply of negative
fluid from the earth ; and if, after
having effected this by momentarily
touching N P with the finger, we sud-
denly remove P -{-, the insulated con-

ELECTRICITY.

ductor, N P, will be left with an ex-
cess of negative electricity.

" It will be obvious, from the above
statement, that when light bodies, es-
pecially if they be conductors, are at-
tracted by eleetritied surfaces in their
vicinity, they are thrown by induc-
tion into opposite electrical states ;
and when the hand is brought near
the excited conductorof the electrical
machine, it becomes negative, and
remains so until the equilibrium is
restored by the passage of a spark ;
which phenomenon is supposed to be
the result of the combination of the
two electric fluids.

" Many important phenomena of
electrical accumulation are
explained by reference to the
principles of induction, and
among them the action of the
I.rydcn jar, or vial. A thin
i;hiss jar, or bottle, A, is coat-
ed inside and out, to within
three or four inches of its mouth, with
some conducting substance ; tin foil,
being especially convenient for the
purpose, is generally used ; and a
metaUic rod, projecting a few inches
from the aperture, and surmounted
by a brass ball, B, communicates with
the interior coating.

" When the ball is applied to the
prime conductor of the electrical ma-
chine, and the outer coating commu-
nicates with the ground, the interior
acquires a positive and the exterior
a negative charge ; and on making a
communication by means of a con-
ductor between the inner and outer
coatings, the electricities are annihi-
lated with the production of a bright
spark and explosion, and by a most
disagreeable sensation, called the
electric shock, if the body be made
part of the circuit. When several
jars are so arranged that their inte-
rior and e.xterior coatings are all sep-
arately connected, the assemblage
constitutes the electrical battery.

" In the common electrical machines,
electricity is excited by the friction of
the plate or cylinder of glass upon the
cushions or rubbers ; and the glass
becomes positive, and communicates
the same state to the opposed con-
Y

ductor, generally termed the prime
conductor of the machine ; the rubber
becomes negative, and is sometimes
connected with a second conductor.
" The annexed figures represent
the two com-
mon forms of
the electrical
machine. The
first is the cyl-
inder machine,
commonly call-
ed Nairne's ma-
chine. B is the
glass cylinder,
which is made
to revolve upon its axis by the mul-
tiplying wheels, F C, the necessary
friction for the electric excitation be-
ing produced by the cushion and silk
flap, D. A A are the positive and
negative conductors : the latter, bear-
ing the cushion, is adjusted as to its
requisite pressure upon the cylinder
by the screw at E. The conductors
are respectively supported and insu-
lated by the glass pillars G G, which
should be coated with lac varnish ;
and the axis of the cylinder rests upon
the pillars H H, which are also of
glass. The second figure represents
the flatc machine, usually termed
Cuthbertson's machine, in which A
is the prime con-
ductor, borne by
a stout glass stem
which is attached
to the frame of the
machine. B B are
the upper and low-
er pairs of cush-
ions, by which, to-
gether with the
silk flaps, C C,the
necessary friction
is obtained. E is the disk of plate
glass, which is made to revolve upon
its axis by the winch F. In this ma-
chine, as the cushions or rubbers are
not insulated, the negative electrici-
ty cannot be separately accumulated
or exhibited, as in the cylinder ma-
chine.

" There are many other and highly
important causes of electric excita-
tion than those above adverted to ;
253

ELE

ELE

such as contact of diflercnt metals."

See Galramxm. — {linuidr's Dirt.)

ELECTKICITV APPLIED TO
AGRICT'ETdKE. Much interest lias
been taken of lato in the application
of this agent to forwarding garden
vegetables, and indeed field crops.
Two plans are pursued. Wires are

Wire.

A number of these, at distances of
tvvo to four feet, are arranged through
the field, and the grain or plants sown
on the soil or in drills. It is stated
on good authority that rye, oats,
wheat, &c., so treated are singularly
developed and advanced in maturity:
it may be worthy of trial. In this
case the atmospheric electricity is
supposed to act.

The second plan is a galvanic ar-
rangement, but may be best intro-
duced here. Earge plates of sheet
copper and zinc are used, the size
depending upon the distance at which
they are placed : 18 inches deep and
three feet long may be used at a dis-
tance of 50 feet ; these are sunk into
the soil vertically, excepting three

supported upon atrellis running north
and south, at a height of four or six
feet ; at the ends of each trellis they
are bent down to the ground and
about three inches below it, and are
conveyed at this depth through the
soil, from one to the other end, so that
the wire forms a parallelogram, thus :

Surface of the earth.

inches of the top, which is left ex-
posed ; from one to the other pass-
es a stout copper wire, which is
well soldered to both and sustained
by a few sticks or a trellis. Such an
arrangement may be made to enclose
four or five drills of potatoes, carrots,
parsnips, &c. The fluid of the earth,
acting on the zinc, produces a corro-
sion, which gives rite to the galvanic
or electric current that traverses the
soil, and is said to cause plants to
grow very rapidly. This experiment,
tried with potatoes by Mr. Ross on
Long Island, was very successful, in
his opinion ; it is so manageable and
cheap as to be worthy of considera-
tion to market gardeners. The whole
will appear thus :

Wire supported by sticks above the soil.

Surface of the soil.

Zinc plate.

ELECTRODE (from rjlEKTpov, and
6(5of, a way). The surfaces l)v wjiich
electricity passes into and out of oth-
er media have been called by Mr.
Faraday electrodes. The term has
also sometimes been derived from
j;/l?/crpoi', arnhcr, and eido^., like, and
applied to substances wjiich, like am-
ber, becoiTie electric by friction.

E L E C T R 0-D Y NAM I C S ( from
riACKTpov, and ih'vnui^, porcer). The
phenomena of electricity in motion.
2.54

Copper plate.

ELECTROLYTE (from v^eKrpov,
and ?.v(j, I set free). Sulistanees sus-
ceptible of direct decomposition by
the action of the electric current :
hence, also, the verb electrolyze, i. e.,
to resolve compounds into their ele-
ments by the agency of electricity.
Faraday has shown that in many
supposed cases of electrolysis the
evolution of elements is the conse-
<iuence of a secondary action ; tlie
sulphur, for instance, which is thus

ELE

ELE

evolved at the negative pole from
sulphuric acid, is the result of the ev-
olution of hydrogen at that pole. In
all cases of true electrolytic action,
sulphur appears at the anode.

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. When
a current of electricity is traversing
any substance, or when electricity is
in motion, magnetism is at the same
time developed. This fact was first
observed by Professor Oersted of Co-
penhagen, and has become the source
of an important series of discoveries
included under the above term. The
excitation of magnetism depends
upon quantity of electricity, and is
best observed in the wire which clo-
ses the voltaic circle, especially of
one or more pairs of large plates. If
a magnetic needle be brought near a
wire through which an electric cur-
rent is passing, it will immediately
deviate from its usual position, and
assume a new one, dependant upon
the relative position of the needle and
the wire. On placing the electric
wire above and parallel to the mag-
net, the pole next the negative end
of the battery always moves to the
west ; and when the wire is placed
under the needle, the same pole turns
to the east. When the electric wire
is on the same horizontal plane with
the needle, no declination takes place ;
but the magnet shows a disposition
to move in a vertical direction, the
pole next the negative side of the
battery being depressed w'hen the wire
is to the west of it, and elevated when
it is to the east.

The magnetic phenomena of a wire
transmitting electricity are such as
appear to depend upon the circula-
tion of magnetism at right angles to

„ the electric cur-

TTi-.— t - w rent, so that if N

s P represent the

wire transmitting a current of elec-
tricity in the direction of the hori-
zontal darts, a current of magnetism
will be established in the direction
of the vertical dart, appearing to
move round the axis of the electric
current; hence the term vertiginous
or rotary magnetism, applied to these
phenomena ; and hence the motion

I of the pole of the magnet round the

electric wire, or of the electric wire

round the pole of the magnet, when

they respectively are so arranged as

; to be able to move freely in any di-

i rection. If a steel needle be placed

I in contact with the electric wire, and

parallel to it, it acquires opposite

magnetisms upon its two sides ; but

if it be placed at right angles to the

connecting wire, it becomes polar,

and permanently magnetic. If the

electric wire be

twisted into a

spiral, and the _

steel needle pla- ''"'" '~' "*
ced within it (as in the cut), it is
retained there, and becomes a more
powerful magnet in consequence of
the repetitions and direction of the
electric and magnetic currents, as
will be evident from the annexed fig-
ure, where a represents a glass tube
with the wire n p conveying the elec-
tric current twisted round it, the darts
at the ends of which show the ingress
and egress of the electricity, and the
transverse darts the direction of the
magnetic current. If the cylinder
round which the wire conveying the
electric current is twisted be of steel,
it becomes a permanent magnet ; if of
pure soft iron, it becomes a temporary
magnet, so long as the electric current
is in motion, and s and n are
powerfully opposed poles. If
the bar be bent, as in the an-
nexed cut, a powerful horse-
shoe magnet is obtained
when the ends, p n, of the
copper wire twisted round
it are connected with the voltaic cir-
cle ; and a single pair of plates is suf-
ficient for the purpose.

ELECTROMETER (from ?/?.?«-
Tpov, and fxerpov, a measure). An in-
strument for ascertaining the pres-

i\

ence and intensity of electric excita-
tion. The simplest form of electrom-
255

ELE

eter consists of two very sm.ill pith
balls suspended from a small con-
ductor by very fine wire or tliread ;
upon the principle that bodies simi-
larly electrified repel each other, these
diverge upon the reception of very
minute quantities of electricity. Two
thin slii)s of gold leaf are also simi-
larly applied ; and, to prevent the in-
fluence of the agitation of the air upon
them, they are suspended in any con-
venient way under a glass shade.
The other forms of electrometers
generally act upon the same princi-
ple, being respectively adjusted to
the varying degrees of quantity and
intensity.

ELECTROPHORUS (from vT^ek-
Tfiov, and <pepu, I carry). This instru-
ment consists of a flat, smooth cake
of resin. A, which is rendered nega-
tively electrical by friction ; a plate
of brass with a glass handle is then
placed upon it, and be-
comes electropolar by in-
duction. The brass plate,
having been touched by
the finger while lying
upon the resin, is afterward lifted off
by its glass handle, and gives a spark
of positive electricity. The same
operation may be indefinitely repeat-
ed. This instrument is sometimes a
convenient substitute for the electri-
cal machine, and is elegantly applied
to inflame a jet of hydrogen gas in
Volta's inflammable air lamp.

ELECTROPOLAR. A term ap-
plied to conductors, one end or sur-
face of which is positive, and the oth-
er negative : a state which they com-
monly exhibit when under the influ-
ence of induction.

ELECTROSCOPE (homvleKTpov,
and oKOTTEu, I see). An instrument
for rendering electrical excitation ap-
parent by its effects. The gold leaf
electrometer and other similar ar-
rangements are electroseopes.

ELECTUARY. Any medicine of
a thick or solid consistence, made up
with sugar.

ELEMENTS. In chemistry, bod-
ies which have never been decompo-
sed or resolved into their components
by means we possess. Hydrogen,
256

ELM

oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, phospho-
rus, chlorine, and the metals are the
commonest elements. There are 54
already known.

ELEVATION. In architecture,
the representation of the vertical view
of any building, &c.

ELLAGIC ACID. The insoluble
gray powder which subsides from an
infusion of galls ; it is isomeric with
gallic acid, C7 H3 O5.— (Pe/ourc.)

ELM. Ulmus. The principal spe-
cies are, the Americana, white ; and
fidva, slippery ; the Thomas, U. racc-
mosa ; river, nemoralis, and Whahoo,
alata, are also indigenous. Mr. Nutt-
al mentions a species resembling
the sub-evergreen Chinensis, found on
the Red River. The Chinese is an
ornamental tree, to be had at the nur-
series.

The white elm is found from Nova
Scotia to Georgia, delighting in rich,
wet lands ; in perfection, it reaches
100 feet, with a stem of 4^ feet diam-
eter. The bark is gray and deeply
furrowed. The tree is of great beau-
ty and stateliness, the heart wood
dark brown, and ornamental, but so
brittle as to be of inferior value. It
is used improperly for naves, and oc-
casionally in Maine for keels. The
bark, soaked in water and pounded,
furnishes bass for the bottoms of
chairs.

The slippery, red, or moose elm is
commonly diffused, prefers a rich but
dry soil ; it may attain 60 feet, by 18
or 20 inches in diameter. The wood
is of a dull red, and consists in a
great measure of heart : it is coarse,
and splits, but is highly esteemed for
blocks, railings, and building purpo-
ses, as it stands moisture tolerably
well. The bark is brown, and, boiled
in water, yields a nmcilaginous solu-
tion used in medicine and as a drink.
It resembles the European Dutch elm,
but neither this nor the preceding pos-
sess the admirable qualities of the U.
campeslris of Europe.

The Whahoo is smaller, and a
Southern tree ; the wood is deep
chocolate, fine, hard, and durable : it
is esteemed for naves. It is remark-
able, as well as the Thomas elm, for

EMB

EMB

a corky excrescence on the bark.
Many of this genus are highly orna-
mental, as the white, campcstris, mon-
tana, macrophylla, gracilis, effusa, and
Chincnsis.

ELUTIIIATION. The separation
of substances by washing them in
large quantities of water, so that the
heavier particles fall to the bottom,
and the lighter ones, remaining some
time suspended, are gradually depos-
ited in a finely-divided state.

E L Y M U S. The genus of lyme
grasses. They are perennial, large
and coarse, mostly water or seashore
plants. The E. arcnarms is of ser-
vice in binding together loose sea-
shore sands, and resisting the en-
croachments of the sea. The salt-
marsh grasses are frequently of this
genus.

ELYTRUM (from elvrpov, a
sheath). The outer hard wings of
beetles.

EMACIATION. The act of be-
coming lean. It is a symptom of
diseased intestines or stomach, and
should be attended to at once when
set in ; but a sudden change of food
from that which is oily to starchy is
attended with considerable falling off.

EMARGINATE. In botany, notch-
ed, having a sharp indentation on the
Ipnf (to

EMASCULATE. To castrate.

EMBANKMENT. "It is often
necessary to raise mounds or dikes
along the course of rivers, to keep
them within their channels, and pre-
vent their flooding the lands which

lie near them, when the waters rise
above their usual level. Those allu-
vial lands which lie near the mouths
of rivers, and are below the line of
high water, cannot be cultivated to
advantage unless they are secured
from inundation by proper embank-
ments ; and as these alluvial depos-
ites are generally very fertile, it am-
ply repays the expense of construct-
ing dikes and keeping them in repair
The whole of the provinces of Hoi
land and Zealand, and several other
districts in the Low Countries, could
not be inhabited if the sea were not
kept out by strong embankments;
and tlie destruction of a dike fre-
quently desolates great tracts of coun-
try. The art of constructing dikes,
and of keeping them in repair, is
therefore one of the greatest impor-
tance to the proprietors of low lands
situated as above described.

"The first thing to be attended to in
forming embankments is to enable
them to resist the pressure of the
highest floods which are likely to oc-
cur, and to prevent the effect of the
waves and currents in washing them
away. When it is the simple press-
ure of a column of water which is to
be withstood, a simple earthen bank
made of the soil immediately at hand,
provided it be not of a porous nature,
is sufficient. Its form should be a
very broad base, with sloping sides
and with a flat top, which may serve
as a path, or even a carriage-road, if
the bank be of considerable dimen-
sions. The side towards the water

should slope more gradually than to-
wards the land, where it may form
an angle of 45^ with the horizon. A
ditch is usually dug along the inside
of the bank, and sometimes on both
sides, when the dike is at some dis-
tance from the usual channel of the
water, and is only a precaution against
unusual floods. The inner ditch col-
lects the water which is produced by
Y 2

rains or may find its way by filtration
through the bank or the soil.

" To raise these simple dikes, no-
thing is requisite but to carry the
earth from below, and consolidate it
by treading or ramming it in a moist
slate, that no interstices be left. But
where a considerable river winds
through an extensive plain, and is
apt to change its bed by the wearing
257

EMBANKMENT.

away of the banks in some places
and the deposition of mud in others,
more skill and more expensive works
are required to keep it within its
banks and to prevent the effects of a
rapid current in destroying them. In
this case strong piles are driven deep
into the ground, and, instead of earth-
en dikes, stone walls are opposed to
the force of tlie water.

" The embanking of a considerable
river often requires the course of the
stream to be changed, and instead of
the winding course which rivers nat-
urally take through plains, straight
channels are artificially made for
them. At first sight it would seem
that a straight channel is the natural
course of a stream ; but this is far
from being the case : a straight course
can never be maintained without ar-
tificial means ; water never flows in
straight lines, but always in curves.
The slightest inequality in the bottom
or sides partially obstructs its course,
and produces a circular motion in the
water ; and this, acting on soft banks,
soon hollows them out, which, in-
creasing the eddies, accelerates the
change in the current. When a river
is turned into a new channel, the
banks must be strengthened with
piles of masonry, and the foundations
of the works must be laid below the
gravel or stones whicli may have ac-
cumulated, that they may not be un-
dermined by the percolation of the
water.

" When the dikes are only intended
to check the waters at the time when
they flow over their natural banks, it
is best to raise them at some distance
from the river on each side, and par-
allel to its course ; because, in sud-
den floods, the water, having a great-
er space to flow through, will not rise
so high, and will sooner recede. The
natural banks must be carefully at-
tended to in this case, that they may
remain nearly the same, without be-
ing subjected to that continual change
which we have noticed before. Those
who have long attended to these
changes and their immediate causes
will find no difficulty in checking them
in the outset by very easy and simple
258

means. Whenever a bank begins to
be undermined, a few piles driven in
judiciously, and some stones thrown
into the river above the place where
its banks begin to wear away, will
cause a change in the current, and
throw it over to the opposite side.
Indeed, if this is done injudiciously,
the banks opposite will begin to wear
away ; but by continued attention,
and prevention rather than correc-
tion, any river having a moderate cur-
rent may be kept within its proper
bed.

" It sometimes happens that rivers,
near their mouths, form shallow es-
tuaries, and occupy much ground
which might be usefully employed.
In this case an entirely new outlet
may sometimes be made, through
which the river may at once dis-
charge itself into the sea ; and the
whole course will probably be soon
filled up by the deposition of soil and
mud brought in by the tides ; for it is
the current which clears the channel,
and when this is taken away the chan-
nel soon fills up. In the course of a
short time the old mouth of the river
will be so filled up as scarcely to ad-
mit the tide ; and an embankment
across it may lay a large fertile tract
of land quite dry.

" Where embankments are made
against the sea, greater skill is re-
quired to resist the force of the waves.
If there are materials at hand to lay
a bank of stones imbedded in clay,
with a broad base, and the sides slo-
ping very gradually upward, a very
safe barrier may be opposed to the
waters. It is not the direct impulse
which is the most destructive : waves
striking against a sloping surface lose
their force and rise over it ; but it is
in returning that they draw the ma-
terials with them, and scoop out the
foundations. If the stones are well
joined together, the retiring wave will
have no effect in loosening them ; but
if any one of them can be singly re-
moved from its place, they will soon
disappear one after another, till a
breach is made ; after which a single
storm may destroy the whole embank-
ment. In various places the ingenu-

EMBANKMENT.

ity of scientific men has been exer-
cised to invent various modes of re-
sisting the force of the sea. In some
exposed points piers of solid oak have
been made, which oppose a smooth
surface obliquely to the force of the
waves ; in others, rows of piles have
been driven in, forming lines at right
or oblique angles to the line of the
shore, in order to intercept the waves
and break their force before they
reach the bank. In a place where
the rounded stones called shingles
were usually thrown up by the waves,
and the bottom was a strong clay,
their retreat has been intercepted by
rows of strong piles driven in a line
along and parallel to the shore, and
covered with boards nailed to them
on the land side. By this means the
sea has been made to provide the
materials of the embankment, and to
lay them down. In one night the
shingles have been thrown over the
piles, and, being retained by the board-
ing, have formed a perfect wall. A
second row of piles between the first
and the sea, and a third if required,
forms a sea-wall which might defy
any storms. We mention this as an
example of the advantage which may
be taken of particular circumstances,
by which a great expense may some-
times be saved. In other situations,
where the shingle is not thrown up,
and the wall is not so immediately
exposed to the action of the waves,
an excellent facing of the wall is made
by several rows of piles from five to
fifteen feet long, driven along the side
of the earthen bank in the form of
steps rising above each otlier. These

piles are driven very close together,
and the distance between the rows is
about two feet. This interval is filled
with stones, and bushes are pinned
down over them by means of wooden
pins driven horizontally through holes
made in the piles. This contrivance
effectually prevents the washing away
of the bank.

" Where the land lies very flat for a
considerable distance from the shore,
it is of advantage to have two com-
plete banks, one within the other, so
that if the outer bank is broken
through, the second will keep back
the waters, until the first can be re-
paired. The ground between the two
lines of banks is usually left in pas-
ture. In this case the damage done
by an inundation of salt-water will
not be so great as if the land were
arable ; and unless it remain flooded
for a considerable time, the herbage
suffers little, if anything, from it.

" The water which accumulates
within the banks and is collected in the
internal ditch and those which divide
the marshes must be let off" occasion-
ally by means of channels and sluices
at the time when the tide is out, and
the water outside the bank is lower
than that which is within it. In small
embankments a wooden trunk or pipe
may be laid through the bank, with
a valve opening outward, by which
means the superfluous water may flow
out, and none flow back. It is use-
ful to carry this trunk a considerable
way outside the bank, if it empties
itself immediately into the sea, in or-
der that it may not be choked up with
sand or shingles. Cast-iron pipes art
259

EM 13

EMU

conveniently used for this purpose,
and they may be carried out so far
as to empty themselves below low-
water mark. But when the embank-
ment is very extensive, and there are
streams flowing through the part
which is embanked, larger flood-gates
and more extensive works are neces-
sary. These being opened and shut
as occasion may require, serve to
keep the channel clear, by producing
occasionally a considerable rush of
water to carry away mud and sand,
which would otherwise have accu-
mulated at the mouth of it. When
the level of the land which is embank-
ed is below the usual level of the wa-
ters whicli are without, the water is
raised by means of engines over the
banks, as is tlie case in the fens.

" In the forming of the banks, where
the soil may not be quite impervious
to water, it is useful to begin by dig-
ging a ditch in the line of the intend-
ed bank, of such a depth as to reach
an impervious subsoil. This ditch is
to be tilled up with clay or tempered
earth, and as the bank is raised, the
middle of the bank should be com-
posed of the same materials, which
will thus form a vertical wall, A B, up
to the top ; and the more porous earth
being heaped up against the sides of
this wall will form the slopes of the
bank ; thus the whole will be perfect-
ly impenetrable to the water. The
clay should be well trod in with the

feet in a moist state, and no pieces
of wood, or even straw, should be in
it, for a straw may be the cause of
the water finding a passage through
a bank, and this passage gradually
widening will soon produce a hole,
which may in the end cause the de-
struction of the bank. Moles and
worms are great enemies to dikes.
260

In Holland the storks are held in
great veneration, and are never mo-
lested, because they are supposed to
destroy a species of worm which oft-
en does great mischief to the dikes by
perforating them." — (V^. L. Rham.)

EMBROCATION (from efiGpexa, I
moisten). A spirituous, saponaceous,
or oily application rubbed on the skin
to relieve pain or numbness.

EMBRYO (from e/iGpvov, I hud
forth). The growing point, eye, or
chit of a seed. The young of ani-
mals in the act of development, or
foetus.

EMBRYOTOMY (from Eii6pvov,
and TEfivu, I cut). The cutting of
the embryo or foetus out of the womb
in such cases as endanger the life of
the parent.

EMERY. A sand of corundum ot
extreme hardness, capable of wear-
ing down all minerals and metals ex-
cept the diamond.

EMESIS (from tfiEu, I vomit). The
act of vomiting.

EMETIC. A drug producing vom-
iting. Ipecacuanha, tartar emetic,
salt, and green vitriol are the com-
monest emetics.

EMETIC, TARTAR. Tartrate of
potash and antimony, a white, solu-
ble salt, emetic in doses of one to
two grains, and purgative and sudo-
rific in doses of half a grain. It re-
duces the activity of the circulation,
and is therefore an admirable febri-
fuge.

EMETINE. The active principle
of ipecacuanha.

EMOLLIENTS. Medicines which
soothe and soften any part of the
body, as warm water, &c.

EMPHYEMA (from tv, and nvov,
pus). A collection of purulent mat-
ter in the chest, produced chiefly by
inflammation.

EMPHYSEMA (from efi(bvaaio, 1
inflate). A collection of air in the cel-
lular tissue ; hence emphysematous.

EMPYREUMA (from ifnrvpevu, 1
kindle). An odour of burned matter ;
hence cmpyreumatic.

EMULSIN. A modification of al-
bumen found in almonds and other
seeds, and capable of acting in a pe-

END

EOC

culiar manner on amygdalin to pro- 1
(luce volatile oil of bitter almonds. 1

EMULSION. A milky liquid in
which an oil is suspended, as in milk.

E.MUNCTORIES. The vessels of ;
tlie skin which exhale perspiration
are so called.

ENAMEL. The hard ivory por-
tion of teeth. Glass and oxide of tin
fused together.

ENCRINITES. Fossil crinoideans
resembling a lily.

ENCYSTED (from ei^, in, and kvc-
Tic,a.bag). Fluid or other tumours en-
closed in a sack of membrane. It is
necessary, in removing them, to cut
out or destroy the sack also.

ENDEMIC (from ev, and drj/ioc, a
people). A disease or peculiarity be-
longing to a particular people or race.

ENDIVE. Chichonum cndiva.
The varieties are the green and
white curled, yellow, and broad
leaved. The green curled is earliest :
sow in April and May, and for gen-
eral crops, in June or July, at inter-
vals, to suit the table or market.
When the seedlings are three inches
high, transplant to a good soU, and
set a foot apart each way ; tie up to
blanch when full-sized. They must
be attended to and treated like lettuce.
One ounce of seed furnishes four to
five thousand plants. It is a bitter
salad, used raw, and also in stews :
with care it may be preserved like
cabbages through the winter.

ENDOCARP (from ev6ov, within,
and Kaprro^, a fruit). The middle
part of a fruit : it forms the flesh of
the apple, peach, cherry, 6ic.

ENDOGENS (from evdov, and
yeivofiai, I grow). Plants or trees
which do not enlarge their trunks by
any addition of wood exterior to that
existing the year before. One of the
great divisions of the vegetable king-
dom, including palms, grasses, and
numerous bulbous plants. The leaves
are furnished with straight veins, the
flowers usually divided into three
parts or some multiple of that number.

ENDOPLEURA (from evdov, and
7r?.evpa, the side). In botany, the in-
ternal integument of a seed.

E N D O R H I Z .E (from evdov, and

^iCa, a root). A term invented by
Richard for the embryo of nionocoty
ledons, in which the radicle has to
rupture the integument at the base
of a seed prior to entering into the
earth, appearing as if it came from
within the mother root.

ENDOSMOSE (from ev6ov, and
uafioc, impdsion). A term invented
by Dutrochet to designate the pas-
sage of fluids through membranes.
Penetration is an analogous term.
Whenever two fluids are separated
by a membrane or tissue without
sensible pores, both of which moisten
it, there is a passage of each fluid,
one into the other : but this is often
with different rapidities, the fluid af-
fecting the tissue most passing with
the greatest rapidity. The move-
ment continues until the mixture on
each side is similar. This also oc-
curs with gases. It is controlled by
electricitv, as Dr. Draper has shown.

ENDOSPERMIUM (from evdov,
and anepfia, seed). A term invented
by Richard to denote the albumen of

seeds

ENDOSTOME (from ev6ov, and
a-rrofia, the mouth). The passage
through the inner integument of a
seed immediately below the part call-
ed the foramen.

ENDOTHECIUM. The fibrous
cellular tissue lining an anther.

ENEMA. A glyster, an injection
thrown up the bowels to produce
purging, allay pain, &c.

ENNEANDRIA, ENNEAN-
D R O U S. Having nine stamens.
See Botany.

ENSIFORM. Sword-shaped. A
term used in descriptive botany, &c.

ENTERITIS (from evrepa, the in-
testines). Inflammation of the intes-
tines. See Horse, Ox, &o.

ENTOMOLOGY (from evtohq, in-
sects, and ?.oYoc, a discourse). The sci-
ence treating of insects. See Insects.

ENTOZOA (from evtoc, and (oov,
an animal). A tribe of worms, many
of which are parasitic to the intes-
tines and other parts of animals.

EOCENE (from iju^, the dawn, and
Kaivor, recent). The lowest portion
of the tertiary epoch of geologists, in
2fil

EllE

wliich a few recent remains only are
found.

EPIDEMIC (from etn, vpon, and
irj/xo^, the people). A disease wliich
spreads through a community, a sta-
ble, &c.

EPIDERMIS (from errt.and ihpfia,
the skin). A light covering over the
skin of animals. The outer mem-
brane of plants.

EPIDOTE. A common fibrous,
green, or dark mineral, belonging to
primary rocks, containing silica, 37;
alumina, 21 ; lime, 15 ; iron, 24 per
cent.

EPIGCEOUS (from em, and y?}, the
earth). Growing near the earth, or
on the earth.

EPIGASTRIC (from etvi, and yaa-
TTjp, the stomach). Over the stomach.

EPIGLOTTIS (from em, and yhor-
ra, the tongue). A small cartilage at
the root of the tongue, which protects
the windpipe.

EPIGYNOUS (from ettl, and ywn,
a female). Any part of a flower grow-
ing upon the top of the ovarium or
fruit.

EPILEPSY (from fTriAa/zCoFw, /
seize vpon). Falling sickness, attend-
ed with sudden fits, stupor : it soon
becomes periodical, and finally ter-
minates life. Bleeding, reduction of
food, and care are necessary in full
habits, but it frequently arises from
injuries on the head. It is a nervous
disease, little under control.

EPIPHYLLUS (from e-l, and (^vl-
Tmv, a leaf). Growing on a leaf

EPISPASTIC (from ETTiaTrau, I
draw upon). A blistering drug.

EPISPERM (from ettj, and axEpfia,
a seed). The testa, or outer coating
of seeds.

EQUISETUM. The scouring rush;
hence equisetacea.

EQUIVALENTS. See Atom.

EREM ACAUSIS (from iipena, slow,
and /coiifftf, comlnistion). A term in-
vented by Liebig, to express the
smouldering, or dry rot, of organic
matter freely exposed to the oxygen
of the air and merely moistened with
water. It is altogether different from
fermentation, which requires little
air. By eremacausis, acids, as the
262

ESC

acetic, nitric, &c., are producea.
When much nitrogen exists in the
decaymg matter, it is called nitrifica-
tion, especially if lime or potash be
present. The process of eremacausis
is much to be preferred to fermenta-
tion in the preparation of putrescent
manures, for less gaseous matter is
formed, and there is less loss ; it is,
moreover, the natural decay occur-
ring in the soil. See Nitre-Beds.

ERGOT. A disease of the grain
of rye, and sometimes other grains,
in which it turns black, and acquires
an acrid, fungous taste. It is con-
sidered due to an insect or parasitic
fungus. The diseased grain is very
poisonous, producing a dry gangrene,
attended with sloughing of the hoofs,
horns, ears, &c., of cattle. It is of
great service in medicine as a ute-
rine stimulus.

ERICA. The genus of heaths.
Ericacece, a family of shrubby plants,
as the heaths, rhododendrons, aza-
lias, &c.

ERINACEUS. A genus of insec-
tivorous animals, including the hedge-
hog.

ERIOPHORUM. The genus of
cotton grasses.

ERODED. Gnawed, a descriptive
terra in botany and zoology, mean-
ing any jagged edge.

ERRATIC ROCKS. Boulders.

ERRHINES (from ev, in, and piv,
the nose). Bodies which excite snee-
zing.

ERUCA. A larva, or w'orm.

ERVUM. The generic name of
the tare and lentil plants. '

ERYSIPELAS (from Epvu,Idraw,
and 7rf?Mc, adjoining). An inflamma-
tion of the skin, attended with blis-
ters and a burning heat ; it indicates
a bad, feeble constitution.

ERYTHRIC ACID (from epv-
dpoc, red). The red body produced
by acting on uric acid by nitric acid ;
it has also been called rosacic acid,
Murexidc.

ESCHAR. A scab, cicatrix.

ESCHAROTIC (from scxapau, 1
scab over). Caustic.

ESCULENT. Edible plants,
roots, &c.

EUP

EVE

ESPALIERS. " In horticulture,
trees trained by lattice-work or other
supports on the borders of beds, or
as hedges to enclose plots of ground.
They may serve to defend, in a great
measure, many tender plants from the
inclemencies of wind and weather.
The trees chiefly planted for espa-
liers are apples, pears, and plums.
The principal objects aimed at, how-
ever, in espaliers are to expose the
foliage and fruit of the plants or
trees more perfectly to the light and
sun, to prevent the branches from be-
ing blown about by the winds, and to
economize space by confining them
within definite limits." — Loudon.

ES P A K S ETTE. Sainfoin.

ESSENTIAL OILS. Oils which
impart flavour and odour to plants,
and are readily volatilized by heat.
Many, as peppermint, rose, lemon,
&c., are easily distilled by placing the
fresh herbs, «Scc., in water and apply-
ing heat.

ETERIO. A compound fruit, the
ovaries of which are distinct and in-
dehiscent, upon a dry or fleshy re-
ceptacle, as the strawberry, rasp-
berry, &c.

ETHER. Commonly this name is
applied to a highly volatile, inflam-
mable, and aromatic fluid, obtained
by distilling equal parts of alcohol and
sulphuric acid. 13ut it also repre-
sents a class of organic compounds
having properties similar to ether and
alcohol, and containing a common
base or radical. Ethyl or Ethule {G^
H,-,) ; of this common sulphuric ether
is an oxide.

ETIOLATION. Blanching of ve-
getables. This is done by excluding
light either by earthing, as in the
case of celery, or tying up the leaves,
as with lettuce, endive, &c.

EUDIOMETER (from ivdia, calm
air, and fxtrpov, a measure). An in-
strument for the analysis of air and
gases, especially for the determina-
tion of the amount of oxygen. Dr.
Ure's is the most esteemed. Dr. Hare,
of Philadelphia, is the author of a
very convenient eudiometer.

EUPHORBIA. A genus of plants
commonly yielding a milky acrid

juice ; many resemble the cactaccae.
Euphorbiacccc, the natural family, in-
cluding the euphorbia, crotons, cas-
tor-oil. India-rubber tree, &.c.

EUPION. An inflammable, grea-
sy liquid, obtained from tar.

EUSTACHIAN TUBE. A tube
passing from the interior of the ear
to the cavity of the mouth ; the stop-
page, by disease, is one cause of deaf-
ness.

EVAPORATION. The passage
into vapour of fluids or solids. For
its production, heat must be absorb-
ed ; hence the rapidity of evaporation
is proportionate to the heat applied.
Water and other fluids evaporatmg
from the earth, or any surface, al-
ways produce cold by carrying away
a part of the heat of the solid ; hence
moist soils arc cold. The activity of
evaporation is also influenced by
winds, which will double the amount
of water vaporized in a given time ;
hence winds dry rapidly and produce
great cold. It is also necessary for
free evaporation that the air be not
already full of vapour. See Dew Point.
When any atmosphere is surcharged
with the vapour of a particular fluid,
no more can evaporate ; but the va-
pours of other fluids rise freely.

Plants are much affected by evap-
oration ; their leaves are always
throwing out large volumes of vapour
of water, derived from the ascending
sap ; in this way their juices are
thickened and fitted for nourishment.
When the air is too dry, they lan-
guish under excessive evaporation ;
when it is moist and hot for some
days, they become diseased, and smut,
rust, and similar fungi attack them
very destructively.

The moisture collected in the air
by the evaporation of water from the
earth, being cooled by northerly
winds, becomes condensed into rain
or snow, and falls back to the earth
again. See Clouds.

EVERGREEN. Plants which put
out a succession of fresh leaves in-
stead of observing periods of rest.
They are best set out in the fall or
very early in spring.

EVERLASTENG PEA. Lathyrua
263

EXO

EXT

latifolius. A perennial plant of the
vetch kind, which grows naturally in
some places ; is easily cullivated, and
annually yields a great burden of ex-
cellent provender, and might be cul-
tivated to advantage as a green food
for cattle on any of the more strong
sorfs of soil.

EXACERBATION. An increase
of violence in the symptoms of fe-
vers.

EXCORIATION. A bruise or
abrasion of the skin : protection from
air by a linen rag, and mild oil lina-
menls are most serviceable.

EXCRESCENCE. Any unnatu-
ral growth or tumour.

EXCRETION. In physiology, the
separation of useless or injurious por-
tions of matter from the system, as
urine, expired air, feces, perspiration.
The excretions of plants have called
forth much discussion. De Candolle
imagined that the inability of plants
to grow for a long time on the same
spot was due to the deposite of ex-
cretions. Mr. Gyde has examined
this matter thoroughly, and shown
that the excretions are not injurious ;
the amount is very small, and iden-
tical in composition with the sap ;
he also found that a plant might be
watered with a solution of its excre-
ment with great benefit.

EXFOLIATION. The separation
of diseased bone from that which is
sound in the progress of a disease.

EXHALATION. Evaporation at
ordinary temperatures, more espe-
cially from a living or solid surface.

EXHAUSTION. In physics, the
removal of air or gases from the in-
terior of bodies.

EXOGENOUS (from ef, outside, and
yeivof^ai, I grow). A term applied to
those plants a transverse slice of
whose stem exhibits a central cellular
substance or pith, an external cellular
and fibrous ring or bark, and an inter-
mediate woody mass, and certain fine
lines radiating from the pitK to the
bark through the wood, and called
medullary rays. They are called ex-
ogens, because they add to their
wood by successive external addi-
tions, and are the same as what are
264

otherwise called dicotyledons. They
constitute one of the primary classes
into which the vegetable world is di-
vided, characterized by their leaves
being reticulated ; their stems having
a distinct deposition of bark, wood,
and pith ; their embryo with two co-
tyledons ; and by their flowers usu-
ally formed on a quinary type. Our
forest-trees and most garden vegeta-
bles are of this kind.

EXORRHIZ.'E (from e^, and /it^'o,
a root). Exogenous or dicotyledon-
ous plants, the roots of which extend
directly from the embryo.

EXOSMOSE (from e^, and uafioc,
ivipulsion). The passage outward of
fluids, &c., the reverse oi Endosmose,
which see.

EXOSTOSIS (from cf, and ooteov,
a bone). A tumour on a bone. In bota-
ny, any knot or tumour on a trunk or
large root : the wood is often finely
curled.

EXOTICS. Foreign plants.

EXPANSION. The increase in
dimensions produced by heat. In
the arts, it is a serious drawback on
perfect workmanship, for beams, me-
tallic tires, &c., by tbe constant expan-
sions from heat, and contraction by
cold, are always acting upon masses
of masonry injuriously. Gases ex-
pand most rapidly and extensively,
fluids next, and metals least.

EXPECTORANTS, Medicines
which assist in throwing off the
phlegm of the throat, as ipecacuan-
ha, tartar emetic, horehound, squills.
They are useful in dry coughs.

EXPRESSED OILS. Such as are
obtained by pressure, as olive, lin-
seed, rape, castor, almond, as distin-
guished from volatile or essential oils.

EXTRACT. The solid remaming
after boiling down an infusion or de-
coction to dryness. The heat used
should be from steam. The term
extractive is applied to that portion
which is of a brown colour, soluble
in water, and forms a colouring mat-
ter with alum solution.

EXTRAVASATION. In surgery,
whenever blood or other fluids are
thrown out from the veins into the
skin, brain, or other parts, it is term-

FAL

ed an extravasation. It frequently
arises from a blow.

EXTRORSAL. Bent or turned
from the direct position : a descrip-
tive term in botany.

E X U V I .E. The skins cast by
snakes, lobsters, insects, &c., in the
chancres they pass through.

E Y E, I N P L A N T S. The bud,
embrvo, or growing point.

EYE OF THE HORSE. "The
eye of the horse appears to be natu-
rally more disposed to disease than
that of any other animal. The dis-
eases of the eye, although few in
number, are frequent in their appear-
ance, obstinate, and generally baffle
all the skill of the veterinarian. The
following are the principal : common
inflammation, specific ophthalmia or
moon blindness, cataract, and gutta
Serena or amaurosis. For the last
there is no cure. Moon blindness,
as it is termed, is brought on in a
great measure by close confinement
in dark, heated, and unwholesome
stables. No specific remedies can
be given for these diseases." — {You-
att). See Blindness, Cataract.

EYES IN CHEESE. Putrescent
holes or places caused by imperfectly
preparing the curd.

FAGOT. A bundle of small wood.

FAGUS. The generic name of
the beech.

FALCATE (from falx, a sci/the).
Shaped like a scythe : a descriptive
term used in botany and zoology.

FALCO. The genus of hawics.

FALLOPIAN TUBE. A tube com-
municating between the womb and
ovarium of the mammalia.

FALLOW. Originally, this term
meant the exposure of the naked
soil to rest, after ploughing several
times, to destroy weeds and repair
its fertility. This practice is now
considered almost useless, as requi-
ring much time and expenditure oth-
erwise better employed. A crop of
oats, clover, rye, buckwheat, lucern,
lupins, turnips, or other cheap vege-
table in flower is now ploughed in,
and called a green fallow. In this
Z

FAR

way land is rapidly improved, espe-
ciaily if a liming is given. To turn
in heavy herbage the ox-chain is
fastened to the clevis and land-side
handle of the plough, and this press-
ing down the plants, allows them to
be buried.

Green fallowing is the most rapid
and cheap method of bringing up poor
lands ; it incorporates into the soil
the nitrogen bodies wanted for high
cultivation, enables the improver to
proceed without the expense of cat-
tle for raising manure, and saves the
time necessary to wait for the ma-
nure. The herbage so turned in
yields more vegetable mould than it
would otherwise form if applied in
any other way. Fallows can be made
at any time, in summer for a fall
crop, or in autumn for spring.

FAN, WHEAT. The Wi?inowing
Machine, which see.
FARCY. See Horse.
FARDING BAG. The paunch or
abomasus of the ox.

FARINA. The flour or meal of
grain. Farinaceous is a derivative.

FARM. " The first thing to be
considered in taking a farm is the
capital which the tenant is possessed
of, or of which he can procure the
use at a reasonable rate. If a man
takes a farm without the means of
stocking it properly, and is restrained
in his first outlay, he will never be
able to cultivate it with benefit to
himself: he will be obliged to sell his
produce at a loss, to over-work his
i cattle, and to keep a smaller quanji-
I ty of stock, and, consequently, make
: less manure than is required to keep
j the farm in a productive state.
j " When it is ascertained what ex-
'' tent of farm may be safely underta-
I ken with a given capital, the most
important object to be attended to is
the condition and fertility of the soil,
\ not only with respect to the natural
quality "of the land, but the actual
state it is left in by the preceding
system of cultivation. A moderate-
ly fertile soil, in good condition, will
give a greater profit for several years
than a better soil which is partially
exhausted and rendered foul by inju-
265

FARM.

dicious management and over-crop-
ping. For this purpose, it is neces-
sary to a.sccrtain what has been the
state of the crops lor several years
before, how the land has been plough-
ed, and whether the crops have been
heavy with or without manure. In
the mean time, the nature of the
weeds which abound on the land will
give some clew to its state ; and an
experienced person will collect from
various minute appearances in the
soil whether it has been fairly man-
aged or exhausted. It is in general
more advantageous to take a farm
in a district with which you are well
acquainted. It will be a great ad-
vantage if you have had an opportu-
nity of seeing the land at all times,
observing it in different seasons and
states of the weather, and especially
of seeing the crops thrashed out, and
ascertaining the quantity of corn
which is usually yielded from a cer-
tain quantity of straw, for lands very
similar in outward appearance will
produce a very different return when
the crops are thrashed out. A want
of attention to these circumstances
is the cause that a man who comes
from a distant part of the country
and takes a farm on his own judg-
ment seldom succeeds so well as
might be expected, even with a su-
perior knowledge of agriculture. He
naturally compares the soil with some
similar soil which he has been ac-
quainted with. If he comes from a
district where the soil is sandy, and
where clay is in request, he will give
the preference to very stiff loams ;
if he comes from a cold wet clay, he
will prefer the sandy ; and the chan-
ces are, that he is mistaken in his
judgment, and finds it out when he
has already embarked his capital in
a losing concern. Next to the na-
ture of the soil is to be considered
the convenient situation of the farm,
the disposition of the fields, and the
adaptation of the farm-buildings to
the most profitable occupation of the
land. The roads, especially those
which lead to neighbouring towns,
■whence manure may be obtained, are
a most important object ; and if there
266

is water-carriage, it greatly enhances
the value of the farm. The roads to
the fields, and the distance of these
from the farm-yard ; the convenience
of having good pasture, or land easi
ly laid down to grass, near the home
stead, and especially the situation
of the farm-buildings with respect to
the land, and the abundance of good
water, are all circumstances which
must be well considered, and which
will greatly influence the probable
profits, and, consequently, the rent
which may be fairly offered. A cen-
tral situation is no doubt the most
advantageous for the farm buildings,
as greatly diminishing the labour in
harvest and in carrying out manure.
But there may be circumstances
which render some spot nearer the
extremity of the land more eligible,
and it is only when entirely new
buildings are to be erected that there
is a choice. The old farm buildings
are generally in low and sheltered
situations, but it is a great inconve-
nience to have to carry the manure,
which is the heaviest thing carted on
a farm, up a steep hill. The best
situation is on a moderate slope,
neither in the lowest nor highest
ground.

" The yard or yards in a large farm
should be sheltered on the north side
by the barns, which need not be so
extensive as used formerly to be
thought necessary. If there is a
thrashing machine, a single floor to
thrash the seeds upon, and to employ
the men occasionally in winter, is
quite sufficient. Every farm which
is so extensive as to require more
than one floor to thrash the corn on
ought always to have a thrashing-
mill attached to it. See Barn.

"A small yard, distinct from the
other, with sheds for the cattle to
shelter themselves under in wet and
stormy weather, is a great advantage,
and may be added at a trifling ex-
pense to any set of farm buildings.
The cart-shed should be in the stack-
yard, which properly occupies a space
north of the barn. There should be
a sufficient number of stands with
proper pillars and frames to build

FARM.

stacks on. Each stack should be of
such a size as to be conveniently ta-
ken into the barn to be thrashed out.
The round form, and the square,
which becomes nearly round wtien
built up, are most convenient. Nine
stone or cast-iron pillars, with caps
over them, are placed on brick found-
ations, and support a strong frame
on which the stack is built. In the
centre of the stack there is usually a
pyramidical open frame, to allow the
air to circulate through the stack and
prevent the heating of the grain. On
each side of the yard should be placed
the stables, cow-houses, and feeding-
stalls, with a pump of good water
near the last, and convenient places
to put hay, straw, and turnips in, with
a machine to cut them. A great deal
of time and labour is saved by a
proper arrangement of the different
parts of the farm buildings. An un-
der-ground cistern near the cow-
house and stables, into which the
urine and washings of the cow-house
may run by means of a sink or drain,
is a most useful appendage, which is

too little thought of in England,
whereas it is one of the most indis-
pensable parts of a Flemish farm. It
supplies a kind of manure which can
be applied to the land at all times,
which invigorates sickly crops, and
may often produce an abundant re-
turn, where otherwise there would
be a complete failure. There are
many plans of farm buildings given
in works on agriculture, which com-
bine all that is useful on a large scale.
Most of these plans have been exe-
cuted at a great expense for the farm-
ing establi-shments of men of large
fortunes. But the proprietor who de-
sires to erect buildings most proper
for the occupation of his land must
study economy, and lay out no more
in buildings than is necessary. They
should be so substantial as not to re-
quire frequent repairs, without un-
necessarily increasing the original ex-
pense of materials and labour. Light
thatched roofs are sufHcient for the
sheds and smaller buildings, and even
for the cow-houses and stables.
" We here give a plan of plain farm

Buildings for a Farm o/300 acres.

FARM.

H

. — — . — .
.. — "

. r

^ u

buildings for the occupation of 200
or 300 acres of land, of which two
thirds are arable, fit for corn, barley,
clover, and wheat. There should be
two distinct farm-yards with proper
sheds, and in each there should be a
cistern for the urine from the stables
and the drainings from the dung.

" These two examples of farm
buildings will be sufficient to give
some idea of what may be proper for
farms of an intermediate size. A
principal thing to be attended to is to
have plenty of room for cattle ; and
where old barns remain much larger
than is required, according to the
present mode of stacking corn in the
368

yard, they can be very advantageous-
ly converted into cow-stalls or ox-sta-
bles.

" WTiere many sheep are kept, it is
of great advantage to have a sheep-
yard, with low sheds all round, at the
time when the ewes lamb, especially
when the season is wet and chilly,
which hurts them more than a dry
frost. The second yard, B, is well
adapted for that purpose, and an ad-
ditional temporary shed against the
partition which divides it into two
will convert either division into an
excellent sheep-yard.

" In valuing a farm, the habitation
is seldom taken into the account, but

FARM.

the buildings immediately connected
with the cultivation necessarily add
to or diminish the price.

" Farm Accounts. — In proportion as
the management of a farm requires
more skill, and the various opera-
tions become more complicated, so
the necessity of great accuracy in
the accounts beconies more evident.
The manner in which farm accounts
should be kept deserves, therefore,
particular attention.

" Many farmers, who are not devoid
of intelligence, and who are anxious
to ascertain their gain or their loss
in cultivating the land which they

have hired, have no other means of
ascertaining this than the balance of
their account of receipts and expen-
diture. If they have separated the
accounts of their private establish-
ment from that of their farm, they
think that they have done all that is
required, and at the end of the year
they can tell accurately how- much
they have gained or lost by their
farm ; but ask them to account for
this gain or loss, and they can give
no answer. If a tradesman, who has
a capital in business equal to that of
a farmer of a considerable number
of acres, were to keep accounts in
269

FARM.

this manner, and become a bankrupt,
no one would bcsitale in sayinj,' that
he failed because he kept no regular
accounts, llo bad no greater stake
than the farmer, and his transactions
were perhaps less varied : if he kept
no clerk, he should have attended
better to the accounts himself The
same may be said of the farmer; and
if a man who has a floating capital
of $10,000 does not think it. worth
his while to employ a clerk to keep
his accounts, not having time to do
so himself, it is no great wonder if
he is involved in difficulties. But
it may be said that agricultural ac-
counts are very simple, and that any
one can keep them. So are mer-
chants' accounts at tirst sight. No-
thing is simpler than to put down
what is bought and sold, what is the
profit on each transaction, and the
sum is the profit of the whole ; but
merchants know that to keep this
very simple account many books,
many entries, many checks, and con-
sequently many clerks are required.
In a lesser degree this is true in a
farm. It is easy to know what is
bought and sold, what is expended
or produced, but it requires very mi-
nute accounts to ascertain what part
of the farm gives a profitable return,
and what is the cau.se of loss. There
may be a profit on the crops and a
loss on the stock, or vice versa. The
money expended on improvements or
adventitious manure may have pro-
duced an increase which is propor-
tionate to the outlay, and which af-
fords a good interest ; but it may
also be a decided loss. How is this
to be ascertained, except it be by ac-
curate accounts 1 In whatever man-
ner the accounts are kept, whether
by the farmer himself or by a clerk,
method is of great importance ; and
whatever may be said against it by
those who do not know its value,
there is no system of accounts which
can be compared with the well-known
method of double entry. The prin-
ciple of this method is so simple that
the slowest arithmetician cannot be
confused by it, and it is so perfect
that no error can escape its scrutiny.
270

As applied to agricultural accounts,
which are simple in their nature, it
becomes so clear that, if once adopt-
ed, it is impossible that it should ever
be abandoned. The satisfaction of
a perlect proof of the correctness of
the accounts is so great that no one
who has ever experienced it will be
satisfied with any other method.

" In the accounts of a farm there are
many separate items to be taken into
consideration. There may be a sep-
arate account kept for every field ;
there should always be one for every
crop of which the rotation consists.
There is an account of the labour of
men and horses ; of the produce of
the dairy ; of the stock purchased to
be fattened, or sold again in an impro-
ved state. The more subjects there
are to furnish items for an account,
the more difficult it is to strike a
balance, but with a httle attention
and perseverance it may be done ;
and he who keeps very correct ac-
counts will always be the first to dis-
cover any impending evil, and to take
measures to provide against it.

"The basis of all the accounts is a
daily journal of every transaction,
which must be collected from all the
labourers and agents employed. M.
de Dombasle, at his celebrated farm
of Roville, in France, has all his prin-
cipal men and apprentices assembled
every evening after the day's work
is over. Each man gives an account
of the work done by him or under
his superintendence, which is written
down by the clerk. The orders for
the next day are then given, and ev-
ery one returns to his lodging or his
home. In the course of the next day
the clerk enters all that is in the
journal into a book, where every per-
son employed has an account: every
field has one ; every servant and do-
mestic animal has one ; and every
item which can be separated from
the rest is entered, both as adding to
the account or taking from it. For
example, the milk of the cows is en-
tered daily ; the quantity of butter,
butter-milk, and skimmed milk which
it produces is also entered ; and
these two accounts check one an-

FAR

FAR

Other. Any error is immediately de-
tected, and the knowledge of this
prevents mistakes. An entry should
be made of every particular operation
in each field, tliat the farmer may
know which is his most profitable
land. The number of ploughings, the
quantity of manure, the state of the
weather, and all other circumstances
which may influence the return should
be carefully noted, in order that it
may he clearly seen whether any ex-
periment or deviation from the usual
routine is advantageous or otherwise.
Thus all real improvements may be
encouraged, and uncertain theories
detected by the result.

" The most important circumstance
which influences the profits of a farm-
er is the cost of his team and the
wages of his men. These vary in
different situations so much that they
greatly influence the price which he
can afford to give for the land. In
some parts of the country the horses
are pampered and kept so fat that
they can scarcely do a day's work as
they ought ; in others they are over-
worked and badly fed. Either ex-
treme must be a loss to the farmer.
In the first case, the horses cannot
do their work, and they consume an
unnecessary quantity of provender ;
in the other, they are soon worn out,
and the loss in horses that become
useless or die is greater than the sa-
ving in their food or the extra work
done by them. A horse properly fed
will work eight or ten hours every
day in the week, resting only on
Sundays ; by a judicious division of
the labour of the horses, they are
never over-worked, and an average
value of a day's work is easily ascer-
tained. This, in a well regulated
farm, will be found much less than
the common valuations give it. There
have been printed forms invented, in
order to render the accounts more
simple, as well as more comprehen- [
sive. Forms may be of use to enter >
minute details ; and each superin- i
tendent may have a form of entry for
the work which he performs or su-
perintends ; but the ledger should be
kept exactly as that of a mercantile j

man, and he frequently balanced to
ensure correctness. This is a thin<^
which cannot be too strongly recom-
mended to young farmers."

FARM- YARD MANURE. The
excrements of cattle mixed with ve-
getable litter accumulated in the farm-
yard. Stran-, peat, sea-weed, the
haulms of crops, leaves, and any or-
ganic matter may be added to swell
the bulk. It is usual to make the
yard somewhat inclined, so that the
fluid portions may run into a tank at
the bottom. The reservoir should
be tight, either of cement or temper-
ed clay ; it may be furnished with
pumps, to return the fluid over the
solid matters several times during its
preparation. The dung should be
I piled in ridges of five feet high and
as many wide, and kept trodden to-
gether ; it should not be permitted to
heat too much or be kept too wet. It
is very much improved by an addi-
tion of charcoal, gypsum, and lime,
applied occasionally to the layers as
they are brought out from the houses.
In well-tilled soils twenty to thirty
cart-loads the acre are applied for a
rotation of three or four years. Corn,
wheat, potatoes, or tobacco usually
receive the manure. Sandy soils re-
quire less manure, but more frequent-
ly repeated.

Farm-yard manure wastes rapidly
by exposure and the action of rain,
its soluble salts being removed, and
the volatile ammoniacal portions ri-
sing into the air. Great benefit would
be found from the erection of slab or
thatched sheds for the protection of
the heaps.

It is of service to all crops, be-
cause, being made up of the offal of
vegetables and food, it contains all
the neces'sary salts and organic mat-
ters ; but, in the usual way of prep-
aration, it is also the depository of
the seeds of weeds and insects, and
tends to render the husbandry foul.
By preparing with lime, and man-
aging it in the dry way, eremacausis
is produced, which destroys the seeds
and eggs, at the same time that it di-
minishes the waste by volatilization.
The value of the manure is depend-
871

FARM- YARD MANURE.

ant upon the food used, and the pro-
portion of (hinfj: to straw, the litter
absorbing tlic lluid parts and runninji
into decay, but reducing the vaUie of
any given Avcight of the manure.
Where animal garbage or fisli can
be obtained, the value is much in-
creased. (See Manures.) But in the
common yard dung the fluid parts
are altogether the richest portions.

Yard manure should be taken out
and ploughed as early in the spring
as possible, before it is much re-
duced by rotting, nor should it be in
the soil very long before the seeds,
for it wastes away rapidly. Well-rot-
ted dung is necessary for particular
plants, but is by no means economi-
cal. In many cases an application
to the hill is best, as in potatoes, tur-
nips, corn, and tobacco.

Soiling is a certain means of in-
creasing the quantity of manure at
the same time that expenses are less-
ened ; it is to be considered an es-
sential in good arable husbandry. It
is common to keep the horse, cow,
and pig dung separate ; but there is
little benefit in this.

Compositioji of Farm-yard Manure.
— " The elementary composition of
farm dung is a point which is not
undeserving of consideration," says
Boussingault. " The animals which
had produced the dung were thirty
horses, thirty oxen, and from ten to
twenty hogs. The absolute quantity
of moisture was ascertained by first
drying in the air a considerable weight
of dung, and, after pounding, continu-
ing and completing the drying, in vac-
uo, at 230° Fahrenheit.

" The dung prepared in the winter
of the year

SO''} >j)er cent, of
22-2 i diT matter.
19-6

1837-8 contained .
1838-9
In.summer of 1839

Medium . .

Water . .

20-7
79-3

"Analysis yielded the following
results :

Times of preparation. Garb. Hjd. Oxyj:. Azote. Ashes.

Winter of 1837-8 324 3-8 258 1-7 363

" 32-5 41 260 1-7 35 7

" 38-7 4'5 28-7 17 26-4

Spring of 1838 304 40 19 1 24 381

1839 400 4-3 27-6 24 25 7

" " 345 4-3 27-6 20 31-5

272

" On the average, farm dung, dried
at SSS*^, contains :

Carbon 35-8

Hydrogen 42

Oxygen 258

Azote 20

Salts and earths . . . 32-2
100-0

" When moist, its composition is
represented by

Carbon 7'41

Hydrogen 0-87

Oxygen 5-34

Azote 0 41

Sails and earths . . 6-67

Water 7930

100^
•' The constitution of dung heaps
must of necessity vary ; those, how-
ever, which have a common origin
do not seem to present very great
differences in the proportion of their
elements.

'• Excretions of the Horse. — The
horse was fed upon hay and oats.
The urine and the excrements togeth-
er contained 762 per cent, of moist-
ure. In twenty-four hours the excre-
tions weighed, moist, 342 pounds;
dry, 81 pounds.

" Their composition was found to
be:

In the dry mat*. Moist ditto.

Carbon 386 »19

Hydrogen .... 50 1-20

Oxygen 38-4 8-66

Azote : 2-7 413

Salts and earth . . 17-3 4- 13

Water 17-3 7617

100-0 1000

" Excretions of the Cow. — The COW
was fed upon hay and raw potatoes.
The urine and the excrements to-
gether contained 86 4 of moisture.
The weight of the excretions, in
twenty-four hours, was, moist, 80 5
pounds ; dry, 10-9 pounds.

"Their composition, by analysis,
was :

Dry.

Carbon 398

Hydrogen .... 4-7

Oxygen 35'5

Azote 2-6

Salts and earth . . 17-4

Water .... . 17-4

1000

" Excretions of the Pig. — The pigs
upon which the observations were
made were, from six to eight months
old. They were fed upon steamed

Wet
539
0-64
4-81
0-36
2-36
6644
100 00

FARM- YARD MANURE.

potatoes. The urine and the excre-
ments lost, by drying, 8'Z per cent, of
moisture. 'J"he average of the ex-
cretions yielded by one pig in twenty-
four hours was, moist, 91 pounds;
dry, 1 6 pounds.
" Composition :

Dr}-- Moist.

Carbon 36-7 6-97

Hydrogen .... 48 0-86

Oxvgen 32 5 5 85

Azote 3-4 0 61

Salts and earth . . 206 8701

Water .... . 20-6 82-00

1000 lUO-00

" The litter that is generally em-
ployed is wheat straw. This straw,
in the condition in which it is used,
contains 26 per cent, of moisture.

" Its composition is ;

Dried. rn,iri.-d.

Carbon 484 358

IIvdro?en .... 53 39

Oiygen 38-9 28-8

A,5ote 04 00-3

Sails and earth . . 70 52

Water .... . 70 260

1000 1000

" At Bechelbronn each horse re-
ceives daily, as litter, 4 4 pounds ;
each cow, 6 6 pounds ; each pig, 4-1
pounds of straw.

"To the stables and the cow-houses
together are given, every twenty-four
hours, 13"-i 0 pounds of straw for thir-
ty horses; 198 0 pounds for thirty
horned cattle ; 66 0 pounds for six-
teen pigs ; making 396 0 pounds of
straw, estimated, when dry, at 292-6
pounds.

" The composition of the materials
which constitute the dung produced
in one day are set forth in the fol-
lowing table :

Excretions yielded Weight
in 24 hours by when dry-.

Weight t Elements of the dry matter.

Water
constitu-
ting the
wet matter.

state. 1 Carb. ^Hydrog.

0..ygea[Azo,e.||f;f,,f:

lbs.
Thinv horses .... 24508
Thirty horned cattle 32636
Sixteen pigs ... .1 26-40
Straw used in litter | 29260

lbs. 1 lbs. , Ib^.

1028-28' 94-60 1232

2416-48 130 24 1540

146-74 1012; 1-32

396-00 41-66, 1562

lb?. 1 lbs. lbs.

8910| 6-60 42-46

116161 8-58 56-98

8-58 1 0-88 1 5-50

113-741 1-10 1 20-46

lbs.

783-20

2089-12

120-34

103-40

" The average or mean composition of this mixture may be taken as fol-
lows :

In the drj- state. | In the wet state. |

Carbon.

Hydrog.

O.^ygen.

Azote. |Salt.^.| Carbon. | Hydrog.j Oxygen.

Azote.
0-4

Salts.
¥2"

Water.

42-3

50

36.7

1-9 |l4-l| 9-4 \ 1-2 1 8 2

77-6

That of the resulting Dung.

35-8

4-2

25-8

2 0 |32-2 1 7-4 1 0-9 | 5-3

0-4

6-7

79-3

" On comparing the composition of '
the dung-heap with that of the differ-
ent kinds of litter collected in a day,
little difference is observed ; the lar-
ger quantity of saline and earthy mat- 1
ters discovered in the fermented ma- ;
nure is readily explained from the ad- j
ditions of ashes incorporated with it, :
and also by the accidental admixture I
of earthy matters proceeding from
the sweepings of the court, the earth |
adhering to the roots consumed as
food, &c. — refuse of ever}' kind, the ■
residue after cleansing the various [
kinds of fodder for tlie stable and
stall, &c., all go to the dung-heap.
Lastly, and with reference to the ele-
ments that are liable to be dissipated
in the state of gas, or which may be j
changed into water, the azote is pre- j

cipitated in larger quantity in the pre-
pared manure than in the unferment-
ed litter and excretions. This is at
once seen on comparing the compo-
sition of these two products after the
saline and earthy matters have been
deducted.

Carb. Hydrog. 0.tyg. Azote.
The composition of

fresh litter is . . . 49-3 5-8 42-7 2
That of dung .... 528 6-1 33-1 3.0

" Dung is, therefore, somewhat
richer in carbon than litter, and it
contains less oxygen.

" Fermented dung contains less
oxygen than that which comes from
the stable ; it ought also to contain
less hydrogen ; but this analysis does
not proclaim.

"Azote is, in fact, the element
which it is of highest importance to
273

FAR

FAR

augment and to preserve in dunp;.
The organic substances which arc
the most advantageous in producing
manures are precisely those which
give origin, by their decomposition,
to the largest proportion of azotized
matters, soluble or volatile. I say
by their decomposition, because the
mere presence of azote in matters
of organic origin does not suffice to
constitute them manure. While we
admit the high importance, indeed
tlie absolute necessity of azotic prin-
ciples in manures, then, we must not
therefore conclude that these princi-
ples are the only ones which contrib-
ute to fertilize the earth.

" It is unquestionable that tlie al-
kaline and earthy salts are farther
indispensable to the accomplishment
of the phenomena of vegetation ; and
it is far from being sufficiently shown
that the organic principles void of
azote play a merely passive part
when added to the soil. But with
few exceptions, the fixed salts, wa-
ter or its elements, and carbon, su-
perabound in manure. The chemical
nature of the salts is the same as that
of the fodders used. The element
which exists there in smallest pro-
portion is azote, which is the one,
also, that is most apt to be dissipa-
ted during the alteration of the bodies
that contain it. For these reasons,
azote is really the element whose
presence it is of highest moment to
ascertain ; its proportion is that, in
fact, which fixes the comparative
value of different manures.

" Since it is by undergoing modifi-
cation in the course of their decoin-
position by putrefaction that those
azotized substances which arc fa-
vourable to vegetation are developed
in quaternary compounds, it will be
readily understood that, all things
else being equal, a manure which is
completely resolved into soluble or
gaseous products in the course of a
single season will exert, in virtue of
this alone, the whole of its useful in-
fluence upon the first crop. It is en-
tirely different if the manure decom-
poses more slowly ; its action upon
the first crop will be less obvious, but
274

its influence will continue longer.
Tiicre are manures which act, it may
he said, at the moment they are put
into the ground ; there are others,
the action of which continues during
several years. Nevertheless, two
manures, although acting within pe-
riods so different in point of extent,
will produce the same final result if
they severally contain the same dose
of azotic elements, if they are of the
same intrinsic value.

" The durability of manures, the
length of time during which they will
continue to exert their influence, is
a matter of great importance. It oft-
en depends on their state of cohe-
sion, or on their insolubility, though
climate and the nature of the soil
have also a marked influence on their
decomposition and consequent ef-
fects. It is not easy, in the present
state of knowledge, to predict with
certainty how long the beneficial ef-
fects of a given manure will continue
to be felt ; but we know well enough
what will hasten the decomposition
of manure and what will retard this
result, and so apportion, as it were,
the fertilizing principles among the
different crops in the rotation."

In Switzerland it is common to ap-
ply a small quantity of the solution
of green vitriol or copperas (sulphate
of iron) to the yard manure. One
pound of copperas in solution will an-
swer for about three hundred weight
of the manure. This converts the
carbonate into sulphate of ammo-
nia, and removes any bad odour. It
also improves the quality of the ma-
nure very considerably.

FARRIER. One who shoes hor-
ses, or treats their diseases ; the lat-
ter department is now coining into
the hands of educated men, called
veterinary surgeons.

FARROW. A litter of pigs.

FASCID. In anatomy, a tendinous
expansion Iving between muscles.

FASCICULUS, or FASCICLE.
In botany, an inflorescence in which
the flower-stalks of various lengths
form a summit somewhat level, and
the uppermost buds expand first, as
in the sweet William.

FAT

FAT

FAT. A solid oil, which combines
with soda and forms soap. In tlie
body it is stored in cells, in mem-
branes existing under the skin, over
the intestines and kidneys. The va-
rieties in consistence of different
fats depends upon the proportion of
the stearin and elain they contain ;
the former being the solid part, the
latter the fluid or oily. They are in-
soluble in water, partly soluble in al-
cohol, and partly in ether.

Fats answer, in animals, several
important functions. They serve to
maintain the warmth, by excluding
atmospheric cold ; lubricate joints
and tlie spaces between muscles, and
afford the means of sustaining ani-
mal heat by their consumption in the
body during severe weather. In well-
fattened animals it is deposited even
between the fibres of the muscles.

Chemically, they are hydro-car-
bons, and consist of oily acids com-
bined with glycerine. Stearin con-
sists of carbon, 79; hydrogen, 11-7;
and oxygen, 9 3 per cent., and gives
us a fair representation of the com-
position of the rest. The fats of ve-
getables are identical with those of
animals, excepting where a peculiar
odorous body is added, as in goat fat,
whale oil, &c. For the various in-
gredients of fats, see Elain, Stearin,
Magarine, Olein, Butter, (fcc.

The purification of fats for the man-
ufacture of soaps and candles is ef-
fected by first mincing it in fine pie-
ces, melting in warm water, and
straining through a sieve. It may
be farther purified by remelting in
water acidulated with 2 per cent, of
sulphuric acid, stirring it constantly,
allowing it to cool, and skimming off
the tallow, which should be after-
ward remelted with an abundance of
fresh water. In this way it becomes
very white and hard.

■ The rancidity of fats and oils is due
to the absorption of oxygen from the
air and the production of new pun-
gent bodies, termed hircic, capric,
&c., acids. This is also the reason
why butter spoils unless well worked
before storage to remove ail the air
contamed in it.

FATTENING ANIMALS. The

accumulation of tat is unquestionably
dependant upon the food in part, but
it also depends upon the disposition
and management of the animal. A
docile breed, as the Durham ox or
China hog, is more easily fattened
than one that is restless. A dispo-
sition to rest and sleep is very neces-
sary, and is encouraged by placing
the animals in darkened stalls, allow-
ing them to be seldom troubled, and
supplying rich food often during the
day. As the fat accumulates, the
skin feels very silky and the animal
becomes lethargic ; in this state it
should be slaughtered, for otherwise
they become liable to sudden death.
Great attention is necessary to the
cleanliness of the animal, the skin of
which should be curried and washed
to prevent disease. The food is grad-
ually increased in nutritiousness and
amount of oil it contains, until the
fattening is perfect. It is seldom
that the accumulation of weight ex-
ceeds two to two and a half pounds
the day, notwithstanding the ration
is doubled, or three and a half to four
per cent, of the weight of the animal
given in hay, or its equivalent. Small
beasts are fattened more economi-
cally than large ones, and unless the
skin handles well, or is soft and elas-
tic to the touch, the prospects for
rapid fattening are not good. The
length of time necessary to finish the
fattening is four or five months ia
oxen, but is less during warm thaa
cold weather.

FATTENING FOOD. The expe-
rience of farmers has always been in
favour of the doctrine that oily prov-
ender IS required to produce fat ;
beech -nuts, linseed -oil cakes, and
corn enjoy the highest reputation,
and are most charged with oil. Lie-
big has, however, advanced the doc-
trine that farinaceous vegetables, as
the potato, carrot, &c., are fattening
from the starch they contain ; but al-
though this may be true physiologi-
cally, yet in ordinary farm manage-
ment it is found cheaper and more
expeditious to use fodders already
containing the fat, rather than to
276

F.\i;

FEE

wait for the slower transformation
out of starch.

Fattening food should be well pre-
pared by grinding, and steaming for
hogs. A mush that had become
slightly sour was found to fatten more
expeditiously by Arthur Young than
the fresh food. The following table
gives the comparative values of prov-
enders for fattening, by showing the
amount of oil they contain :

Indian com . . 9 to 10 percent, of oil.

Oats 4 to 5 " "

Wheat . . . 2i to 2i " "

Bran .... 4 to 5 " "

Oilcake ... 9 to 10 " "

Clover hay . . 4 " "

Meadow hay . . 3A to 4 " "

Pease andbeans . 2| to 3 " "

Beech mast . . 15 to 17 " "

Sunflower seed . 15 " "

Linseed ... 11 to 22 " "

Hemp seed . .18 to 25 " "

Straw .... 1 to li " "

These numbers are not constant,
for the amount of oil depends upon
the season, increasing witli the brill-
iancy and dryness of the weather.
Potatoes, beets, carrots, turnips, man-
gel wurzel, contain less than one
quarter per cent., and are therefore
not adapted for fattening alone.

The same values are true for but-
ter and milk, except that oil cake im-
parts a bad flavour. Poultry and
pigs are now som.etimes fattened in
part on animal fat, as cracklings,
greaves, &c. One of the most suc-
cessful bodies in the list is ground lin-
seed meal, but, considering its other
qualities, corn is the most esteemed.
If the cake or oily seeds are used, it
will be necessary to mix meal, oats,
or pease with them, to preserve the
health of the animal ; tive pounds of
cake area sufficient supply for the day.

FATHOM. A measure of six feet.

FAUCES. The part of the throat
at the root of the tongue.

FAULT. In geology, an interrup-
tion in the continuation of a stratum,
the bed having been broken by an
earthquake and separated. The crev-
ice between the parts is often filled
with clay, which forms an impervious
barrier to drainage.

FAUNA. The animals of a coun-
try.

276

FAUX. The opening or throat of
monopetalous flowers, like the snap-
dragon, sage, d:c.

FAVOSUS (from farus, a honey-
comb). Marked like a honey-comb.

FEATHER-BOARDING. Weath-
er-boarding, the edges of the boards
overlapping.

FEATHER-GRASS. Slipa pen-
nala. A very inferior grass.

FEATHERS. The covering of
birds, answering the purpose and be-
ing of the same composition as the
hair and fur of animals. Goose-
feathers for beds are, in Europe,
plucked in the spring, midsummer,
and September, each parcel being
dried in an oven. If they become
foul, it may be remedied by boiling
them, enclosed in bags, in an abun-
dance of water for a few minutes.
The quill is prepared by dipping in
a quantity of sand heated to 150"
Fahrenheit, and afterward rubbing it
strongly with flannel until it becomes
clear.

Waste feathers, as a manure, are
precisely of the same value as woollen
rags, which see.

FEBRIFUGE. Any medicine
which allays the heat and violence of
fevers, as lemonade, Seidlitz pow-
ders, tartar emetic, &c.

FECES. Excrements, dregs.

FECUIA. Starchv matter.

FECUNDATION. In horticulture,
the act of sprinkling the yellow pow-
der {pollen) of the stamens of one
flower upon the stigma or female or-
' gan of another, to produce new vari-
I eties of seed, is called artificial fecun-
dation or impregnation. The late
1 Mr. Andrew Knight obtained in this
j way many choice fruits. Varieties
of plants, especially melons, are fre-
i quently injured and lost by planting
: ihern near each other, from fecunda-
tion arising from the pollen of one
kind being carried to another by in-
I sects or the wind. Hence annuals
i of the same species set out for seed
should be placed far apart.

FEED. The quantity of proven-
der or ration allowed a horse, cow,
&.C. Growing animals require three
per cent. ; working horses, two ;

FEL

FEN

milch cows, three ; and Tattening an-
imals three and a half to four per
cent, of their weight in hay or its
equivalent. See Fodder.

FEELERS. The antenna3 of in-
sects, or, according to entomologists,
organs fixed to the mouth, used for
prehension.

FELINE ANIMALS. Beasts of
the tiger, lion, and cat race. They
are carnivorous, furnished with sharp
incisor teeth, and retractile claws.

FELL. The hide of an animal.

FELLING TIMBER. Much dis-
cussion has arisen as to the time of
felling timber, some contending for
winter, others for summer. Duha-
mel, who examined the matter thor-
oughly, came to the conclusion that
the time of cutting was of little or no
importance on the durability of the
timber. The rule now established is,
that soft woods, as the elm, poplar,
maple, willows, are best cut in win-
ter, the harder trees in summer, and
old trees may be cut at any time.

FELLINIC ACID. One of the
acids found in bile by Berzelius.

FELLMONGER'S POAKE, or
CLIPPINGS. The clippings of skins
and the scrapings of leather. It con-
tains hair, skin, and lime, and is best
introduced into composts to increase
the amount of nitrogen. A direct ap-
plication is wasteful, for it decays
rapidly.

FELLOES. The curved pieces of
wood which form the circumference
of wheels : ash is preferred for this
purpose.

FELON, or FETLOW. In farri-
ery, a term for a sort of inflammation
in animals similar to that of whitlow
in the human subject.

FELDSPAR. A common mineral
abounding in granite and transition
rocks ; it is crystalline, of a pearly lus-
tre, and of various colours, usually
of a yellowish or reddish aspect. It
is a silicate of potash and alumina,
containing from eleven to fourteen
per cent, of real potash, and furnish-
ing, by slow decay in the soil, that
important alkali to plants. Albite is
a variety containing soda. An abun-
dance of decaying vegetable matter

A A

in the soil, or the addition of heavy
dressings of lime, assists the disen-
gagement of the potash, and thus ad-
vances fertility. No soil which con-
tains much feldspathic sand can be
deficient in potash.

FEMUR. The thigh bone ; hence
Femoral.

FEN. A boggy or marshy place.
See Bog:

FENCES. Erections to protect
land from the trespass of cattle. They
are called live fences, or hedges, when
made of shrubs. See Hedges.

^\'ood, being so common, is usual-
ly employed in the United States ;
but walls of blasted rock or loose
stones are frequently seen. Stumps
form an admirable fencing material.
Banks of earth, dug from a ditch and
covered with sods, or a ditch only,
are also used ; in the prairies they
would, perhaps, be cheaper than rail
fencing. These structures are, how
ever, very expensive, and should be
diminished by the introduction of the
system of soiling.

Wooden fences are commonly
erected in the zigzag direction ; the
cross fence, consisting of one piece
set slanting upon two others stuck
into the ground, and made to cross
near the top, is much less permanent.
The post and rail is very superior,
but more expensive, but, by using pre-
served timber, might be made imper-
ishable. See Preservation of Tim-
ber. Railings are readily rived from
straight pine, but look much neater
when sawn. In Virginia the law re-
quires a fence of ten rails, with ri-
ders, which is unnecessarily high ;
five rails, with riders, being used in
Jersey. The rails are cut twelve feet
long. A rod costs from 50 to 70 cents.

Hurdles, or light moveable fences,
consisting of panels, about four feet
long and four feet and a half high, are
much used in Europe to confine
sheep, each panel being furnished
with two end pieces long enough to be
stuck fast into the earth. They arc
tied together, when set up, with
wiihes. Sometimes they are made
of osier, but usually of any small
wood. By means of them, turnips
277

FENCES.

spring rye, &c.., can be depastured.
A light post and rail fence may he
made moveable l)y furnishing the
posts with feet. Light iron and wire
hurdles are now introduced in Eng-
land, and also iron rods passed
through wooden posts for permanent
fences.

Walls are put up at fifty cents to
one dollar the rod. The following
is from Law :

" The stone wall may either be form-
ed of stones built without cement, or
it may be built with mortar like com-
mon masonry ; but the last of these
methods is rarely practised with the
common fences of a farm. The ce-
menting of the stones with mortar
adds, indeed, to the durability of the
wall, but then the expense is too
great in common cases. The wall,
therefore, for the ordinary purposes
of the farm, may generally be built
of stones alone, though sometimes
with a little mortar, merely for ce-
menting the coping, and occasional-
ly for pinning or closing the inter-
stices of the outside. When stones
cannot be obtained, brick may be sub-
stituted.

" The materials for building the dry
stone wall, as this kind of wall is
termed, may be sandstone, whin-
stone, or any other stones of suffi-
cient durability. Loose stones taken
from the surface, termed land stones,
answer sufficiently well, if they be
of proper size, and not too much
rounded ; but in the latter case they
present too smooth a surface, and
cannot be kept m their places with-
out mortar.

" The implements to be used in
building the dry stone wall are a ma-
son's hammer, a spade or shovel for
clearing the ground for a foundation, a
pick or mattock, and a frame of two
upright posts fixed together, so as to
correspond with a vertical section of
a portion of the wall.

" The line of the intended fence be-
ing fixed upon and marked on the
ground, the stones for building should
be brought forward, and laid down on
both sides, if possible, of the line of
fence, but if not, on one side.
278

" Pins being fixed in the centre of
the space to be occupied by the wall,
the workman proceeds thus : he car-
ries his wooden frame to some dis-
tance along the line to be built upon ;
he sets it perpendicular, which he is
enabled to do by means of a plumb-
line attached to it. He then fixes
another similar frame at the place
where the wall is to commence ; he
stretches two cords between these
two frames on the outside, and as
these cords correspond with the out-
side of the wall at a given height, he
has a guide for building it of the
required dimensions. After having
built one portion, he uses only one
frame, the wall itself serving after-
ward the part of a frame ; for the
cords being fixed to both sides of the
wall, and then attached to the frame
which is placed in advance, the work-
man has, as before, a guide by which
he proceeds in building.

" The foundation of the wall should
be laid on firm ground, and when
there is not green sward to build
upon, the loose earth should be taken
out by the spade, until a solid found-
ation is arrived at. In building, the
largest and flattest stones should be
used for the foundation ; and it is
very desirable, if the materials used
will allow, to place stones at inter-
vals of sufficient size to lie across
the breadth of the wall, so as to bind
the wall together, and render it more
secure.

" Different kinds of coping may be
placed upon the wall to defend it.
One of these consists merely of turf,
two sods being laid upon the wall,
with the earthy sides placed towards
each other. Another species of cop-
ing consists of large stones, which,
being closely built and wedged togeth-
er, are cemented by mortar. This is
a complete and durable species of
coping ; but when it is used, a row
of flat stones should be laid on the
top of the wall immediately beneath
the coping, and made to project a lit-
tle on each side of it.

" A wall, sufficient for the purposes
of the farm, may be 32 inches wide
at bottom, 16 inches wide at top, and,

FEN

I'ER

including the coping, 4^- feet high.
Two good cavt-Ioads of stones will
suffice for building a yard.

" When a fence is required within
sight of a dwelling, and it is desira-
ble for it to be concealed, a deep
ditch is sometimes dug, and a fence
placed in the bottom of it at such a
depth as not to appear above the lev-
el of the ground. This is called a
sunk fence. Sometimes a wall is
built against a perpendicular side of
a ditch, and some very light fence is
placed obliquely outward near the
top of it and level with the ground.
This is called a ha-ha fence, a name
given to it from the surprise excited
in a person unacquainted with it,
when he suddenly finds himself on
the top of a wall with a deep ditch
before him. When it is desired to
keep off sheep or cattle from a lawn
or pleasure-ground without obstruct-
ing the view of the park or the fields,
the ha-ha fence is very useful."

Some persons recommend division
fences for every ten acres, but this is
ridiculously small, for it is not to be
forgotten that the fence requires some
room, hinders close ploughing, and
this probably reduces the enclosure by
one third to one half an acre, which,
in a farm of two hundred acres, would
amount to ten acres. Thirty or for-
ty acre lots, except on small farms,
are small enough.

FENESTRATE. In entomology,
the appearance produced by the trans-
parent spots on the wings of some in-
sects. In botany, the absence of tis-
sue between the veins of a leaf

FExNNEL, COMMON. Meum (ce-
niculum. This is a well-known bienni-
al plant, cultivated in kitchen gardens
as a garnish, and used as a domestic
medicine. The taste and aromatic
qualities of the garden fennel are well
known. The sweet and warm seeds
are a common carminative for infants.

FENNEL, SWEET. Famculum
duke. This species of fennel is an an-
nual plant, a native of Italy and Por-
tugal, where it is cultivated as a pot-
herb, as well as for the seeds and the
oil which these afford. It is a small-
»r plant than the common fennel. The

stem is somewhat compressed at the
base. The fruit is much longer than
that ofthecoinmon fennel, being near-
ly five lines long, less compressed,
somewhat curved, and paler, with a
greenish tinge.

FENUGREEK. Trigonellafmnum-
gracum. Fenugreek is a species of
trefoil, sometimes cultivated in fields
for its seed ; but it yields a very un-
certain crop. The stem is a foot
high, erect, with round, branched
stalks, trifoliate leaves, toothed ; the
flowers small and white ; the fruit a
sessile, straight, erect, acuminate,
flat pod, containing a number of yel-
lowish seeds havmg a strong, disa-
greeable smell, and an unctuous, far-
inaceous, and somewhat bitter taste.
These seeds are useful in cataplasms
and fomentations.

FENUGREEK, UUSSIAN. Trig,
onella nithenica. A hardy perennial,
native of Siberia, with yellow papil-
ionaceous blossoms in July and Au-
gust. It loves a strong loamy soil
and an open situation. It is propa-
gated either by parting the roots in
spring or from seed.

FER.MENT. A substance ia the
state of decay which is capable of
communicating fermentation and sim-
ilar changes to other bodies. Fer-
ments contain nitrogen, and are pri-
marily derived from albumen, fibrin,
or casein, which, when moi.st, decay
spontaneously. The product of the
ferment depends upon temperature,
amount of water, access of air, and
other conditions. These actions can
only originate in organic matter, but
ferments act upon inorganic substan-
ces, as mixtures of gases, &c. Fer-
ments become exhausted in acting
upon other bodies, from their own
decay. For common ferment, see
Yecmt.

FERMENTATION. When a fer-
ment, as yeast, is brought in contact
with grape sugar, and several other
principles, mixed with water, and at
a temperature of 70- or upward, the
sugar is changed, and gives off car-
bonic acid, alcohol being produced ;
this change is attended with consid-
erable movement in the mixture, and
279

TER

FER

is called fermentation. The product
of (enncntation is various : \vli(;n alco-
hol is foruieil it is called vinous ; when
starch is converted into sugar, as in
bread-making, saccharine. Lactic acid
fermentation is when that substance
is produced from sugar ; -putrefactive
fermentation, which occurs in dung-
hills, takes place when nitrogen is an
ingredient in the decaying matter.

Fermentation is a chemical change,
whereby complex organic bodies are
converted into more simple forms ;
thus, sugar is changed into carbonic
acid and alcohol. It differs from
crcmacavsis, in the circumstance that
oxygen is only absorbed in the begin-
ning, and that the changes take place
in an abundance of water. The prin-
cipal products of fermentation are
water, carbonic acid, alcohol, and car-
buret of hydrogen. When nitrogen
is present, ammonia, with fetid gass-
es, containing sulphur and phospho-
rus, are also exhaled. The heat is
a result of these changes. The de-
cay is hastened by warmth and an
abundance of yeast ; it is retarded by
excessive moisture, and so high a
temperature as to coagulate the fer-
ments. Those bodies which absorb
oxygen rapidly, as green vitriol, hin-
der fermentation by intercepting the
first change : these are called anti-
septics. Mineral acids also destroy
the activity of ferments.

Sugar, starch, woody fibre, &c.,
cannot ferment spontaneously, for
they contain no nitrogen ; thej' are,
however, called fermentable. The jui-
ces of fruits, trees, canes, &c., rapidly
ferment, because, besides sugar, they
contain albumen, casein, or fibrin,
which, decaying easily, conveys the
change to the fermentable matter
present ; but their fermentation may
be hindered by adding a little lime,
boiling down to a sirup, or otherwise
coagulating or solidifying the de-
structive nitrogen principles.

In consequence of the continuance
of fermentation, irrespective of ac-
cess of air, fluids in this state must
not be barrelled up tightly, or the car-
bonic acid gas may burst the vessel ;
but by lowering the temperature to
280

45° Fahrenheit (by placing in a ce^
lar), separating all the yeast, or fu-
migating the cask with vapour of sul-
phur, it may be considerably or alto-
gether arrested. The vinous fer-
mentation runs into the acetous if
the substances are freely exposed to
air, as cider or beer in an open cask.
See Beer, Cider.

FERNS, FILICES. Flowerless
plants, with beautifully -developed
leaves, bearing their seed-vessels on
the lower side. They are crypto-
gamia in the system of Linnaeus, and
acotyledonous in that of Jussieu.
They have little economical value,
grow in wet or rocky situations, and
serve well enough for packing, in the
place of straw, or to increase the
amount of yard manure.

FERROCYANATE OF POT-
ASH. A yellow, crystalline salt, also
called Prussiate of potash, the solu-
tion of which is used as a test for pe-
roxide of iron in solution, with which
it strikes a beautiful blue, being, in-
deed, Prussian blue. It is also used
in the laboratory as a test for copper
and other metals, and to form various
compounds of cyanogen from.

F £ R R U G I :N" O U S {from ferrum,
iron). Containing iron, or of the col-
our of rust. Ferruginous waters are
also called chalybeates, and much es-
teemed as tonics. Ferruginous soils,
when friable, are frequently \ery fer-
tile and improveable.

FERRUGO. Also Rubigo, Rust :
it is a species of uredo.

FERRET. A useful animal of the
weasel kind ; the Mustelafuro (Fig.)
of naturalists. It is domesticated in

^^"-^-^-^

Europe for the destruction of rats,
rabbits, and other small vermin, and
might be usefully employed in the
United States in granaries.

" It procreates twice a year, and
brings from six to eight young ; smells
very fetid. The ferret is very sus
ceptible of cold, and must be kept 4k

FET

FEV

B box provided with wool or olhor
warm materials, and may be fed with
bread and milk. Its sleep is long and
profound, and it awakes with a vora-
cious appetite, which is most highly
gratified by the blood of small and
young animals. Its enmity to rats
and rabbits is unspeakable, and when
either are, though for the first time,
presented to it, it seizes and bites
them with the most phrensied mad-
ness. When employed to expel the
rabbit from its burrows it must be
muzzled, as otherwise it will suck
the blood of its victim, and instantly
fall into a profound sleep, from which
it will awake only to the work of de-
struction, committing in the warren,
where it was introduced only for its
services, the most dreadful waste and
havoc. It is possessed of high irri-
tability, and when particularly exci-
ted, is attended with an odour ex-
tremely offensive." — {Loudon.)

Ferrets are used in granaries and
out-buildings to destroy rats. They
are muzzled and slipped into the hole,
from which they drive the animals,
which are then caught by terriers or
other vermin dogs. It is customary
to hunt in the morning, when the
rats are less active and asleep in their
holes.

FESCUE GRASSES. The genus
Festuca, containing several valuable,
permanent grasses, of which the F.
pratoisis, meadow fescue, and dari-
ttscula, hard fescue, are the best. See
Grasses. The characters of the ge-
nus are, triandria, digynia, flowers in
panicles, corolla armed, seeds ad-
nate ; calyx two-valved, many-flow-
ered ; spikelets compressed, round-
ish, awnless, or with a terminal awn ;
corolla sub-round, upper valve acute,
with a sharp bristle at the tip, or mu-
cronate, seed growing to the corolla.
The vahiable kinds are either indi-
genous, or have become naturalized ;
all the festucas are nutritious.

FETLOCK. -'The part of the leg
where the tuft of hair grows behind
the pastern joint of horses : those of
low size have scarcely any tuft. In
working horses, which have them
large, care should be taken to keep
A .\ 'i

Ihem clean in order to prevent the
grease. The fetlock joint is a very
complicated one, and from the stress
which is laid on it, and its being the
principal seat of motion below the
knee, it is particularly subject to in-
jury. An affection of this part should
be well fomented and immediately
blistered." — {Clatcr.)

FEVERS. A disease, one of the
most general symptoms of which is
increased heat of the body, and often
the sensations of heat, dryness, and
even burning of the skin are exces-
sive, independent of any proportional
increase of temperature. Their ori-
gin is in the nervous system. In fe-
vers there is generally great consti-
tutional derangement, unaccompa-
nied by local or perceptible organic
disease. Fevers generally begin with
languor of body and mind ; chilliness,
amounting to shivering, though the
skin often, at the same tune, feels hot ;
the pulse is quicker than it should
be ; respiration hurried or laboured ;
pains are complained of in various
parts, and especially about the head,
back, and loins ; the appetite falls off,
or there is nausea and vomiting; the
mouth is dry ; the bowels generally
constipated, and the urine small in
quantity and deep in colour. These,
which constitute the first stage, or
ordinary febrile symptoms, are suc-
ceeded by alternate flushings, a quick-
er and fuller pulse, rapid alternations
of shivering and burning heat, and by
mental anxiety and wandering, which,
under a great variety of aspects and
modifications, constitute the second
stage ; they are succeeded by the
third stage, in which the leading ap-
pearances are a cleaner tongue, a
more natural pulse, a moist skin,
calm mind, and the urine becomes
more copious in quantity, and de-
posites a sediment as it cools. The
symptoms of fever generally undergo
an increase every evening, wliich is
called an exacerbation ; and this fluc-
tuation often takes place more than
once in the twenty-four hours, the
violence of the attacks increasing
with their occurrence, and forming
what is called a continued fever. Af-
281

FIE

FIG

ter some days, a crisis takes place, ' on an arable farm ; they are seldom
that is, the symptoms cither take a less than 20 acres, and in large farms
favourable or an unfavourable turn, become 50 or more.
If the exacerbation and remission of j FIELD MICE (Avicola agrestis,
symptoms are well marked, and oc- i Cuvier, the short-tailed ; Mus sylvati-
cur once or oftener in the day, the ! «<s, Linnajus, the long-tailed species),
fever is called a remittent ; if the fe- i They are a great nuisance to or-
ver leaves the patient after some chards, stripping off the bark near
hours' duration, and returns at sta- the ground, and causing the death of

ted intervals, it is called an intermit
tent, as ague. Fevers are also va-
riously denominated, according to the
prevalent symptoms, as inflammatory,
typhus or putrid, nervous fever, &,c. ;
or according to cutaneous appearan

the trees. Tarring the parts is said
to protect them ; the introduction of
a new ring of sound bark, the two
being made to fit closely, after the in-
jury, will often save the trees. Crows,
hawks, owls, weasles, cats, and ter-

ces connected with them, such as rier dogs, as well as traps, are often
scarlet fever an& yellow fever. [insufficient to subdue these pests.

In the first stage, sweating med- ; The following method was found very
icines and purges, with bleeding, j successful in England after all others
are useful ; subsequently, medicines , had failed : pits were dug 18 inches
which calm the nervous system are deep,twofeetlong,and ISincheswide
used. Calomel, in a dose of 10 grains at the bottom, but with the sides in-
for a man, is often useful; but in ' clined, so as to be only 16 inches long
fevers attended with great debility, | at the top and nine inches wide. The
bleeding is injurious, and stimulants, holes were made 20 feet apart each
especially carbonate of ammonia {sal , way, and were so successful that oft-
volatile), and wines, are essential. j en 15 mice were taken in one during

FEVERFEW. Species of Py- a single night: the mice failing in,
rethriim ; they are very similar, and ; were unable to escape up the inclined
may replace chamomile, especially \ sides.

the P. parthenium. Several bear or- j FIG. Ficus carica. Upward of 40
namental flowers. They occasion- i varieties are published of this fruit ;
ally become troublesome perennial ' of these, the Marseilles, early white,
weeds, difficult to extirpate, except large white Genoa, purple Genoa, and
by repeated harrowings. Brunswick are worthy of cultivation.

FIBRE, VEGETABLE. See Lig- \ Most of these bear two crops in the

FIBRIN. The principal constitu-
ent of muscles ; it also exists in
blood and some vegetables. When
pure, it is white, inodorous, and in-
soluble, and, if perfectly dry, can be

season, from August to October. In
the Northern States they require pro-
tection by glass or matting during
winter, but may be cultivated as
standards in Virginia and other parts
of the South. The Malta is worthy

kept for any time, but when moist, it of cultivation in the South as a crop,
putrefies rapidly. See Protein. i the fruit drying of itself on the tree

FIBULA. The outer thin bone of if left, and becoming a fine sweet-
the fore leg. I meat. Figs are readily propagated

FIC0IDEJ3. Tropical plants re- j by cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, or
serabling the cactuses, inhabiting seeds. The layers will bear in one
sandy plains. or two years. As standards, they

FICUS. The generic name of are planted six to eight feet apart, in
the fig; hence _;?cana, resembling the a dry, loamy soil. The fruit is hast-
fig. : ened in ripening by pricking with a

FIELD LARK. All the family of quill dipped in sweet oil, and is pre-
larks are devourers of grain, and served for commerce by immersing
therefore injurious to the farmer. for a moment in boiling lye.

FIELDS. The enclosures made , The fig is peculiarly manageable,
283

FIL

FIL

the size and abundance of the fruit
being almost entirely in the hands of
the orchardist. By girding the stem-
root, pruning, summer pruning the
ends of the bearing branches, the
abundance and beauty of the fruit are
increased. In a stove it may be made
to bear through the winter, so as to
supply a constant succession. In
pruning the ends of branches the
juice will escape, unless the twig be
lirst pressed between the thumb and
finger till the tissues give way, and al-
lowing it to wither before removal.
Fig-trees are very liable to become
iu.vuriant in foliage, bearing little
fruit ; this habit cannot bo remedied
b}' pruning the branches only, for this
is calculated to increase their num-
ber ; it is best rectified by training
the branches horizontally, or even
bending them downward by wires
made fast to their extremities and
to the ground or stem of the tree.
Standards are pruned into a single
stem and horizontal branches. The
fig is remarkably free from insects.
The tree is frequently taken up and
laid down under three or four inches
of earth for the winter, being set up
in April. The wood is extremely
hard and durable, being used for pol-
ishing metals when charged with em-
ery.

FILARIA. A genus of intestinal
worms, resembling a thread in ap-
pearance.

FILATURE. A reel arrangement
for raw silk. See Silk.

FILBERT. Conjlusavellana. This
sweet and valuable nut could, with
the fig, be readily made an object of
exportation, or, at least, raised suffi-
ciently to supply the great demand at
home. As it is not much known, we
insert a description of the best varie-
ties :

1. Red Filbert. — Stem of the fruit
red, superior in flavour to the white,
but less prolific : requires light loam.

2. \\'HrrE Filbert. — An abundant
bearer and hardy plant. The husk
of the fruit is long and tubular, con-
tracted near the top, so as to hinder
the fruit falling out.

3. GosFOBD. — An improved hazel,

the fruit deeply marked and almost
conical.

4. Barcelona, or Large Cob. — A
large nut, much esteemed for keep-
ing, but often a shy bearer.

5. The Frizzled Filbert. — The
husk is frizzled and ornamental. It
is a modern esteemed variety.

The C. Americana is an indigenous
species, bearing a sweet but small nut.
The white is the market variety in
England, and the Barcelona in Spain.
Filberts require a deep, light, but nat-
urally fertile soil, without putrescent
manures. They should be grown as
dwarf standards, set eight feet apart ;
the suckers and lower shoots which
they constantly throw out should be
restrained. They are propagated
most readily from suckers, but may
be grafted on seed stocks early in
April. The amount of fruit yielded
depends in a great measure upon pru-
ning ; for, naturally, the tree expends
itself in producing under-wood. Af-
ter raising the standard, with a low
stem of twelve to eighteen inches,
the branches must be pruned to the
horizontal or pendant form : the lead-
ing shoots are annually shortened by
two thirds ; the front twigs are also
summer-pruned, and all the spurs that
have fruited removed in the winter
or spring. It bears on spurs thrown
out from the last year's wood. The
fruit is ripe when the husk is turned
brown ; if intended for long keeping,
the filberts are allowed to hang until
fully brown, then dried by exposure
to the sun, and placed in barrels with
dry sand. An acre yields 800 to 1000
pounds of fruit. They bear in the
fourth or fifth year.

The nut is assailed by a curculio
in autumn, which may be seen boring
the fruit to deposite its egg, and can
be destroyed by shaking the tree and
allowing chickens to eat the insect
when fallen to the ground.

The filbert and hazel-nut ( C. sylves-
tris) are di.stinct species, but by cul-
tivation have become nearly mixed.

FILIFOR.M. Thread-like.

FILLY. A young mare.

FILTRATION. The separation
of the dear portions of a solution or
283

FIR

PIS

mixture from tlie precipitate or drccs,
by passing tiirough a close tissue.
For cheniicai purposes, w/ii/c blotting
papci, called jUlcriiifi^ paper, is used,
ibldcd into a conical Ibnn, and placed
on a funnel. The fluid which runs
through is called the filtrate. In quan-
titative analysis the filters are weigh-
ed before use, and when properly
dried with the precipitate, and re-
weighed, give the amount of the lat-
ter with the best results. Sometimes
the paper is burned with the precipi-
tate, the known weight of its ash-
es being deducted from the whole
weight. For common purposes, stout
cotton cloth or porous earthen-ware
are used.

FIMBRIATE (from fimbria, a
fringe). Any long, fringe-like mar-
gin to animal or vegetable organs.

FIX. The cutting plate fixed be-
fore the mould-board of a plough, and
answering for a coulter.

FINCHED. la stock, marked with
white streaks.

FINGER GRASS. Digilaria
sanguinalis. An unimportant plant,
sometimes erroneously called cocks-
foot. See Gra.sscs.

FINGERS AND TOES. See An-
hury.

Finos, second best wool from
Merinos.

FIORIN. Agrostis stolonifera. A
creeping, bent perennial grass. It
Avas over-estimated by Richardson,
and is unsuited for rotations, from its
vivacious nature. See Grasses.

FIR. The European popular name
for the larger pine-trees. See Pine.

FIRE-BLIGHT, FIRING. When
the leaves of a growing plant or tree
become brown and dead, either in
part or entirely, it is said to be fired
or fire-blasted. It is distinctly due
to three causes : 1st. When it occurs
in the lower leaves of a tall vegeta-
ble, the leaves have performed their
office, and are no longer supplied with
sap, and therefore die ; 2d. It attacks
growing leaves in spots or blotches :
this is especially the case with to-
bacco, hops, &c. In these cases the
weather has been wet and moist for
some time,and becomes suddenly very
284

hot ; the firing occurs in July and
August, during the hottest season.
There is no doubt here that the first
excess of sap during the wet days
has ruptured the skin of the leaf or
otherwise disorganized it, and the hot
sun dries up the part, causing its
death. 3d. The fire-blight of pear
and other fruit trees is demonstrably
due to numberless aphides, which,
suddenly assailing the upper branch-
es, destroy the leaves by their punc-
tures, which then become brown by
the action of the sun. The only re-
.source is to prune the branches so in-
fested, and destroy them at once.

FIRE-DAMP. The inflammable
gas of bituminous coal-mines. Car-
burets of hvdrogen.

FIRE-FANGED. Dried up. ^^^^en
manure, or composts, in which heat
is generated, become too hot, the
parts assume a baked appearance and
ashy colour, and are said to be fire-
fanged. The composts should be ta-
ken to pieces, mixed with a quantity
of moist garden or fine soil, and put
up in less heaps.

FIRE-FLY. Elatcr noctiluca. An
herbivorous insect of the click or
spring beetle genus.

FIRING, in farriery, a heathen-
ish application of red-hot irons, prac-
tised by ignorant and brutal men, for
the removal of sprains, &c. Its use
almost amounts to a confession of
ignorance.

FIRKIN. A measure of 253S cu-
bic inches, or 7^ imperial gallons, be-
ing the fourth part of a beer barrel.
Butter is packed in barrels called fir-
kins, but weighed, not measured.

FIRLOT. A provincial, Scotch
dry measure. The wheat firlot is
only yyjths of the bushel ; the barley
firlot is nearly H bushel.

FISH. On the seacoast fish is
abundantly used as manure. The
most common way is to spread the
fish, and plough under in the course
of a few days. The application made
by the English farmers is from twen-
ty-five to forty bushels per acre, but
on Long Island much more is employ-
ed. This is. however, an extrava-
gant way of using them. The best

ris

FIS

way is that adopted by Mr. Seely and ;
Dr. Akerly on Staten Island, of strew-
ing them in layers on compost beds
with peat, ashes, slacked lime, char-
coal, and vegetable matter. During
a few months the animal matter of
the fish is decomposed, and con-
verted into rich ammoniacal manures
without any ofTensive smell, and
when it comes to be added to the soil,
twenty bushels go farther and do
more service than forty otherwise ap-
plied. All fish, sea urchins, crabs,
shell- fish, &c., are of the greatest
use, the animal matter being nearly
identical in ultimate composition.

The fish owes its fertilizing effects
to the animal matter and bone earth
it contains. The former is precise-
ly similar to flesh or blood, consist-
ing of 25 per cent, fibrin, the rest
being water. 100 pounds in decay-
ing produce 2J pounds of ammonia,
hence 400 pounds rotted in compost
are enough for an acre. It may be ap-
plied with seed in drills, broad-cast
over grass, wheat, &c. The great
effect is due to the ammoniacal por-
tion, for it renders the herbage dark-
green, and starts it very rapidly. Ar-
thur Young mentions several cases
where fish caused the straw to grow
so rapidly and long as to lodge ; it
should, therefore, be applied to well-
tilled lands, which yield full grain.
The refuse of fish prepared for salt-
ing is a valuable manure.

The refuse blubber, after pressing
whale oil, coarse lats, train oil, has
been used very successfully in com-
posts on lands, but is very inferior
to whole fish, which is, indeed, one of
the finest manures known. In these
cases composts are made with fine
earth, coal ashes, or as above.

FISH-PONDS. Breeding and pre-
serving fish in ponds is, in Germany
and other states of Europe, an ex-
tensive and lucrative employment. In
the United States it is a matter of
luxury worthy of attention. Feeding
or preserving ponds are without any
remarkable peculiarity, except suffi-
cient depth to allow enough water to
remain unfrozen during winter ; by
embanking any spring branch such a

pond can be produced. Breeding
ponds are not always so successful ;
they should contain shoals for the
young, be fed by a pure stream, oft-
en of soft water, and running upon
a clean bottom ; the shoals should be
covered with rushes, and kept free
from fowl, eels, and newts. The
number of young produced, even by
six spawncrs and three or four males
to the acre, is such that predacious
fish are introduced to thin them ; for
this purpose, trout and perch are much
better than pike or pickerel, which
latter find their way to the shoals and
devour the spawn as well as the
young. The contents of the breed-
ing pond may be let off into a series
of feeding ponds lying on a lower lev-
el. Perch and trout succeed togeth-
er, but not with pike. Carp and tench
are very easily raised in the same
pond. Mr. Pell has cultivated shad
in fresh water, and the flounder has
also been naturalized in England. As
a matter of course, on the seashore,
salt-water ponds and fish can be pro-
cured. Pike and pickerel may bo
raised and preserved in a series of
three or four ponds, being fed upon
any small, common fish, which should
be replaced as often as they are much
destroyed.

The spawning season is from May
to June, according to the fish, and
the young should remain until the
next year before removal to the sec-
ond pond, where they remain two
years, and are left to mature in the
third. The last pond is often provi-
ded with a flood-gate, so that it can
be effectually dragged by placing a
net in this situation before letting ofi
the waters. Another arrangement
for securing the large fish only is to
give the last pond such a figure as to
allow a trap to be placed between two
parts, so that all of a certain size are
confined above or taken by the trap.
The sides of the ponds should be shel-
tered by willows, elms, or other or-
namental trees. The removal of the
fish from one pond to another is
made by dragging with fine nets.

The size of the fish will depend
upon the amount left to the acre. In
285

FIS

FLA

the second or nursing ponds 1000 to [
1200 carp and 1500 tench will be '
enougli per acre, and in tlie third pond i
400 to 500 will be enougli : these va- |
rieties will inhabit muddy waters.
The perch and trout require clear wa-
ters ; 600 to the acre is an abun-
dance. The varieties of fine bass,
especially the Otsego, should be cul-
tivated. Eels are worthy of ponds,
and can be raised without any diffi-
culty. Pike are to be cautiously 6x-
cluded from ponds containing any of
the foregoing fish, and all breeding
places. The tench, carp, gold-fish,
and gudgeon are frequently fed with
meal, bread, and similar vegetable
matters, when raised in small, heav-
ily-stocked ponds. One pond answers
well enough with all these kinds ex-
cept pike and pickerel.

FISSIPAROUS GENERATION.
That kind of generation which exists
in polypes, hydras, &,c., in which the
parent throws out buds, or gemmules,
which grow like itself, and are finally

FISSIROSTRALS. A tribe of
perching birds with a very wide gape,
as the swallow.

FISTULA. " A long, sinous ulcer,
often communicating with a larger
cavity, and having a small external
opening.

"All animals are liable to fistulas,
but the horse more particularly so ;
they attack the withers and the poll.
They are produced by blows, by brui-
ses from the saddle, and whatever
causes inflammation ; also by the
presence of extraneous substances.

" In curing this disease, it is requi-
site, in the first instance, to ascertain
the direction the fistula pursues, and
whether it materially interferes with
any of the larger blood-vessels, so as
to render a full incision into the parts
a matter of too much hazard to be
attempted. When secure from any
danger of this nature, the most effect-
ual practice is to lay the fistula, or
fistulas, when more than one, so thor-
oughly open as to have a complete
view of their internal surfaces. It is
not, however, necessary in the sim-
ple sinus, where the matter is in a
286

healthy state, and requires only a suf-
ficient passage, but in cases where
the discharge, by having been long
detained, indurates and corrodes the
contiguous parts ; as the means fully
adequate to remove the former avail
little in the radical cure of tne latter,
a more severe practice, of course, be-
comes necessary.

" When the fistular cavities have
been fully laid open by the knife, they
should be dressed with powerful caus-
tic compositions, until the wound pre-
sents a healthy appearance. Clean-
liness, with more mild applications,
should now be had recourse to, taking
care that the wound be not closed be-
fore the cavities are properly and uni-
formly healed."

FIXED AIR. Carbonic acid. So
called from its fixed condition in
chalk, marble, &c.

FIXED OILS. Such as are not
volatile. See Expressed Oils.

FLAGELLIFORM (from flagel-
lum, a whip). A runner, or trailing
stem, is so called.

FLAIL. A wooden implement for
threshing grain, consisting of a han-
dle, fastened by leather thongs to a
moveable stick or swiple. It is a
slow means of thrashing grain, and
seldom used except for beans, which
are rapidly beaten out.

FLAKE WHITE. Pure white-
lead.

FLAME. The burning gases or
vapours given off from fuel.

FLANDERS HUSBANDRY.
" Flanders was remarkable for the
cultivation of its soil long before any
other country north of the Alps or
Pyrenees. This was the natural con-
sequence of its commercial prosperi-
ty ; and although very little change
has taken place, and very few im-
provements have been introduced for
more than a century, it still ranks
foremost among agricultural coun-
tries.

" It is not the richness of the soil
which is the cause of the abundant
harvests which the Flemish peasants
reap, but their indefatigable industry.
The greater part of the land in Flan-
ders is naturally poor ; and in exten-

FLANDERS HUSBANDRY.

sive districts, which now have the ap-
pearance of the greatest richness at
harvest-time, the original soil was
once little better than the blowing
sands which are met with in the
neighbourhood of the sea. Neither
is it a genial climate which brings for-
ward the fruits of the earth in abun-
dance ; for the climate is inferior to
that of France or the southern parts
of Germany.

" The soil may be divided into two
classes. The tirst consists of the al-
luvial clay-loams near the coast ; tiie
second, of various sands and light
loams which are found in the interi-
or. The most fertile is that of the
lowlands which have been reclaimed
from the sea by embankments : it is
chiefly composed of a muddy deposite
mixed with fragments of marine shells
and fine sea-sand. These lands are
called polders, and their great natu-
ral fertility causes them to be culti-
vated with less art and industry
than those lands which are much in-
ferior.

" The cultivation in the polders has
nothing remarkable to entitle it to
much notice. Barley seems peculi-
arly suited to the soil, and very heavy
crops of this grain are obtained, es-
pecially in those polders which, hav-
ing been more lately embanked, are
not much exhausted. Eight, and even
ten quarters per acre have been ob-
tained with little or no manure, and
the second crop of barley sown in
succession has often been the best.
Oats are also very productive and of
good quality, from ten to twelve quar-
ters per acre. But these heavy crops
soon reduce the natural fertility, and
after a few years the produce is great-
ly diminished, and the land requires to
be recruited by manure and cleansed
by fallows. The usual rotation of
crops in the polders consists of, 1.
Winter barley after a fallow ; 2.
Beans ; 3. Wheat ; 4. Flax ; 5. Clo-
ver ; 6. Potatoes. If the potatoes
have a favourable season, and the
land can be cleared of weeds, the ro-
tation begins again without a fallow
year ; but this is seldom the case,
and the land is usually fallowed once

in six years. The crops here men-
tioned are occasionally varied accord-
ing to circumstances and manure, as
well as the small quantity of dung
made on the farm will permit. The
polder farmer seldom thinks of pur-
chasing manure, and even the ashes
made by burning weeds are usually
sold, to be sent to the poorer sandy
soils, where their effects are more
perceptible. When the polders have
been too much exhausted, they are
frequently laid down to grass, and in
a few years a very rich pasture is
produced. If, instead of sowing only
a few refuse hay-seeds from the lofts,
proper grass seeds were sown, after
land has been cleaned by a fallow, the
pasture would much sooner come to
perfection, and several years would
l)e saved ; but the improved modes
of converting arable land into pas-
ture, so advantageously practised in
the north of England and in Scot-
land, are almost entirely unknown in
Flanders. The extent of the farms
in the polders is from 100 to 250 acres.
The farmers in general are in good
circumstances, and the buildings sub
stantial.

" In the interior of East and West
Flanders the soil varies considerably ;
but the principal part is of a sandy
nature. The sand, and a heavier
loam which scarcely deserves the
name of clay, are found much inter-
mixed, which is owing to an alterna-
tion of layers of sand and loam, which
are found by digging to a considera-
ble depth. These layers are not of
great thickness, and the accidental
circumstance of the washing away of
the sand in some places and the dep-
ositions from the rivers in others
easily accounts for this variety. Some
of the elevations, which are nowhere
considerable, consist of a very poor
sand, and suggest the idea of their
having once been the sands of the
sea blown into hills, as is observable
on the coast. These hills, if they
may be so called, are naturally so
barren, that they were, not very long
since, covered with heath, or at best
planted with fir-trees ; but they have
gradually been cultivated and impro-
287

FLANDERS III.SBANDKV,

ved, and only a few remain in their
original stale of heath or wood.

" The poorer sands have heen
brought into cultivation chiefly by
the persevering industry of small pro-
prietors and occupiers. Without an
abundance of manure nothing can be
effected there, and, consequently, ev-
ery attention is paid to the procuring
and collecting of it. The first pro-
cess is always to trench the ground
deep with the spade, and level it by
means of the mollebaert, an instru-
ment peculiarly Flemish, of which a
drawing and description are given in
the article Barren Land. The next
step is to procure liquid manure,
which consists of the urine of cows
and horses, the drainings from dung-
hills, and the emptyings of privies.
The numerous towns and villages
which are scattered over Flanders,
and the canals which intersect the
country in all directions, facilitate
the collecting and transporting of
manure. A regular trade is carried
on in everything which can enrich
the land ; nothing which can be of
any use for this purpose is lost or
wasted. In every farm there is a
large vaulted cistern, in which the
liquid manure is collected, and where
it is occasionally stirred to excite fer-
mentation, and make it more effica-
cious when it is carried upon the land.

" Experience has taught that ma-
nure put on light land in a liquid state
is much more immediately effective
than when the solid dung is ploughed
in, but that its effects are also much
less durable. This has led to the
practice of frequently renewing the
manure, and pouring the liquid over
the growing crops as a top-dressing.
Considerable care is required to give
the proper quantity, and to regulate
the strength according to circum-
stances ; for too great a dose might
destroy the crop, or produce great
luxuriance on the leaf at the expense
of the fruit or seed. The urine and
other hot substances impregnated
with saline particles are, therefore,
diluted, if the weather is dry, before
they are used, or they are poured
over the soil some time before the
388

seed is sown, that they may sink in
and be more diffused.

" At a distance from large towns
it would be impossible to obtain the
requisite quantity of manure, and,
accordingly, it is made on the farm.
The cattle are the principal source
of the supply ; but every expedient
is resorted to in order to increase the
quantity and improve the quality.
Every kind of vegetable or animal
matter is carefully collected, and
made to undergo the putrefactive
fermentation by being mixed with
others already partially decomposed.
Nothing excites heat and putrefaction
more than urine when it is poured
over substances subject to decompo-
sition. In every farm-yard there is
a cavity or pit into which the objects
to be acted upon can be thrown, and
into which the urine or drainings of
the dunghill can be made to flow ; by
frequently moving and stirring the
mass, the decomposition goes on rap-
idly, heat is evolved, and the fibres
and dried juices of vegetables are
decomposed, and become soluble in
water, in which state their effect on
vegetation is greatest. The place in
which this is going on is called in
French a croupissoir, and in Flemish
a smoor hoop. It is generally thought
most advantageous that the manure
should be ploughed into land in an
active state of fermentation ; and in
order to secure this, it is in some
places laid on the land in heaps, and
each heap is moistened with urine.
This soon renews the fermentation ;
and as soon as the heap begins to
heat it is spread out, and the manure
is immediately ploughed under.

" When the supply from the yard
and from the vaulted cistern, together
with what can be purchased, is not
suflicient, recourse is had to the ref-
use cakes of colza from which the
oil has been pressed out. These are
dissolved in urine, or in water, and
put into the cistern to decompose.
When it is in a proper state, it is
used chiefly on the land on which flax
is intended to be sown, as it is a very
rich manure, and perfectly free from
the seeds of noxious weeds.

FLANDERS HUSBANDRY.

" In the tillage of the land the Flem-
ings use few and very simple instru-
ments. The common plough for light
lands is a small, light foot-plough, so
called from a piece of wood inserted
in the beam, which is somewhat in
the shape of a foot, or, rather, of the
wooden siioe in common use in Flan-
.ders. It has no wheels, and is drawn
by one or two horses. It is the pa-
rent of the Rotherham plough, from
which most of the improved ploughs
for light soils are derived. It is the
most perfect plough for light sands,
acting like a shovel at the fore part
of the turn-furrow, which is concave,
and completely turns over the soil.

" An instrument peculiarly Flem-
ish is the traincau. This is a wooden
frame of a triangular shape, covered
with boards, which is drawn over the
ground to smooth the surface and
press HI the seed. Tiie harrows in
common use are also triangular, and
made entirely of wood ; the pins are
driven obliquely, and point forward,
so as readily to'enter into the ground
when the harrows are drawn by the
angle. The blunt end of the pins
projects about an inch or more on the
side from which they are driven in :
thus, by reversing the instrument, a
shuhter degree of harrowing is giv-
enT^'hioh has an effect intermediate
between that of the harrows and the
traineau.

" The mollebaert. another Flemish
instrument for levelling ground, has
been already noticed. The Hainault
scythe and hook are generally used
for reaping corn. The instrument is
held in the right hand and the hook
in the left : by a swing of the arm
tlie corn is cut close to the ground
towards that wliich is standing ; the
hook collects it and rolls it up into a
slieaf, which is taken up by means of
the leg and the scythe, and laid down
to be tied. It is better than a fag-
ginghook, and does the work more
easily. These are the only instru-
ments in common use which differ at
all from those of other countries.
None of the more complicated modern
inventions have been introduced, nor
would they be readily adopted, how-

E 3

ever ingenious or useful they might
be ; for an adherence to old estab-
lished methods, and a repugnance to
what is new, are nowhere so firmly
rooted as among the Flemish peas-
antry.

" The most important instrument
in Flemish agriculture is the spade,
which is used to a much greater ex-
tent than in England, and in some in-
stances is the only instrument of till-
age. The trenching spade is made
light and long, and is well adapted to
the loose sandy soils. The first step
to improvement is generally a com-
plete and deep trenching; and in the
Waes district a sixth part of the
whole farm is trenched every year ;
and where this is not done, the inter-
vals between the stitches in which
the land has been ploughed are dug
out with the spade a foot or sixteen
inches deep, and the earth thrown
evenly over the beds in which the
seed has been sown. By shifting
these intervals a foot every year, the
whole of the land which lies in stitch-
es six feet wide is dug, and the upper
and under soil mixed regularly. This
process is extremely useful in produ-
cing an even crop, especially of flax,
the roots of which strike deep.

"The rotations adopted in light
sands and loams are various. In the
poorest and least improved, buck-
wheat, rye, and oats are the chief
crops, with potatoes and clover,
which require more manure. Every
crop is manured except buckwheat,
which grows well in the poorest soils,
and becomes too luxuriant to give
much seed in rich and highly manured
lands. Bones have not been introdu-
ced except by way of experiment ;
but when their value on light soils
shall be more generally known, espe-
cially in raising turnips, there is no
doubt but they will be extensively
used. This may lead to the folding
of sheep to eat them on the land, and
thus introduce an important improve-
ment into Flemish husbandry.

" On the better kinds of light soils,

which are not well adapted for wheat,

the usual course is, 1st, rye, with

turnips in the same year after the rye

2.S9

FLANDERS IIUSBANDUY.

IS cut ; 2d, oats ; 3d, l)uck\vlu>at ; 4th,
potatoes or cariols ; Gtli, rye and tur-
nips ; Gtli, llax ; 7lli, clover.

" \\'1k'ii llic sand hcconies a good
liglit loam, vviicat is introduced in the
rotation, after potatoes or after clo-
ver: the latter is thought the best
practice, as the roots of the clover
both enrich and consolidate the soil.

" Rye recurs more frequently than
■would be thought prudent if it were
not for the turnips sown after it,
which seem to correct the effect pro-
duced on the soil by the seeding of
the rye ; so that rye and turnips are
sometimes followed by rye, in which
clover is sown in the next spring.
Thus rye and turnips may alternate
in light lands, as beans and wheat
sometimes do in rich heavy clays.
The turnips are never eaten on the
land where they grow, but are al-
ways drawn and housed in the end
of September, the green tops being
cut off and given to the cows and
pigs, and the roots stored in dry cel-
lars. The land is then immediately
ploughed after some dung has been
put on ; and if oats are the next crop,
which are sown in spring, it remains
so all winter.

" \Mien the land is of a better qual-
ity, although still in the class of light
loams, wheat recurs more frequently,
and the rotation is varied as follows :
rye and turnips, potatoes, wheat,
rye and turnips, oats, llax, clover,
wheat. If the soil is fit for barley,
this grain is substituted for rye.
Carrots are frequently sown in the
barley, and also in the flax : they
strike deep into the rich light earth,
but come to no size while the princi-
pal crop is on the ground. As soon
as this is taken ofi', the land is har-
rowed and carefully weeded by hand ;
liquid manure, diluted if the weather
is dry and warm, is spread over the
surface, and in a short time the car-
rots throw out their green tops and
swell in the ground : by the end of
September a considerable crop of
them may be dug up. The best va-
riety for this puri)0se is a large white
carrot, which rises some inches out
of the ground : it has been lately

brought into notice in England, and
\\ dl, no doubt, soon be more gener-
ally cultivated. There is another
variety, which is yellow, and also at-
tains a good size ; but it is inferior
to the first in good ground. The
quantity of roots raised for the winter
provision of the cattle is considera-
ble, and forms a very important part
of the husbandry of Flanders, where
all the cattle are constantly kept in
the stables in winter, and, except
where there are natural pastures, in
the summer also.

" Flax is everywhere a most im-
portant croj), for it much exceeds all
other crops in value. Where it can
be raised of a tolerable quality, every
other crop has a reference to this ;
and the rotation is arranged accord-
ingly. There is no country where
more attention is paid to flax than
in Flanders, especially in the neigh-
bourliood of Courtray. The land is
brought into the highest state of rich-
ness and cleanness before flax is
sown in it ; and the most abundant
manuring with rape-cake and urine
is thought essential to raise this crop
in perfection.

"On the heavier loams, colza or
rape is an important crop for the seed,
from which the oil is expressed. It
is sown in a bed in July or August,
and planted out in rows two feet apart
in October. The seed ripens early in
the next summer, and a good crop of
turnips may be had after it. The
summers being in general warmer
and drier than in England, the Flem-
ish farmer is enabled to thrash out
his rape-seed on a cloth in the field
soon after the stems have been cut
and laid gently on the ground to dry
the pods. Any delay in this opera-
tion would cause a great loss : with
every care and attention, much seed
is always scattered in harvesting, be-
cause the pods do not ripen equally,
and some will have shed their seeds
before others are sufficiently ripe to
be gathered.

" Potatoes were introduced into
Flanders about the year 1740, and,
from being at first only cultivated as
a rarity, soon became an important

FLA^■DERS HUSBANDRY.

part of the food of men and beasts.
There is nothing pecuhar in the Flem-
ish moile of cultivating this useful
root. The sets are planted with a
blunt dibble : sometimes they are laid
in the furrows and covered with the
plough ; they are always earthed up
round the stems, sometimes by a
plough with a mould-board on each
side, but generally by hand with a
broad hoe. The manure usually i)Ut
on the land in which potatoes are to
be set is double the quantity used for
a corn crop ; and a good soaking of
the soil with urine is thought to in-
vigorate the growth of the plant
greatly. The produce, however, is
not much more abundant than it is
usually in those parts of England
where potatoes are raised in consid-
erable quantities in the fields — about
300 bushels on an acre. There is
a small yellow potato in Flanders,
\vhich is excellent when boiled, and
which grows well in a stiff loam, but
it is not so productive as the large
cattle potato.

" The cultivation of the sugar beet
has been resumed lately, after it had
been entirely abandoned. There are
now several considerable manufac-
tures of beet-root sugar ; but it is not
a favourite culture with the farmers,
not even for their cattle, as it is too
long on the ground. They prefer
turnips and carrots, which can be
raised on the same land which has
borne another valuable crop the same
year.

" In the heavier loams, which are
chiefly to be met with in West Flan-
ders and about Alost, the following
rotation is adopted : flax, clover, bar-
ley or oats, beans, wheat, rye and
turnips, potatoes, colza and carrots,
fla.x ; or flax, colza, wheat, rye and
turnips, oats, clover, wheat, rye.

'• Beans are not a favourite crop,
and are not carefully cultivated. They
are sometimes sown very thick, mix-
ed with pease and tares, to be cut up
in a green state for the cows and
pigs ; and in this way they produce
a great quantity of green food, and
clean the ground by excluding the air
and smothering the weeds. On a

farm of thirty-six bonniers, in a very
good Ijamy soil near Courtray, the
land was divided into six equal parts
of six bonniers each, and the crops
were distributed as follows :

Clover.

Wheat.

Wheat.

Carrots.

T3„.,„c

Potatoes.

1

Rye

and

Turnips.

Flax.

Oats.

Colza.

" The manure used for these crops
was partly dung from the yard and
cows" urine, but chiefly the sweep-
ings of the streets and the emptyings
of privies from Courtray.

" In a very rich loam, not far from
Ypres, the following crops were no-
ticed in regular rotation; 1, turnips
with chicory and carrots ; 2, oats ; 3,
clover ; 4, wheat ; 5, flax ; 6, wheat ;
7, beans ; 8, wheat ; 9, potatoes ; 10,
wheat; 11, oats. All these crops are
of an exhausting nature, and it re-
quires a very rich soil, aided by abun-
dant manuring, to bear this rotation
for any continuance ; but each of
these crops had a good portion of
manure.

" Great attention is paid to prepare
the land so as to secure a good crop
from a small quantity of seed. The
seed usually sown in Flanders is
about one third less than in England,
even when the seed is drilled, which
it never is in Flanders. The ground
is rendered mellow and rich by the
tillage and the liquid manure ; and
the seed, which has been carefully
selected, is covered by earth spread
over it with the spade : it is after-
ward rolled or trod in with the feet.
Every grain vegetates ; and should
there be any slowness in the growth,
the urine-tank supplies an excellent
stimulant. It is in the springing of
the blade, after the farina in the seed
is exhausted, that the liquid manure
291

FLA

FLA

seems to produce the greatest effect.
When tlie stem is shot up, it may,
perliaps, too much cncouraj^e the in-
crease of green leaves, and tlierehy
hinder the formation of the (lower
and the seed : experiments made
with hquid manure lead to this con-
clusion.

" There are some very rich pas-
tures in Flanders about Furncs and
Dixmudc, where excellent butter is
made. A great many beasts are fed
in the summer, and a moderately-
sized ox, turned out in good condition
in April or May, will fatten on an
acre of land by August or September.
Tlie best cows and oxen are of the
Dutch breed ; those which are bred
in Flanders are inferior. The butter
about Dixmudc is churned from the
cream only, although the most com-
mon practice is to churn the whole
milk after it has stood some time and
begins to be acid. It is always set
in shallow pans immediately after
milking, and left so twelve hours.
The cream is then skimmed off, or
the whole milk is poured into deep
vessels till it is fit to be churned.
The churning is performed in a bar-
rel-churn or a plunge-churn : in ei-
ther case, in the larger dairies, it is
moved by a horse, which turns a
wheel connected with the churn.

" The breed of horses in Flanders
is large and heavy, but deficient in
activity and clumsy in form. The
mares were once in repute for heavy
carriages, but at present, an equipage
drawn by Flanders mares would be
an object of wonder, if not of ridicule.
Many horses have been imported into
England from Flanders as cart-hor-
ses ; but they were preferred chiefly
on account of the price at which they
could be obtained, and of the a[)pa-
rent bulk of them.

" The Flemish sheep are coarse in
the wool, and much mferior in the
carcass to the Leicester or South-
Down. Some good sheep have been
imported, which may much improve
the native breeds. The pigs are as
badly shaped as can well be imagined,
long in the neck and head, and high
on their legs. They are badly fed
292

when young, and fatten slowly, al-
though in time they acquire consider-
able weight. A better breed has been
introduced, which will soon super-
sede the old.

" The farm-buildings are very good
and convenient in general. The farms
are small, compared with those in
other countries ; 120 acres are consid-
ered a very considerable occupation.
In the M'aes country, where the
spade is extensively used in the cul-
tivation of the land, the farms are
very small, fifty acres being among
the largest, and the average is not
above filteen. A farm of this descrip-
tion requires only one horse to cart
the manure and plough the land ; four
or five cows are the usual comple-
ment, with two or three pigs. The
cows are fed on clover in summer,
and on barley or oats cut green ; in
winter, on potatoes, beet root, tur-
nips, and carrots, which are chopped
up together and boiled in a copper.
This is given milk-warm three times
a day, and is called brassin ; when
grains can be procured from the brew-
ers, they are added to the mess. The,
cows never move from their stalls :
after having had three or four calves,
a cow is generally fattened and sold
off; and a young heifer, of which a
couple are reared every year, supplies
her place."— (M^. L. itham.)

FLATULENCY. A diseased col-
lection of gases in the stomach or
bowels ; change of food, slight pur-
ging, and tonics are best to remove it.

FLAX. Linum usita/issimvm (a).
An annual of the cruciferous family,
the stems of which, when turning
yellow, yield the finest staple, and a
coarser article when ripe. The per-
ennial flax (L. pcrcnnc) is coarser,
but sometimes cultivated (h). The
seeds, usually called linseed, yield
the valuable oil of that name by press-
ure, and are, when bruised and boil-
ed, one of the richest fattening fod-
ders for cattle. The cake, after press-
ing for oil, is also a rich provender,
scarcely equalled by any other for fat-
tening. An acre yields six to twelve
bushels of seed and 400 pounds of
flax, the former worth §1 25 to §1 GO

FLA

FLA

tlie bushel, and the lint eight to ten
cents tlie pound.

It requires a mellow, rich soil, full
of vegetable matter, ploughed deep ;
two bushels of seed are sown to the
acre, and slightly covered with a bush
harrow ; when the object is to obtain
fine green flax, but half a bushel will
answer for seed only, and one and a
half for coarse flax and seed. Sow
early in May, and for the flnest staple
gather just after flowering, when the
stems are yellow ; for seed when
dry : the amount of coarse stems is
often very great, producing as much
as half a ton of flax and tow to the
acre. The plants should be weeded
when three inches high. The follow-
ing view of the profit is from the Cul-
tivator, vol. i. :

" In 1835, Major Kirby, of Brown-
ville, sowed six acres, partly upon
stubble and partly upon green sward,
with one ploughmg— half a bushel of
seed to the acre. The ground was
well stocked with Canada thistles,
which throve remarkably ; yet, not-
withstanding, the six acres produced
him 108 bushels 12 pounds seed, and
seven tons and three quarters of
dressed flax. The proceeds of the

crop amounted to $270

And the culture, pulling, and
thrashing — the rotting being
done by the manufacturer —

to about 70

Leaving a profit of ... . 8200
or 33i per acre."
B E 2

For the production of seed the soil
must be a very rich wheat land, well
broken and manured. It is a very
exhausting crop, but if taken when
yellow, or belure seed, and the offal
and steeping fluid returned, it is not
so injurious to lands. Tlie seed con-
tains from 11 to 22 per cent, of oil,
according to the season and richness
of soil. See Linseed. By steeping,
and other jireparations, flax is re-
duced to 70 per cent, of the weight
of the stems, and by hackling, to 50
pounds.

FLAX, PREPARATION OF.
" When the flax begins to get yellow
at the bottom of the stem, it is time
to pull it, if very fine flax is desired,
such as is made into thread for lace
or fine cambric ; but then the seed
will be of little or no value. It is
therefore generally left standing until
the capsules, which contain the seed,
are fully grown and the seed formed.
Every flax grower judges for himself
what is most profitable on the whole.
The pulling tlien begins, which is
done carefully by small handfuls at a
time. These are laid upon the ground
to dry, two and two obliquely across
each other. Fine weather is essen-
tial to this part of the operation.
Soon alter this they are collected in
larger bundles and placed with the
root end on the ground, the bundles
being slightly tied near the seed end ;
the other end is spread out that the
air may have access, and the rain
may not damage the flax. When suf-
ficiently dry they are tied more firmly
in the middle, and stacked in long,
narrow stacks on the ground. These
stacks are built as wide as the bun-
dles are long, and about eight or nine
feet high. The length depends on
the crop ; they are seldom made above
twenty or thirty feet long. If the
field is extensive, several of these
stacks are formed at regular distan-
ces ; they are carefully thatched at
top, and the ends, which are quite
perpendicular, are kept up by means
of two strong poles driven perpen-
dicularly into the ground. Tliis is
the method adopted by those who de-
fer the steeping till another season.
293

FLAX, PREPARATION OF.

Some carry the flax, as soon as it is
dry, under a slied, and take off the
capsiilos with tlie seed by ripplmg,
vvliich is drawing the flax through an
iron comb fixed in a block of wood :
the capsules, which are too large to
pass between the teeth of the comb,
are thus broken oft", and fall into a
basket or cloth below. Sometimes,
if the capsules are brittle, the seed is
beaten out by means of a flat wood-
en bat. The bundles are held by the
root end, and the other end is laid on
a board and turned round with the
left hand, while the right hand with
the bat breaks the capsules, and the
linseed falls on a cloth below. The
flax is then immediately steeped, but
the most experienced flax-steepers
defer this operation till the next sea-
son. In this case it is put in barns,
and the seed is beat out at leisure in
winter. When flax is housed, care
must be taken that it be thoroughly
dry ; and if the seed is left on, which
is an advantage to it, mice must be
guarded against, for they are very
fond of linseed, and would soon take
away a good share of the profits by
their depredations.

" Steeping the flax is a very impor-
tant process, which requires expe-
rience and skill to do it properly.
The quality and colour of the flax de-
pend much on the mode of steeping ;
and the strength of the fibre may be
injured by an injudicious mode of
performing this operation. The ob-
ject of steeping is to separate the
bark from the woody part of the
stem by dissolving a glutinous mat-

ter which causes it to adhere, and
also destroying some minute vessels
which are interwoven with the longi-
tudinal fibres, and keep them togeth-
er in a kind of web. A certain ler-
mentation or incipient putrefaction is
excited by the steeping, which must
be carefully watched and stopped at
the right time. The usual mode of
steeping is to place the bundles of
flax horizontally in shallow pools or
ditches of stagnant water, keeping
them under water by means of poles
or boards with stones or weights laid
upon them. Water nearly putrid was
supposed the most efficacious, and
the mud was often laid over the flax
to accelerate the decomposition ; but
this has been found to stain the flax,
so that it was very difficult to bleach
it or the linen made from it after-
ward. The method adopted by the
steepers of Courtray, where steeping
flax is a distinct trade, is different.
The bundles of flax are placed alter-
nately with the seed end of tlie one
to the root end of the other, the lat-
ter projecting a few inches ; as many
of these are tied together near both
ends as form a thick bundle about a
foot in diameter. A frame made of
oak rails, nailed to strong upright
pieces in the form of a box 10 feet
square and four deep, is filled with
these bundles set upright and closely
packed. The whole is then immers-
ed in the river, boards, loaded with
stones, being placed upon the flax till
the whole is sunk a little under the
surface of the w^ater. The bottom
does not reach the ground, so that the

211

FLAX, PREPARATION OF.

water flows over and under it. There
are posls driven in the river to keep
the box in its pkiee, and each steej)-
er has a certain portion of tlie bank,
which is a vahiable property. Tlic
Ihix takes somewhat h)nKer time in
steeping in this manner tlian it docs
in stagnant and putrid water, and it
is asserted by those who adhere to
the old method that tiie flax k)ses
more weigiit ; but the colour is so
much liner, that flax is sent to be
steeped in the Lys from every part
of Flanders. When it is supposed
that the flax is nearly steeped suffi-
ciently, which depends on the tem-
I)erature of the air, the flax being
sooner steeped in warm wcatiier than
in cold, it is examined carefully ev-
ery day, and towards the latter part
of the time several times in the day,
in order to ascertain whether the
fibres readily separate from the wood
the whole length of the stem. As
soon as this is the case the flax is
taken out of the water : even a few
hours more or less steeping than is
necessary will make a ditTerence in
the value of the flax. If it is not
steeped enough, it will not be easily
scutched, and the wood will adhere
to it. If it has been too long in the
water, its strength is diminished, and
more of it breaks into tow. The
bundles are now untied, and the flax
is spread evenly in rows slightly
overlapping each other on a piece of
clean, smooth grass which has been
mown or fed ofT close. Fine weather
is essential to this part of the pro-
cess, as rain would now much injure
the flax. It is occasionally turned
over, which is done dexterously l)y
pushing a long slender rod under the
rows and takmg up the flax near the
end which overlaps the next row,
and turning it quite over. Thus, when
it is all turned, it overlaps as before,
but in the contrary direction. It re-
mains spread out upon the grass for
a fortnight, more or less according to
the season, till the woody part be-
cofnes brittle and some of the finest
fibres separate from it of their own
accord. It is then taken up, and as
soon as it is quite dry it is tied up

again in bundles and carried into the
barn, to be broken and hackled at leis-
ure during tlie winter.

" In the domestic manufactures the
flax is broken or scutched at home
wlnni the weather i)revents out-door
work. Tlie common brake consists
of four wooden swords fixed in a
frame, and another frame with three
swords, which play in the interstices
of the first by means of a joint at one
end. Tlie flax is taken in the left
hand and placed between the two
frames, and the upjier frame is pushed
down briskly upon it. It breaks the
flax in four places, and by moving
the left hand and rapidly repeating
the strokes with the right, the whole
handful is soon broken. It is then
scutched by means of a board set up-
right in a block of wood so as to stand
steady, in which is a horizontal slit
about three feet from the ground, the
edge of which is thin. The broken

Upright board to cIlmt l.iu llax of

flax, held in handfuls in the left hand,
is inserted in this slit, so as to pro-
ject to the right, and a flat wooden
sword, of a peculiar shajic, is held in
the right hand ; with this the flax is
repeatedly struck close to the u[)riglit
board, while the jiart which lies in
the slit is continually changed by a
motion of the left hand. This opera-
tion beats jfT all the pieces of the
wood which s.ill adhere to the fibre
without breaking it, and after a short
time the flax is cleared of it and fit
to be hackled ; but the operations
296

FLAX, PREPARATION OP'.

Fl.il ovlfitd or sciittlier.

of breaking and scutching are tedious
and laborious uiien thus executed by
hand. A mill is now used (where
large quantities of flax arc required
for manufactures), having three flu-
ted cylinders, one of which is made
to revolve by horse or water power,
and carries the other two round. The
flax plants are passed between these
cylinders while thus revolving, and
the stalk, or hooii, as it is technically
called, is by this means completely
broken without injuring the fibres.
The scutching is accomplished in the
same mill by means of four arms pro-
jecting from a horizontal axle, ar-
ranged so as to strike the boon in a
slanting direction until the bark and
other useless parts of the plant are
beaten away. In the last process by
which flax is prepared for the spin-
ner, the hackling, the instrument em-
ployed, called the hackle, is a square
piece of wood, studded with rows of
iron teeth about four inches long,
and disposed in a quincunx order.
The fineness of the hackle is chosen
with reference to the quality of the

flax, and hackles differing in this re-
s[)ec-t from each other arc used at
dinerent stages of the dressing, the
coarsest first, and the finest to give
the last degree of smoothness and
finish to the flax. The operation of
hackling is performed by the work-
man grasping a handful of flax by the
middle, and drawing first one side or
end and then the other through the
teeth of the hackle, until every parti-
cle of extraneous matter is removed,
and the whole of the filaments are
arranged in distinct, even, and paral-
lel fibres."

The following machine (see Fig.),
patented by Mr. Bundy, is of great
service in the domestic preparation
of flax, and is constructed on the
same principle as the implements
driven by power. The frame is of
wood, and sustains two conical roll-
ers, of which A is seen ; B is a beam
moving around a joint at C, and car-
rying an upper roller, D ; it is eleva-
ted by tlie spring E, and pulled down
by the treadle F, which is connected
to the upper piece by a metallic rod,G.
The rollers are commonly grooved,
each runs on its own pivot, and H is
an iron comb for rippling. When
used, a handful of the rotted flax is
passed between the rollers and held
in both hands ; the foot being now ap-

296

FLA

FLE

plied to the treadle, the upper roller
descends and presses on the fibres ;
the flax is next drawn to the right
and left until sufficiently broken and
cleared of liarl ; the foot is then
raised and the fibres withdrawn to
give place to a new lot.

Besides the water and dew rotting
described, flax is prepared by steam-
ing and by boiling in salt water. Boil-
ing in lye or in soap and water is
also employed, both to prepare the
flax and improve the hackled staple.
AValer and dew rotting together re-
quire about three weeks ; the water
should be free from iron, which stains
the staple.

Diseases. — Flax is not very subject
to diseases ; mildew and rust some-
times assail it in very damp seasons,
and on a badly-drained soil ; it is also
.preyed upon by a fly, but weeds, and
especially dodder, are most injurious
to the cultivation.

FLAX, SPECIAL MANURES
FOR. Although a troublesome crop,
flax is not severe upon the soil when
raised for its fibre only, and, when
well prepared, commands a good
price. The great requisite for the
fibre is a soil rich in decaying vege-
table matter, but not rank with nitro-
gen. When seed is required, bone
earth, and especially the soluble phos-
phates in urine and guano, or poultry
dung, are extremely valuable.

By Dr. Kanes's analysis, the stems
pulled before seeding contained

Plant?. Seeds, Leuchtweisa.

Potash and soda . . 19 60 . . . 26 56

Lime and magnesia . 20'12 . . . 25"49

Phosphoric acid . . 10-84 . . . 40-11

Sulphuric acid . . . 2-56 . . . 100

Sand aad other acids . 46-68 . , . 6'S4

locT" loo

From these examinations, the great
exhausting power of the seeds, by re-
quiring so much phosphoric acid, is
explained, as well as the value of the
foregoing manures. Gypsum and ash-
es are also indicated in the cultiva-
tion of the fibre. When the steep-
ing is carried on in ponds, the fluid
becomes a rich manure for the crop,
containing — as has been shown by
Dr. Kane — nearly all the nitrogen
and most of the saline matters, the

I prepared flax being nearly pure lig-
i nin ; the fluid, therefore, as well as
all the waste from hackling and break-
ing, should be preserved and used as
manure. The waste of linseed cake,
or the dung of cattle fattened there-
on, is peculiarly appropriate as a ma-
nure for a crop of linseed ; and when
the oil is drawn on the farm and sold,
the cake left contains all the enrich-
ing matters of the soil taken up by
the seeds. Most plants of the flax
family will yield more or less coarse
staule

FLAX, NEW ZEALAND. See
New Zealand Flax.

FLAX, OREGON. Mr. Parker,
travelling in Oregon, describes fields
of a perennial flax precisely resem-
bling the L. perennc {b) ; the roots
are so firm that it cannot be pulled,
but may be mowed, yielding annual
crops.

FLAX, PURGING. An English
weed (L. catharticum), the root of
which IS purging.

FLAXSEED. See Linseed.

FLAX, FALSE. See Yellow Seed.

FLAX, TOAD. A weed. The
Thesium lunbeltatum. Linaria vulga-
ris is also called yellow toad flax.

FLEAS. A species of the genus
Pulex ; they are wingless, but under-
go regular transformations. Clean-
liness, especially in the removal of
old straw and similar bodies in which
they harbour, washing the skins of
animals, anointing with mixtures of
oil and pennyroyal or elder leaves,
are effectual means to reduce their
numbers.

FLEABANE. A name given to
many weeds, as the erigcrons, inn-
las. &c.

FLEA BEETLE. The genus Hal-
tica, species of which infest turnips,
cucumbers, &c.

FLEAM. The knife or lancet used
in bleeding cattle and horses.

FLECKED. Pied, or of mixed col-
ours.

FLEECE. The wool of a sheep.
See Sheep and Wool.

FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. See
Flanders Husbandry .

FLESH. Commonly the mixed
S97

FLI

FT,0

mnsrlc and fat of animals, but more
strictly Itu^ iniisclo or lean only. Loan
meat consists of 20 per cent, fibrin,
with three per cent, of albiimrn, col-
ouring matter, and salts : the rest,
77 per cent., h(in<r water : it diflers
very little from Idood. Waste llesh
or garbage should be added to the
compost heap, with lime and earth ;
100 pounds yield 3.^ pounds of ammo-
nia during decay, and therefore, when
composted, 400 pounds will be enough
for the acre.

FLEXIBILITY. The capacity of
bending without breakage. It is a
relative property, depending upon
temperature, thickness, &c.

FLEXORS. The name of those
muscles which produce the flexion
or bending of the arm or leg.

FLEXUOSE. Full of headings to
the one side and the other.

FLIES. Insects furnished with
two wings (Diplera), and living by
suction, or on animals and meats.
Several distinct families exist, viz.,
the Tachinadcr, which deposite their
eggs in caterpillars ; the Sarcophago!,
which are viviparous, producing liv-
ing maggots, and living on putrid
meats. One fly often produces 20,000
young. The Stromoxys genus, inclu-
ding the sharp stinging horseflies,
which lay their eggs in dung ; the
Muscadcr, or house and meat flies,
which infest butchers' stalls and
houses : the latter lay eggs in dung.
The house fly is readily destroyed by
exposing plates of infusion of quassia,
green tea, &c., sweetened, or intro-
ducing some active poison, as arse-
nic or corrosive sublimate, into mo-
lasses and water : they also avoid
dark rooms.

FLIGHTS. The husk or glumes
of oats are so called.

FLINT. A variety of silica, con-
taining water and stained with iron,
found interstratified with chalk in
Europe, but not discovered in Amer-
ica.

FLINT GLASS. A glass com-
posed of fine sand and red-lead, hav-
ing a high refractive power, and used
by opticians.
FLITCH OF BACON. The
298

side, or slioulder, and middling to-
getlier.

FLOAT. A raft of timber to bo
floated. To cover meadows with wa-
ter.

FLOAT BOARDS. The boards
attached to the circumference of an
under shot-wheel.

FLOCCUS. The loose hair at the
end of the tail of some animals.

FLOODGATE. Any contrivance
or gate to regulate the flow of water ;
a sluice. A common floodgate is de-
picted in Irriiraiion.

FLOODING. See Irri<ration.
FLORETS. The flowers of a ca-
pitulum. like the sunflower.

FLORIDA ARROW-ROOT. See
Sa^o.

FLOSS SILK. The silk broken
off from cocoons in the filature, which
is carded and worked like cotton, for
coarse fabrics.

FLOUR. The meal of wheat, for
the most part. The amount of flour
made by a variety of grain is a prime
consideration, some kinds producing
more than others. On an average,
a bushel of sixty pounds yields, of
family flour, forty-eight pounds ; of
pollard, eight pounds ; bran, three
pounds, and a loss of about one
pound. The finest is that from wheat
cut in the dough, which also weighs
from three to five pounds more the
bushel, is whiter, and softer to the
touch. The true value of flour is,
however, its gluten, which is the nu-
tritious portion. Common kinds rare-
ly exceed twelve per cent. ; but of
choice kinds, some furnish thirty ;
the amount is determined by wash-
ing a piece of dough on a fine hair
seive until water runs through it
without milkiness ; the remaining
portion, which is very tenacious, con-
sists of impure gluten ; it should be
dried at 300, and weighed. There
is not a finer flour than that produced
from the white flint varieties of
wheat, and white May.

A barrel of flour should contain 196
pounds. The sack, which is used in
England, contains 280 pounds.

FLOUR MILL, A HAND. The
figure represents a very neat hand

FLO

FLU

flour mill, ■which is fully competent
to produce fine flour. It is patent-
ed by Nichols and Marsh. Price, 840.
FLOWER. In botany, the expand-
ed bud. For its difTerent parts, see
Botany. In descriptions, flowers are
divided into apetalous, monopetalous,
polypetalous, and composite ; the
first includes those without corolla ;
the second, consisting of one petal
apparently, are, in truth, formed by
the union of several, and hence term-
ed synpetalous ; this class is subdivi-
ded into numerous kinds, as labiate,
like the sage flower ; personate, like
antirrhinum ; wheel-shape, like borage ;
campanulate, like a bell ; hypocraleri-
forin, like the tobacco blossom. Pol-
ypetalous flowers consist of several
distinct petals, and are called rosa-
ceous, when like the rose flower : cary-
ophyllous, like the pink ; liliaceous, like
the lily ; cruciferous, like flax or cab-
bages ; papilionaceous, like the pea ;

orchideous, like the genus orchis, &c.
Composite flowers are like the sun-
flower, lettuce, thistle, &c. The es-
sentia! parts of the flower are the sta-
mens and pistils ; if botli are present,
it is hermaphrodite ; if one is absent,
they are either male or female blos-
soms ; and the absence of both con-
stitutes the blossom a barren flower.
By development, single flowers be-
come doui)le, but they also become
barren, the stamens being converted
into petals. Tlie colour of flowers is
very mucli in the hands of the florist ;
for, by hybridizing species of differ-
ent colours, the seed produced often
gives rise to varieties of new tints.

Flowers, in chemistry, are fine crys-
tals, obtained by sublimation.

FLOWERLESS PLANTS. The
cryptogamous plants of Linnaeus ;
the acotyledons of Jussieu.

FLUE. A channel or way along
which the smoke or heat of a fire
passes. See Hot-house.

FLUID. A body the particles of
which move freely among one an-
other, and which transmit pressures
equally in all directions. Fluids are
divided into elastic and non-elastic,
or gaseous and liquid ; the former
containing air and vapours, the lat-
ter water, &c.

FLUKE. Dtstoma hepaticum.
Gourd-worm. A flat, entozoal worm,
infesting the livers of sheep and some
other animals ; it is often seen in
those wiiich have died of the rot.

FLUORINE. A hypothetical
body, supposed to resemble chlorine,
found in fluor spar. With hydrogen,
it forms a very corrosive acid, the
hydro-fluoric, which acts upon glass,
forming fluo-silicic acid, and is a
powerl'ul caustic. It exists, in mi-
nute quantity, in bones. Its com-
pounds are called fluorides.

FLUOR SPAR. A beautiful crys-
talline mineral, abundant in Derby-
shire, England, and hence called Der-
byshire spar. It is common in New-
York and the Eastern States ; con-
sists of fluoride of calcium. The
mineral is of many colours, and cu-
bical or octahedral in form. It is used
as a flux, and to procure hydro-fluoric
299

FOA

acid, and has been recommended as
a manure.

FLUTINGS. The grooves of col-
umns.

FLUVIALES. A tribe of water
plants, of endogenous structure, near-
ly resemhling sca-wceds. Sea wrack
{Zostera innrnta) is used, when dry,
to stuff cushions and for packing.

FLUX. In chemistry, substances
which arc in themselves very fusible,
or which promote the fusion of other
bodies. When cream of tartar is de-
flagrated with half its weight of nitre,
a mixture of charcoal and carbonate
of potash remains, which is often call-
ed black flux : when an equal weight
of nitre is used, the whole of tlie char-
coal is burned off, and carbonate of
potassa remains, which, when thus
procured, is called %chi.te flux.

Flux, in diseases, any unusually in-
creased discharge, as diavrhcea.

FLY. In agriculture, any winged
insect injurious to crops, as the tur-
nip, wheat, Hessian fly, &c., for
which see the plants respectively.

Fly. In machinery, an appendage
given to machines for the purpose of
regulating and equalizing the motion,
as in the windlass, jack, pile engine,
&c. ; and sometimes for collecting
force in order to produce a very great
instantaneous impression, as in a
coining press. Generally it is form-
ed of a heavy disk or hoop, attached
to the axis ; sometimes of heavy
knobs at the extremities of a bar hav-
ing the same position. The fly is of
great use in all cases where the pow-
er or the resistance acts unequally
in the different parts of a revolution.

FLYING BUTTRESS. A beau-
tiful and useful portion of a Goth-
ic structure, consisting of arches
thrown off from a mass of masonry
against a wall, to support it from
pressure acting from above, as by the
roof

FLY POWDER. Black suboxide
of arsenic, used to kill flies, but dan-
gerous, from its poisonous nature.

FOAL. A young horse.

FOALIXG. The act of parturi-
tion or bringing forth young in the
mare. Good feeding and moderate
300

FOD

exercise are found to be the best pre-
ventives against slinking, which is
most prevalent when half the time
of pregnancy has ela[)scd. If a mare
has been regularly exercised, and ap-
parently in health while she was in
foal, little danger will attend the act
of parturition. If there be false pres-
entations of the fffitus, or difficulty
in producing it, it will be better to
have recourse to a well-informed
doctor, rather than injure the mother
by the violent and injurious attempts
which are often made to relieve the
animal. As soon as the mare has
foaled, she should be turned into
some well -sheltered pasture, with a
hovel or shed to run into when she
pleases ; and as, supposing she has
foaled in April, the grass is scanty,
she should have a couple of feeds of
corn daily. The mare may be put to
moderate work a month after foaling.

FOCAL DISTANCE. In optics
the distance between the centre of a
lens or mirror and the point into
which the rays are collected.

FOCUS. A point where heat, light,
sound, &c., are collected, either by the
action of glass or reflecting surfaces.
In geometry, certain points in the
curves, called conic sections, which
are also foci for radiant emanations.

FODDERS. All substances used
as food for animals. In some parts
of the United States it is, however,
confined to the leaves stripped from
corn. Coarse fodders are those which
resemble straw, &c., occupying much
bulk.

The comparative value of fodders is
a prime question in husbandry, and
which can hardly have been said to
assume a trustworthy estimate until
recently, when careful experiments
have been made by Thaer, Raumer,
Block, and Boussingault. In the an-
nexed table, by the latter, are shown
the results obtained by chemical ex-
amination and practical feeding. In
the first, the amount of nitrogen in
100 parts is found, which gives the
quantity of fibrin, albumen, and ca-
sein, by multiplying by 63 ; thus, in
the table, the nitrogen in good hay is
1-34 per cent., which is equivalent to

FODDERS.

Table of the nutritive equivalents of different kinds of fodders.

1

£.

l|i

1"

c

t

Kinds of Food.

"H ^

tL ^

?r- ^

o

^

c?

£

^

Various.

1 i

a^

ill

CH

c

s

P

(S

3~

i

zi-

Ordinary- ua'.ur*i meadow Ijay .

"TFT

1.34

1.15

loo

"ioo

loo

Too

~ioo

~ioo

Do. of line quality

H.O

1.50

1.30

98

Do. select ....

lti.8

■2.40

QM

58;

Do. freed from woody stems

14.0

2.44

■2.10

55

Lurern h.ay ....

K.6

l.6(i

1.38

83

90

—

90

100

90, 90Domba8le,Crud.

Red clover hay, 2d year's growth

lO.I

1.70

1.54

75' ipo

90

—

90

lOC

Red clover cut in flower, green, do. ,

76.0

0.64

Sill 430

450

4:5

New wheat straw, crop ISll

26.0

0-36

0.27

426. 200

360

150 1 4oO

300

500 Rieder.

Old whe.it straw

8.n

0.53

0.4y

■2.^5

1

Do. do. lower parts of the stalk

S.:!

0.43

0.41

280

Do. do. upper part of do. and ear .

9.4

1.42

1.33

86

New rye straw . . . . .

IK.7

0.30

0 21

479 200

500

InO

666

Old do

i:.6

0.50

0.42

•250

Oat straw ....

21.0

0J6

0.:i0

383' 200

■200

150

190

200

400 Schwerte,

Barley do

11.0

0.30

0.25

460 19-3

180

150

150

200

400 do.

Pea do

8.5

1.95

1.79

64 165

200

150

130

150

90 Pohl.

Millet do

I'.l.O

0.96

0.78

147

250'

Buckwheat do. .

U.fi

0.54

0.48

■240

200!

Lentd do

9.2

1.18

1.01

114 160

200i

130

1.50

Vetches cut in flower and dried

hay

Potato tops ....

into j

11.0

1.16

1.14

10l|_

125

100

76.0

2.30

0J5

209

300

_.

Field beet leaves .

88.9

4.50

0..50

230 600

600

Carrot do

70.9

2.94

0.S5

135

— _

Jerusalem artichoke stems

■86.4

■2.70

03-

311

325

I.inie-tree, young shoots .

65.0

3.25

1.45

79 73

C.-inada poplar do.

62.5

2.2M

0.86

134' 67

Oak do

57.4

2.16

0.92

1-25 83

___

Acacia do. (autumn) .

.T.3.6

1.56

0.72

160

Drum cabbage

9.'.S

3.70

0.28

411 S-V)

.500

2.30

429

600

Swedish turuip

91.0

l.»^

0.17

676 r

300

300

250

Turnip

92.S

1.70

0.13

885 .va

600

290

52n

4r.o

Fieldheet (IfvW; .
Do. white Sileeian

87.x

1.70

0.21

543 366

400

250

460

250

M.6

1.43

0.18

669 366

Tarrots

87.6

2.40

0.30

382 205

250

225

300

250

;',80 Bousaingnult.

.T.ras.alem artichokes (1839)

7;'.2

1.60

0.33

.348

zao do.

Do. (1S36) ....

7.i.i

2.20

0.42

274

Potatoes (1S38) .

es.'i

1.50

0.36

319 216

200

J 50

200

200

■350 Boussingault.

Do. , ISSf!) ....

79.4

1.80

0.37

311

:

Do. after keeping in the pit

76.8

1.18

0.30

3*3 400 •

— _

Cider apjde pulp dried in the air

6.4

0.63

0..59

195

— ■—

Beet root from the sugar mUl

70.0

0.38

303

Vetches in seed .

14.6

5.13

4.37

26 30

54

66

40

Freld beans ....

7.9

S.iO

.5.11

23 30

64

50

73

40

"White peas (dr>-)

8.6

4.20

3.84

27 30

.54

48

66

40

■VNTiite haricots .

5.0

4.30

4.58

25

89

Lentils

9.0

4.40

4.00

29

New Indian com ....

18.0

2.00

l.f>t

70

52

59 Boussingault.

Buckwhe.at ....

12.5

2.40

2.10

55

64

Barley (1S.16)

13.-2

2.02

L76

65 33

61

53

76

50

IJarlevmeal.

1S.0

2.46

■2.14

54

Oats (ISiS) ....

20.8

2.-20

1.74

68

71

86

60

Do. (lS.Tfi) ....

li.4

■2.-22

1.U2

60

11. .5

2.27

2.00

S8

\Vheat ri&W. Alsace) .

10.5

■2.33

2.09

55

27

52

46

64

40

16.6

3.18

2.65

43

Recent Bran

37.1

•2.13

1.36

85

105

( Some specimens are
I twice as rich.

Ulieat husks or chaff .

7.6

0.94

0.85

135

160

_i

Rice Piedmont)

13.4

1J9

1.-20

96

Gold of ple.asure seed (Madia) .

8.0

4.00

3.67

31i

Do. cake

11.2

.5.70

6.06

23

Lin^ee.lrake ....

13.4

6.00

5.20

'2-2 1 42

180

Cr,l7.a do. . . . .

10.5

5..50

4.92

231

Madia do

6.5

5.93

5.51

21;

Hemp do

.5.0

4.78

4.21

27!

n.

Poppy do

6.P

5.70

5.36 21

— -

Nt.tdo

6.0

5.59

5.24 22

Beech mast do. .

6.2

3.53

3.31 35

Arachis (Pindars) do. .

6.C

R.K9

8.331 14

Dry acorns ....

0.80 143

— — .

Refuse of llie wine-press, air dried .

4.''.2

3.31

1.71 68

6-:

ZIZ

75

Cc

301

FODDERS.

8J nearly of fibrin. The practical
values are ascertained by weitrbing
the feed and aniiTial, and_ giving
enougli of all fodders to maintain
him in good condition. They are less
Irnc than the tiicorelical or chemical
values, because not so well perform-
ed ; but the tlieoretical values have
t)een fully sustained by subsequent
examination. One hundred pounds of
ordinary hay are made the standard,
other fodders being compared with
this in theirpower of sustaining life in
animals. The fodders are, however,
of different values, im fattening, wool-
growing, &c., and are treated of as
such under these heads. The dif-
ference exhibited in the above valu-
ations, by different authors, is, in a
great measure, due to variations in
the nutritiousness of the provender;
thus, straw, pea haulm, &c.. are
many times more nutritious when cut
greenish than when dead ripe. In
the same way, some wheat contains
10 and some 30 per cent, of gluten ;
and here is a difference of 1 to 3.

The following articles, used as hu-
man food, are equivalent to one
hundred of good flour. The term
meal is meant to indicate that the
substances were perfectly dried and
pulverized : the equivalents are con-
structed upon the relative amounts
of nitrogen in fair samples of each :

Wheat flour (good (jualitv; .... 100

Wheat .'.... 107

Barley meal 119

Barley 130

Rye Ill

Buckwheat 108

Indian Corn LSS

Yellow peas 67

Hor.se-beans 44

White French beans 56

Rice 171

Lentils 57

White-heart cabbage 810

Cabbage meal 63

Potatoes 613

Potatoe meal 126

Carrots 757

Carrot meal 95

Turnips 1335

Mealy bananas 700

Mam hot (casava plant) 700

Yam (dioscorea) 300

In the economy of food, not only

ought a proper selection to be made

to suit the object of the farmer as

oily provender for fattening, fodder

302

; rich in gluten for draught animals,

\ but the greatest attention should be

paid to warmth, exposure, and the

losses of free pasturage. See Soiling

and Food.

FODDERS, THE TI.ME OF CUT-
TING. The old careless practice of
allowing corn, wheat, beans, &lc., to
stand until dead ripe is giving place
to the more rational method of cut-
ting when the iierbage is turning yel-
low, and the stem is dried an inch or
two above the ground. Not only is
the grain, whether wheat, oats, or
corn, much heavier, but whiter, and
preferred, but the straw, haulm, or
fodder is increased in value from four
to ten times ; thus, while the dry,
brown stems of pease are of no val-
ue in husbandry, it is the opinion of
the best Scotch farmers that the same
stems, taken when just yellowed, are
twice as valuable as hay ; and chem-
ical examination shows this to be a
true estimate. Hay cut in flower is
worth twenty per cent, more than
that cut in seed, and twice as much
as that with dry stems : the same is
true for clovers, lucern, and all coarse
fodders. Straw is obtained nearly as
good as hay when cut in the light
greenish yellow state ; but when seed
grain is wanted, tiie straw must be
allowed to drv perfectly.

FODDERS, THE PRESERVA-
TION OF. The preparation of hay
will be explained under that head.
In putting it up for winter use, there
are two plans, either to house it in a
barn or stack it. Against the latter
considerable prejudice exists, chiefly
because of the loss occurring from
the exposure of the outer stems. But
stacking is a perfect means of pres-
ervation, and in all senses equal to
storage in a barn, if properly man-
aged ; it is only when little stacks,
imperfectly covered, and placed on
the ground, are used, that the sys-
tem is objectionable. The hay, (kc,
when stored, should be withered, but
not crisp, and thoroughly dry : in
putting up, a peck of salt lo the load
is of great service in hindering mil-
dew and flavouring the hay. Large
mows must be provided, with means

FODDERS.

of ventilation, by having beams or 1
rods passing through the barn, unless
the hay be well niacie and cured be-
fore storage. When well cured, hay |
should be of a greenish yellow, fine
odour, and altogether free from black-
ness or mildew.

Much advantage is gained by ma-
king up stacks of succulent fodders,
like buckwheat, Jerusalem artichoke
stems, broad-cast corn, clover, pea,
and bean stems, with straw, piling
one layer on the other ; the fod-
der may thus be put up fresher with-
out being sun-burned, and the straw
is improved, at the same time that
heatmg is obviated. Salting, in these
cases, is an additional preservative.

There is no greater injurjto coarse
fodders than allowing them to lie in
swarth until crisp and black from dry-
ing ; their nutritive matter is thus
reduced very considerably, and the
hay becomes unmanageable. If, from
using grass too green, it should heat,
the stack must be taken down and
freely exposed to the air as soon as
the accident is discovered, otherwise
it may fire, or, at least, the fodder
contracts a pitchy taste disagreeable
to cattle.

FODDERS, THE PREPARA-
TION OF. A great deal has been
said of late concerning the cooking
and steaming of food for horses, oxen,
and farm animals. Much is the off-
spring of ignorance and superficial ex-
amination. The preparation of corn
and hard grains, when given to oxen
and pigs, by grinding, is unquestiona-
bly a matter of great economy, where-
by at least one half is saved in the
former case. Mechanical reduction
by grinding, pounding, cutting, and
crushing, is also of great value in
other fodders, in roots, succulent
stems, and herbs ; but the assertion
that the act of steaming, irrespective
of the fineness of the food, is of great
service, or even that it will pay for
fuel in the case of the horse and oxen,
is disproved by the examination of nu-
merous Scotch farmers and by Bous-
singault. Every kind of comminu-
tion is valuable, because oxen are
incapable of pulverizing grains, and

horses frequently bolt, or swallow
whole, the carrots, beets, parsnips,
&c., which it is customary to furnish
them. This also refers to sheep. It
is true that in winter some httle
warmth is obtained from the fluid if
given hot, but this is not enough to
pay for the trouble. A machine for
rasping beets, potatoes, &c., is worth
infinitely more than a cooking contri-
vance.

With pigs the matter seems to be dif-
ferent ; well-made experiments show
that boiling or steaming food hast-
ens their fattening ; but this is scarce-
1}' understood. Boiling does not de-
velop any nutrition ; on the contrary,
Dr. Beaumont has shown that diges
tion is retarded ; but boiling is of ser-
vice where oily food, as Indian corn,
linseed, hemp seed, cotton seed, &c., is
given, for the heat causes the parti-
cles of fat of the meal to form an
emulsion with the hot water and gum
of the seed, and it is readily taken up
by the animal's intestines, whereas
oil, in large quantity, is not so read-
ily absorbed by the body, but partly
rejected. From the same cause, in
the last stage of fattening oxen, corn
or linseed meal, boiled into a jelly or
porridge, will assist fattening, while
it is in no way calculated as a regu-
lar fodder for draught oxen. In so
far as boiling or steaming assists di-
gestion, comminutes food, by making
It mealy, as potatoes, or produces an
emulsion with the oil it contains, so
far, and no farther, does it do service
on the farm. Practical men state
the gain in oily meals, with pigs, at
about one third, but not so much, if
at all, in coarse fodders. For cook-
ing, nothing is superior to Mott's
stove, which heats rapidly and econ-
omizes fuel. For a steamer, any com-
mon kettle, the nozzle of which emp-
ties into a box either of thick wood
with a tight lid, or into a barrel, will
answer ; the barrel may be surround-
ed with tow or cloth to keep in the
first heat. The figure represents such
a contrivance : A is a kettle, com-
municating by the pipe, B, furnished
with a stop-cock at C, into the box,
D, the lid of which overlaps, and is
303

FOL

luaiJe last by hooks, E. It is also
furnished with a stop cock, F, below,
to let off the condensed water.

Such a contrivance can be set up
in the feeding-house on a table, and
easily used, the food being conveyed
down an inclined plane to the feed-
ing-troughs, or along a hose, if it be
fluid. A rapid way to make water
boil is to place it in a tube of tinned
iron or copper, wound into a spinal
form, and running around the fire ;
in this way the amount of surface is
greatly increased, and the whole
brou<:ht near to the fire.

FGilTUS (from /to, I bring forth).
A quickened child in the womb.

FOG. A collection of vapour near
the earth's surface, produced by the
cooling of the moisture in the air.
Fogs lie in the morning and evening
over' damp, ill-drained, or marshy
lands, and are unhealthy, producing
ague and bilious fevers.

FOGGE. Long grass and partial-
ly cropped grass remaining on mead-
ows. Also the grass after a crop.

FOGGING. An uncommon prac-
tice of leaving the grass of upland
meadows uncut during the year, and
turning cattle and sheep upon it in
the fall and winter.

FOIL. A thin sheet of metal.

FOLD. A temporary enclosure
made with hurdles or rails, to con-
fine sheep. A portion may be shel-
tered with pine or other branches,
and littered with straw.

FOLDING. The practice of en-
closing sheep, cows, &c., in folds,
either for the night to manure the
land, or on turnips, grass, spring rye,
wheat, &c., to eat it regularly and
manure at the same time. Folding
during summer is wasteful ; for the
304

FOG

greater part of the urine is lost, and
iiiucli of the solid e.\.crement decays
and is volatilized or removed by wasli-
uig ; driving the cattle to one yard
and receiving the dung on stiaw,
charcoal, or suitable matters for com-
posting it, would be much better econ-
omy. On heavy lands, the treading
of animals is frequently mjurious du-
ring folding.

FOLIATION, or VERNATION.
The manner in which the young
leaves are folded in the bud.

FOLLICLE, or FOLLICULUS.
In botany, a one-valved, one cell-
ed, many-seeded, superior, dehiscent
fruit.

FOMENTATION. A warm bath-
ing applied to a part of the body ; in-
fusions of herbs are often used.

FONTANEL. A small space ex-
isting between the bones of the head
in the fcEtus.

P^OOD. A substance which con-
tains any of the principles which ex-
ist in the body, is digestible, and not
combined with a poisonous ingredi-
ent. There are three principal vari-
eties of food : 1st. That capable of
repairing the waste of the flesh or
muscle, called Azotizcd food, and es-
sential to the strength of animals,
■-id. That which sustains the heat of
the body, called non-Azotized food.
3d. That which repairs the waste of
fat, and called Oleaginous food, the
importance of which is inferior to the
two former, except for fattening ani-
mals.

I'he azotizcd elements of food, so
called from containing azote, or nitro-
gen, are fibrin, casein, and albumen ;
they go to the repair of muscles,
membranes, &c., which, in the active
state of the body, are being perpetu-
ally consumed. Seeds and meats
contain most of these principles ; the
former from 10 to 20 per cent., and
lean meat 23 to 25 per cent. The
richest seeds are beans, pease, wheat,
barley, oats, rye, corn. This kind of
food is most serviceable for draught
animals and such as are used for
strength and fleetness. For the com-
parative values, see the table in arti-
cle Fodders. They are the only class

FOO

roR

capable of sustaining life by them-
selves.

Tlie non-azolizcd contain no nitro-
gen. Starcli, sugar, and gum are
the principal of these ; they are, by
digestion, conveyed into the system,
and clianged so as to produce the
heat vvliich maintains life. E.xposure
to cold calls lor a greater consump-
tion of these principles than in a
warm situation. Potatoes, beets,
carrots, and roots generally excel in
these principles, but no vegetable
fodder is deficient in tliem. These
cannot alone sustain life.

Fatty, or oleaginous food, adds fat
to the body, which, in sickness and
other circumstances, also contributes
to the maintenance of animal heat.
They are incapable of sustaining life.
See Fattcnhig.

The food usually consumed is a
mixture of these in diflerent propor-
tions ; thus, corn meal consists of 9
per cent, oil, 12 azotized principles,
50 non-azotized, the rest being water,
husk, and saline matter ; but the
true value of any food is directly as
the nitrogen principles it contains.
See Fodders.

Besides these substances, others
are in less measure useful as food,
viz. : salt, which assists digestion ;
jelly, or gelatin, which repairs waste
in the cellular tissue ; bone earth (as
it exists in the food), which repairs
the waste of the bones. Vinegar, al-
cohol, the juices of acid fruits, are
also food of the non-azotized kind.

In perfect digestion, these varieties
of food are taken up into the system,
and the husk, certain useless salts,
and water rejected ; but it often oc-
curs that the proportion of fat or
starchy matters is so great, that much
is rejected, unaltered, by the bowels.

The amount of food necessary to
maintain an animal in ordinary exer-
cise is rather less than two per cent,
of the weight in hay, or its equiva-
lent. See Feed. A man requires 45
ounces of wheat bread, or 11 of beef
or mutton, daily, to maintain strength, j
An ox of 1000 pounds requires 20 j
pounds of hay, or the loUowing equiv- 1
alents : j

Cc2

120 lbs. of turnips,
115 " straw,
75 " carrots,
67 " putatnos,

17 lbs. of clover hay,
12 " l,arl<-y,
10 " oats,
b(!au3.

The time of I'eeding should be reg-
ular : an liour allowed working ani-
mals to digest, water given afterward,
and changes in the food made occa-
sionally, but not suddenly, especially
to green fodders.

FOOD OF PLANTS. Plants re-
quire water, carbonic acid gas, oxy-
gen, ammonia, or other compounds
containing nitrogen and saline mat-
ters ; these they derive partly from
the air and soil. See t/icfc bodies.

FOOT. A measure of 12 inches.
Horse's foot. See Horse and Shoeing.

FORAGE. Provender, fodder.

FORAMEN, In anatomy, a hole
or perforation through a bone.

FORCE. Anything that produces
motion or pressure. Mechanical for-
ces are those which produce palpable
movements, as gravitation, the de-
scent of weights upon bodies, &c.
Chemical forces are those producing
molecular movements, which are
only perceptible by their effects ;
they are heat, light, tithonicity, elec-
tricity ; these, however, occasional-
ly give rise to more extensive move-
ments.

FORCEPS. Instruments acting
in the same way as pincers.

FORCING. In horticulture, for-
warding the grov.tli of plants, fruits,
&c. ; conducted in glazed houses,
pits, frames, or in cellars for mush-
rooms, celery, endive, &c. Heat is
one great essential ; but light and air
are also of the first importance to
success, except with mushrooms, or
in blanching. Forcing houses and
frames, therefore, face the south, to
receive most light ; but during very
cold weather the sudden action of
the sun"s iieat is to be guarded against
if there be the least frost within the
house ; hence, in green-houses for
vines and fruits, it is common to cov-
er the glass with matting during the
depth of winter, to protect the trees
from sudden heat.

FORCING PITS. Pits of brick,
masonry, or wood sunk in the earth
to contain the fermenting materials
305

FOR

FOU

to produce bottom heat ; tliey are
used like iVames, and in every re-
spect resemble tlieui in efTect. The
following is a description of the pit
of one of the English gardens : " It is
four feet deep within ; the lowest ten
inches of solid brick-work sunk in the
earth ; the remainder is a flue, three
inches wide in the clear, carried en-
tirely round the pit ; the inner wall
of which, forming the sides of the pit,
is four-inch work, well bedded in
mortar, and pointed, to prevent the
steam penetrating ; the outer wall of
the flue is also four-inch, but open-
work, to admit the steam and that of
dung coatings into the flue, the top
of which is rendered tight by a cov-
ering of tiles, &c. The frame rests
on the external wall of the flue. The
cavity of the pit, which is kept dry
by means of drains, is nine feet two
inches long, two feet eight inches
wide, and four feet deep. It is filled
with broken bricks to within eighteen
inches of the top ; then a foot of
short cold dung, six inches of very
rotten dung, trod down so as to ad-
mit half an inch depth of coal ashes,
for preventing the intrusion of any
worms that may be in the dung, com-
plete the structure." See Frame.

FORCING PUjMP. See Pump.

FOREST. A natural collection of
trees. The principal trees are men-
tioned under their respective heads.

FOREST FLIES. Flies of the
genus Hippobosca.

FORFICULA. The genus of in-
sects to which the earwig belongs.

FORGE. " The workshop in
which iron is hammered and shaped
by the aid of heat. The term is gen-
erally applied to the places in which
these operations are carried on upon
the comparatively small scale ; the
great workshops in which iron is
made malleable for general purposes
being called shingling mills. A com-
mon forge consists of the hearth or
fire-place, which is merely a cavity in
masonry or brick-work well lined with
fine clay or brick, upon which the ig-
nited fuel is placed, and upon the
back or side of which a powerful blast
of air is driven in through the nozzle
30G

of a double-blasted bellows, which, in
a connnon forge, is generally worked
by a hand lever. Forges are some-
times constructed so as to be porta-
ble, when the bellows is most con-
veniently placed under the hearth :
these are used in ships, and for vari-
ous jobs on railways, &c." — (Brande.)

F O R K. The dung and digging
fork is in the form of a spade, with
three or more flat prongs : it is em-
ployed in loose soils much more ex-
peditiously than the spade in garden
tillage. The hai/, or pitch-fork, for
turning hay, grass, or manure, is fur-
nished with a long handle and two
roundish teeth : sometimes a forked
branch is used.

FORMATION. In geology, a
group of deposites or strata apparent-
ly referable to a common origin or
period.

FORMICA. The genus of ants,
now the tvpe of a tribe, the Formir.ida.

FORMIC ACID. The fluid eject-
ed by ants when irritated contains
this acid. The acid is formed by dis-
tilling tartaric acid with sulphuric
acid and peroxide of manganese, and
consists of Cj HO^-f HO. It is high-
ly corrosive, acid, and of a peculiar
odour ; combines with bases to form
formiates, which are very soluble.
Formic acid contains a compound
radical formyl (Cj H).

FORMULA. In chemistry, the ex-
pression, by symbols, of the composi-
tion of any substance, as (EO, FOO3)
f(jr formic ether.

Fossa, in zoology, a depression
on a bone.

FOSSIL. A part or the whole of
any animal or plant imbedded in the
earth, and more or less converted
into stony matter.

FOSSORES. A group of hymen-
opterous insects, which dig or exca-
vate cells in wood or earth to depos-
ite their eggs.

FOSSORIAL (from fodio, I dig).
Animals which dig their holes, as
moles.

FOUNDATION. In architecture,
the lower part of a wall, on which the
wall is raised, and always of much
greater thickness than such wall. A

FOX

FRA

practice has lately been introduced
of laying foundations on a bed of
Miiat is called concrete, which is a mix-
ture of rough, small stones or large
gravel stones with sand and stone,
lime and water, with just enough of
the lime to act as a cementitious me-
dium with the best effect. See Co?i-
crcte.

FOUNTAIN. A jet of water or
fluid. The simplest way of forming
a fountain is to conduct water by a
small pipe from a higher elevation,
where a tank or other reservoir ex-
ists; the open end of the tube below
being made tine, the fluid is driven
out with a pressure proportionate to
the height of the reservoir, and,
springing into the air, produces a
fountain. Groups of statuary are
beautifullv displayed in fountains.

FOVEATUS, FOVEATE. Hav-
ing a depression or pit : applied to the
nectar)' of flowers.

FOVILLA. The yellow^ fluid con-
tained in pollen.

FOWL. See Poultry.
FOX. Canis wipes, Lin. The de-
struction committed by this animal
and his great address in escaping have
tasked the farmer's wits to destroy
him. Good dogs are unquestionably
the best remedy ; but traps of all
kinds, baited with flesh, are also ex- |
tensively employed. The fox is led |
to these by trailing the entrails of a \
sheep or hog from his retreats to the
trap. In the same way, the trail may
be made to a tree, and the garbage [
left, the farmer ascending a tree in
the neighbourhood, and waiting with
a gun to shoot the fox. A large trap, '
like the old rat trap, may be fixed in
the grass of a field, well hidden, and
baited with a fowl.

FOX EVIL. A disease in which
the hair falls out.

FOXGLOVE. Diiritalis purpurea.
An exotic biennial plant, with hand-
some flowers, of great value in med-
icine as a sedative and diuretic. It
is extremely poisonous, but is culti-
vated with great care in drills eigh-
teen inches apart. The plants should
be kept free from weeds, cultivated
in a dry soil, and freely exposed to

the sun. The leaves are collected
when full grown, in the second year,
and just before flowering ; they should
be dried by exposure to the sun, and
put up in tinned vessels. The leaves
only are valuable.

FOXTAIL GRASS. Grasses of
the genus Pennisetum, formerly He-
traria. The mo5t common {P. glau-
cum) is the coarse grass that springs
up in stubble. None of them, except P.
Germanictim, Bengal grass, is worth
cultivation, and this is very inferior
to the ordinary plants. It is an an-
nual, sown in s[)ring, and grows from
two to four feet high with tlie flower
stems.

FOXY. Sour or harsh.
FRACTURE. In farriery, the
breakage of a bone in the body. Frac-
tures are called simple when the bone
is broken without tearing the mus-
cles and passing through the skin, and
compound in the latter case. The
treatment requires care and atten-
tion. The broken ends of the bones
are first to be nicely brought togeth-
er by the surgeon, and then bound by
splints. The splints are usually slabs
of wood of a proper length and width
to fit the limb, or stiff pasteboard
soaked until it bends freely, and ad-
justed to the limb ; the splint is bound
on by a long riband of cotton. Splints
should be sufficiently long to reach to
the joints above and below the frac-
ture, to restrain their motion. The
animal should be bled if feverish, and
kept low. It is sometimes necessa-
ry to suspend them in the stable, by
passing a stout cloth under the body,
and fastening its ends to the upper
frame-work of the stable. In from
three to five weeks the bones are usu-
ally reunited.

FRACTURE. In mineralogy, the
appearance of a broken mineral which
is not crystalline. It is termed res-
inous, choncoidal, vitreous, earthy,
&c., according as it resembles that of
resin, a shell, glass, or earth.

FR.\CTURES IN TREES. When
they occur in the smaller branches,
from excess of iVuit, they readily unite
by propping up to the natural posi-
tion, if the accident occurs before the
307

FRA

FRI

fall ; but when the part has a con-
siderable diameter, four to six inch-
es, it is best to prune it, and cover
tlie wound with coal tar or grafting
day.

FK.EXUM {fromfranuin, a bridle.)
A membranous fold, which binds
down one part of the body to another,
especially the tongue to the mouth.

FRAG ARIA. The generic name
of the strawberry.

FRAME. In horticulture, the ar-
rangement in which forcing is usually
peribrmed. A frame may be made
of stout planks, the back one being
two feet deep, the front fifteen inch-
es, and the sides sloped ; the width
across may be six feet, and the length
divided into partitions every three
feet ; over each partition a window
or sash, capable of being more or less
withdrawn, is placed. These frames
are set upon the hot-beds of ferment-
ing matters, and seedlings, melons,
&c., raised in them.

The heating material, or hot-bed,
may be set up on the ground, or in a
shallow pit of two feet depth. The
advantage of the former is that, as
the heat diminishes, the old dung can
be cut down and removed, being re-
placed by fresh, which supplies new
heat, and thus the temperature can
be kept up for a long time. A com-
mon bed for early vegetables is made
by laying down twenty inches to two
feet of fresh horse dung, and cover-
ing with six to eight inches of fine
mould, tan, or compost, putting down
the sashes of the frame, and allowing
the steam to pass off for three days ;
opening the Irame, stirring the soil,
and sowing the seeds in drills, or
broad-cast. The frame is subsequent-
ly to be opened or kept shut, accord-
ing to the hardiness of the young
plants. Beds made early in tlie sea-
son will require a greater depth of fer-
menting matter. During cold nights,
cover the frames with matting, that
no frost may penetrate. It is com-
mon to sink small thumb pots, in
part, into the hot-bed, instead of sow-
ing the seed on mould.

A cold frame is no more than the
foregoing sash placed over a spot of
308

well-tilled, rich soil, which it protects
by the glass. It should be exposed to
the southwest. Hot-beds and frames
should always be placed over a well-
drained spot.

FRA.MING. The rough timber-
work of a house.

FRANKLIATA. Gordonia puhcs-
cc7)s. An ornamental tree of (Jeorgia,
somewhat resembling the dogwood
when in flower.

FRAXIM'S. Thegenusoftheash.

FREEM ARTIX. A twin cow calf
born with a male calf If it resem-
bles the bull it is barren, and is often
barren when having the general ap-
pearance of a heifer.

FREEZING. Congelation. The
conversion of water into ice. It takes
place at 32 '^ Fahrenheit, or below, and
is much promoted by a sharp wind,
which hastens evaporation. Water,
in freezing, expands one ninth, and,
if confined, will break open the stout-
est vessels. Rocks and the soil are
disintegrated by the freezing of wa-
ter in them, which, expanding, tears
the particles asunder. By freezing
some mixtures or solutions, the wa-
tery parts may be, in some measure,
separated, and the spirituous left un-
touched. See Frost.

FRENCH BEANS. See Beans.

FRENCH BERRIES. Bernes oj
Avignon. The green fruit of the
Rhamnus infcctonus, a species of
buckthorn, cultivated in France as a
yellow dyeing material. It requires
a southern climate, and in other re-
spects does not differ from the buck-
thorn. It may be propagated by cut-
tings or seeds. The Persian berries
are the finest for colouring.

FRENCH CLOVER. Lucern.

FRET, or FRETTE. In architec-
ture, a species of ornament consist-
ing of one or more small fillets. The
section of the channels between the
fillets is rectangular. The subjoined

diagram shows two sorts of simple
frets ; but they are often much more
complicated.

FRIABLE. Powdery, mealy, or
readily broken into a powder.

FRI

FRICTION. The resistance of-
fered to motion by a rough surface.
In mechanics, it is divided into */i-
ding, rolling, and pivot friction. Of
these, the amount of friction with
the same wciglit is twelve to twenty
times greater in sliding than rolling,
and is intermediate in pivot friction.
Friction is diminished hy polish, by
reduction of weight, by causing the
surfaces to be of dissimilar substan-
ces, as metal or wood, and by apply-
ing grease in sliding and pivot fric-
tion, but not in rolling friction.

Whenever it is possible to convert
a sliding or pivot motion into a roll-
ing one, much is gained ; hence the
arrangement of friction wheels, which
consist of two or more wheels, sup-
porting a pivot or axle, and which, by
turning, produce a rolling instead of
a pivot friction. Friction wheels have
been recently introduced into carriage
axles ; the axis, instead of playing in
the box, is surrounded with small,
loose rollers, which revolve with it,
reducing the friction to a remarkable
extent.

Rigidity of cordage is also produc-
tive, like all kinds of friction, of loss
(if power, and is to be guarded against
hy using flexible ropes. The amount
of friction depends, in a great meas-
ure, on the diameter of the wheel
over which it passes, the extent of
rope in contact, and its tension. When
there is more than one fold, it be-
comes enormous, so as to be used
as a mechanical means for stopping
boats, &c.

FRIEZE. In architecture, the cen-
tral portion of the entablature be-
tween the architrave and cornice.
It is plain in the Tuscan, but adorn-
ed in other styles.

FRIGID ZONE. The space above
7GI degrees of north or south lati-
tude. It is scarcely occupied by any
plants but a few lichens.

FRINGE-TREE. Chionanthus Vir-
ginica. A beautiful ornamental tree,
growing wild as far north as Delaware,
and bearing white flowers in May.

FRINGILLID-E {from frmgilla, a
chaffinch.) A tribe of birds, of the
Passerine family, with stout, conical

FRO

bills (conirostres), including the lin-
nets, canaries, finches, all of which
are devourers of grain.

FROGS. Amphibious animals, of
the genus Rana. The common spe-
cies {R. tcmporaria and cscnicnta) are,
for the mOBt part, insectivorous. They
should not be destroyed by the gar-
dener, except when in great numbers,
as they clear his garden of slugs,
snails, and other small pests. The
green frog (escuUnta) is a great del-
icacy with some : the flesh of the hind
leg is the part eaten.

FROG OF THE HORSE. A tri-
angular portion of horn projecting
from the sole almost on a level with
the crust, and defending a soft and
elastic substance called the sensible
frog. The sensible frog occupies the
whole of the back part of the foot,
above the horny frog and between
the cartilages.

FROG HOPPERS. FROG SPIT-
TLE. CUCKOO SPITTLE. Small
insects {Ccrcopidida) wiiich inhabit
the twigs and branches of plants,
from which they extract so nmch
juice that the place on which they
are collected appears covered with
spittle.

FROND. The leaves of ferns are
so called.

FRONTAL. In anatomy, apper
taining to the forehead.

FRONTLET. In ornithology, the
part of the head next the bill, usually
covered with bristles.

FROST. Correctly speaking, frost
is ice produced by radiation. Under
the article Dciv it has been stated
that in bright, clear, calm nights, all
objects exposed to the air become
cooled by radiation into the sky ; if
the temperature falls to 32-, then
frost, or pellicles of ice, are produced
instead of dew. The word is also
used in common to express freezing ;
but, in the latter case, the air is
usually at or below 32^ Fahrenheit,
whereas night frosts often occur in
the spring and fall when the air is
40 ' to 50 'Fahrenheit. Frosts fall ear-
lier on dark, rough lands than those
of a light colour and indurated con-
dition.

309

FROST.

Frosts are most injurious to plants
at 50" Fahrenheit, in full vigour of
growth ; hence a slight frost in spring
usually destroys expanding buds and
the young shoots of vegetables. It
may act in a variety of ways, but
commonly by freezing the sap of the
leaves, which produces a disorgan-
ization of its tissues. Frosts by ra-
diation occur sooner in elevated sit-
uations, at a distance from lakes or
rivers, than in valleys that are kept
moist. Whatever intercepts the
clearness of the sky diminishes or ar-
rests frosts ; thus, clouds, a large
quantity of vapour in the air, smoke,
or matting, straw, glass, boards, &c.
Hence, gardeners cover tender plants
with leaves, straw, pine brushwood,
or protect them with mats or glass ;
in such cases, the radiation is from
the mats, &c., and not from the
plants. Watering plants abundantly
at nightfall, when the evening ap-
pears clear and frost may be appre-
hended, is often efficacious ; water-
ing before sunrise, after a slight frost,
is also valuable, for the vapour of
water, in both cases, acts as a cover-
ing to the vegetation ; in the even-
ing it diminishes radiation ; in the
morning it gently warms and thaws
the leaves before the destructive ac-
tion of the sun can take place. Trees
are often preserved by twining a
quantity of rope among their branch-
es and allowing the ends to dip in wa-
ter. On a larger scale, the Indians
of Cusco used to burn large quanti-
ties of moist straw and leaves at sun-
set when a frost was apprehended,
and thus, by obscuring the sky, hin-
der radiation. During the winter a
coating of snow is a remarkable pro-
tection to a crop, maintaining it at a
regular temperature, while the ex-
posed surface would have been much
injured by severe frosts. A bed of
snow, eight inches thick, frequently
measures 10° Fahrenheit at the sur-
face and 32° Fahrenheit at the earth,
and, being a very bad conductor of
heat, changes its lower temperature
very slowly.

Flooding meadows to such a depth
that the earth may not be frozen is
310

one of the most certain and elTective
means of saving grass and advancing
it in maturity for the next spring, the
water being withdrawn when the
weather has become mild and free
from frost ; lands over which fogs
lie long are also well protected from
early frosts. Exposure has also much
influence on the early occurrence of
frosts ; lands which receive the
least sun and are exposed to chilling
winds being visited much sooner than
those looking to the south and shel-
tered.

The night frosts produced by radi-
ation are very different from the cold-
ness of the air in winter. The cold
of winter does not act precisely like
early frosts ; valleys are sooner affect-
ed than hillsides unless they contain
water, and this is supposed by Lind-
ley to be produced by the descent of
cold air from above into them, but
is also due to the lesser duration of
sunshine. During our winters the
sun usually retains much power, so
as to produce thawing in places where
his direct beams fall ; this effect ta-
king place suddenly, and often upoa
trees or vegetable structures, is very
injurious, so that delicate trees are
often destroyed in orchards facing
the southeast from this cause, espe-
cially in the spring. Sudden thawing,
whether taking place on a leaf, tree,
or root, is much more injurious than
freezing ; for the expansion produced
in the gases of the plant causes them
to rupture the cells and become mix-
ed with the fluids, thus commencmg
decomposition. It is a well-known
fact that potatoes, &c., may be kept
frozen for a year or more without in-
jury, if they be thawed gradually by
immersion in spring water ; but if
they be exposed to a hot sun, or
thrown into hot water, they become
disorganized, and rot at once. Hence
the policy of the gardener and or-
chardist is to plant orchards and ex-
pose early vegetables and products in
such a manner that changes from
heat to cold may be gradual, and
not sudden. The retardation of flow-
ering in a northern situation, in fruit-
trees, is amply compensated by the

FRU

FUM

greater certainty, so that a north- 1
western position is now preferred for
an orchard. Gardens in which annu-
al vegetables only are raised should
haN-e a southeastern exposure.

The preservation of fruits, roots, &C.,
depends more on placing them out of
the reach of sudden changes of tem-
perature than keeping them free from
frost ; for if kept frozen, they remain
sound all the winter, and are to be
thawed slowly, by first immersing in
spring water (at 40° Fahrenheit), in
the shade ; but in these cases the
freezing must have been gradual, and
not sudden. See Barrow.

The spewing of larids. or efHores-
cence of ice which occurs on stiff
soils during winter, is produced by
the thawing of an inch or two of the
surface during the winter, and a sud-
den frost subsequently : in this way
the water confined in the thawed part
being converted into ice, and expand-
ing, cannot find passage downward,
and so is thrown up, along with a
portion of earth, above the surface.
It does not occur to any extent on
well-drained, warm soils, and is fre-
quently injurious by casting out the
seeds of wheat and winter grains.
Drainage, and the use of the strong-
rooted wheats, with early sowing,
are the preventives.

The spewing and disintegrating
effects of frost on lands are of eminent
service, when they are fallow, in pul-
verizing the soil and preparing it for
the spring crop. Exposing stiff lands
to frost by ploughing in the fall is
almost an essential condition of good
tillage : it is also of great service in
destroying the roots of weeds and
grubs of worms.

Porous sandstone rocks are often
much disintegrated by the action of
freezing water, driven into their pores
by rains.

FRUCTIFICATION. The part of
plants destined to produce fruit or
sporules.

FRUIT. In botany, the ovarium
arrived at maturity. It is called
fleshy or indehisccnt when pulpy, and
dehiscent when dry. The divisions
within the fruit are termed carpels.

Commonly it means a fleshy fruit
only. Fruits arc rather laxative.

FRUITING. Bearing Iruit.

FRUIT LNSECTS. See the fruits,
as Apple. Plum, &c.

FRU.VIEXTACEOUS. Resembling
wheat, or made of wheat.

FRUSTRU.M. The part of a solid
cone left after cutting off the top.

FRUTESCENT. Woodv.

FRUTEX. A shrub, a small tree,
the branches of which start from the
soil without any regular trunk.

FUCUS. A genus of sea-weeds.
Fucnid, like a sea-weed.

FUEL. Substances used to obtain
heat are called fuel. The heat pro-
duced by burning a given weight of
fuel increases with the dryness, so-
lidity, and amount of carbon. The
immediate effect depends upon the
rapidity of burning, which is hastened
by a rapid draught of air, long chim-
ney, and other means. One pound
of bituminous coal will raise 60 lbs.
of water from 32° to 212° Fahrenheit.
The proportionate values of other
kinds of fuel, measured by the same
effect, are :

Dry wood .... 35 pounds of water.

Common wood . . 26 " "

Charcoal .... 73 " "

Pit coal .... 60 " "

Coke 65 " "

Peat 30 " "

Oil, tallow . . . 78 . " "

Coal gas .... 76 " "

F U L C R U M. The point about
which a lever moves. A prop.

FULGORA. A genus of insects,
the fore part of the head of which is
produced into a large hollow recep-
tacle. Some are supposed to emit a
brilliant light.

FULGURATION. In chemistry,
the sudden brilliancy emitted by gold
and silver as it cools from fusion be-
fore the blowpipe.

FULIGINOUS (from fuligo, soot).
Sooty, of the colour or appearance
of soot.

FULLERS' EARTH. A clayey
mineral, readily miscible with water,
used for fulling or cleaning cloth of
grease.

FULLERS' TEASEL. See Teasel.

FU.MIGATION. The exposure of
substances, or the air of a room, to
311

FUN

FUS

certain vapours, to counteract a dis-
ease or to piiriiy. AVaiiii vinegar is
commonly employed ; tliorongli ven-
tilation is also necessary. Tlie chlo-
rine given otr from chloride of lime,
or generated by adding muriatic acid
to black oxide of manganese, is the
best fumigating substance. It has
the i)o\ver of neutralizing the most
disagreeable odours, but is injurious
to health, and must only be used in
vacant apartments.

FU.MITORY. Fumaria officinalis.
Cultivated chiefly as a flower : cattle
will eat the herbage.

FUNDI, FUNDUNGI. Paspalum
exile. Hungary rice. A gramine-
ous annual plant growing 18 inches
high, and producing an abundance of
minute seeds, which are used in Af-
rica as rice. It is sown on dry natu-
ral soils in May, and reaped in Septem-
ber, the seeds being readily thrashed
out.

FUNGI. The race of mushrooms,
toad-stools, blight, rust, &c. They
consist of cells only, and produce
spores, or seeds, without flowers.
Fungi grow, for the most part, on
dead or living vegetable matters.
Those fungi are poissonous that have
a disagreeable narcotic smell. The
most important will be found in this
book. The word fungoid, like a mush-
room, is a derivative.

FUNGICOLA. A genus of cole-
opterous insects dwelling in mush-
rooms.

F U N G I N. The white, tasteless
solid remaining after mushrooms
have been fully digested in alcohol
and in water. It is an azotized mat-
ter nearly resembling fibrin, and very
nutritious.

FUNGUS. A mushroom. In far-
riery, proud flesh, a fleshy excres-
cence growing out of a sore, or about
the edges of an ulcer. It should be
reduced by the use of caustic. Lu-
nar caustic or red precipitate is the
best application.

FUNICULUS. In anatomy, the
cord which attaches the foetus to the
after-birth, or placenta, also called the
umbilical cord. The thread by which
tlie seed is fastened to the carpel.
312

FUNNEL. A trumpet-shaped ves-
sel open at both ends, used to trans-
ler fluids, and especially in chemis-
try, to lay filters upon.

FUNNEL-SHAPED. Infundibuli
form, a term descriptive of the figure
of some flowers.

FUR. The skins of animals well
covered with hair. The unprepared
dry skins are called peltries.

FURFUR ACEOUS (from furfur,
hraji). Resembling bran.

FURLONG. The eighth of a mile :
40 poles.

FURNACE. In chemistry, a
small, moveable vessel of plumbago
or fire clay, in which charcoal may
be burned for the purpose of distilla-
tions, heating lubes, &c. It is usu-
ally provided with several parts for
the convenience of carrying on the
several processes and obtaining a
high heat.

FURRIERS' WASTE. The clip-
pings of skins : as a manure it is sim-
ilar to old rags.

FURUNCULUS. A boil.

FURROW. The movement of the
earth produced by the action of a
plough : furrow slice is the slip of
eartli turned over.

FURROW, \^'ATER. The fur-
row made in ploughed lands to let off
surface water.

F U R Z E. Shrubs of the genus
Ulex, the most common of which, V.
Europeus, is also called gorse and
whin. It is a hardy, leguminous ev-
ergreen, growing abundantly on poor
lands, and made use offer hedging and
coarse fodder in Europe. It grows
rapidly, so that it can be cut every
four years for fuel, and is so far nu-
tritious that horses are often main-
tained on furze only ; but, considering
the abundance of excellent fodder
plants we possess, the introduction
of furze is scarcely worthy of thought.
As a fencing material, it is objection-
able, from the room it requires, but
the prickles with which it is covered
make it a sure defence.

FUSIFORM. Spindle-shaped, ta-
pering to each end ; a descriptive
term in botany.

FUSION. Melting. In fusion, a

GAL

great amount of heat becomes latent.
The point of fusion difiers extremely
in metals, from six hundred to several
thousand degrees of Fahrenheit.

FUSTET. The wood of the Rhus
colinus. Young fustic.

FUSTIC. The wood of the Morus
tinctoria, a species of mulberry. It i
yields a dingy, yellow orange dye to
water ; it imparts permanent colours I
to wool when mordanted with alum
or a solution of tin. It mixes well
with indigo and Saxon blue, forming
a green. With copperas it forms ol-
ives and browns. Five to six parts
of the old wood give a lemon colour
to 16 of cloth. The colour is less
altered by acids than other yellows,
but it is inferior in brightness to weld.
The fustic-tree grows naturally in
the West Indies and America.

FUSTIC, YOUNG. A name for
the Rhus cotuius, or Italian sumac,
which yields a greenish-yellow dye,
used in mixtures.

G.

GABLE. The triangular piece of
wall at the ends of a house, immedi-
ately under the roof

GADFLY, BREEZE. Dipterous
insects of the genus JEstrus. These
insects nearly resemble the botflies ;
they deposite their eggs under the
skin of animals, w4iich they pierce,
giving considerable pain. The yel-
low-eyed forest flies that infest hor-
ses in July are of the genus Cnjsops.

GAGE, GAUGE. In physics, an
instrument to measure any result, as
wnid-gacre, rain-sas^-

GALACTOPOIETIC (from yala,
milk, and tzouu, I make). Substan-
ces which increase the flow of milk.
The affixes gala and galacto indicate
milk or milky ; as galactmneler. See
Lactometer.

GALANGAL. Ktempfcria galan-
ga. A root formerly used in medi-
cine, and imported from China.

G A L B A N U .M. Galbanum offici-
nale. An umbelliferous herb of Af-
rica. A fetid gum resin exudes spon-
taneously from it of antispasmodic
propeitif s.

GALBULA A genus of climbing
D D

GAL

birds like the kingfishers ; they live
in wet forests, and are insectivorous.

GALBILUS. A fruit of a round-
ed form, but with an internal conical
arrangement of the carpels ; as that
of the savine, junipers, and yew.

GALEATE. Helmet-shaped. In
botany the term is applied to the up-
per arched lip of personate flowers.

GALENA. Sulphuretoflead. An
abundant ore of a bright metallic col-
our and cubical form.

GALERUCA. A genus of coleop-
terous insects, the type of the Gale-
rucnlce, including the Haltica. They
are vegetable feeders in the perfect
and larva state. The yellow-striped
squash beetle (G. vitata) is of this
genus.

GALIUM. A genus of plants, of
which cleavers {G. aparine) is a spe-
cies. G. verum is used as rennet to
curdle milk in cheese-making. The
family of plants of which it is the
type {Galiacece) includes madder and
spurry. The whole family is nutri-
tious.

j GALL. Bile. Ox gall is of great
I service for removing oil spots from
cloth and carpets, and for fastening
' and brightening colours. The gall-
1 bladder is the small sack situated un-
: der the liver, and contains gall. It
' communicates with the small intes-
I tines by the biliary duct. Gall stones
are concretions formed in this blad-
I der, which consist, for the most part,
i of hardened bile or of cholesterine.
i GALLIC ACID. A crystalline, in-
odorous substance, slightly soluble
: and styptic. It precipitates per salts
' of iron of a black colour. It is form-
; ed by exposing a solution of tannic
acid to air, bv which oxygen is ab-
sorbed: formula C; K3 Og. Gallic
acid IS of little importance, and sel-
dom occurs naturally in plants.

GALLED. Naked, bare. Exco-
riations on the skin of animals are
often called galls and galled spots.

GALL-NUTS. Excrescences pro-
duced on the leaves and leaf stalks
of the Querciis infectoria by an insect
(cynips). They are best from the
Levant, of a dark colour, heavy, and
of the size of a bullet ; but other galls,
313

GAL

GAM

with a prickly surface, are formed on
the Q. cents, &.c.

Gall-nuts contain tannic acid, yel-
low colouring matter, and gallic acid.
The decoction produces a variety of
coloured precipitates, with reagents ;
with solution of tin, a yellow ; alum,
a yellow gray ; acetate of copper, a
chocolate ; red sulphate of iron, a
blue black. They are used in making
ink and dyeing. See Tamun.

GALLINACEOUS. Birds resem-
bling the domestic cock ; as turkeys,
pheasants, pigeons.

GALLON. The imperial measure
contains 277-274 inches, or 10 pounds
of distilled water at 62° Fahrenheit.
It is equal to four quarts, or eight
pints. The old wine gallon contained
231 cubic inches ; the beer gallon, 282
cubic inches. Each of these stand-
ards is used in different states. The
half peck is a gallon in dry measure.

GALLOWAY. A pony of 13 to 14
hands. Originally, a small breed of
horses. A variety of Scotch cattle.

GALLOWS OF A PLOUGH. A
part of the plough head.

GALLS. In farriery, wounds pro-
duced by the friction of harness. The
little tumours formed under saddles
are called warbles. Washing the
galled places with a solution of sugar
of lead, or keeping them clean with a
plaster ofcommon ointment, or dress-
ing with Turner's cerate, and allow-
ing no farther pressure on the part
until it is healed, are the proper rem-
edies. Wir.dgalls are little tumours
about the heels of horses over-driven.

GALVANISM. That form of elec-
tricity produced by the chemical ac-
tion of one body on another. A sim-
ple galvanic circle or arrangement
consists of a metal subject to the ac-
tion of the fluid, and a second not in-
fluenced thereby, an exciting fluid,
with wires, called poles, proceedmg
from each metal. The most com-
mon materials are zinc, copper, and
sulphuric acid diluted with twelve
parts water. The acid acts on the
zinc only, and the electricity so pro-
duced is conveyed along the wires or
poles. No galvanism passes until the
pules are brought in contact ; any flu-
311

id or body between them, which is an
imperfect conductor, is heated or de-
composed by the current. A galvan-
ic pile consists of a series of the two
metals so arranged that the coppers
and zincs touch in pairs : two poles
at the extremities discharge the elec-
tricity produced by the whole appa-
ratus. Other metals and fluids are
used, as well as peculiar arrange-
ments contrived for the production
of a continuous current. For the ap-
plication of galvanism to agriculture,
see Electricity. There are two con-
ditions of the galvanic fluid referred
to by chemists, i. e., quantity and ten-
sion. Quantity is produced by using
very large surfaces of metal and
strong exciting fluids ; tension by
emi)loying numerous pairs.

GALVANOMETER. "An instru-
ment for ascertaining the presence
of a current of electricity, especially
galvanic or voltaic electricity, by the
deviation which it occasions in the
magnetic needle. The ^ {
simplest form of gal- [
vanometer is a mag-
netic needle poised
upon a point, and sur- j\

rounded by one or
more coils of copper wire, covered
with silk, the ends, a and A, being ei-
ther left free, or terminating in two
small copper cups containing mercu-
ry, for the convenience of communi-
cation with the source of electricity.
When this needle is placed parallel
to the coil, and in the magnetic me-
ridian (as represented in the margin),
it immediately deviates when the
electric current passes through the
coil; and the deviation is either to
the east or the west, according to the
direction of the current." — (Brande.)

GAMA GRASS. Tripsacum dac-
tyloides. A coarse, perennial, indi-
genous southern grass, growing to
four or five feet. It is very produc-
tive, and may be propagated by seeds
or roots. The cultivation is scarce-
ly thought advantageous.

GAMBOGE. The dry juice of the
Stalagmites Cambogioides and other
East Indian trees. This colour is a
gum resin ; it is poisonous, a drastic

GAR

GAR

purge and emetic. Water-colour
painters employ it extensively.

GANGLICJN (from jayy/mv, a
knot). A natural swelling or enlarge-
ment on a nerve. A painful tumour
formed on the sheatli of a tendon.

GANGRENE (from ypaetv, to feed
upon). Mortitication. An ulcer which
produces the death of the part ; this
result is usually the consequence of
very feeble health. Nutritious stim-
ulants are to be administered.

GANGRENE IN TREES. A
blackening of the inner bark, various-
ly produced, leading to the death of
the tree unless cut below the disease.

GANGUE. The mineral in which
ores are imbedded, also termed the
matrix.

GAPE. In ornithology, the open-
ing between the mandibles.

GAPES. A disease in young chick-
ens and turkeys attended with much
gaping. See Puullnj.

GARDEN. The enclosure allot-
ted to the cultivation of culinary
plants. Its great productiveness is
a lesson in favour of deep spade till-
age. Those parts devoted to annu-
als should have a southern exposure ;
but trees and perennials require a
sheltered or northwestern aspect.
Plants which flower should be plant-
ed far apart. The soil must be well
drained. Walls and trellises in gar-
dens are of the first importance to
shelter vegetables and allow choice
trees to be trained.

GARDEN HUSBANDRY. "This
is a branch of horticulture, the object
of which is to raise fruits, vegetables,
and seeds for profit on a smaller
extent of ground than is usually oc-
tnipied for the purpose of agricul-
ture.

" The best examples of this kind of
industr)' are found among the market-
gardeners near populous towns, par-
ticularly London, Paris, and Amster-
dam. By the application of much
manual labour and an abundant sup-
ply of manure, they accelerate the
growth of vegetables, and produce
them more abundantly than where
manure is not so easily obtained, or

where there i.s not so large a demand
for the produce.

" The gardeners near Paris, some
of whom have gardens within the out-
er walls of the city, are called Marai-
chcrs, from the situation of their gar-
dens in a low district which was for-
merly a marsh (marais). The indus-
try of this laborious class is prover-
bial. Their whole life is devoted to
their gardens. They work the whole
day in the greatest heat of the sun,
and long before the rest of the inhab-
itants awake they are on the way to
the market with their produce. The
soil in which they raise their vegeta-
bles is naturally a poor sand, but by
315

GARDEN lir.sBANDKV

constant manuring it has been con-
verted into a very ric'li mould, abound-
ing in humus. From its porous nature
and the frequent recurrence of dry
summers, it would jjroduce little with-
out constant and abundant watering.
The raising of water from numerous
wells dispersed through the grounds,
and conveying it to the growing plants,
is the most laborious part of the
work : during the whole summer this
labour is incessant. There are large
stone cisterns in whicii the water is
allowed to remain, that it may ac-
quire the temperature of the air ; and
from these it is carried by pipes into
various channels which intersect the
garden in every direction. These
gardeners divide the season into
three periods. The first begins in
October, when they sow lettuces in
a hot-bed, which are pricked out a
month after, and planted finally in a
sheltered border about the end of
January, the ground having been
well dug and abundantly manured
with very rotten dung taken from the
hot-beds. At the same time, they sow
radishes and leeks among the lettuces.
The radishes are sold by the end of
March, the lettuces in May, and the
leeks in June. This completes the
first season. The ground is now
dug again, and manured with fresh
long stable-dung, mixed with the
earth of which the hot-beds were
formed ; in this they plant alternate
rows of endive or scarolles (both va-
rieties of chicory), and of cucumbers,
which produce gherkins for pickling
and sauces. The endive is sold in
July, and the small cucumbers con-
tinue to be gathered till September.
In the third season, which is the
shortest, another digging and dung-
ing is given, after which they sow-
radishes and small winter-salad, of
which the French have a great vari-
ety. Winter endive is also planted
for blanching. From this statement
it appears that the ground produces
a constant succession of culinary
vegetables, and that it is manured
thrice in the year. The great object
is to have a rapid succession, and to
allow no plant to occupy the ground
316

long. Cabbages, cauliflowers, aspar-
agus, artichokes, and other vrgcta-
blcs which remain a long time on the
ground, are cultivated at a greater
distance from Paris, where the land
lets at a lower rate. These plants
will bear to be carried to a greater
distance than the delicate vegetables
which are used chiefly in a raw state
as salads. The only perennial plant
in the gardens of the Maraichers is
sorrel, of which there is a great con-
sumption. This is continually dung-
ed and watered to accelerate its
growth, and is cut many times in the
season. It must, however, be allowed
that this forcing with manure and
water, although it produces large and
delicate fibres, does not give the fla-
vour which belongs to vegetables
grown in common earth, and which
have had a more natural growth.

"The market-gardens near London
are on a larger scale, and if they pro-
duce fewer salads and pot-herbs, they
produce better and more substantial
vegetables, and likewise a consider-
able quantity of fruit.

" The best soil is a moist alluvial
loam deposited from repeated over-
flowings of the Thames, which are
now prevented by banks or dikes ;
but an increased demand for vegeta-
bles has caused much inferior soils
to be cultivated as gardens, and in-
creased labour and manure have sup-
plied the deficiency in natural fertil-
ity. The gardeners' year properly
begins in autumn, when the land is
dug, or, rather, trenched, and well
manured. Various vegetables which
will be required in winter are now
sown, and especially those which are
to produce plants to be set out in
spring ; spinach, onions, radishes, and
winter salads are sown, and when the
weather is severe, are protected by
a slight covering of straw or mats.
In February, the cauliflowers which
have been raised in frames or under
hand-glasses are planted out. The
cabbage plants are pricked out. The
radishes, onions, and salads go to
market as soon as they are of suffi-
cient size, and sugar-loaf cabbages
succeed them. As the cauliflowers

GARDEN HUSBANDRY.

are taken ofT, they are succeeded by !
endive and celery, and the same is
the case with the cabbages. Thus
there is a constant succession of ve-
getables, without one moment's res-
pite to tlie jiround, whicli, in conse-
quence of continual stirring and ma-
nuring, maintains its productive pow-
er. Deep trenching in some degree
prevents that peculiar deterioration of
the soil which would be the conse-
quence of the frequent repetition of
sunilar plants. This effect is most
perceptible when the plants perfect
their seed, which is seldom or never
allowed to take place in market gar-
dens ; but great attention is paid to
the species of plants which succeed
each other on the same spot. The
pruiciple which experience and the-
ory unite in establishing, is that of
avoiding the too frequent recurrence
of plants which belong to the same
natural families. The greater vari-
ety cultivated in gardens, in compar-
ison with the common produce on a
farm, enables this principle to be fully
acted upon. Those gardeners who
overlook this, and repeatedly sow or
plant the same kind of vegetables in
the same spots, are soon aware of
their error by the diminution of the
produce, both in quantity and quality,
and by various diseases which attack
the plants, however abundant may be
the food supplied to them or careful
the tillage.

" The principle on which the gar-
dens are cultivated is that of forcing
vegetation by means of an abundant
supply of dung, constant tillage, and
occasional watering. The whole sur-
face is converted into a species of
liot-bed, and crop succeeds crop with
a rapidity which is truly astonishing.
Those vegetables which arrive at a
marketable state in the least time are
always the most profitable, and those
also for which there is a constant de-
mand at all times of the year. Witli
an abundant supply of manure, the
market gardeners have no fear of ex-
hausting the soil, and dissimilar ve-
getables may grow together on the
same ground. Trees bearing fruit
may be planted in rows, especially
Dd2

those of the dwarf kind, and undei
them those vegetables which do not
require much sun may be raised to
advantage. Raspberries, gooseber-
ries, and currants are planted in the
rows between the trees. These rows
being thirty or forty feet apart, leave
ample room for vegetables ; but in
those gardens where the finest vege-
tables are raised, and particularly in
those which are appropriated to the
growth of seeds, no trees are permit-
ted to shade the ground ; even the
hedges, if there are any, are kept low
and clipped, that they may not give
any shade, or harbour small birds.

" A garden should always be laid
out in a regular form, with narrow par-
allel beds, and paths between them.
One or more roads, of sufficient width
to allow a cart to pass, should inter-
sect these beds at right angles, for
the convenience of bringing manure
and taking off the produce. The beds
should not be above six feet wide, so
that a person may easily pull up
weeds or gather the vegetables with-
out treading upon the beds. The sur-
face soil taken from the paths serves
to raise the beds, and in retentive
soils may carry off the superfluous
water after sudden and violent rains.
The whole ground should have been
trenched two spits deep or more ; and
this trenching should be frequently
repeated, to mix the upper with the
under part of the soil, and distribute
the decomposed dung throughout the
whole depth. Thus in time a rich
j black mould will be produced, in which
I every kind of vegetable will grow
I most rapidly. For early plants, and
those which are used in winter, and
require to be protected from frost,
narrow beds are made lying in a di-
rection east and west, and sloping to-
wards the south, wiln the north side
raised high, so that their surface
forms an angle of twenty or thirty de-
grees with the horizon. This gives
the plants a protection from the north
winds, and exposes them more to the
influence of the sun. In very frosty
weather, these beds are covered with
mats or loose straw. We do not
mention frames covered with glass,
317

GARDEN IIUSDANDRV,

as they belong to a liigher kind of
horticulture ; hut a moderate hot-bed
made with fresh dung, and covered
with mats laid over hoops, is indis-
pensalde for the raising of early ve-
getables. By these means radishes
and various salads may be raised very
early in the spring, and sometimes in
mild winters, without any interrup-
tion during the whole year.

" An abundant supply of manure is
indispensable in a market garden, and
this can generally be obtained in large
towns at a trifling expense. Tlie
neighbourhood of a town is therefore
a necessary circumstance towards
the production of the crop, as well as
its sale. It would be impossible to
make a sufEcient quantity of manure
by means of the horses which are em-
ployed to carry the produce to mar-
ket, and the extent of land usually
laid out in garden ground could not
raise sufficient food for cattle with-
out taking up a space which may be
more protitably employed. The only
animal which can be kept to advan-
tage by a gardener is a pig. This
animal will live well on the ofTal of
vegetables, and the gardens of cotta-
gers could not well be kept in a fertile
state if it were not for the manure
made by the pigs.

" The market gardeners about Am-
sterdam are mostly Jews, and the
vegetables which they bring to mar-
ket are similar to those of the Lon-
don or Paris gardeners ; but they ex-
cel particularly in raising cauliflow-
ers, large white cabbages for making
saur-kraut, French beans, cucumbers,
and melons. They also excel in the
forcing of early pease and beans, and
in the general management of hot-
beds.

"The profits of a garden near a
large city, of the extent of 10 or 12
acres, are as great as that of a farm
of ten times the extent cultivated in
the best manner, without the help of
purchased manure. But if manure
can be obtained at a reasonable rate,
as is often the case in great thorough-
fares, where many horses are kept
for public conveyances, although
there be no immediate demand for
318

vegetables, a garden may be very
profitably cultivated, entirely for the
purpose of raising seeds. The de-
mand for seeds of all the most com-
mon productions of a garden, and es-
pecially of flowers, is very great, and
the profit of those who retail them
in small quantities is so great that
they can aflbrd a liberal price to those
who raise them with proper care, so
as to keep the varieties distinct.

" Many plans have been proposed
for the distribution of the crops in a
garden ; but none of them are suited
to every situation. Much depends
on the nature of the soil, which may
be better suited to one kind of prod-
uce than another, and also to the
demand far any peculiar class of ve-
getables. New sorts may often be in-
troduced with advantage. The rais-
ing of any useful plant with great
care will often give a man a reputa-
tion, which makes it advantageous to
him to confine himself to these prin-
cipally, and raise them in the great-
est perfection. An ingenious man
will find out what is most for his own
advantage ; and, from the list of
plants which may be cultivated for
ornament or for use, a selection may
be made which may be well suited to
the situation of the ground and the
circumstances of the grower. The
practice of the market gardeners may
be examined with advantage ; and
long experience, with the test of prof-
it, will lay down better practical rules
than the most plausible theories."

The implements necessary for gar-
den tillage are displayed in Xhe figure;
the plough may be used to assist in
trenching, and improved drills for
sowing ; but the spade, rake, and hoe
are the principal tools ; indeed, labour
is the great essential in the garden.

" The application of the garden
husbandry must be in the preparation
of the soil by deep trenching and dig-
ging, carefully drilling or dibbling all
the seeds in rows, stirring the soil
between the growing plants, and
keeping the ground clear of weeds
by the hand and the hoe. These last
are the most essential part of the
cultivation. By daily attention to

GAU

GAR

the progress of the plants, and con-
tinual assistance at critical periods,
sometimes thinning out, and at oth-
er times transplanting to produce an
equal crop, and treating every plant
as if it were a raie plant in a garden,
the ground may be made to produce
m<ne than double what the niost at-
tentive farmer could expect on a lar-
ger scale."

These short rules may be added
for garden cultivation :

1. Regulate the distribution of
your plants with respect to shade and
sun. Ordinary standard trees should
be OK the north and west sides, near
or against the wall or fence, so as
not to shade too nmch from the sun.

2. Alternate the crops, and do not
plant varieties together, lest the pol-
len should mix.

3. Plant immediately after prepa-
ring the soil.

4. Seeds and young plants require
to be kept moist, and with light soil
about them.

5. Stirring the earth about well-
set plants is one of the most certain
and rapid means of forwarding vege-
tables.

6. Trench the soil over sixteen or
eighteen inches deep regularly every
four or live years, taking a fifth part
annually.

The following remarks from Judge
Buel are concise, and well adapted to
farmers :

" The month of ;\Iay is an impor-
tant one in the operations of the gar-
den. If not already done, no time
should be lost in sowing the seeds of
onions, salads, early cabbage, pease,
radishes, and in planting some early
corn and potatoes. The beet, carrot,
parsnip, and summer squash may
also be sown. Cabbages for winter
use may be sown in time from the
20lh to the 30th. As soon as the
soil and the season are warm enough
to bring up corn, which here is gen-
erally from the 15th to the 20th, plant
your melons, pumpkins, and cucum-
bers, though it will do equally well to
plant the latter, for pickles, in the
early part of June. The 15th will or-
dinarily do for Lima beans, which are

the best of the bean family. Soak
the seed of these in warm water a
few hours, and cover them slightly
when planted. My practice is to save
this crop for winter use. They af-
ford a great product. When frost is
apprehended the beans are all picked,
the unripe ones shelled and dried ;
and, if soaked before cooking, are
nearly as good as when first gathered
from the vines. Perennial products
require very little care after they are
once established. We will name of
fruits, the strawberry, the currant,
gooseberry, plum, pear, quince, grape,
and, in situations where they will
thrive, the apricot and peach. But
of fruits we would have none but the
best sorts, for the best are as cheap
as the worst, are as easily cultivated,
and are infinitely more healthy and
grateful. These, if well selected, will
give a succession of fruit from June
to November, and in a preserved state
during the year. Plants to begin with
will cost from three to five dollars.
They may be multiplied by grafting,
budding, &c. The trees should be
so arranged as to shade as little as
possible the grounds that are to be
tilled. Half a dozen roots of the pie-
plant (rhubarb) will furnish abundant
materials for pies and tarts, in no
wise inferior to the gooseberry, from
April to Jul\% or until the fruit is suf-
ficiently advanced to supply its place.
These should be planted two feet
apart in good soil. A bed of forty by
three and a half feet will supply the
table with delicious asparagus during
a part of April, and the whole of May
and June, if kept in good order. For
this the ground should be dug deep
and made rich.

"The annual products which go to-
wards subsisting a family, and which
are seldom produced but in the gar-
den, are numerous, as the onion, beet,
carrot, parsnij), cabbage, pease, beans,
pot- herbs, salads, radishes, squash,
cucumber, melon, &c. Some of these
are in use most of the season, and
most of them afford valuable winter
stores."

GARDEN ENGINE. This is a
small forcing pump, fixed in a box,
319

CiAR

CAS

and sustained on wheels. It is work-
ed by the handle, A, and cither used
to direct a current of water by the
jet, or hose, B, or to water vegeta-

bles with a rose screwed to the end
of the pipe, C. The box is kept full
of water.

GARGET. "In farriery, a disease
in the udders of cows, arising from
inflammation of the lymphatic glands.
It is also a distemper incident to hogs,
and which is known by their hanging
down their heads, and carrying them
on one side, moist eyes, staggering,
and loss of appetite.

In order to remove the disease in
cows, where the inflammation is
great, the cow should be bled, a dose
of physic administered, the udder well
fomented, and the milk drawn gently
but completely off, at least twice a
day." — {Youatt 071 Cattle.)

GARLIC. The genus Allium, dis-
tinguished by a hot, fetid smell. The
common cultivated kind is the A. sa-
tivum : it is propagated by setting the
parted cloves in April, about six inch-
es apart, clearing from weeds, and
tying up the leaves with bass in June ;
in August they are fit to be taken up.
Chives and rochambole are of this
class of plants. Garlic is an expec-
torant in small doses.

GARNER. A granary.

GARNET. A common mineral,
of a rich colour, containing silica, 42 ;
alumina, 20 ; hme, 34 ; iron, 4. Some
of the finest crystals are set as jew-
els. They are usually found in the
primitive and transition rocks.
320

GAS. A general name for all elas-
tic aeriform bodies not condensible by
ordinary cold. The extraordinary
elasticity of gases, the rapidity and
regularity with which they expand by
heat, and the manner in which they
diffuse into one another, are their
chief peculiarities. Some have been
condensed into fluids and solids by
powerful pressure ; but oxygen, nitro-
gen, hydrogen, and some others re-
sist all mechanical force. The im-
ponderables, heat, light, and electri-
city, have, how-ever, perfect control
over the elastic condition of gases
in the presence of chemical bodies
with which they can combine. See
the particular gases. Gases are read-
ily absorbed by porous earths and bod-
ies, especially by plants and charcoal.

GASHOUSE LIQUOR. The fluid
which distils over in making gas from
bituminous coal. It consists of wa-
ter holding in solution carbonate,
muriate, and sulphuret of ammonia,
with impurities. One hundred gal-
lons contain 25 pounds of these salts.
This amount may be applied per acre,
diluted with five limes its bulk of wa-
ter, over the growing crop. Exper-
iments made in England on grass-
lands are very favourable, it having
occasionally trebled the yield. The
value of the ammoniacal salts is in-
creased by adding a little sulphuric
acid to the liquor : the quantity should
not be enough to impart a sour taste.
The amount of ammoniacal sahs in
different specimens is subject to great
fluctuation, and depends on the vari-
ety of coal used. The liquor maybe
added to the compost heap, or, after
neutralizing it with sulphuric acid,
evaporated nearly to dryness, and
left to become dry by exposure to the
air. The liquor is very noxious to in-

GASHOUSE REFUSE. Besides
ammoniacal liquor, a mixture of lime
and water is used to purify the gas.
The refuse lime is strongly impregna-
ted with sulphur, and contains car-
bonate of lime also. It has been used
with good effects as a manure in Eng-
land. The dose should not exceed
two bushels per acre when applied to

GAS

fJAT

a growing crop. Its chief value is
as a poison to insects, and for their
extermination it may be applied to a
short fallow at the rate of ten bush-
els or more. A solution would be
very serviceable to destroy caterpil-
lars in the garden. It acts on plants
in the same way as plaster of Paris,
and is best adapted to turnips, cab-
bages, and leguminous crops. The
quantities added in England are oft-
en as great as twelve cart-loads to
the acre ; but this is monstrous, and
the persons applying it are obliged to
wait some time before they plough
the land, lest it should destroy the
next crop. This refuse answers well
in composts.

GASOMETER. A vessel to col-
lect gas.

GAS TAR, or COAL TAR. This
is a good black paint for rough work,
especially if mixed with oils or grease
by heating ; it protects wood very ef-
ficiently from wet, and very nearly
resembles common tar. It has been
imperfectly used as a manure ; the
results are uncertain.

GASTR.EU.M (from yaarrip, the
belly). In zoology, the whole under
surface of an animal.

GASTRIC JUICE. The secretion
of the stomach, which, by dissolving
fibrin, albumen, casein, and nutri-
tious matters, has the power of pro-
ducing the chyle, which repairs the
waste of the body. It contains pep-
sin, and is sometimes acid, at others
alkaline.

GASTRITIS. Inflammation of the
internal or mucous membrane of the
stomach.

I GATE. The most common de-
fects of gates are,

" 1st. Insufficient height, so that
horses and large cattle, when push-
ing against the gate, break it, how-
, ever strong it is, as the top thereof
' comes in contact with that part of
■ the chest of a horse where the collar
goes, and without inconvenience he
leans his weight against the opposing
bar, which, if a few inches higher,
presses against his neck and wind-
pipe, and he makes no impressioa
upon it.

" 2d. They are generally hinge-
bound, so that, in attempting to lift
up the head, which is often required
to be done, the ledges and braces are
either pulled from the back head or
broken therein ; the person lifting the
head having a nine feet leverage,
which enables him to do this mischief.

"3d. The places of contact between
the brace and the uprights and the
ledges are broad, and it being impos-
sible to keep those places of contact
dry, the parts become prematurely
decayed."

The great points to be attained in
a gate are strength, with sufficient
lightness, and for these purposes no-
thing is better than iron. The^^re
represents a field and private gate of
a light structure and considerable
strength : it is of iron.

As iron is the best material for the
gate, so hewn stone forms the best
posts ; when well grouted into the soil
with cement, it lasts indefinitely long,
and is firm and unyielding. The
fastening is a subject for the invent-
ive power of the farmer, and must

GEL

GEO

differ with the object in view. Tlie
sagging of the hciul of the gate may
be in part vcmedicd by making the
upper timber very wide near the hinge
and narrower to the head.

GATHERING. A common term
for an abscess or tumour.

GATHERING FRUIT. The pres-
ervation of fruits for winter use and
transportation obliges the orchardist
to take great care that in gathering
they are not bruised. The hand is
the most ready and certain means of
doing this ; but there are several ef-
fective implements. One of the sim-
plest consists of a disk of thin wood
set around with wooden teeth, about
four inches long, the enclosure hav-
ing a diameter of eight or ten inches ;
to this is attached a long handle
which fits at a considerable angle ; so
that, when the gatherer is used, the
surface of the disk is nearly horizontal.
The fruit is collected by reaching out
the handle until the disk is brought
under, then raising it so that the stem
passes between two of the teeth ; by
these the fruit is to be drawn off: it
then rests on the disk, and is brought
to the ground without any injury.
Such an implement may pull six or
eight apples each time before being
lowered, and is a very expeditious
means of collecting fruits. It can be
made on the farm in a very short
time.

GAVELKIND. The practice of
dividing real estate equally among
all the children of the family.

GAUGING. Ascertainingthecapa-
city of barrels, &c., by a gauging rod.

GAULT. Certain clays and marls
lying under the upper green sand in
England.

GEAR, GEARING. Harness,
tackle. The apparatus of wheels in
a machine.

GEHLENTTE. A mineral, con-
sisting of iron, silica, alumina, and
lime. It consists of small gray or
yellow crystals.

G E I N E. The same as humus,
geic acid, ulmin, humic acid. See
Humus.

GELATIN. That species of ani-
mal matter which forms jelly with
323

water when cold. Isinglass, glue,
and size are representatives of this
body in different states of purity. It
abounds in skin, membranes, horns,
and bones, but requires long boiling,
at a high temperature, for its extrac-
tion. A very dilute solution is pre-
cipitated by infusion of galls, the prod-
uct being leather.

Gelatin is not capable of itself to
sustain life. Its composition is C13
Hio Nj O5, by Mulder. When moist,
it runs into the putrefactive decay,
yielding a fetid odour, carbonic acid,
water, and ammonia. It is a power-
ful ammoniacal manure in this state,
and is best economized in composts.
Unboiled bones owe some part of
their effects to the decay of their gel-
atin, which is present to the extent
of thirty per cent.

GELDING. A castrated animal.
The act of castrating. The most
proper seasons are either the early
spring months or those of the au-
tumn.

GEMMA. A bud. Hence gemmip-
arous, bearing buds, or parts capa-
ble of development.

GENA. In zoology, the cheek, or
part of the face between the eye and
mouth.

GENERATION, EQUIVOCAL or
SPONTANEOUS. Being produced
without known parents. Originating
without apparent seed or germs.

GENESEE OIL. A petroleum
found floating on some of the waters
of \A'estern New-York, Ohio, Ken-
tucky, &c.

GENICULATE. Bent at a sharp
angle, like the flexed knee.

GENTIAN. A genus of highly or-
namental plants ; the roots of some
afford fine bitters, especially the Gen-
tiana lutea of Switzerland.

GENUS. Plural, Gcjiera. In nat-
ural history, a distinct but lesser
family of plants or animals which is
grouped under one general name, and
contains distinct species.

GEODES. Mineral masses having
a hollow centre.

GEODESY (from yjj, the earth, and
JfliGj, / divide). The measurement
of the earth's surface.

GEO

GES

GEOLOGY (from 777, and >.oyoq, a
discourse). The science which in-
vestigates the present appearance of
the earth's surface, and the changes
to which it has been subjected. The
earth's crust is divided into four great
divisions: 1st. The primitive period,
epoch, or era, consisting of massive
crystalline rocks. 2d Tlie transition
period and era, containing paving
stones with few Ibssils, but stratified.
3d. Secondary rocks, less condensed,
and containing many fossils. 4th. l
The tertiary period, era, or epoch,
which consists of stratif arranged in
extensive basins, and contains many
recent fossils. Besides these, drift
materials, called diluvion, and the
deposiles of lakes and rivers, termed
altuvion, cover extensive tracts. The
causes producing change are, for the
most part, those now in existence,
as winds, the sea, rivers, vegetable
and animal growth, volcanoes, ice-
bergs, glaciers, bursting of lakes,
&c. See the geological terms ; also
Springs, Drainage.

The study of geology is interesting
to the farmer in furnishing him with
certain rules for drainage, the deter-
mination of springs, and of the quali-
ty of soils.

G E O .M E T E R S. Span \vorms.
Caterpillars destructive to foliage.

GEOMETRY. The science of
measures.

GEORGIA BARK. The bark of
the Pmckneya pubens, a handsome
tree of Florida.

" The wood of the Georgia bark is
soft, and unfit for use in the arts ;
but its inner bark is extremely bitter,
and appears to partake of the febri-
fuge virtues of the Cinchona, for the
inhabitants of the southern parts of
Georgia employ it successfully in the
intermitting fevers which, during the
latter part of summer and autumn,
prevail in the Southern States. A
handful of the bark is boiled in a quart
of water till the liquid is reduced one
half, and the infusion is administered
to the sick From the propr-rties of
"*• its bark the Pmckneya has taken the
name of Georgia bark. The tree
which produces it so nearly resem-

bles the Peruvian vegetable, that
some botanists have included them
in the same genus." — {Michaux.)

GERM. The vital part or em-
bryo.

GERMEX. The seed vessel, ova-
rium.

GERMINATION. The sprouting
of seed. For its production, a tem-
perature above 60^ Fahrenheit, ac-
cess of oxygen, and moisture are ne-
cessary ; by hindering any of these.
It will not take place, but the seed
remains unchanged or rots. In ger-
mination moisture is first absorbed,
and then oxygen : the latter, acting
on the substances of the seed, pro-
duces carbonic acid and heat ; starch
becomes changed into a saccharine
matter, and movements, resembling
circulation, occur. The germ, ex-
panding in both directions, puts out
a root and seed leaves. Whatever
hastens these changes assists germi-
nation ; hence steeping in warm wa-
ter, planting in loose soils near the
surface, and securing a high tempera-
ture, all advance sprouting. Dark-
ness is in some degree favourable to
germination.

GESTATION. The period ani-
mals carry young.

•' According to the observations of
M. Teissier, of Paris, in 582 mares,
which copulated but once, the short-
est period was 287 days, and the
longest, 419 ; making the extraordi-
nary difference of 32 days, and of 89
days beyond the usual term of eleven
months. The cow usually brings
forth in about nine months, and the
sheep in five. Swine usually farrow
between the 120th and 140th day, be-
ing liable to variations, influenced, ap-
parently, by their size and their par-
ticular breeds. In the bitch, on the
contrary, be she as diminutive as a
kitten, or as large as the boarhound,
pupping occurs on or about the 63d
day. The cat produces either on the
55th or 5Gth day. The true causes
which abridge or prolong more or
less the period of gestation in the fe-
males of quadrupeds, and of the in-
cubation of birds, are yet unknown
to US.

323

GES

GTf}

TABLE SHOWING THE PERIOD OF REPRODUCTION AND GESTATION IN DOMESTIC

ANIMALS.

Kinds of Animals.

Proper Age
for Uepro-

Feriod of the
Powerof Re-
production.

Numlier of
Females for
one Male.

I'eriod of Gestation

Mare

Stallion

Cow

Bull.

Ewe

Tup.

Sow.

Boar

She Goaf

ile Goat

She Ass

He Ass

She Buffa;

Bitch

Dog.

She Cat

He Cat

Doe Rabb

Buck Rabbi

Cock

Turkey, sitting' \ Hen
on the eggs of > Duck
the ) Turkey

Hen, sitting on the ( Duck
eggs of the J Hen

Duck . . . .

Goose . . . .

Pigeon . . . .

10 to 12
12 to 15
10 to 14
8 to 10

6

7

6

6

6

5
10 to 12
12 to 15

8 to 9

8 to 9
5 to 6

9 to 10
5 to 6
5 tof)
5 to 6

20 to 30
30 to 40
40 to 50
6 to 10
20 to 40

30
12 to 15

Days.

322

240

146

109

150

365

281
55

48

20

17
24
24
26
19
28
27
16

Davs.
347

283
154
115
156

380

308
60

50

28

24
27
26
30
21
30
30
18

Days.
419

321

161

143

163

391

335
63

56

35

28
30
30
34
24
32
33
20

"From some carefully collected and
very extensive notes made by Lord
Spencer on the periods of gestation
of 764 cows, it resulted that the
shortest period of gestation when a
live calf was produced was 220 days,
and the longest 313 days; but he
was not able to rear any calf pro-
duced at an earlier period than 242

days. From the result of his ex-
periments, it appears that 314 cows
calved before the 284th day, and 310
calved after the 285th, so that the
probable period of gestation ought to
be considered 284 or 285 days. The
experiments of M. Teissier on the
gestation of cows are recorded to
have given the following results :

21 calved between the 240th and 270th day, the mean time being
544 — — 270th and 299th — —

10 — — 299th and 321st — —

259J
282
303

" In most cases, therefore, between
nine and ten months may be assumed
as the usual period ; though, with a
bull calf, the cow has been generally
observed to go about 41 weeks, and
a few days less with a female. Any
calf produced at an earlier period
than 260 days must be considered
decidedly premature, and any period
of gestation exceeding 300 days must
also be considered irregular ; but in
this latter case the health of the
produce is not affected. I will con-
clude this article with the remarks
of Mr. C. Hilliard, of Northampton,
who states that the period of gesta-
324

tion of a cow is 284 days, or, as it is
said, nine calendar months and nine
days ; the ewe 20 w-eeks ; the sow
16 weeks ; the mare 1 1 months. The
well-bred cattle of the present time
appear to me to bring forth twins
more frequently than the cattle did
50 years ago. The males of all ani-
mals, hares, excepted, are larger than
the females. Castrated male cattle
become larger beasts than entire
males." — {Blaine's Encyc.)

GIBBOSE. Irregular, humped.

GIBBOUS. Protuberant, convex.

GIG. A well-known kind of light
carriage drawn by one horse. Gigs,

CJIN

GIZ

or gig machines, are rotatory cylin-
ders, covered with wire teeth, for
teasehng woollen cloth.

GIL I.. A quarter of a pint. A
small valley or brook.

GILLENIA. One of the species
(G. trifoliaia) produces a root which
is nearly as valuable as ipecacuanha
as an emetic. It is indigenous in the
woods of the Middle States.

GILLS. These organs in fishes
answer the purpose of lungs. The
plaits under mushrooms of the genus
Agarxcits are called gills.

"G I N. Distilled spirit, flavoured
with juniper berries. In machinery,
an arrangement for tearing green
seed cotton wool from the seeds. It
consists of a cylinder closely set with
saws, which pass through a grating
in an inclined side-hopper, and thus
drag off portions of wool, which are
conveyed half round the cylinder,
and then cleared off by a revolving
brush, while the freed seeds slide
through to the bottom of the hopper
and escape. See Cotton.

It is also a machine used for rai-
sing great weights, driving piles, &c.
It usually consists of three long legs
or spars, which support a pulley at
the top, round which a rope is passed
for elevating the weight.

GINGER. Zingiber officinale.
This plant is of the family Scilamina:,
a native of Hindostan, but also culti-
vated in the West Indies. The root
is a rhizome, similar to that of the
Jlag ; it is perennial, but the leaves
are annual. The root in the West
Indies is taken up when a year old,
immersed in boiling water to hinder
future germination, dried, and sold.
Sometimes it is prepared by taking
off the outer skin, and in this state
is called ichitc ginger. It might be
tried in our Southern States ; all that
is required is a well-tilled, light soil,
with weeding. Probably the roots
would not be so large as the Jamai-
ca, but, from the high price of ginger,
would probably pay well.

GINGER, WILD. A native spe-
cies of the genus Asarum ; it is of
little note.

GINGLYMUS (from yr/y/.v/io^, a

E E

hinge). The hinge joint in animals,
as the knee and elbow.

GINSENG. Panax quinqiicfolium
(see Fig.). The root is fleshy from

one to three inches long, and about
as thick as a finger, of a yellow col-
our, and somewhat resembling in fla-
vour liquorice. It is almost desti-
tute of medical virtue, but is esteem-
ed by the Chinese, and exported for
their use ; in 1841 as much as 8-137,000
worth was sent out of this country.
The plant is an herbaceous perennial,
growing abundantly in the hilly and
woody regions of the Northern, .Mid-
dle, and Western States, whence it
is collected with any cultivation.

GIRDER. In architecture, a prin-
cipal beam in a floor for supporting
the binding or other joists, whereby
their bearing or length is lessened.
Perhaps so called because the ends
of the joists are enclosed bv it.

GIRDLING TREES. Cutting a
ring out of the trunk of a tree entire-
ly through the new wood for the pur-
pose of killing it ; the girdling is most
effective before the sap rises. Rings
of bark, without touching the albur-
num, are occasionally taken out of
the branches of trees in spring to
produce frinting or develop the fruit ;
this, though frequently confounded
with girdling, is altogether different,
and docs not kill the branch, unless
too much bark is removed. A ring
half an inch wide is enough on a
branch two inches in diameter. The
sap is hindered from descending by
the wound.

GIZZARD. A strong, muscular
325

GLA

GLU

stomach in birds, for the purpose of
grindiiiir ihoir food with pebbles. It
answers tire place of teeth.

GLABROUS. Smooth.

GLACIERS. Immense masses of
ice produced from the snow of mount-
ains occupying the valleys of Switzer-
land and countries equally elevated.
In geology, the study of glaciers is
peculiarly interesting; many are 10
to 15 miles long by two broad, and
from 300 to COO feet high.

G L A N D. In anatomy, organs
such as the liver, spleen, &c., which
consist of an immense development
of blood-vessels, and secrete a peculiar
fluid, as bile, urine, &c. They are
often microscopic, as the mucous
glands of the intestines, and Peyer's
glands. Sometimes they receive the
specific name of the secretion they
produce, as mucous glands, sebaceous
glands, lymphatic glands, &,c.

GLAND. In botany, small lumps
of vegetable matter near leaves, or
oval spots on the trunks of trees ; they
are unimportant except as a means
of recognising species.

GLAxNDERS. See Horse.

GLASS. That used for conserva-
tories should be of the greatest clear-
ness. Refuse glass, pounded fine,
has been used as a manure. The na-
ture of the substance differs with the
kind of glass, for flint glass is a mix-
ture of sand, red-lead, and 14 per
cent, of potash. Crown, or window
glass, contains soda, with sand and
lime. The silicate of potash or soda
in these cases is very insoluble, and
the effect produced cannot be con-
siderable, unless a large dose is add-
ed. Pounded feldspar would form as
good a manure. The pounded refuse
is also used by glass-makers, and
called cullct. The finest powder is
used in making sand paper. Glass
may be converted into soluble sili-
cate of potash by fusion with its
weight of potash or soda in a cruci-
ble.

GLASSWORT. The species of
Salicorma : they grow on salt plains,
and yield barilla by combustion.

GLAUBER'S SALT. Sulphate of
soda. A saline purge used lor horses
326

and cattle. The dose is one quarter
of a pound or more.

GLAUCOLITE A mineral, con-
taining 4^ per cent, potash, with sil-
ica, alumina, and 11 per cent. lime.

GLAUCOMA (from yT^avKo^, blue).
A disease of the eye, in which it be-
comes of a bluish colour.

GLAUCOPIS (from ylavKOc, and
uip, an eye). A genus of passerine
birds. Some of the species have
wattles at the root of the beak.

GLAUCOUS. Sea-green, like the
cabbage-leaf, having a light, bluish
tint.

GLEANING. Collecting the re-
fuse of the harvest.

GLEBE. A tract of land belong-
ing to the Church.

GLENOID (from ylrjvr], a cavity).
The articular cavities of bones.

GLIADINE. A name given by
Taddei to the portion of gluten solu-
ble in alcohol. Albumen.

GLIRES. The Linnean name for
the Rodentia, from g-/?*, a dormouse.

GLOBULAR. Spherical. Globose,
resembling a sphere or globe.

GLOBULINE. A rather indefinite
term used by botanists to describe
spherical particles in plants, whether
they be of colouring matter or starch.
In physiology, it is the white albu-
minous substance forming the interi-
or of the blood globules.

GLOMERATE GLAND. Any
gland which discharges at once into
a duct without having any cavity.

GLOMERULUS. A small capitu-
lum, usually axillary, an old name
for an inflorescence. When many
branches terminate by little flower
heads.

GLOSSO (from y/lorra, the tongue).
A prefix to muscles, nerves, &c., at-
tached to the tongue.

GLOTTIS. The upper opening of
the windpipe. It is protected with a
membrane called the epiglottis.

GLUCINUM. The metallic base
of glucina, a rare earth, existing in
the beryl, emerald, and euclase.

GLUCOSE. Grape sugar, starch
sugar, sugar of diabetes, of honey. It
is difficult to crystallize ; exists in
fruits, young stems ; is readily fer-

GLY

GNE

mentable ; can be procured from
starch by the action of dilute sulphu-
ric acid and heat. It differs from cane
sugar in containinir more water, the
formula being Cu Hu On -{- 3 Aq.,
when crystallized.

GLUE. Impure gelatin. It is ob-
tained from clippings of skins, hoofs,
&c. The refuse and spoiled glue
form admirable nitrogen manures,
yielding ammonia in decaying ; 100
pounds of dry glue yield 9 pounds of
ammonia. It has been used on tur-
nips, and is well suited for cabbages
and plants requiring much putrescent
manure.

GLUME. The husk or chaff of
wheat and grain plants. The awn
is called an arista. Glunwsus, fur-
nished with glumes.

GLUTEN. The tenacious, semi-
transparent residue left on the cloth
after washing dougii with water. It
is impure fibrin, and contains albu-
men. The amount in wheat is a test
of its nutritiousness. When moist,
gluten putrefies, and has the prop-
erty of acting as a yeast or ferment
on solutions of glucose. Most seeds
contain a proportion of gluten, but
wheat the greatest amount : nitrogen
manures are said to increase the pro-
portion. The macaroni and vermi-
celli of Italy are, for the most part,
gluten. Dry gluten keeps well.

GLUTEUS (from y/ovroc, the but-
tocks). The name of some of the
muscles of the buttocks.

GLUTINOUS. Adhesive.

GLYCERIA FLUITANS. "Water
fescue, an indigenous grass growing
on the margins of lakes and rivers,
resembling the water rice. The seeds
are eaten in Germany like millet.

GLYCERINE (from y/.vKoc, su-eet).
A gelatinous body of a sweet taste,
left in solution in soap-making. It
acts as a base in fats and oils, which
are, indeed, salts of glycerine, stear-
ates, oleates, or margarates of that
body. In soap-making the potash or
soda combines with the oily acid, and
separates the glycerine. Its compo-
sition is Cr, H: 65 + Aq., and it near-
ly reseml)les gum. Liebig consid-
ers it an hydraied oxyde of glijceryle,

with the latter of which the oily acids
are combined in fats. Mulder has
recently promulgated a new tlieory
with respect to glycerine : he suppo-
ses the existence of a compound rad-
ical iipi/le = Cs H; ; this forms a
protoxide (C:i H; O), called oxide of
lipyle, which is the base in neutral
fats, and that in saponification it
unites with water as it is liberated,
forming a compound of 2 atoms of li-
pyle with 3 of water.

Redtenbacher, on tlie other hand,
maintains that the base in fats is
Acrolein (Co H4 O.;), and that glycer-
ine isacrolein, with3 atoms of water.
This is the most satisfactory theory
at present, for acrolein is a known
body, which can be separated from
glycerine by heating with phosphoric
acid.

The glycerine refuse from soap-
making is worthy of attention from
farmers ; it is at least as valuable an
addition to the compost heap as peat,
and much more destructible by fer-
mentation and eremacausis.

GLYCION. Glycyrrhizine.

GLYCYRRHIZA. The generic
name of liquorice.

GLYCYRRHIZINE. Glycion.
Sugar extracted from liquorice and
some sweet woods ; it has the pecu-
liarity of combining with acids and
bases. It is neither crystallizable
nor fermentable.

GLYPH. In architecture, a ver-
tical groove.

GNATHIDIA (from yvado^, a jaw).
In ornithology, the lateral parts or
rami of the mandible or lower jaw,
which are joined to the cranium be-
hind, and meet in front at a greater
or less angle.

GNATHOTHECA (from yvadoc,
and T^rjKii, a sheath). In ornithology,
the horny or cutaneous integument
of the beak.

GNATS. Insects of the family
CulicidcE. Their bites are best treat-
ed with lard or olive oil, mixed with
a little ammnnia.

GNEISS. A stratified primary

rock, composed of the same materials

as granite, but the mica is somewhat

distributed in layers, which give it a

327

0X0

COM

striped aspect. The gneiss rocks
are remarkal)lv rich in metallic ores.

GNOMON.' The inclined rod or
style on a sun-dial, the shadow of
which marks the time. Their ele-
vation depends upon the latitude.
Gnomonks is the art of constructing
dials.

GOAT. Animals of the genus
Capra. The following is chiefly from
Low :

" The goat appears to form the con-
necting link between the sheep on the
one hand, and the antelope tribes on
the other. Being the natural inhab-
itant of mountainous regions, it is,
therefore, in wild, rocky countries
that the goat is chiefly reared. Goats
are stronger, more nimble, and less
timid than sheep, and are more ea-
sily supported than any other ani-
mals, for there are few herbs which
they do not relish ; they will browse
on heaths, shrubs, and plants which
are rejected by other animals. Goats
are more hardy and not liable to so
many diseases as sheep. The goat
is not well adapted to a country of
enclosures, because it feeds upon
the twigs of hedges, and escapes over
the barriers intended to confine it ;
but where there are no young trees
to be injured, they may browse at
large on the mountain brakes without
expense, and in winter, when housed,
they are easily supported on straw,
cabbage leaves, potato peelings, and
such worthless food.

" It arrives early at maturity, and
is very prolific, bearing two, and
sometimes three kids at a birth. The
period of gestation is five months.
The female bears for six or seven
years ; the male should not be kept
longer than five. In Portugal and
some other countries, the goat is
used as a beast of draught for light
burdens. The hair of the goat may
be shorn, as it is of some value, ma-
king good linsey. Ropes are some-
times made from goats" hair, and are
said to last much longer, when used in
the water, than those made of hemp.
Candles are manufactured from their
fat, which, in whiteness and quality,
are stated to be superior to those of
338

' wax ; their horns afford excellent
handles for knives and forks, and the
skin, especially that of the kid, is in
, demand for gloves and other purpo-
' ses. Goats' milk is sweet and nu-
tritive. When yielding milk the goat
will give, for several months, at the
average of two quarts per day. Mr.
Pringle, of Kent, in his essay ' On
Cottage Management' (Gard. Mag.,
vol. v.), informs us that two milch
goats are equivalent to one small
Shetland cow. Cheese prepared from
goats' milk is much esteemed in
mountainous countries, after it has
been kept a proper age."

The wool of the Cashmere goat is
peculiarly silky, and forms an admira-
ble material for the manufacture of
shawls.

GOAT'S BEARD. The weed
Trapopngon pratensis. Salsify {T.
porrifoUus) is sometimes so called.

GOLD. Gold coin may always
be proved, if any counterfeit be sus-
pected, by its great gravity of 17157.
Pure gold has a specific gravity of
19 3 ; the reduced weight of the coin
is due to the alloy of copper. Its
combining weight is 199 2, and sym-
bol Au. (aunwi). Aqua regia is the
solvent of gold.

GOLDEN ROD. SoUdago virgau-
rca. A common weed, found on
poor, neglected fields. It is said by
Bechstein to furnish a valuable yel-
low dye. Both the flowers and leaves
produce a yellow decoction with
water.

GOLD OF PLEASURE. Came-
liua saliva. A cruciferous small an-
nual, bearing pale yellow flowers. It
is cultivated like flax, prefers a light
soil, and will yield two crops in the
year : the seeds yield a sweet oil.
This name is also improperly given
to the Madia, which see. The ca-
melina is sowed broadcast, weeded,
and hoed, and ripens its seeds in
about 90 davs.

GOLD THREAD. Coptis trifolia.
A small evergreen, indigenous to
Canada and the Eastern States. It
grows in dark, shady, Alpine swamps.
The root is tonic.

GOMPHOSIS. In anatomy, a

GOO

jiinelion of bones similar to that of
Ihp trelh in the jaw-bone.

(JONIOMETER (from yuvia, an
an<rlc, and jierpov, a measure). An in-
strument to measure the angles of
crystals.

GONYS. In ornithology, the in-
ferior margin of the symphysis of the
lower jaw.

GOOSE. See Poultry.

GOOSEBERRY. Ribes grossula-
ria. In England the gooseberry is
esteemed one of their most valuable
fruits. In spring it furnishes the
earliest as well as the best fruit for
tarts and sauces, and can be preserv-
ed green as well as ripe for winter
use. When ripe, it makes a delicious
sweetmeat and wine, and is a favour-
ite dessert.

The following selection is recom-
mended : Reds— Old rough red, Mel-
ling's crown bob, Farmer's roaring
lion. Knight's Marquis of Stafford,
Champagne and Capper's top saw-
yer : one of the best of the red goose-
berries is the Scotch ironmonger ; it
is hairy and thin-skinned. Yellows
— Hill's golden gourd, Prophet's rock-
wood, Hamlet's kilton, Dixon's gold-
en yellow, Gordon's viper. Greens
— Edward's jolly tar, Massey's heart
of oak, Nixon's green myrtle, ear-
ly green hairy, Parkinson's laurel.
Whiles — Moore's white bear, Cole-
worth's white lion, Crompton's She-
ba queen, Saunders's Cheshire lass,
Wellington's glory. Woodward's
whitesmith. Smooth skins become
tough in cooking, and should not be
selected for that purpose.

The gooseberry can be raised from
cuttings, from suckers, or from seeds ;
the former is generally resorted to
as being the most expeditious ; and
seed is only sown to raise new va-
rieties. Cuttings may be planted in
the fall, or as early in the spring as
the weather will permit.

The gooseberry requires a deep,
moist, and rich soil ; the ground
around it should be kept free from
grass and mellow. It requires ma-
nure in spring. The fruit appears on
shoots of the last year, and sjjurs of
two or three years, the young shoots
E e2

GRA

yielding the best. Keeping the bushes
free of wood, open at the top, and re-
moving all luxuriant shoots from the
base, is the pruning necessary. Sum-
mer pruning is necessary for fine
fruit.

The fruit is easily kept for tarts,
by introducing them into bottles with
a little water, healing until steam is
produced, and then corking tightly.
They may be kept whole by burning
a few sulphur matches in a bottle-full,
and corking tightly.

This shrub is much infested by cat-
erpillars, insects, and blight ; they
are, however, all remedied by full ex-
posure to the light, sprinkling with
lime, or watering with a solution of
tobacco or whale oil soap.

GOOSEFOOT. The popular name
for the genus Chenopodium. They
flourish on rank soils and about
dunghills. The most important is
Ck. anthelminticmn, worm seed. Ma-
ny are eaten by animals, and C. al-
lium, lamb's quarter, and C. bonus
Henricus are used partially as spin-
ach.

GOOSE GRASS. Several species
of Galium are so called from being
eaten by geese.

GOSSYPIUM. The generic name
of the cotton plant. See Cotton.

GOULARD'S EXTRACT. A con-
centrated solution of sugar of lead in
water : it is used diluted to galls and
external inflammations.

GOURD. Cucurbila lagenaria.
Calabash. Gourds are annuals read-
ily cultivated, requiring a deep soil.
Many varieties exist, of which the
Patagonian, six feet long, is the most
singular. The pulp is very purgative
in most varieties.

GOVERNOR. In machinery, an
arrangement for regulating the speed
of machines.

GRACILE, GRACILIS. Slender.

GRACULA. The genus of jay
birds. They arc insectivorous.

GRADATORY. A term applied
to those animals which have legs
nearly of the same length, so that
they can walk on the four. Birds
which have the lower portion of their
legs covered with feathers.

329

GUA

GHA

GRADIENTS. On railways, the
ascending planes.

GRADUATED. Marked into reg-
ular divisions ; increasing in equal
measures.

GRADUATOR. A vessel or con-
trivance for increasing the extent of
the surface of evaporation or oxida-
tion, as by passing fermenting beer
over chips contained in a large tub
through which air passes, wliereby
the alcohol becomes oxidized, and
converted into acetic acid. The pro-
cess is called graduation.

GRAFTING. The propagation of
one variety of plant on the stock or
root of another. The small branch
or scion of the improved kind usually
contains three buds, but sometimes
less ; it should be selected from a
healthy bearing branch, and be of the
last year's growth, only three or four
buds from the extremity. It should
also be rather behind the stock in
respect to vegetation, and for this
purpose may be kept in moist sand or
moss for a few days. When insert-
ed, it should be kept bound for four
weeks, to be well set, and afterward
partially loosened, until it is so firm
as not to be blown down by winds.
When the scions have taken well,
some of the natural buds of the stock
should be taken off, but in an old
stock it is not well to remove them
altogether until the next year. Ex-
cept when the scion is grafted on the
root, one or more stock buds should
be left until it has fairly started, and
can consume all the sap rising into
the stock. The stock influences the
grafted tree in no respect except
durability, size, and early maturity.
For farther particulars, see the Fmiis.

The following methods of grafting
are from Judge Buel and Professor
Lindley : "April is the general sea-
son for grafting, though it is some-
times performed in March, and some-
times omitted till May. The grafts
should, however, be cut before the
buds begin to swell. The scions are
most likely to live if inserted when
the sap is circulating freely, for then
the wounds soonest heal.

" The materials and implements
330

required for grafting are, 1. A sharp
knife to cut and pare the graft and
stalk ; 2. A strong knife and mallet
to split the larger stalks, and a small
hard wood wedge to put into the cleft
while the scion is fitted to its place ;
3. Strips of bass matting, or other
soft string, to tie around the stalk
and graft ; and, 4. Some good graft-
ing-wax or prepared clay, to cover
over the worked part. If clay is used,
it should be previously well beaten,
and a portion of fresh horse-dung
mixed with it during the operation.
A grafting-wax, which we have used "
for years with success, is made by
mixing and melting together four
parts of rosin, two parts of tallow,
and one part of bees' wax ; the whole
to be afterward incorporated and
worked by the hand, like shoema-
ker's wax. This may be applied
over the grafted part in a thin layer,
or first spread on a cloth and then
applied in strips of proper size. The
wax or clay is applied, 1. To pre-
vent the flowing of the sap from the
wounds ; 2. The too sudden drying
of the wood ; and, 3. The introduc-
tion of rain water into the wound or
cleft. It is evident, therefore, that
whatever sort of coating is adopted,
it should be applied without delay,
and so as effectually to exclude air
and water.

" The object to be aimed at in the
process of grafting, is to bring the
inner bark and the sap-wood of the
stalk and scion in nice contact, so
that the ascending sap of the stalk
will pass freely into the sap-wood of
the scion, and the descending sap of
the scion, which has been elaborated
and prepared in the leaves, and which
descends through the inner bark, to
pass freely into the inner bark of the
stalk. This elaborated sap soon hard-
ens into wood, and covers and heals
the wound.

" There are more than forty differ-
ent modes of grafting. We shall only
speak of those which are best adapted
to the practice of the orchard and
garden.

" Cleft-grafting (Fig. 1, b) is most
practised upon strong stalks, or ia

ORAFTIXG

F,>. I.

heading down or regrafting old trees.
There are two methods of doing this :
one described in the cut, where tlie
stalk is first cut off obliquely, and the
sloped part is then cut off horizontally
near the middle of the slope ; a cleft
nearly two inches long is then made
with a sharp knife or chisel, in the
crown, downward, at right angles
with the sloped part, taking care not
to divide the pith. The cleft is kept
open by the knife or the small wedge ;
the scion has its extremity, for about
an inch, cut into the form of a wedge :
it is left about the eighth of an inch
thick on the bark side, and brought
to a fine edge on the inside. It is
then inserted into the opening prepa-
red for it ; and the knife or wedge be-
ing withdrawn, the stalk closes firmly
upon it. The other and the more
common mode is to saw off the stalk
horizontally, make the cleft through
its centre, and insert either one or
two grafts in the outer edges. In
both cases the stalk should be tied
and covered with the wax or clay.

" Whip-grafting (Fig. 1, a), or, as
it is sometimes called, tongue-graft-
ing, is mostly adopted in nurseries,
where the stalks are generally small.
It is desirable that the stalk and graft
should be of nearly similar size. The
scion and stalk are cut off obliquely, at
corresponding angles, as near as the
operator can guess ; then cut off the
tip of the stalk obliquely, or nearly
horizontally ; make now a slit nearly
in the centre of the sloped face of the

stalk downward, and a similar one in
the scion upward. The tongue or
wedge-like process, formipg the up-
per part of the sloping face of the
scion, is then inserted downward in
the cleft of the stalk ; the inner barks
of both being brought closely to unite
on one side, so as not to be displaced
in tying, which ought to be done im-
mediately, with a riband of bass or
other soft string, brought in a neat
manner several times round the stalk.
The next and finishing operation is to
cover the whole wound with the pre-
pared wax or clay already described.
The French mode of whip-grafting,
which is also in common use here,
differs froin the English, in their
never paring more off the stalk, how-
ever large, than the width of the sci-
on (Fig. 2, a, b, c, rl). In both, the
stalk is sometimes left a few inches
above the graft till autumn, to tie the
young shoot to, lest it be blown off.

"Side-grafting {Fig. 1, c) resem-
bles whip- grafting, except it is per-
formed without taking off the top of
the stalk.

" Shoulder or chink grafting is per-
formed with a shoulder, and some-
times also with a stay at the bottom
of the slope. It is chiefly used for
ornamental trees, where the scion
and stalk are of the same size {Fig.
l,d,e,f).

'• Crafiing in the root is sometimes
performed in nurseries, where stalks
are scarce, as described in Fig. 2, e."

" The season for performing the
331

GKA

f;KA

operation is, for all deciduous trees
and shrubs, the spring, immediately
before the movement of the sap.
The spring is also the most favoura-
ble period for evergreens ; but the
sap in this class of plants being more
in motion during winter than that of
deciduous plants, grafting, if thought
necessary, might be performed at that
season.

" Grafting Timber-trees. — The oak,
ash, hornbeam, and hazel may be
grafted, but there is a little difficulty
in grafting some of the hard-wood
trees. The lucombe, and other oaks
of that kind, require to have the Tur-
key oak for a stock ; and the ever-
green oaks must have their own spe-
cies. The common ash will lake
with the omits, and any of the hardy
varieties of true ashes, such as the
Chinese and entire-leaved. The horn-
beam may be used as a stock for Car-
pinus oricntalis, and the cut-leaved
sort ; but the scions must be from
two years' old wood. The purple-
leaved hazel may be grafted on the
hazel stocks.

" Grafting by approaeh, or inarch-
ing, is a mode of grafting in which,
to make sure of success, the scion is
not separated from the parent plant
till it has become united with the
stock. Inarching is chiefly practised
with camellias, myrtles, jasmines,
walnuts, lirs, &.e., which do not tlour-
ish by the common mode of grafting.

" Grafting herbaceous plants differs
in nothing from grafting such as are
332

of a woody nature, excopling that
this operation is performed when
both stock and scion are in a state
of vigorous growth. The only useful
purpose to which this mode has been
hitherto applied is that of grafting
the finer kinds of dahlias on tubers
of the more common and vigorous
growing sorts. In the Paris gardens,
tlie tomato is sometimes grafted on
the potato, the cauliflower on the
borecole, and one gourd on another,
as matter of curiosity.

" Grafting the herbaceous shoots of
woody plants has been extensively
employed by French nurserymen, and
even in some of the forests of France.
The scions are formed of the points
of growing shoots ; and the stocks
are also the points of growing shoots
cut or broken over an inch or two
below the point, where the shoot is
as brittle as asparagus. The opera-
tion is performed in the cleft manner ;
that is, by cutting the lower end of
the scion in the form of a wedge, and
inserting it in a cleft or slit made
down the middle of the stock. The
finer kinds of azaleas, pines, and firs
are propagated in this way, and thou-
sands of Pimis larix have been so
grafted on Pinus syhestris in the for-
est of Fontainebleau. At Hopetoun
House, near Edinburgh, this mode of
grafting has been successfully prac-
tised with Abies Snulhiana, the stock
being the common spruce fir."

GRAIN. The unit of weight. See
Weights and Measures.

GRAINS. The fruit or seeds of
gramineous plants, with beans, pease,
&,c. The weight of wheat and some
few other grains is established by
statute. Thus, in New-York a bush-
el weighs,

Stindarct. Common Weight.

Of wheat ... 60 — 55 to 65

Of rye .... 56 — 46 to 56

Of barley ... 48 — 44 to 56

Of oats .... 32 — 28 to 44

Of Indian corn .56 — 50 to 62

GRAINS, BREWERS' AND DIS-
TILLERS'. The refuse of the mash
tub. Brewers' grains are best, as
they use barley : distillers employ rye
or corn. It is difficult to give any
valuation for this kind of food ; but

GRA

GRA

there is no question of the nutritious-
ness, as large dairies, near cities, are
kept in full vigour and milk h\' them,
mixed with cut straw or hay, and pigs
rapidly fattened. A milch cow re-
quires about one bushel daily. Grains
rapidly heat and putrefy if exposed to
air and a spring or summer heat, but
they may be readdy preserved by the
followmg process described by Mr.
Youatt :

" The grains are laid up in pits
lined with brick-work, set in cement,
from ten to twenty feet deep, and of
any convenient size. They are firm-
ly trodden down, and covered with a
layer of moist earth, eight or nine
inches thick, to keep out the rain and
frost in winter, and the heat in sum-
mer. The grains are, if possible,
thrown into the pit while warm and in
a state of fermentation, and they soon
turn sour ; but they are not liked the
worse by cattle on that account ; and
the air being perfectly excluded, the
fermentation cannot run on to putre-
faction. The dairymen say that the
slow and slight degree of fermenta-
tion which goes on tends to the
greater development of the saccha-
rine and nutritive principle ; and they
will have as large a stock on hand as
they can afford, and not open the pits
till they are compelled. It is not un-
common for two years to pass before
a pit of grains is touched ; and it is
said that some have lain nine years,
and been perfectly good at the expi-
ration of that period."

Grams hare been used as manure
with great success. They are best
adapted to grass, wheat, corn, and
the cerealia generally : 20 bushels to
the acre are an abundant application.
Mr. Buckland, of Wales, produced
two and a half tons of hay off land
formerly yielding but half a ton, by a
sprinkling of grains only. This re-
sult is to be expected, as the husk of
barley, dec, contains nearly all the
sahne matters of the plant.

GRAIN WEEVILS. See Wkeat
Insects.

GRAIP. A Scotch name for the
various kinds of forks used in hus-
bandry.

) G R A L L .■£ (from gralLr, stills).
I The tribe of long-legged wading birds,
as the cranes, flamingo.
I GRAMA GRASS. A grass indi-
I genous in the West Indies and in Mex-
I ico, of small size, growing on poor
land, and bearing a very nutritious
: grain, which it retains until spring.
It is highly recommended for culti-
vation in the Southern States. It
must not be confounded with the
gamma, or buffalo grass. From the
description given by Captain Cook,
United States Army, it appears to
be a stoloniferous grass, and peren-
nial.

GRAMINACE.E. Gramineous
plants. Grasses. Endogenous plants,
in which the parts of fructification
are essentially perfect, although they
are in a very unusual state in what
may be called their accessory organs.
They have neither calyx nor corolla ;
but, in lieu of them, imbricated scales,
called palea; and glumes ; the latter
of which give rise to the name ghi-
maceous, often applied to these plants.
Corn of all kinds, the bamboo, the
sugar cane, many kinds of pasture
plants, and reeds, belong to different
species of Graminacece. The flinty
surface of the stems or straw renders
many valuable for domestic use, as
for forming the plat from which
straw bonnets, &c., are manufactu-
red. They constitute the most val-
uable family of plants for the suste-
nance of men and animals. They are
developed from the frigid zone to the
equator, increasing in size as they
proceed south.

GRAMME. The unit of French
weights, equal to I.5-434: troy grains.
The following is their decimal sys-
tem :

Gnunmes. Troy p^iiis.

,001 — ,01543

,01 = 1,5434

,1 = 1,5434

Milligramme

Centigramme

Decigramme

Gramme . .

Decagramme

Ilectograramo

Kilogramme

Mvnagramme

= 1,= 15,434

= 10, = 154,34
= 100, = 1543,4
= 1000, = 15434
= 10000, = 154340

The gramme equals the weight of

the hundredth part of a cubic metre

of distilled water at 32= Fahrenheit.

The kilogramme is used for heavier

333

GRA

GRA

weights, and is equal to two pounds,
three ounces, and 4-438 drachms av-
oirdupois.

GRANARY. Aplace where wheat
or corn is stored ; it should be airy,
dry, and so situated as to be out of
the reach of vermin. Where the
weevil appears, tiie grain, before sto-
rage, should be kiln-dried at about
180° Fahrenheit. Rats and mice are
kept out if the granary be erected on
stones or piles of a conical form, and
inverted. In Egypt and Sicily corn
is stored in deep vaults or cellars
made of brick, or cut in the rocks,
and covered tightly by a rock with
earth piled upon it : in this case the
grain must be thoroughly, dried be-
fore storage. When the granary is
airy, it is advisable to stir the grain oc-
casionally, so as to expose it equally.

GRANGE. A farm-yard with
suitable offices.

GRANITE. A crystalline rock
composed of quartz, mica, and feld-
spar. The greater the proportion of
quartz the better the rock for build-
ing purposes, as the feldspar decays.
Some granites contain a variety of
feldspar which decomposes with great
rapidity, so that it is used for making
pottery. Granite is supposed by ge-
ologists to be of igneous origin ; it ]
protrudes through other formations,
and also occurs in veins. It is the
principal rock of the Primitive series,
and its ingredients constitute, in
different combinations, most other
rocks. The variety called blue gran-
ite, Massachusetts granite, or sye-
nite, contains hornblende in the place
of mica, and is a more valuable build-
ing material. When granite is to be
worked it should be kept under wa-
ter, as it becomes very hard in air.
The chemical composition of granite
depends upon the proportions of the
minerals present. The quartz is sil-
ica only ; the feldspar contains from
11 to 14 per cent, of potash; the
mica from seven to ten of potash.
See these minerals.

GRANIVOR.E. Birds, including
the incessores, which eat grain.
Granivorons is used to designate
grain-eating animals.
334

I GRANULATE (from grayia, a
gram). To form into grains, or be-
come covered with minute granules.

GRANULATION. In chemistry,
the reduction of metals into smaller
parts : it is performed by pouring
small portions of the molten matter
into water, and sometimes first pass-
ing it through a wire sieve. In sur-
gery, the production of granules of
flesh on the surface of wounds.

GRAPE. See Viyie.

GRAPE SUGAR. Glucose.

GRAPHOMETER (from ypa(j>u, 1
icritc, and fisTpov, a measure). A name
for the semicircle of land surveyors.

GRAPHITE. Plumbago, black-
lead. The coarse kinds are used in
making crucibles.

GRASSES. The lesser gramina-
ceee, which do not bear grains suffi-
ciently large for collection as food.
Clovers, lucern, and leguminous
plants are also improperly included
under grasses.

The true grasses are very numer-
ous, but experience has selected
some few as worthy of cultivation,
from their greater nutritiousness or
adaptation to the wants of the farm.
These are divided into temporary
hay grasses, intended for rotations ;
permanent hay grasses ; grasses af-
fording hay, but peculiar to certain
localities, and pasture grasses.

The following is chiefly from Lou-
don : " Though grasses abound in ev-
ery soil and situation, yet all the
species do not abound indifierently ;
on the contrary, no class of plants is
so absolute and unalterable in its
choice in this respect. The creep-
ing-rooted and stoloniferous grasses
will grow readily on most soils ; but
the fibrous-rooted species, and espe-
cially the more delicate upland grass-
es, require particular attention as to
the soil in which they are sown ; for
in many soils they will either not
come up at all, or die away in a few
years, and give way to the grasses
which would naturally spring up.
Hence, in sowing down lands for per-
manent pasture, it is a good method
to make choice of those grasses
which thrive best in adjoining and

i

GRASSES.

similarly-circumstanced pastures for
a part of the seed ; and to mix with
these what are considered the very
best kinds.

" The most important feature in
the culture of pasture grasses is mix-
ture of sorts. The husbandman who
clothes his fields only with rye-grass
and clover, employs a limited ma-
chinery, the former being unproduc-
tive in summer, the latter moderate-
ly so in spring ; but when he, for this
purpose, uses a variety of plants dif-
fermg in their habits of growth and
periods of luxuriance, a numerous
and powerful machinery is kept suc-
cessively in full operation.

"The effect of a mixture of grasses
may be accounted for from some spe-
cies putting forth their foliage, and
reaching a maximum of produce at
different periods from other kinds.
From some being gregarious or so-
cial, and others solitary, and never
producing a close turf, by sowing
seeds of several species together,
which are dissimilar in their habits
of growth, and arrive at a maximum
of produce at different periods of sum-
mer and autuirin, there is secured
throughout the season a succession
of fresh herbage, rendered, by the
erect and creeping foliage of the dif-
ferent species, so dense and abun-
dant as greatly to surpass in quanti-
ty that obtained from the cultivation
of two or three kinds only.

"New and excellent varieties of
many of the grasses, especially those
used or fit to be used in the C(m-
vertible husbandry, might, no doubt,
be obtained by selection and cross-
breeding, and it is much to be wished
that this were attempted by cultiva-
tors.

" Tall or Half Grasses of temporary
Duration. — Tlie most valuable of this
division are the biennial, or, as it is
commonly but erroneously called, the
annual, perennial, and subperennial
rye grass (a), the cocksfoot grass (6),
and woolly soft grass (c). Where a
crop of hay is desired within the
year, it is necessary to resort to such
grasses as are annuals in the strict
sense of the word ; and none can be

Fig. I.

Most vnluiible temporary bay grasses.

better for this purpose than the com
mon oat. Arena sativa, cut and made
into hay when it comes into flower.
Next in order may be mentioned the
other cereal grasses and the annual
varieties of Broinus ; the latter, how-
ever, are very coarse grasses, though
prolific in culm.

" The biennial rye grass, Lolium
perenne var. bienne, is well known as
being universally sown, either with
or without clover, among grain crops,
with a view to one crop of hay in the
succeedingseason. It attains a great-
er height, and produces a longer,
broader spike of flowers than the per-
ennial rye grass, and the produce in
hay is considered greater than that of
any other annual grass equally pal-
atable to cattle. It prefers a rich
loamy soil, but will grow on any sur-
face whatever, not rock or undecayed
bog.

■' The perennial rye grass {Lolium
perenne, Lin., and Loglio vivace, Ital.)
differs from the other in being of
somewhat smaller growth, and in
abiding for several years, according
to the variety and the soil and cul-
ture. Pacey's and Russell's varieties
of rye grass are most esteemed.

"Many consider this grass coarse,
benty, and very exhausting to the
soil ; but after all the experiments
that have been made on the other
grasses, none have been found to
equal it for a course of mowing and
pasturing for two, three, or seven
335

GRASSES.

years. It is sown in Italy, and es-
pecially in Lombardy, and also in
France and Germany, along with
clover, for the same purposes as in
this country ; and, as Von Thaer has
remarked, though some have tried
other species, both in these countries
and in England, they have in the end
returned to rye grass. When intend-
ed as a pasture grass, if stocked hard,
and when for hay, if mown early, the
objections to it are removed. — {Code
of Afrriculturr.) G. Sinclair says the
circumstance of its producing abun-
dance of seed, which is easily col-
lected, and vegetates freely on any
soil, its early perfection and abundant
herbage the first year, which is much
relished by cattle, are the merits
which have upheld it to the present
day, and will probably for some time
to come contimie it a favourite grass
among farmers. But the latter-math
is inconsiderable ; the plant impov-
erishes the soil in a high degree if
not cut before the seed ripens. When
this is neglected, the field after mid-
summer exhibits only a brown sur-
face of withered straws.

" The cocksfoot grass, orchard
grass {Dactylis glomcrata, Linneus),
is an imperfect perennial, and grows
naturally on dry, sandy soils. This
grass may be known by its coarse
appearance, both of the leaf and spike,
and also by its whitish green hue.

" One writer says he has cultiva-
ted it largely, and i^o his satisfaction,
on wet loams on a clay marl bottom,
upon wliich the finer grasses are apt
to give way in a few years to the in-
digenous produce. If sufTered to rise
high, it is very coarse ; but, fed close,
is a very valuable sheep pasture. He
has sown two bushels an acre, and
10 lbs. common red clover ; and when
the clover wears out, the grass fills
the lands and abides well in it. It
grows well in winter. It has been
found highly useful as an early sheep
feed. It is early, hardy, and pro-
ductive, but is a coarser plant than
rye grass, and requires even greater
attention in regard to being cut soon
or fed close. It does best by itself,
and the time of its ripening being dif-
336

fercnt from that of clover, it does not
suit well to be mixed with that plant.
The pasturage it affords is luxuriant,
and particularly agreeable to sheep.
It is cultivated to a great extent, and
with astonishing success at Holkham.
The quantity of sheep kept upon it,
summer and winter, is quite surpri-
sing and the land becomes renova-
ted by lying two or three years under
this grass, and enriched by the ma-
nure derived from the sheep. A field
in the jjark at Woburn was laid down
in two equal parts, one part with rye
grass and while clover, and the other
part with cocksfoot and red clover ;
from the spring till midsummer the
sheep kept almost constantly on the
rye grass, but after that time they left
it, and adhered with equal constancy
to the cocksfoot during the remainder
of the season. In The Code of Agri-
culture (p. 497, 3d. edit.) it is stated,
that Sinclair of Woburn considers
' no grass so well suited for all pur-
poses as cocksfoot.'

" The woolly soft grass (Holcus la-
natits, Linneus) is an imperfect peren-
nial, and rather late flowering grass,
of a short, unsubstantial appearance,
and found chiefly in poor, dry soils.
It is, however, a very common grass,
and grows on ail soils, from the rich-
est to the poorest. It affords abun-
dance of seed, which is light, and
easily dispersed by the wind.

" It was cultivated at Woburn on
a strong clayey loam, and the propor-
tional value which the grass at the
time the seed is ripe bears to the
grass at the time of flowering is as
eleven to twelve. Young observes
of this grass, that it flourishes well
on any moist soil, and should be sown
chiefly with a view to sheep, for it is
not so good for other stock ; many
acres of it have been cultivated on
his farm for sheep, and it has answer-
ed well when kept close fed.

" Tall or Hay Grasses of permanent
Duration. — No permanent grass has
been found equal to the rye grass for
the purposes of convertible husband-
ry, but others have been selected
which are considered superior for hay
meadows. The principal of these

GRASSES.

are the fescue, foxtail, and meadow
grass. Agriculturists, indeed, are not
all agreed on the comparative merits
of these grasses with rye grass ; hut
there are none who do not consider
it advisable to introduce a portion of
each, or most of these species along

Fis- 2

with rye grass, in laymg down lands
to permanent pasture.

" Of the fescue grass there are
three species in the highest estima-
tion as meadow hay grasses, viz., the
meadow, tall, and spiked fescue (,Fig.
2, a, b, c).

TaJ! hay grasses of

" The F. pralcnsis (a), or the mead-
ow or fertile fescue grass, is found
indigenous in the United States, in
most rich meadows and pastures, and
is highly grateful to every description
of stock. It is more in demand for
laying down meadows than any other
species except the rye grass.

" The tall or infertile fescue grass
{Fcstucaelatior, E. B.,b)is indigenous,
and closely allied to the Fcstuca pra-
tcnsis, from which it differs in litlle
except that it is larger in every re-
spect. The produce is nearly three
times that of the F. pratensis, and the
nutritive powers of the grass are su-
perior, in direct proportion, as six to
eight. The proportional value which
the grass at the time the seed is ripe
bears to the grass at the time of flow-
ering is as twelve to twenty. The
proportional value which the grass of
the latter-math bears to that of the
crop is as sixteen to twenty, and to
the grass at the time the seed is ripe
as twelve to sixteen inverse. Curtis
observes that, as the seeds of this
plant, when cultivated, are not fertile,
it can only be introduced by parting
F f

permanent Juration.

j its roots and planting them out ; in
this there would, he says, be no great

difficulty, provided it were likely to
answer the expense, which he is
strongly of opinion it would in certain
cases ; indeed, he has often thought
that meadows would be best formed
by planting out the roots of grasses,
and other plants, in a regular manner ;
and that, however singular such a
practice may appear at present, it will
probably be adopted at some future
period ; this great advantage would,
he says, attend it, noxious weeds
might be more easily kept down, un-
til the grasses and other plants had
established themselves in the soil.

"The spiked fescue grass, or dar-
nel fescue grass {Festuca loliacca,
Linneus, c), resembles the rye grass
in appearance, and the tall fescue
grass in the infertility of its seeds.
It is considered superior to rye grass
either for hay or permanent pasture,
and improves in proportion to its age,
which is the reverse of what takes
place with the rye grass.

" The meadow foxtail gi^ass (Alope-
curus pratensis, d) is found indigenous
337

GRASSES.

in most meadows ; and when the soil '
is neither very moist nor very dry, ;
but in good heart, it is very produc- i
live. It also does well on water !
meadows. Sheep and horses seem j
to have a greater relish than oxen for
this grass.

" In the Woburn experiments, it
■was tried both on a sandy loam and a j
clayey loam, and the result gave near-
ly three fourths of produce greater
from a clayey loam than from a .sandy
soil, and the grass from the latter is
comparatively of less value, in pro-
portion as four to six. The straws
produced by the sandy soil are de-
ficient in number, and in every re-
spect less than those from the clayey
loam ; which will account for the un-
equal quantities of the nutritive mat-
ter afforded by them ; but the propor-
tional value in which the grass of
the latter-math exceeds that of the
crop at the time of flowering is as
four to three ; a difference which ap-
pears extraordinary, when the quan-
tity of flower stalks which are in the
grass at the time of flowering is con-
sidered. Next to the fescue, this
grass is in the greatest reputation for
laying down mowing grounds ; but it
is, unfortunately, subject to tiie rust
in some situations.

" Of the meadow grass there are
two species in esteem as hay plants,
the smooth-stalked and roughish.

" The great, or smooth - stalked
meadow grass, the spear grass of
some parts of the United States (Poa
fraiensis, e), is distinguished by its
height, smooth stem, and creeping
roots. According to Sole, it is the
best of all the grasses : its foliage be-
gins to shoot and put on fine verdure
early in the spring, but not so soon
as some other grasses. Every ani-
mal that eats grass is fond of it, while
it makes the best hay, and affords the
richest pasture. It abounds in the
best meadows, and has the valuable
property of abiding in the same land,
Willie most other grasses are contiti-
ually changing. According to some,
it delights in rather a dry than a moist
soil and situation, on which account
it keeps its verdure better than most
338

others in dry seasons ; but it thrives
most luxuriantly in rich meadows.

" By the Woburn experiments, the
proportional value in which the grass
of the latter-math exceeds that of the
flowering crop is as six to seven.
The grass of the seed crop and that
of the latter-math are of equal value.
This grass is, therefore, of least val-
ue at the time the seed is ripe ; a loss
of more than one fourth of the value
of the whole crop is sustained if it is
not cut till that period ; the straws
are then dry, and the root leaves in
a sickly, decaying state ; those of the
latter-math, on the contrary, are lux-
uriant and healthy. This species
sends forth flower stalks but once in a
season, and those being the most val-
uable part of the plant for the purpose
of hay, it will, from this circumstance,
and the superior value of the grass
of the latter-math, compared to that
of the seed crop, appear well adapted
for permanent pasture. It was of
this grass that the American prize
bonnet, in imitation of Leghorn, was
made by IMiss "\^'oodllouse. This
grass belongs to tiie same genus, and
nearly resembles the rich Kentucky
blue grass, which seems, indeed, to be
only a variety rather less in size.

" The roughish meadow grass {Foa
trimalis, L., /) delights in moist, rich,
and sheltered situations, when it
grows two feet high, and is very pro-
ductive. It is indigenous. The defi-
ciency of hay in the flowering crop,
in proportion to that of the seed crop,
is very striking. Its superior produce,
the highly nutritive powers which
the grass seems to possess, and
the season in which it arrives at
perfection, are merits which distin-
guish it as one of the most valuable
of those grasses which affect moist,
rich soils and sheltered situations ;
l)ut on dry, exposed situations it is
altogether inconsiderable : it yearly
diminishes, and ultimately dii^s off,
not unfrequently in the space of four
or five years.

" The above are six of the best
permanent grasses for either dry or
watered meadows. The seeds of the
meadow fescue, foxtail, and smooth

GRASSES

and rougli iivcadow grasses are sown
in various proportions with the clo-
vers and rye grass. The seeds of
the two sorts of meadow grass are
apt to stick together, and require to
be well mixed with the others before
being sown. The tall and spiked fes-
cue grasses, having a numher of bar-
ren flowers, are not prolific in seeds,
and they are therefore seldom to be got
at the seed-shops. To this list may
be added Andes grass (^Apoia (Fcs-
tuca) elatior), which, on strong lands,
produces a good crop, and is remark-
ably early in the United States : it
may be pastured with success, and
should be cut before seed, as it be-
comes coarse. See Bermuda and
Grama Grass.

" As hay grasses, adapted for par-
ticular soils and situations, the cat's-
tail or Timothy, floating fescue, flo-
rin, and herd's grass, have been rec-
ommended ; but it cannot be said
that the opinions of cultivators are
u nanimous in their favour. Timothy
has certainly been found to answer
well on moist, peaty soils, and in sev-
eral cases florin also.

"The cafs-tail, or Timothy grass
(Phleum ■pratcnsc, L., Fig. 3, a,), is a
naturalized plant, and grows both in

Fii

dry and moist soils. On moist, rich
soils it is a prolific grass, but late ; on
dry soils it is good for little, and for
cultivation in any way is disapproved
of by Withering, Swaine, Curtis, and
others, as having no properties in
which it i-s not greatly surpassed by
the meadow foxtail.

The Woburn experiments, howev-
er, present this grass as one of the
most prolific for hay. The compar-
ative merits of this grass appear to
be very great ; to which may he add-
ed the abundance of fine foliage that
it produces early in the spring. In
this respect it is inferior to Poafer-
tilis and Poa angustifolia only. The
value of the straws at the time the
seed is ripe exceeds that of the grass
at the time of flowering in the pro-
portion of twenty-eight to ten, a cir-
cumstance which raises it above
many others ; for from this property
its valuable early foliage may be de-
pastured to an advanced period of
the season, without injury to the crop
of hay, treatment which, in grasses
that send forth their flowering straws
early in the season, would cause a
loss of nearly one half in the value
of the crop, as clearly proved by for-
mer examples ; and this property of
. 3.

the straws makes the plant peculiar-
ly desirable for hay. In moist and
peaty soils it has in various instances
been found highly productive.

Permanent li.iy grasses requiring peculiar ?oiI?.

" The floating fescue grass {Festu-
cafluitans, b) is found in rich marshes.

" It is greedily devoured by every
description of stock, not excepting
339

GRASSES.

hogs and ducks, and geese eagerly
devour the seeds, which are small,
but very sweet and nourishing. They
are collected in several parts of Ger-
many and Poland, under the name of
manna-seeds (schu-aden), and are es-
teemed a delicacy in soups and gru-
els. When ground to meal, Ihey
make bread very little inferior to that
from wheat. The bran is given to
horses that have the worms, but they
must be kept from water for some
hours afterward. Geese and other
water-fowl are very fond of the seeds.
So also are fish ; trout, in particular,
thrive in those rivers where this grass
grows in plenty. It has been recom-
mended to be sowed on meadow's that
admit flooding ; but Curtis justly re-
marks that the flote fescue will not
flourish except in land that is con-
stantly under water, or converted
into a bog or swamp.

" The water meadow grass {Poa
aquatica, c) is found chiefly in marsh-
es in the north and in Canada, but
will grow on strong clays, and yield,
as the Woburn experiments prove, a
prodigious produce, flowering from
June to September. It is one of the
largest grasses, rising to five feet.

" The florin grass {Agrostis stolonifc-
ra, d) is a very common grass, both in
wet and dry, rich and poor situations.
It is known in the United States as
Agrostix drcumbcns, and is a variety
oi A. alba. Few plants appear to be
more under the influence of local cir-
cumstances than this grass. On dry
soils it is worth nothing, but on rich,
marl soils, and in a moist soil, if we
may put confidence in the accounts
given of its produce in Ireland, it
is the most valuable of all herbage
plants.

" It was first brouglit into notice
by Dr. Kichardson in 1809, and sub-
sequently extolled, and its culture de-
tailed in various pamphlets by the
same gentleman. It appears to be
exclusively adapted for moist peat
soils or hogs. In The Code of Agri-
culture it is said, ' On mere bogs, the
florin yields a great weight of her-
bage, and is, perhaps, the most use-
ful plant that bogs can produce."
340

According to Sir H. Davy, the florin
grass, to be in perfection, requires a
moist climate or a wet soil ; and it
grows luxuriantly in cold clays unfit-
ted for other grasses. In light sands,
and in dry situations, its produce is
much inferior as to quantity and qual-
ity. He saw four square yards of
florin grass cut in the end of January,
in a meadow, exclusively appropria-
ted to the cultivation of florin by the
Countess of Hardwicke, the soil of
which is a damp, stiflT clay. They af-
forded twenty-eight pounds of fodder,
of which one thousand parts aflx)rde(l
sixty-four parts of nutritive matter
consisting nearly of one sixth of su-
gar, and Ave sixths of mucilage, with
a little extractive matter. In anoth-
er experiment, four square yards gave
twenty-seven pounds of grass. Lady
Hardwicke has given an account of
a trial of this grass, Mherein twenty-
three milch cows, and one young
horse, besides a number of pigs, were
kept a fortnight on the produce of
one acre. On the Duke of Bedford's
farm, at Maulden, florin hay was pla-
ced in the racks before horses, in
small, distinct quantities, alternately
with common hay ; but no decided
preference for either was manifested
by the horses in this trial. Fiorin
has been tried in the highlands of
Scotland, and a premium awarded in
1821 for a field of three acres planted
on land previously worth very little,
at Appin, in Argyleshire. (Highl. Soc.
Trans., vol. vi,, p. 229.) Hay tea has
also been made from fiorin, and found
useful in rearing calves, being mixed
with oatmeal and skimmed milk. —
(Ibid., p. 233.)

" There are other species of Agros-
tis, as the A. palustris and repcns, and
some varieties of the A. stolomfcra,
that on common soils are little differ-
ent in their appearance and proper-
ties from fiorin. On one of these,
the narrow-leaved creeping bent {A.
stolonifcra var. angustifolia), the fol-
lowing remarks are made in the ac-
count of the Woburn experiments :
' From a careful exammation of the
creeping bent with narrow leaves, it
will doubtless appear to possess mer-

GRASSES.

its well worthy of attention, though
perhaps not so great as they have
been supposed, if the natural place of
its growth and habits be impartially
taken into the account. From the
couchant nature of this grass, it is
denominated couch grass by practi-
cal men, and from the length of time
that it retains the vital power after
being taken out of the soil, it is call-
ed squitch, quick, full of life,' &c.

'• The culture of tiorin is different
from that of other grasses. Though
the plant will ripen its seeds on a dry
soil, and these seeds being very small,
a few pounds would be sufficient for
an acre, yet it is generally propaga-
ted by stolones or root shoots. The
ground being well pulverized, freed
from weeds, and laid into such beds
or ridges as the cultivator may think
advisable, small drills an inch or two
deep, and six or nine inches asunder,
are to be drawn along its surface,
with a hand or horse hoe, or on soft
lands with the hoe-rake. In the bot-
tom of these drills, the florin shoots
(whether long or short is of no con-
sequence) are laid lengthways, so that
their ends may touch each other, and
then lightly covered with a rake, and
the surface rolled to render it fit for
the scythe. In six months the whole
surface will be covered with verdure,
and if the planting be performed ear-
ly in spring, a large crop may be had
in the following autumn. Any sea-
son will answer for planting, but one
likely to be followed by showers and
heat is to be preferred. Those who
wish to cultivate this grass will con-
sult Dr. Richardson's New Essay on
Fionn Grass (1813), and also The Far-
mers Magazine for 1810-14. Our
opinion," says Loudon, "is that nei-
ther florin, Timothy, nor floating fes-
cue is ever likely to be cultivated in
Britain ; though the latter two may
perhapssucceed well on the bogs and
moist, rich soils of Ireland, where, to
second the influence of the soil, there
is a moist, warm climate.

" The preparation of the soil, and

the sowing of the usual meadow

grasses, ditfer in nothing from those

of clover and rye grass already given.

Ff2

" Grasses chiefly adapted for Pastu-
rage.— In treating of pasturage grass-
es, we shall make a selection of such
as have been tried to some extent,
and of which the seeds are in the
course of commerce. On soils in
good condition, and naturally well
constituted, no better grasses can be
sown for pasturage than those we
have described as tall grasses for hay
meadows ; but for early and late pas-
turage, and secondary soils, there are
others much more suitable.

" The pasture grasses for early pas-
turage on all soils are the A7ithoxa7i-
thum odoratum, Holcus odoratus, Avena
pubcsceiis, and Poa annua.

"The pasture grasses for late herb-
age on all soils are chiefly the dif-
ferent species of Agrostis (bents)
and Phlcum (cat's-tail).

" The pasture grasses for poor or
secondary soils are the Cynosurus
cristatus, Festuca duriuscula and ovi-
na, Poa comprcssa, cristata, and angus-
tifolia.

" The grasses that afford most nu-
tritive matter in early spring are the
meadow foxtail grass and the vernal
} grass ; the former has been already
i mentioned as one of the best hay
grasses.

" The sweet-scented vernal grass
(Anthozanthum odoratum. Fig. 4, a) is
common in almost all pastures, and
is that which gives the fragrance to
natural or meadow hay. It is chiefly
valuable as an early grass ; for, though
it is eaten by stock, it does not ap-
pear to be much relished by them.
From the Woburn experiments, it ap-
pears that the smallness of the prod-
uce of this grass renders it improper
for the purpose of hay ; but its early
growth, and the superior quantity of
nutritive matter which the latter-math
affords, compared with the quantity
afforded by the grass at the time of
flowering, cause it to rank high as a
pasture grass on such soils as are
well fitted for its growth, lands that
are deep and moist.

" The downy oat grass (Aveva pu-

bescens, h), according to the Woburn

experiments, possesses several good

qualities, which recommend it to par-

341

GRASSES.
Fig. 4.

E;irly pa?

ticular notice ; it is hardy, early, and
more productive than many others
which affect similar soils and situa-
tions. Its growth, after being crop-
ped, is tolerably rapid, although it
does not attain to a great length if
left growing ; like the Poa pratcrisis,
it sends forth flower stalks but once
in a season, and it appears well cal-
culated for permanent pasture on
rich, light soils.

" The annual meadow grass (Poa
annua, c) is the most common of all
grasses, and the least absolute in its
habits. It is almost the only grass
that will grow in towns. Though
an annual grass, it is found in most
meadows and pastures perpetually
flowering, and affording an early
sweet herbage, relished by all stock,
and of as great importance to birds
as wheat is to man. It hardly re-
quires to be sown, as it springs up
everywhere of itself. However, it
may not be amiss to sow a few pounds
of it per acre wherever perpetual pas-
ture (not hay) is the object.

" The fine bent grass {Agrostis vul-
garis, d) is one of the most common
grasses, and, according to the \Vo-
burn experiments, one of the earliest.
The A. paluslris is nearly as early in
producing its foliage, though both
flower late, and neither is very pro-
lific either in bulk or nutritive matter.
A- striata is the herd's grass of Vir-
ginia and the South.
342

" The narrow - leaved meadow
grass {Poa angustifolia, e), though it
flowers late, yet is remarkable for
the early growth of the leaves. Ac-
cording to the Woburn experiments,
the leaves attain to the length of more
than twelve inches before the middle
of April, and are soft and succulent ;
in May, however, when the flower
stalks make their appearance, it is
subject to the disease termed rust,
which affects the whole plant, the
consequence of which is manifest in
the great deficiency of produce in the
crop at the time the seed is ripe, be-
ing then one half less than at the
time of the flowering of the grass.
Though this disease begins in the
straws, the leaves suffer most from
its effects, being, at the time the seed
is ripe, completely dried up : the
straws, therefore, constitute the prin-
cipal part of the crop for mowing,
and they contain more nutritive mat-
ter, in proportion, than the leaves.
This grass is evidently most valuable
for permanent pasture, for which, in
consequence of its superior, rapid,
and early growth, and the disease
beginning at the straws, nature seems
to have designed it. The grasses
which approach nearest to this in re-
spect of early produce of leaves, are
the Poa fcrtiUs, Lfactylis glomerata,
Phleum pratensc, Alopccurus praten-
sis, Avena elatior, and Broinus littore-
us, all grasses of a coarser kind.

GRASSES.

" The best natural pastures, exam-
ined carefully during various periods
of the season, were found by Sinclair
to consist of the following plants :

Alopecurus pratensis, Avcna clatior,
Dactylis plonicrata, Loliuiii perenne,
Festuca pratensis, llromus arvensis,

Phleuni prateiise, Poa iiniiua,

Aiithroxauthum odora- Avcua piateiii-is.
turn,

" These afTord the principal grass in
the spring, and also a great part of
the summer produce :

Aveiia flavcscens, Poa pratensis,

Hijrdeum pratense, Holcus lanatus,
Cvnosurus cristatus, Tnfoliuni pratense,
Festuca diiriuscula, Trifulium repcns,
Poa lrivi;ilis, Lathyrus pratensis.

"These yield produce principally in
summer and autumn :
Achillea Millefolium, Agrostis stoloniferaand
Triticum repens, p.ilustris.

'■The above mixture, sown at the
rate of four or five bushels to the
acre, on well-prepared soil, without
corn or other crop of any kind, could
hardly fail of producing excellent pas-

Fig.

ture in the following year, and for an
indefinite period. The best time for
sowing is July or August, as spring-
sown seeds are apt to sufTer with the
droughts of June and July. Fifteen
of the above sorts are to be had from
the seed shops ; and all of them may
be gathered from natural pastures, oi
bespoke from collectors.

" Of late pasture grasses, the dif-
ferent species of cat's-tail {Phleum)
and bent grass (Agrostis) are the
chief, and especially the Timothy and
fiorin grass. The grasses, Davy ob-
serves, that propagate themselves by
stolones, the different species of
Agrostis, supply pasture tliroughout
the year, and the concrete sap stored
up in their joints renders them a
good food even in winter.

" Of pasture grasses for inferior
soils, one of the most durable is the
dog's-tail grass {Cijnoc^urus crista-
tus, also called Eleusine Indica, Fig
5, a). This is a very common grass
. 5.

Pasture grasses

on dry, clayey, or firm surfaces. It
is one of the best grasses for parks,
being highly relished by the South
Down sheep and deer.

"The hard fescue grass {Festuca
duriuscula, b) is one of the best of the
dwarf sorts of grasses. It is grate-
ful to all kinds of cattle ; it is pres-
ent in most good meadows and pas-
tures, and, with F. ovina, is the best
for lawns.

" The Festuca glabra (c) and hordei-

for inferior soils.

formis (d) greatly resemble the hard
fescue, and may be considered equal-
ly desirable as pasture and lawn
grasses.

" The yellow oat grass (Avcna fla-
vcscens) is very generally cultivated,
and appears, from the Woburn ex-
periments, to be a very valuable grass
for pasture on a clayey soil.

" Of pasture grasses for inferior
soils and upland situations, one of
the principal is the Festuca ovina, or
343

GRASSES.

Fig. 0.

Pasture grasses for poor uplands.

sheep's fescue grass f F;>. 6, a). This
grass is pecuharly adapted for hilly
sheep pastures. It is a low dwarf
grass, but relished by all kinds of cat-
tle. According to Sinclair's expe-
rience, ' on dry soils that are incapa-
ble of producing the larger sorts, this
should form the principal crop, or,
rather, the whole ; for it is seldom or
never, in its natural state, found in-
timately mixed with others, but by
itself

" The Poa alpina (4), Alopecurus al-
j)inus, and Aira cczspitosa (c), Briza
media {d) and minima, and Agroslis
humilis and vulgaris, are all dwarf
mountain grasses, well adapted for
hilly parks or lawns."

The Bermuda grass, which grows
so luxuriantly in the West and South,
is propagated by roots only, as it does
not flower in the latitudes where it
is cultivated.

" On the culture of these grasses
it is unnecessary to enlarge, as it
must obviously be the same as that
of rye grass or any of the others.

" The chief difficulty is to get the
seed in sufficient quantity, for which
a good mode is to contract with a
seedsman, a year beforehand, for the
quantity wanted. With all the pas-
ture grasses, except the last class,
we should recommend at least half
the seed to be that of the perennial
rye grass ; and we think it should
344

also form a considerable part of the
seeds used in laying down all mead-
ows, except those for the aquatic or
stoloniferous grasses. These, if they
thrive, are sure to choke and de-
stroy it.

" The formation of grassy surfaces,
by distributing pieces of turf over
them, has long been practised in gar-
dening, in levelling down raised or
filling up hollow fences, and in other
cases of partially altering a grassy sur-
face." It is called inoculating grass.

Nutriliousncss and yield of Grasses.
— Mr. Sinclair, under the directions
of the Duke of Bedford, established
a long course of experiments to de-
termine these points. These re-
searches are now of no value in re-
spect to the comparative nutritious-
ness, but are worthy of attention as
giving the comparative yield on cer-
tain soils. The nutritiousness of
grasses does not depend on the mat-
ters extractive by boiling, for fibrin
and albumen are insoluble in water.
Grasses do, however, differ consid-
erably in this respect, as is shown by
the ultimate analysis of some authors,
which give 11 and ] 5 per cent, of
nitrogen in different specimens. The
former will represent seven, and the
latter 9| per cent, of azotized or tiesh-
making constituents. Tlie table op-
posite is mostly from Sinclair ; the
greater part of the grasses are either

GRASSES.

fc .2

s 5 M =

.§§

&>

C o C-8 M W)i

■2S^-Si''sE'^ 1?'= "a

I III 5.illilis> I- III i I

■<t--«!0 O CS <! ■«;o-«!KO&) <! <'S > W<EaS-<W«! W KK*! ■< &

m

O 2

S =

f- o

■< c
b:

a Z

o -

£^

B <

2 °

a 2:

Z O

U IS

E = S S 5 E I

rsi»:-_i H siSE = w^ =

: I ^ j-l" »■ I i_li if I"- i -^i"! ~

*Sau3M0[J
JO amtx

•^-N-^E t^ '-^n'-JT-

*~i T^ "^ "^ *^ "-a ^ •-; "^ "-^ < "^ *-i'-i'~i »^ <I

•raqam "inSisfj

__^» "'^ ti| {jSj ,>,i5«

fisi-

5S ='=;i = 5 "BboSeSS-c^

345

tJRASS J, AND

indigenous or cultivated in the United
Stales.

Ail ttiese grasses are perennial in
a good soil, and a rich, permanent
meadow for grass or pasture should
contain several kmds. Tlie amount
of cured hay produced will be about
one fifth of the grass cut. For far-
ther particulars, see the Grasses
themselves.

Specific Manures. — Grasses are re-
markable for the amount of alkali
(potash or soda) they contain, and if
allowed to run to seed, are also rich
in bone earth. Sprengel found in 1000
pounds of rye grass hay

Potash and soda 12"75 lbs.

Lime and maijnesia .... 8 15 "

Sulphuric acid 350 "

Phosphoric acid "25 "

Silica 27-70 "

Chlorine, iron, &c '40 "

52-75

This specimen must have been
made from grass before flowering.
From this composition, we learn that
fresh ashes (leached ashes on sandy
soils), bone earth, gypsum, and occa-
sional top-dressing, with air-slacked
lime, are appropriate manures. Ni-
trogen manures, applied to grass
crops, are, in some measure, wasted
from their exposure. Soluble silicate
of soda and potash has been used on
grass with advantage. The green
marl of New- Jersey will, in part, an-
swer this purpose on stiff soils.

GRASS LAND. " This may be
divided into water meadows, upland
pastures, and artificial grasses. The
first are treated of under Irrigation :
the nature and management of the
last two we shall here briefly de-
scribe. Upland pastures are portions
of land on which the natural grasses
grow spontaneously, varying in quan-
tity and quality with the soil and sit-
uation. The plants which form the
natural sward are not confined to the
family of true grasses, but many oth-
er plants, chiefly with perennial roots,
form part of the herbage. In the rich-
est soils the variety is exceedingly
great. When a sod is taken up, and
all the plants on it are examined, the
species will be found more numerous
than we should have believed possi-
346

ble ;* and in the same ground the
plants will vary in different years, so
as to induce one to conclude, that,
like most other herbaceous plants,
the grasses degenerate when they
have grown for a long time on the
same spot, and that a kind of rota-
tion is established by nature. It is
chiefly in those pastures where the
grasses are allowed to grow till they
form their seed that this is observa-
ble ; for when they are closely fed,
and not allowed to shoot out a seed
stem, they are less subject to degen-
erate and disappear. This may be a
reason why experienced dairymen
are so unwilling to allow their best
pastures to be mown for hay. They
pretend that the feed is deteriorated
in the next year, and tliat inferior
grasses are introduced which injure
the quality of their butter and cheese.
Close feeding is always considered
as the most advantageous, both to
the cattle and the proprietor.

'• The only way m which a pasture
distant from cities can be profitable,
is by feeding stock ; and its value is
in the exact proportion to the num-
ber of sheep or cattle which can be
fed upon it in a season. Extensive
pastures are often measured only by
their capacity in this respect.

" When a pasture is naturally rich,
the only care required is to stock it
judiciously, to move the cattle fre-
quently from one spot to another
(for which purpose, enclosures well
fenced are highly advantageous), and
to eradicate certain plants which are
useless or noxious, such as docks
and thistles, alder, broom, briars and
thorns, which, not being touched by
the cattle as long as they have better
food, would increase and overrun the
ground, and take up a space which
would be more profitably occupied by
good herbage. The dung of the cat-
tle, also, when left in heaps as it is

* In a sod of grass the following plants were
found : Plantago lanceolata, Agrostis capillaris,
Avena flavesceas, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca
duriuscula, Poa annua, Cynosurus cristatus,
Trifoliuin repens, Crepis tectorum, Achillea
millefolium, (Jalium verum, Hypocha:ris radi
cata, Hiaracium pilosella, Thymus serpyllum
— (Curtis on Grasses.)

GRASS LAND.

dropped, kills the grass and introdu-
ces coarse and less palatable plants.
All that is required in rich pastures
in which cows and oxen are led, and
which are properly stocked, is, to
prevent the increase of the coarser
and less nutritive plants. Weeding
is as important in grass as in arable
land ; and if it is neglected, the con-
sequence will soon be observed by
the inferior quality of the feed. The
urine of the cattle is the manure
which chiefly keeps up the fertility
of grass land ; and although in hot
and dr}" weather it frequently burns
up the grass where it falls, when it
is diluted by showers, the improved
appearance of the surface shows that
its effect has not been detrimental.
To enrich poor meadows there is no
manure so effective as diluted urine,
or the drainings of stables and dung-
hills.

" When pastures are poor, and the
herbage is of a bad quality, the cause
is to be sought for in the soil. A
poor arid soil is not fitted for grass,
nor one which is too wet, from the
abundance of springs and the want
of outlet for the water. These de-
fects can only be remedied by expen-
sive improvements. A soil which is
too dry may be improved by cultiva-
tion and judicious manuring ; but for
this purpose it must be broken up
and treated for some time as arable
land ; and it may be a question wheth-
er or not the expense of improving
the soil will be repaid by the supe-
rior quality of the pasture when it is
again laid down to grass. In gen-
eral, the poor light soils, if they are
worth cultivation, answer better as
arable land, especially where the root
husbandry is understood. The low
wet day soils may be converted into
good pastures by draining them well ;
and the improvement thus produced
is so great, that judicious draining in
such soils is the most profitable in-
vestment of capital.

" When old meadows have been
neglected, or too often mown, with-
out being recruited by manure or ir-
rigation, they are often overrun with
moss or rushes, and produce nothing

but a coarse grass. In that case,
besides draining it, if required, the
land must be broken up and undergo
a regular course of tillage, until the
whole of the old sward is destroyed
and a better collection of grasses
cover its surface. If this be done
judiciously, the pasture will not only
be greatly improved in the quality,
but also in the quantity of the grass.
There is a natural prejudice againist
the breaking up old grass land ; this
has arisen from the improper manner
in which it is frequently effected.
The sward, when rotten, is a pow-
erful manure, and produces great
crops of corn. These tempt the
farmer to repeat the sowing of corn
on newly broken up lands. The fer-
tility is reduced rapidly ; and when
grass seeds are sown after several
crops of corn, the soil has been de-
prived of a great portion of the hu-
mus and vegetable matter which is
essential to the growth of rich grass.
The proper method of treating grass
land, broken up to improve it, is to
take no more corn crops than will
pay the expense of breaking up, cart-
ing lime, or other substances upon
it to improve the soil, and to lay it
down to grass again as soon as the
old sward is fully destroyed.

" If the soil be fit for roots, no bet-
ter crop can be sown to prepare for
the grass seeds, which should be
sown without a corn crop, except
where the sun is powerful, and the
seed is sown late in spring ; but
autumn is by far the best season for
sowing grass seeds for permanent
pasture. Turnips of an early kind
may be sown in .May, and fed off
with sheep in August or September;
and the ground being only very slight-
ly ploughed, or, ratlier, scarified and
harrowed fine, the seeds may be
sown and rolled in. The species of
grasses sown must depend on the
nature of the soil ; but it is impossi-
ble to be too choice in the selection.
That mixture of chaff and the half-
ripe seeds of weeds, commonly called
hay seeds, which is collected from
the stable lofts, should be caiefuUy
rejected, and none but seeds ripened
347

GRASS LAND.

and collected on purpose should be
sown. The Tnfnlium rcpens (white
clover), the Tnfolutm medium (cow
grass), Mcdicago lupinula (trefoil), Lo-
liutn jicrcnne (rye ^rass), the poas and
festucas, are the best kinds of grass-
es. A very easy way of obtaining
good seed is to keep a piece of good
meadow shut up from the cattle ear-
ly in spring, carefully weeding out
any coarse grasses, and letting the
best arrive at full maturity ; then
mow and dry the crop, and thrash it
out upon a cloth. This will give the
best mixture of seeds ; but some of
the earliest will have been shed, and
these should be collected separately,
or purchased from the seedsmen.
Before winter the ground will already
be covered with a fine green, if the
seed has been plentiful. The quan-
tity per acre of the mixed seeds should
not be less than 30 or 40 pounds to
ensure a close pile the next year. If
the soil is not naturally rich, liquid
manure, or urine, diluted with wa-
ter, should be carried to the field in
a water-cart, and the young grass
watered with it ; this will so invig-
orate the plants, that they will strike
and tiller abundantly. They should
be fed off by sheep, but not too close.
The tread of the sheep and their urine
will tend to make the pile of grass
close, and the year after this the new
pasture will only be distinguished
from the old by its verdure and fresh-
ness.

"The fertility produced by grass
which is fed by cattle and sheep has
given rise to the practice of convert-
ing arable land to pasture for a cer-
tain time in order to recruit its
strength. The old notion was that
the land had rest, which by a confu-
sion of ideas was associated with the
rest of the labourers and the horses.
The land, by being in grass, has much
vegetable matter added to it from the
fibres of the roots which die and de-
cay, as well as from the other parts
of the grass, which draw nourishment
from the atmosphere and impart it to
the roots. Thus, in time, an accumu-
lation of humus IS formed ; and when
the land is ploughed, the rotting of the
318

sward greatly increases it Every
species of plant thrives well in this
improved soil ; and the vigour of the
growth is ascribed to the recruiting
effects of rest, by a fancied analogy
with the animal muscle, which is in-
vigorated by occasional inaction.

" But it is well known that land
which has been some years in grass
is improved in fertility. The con-
vertible system of husbandry takes
advantage of this fact ; and all its art
consists in reproducing a good pas-
ture without loss of time, after hav-
ing reaped the benefit of the fertility
imparted to tlie land during three or
four years when it was m grass.
Good pasture is very profitable ; so
are good crops : by making the one
subservient to the other, the farmer
who adopts the convertible system is
enabled to have a better profit than
those who adhere to a simple rota-
tion of annual crops.

" When an arable field is sown with
the seeds of grasses and other plants
which give herbage for cattle, it is
called an artificial meadow, and the
various plants which are raised are
all called artificial grasses, although
many of them have no botanical title
to the name of grass, such as clover,
sainfoin, lucern, and many others,
which produce the best pastures and
the finest hay.

" In laying dow^n a field to grass
for a very few years, the mode of
proceeding is somewhat different
from that which is recommended for
producing a permanent pasture. Glo-
verin this case is always a principal
plant, both the red and the white ;
these, with annual or perennial rye
grass, are sown with a crop of oats,
&c., in spring, and begin to show
themselves before harvest. The
grasses are often mown the first
year after they are sown, on account
of the abundance and value of the red
clover, but the best farmers recom-
mend depasturing them with sheep,
to strengthen the roots and increase
the bulk. Various circumstances,
such as a greater demand for clover
hay, or for fat cattle, may make mow-
ing or feeding most profitable ; but

GRA

GRA

wlicn there is not a decided advan-
tage in making hay, feeding should
always be preferred. At all events,
the great object of the farmer should
be to have his land in good heart and
tilth, and free from weeds, when the
grass is sown. If his grass be good,
he is certain of good crops after it,
with little trouble or manure."

The seeds to be sown on an acre,
when the land is laid down to grass,
are as follows : Red clover, eight
pounds ; Timothy, two pecks ; Ken-
tucky blue grass, five pounds ; white
clover, six pounds, or orchard grass,
two pecks ; rye grass, two pecks,
may be introduced. This is for a field
intended to remain four or five years
in grass.

" The introduction of artificial
meadows in districts where the soil
seemed not well adapted for pasture
has greatly increased the number of
cattle and sheep reared and fattened,
and has caused greater attention to
be paid to the means of improving
the breeds of both. Thus a double
advantage has arisen : the public is
benefited by an increased supply, and
the farmer is rewarded by an addi-
tional source of profit.

" In the neighbourhood of large
towns there are many meadows,
which, without being irrigated, are
mown every year, and only fed be-
tween hay harvest and the next
spring. These require frequent ma-
nuring to keep them in heart, and with
this assistance they produce great
crops of hay every year. Sometimes
the meadows are manured with sta-
ble dung which has been laid in a heap
for some time, and been turned over
to rot it equally. This is put on soon
after the hay is cut, and the rains
wash the dung into the ground ; but
if a very dry and hot summer follows,
little benefit is produced by the dung,
which is dried up, and most of the
juices evaporated. A better method
is to make a compost with earth and
dung, and, where it can be easily ob-
tained, with lime. The best earth is
that which contains most vegetable
matter ; and as many of these mead-
ows are on a stiff clay soil, which re-
Ge

quires to be kept dry by open drains
and water furrows, the soil dug out
of these and carted to a corner of the
meadow makes an excellent founda-
tion for the compost. It is sometimes
useful to plough furrows at intervals
to take off the superfluous surface
water in winter ; the earth thus rais-
ed by the plough is excellent to mix
in the compost ; having been turned
over with dung, sweepings of streets,
or any other manure, so as to form a
uniform mass, it is spread over the
land in winter ; and in spring a bush-
harrow is drawn over the meadow,
and it is rolled with a heavy roller.
When the meadow is moss bound, or
of a light soil, it may be dressed with
the clod crusher (roller) or with a
weighted harrow. All this compost
is soon washed into the ground, and
invigorates the roots of the grass. It
is better to put on a slight coating of
this compost every year than to give
a greater portion of manure every
three or four years, as is the practice
of some farmers. The grazing of
cattle has generally been a more prof-
itable occupation than simply tilling
the land. The capital required is con-
siderable, but the current expenses
are not great. Thegrazier is not sub-
ject to such total fadures as the farm-
er of arable land is in his crops. With
a little experience and prudence, he
can always reckon on a certain re-
turn. An acre of good grazing land
is supposed to produce 200 pounds of
meat in the year. By uniting the
raising of corn and the grazing of cat-
tle and sheep, the greatest profit is
probably obtained, and this is the
great argument in favour of the con-
vertible system of husbandry."

The foregoing is principally from
the Rev. W. L. Rham.

GRASSHOPPERS. The popular
name of the genus Gryllus, or lo-
custs. They are, for the most part,
devourers of herbage, numerous spe-
cies living on grass and the leaves of
trees. The method of destroying the
common meadow grasshoppers is, to
manure the grass immediately alter
cutting, and while the young insects
are abundant, with air-slacked lime,
349

GRA

gas-house liquor, salt, a watering of
whale oil soap, and similar bodies,
taking care not to destroy the herbage.

GRAYWACKE. Gray rock. An
old geological term for the gray tran-
sition rocks ; as gneiss, mica, slate,
&c.

GRAVEL. A geological forma-
tion or soil, consisting of rolled peb-
bles, loosely interspersed, more or
less abundantly, in a sandy or clayey
medium. It is of every degree of
fineness, chemical composition, and
value in farmmg. Those gravels
containing silicious pebbles chiefly,
and of a Targe size, are nearly unfit
for tillage, and the value increases
with the presence of slates, gran-
ites, hornblende, mica, marl, and clay.
They are usually very porous, drain-
ing water off rapidly, and cannot be
of much value, unless incumbent on
a subsoil that holds water at some
little depth. If the gravel be fertile,
it is usually warm and best adapted
for roots. Stiff marls, burned clay,
and an abundance of vegetable mat-
ter are to be used as manures.

Gravel is well adapted for forming
walks in gardens and the surface of
roads.

GRAVEL. In farriery, the forma-
tion of hard calculi or stones in the
bladder, or of a sandy sediment.

GRAVEOLENT. Fetid, having a
strong odour.

GRAVES, GREAVES. Mem-
branous matter left as refuse by the
tallow-melter ; it is used for feeding
dogs, and given to poultry. Graves
contains a large amount of fat, and
is admirably adapted for fattening
hogs, &c. ; it has been used, also, as
a manure ; 200 pounds interspersed
in stable manure may be added to
the acre ; but the most economical
plan will be to compost it in the nitre
bed. It is a nitrogen manure, 100
pounds yielding about 13 pounds of
ammonia, and being equal, in this
respect, to 1^ tons of farm-yard ma-
nure. The presence of sulphur and
phosphorus, besides bone earth, also
constitute it a manure applicable to
all rich crops ; as corn, wheat, to-
bacco, dec, the only consideration
350

GRA

being the economy of using so high-
priced an article. See Manures.

GRAVID. Pregnant.

G R A V I M E T E R (from gravis,
heavy, and fterpov, a measure). See
Hydrometer.

GRAVITATION, GRAVITY.
The tendency that masses have to
approach each other ; also called at-
traction of gravitation. The gravity
of a body is therefore the attraction
it extends towards other bodies ; it
increases with the bulk, density, and
nearness of bodies, being directly as
their density and mass, and inverse-
ly as the squares of their distances.
Weight, and the descent of all bodies
towards the earth's surface, is an ef-
fect of the earth's gravity, or terres-
trial gravitation.

GRAVITY, SPECIFIC. The ra-
tio of the weight of any solid or liquid
to the weight of an equal bulk of pure
water at 62' Fahrenheit. The spe-
cific gravity of gases is the ratio to
the weight of an equal volume of air
at the same temperature. If the sol-
id be lighter than water, the measure-
ment is made more indirectly.

How taken. — The specific gravity
of solids is taken by first weighing a
piece in air, and then weighing it im-
mersed in pure water, and dividing
the weight in air by the loss of weight
in water. Fluids are examined either
by filling a bottle known to contain
precisely 1000 grains of pure water,
up to a certain mark, and setting
down the weight, irrespective of that
of the bottle, as the specific gravity.
This is called the 1000 grain bottle.
Or an instrument called a hydrometer,
gravimeter, or areometer is immersed
in the fluid, and sinks to a certain
mark, which indicates the specific
gravity or density (see Hijdrometcr).
The gravity of gases is taken by first
exhausting a glass vessel of air by
the air pump, and then introducing
the particular gas, the weight of
which, irrespective of the glass, will
be the second proportional of the fol-
lowing series : As the weight of air
is to that of the gas, so is 1 to the
specific gravity of the gas ; that is,
the weight of the gas divided by that

GRA

GRA

of the air gives the specific gravity.
This operation is, however, of great
delicacy, for the gases must be per-
fectly dry.

The following numbers indicate
the specific gravities of several use-
ful bodies :

Acid, muriatic . . . r200

, nitric I 271

, , strongest . 1583

, sulphuric . . . 1850

Alcohol, absolute . . . 0 "97
Ammonia, solution . . 0875

Butter 0-943

Copal 1-045

Diamond 3521

jEther 0-632

Fat of beef 0-923

Glass, crown .... 2520

Marble . . .

Metals ;

Copper . . .

Gold . . .

Cast iron . .

Lead . . .

Mercury . .
Sheet platina

Potassium . .

Silver . . .

Steel . . .
Tin

2-760 Zinc

Milk ....
Nitre . . .
Oil, turpentine

, almond .

, hemp . .

, linseed

, olives .

, rape . .

Granite 2613

Gvpsum 2 288

Honey 1-450

Indigo 1-009

Ironstone 3 573

Ivory 1-825

Lard 0-947

Limestone 2366

GRAY DYES. These are usual-
ly light blacks. Ash gray is given to
30 lbs. wool by 1 lb. gall nuts, h lb.
crude tartar, and 2^ lbs. green vitriol.
Proceed as in dyeing blacks, in 80
lbs. water. Pearl graij, prepare the
first bath with sumach, with half log-
wood. Fustic gives a yellowish or
brown gray.

GRAZIER. A person engaged in
raising and fattening cattle. For the
practice of this business in the East-
ern and sea-board States, great judg-
ment is now become necessary, from
the facilities for grazing enjoyed by
the Western States. The following,
chiefly from the " Complete Grazier,''^
is worthy of attention :

" A man should know how beasts
ought to be formed ; should have a
quick eye for selecting tiiose with a
frame that is likely to produce weight ;
and a hand that should feel the known
indication of the probability of soon
becoming fat.

" An acre produces from 200 to
300 pounds of flesh annually in good
grass. In the opinion of the most
intelligent graziers, in stocking enclo-
sures, the cattle should be divided in
the following manner : Supposing
four fields, each containing a nearly
equal quantity of land, one of them
should be kept entirely free from
stock until the grass is got up to its

2-716

8-900

19 301

7-24S

11 352

13-598

22-069

0-865

10-510

7-816

7-291

7-191

1032

1-900

0-870

0 932

0926

0-940

0-915

0-913

O.I, ivhale 0-923

Slate, draw-ng . . . 2110

Spermaceti 0943

Sugar 1606

Sulphur 1-990

Wax 0-96t

Woods :

Apple 0-793

Ash 0-845

Beech 0 852

Box 1328

Campeachy 0 913

Cedar 0-596

Clieiry-tree .... 0-715

El)ony 1 331

Elm 0-671

Pine 0-550

Lignum vitae .... 1333

Poplar 0-383

Yew 0-783

full growth, when the prime or fat-
ting cattle should be put into it, that
they may get the best of the food ;
the second best should then follow ;
and after them either the working or
store stock, with lean sheep to eat
the pastures close down ; thus ma-
king the whole of the stock feed over
the four enclosures in this succession :

'< No. 1. Clear of stock, and reserv-
ed for the fattening beasts.

" No. 2. For the fattening beasts,
until sent to No. 1.

" No. 3. For the second best cat-
tle, until forwarded successively to
Nos. 2 and 1.

" No. 4. For stores and sheep to
follow the other cattle ; then to be
shut up until the grass is again ready,
as at No. 1, for the fattening beasts.

" By this expedient the fattening
cattle will cull the choicest parts of
the grass, and will advance rapidly to-
wards a state of maturity ; for they
should always have a full bite of
short and sweet grass, and with such
cattle the greatest care should be ta-
ken not to overstock the enclosures.
It is also advisable to divide the fat-
tening enclosure by fences, so as to
confine the beasts within one half of
it at a time, and to allow them the
other half at the other, so that they
may continually have fresh pasture.

" Shade and pure water are essen-
351

ORE

ORE

tially necessary, and where there are
no trees, rubbing-posts should be set
up to prevent the cattle from making
that use of the gates and fences. In
marsh land, which is chiefly divided
by ditches, this, indeed, should never
be neglected, as it is materially con-
ducive to their comfort."

GREASE. For carts, a mixture
of tar with refuse lard, butter, or fat
is commonly employed. Twenty
parts plumbago powder and eighty fat
form a good grease for this purpose.

GREASE IN HORSES. See Horse.

GREAVES. See Graves.

GREEN CROPS. Such crops,
roots, &c., as are fed off the land or
used in soihng, before becoming ripe
and fit for storage. When ploughed
into the ground, they form green fal-
lows.

GREEN DYE. This is produced,
in all its shades, by using a bath of
blue, and then yellow.

GREEN FALLOW. Green crops
ploughed into the soil.

GREEN GRASS. Probably Poa
angustifolia. An early and late pas-
ture grass, much esteemed in the
Eastern States. It bears water well,
but is occasionally subject to rust.
See Grasses.

GREEN-HOUSE. A conservato-
ry. This should be distinguished
from a hot-house, in which artificial
heat is used. It is covered with
glass either on one or both sides ; if
on one only, that should have a
southern aspect. Plants are stored
here in pots or frames, fruit-trees
trained against the wall, and the roof
partially covered with grape-vines.
They are used to protect tender
plants from winter, and advance the
ripening of fruits. An Orangery is a
place of deposite for orange and oth-
er trees set in pots, which produce
their shoots in summer, and are then
transferred to the open air. It does
not always have a glass roof, but is
frequently a pit dug in the soil on a
hill-side, and covered, the south side
of which only is glazed. In very se-
vere weather the glass of the green-
house may be covered with mats.

GREEN MANURES. • Manures
352

ploughed into the land in a fresh or
green state, especially green fallow
crops. The principal plants used for
this purpose are clover of various
kinds, buckwheat, grasses, oats, rye,
tares, various beans, lupins, spurry,
borage, and turnips running to flower :
young Indian corn, mustard, and, in-
deed, nearly all herbage the seeds of
which are not too expensive, have
been proposed.

But there are two points worthy
of consideration in the use of these
plants : 1st. That some improve the
soil much more rapidly than others,
viz., clovers, grasses, spurry, and
buckwheat. 2d. That an excess of
green matter turned into the soil is
disadvantageous, bringing on a ten-
dency to mildew ; it is best, there-
fore, to scatter lime over a green fal-
low, harrow it in, and sow the seed
within a few weeks, unless the soil
is very stiff; for the gaseous matter
given out by the decomposition of
the manures will be serviceable to
plants, and should not be lost. In
stiff soils make the fallow in the fall.

By this means lands are very rap-
idly brought up if they are merely
deficient in vegetable matter; the ex-
pense is also much less than by the
accumulation and spreading of other
manures. Sea-weeds, weeds cropped
from the soil, &c., are also called
green manures when ploughed into
the soil in the fresh state. Some
writers use the term green manure
for long or unfermented dung.

GREEN SAND. New-Jersey marl.
One of the upper secondary depos-
iles of geologists, consisting, for the
most part, of a sandy formation, the
grains of which are, however, much
softer than those of common sand,
and consist of silicate of iron chiefly ;
they are of several colours, from
greenish gray to deep green and olive.
It is extensively developed in the
United States, being found in the val-
ley of the Connecticut, southeastern
portion of New-Jersey, Delaware,
and Virginia.

Some portions of this deposite con-
tain from 7 to 12 per cent, of potash
combined with the silicate of iron.

GUI

This is particularly the case with 1
that in Monmouth and Burlington
counties, New-Jersey, and Newcastle
county, Delaware. Numerous pits
are, therefore, opened for the purpose
of reaching this deposite, called Marl,
•which has been found, in many instan-
ces, to produce remarkable fertility
when applied at the rate of 200 to
300 bushels on stitf clayey lands. In
selecting specimens, we are to exam-
ine the amount of green sands in it,
the fertility depending upon them ; for
the clay, common sand, and other im-
purities are of little importance. The
richest kinds are of a deep green in-
ternally, sometimes with an olive
tint, but the exterior becomes gray-
ish and covered with a slight efflores-
cence ; it is also readily crushed.
The following analysis of a specimen
from Monmouth county will give the
particulars of its composition per
cent. :

Silica 50-00

Alumina 7'00

Protoxide of iron .... 22-00

Potash 11 00

Lime 100

Magnesia a trace

Water 9 00

100-00

The potash here is combined with
silica, but their union is readily de-
stroyed by the carbonic acid of the
soil, which rapidly forms carbonate
of potash.

This manure is peculiarly applica-
ble to grass, oats, wheat, corn, and
the Cerealia generally ; it will also be
serviceable to roots growing on a
stiffish soil. It may not, however,
pay the expenses of long transporta-
tion, a small quantity of ashes repla-
cing it in the compost heap.

GREENSTONE. A species of
trap consisting of feldspar and horn-
blend. It is a fused and intruded rock.

GREEN VITRIOL. Sulphate of
protoxide of iron. It is styptic, emet-
ic, and much used in dyeing and ink-
making.

GREYHOUND. A coursing dog,
remarkable for his swiftness and
symmetry.

GREYWACKE. Gramcacke.

GRIP. A small drain.
G Q 2

GUA

GRIPES. Colic. See Horse and
Ox.

GRIT. A hard sandstone, usually
coarse, used for mill-stones and pave-
ments.

GROATS, or GRITS. Oats pre-
pared by hulling.

GROIN. In architecture, the junc-
tion of two arches.

GROSSULARIA. The generic
name of the currant and gooseberry.

GROUND-BAIT. Balls made of
grain, graves, bran, lentils, mixed
with clay, and thrown in those parts
of a pond or river where angling is
carried on.

GROUND-CHERRY. Several va-
rieties of Physalis, a weed.

GROUND-NUT. Apios tuherosa.
A leguminous plant, with a perennial
root, bearing small tubers of one half
an inch, which are esculent. It is
indigenous in the Middle States, and
has been recommended for culture.
For the common ground-pea, see Fin-
dars.

GROUNDSEL. The genus Scne-
cio : composite plants, annual, bitter,
and purgative.

GROUT. In building, mortar made
fluid with water. Plaster used for
finishing walls. Mortar used in fixing
foundations.

GRUBBER. A strong hoe for
tearing up the roots of shrubs and
trees.

GRUBS. Worms, maggots. The
pupa of earth worms. They often
infest new lands, and are to be rem-
edied by heavy liming, a dose of salt
of fifteen bushels to the acre, and
frequent stirring and exposure of the
soil to frost.

GRUID.E. Birds which wade like
the crane {^rus).

GRYLLID.E. A family of locusts,
resembling the Grijllus.

GUAIACUM. A resin obtained
from the Guaiacum officinale, a West
Indian tree. It is little used in medi-
cine for rheumatism.

GUANO. The changed dung of
sea-fowl, of a brown colour and urin-
ous smell, collected on islands off the
coast of Peru and Southwestern Af-
rica. Its composition differs : thus,
353

CUANO.

by my analysis, made for tlie Ameri-
can Agricultural Association of New-
York, the Peruvian contains,

Uric acid 10-5

Ammonia 190

Phosphoric acid 14-0

Linic and magnesia 16'U

Salts of soda and potash .... 60
Oxalic acid, with carbonic and mu-
riatic acids 13'0

Water 13 0

Sand 20

Volatile and organic matters . . . 6"5

10000

The African, from Ichaboe,

Ammonia 135

Humic acid 4 0

Phosphates 250

Oxalic. &c., acids 20 0

Salts of soda, &c 70

Water and volatile matter .... 27-5

Sand 3.0

umio
These examinations indicate fair
samples : the African seldom con-
tains uric acid, and is therefore infe-
rior, especially in the permanence of
its effects. Uric acid, in its decay,
produces carbonates of ammonia.
The African is, however, most solu-
ble, and acts rapidly. The speci-
mens are to be valued by the amount
ofammonia they yield in decay. Gua-
no sells at from $35 to $50 the ton,
and is now somewhat extensively
used.

The African being soluble to the
extent of 40 percent., is better adapt-
ed for watering plants, and where
very rapid growth is wanted. The
Peruvian, on the other hand, acts for
a longer time, and is better calculated
for crops which continue to grow vig-
orously during many weeks. The
two will probably produce very sim-
ilar effects for one crop ; but the Pe-
ruvian is much more active on the
second crop.

Crops to which it may he applied. —
It is hardly necessary to slate that
the apphcation may be made to ev-
ery crop, for experiments are already
multiplied with nearly every common
plant or tree : to enumerate a few is
sufficient. Wheat, corn, grass, the
cerealia, sugar-cane, tobacco, coffee,
apple, pear, and other fruit trees, flow-
ers, cabbages, turnips, and other cru-
ciferous plants ; the experiments are
354

fewest on leguminous plants. But
the etrect of guano will not be equal
on all ; for those plants requiring
most stable manure, such as tobacco,
turnips, and corn, are more benefited
than grass, oats, or such as require
less, the chief effect of the manure
being due to the quantity of the am-
monia it contains. The reason gua-
no is serviceable to all plants ari-
ses from its containing every saline
and organic matter they require as
food.

Kinds of Soil to which it may be
applied. — It is used beneficially on
all soils ; for, as it contains every
element necessary to plants, it is in-
dependent of the quality of the soil —
one great point being attended to, that
the land be in good tilth; for other-
wise the tender roots of the vegeta-
ble find an obstruction to free growth,
and are crippled. Poor, well-tilled
soils exhibit most increase by guano,
for in them some essential to the
growth of plants is more likely to be
absent.

Amount to be applied. — On wheat
250 pounds per acre will be an aver-
age for a fair soil, 300 pounds per
acre for one that is poor, and 200 for
a good soil. Corn, potatoes, turnips,
cabbages, and garden vegetables will
require 300 pounds on fair lands ; but
the amount may be diminished by 50
pounds if two applications are made
instead of one. For grass, rye, and
oats 200 pounds will be enough.

Time and Mode of Application. —
Seeds may be prepared by soaking in
a solution of a quarter of a pound of
guano to the gallon of water, and this
will answer for a first manuring, if
they are left sufficiently long to ex-
hibit signs of germination. Wheat and
other small grains should be steeped
in this solution about sixty hours,
corn about one hundred hours. Thus
steeped, the seeds of smut will also
be destroyed. Half the quantity to
be used when the plant has fairly
started, and is in second leaf. By
this timely addition, the eflfects of
many insects are avoided, and the
seedling at once takes on a robust
habit. The remaining half should be

GUD

applied to the small grain crops when
they are throwing out new stems, or
tillering ; to corn, as the tassel ap-
pears, or at the second hoeing, and
so with other hoed crops. This ap-
plication should be made, therefore,
at the latest period of working, and
as nearly before flowering as practi-
cable. The guano should be sowed
with a mi.xture of fine soil, gypsum,
or charcoal, to give it bulk, and di-
vide the particles. No lumps should
be thrown among the plants, for they
burn them ; and where an extensive
application is to be made, it is better
to screen the manure and pound the
lumps. In sowing, reach the soil, if
possible, for it is unserviceable to
sprinkle it on the plants, and frequent-
ly destroys them. Select a season
when the land is wet or moist, or
when rain may be expected, for in
dry weather the guano does not an-
swer well, or even does injury. But
if the crop suits, always prefer ma-
nuring the plant or hill ; do this while
hoeing ; less guano is thus used, and
more certain effects result. One ta-
blespoonful to the hill of corn, tobac-
co, potatoes, &.C., is an abundance for
each application. If a solution be
preferred, mix one pound in ten gal-
lons of water, and water sparingly
with this on the soil, and not o?i the
plants, at the limes before mentioned,
taking care to stir up the insoluble
portion when applied. For this pur-
pose, the African variety wall be most
suitable ; or, where rapid growth is
wanted, irrespective of seed, the clear
solution may be applied, the insolu-
ble matter (phosphates, &c.), being
reserved for wheat and corn. Guano
may be composted with common soil,
or anything but lime and unleachcd
ashes, for these liberate the free am-
monia, and thus diminish the effects
of the manure.

Value, compared with other Ma-
nures.— So far as the experiments in
England and Scotland may be addu-
ced, one cwt. of guano is equal to
about five tons of farm-yard manure
on an average ; but it is much high-
er for turnips than for grass, &c.
GUDGEONS. " In machinery, the

Gtrsi

pins inserted in the extremities of a
shaft, or the axle of a w-heel, on which
it turns, and which support the whole
weight. In order to diminish friction,
gudgeons are made as small as pos-
sible in diameter, leaving, however,
sufficient strength to support the
weight. They are frequently formed
of cast iron, on account of its cheap-
ness ; but wrought iron of the same
dimensions is considerably stronger,
and will support a greater load."

GUINEA CORN. Egyptian corn 1
Indian corn.

GUINEA FOWL. See Poultry.
GUINEA GRASS. JAMAICA
GRASS. Panicum polygamum. A
valuable perennial grass, thus denom-
inated, as it was first discovered on
the coast of Guinea. It was brought
to Jamaica, where it is now exten-
sively cultivated, and forms the means
by which so much cattle is raised
there. It grows from four to six feet
high. Cattle eat it, both in a fresh
and dry state, with great avidity.

" In spring," says Mr. Lawrence,
of South Carolina, " I procured from
Jamaica three half pints of Guinea
grass seed, which I planted in the
drills of one fourth part of an acre of
very indifferent land ; the seed sprung
up and soon covered the ground with
grass four feet high and upward. Be-
ing desirous of saving as much seed
as possible, I cut one bundle of grass
for the horses : they ate it all with
great avidity.

" In August I took one of the grass
roots and divided it into twenty-
eight parts, which were immediate-
ly replanted ; every part took root,
and the whole are now growing very
finely and seeding. I am of opinion
this grass will make the best pasture
i we can wish for. From former ex-
! perience, I have reason to believe the
I Guinea grass is perennial. It is ea-
sily managed, requires but one good
hoeing, after which it will take care
' of itself"

GUINEA PEPPER. Common red
pepper. Capsicum annuum.

GUINEA PIG, or CAVY. Cavia
cobaija. A small rodent animal of six
J or seven inches in length, light colour,
353

oi:m

GYP

and herbivorous ; a native of South
America. It is considered a delicacy
in Italy ; the skin is also valuable.
The female brings forth from ten to
fourteen young at a litter, carries
young three weeks, and bears every
two months in warm weather. 'J'hey
are very cleanly, and cannot endure
cold.

GULA. The region of the throat
nearest, the lower jaw.

GUM. A concrete juice, the prod-
uct of most vegetables. There are
many varieties, all reducible to two
kinds : soluble, or true gums, which
dissolve in water, forming mucilage,
and are insoluble in alcohol ; and in-
soluble, or tragacanth gums, which
soften and swell in water, but are not
soluble. It consists of Ci.o Hio Om,
and is readily converted into grape
sugar by the action of dilute sulphu-
ric acid. It is an aliment similar to
sugar and starch, serving to sustain
animal heat, and probably to produce
fat. It so nearly resembles starch
that has been heated until slightly
brown, that the difference between
them in physical qualities is scarce-
ly apparent. The yolk of wool is
sometimes called gum. See Yolk.

Fruit-trees often exude gum : this is
considered a disease, and may arise
from the punctures of insects ; but,
according to some, is also an indica-
tion of a poor soil, requiring putres-
cent manures. Various names, as
Bassortn, Arabin, Ccrasin, &c., are
given to specimens of gum from dif-
ferent trees.

GUM RESIN. A concrete juice,
obtained in various ways from plants,
partly soluble in water, and partly in
alcohol, as gamboge, aloes.

GUNNEY BAGS. Coarse. sack-
cloth, made in the East Indies for
packing.

GUTTA SERENA. Blindness
without loss of transparency in the
eye.

GYMNOCARPI (from yv/ivoc, na-
ked, and KapTToc, a fruit). The second
division of Persoon's Fungi, including
those that have their sporules in an
exposed dilated membrane or hyme-
nium, as Agancus, Boletus, Helvella.
356

GYMNOSPERMIA, GYMNO-
SPERMS (from yvfivo^, and oTzepfia, a
seed). Plants having naked seeds ; at
present this feature is said to be pe-
culiar to the Conifer a and Cycadcce.
Linnffius erroneously made it an order
of Didijnamia. The seeds of gymno-
sperms are, in truth, situated in car-
pels imperfectly closed, the aggregate
of which forms the cone.

GYNANDRIA (from yvvrj, a wom-
an, and avr]p, a man). A Linnsean
class, in which the stamens and pistil
are consolidated into a column. It
consists principally of the Orchidacea.

GYNOPHORE (from yvvt], and
(pepu, I bear). The stalk on which
some ovaria are elevated, as in the
passion flower.

GYPSUM. Native sulphate of
lime, found chiefly in the tertiary and
new red sandstone. It occurs crys-
talline, fibrous, and massive. Com-
mon plaster of Paris consists of lime,
33 ; sulphuric acid, 46 ; and water,
21 per cent. ; it is soluble in 400 parts
water. By heating to redness, the
water is partly driven off, but the sul-
phate is unchanged ; the heated or
boiled plaster is used as cement for
plastering and moulding ; it is objec-
tionable in agriculture, from setting
as a hard crust upon moist stems or
leaves. The ground plaster is used
extensively in husbandry, and is very
advantageous to clovers, beans, lu-
cern, and leguminous crops generally ;
on turnips and cabbages it is also ser-
viceable. The dose is from one to
five bushels, scattered broad-cast in
the morning or evening upon growing
plants soon after cropping, &c. It
does not seem to answer on natural
meadows, cerealia, umbelliferous, or
chenopodaceous plants, or on wet
places, very poor lands, or near the
seacoast. It is most serviceable on
new and manured soils.

Gypsum powder is extensively
used in composts in stables, putres-
cent manures, and urine tanks, as it
absorbs and fixes some portion of
the volatile ammonia, converting it
into the sulphate ; it is not, however,
so good for these purposes as green
vitriol.

IIAC

Gypsum undoubtedly acts chiefly
by supplying plants with sulphur, as
was suggested by Davy. M. Boussin-
gault, however, seems to believe that
it does no more good than the same
amount of mild lime. It is not of
itself a specilic manure for all soils,
but is serviceable from the general
poverty of lands in sulphur. Ashes
of peat and other plants contain from
three to fi%'e per cent, of sulphate of
lime.

GYRATE. Twisted round in cir-
cles. Gyrate (Estivation.

GYRI (from joipof, a circle). The
annular series of scales on the tails
of some quadrupeds.

GYROGONITES. Fossil seed-
vessels of Characea.

H.

HABITAT. In natural history,
the natural abode of animals, plants,
&c.

HACK. The roadster, or horse
of all work.

HACKBERRY, HAGBERRY.
Cellis crasstfolia. A tree chiefly
abundant in the central Western
States, also called hoop-ash. In Del-
aware and the Middle States it is not
a large tree, but in Ohio sometimes
attains eighty feet. The wood is
white, but soft, light, and decays rap-
idly : it is used for fences in Ohio
and Kentucky. The Indians use it
for baskets. It is of very rapid
growth.

HACKLE. A board set with iron
spikes for pulling to pieces hemp or
flax. An artificial fly used by an-
glers.

HACKMATACK. The American
larch. There are two species {Larix
■pcndula and L. microcarpa). They are
principally found in Canada and New-
foundland, but exist scattered in the
Northern and Eastern States. They
are so nearly alike as to be consider-
ed varieties, attain 100 feet height by
three diameter, are straight, and pro-
duce strong and durable timber su-
perior to the European larch or any
American pine. They are esteemed
admirable timber in Canada, and used
in Mame for ship knees. They are

HAL

very similar in habits and appearance
to the European larch.

H.E.MATITE. Iron ore.

H-EMATOSIN (from uiiMa, blood).
The red colouring matter of blood.

H.^MATOXYLIN (from (li,ua,
and ^vlov, wood). The red dye ex-
tracted from logwood.

HAEMORRHAGE (from di/ia, and
payTj, rent). A flow of blood, either
from an accident or from a full state
of body. In the case of wounds, if
severe, it may proceed from a torn
artery that should be tied with a lig-
ature. Constitutional ha3morrhages
require blood-letting and a low diet.

HEMORRHOIDS. Piles. As-
tringent ointments are useful in com-
mon cases.

HAIL. Atmospheric water con-
gealed into lumps of some size, often
measuring an inch across. It is al-
together different from snow, in oc-
curring during the spring and sum-
mer. Hail is produced only during
violent winds, which carry a great
deal of moisture into the upper re-
gions of the air, where it becomes
solidified by extreme cold. In Eu-
rope losses from hail can be met by
insurance in companies founded in
the same way as those against fire.

HAINHAULT SCYTHE. See
ScT/lhe.

HAIR. Slender tubes of animal
matter analogous to horn. It is an
admirable non-conductor of heat.

Refuse hair ranks as a manure
with skin or glue, producing the same
results by decay : woollen rags are the
most familiar kind used in this way.

HAIRS. In botany, transparent
tubes of cellulose inserted into the
epidermis ; they are totally dissimi-
lar from animal hairs, in containing
no nitrogen. Cotton is an instance
of hairs attached to seeds.

HAIR GRASS. The genus Aria.

HALCYONID-E. A family of fis-
sirostral birds, of which the kingfish-
er is the type.

HALESIA. The snow-drop tree

(H. tctraptcra) ; ornamental trees of

South Carolina, introduced into the

I shrubberies of the Middle States.

I HALHYDRATES. Salts in which

357

HAR

liAR

the combined water of the acid be-
comes a component of the salt.

H A I. O G E N (from a?.f, a sail)-
Bodies which unite directly with met-
als, without any previous oxidation,
and form salts, as chlorine, sulphur,
fluorine : their compounds are term-
ed Haloid salts.

HALTICA. A genus of small
coleopterous insects, remarkable for
their readiness in leaping. The tur-
nip flea is a familiar species.

HAM. The thick part of the leg.
See Hog.

HAMES. The wooden or iron col-
lar pieces to which the traces are at-
tached.

HAMMER BEAM. A horizontal
timber from or near, but above the
foot of a rafter, acting as a tie.

HAMSTER. Muscricctus. A kind
of rat found in the north of Europe,
which makes extensive stores of food.

HAND. A measure of four inch-
es, used in estimating the height of
horses. The fore leg of a horse or
other animal.

HARD WATER. Water contain-
ing salts of lime, especially gypsum.
It is softened by adding a little soda-
ash or ammonia.

HARICOTS. See Beans.

HARE. The genus Lc;>us, herbiv-
orous rodents, often a great annoy-
ance to farmers. They are readily
taken in traps.

HARL. The refuse skin of flax
and hemp.

HARNESS. The gearing of hor-
ses. It should fit well, or galls are
produced. The harnessing of steers
has been recommended to obtain more
effective labour.

HARRIERS. A breed of dogs used
for hunting hares.

HARPALUS. A genus of prcda-
ceoHs coleopterans.

HARROW. The common form
of this implement is a triangle or
rhomboid, set with straight iron spikes
four or more inches long ; these tear
the surface recently ploughed, pul-
verizing the lumps, and covering seed
slightly. The frame is of ash or oak,
but sometimes of iron. Other har-
rows, with curved teeth, for tearing
358

out and carrying along weeds, are
also used, called extirpators, or scar-
ifiers. See Cultivator. The expand-
ing harrow, in which the distance of
the bolts of the frame can be set ac-
cording to circumstances, is a conve-
nient instrument.

The following, from Mr. Geddes, is
thought an excellent instrument. The

'il|i!| I i '111

sketch is on a scale of one fourth of
an inch to the foot :

" Description. — Timber, three inch-
es square.

" The side pieces should enter the
centre pieces so that the acute angle
will contain thirty-five degrees ; or
the bevel may be found by laying a
carpenter's square on a board, and
measuring on one side of the corner
three inches, and on the other two
inches and one twelfth of an inch ; a
line drawn through these points will
make a triangle, having the smaller
angle, that is, the angle at the point
where the three inches reached — the
angle required.

" The tenons should enter the cen-
tre pieces only one inch, the mortice
and tenon being cut square with the
centre pieces, as shown in the en-
graving. If this joint is well made,
the bolt passing through both sticks
will keep the timber in place perfect-
ly, the side pieces have each three
bolts, X, X, X, passing through the
middle, to prevent their splitting. The
back hinge is made of Swede's iron,
bolted, at A, B, C, D, E, F, on the tim-
ber with half inch bolts. These bolts

HAR

HAR

should be well made, and have large I nowed and stored in granaries, and

heads on the lower end, as ifanything
breaks, it probably will be these bolts

" The forward hinge is made with
Swede's iron, and bolted on the top
of the timber, with three bolts in each
side of the hinge.

" The hook plays freely in an eye

the straw is reserved till winter, when
it forms the chief fodder of liorses
and cattle. In tiiese regions the har-
vest is a continued feast ; no unge-
nial weather disappoints the hopes of
the husbandman ; but in northern
climates, where the harvest is later,

on the end of a rod, made of round I and cold rains and storms are fre-

iron, five eighths of an incii in diame-
ter, which runs through both hinges,
having a washer, nut, and spring key
behind the back hinge. The eyes in
the hinges should be the thickness of
the iron above the timber, conse-
quently the rod running through the
eyes will be that much above the
timber.

" The hinges should be four and a
half feet apart from centre to centre.

" The centre pieces should be one
inch apart.

" The side pieces should be twelve
or thirteen inches apart in the clear,
measuring square across.

" The four teeth in the centre pie-
ces require to be made straight on
one side, instead of having the point
in the centre, as their places are near
the sides of the timber.

" The teeth should be seven eighths
of an inch square, and thirty to the
harrow."

The common bueh harrow, con-
sisting of a bundle of bushes fastened

quent in autumn, the ingenuity is oft-
en taxed to save the corn from being
entirely spoiled, after it has been sev-
ered from the ground ; roomy barns
are erected to secure it in the straw
till it can be thrashed.

" To lessen the casualties of har-
vest, the experienced husbandman
endeavours to arrange the time of
sowing each kind of grain so as to
ensure its coming to maturity in a
regular succession. Thus he has
more time to attend to the precau-
tions of which experience has taught
him the utility ; and if the duration
of harvest is longer, there is less dan-
ger of all his crops being spoiled by
a wet season.

" It was long the custom through
the whole of the north of Europe to
store all the produce of the farm into
barns, especially the corn ; and it was
thought that as soon as the sheaves
were collected under a roof all dan-
ger was past. The increase of the
produce raised on most lands by an
improved system of agriculture gave

to an iron chain, or woven mto an

old gate or wooden frame, is much rise to the practice of stacking corn
used for rubbing seeds into the soil. [ in the open air, and securing it by a
When the shrubs are thorny, it an- 1 covering of thatch. It was soon
swers to scarify natural meadows af- [ found that the grain thus stored in
ter manure is applied. The Fig. on p. ; the straw was better preserved than
120 represents a simple bush harrow, j that which was in the barn ; and the

HARTSHORN SPIRIT. Solution
of ammonia. See Nitrogen.

HARVEST. "In those southern
climates where the heat and want of
moisture are not too great for the

mvention of stone or cast-iron pillars
as supports for the frames on which
the grain was stacked, not only se-
cured it from the depredations of ver-
mm, but kept it in a much drier state

growth of corn, the only care of the I tlian when the stacks were made on
farmer is to procure hands sufficient ! the ground. This was a great im-

to reap it. The heat of the sun and
air soon dry the straw and harden the
grain. A spot is levelled in the field,
and the corn is thrashed out imme-
diately, either by the tread of cattle
driven over it, or by the flails of nu-
merous thrashers. The corn is win-

provement ; and now, in the best-
managed farms, the only barns re-
quired are those in which the corn is
thrashed ; and if there is sufficient
room to hold the contents of ono
stack of the usual dimensions, it is
all that is absolutely required.

359

HAR

HAW

" It may be admitted as a general i pointing downward, will not long re-
Tule in reaping, to cut the straw as tain the wet.

near to the ground as possible : this
is best done by an instrument called
a cradle scythe, which mows the straw,
and collects it so as to be readily
gathered into sheaves.

" The Hainault scythe has a very
short handle, and is used with one
hand, while the other collects the
straw into a sheaf by means of a large
hook at the end of a wooden rod. It
is a most useful instrument, and great-
ly preferable to the fagging-hook ; it
cuts more straw at each stroke, and
is less fatiguing to the reaper, be-
cause his position is nearly upright
when he uses it. In many places it
is not usual to tie up any corn into
sheaves, except rye, wheat, and beans.
Barley and oats are usually mown,
raked into heaps, and carried into the
stack or barn when dry, like hay ; but
this is a slovenly practice, which
should not be recommended. With
good tillage and proper manuring the
straw of barley and oats will be strong,
and of sufficient length to require be-
ing tied up into sheaves ; and much
less of the grain is shaken out and
lost in this way than by the usual
method.

" In rainy seasons it frequently
happens that the sheaves remain a
long time in the field before they are
sufficiently dry to be carried and
stacked. If the ears are not secured
from the wet, they become soaked,
and the grain sprouts in the ear.
This is a great loss ; for sprouted
grain is very inferior, and can only
be sold at a low price. A little atten-
tion will often prevent the bad effisct
of rains. In some places six or eight
sheaves are set up in a circle, with
the butt-ends diverging, so as to admit
the air to circulate among them ; a
sheaf is opened by spreading out the
ears, and is placed, inverted, over the
ears which lean against each other,
forming a truncated cone. Thus the
butt-end of the top sheaf is the only
part in which the rain can lodge ;
and the first sunshine will soon dry
this : the rain runs off the sides of
the inverted sheaf, and the ears,
360

" When the stack is building, the
butts of the sheaves are placed out-
ward, and project gradually over the
sides of the frame, and over one an-
other, so as to build the stack in the
form of a bowl, with a cone or pyra-
mid over it, according as the frame
is round or square ; this is carefully
thatched with straw, and the outer
surface is cut smooth by means of
shears. This not only saves all the
ears which chance to lie outward,
and which would have become the
prey of birds, but it also prevents the
rain from beating into the stack and
injuring the corn. It may then be
considered as safe.

"Where there are no raised frames,
and the stack is built on the ground,
or on a bottom made of fagots to
keep it dry, a belt of plastering or
stucco is sometimes laid, a foot wide,
round the stack, about 18 inches from
the ground, after the surface has been
cut quite smooth and even. This
contrivance is intended to prevent
the rats from lodging in the stack,
and it is very effective. A frame
made entirely of iron, and supported
upon iron columns, has lately been
invented. It may readily be taken to
pieces and put together again when
it is wanted. The advantage of it
is, that it is cheaper and more easily
moved than any other, and it is very
convenient for a temporary purpose."
—{W. L. Rham.)

HASTATE. A descriptive term in
botany : shaped like the old halbert.
HATCHEL. A carding-comb or
hackle.

HAUGH. Meadow or pasture land.
HAUSTELLATES. Insects fur-
nished with a proboscis for suction.
HAWK. The genus Falco. They
prey upon birds. IMartens and crows
are remarkable enemies to the hawk .
species.

HAULM. The stalks of pease and
beans, chiefly.

HAWTHORN. Mcspilus oxyacan-
tha. This thorny shrub or small tree
is also called whitethorn, May, and
quickset. It is abundantly used in

HAY

HAY

England as a hedge plant ; with prop-
er trimming it forms a dense growth,
and its thorns protect the plant from
destruction by cattle. Tlie seeds of
the previous year are kept in wet
sand during the winter, and sown in
spring in drills in a light soil to pro-
cure plants. The seedlings may be
set out in two years, and by a little
care will form a hedge in three to
five more. Many native thorns would
answer equally well.

HAY. Grass or clovers cut and
cured for cattle. Well-cured meadow
hay, seasoned with one peck of salt
to the load, is the standard of fodder
for cattle and horses ; about 30 lbs.
daily is allowed as suitable' food for
a horse or ox in work. Boussin-
gault found that the average amount
of flesh-making food in good meadow
hay was 7 per cent., but that after-
math sometimes contained as much
as 12, and hay from wet places as
little as 6 per cent. There is a prej-
udice against after-math, probably ari-
sing from its being cured in an infe-
rior manner to grass of the first crop.
Mow-burned hay is pecuUarJy inju-
rious to horses.

It is the result of the experience
of many French farmers that grass
and clover are much more nutritious
wlien given in the green state than
when dry, if the same amount of food
be contained in both parcels, or omit-
ting the water. The conversion of
these and other herbs into hay is at-
tended with a fermentation which
reduces the amount oi flesh substance
tliey contain.

Horses require as much water as
hay when fed on it only ; but the prac-
tice is beginning to be extended of
steeping the hay in water for an hour
before feeding, by which animals are
induced to feed much cleaner. Hay
tea is made by introducing the hay
into hot or boiling water, but this
does not seem to be better than mere-
ly saturating it with fluid by steeping,
and giving the water, as well as the
hay, to the animals.

Large quantities of hay are shipped
from the Northern and Northwestern
States for the South ; it is pressed by
Hii

screws into trusses, and bound with
cords and slips of wood.

HAY-MAKING. The first point
IS the proper season to cut the grass
or clover ; this would seem, in the
case of some grasses, to be a doubt-
ful question, as the quantity is very
much increased when the crop is in
seed ; but usually the rule is to cut
when in full flower; by this means
more and better hay is obtained, and
the soil is less exhausted.

There are two ways of making hay :
1st. By laying the swath to dry thor-
oughly, turning it during the day, or
even tedding or spreading it abroad
thinly. This is, towards evening,
collected in small cocks ; these are
spread out the next day into wind-
rows and turned, again put up into
larger cocks towards night, and ex-
posed the third day before being ta-
ken to the mow or stack. By this
means the grass is thoroughly dried,
but the plan is very tedious and un-
successful where succulent plants
like clover are to be made into hay.

The second and approved plan is to
allow the swath to be turned and
withered, piling the grass, &c., in
smaU cocks of 200 lbs. by midday, if
cut before breakfast ; in this situa-
tion a sweating process or fermenta-
tion occurs, attended by heat and an
exudation of moisture, which tends
to cure the hay rapidly. The next
morning, the cocks should be exam-
ined, and if the heat is abated the
grass may be tedded for a short time,
and carried to the stack or barn by
noon. It is here to be stacked with
from one to three pecks of salt to the
ton, will heat again slightly, but, if not
too green, cures beautifully, affording
very fine hay. Some farmers prefer
putting it in stack with strata of good
straw, especially in the case of clo-
ver ; heat is thus avoided and the
straw enriched as food ; it also saves
some of the salt.

By this process, broad-cast corn
and other green, succulent stems can
be cured, if sufficient time be given
them to sweat.

Hay is often put up into tempora-
ry stacks, and removed after a few
361

HAY

HAY

days, or at a convenient season, into
larger masses : in Enf^land the stack
often contains forty or more tons ; it
is carefully thatched, and portions
cut out by a Inife for use. Tlie cu-
bic yard of stacked hay weighs ICO
to 180 lbs., and, when old, 200 lbs.

After-math is usually depastured,
the manure dropped answering to ad-
vance the next crop if properly scat-
tered. In some parts of France and
Germany the green grass is thrown
into pits with one bushel of salt to
the load, and allowed to ferment ; it
is afterward closed in with boards,
and earth placed upon them ; thus a
kind of sour kraut hay is formed,
which, it is said, cattle prefer.

HAY-MAKING MACHINES. An
instrument to scatter, or ted, is much
used in Europe : it consists of a frame
of many spokes supported on an axle
•with two wheels ; the frames carry
curved teeth like rakes, and revolve
with the wheels ; the rakes carry for-
ward the hay and scatter it thorough-
ly. It is drawn by a horse.

The Horse Rake is a large rake
made of wood, and six to ten feet
long, before which a horse is hitched ;
it is furnished with a couple of han-
dles behind to enable a man to lift it
up when necessary.

Revolving Hay Rakes are made on
various plans, of which the following
appears the simplest.

This rake consists of two heads, A,
A, and two sets of teeth, B. B ; the
heads being connected together by
connecting rods, C, C, and end bars,
D, D. The end bars also form a
groove in which the slide pin (K, in
the end view) moves from one head
to the other every time the rake re-
volves. The horse is attached to the
rake by hooking the trace chains, G,
H, into staples driven into the under
side of the cross bar, F, F. The
rake is held by the teeth, which serve
for handles when they are up, and
for teeth when on the ground.

HAY PRESS. The following is
a convenient form ; it is sometimes
called Lampman's press.

It consists of four upright posts
strongly framed together, within
which is a chamber of stout plank
of the size of the intended bundle of
hay. The press is firmly fixed be-
tween the lofts of a barn, the hay be-

HED

ing thrown in above, and the horse
power applied to the sweep (8) and
screw (6) below. The sides of the
chamber are opened to remove the
pressed hay by doors hung upon roll-
ers (18), and the upward pressure of
the screw is resisted by a strong cap
(4), which is pushed backward or for-
ward at pleasure.

HAY KNIFE. It consists of a
stout blade furnished with a handle
at right angles, or, in another form,
of a blade somewhat like a spade, the
handle being above, and the cut made
by pressing downward.

HAY STACK, or RICK. See
Stack.

HAY TEA. The infusion made
by pouring boiling water over hay ; it
is said to replenish the udders of
cows, cause horses to stale freely,
and to be verv nutritious.

HAZEL. See Filbert.

HEADING TREES. The opera-
tion of cutting down the stem or
main shoot, to diminish the height
and cause the tree to throw out hori-
zontal or bearing limbs.

HEAD LANDS. The places
where the plough turns in ploughing.

HEART. The central hollow
muscle which receives the blood and
drives it over the system.

HEART WOOD. The central,
old, and coloured wood of trees : it is
the most durable. The duramen.

HEAT. See Caloric.

HEATH. Waste lands covered
with heath plants, species o{ Erica.

HEAVY SPAR. Sulphate of ba-
rytes ; it has a specific gravity of 4 1
to 4 6, and is used to adulterate
white-lead.

HECKLE. An instrument for sep-
arating the fibres of flax. See Flax.

HECTIC FEVER. A fever oc-
curring in debilitated persons.

HEDGE. A row of small trees or
shrubs, properly pruned, and serving
as a fence between fields. The haw-
thorn, Virginia thorn, holly, buck-
thorn, Osage orange, red cedar, ar-
bour vitae, form good hedges, espe-
cially the first four ; the honey locust,
privet, pyrus japonica, elder, and oth-
er plants are also occasionally used.

HED

The young plants, at two to three
years old, are to be removed from the
nursery to the hedgerow, either in the
fall or early spring, the tops being
pruned away. The line of hedge
should be first well ploughed and pre-
pared ; it will be of service to enrich
it with well-rotted peat, mould, or
manure ; it may be two feet wide,
and if the soil is not very well drained,
a ditch, one foot deep, may be dug on
each side, and the earth cast up on the
middle. The plants are to be weed-
ed, and pruned in the fall to one third
their height, and afterward managed
by foreshortening untd of sufficient
height and bushy ; they may be placed
in quincunx order, and somewhat in
clined across the ground of the hedge.
While young, the plants are to be
protected from cattle by fencing. Old
hedges which have become too tall,
or show little verdure, may be re-es-
tablished by cutting a part of the
main stems to the soil, and allowing
the stools to throw up new shoots.
In this kind of trimming, the stems
are to be cut upward with the bill,
and not downward, for, in the latter
case, the stem is often split ; water
lodges and rots it, in some measure.

Worn-out hedges do not succeed
if replanted with the same trees ; a
new line must be chosen or new trees
used. In repairing gaps, it is often
necessary in an old hedge to plant
dissimilar shrubs, or to cut out the
soil with a spade and introduce some
that is new.

There is a method of repairing
hedges which is called plashing. It
consists in cutting half through some
of the stems near the ground, and
then bending the upper parts down in
a horizontal or oblique position, keep-
ing them so by means of hooked sticks
driven into the bank. Thus a live
hedge is made, which fills up the gaps
in the same manner as a dead hedge
would have done, and the bent stems
soon throw out shoots. If the stems
are young, and not above the thick-
ness of a finger, an excellent hedge
may be thus formed, which, when
clipped, wdl be close and perfectly
impervious ; but the work is gen-
363

HEL

erally done in a very injudicious man-
ner. When a hedge is plashed which
has been long neglected, the thick
stems which are hacked through,
leaving only a small portion of the
under bark uncut, have an unsightly
appearance, and seldom throw out
shoots near the bottom, where they
are most wanted. To plash a young
hedge, by merely bending the twigs,
is an excellent practice ; but when
the stems are thick and old, the only
remedy is to cut them down, or make
an entirely new bank well planted
with quick.

Hedges are highly ornamental and
durable, lasting, with care, for fifty
or more years ; they require clipping
in spring, and, when well established,
are a perfect protection ; they are
particularly worthy of attention to
the prairie farmers. Fruit-trees, es-
pecially cherries, grapes, and plums,
may be made use of as mere parti-
tions between fields, when trained on
espaliers. Hedges are also various-
ly curved and bent over, or breasted
for ornamental purposes.

Instruments used in hedging. — A
small hoe is necessary for weeding,
a hooked knife to trim short branch-
es ; sometimes large shears are used,
and a bill or small axe to cut the
larger branches.

HEDGEHOG. The name of a
genus of useful insectivorous mam-
mals (Erinaceus), of service to the
farmer by destroying worms, slugs,
and insects. They hibernate durmg
cold weather in holes dug in the
earth.

HELIOTROPE. A pretty flower.
A silicious mineral of a green colour
with red spots ; bloodstone.

HELIX (from t?j^, a %rhorl). A
genus of shell animals, including the
garden snails ; they are mjurious to
herbage, and may be kept off by
sprinkling with lime, or destroyed by
catching with the hand.

HELLEBORE. A genus of plants
remarkable for their purgative prop-
erties. Hellehorus fatidus is a native
of the United States ; they are very
dangerous and uncertain drugs.

HELMINTHOLOGY (from Vjuvr,
304

HEM

a worm, and 'Xoyo^, a discourse). The
history of worms of various kinds.

HELOPID.^^. A family of hetero-
meran, coleopterous insects. Some
of the species infest the bark and
roots of trees.

HELVE. A handle.

HE.MATIN. Synonyme of Hcema-
toxylin.

HEMATITE. Synonyme of Ha-
matite.

HEMATOSIN. Synonyme of Ha-
matosin.

HEMELYTRA (from vfiiavc, half,
and e'AvTpov, a sheath). The wings
of hemipterous insects : the upper
wing-cases, half of which only is co-
riaceous, the rest being delicate.

HEMEROBIANS (from iifiepa, a
day, and (3^o(:, life). Short-lived in-
sects of the neuropterous class, re-
sembling the May fly ; they lay their
eggs on plants, and the larva; devour
plant-lice, and thus subserve the pur-
poses of the orchardist.

HEMIGAMOUS. A descriptive
term in essays on grasses, meaning
that one of two florets in a spikelet
is neuter.

HEMIPTERA (from rjiiLavg, and
TTTepov, a wing). Insects having four
wings, the upper pair of which is
only half coriaceous, or which are
half horny and half membranous ;
they are haustellate. The larvae have
six feet, and resemble the imago ;
after a few moultings they increase
in size and acquire wings.

HEMLOCK. Comum tnaculatuin.
An umbelliferous plant, with peren-
nial roots, flowering in July ; branch-
es much spread and dotted ; leaves
very compound. It is narcotic, and
often injures cattle.

HEMLOCK-TREE. Ahics Cana-
densis. It grows abundantly in the
northern portions of the United States
and the British Provinces. It is a
good timber-tree, and often attains
very great dimensions.

HEMP (Cannabis sativa, Fig.). A
dioeceous annual of the family Urii-
cacetB, cultivated for the large amount
of fibre it produces in the year ; the
seeds are also serviceable as fatten-
ing food, when given in small quanti-

i

HEMP.

ty, and yield, by expression, from 25
to 30 per cent. oil. The leaves of the
plant are poisonous, and a steep made
with them is of great use in the gar-
den to annoy insects.

Cukicatio'n. — Hemp requires a rich,
deep soil, aboundmg in vegetable mat-
ter, a grass ley is admirable; it is to
be well plouglied and made fine ; the
seed, to the amount of li to 3 bush-
els, is commonly sown broad-cast in
April and .May, when the frosts have
disappeared. The seed is either har-
rowed or ploughed in shallow. The
hemp is ready for cutting from the
middle of August, as soon as the
leaves of the male plants turn yellow
and drop off. It is cut with a harp
hook or short scythe. Half an acre
can be cut and an acre scythed in the
day by a good hand when it is not
overgrown. The cut stalks are even-
ly laid on the ground, and require a
week of good weather to dry : a show-
er is no disadvantage. Some persons
pull the hemp, but this is slower work,
and produces less perfect lint, while
the roots are a great inconvenience.

The dried plants are next to be tied
into sheaves, and put up into a rick
to preserve them from the effects of
moisture during hot weather. The
roof must be closely made of long
hemp, the leaves of which are beaten
off. Some beat all the leaves off,
Hh2

hut this is unneccssarj' labour, for if
the plants are well dried, they will
be knocked off in handling. The best
time to spread the hemp for dew rot-
ting is December, but where the crop
is large, a commencement is made in
the middle of October. The hemp
stems may be kept without injury in
stacks for one or two years. Judge
Beatty urges that the proper rotting
ground is the hemp field, for the la-
bour of hauling is much diminished ;
the plants manure the land, and it is
kept free from the treading of cattle.
The u-bUer-rotled is lighter and better
than that of autumn ; the hemp is
sufficiently rotted when the stems
lose their rigid appearance, the bun-
dles of fibres begin to be disengaged
from the cellular tissue, and the lint
begins to separate from the stalk.
When ready to he taken up, it should
be put in upright shocks of 150 pounds;
as soon as it is dried the tops may be
bound with a hemp band sufficiently
tight to keep out rain. It is now to
be broken, frosty weather being best ;
this should be completed before the
warm weather of spring : 100 pounds
per day is fair work with the com-
mon brake. Good lands yield from
750 to 1000 pounds of hm the acre ;
and if it be rotted on them, and no
seed taken, seven or ten crops may
be taken after one another. For the
production of seed, the hemp is sown
in drills or hills ; if the latter, they
are placed four feet apart ; a dozen
seeds are dropped in each hill, and
covered an inch. The soil must be
very rich, and well prepared ; the
ground is to be kept free of weeds at
first by the plough, and subsequently
by hoeing ; the plants are next to be
thinned to four or five when six inch-
es high, and again to three in a hill.
As soon as the plants are in full blos-
som and the farina spread, the males
or flowering plants are to be cut from
each hill. The seed will be ripe in
September, when the plants are to be
cut early in the morning, and with-
out much jarring, or the seed will be
scattered. The plants are taken from
the ground when dry and set up in
shocks, the butts towards the earth.
365

HEMP.

It should not be allowed to become
too wet, but a little moisture assists
the closing of the seed. In a week
or ten days it may be thrashed, by
beating the upper parts of the plant
upon a board ; the seeds separate
readily, and may be thrashed on the
field, for carriage leads to much loss.
The stems are of no use for lint, but
may be used for charcoal, or burned
to ashes as manure. Hemp seed
very readily spoils, unless well dried
before stored ; it is also much sought
after by rats. It is seldom so well
kept as to be worth sowing after the
first season. The crop of seed is
from 20 to 40 bushels, which sells at
upward of $1 the bushel. The lint
is worth from $90 to $180 the ton.

Water-rotting hemp is not much
practised, from prejudice and from
the little demand for it near the coun-
try markets, but the offer of the gov-
ernment to pay $280 the ton has in-
duced many to attempt it. The best
place is in running streams, a suffi-
cient space or pit being set off for
the operation ; it may be planked or
bricked, or a frame like that for flax
may be used. The dry bundles of
hemp are used. The following is
Professor Lowe's account of water-
rotting :

"The bunches are generally placed
in the pool in rows, crossing one an-
other, and pressed down by some
heavy substance laid upon them, so as
to be kept from rising to the surface,
care being, at the same time, taken
that they are not so loaded as to be
forced down to the bottom. If the
weather be warm, four or five days
will frequently be sufficient ; if not,
two or three more ; but the period is
denoted by the stem being so soften-
ed that the outside coat shall come
easily off. Care must be taken, as
in the case of flax, that the putrefac-
tive process does not proceed so far
as to injure the cortical fibres. The
quantity put into one pool may be the
produce of an acre. The steep liquor
is poisonous ; hot-water rotting, with
the use of soap, as in the preparation
of flax, is partially used in Europe,
and is a great saving in time.
366

" When the hemp is thus steeped,
it is. like flax, taken out of the pool
and carried away to a plot of sward,
on which the plants are spread singly
and regularly.

"The hemp thus spread out lies
three, four, or more weeks upon the
surface, and is turned over not less
than .twice a week. It is thus sub-
jected to the farther influence of the
rains and dews, and the decomposi-
tion of the ligneous part of the stem
is promoted. By this process, the
stem becomes hard and brittle.

" When the hemp is seen to be in
a state for removal, it is taken from
the ground, bound into bunches, and
carried home to the barn, where it
undergoes the process of bruising by
the machine called a brake, as in the
case of flax.

" When thus prepared, it is bound
up in bunches, generally weighing a
stone each, and carried to market.
The hemp which breaks off in the op-
eration is technically termed shorts,
and is half the value of the long
hemp."

It should be remarked that, with
proper care in bleaching, rotting, and
raising hemp, a fibre may be obtained
capable of being wrought into excel-
lent linens. The preparation of the
stems by steam is said to give the
fibre great delicacy and whiteness ;
the waste is also said to make good
paper. Hemp is nearly free from
diseases.

The ijistruments used to prepare
the staple are similar to those for
flax, but larger ; the brake (Fig.) is

considerably larger, being six or more
feet long ; it is made of white oak.
The hemp is sold after breaking, the
sutching, hackling, &c., being done
by the manufacturer

i

HEN

HER

HEMP SEED. It forms an ad-
mirable food for birds and poultry in
small quantity, and may also be used
m fattening animals, when sufficient-
ly cheap. The oil is used for soap-
making and painting, in varnishes
and printers' ink. It is expressed in
the ordinary way ; the refuse or cake
is as good as oil cake for cattle or
manure. A bushel of seed yields 6
to 8 lbs. of oil, and 23 of cake. Very
rich seeds atford 25 per cent. oil.

HEMP, SUBSTITUTES FOR.
Numerous plants yield a strong and
abundant fibre besides hemp, and have
been recommended for cultivation in
its place. The principal of these are
the Chinese nettle {Urtica nicea)\
hemp, or Siberian nettle ( U. cannabi-
7ia); golden rod, several varieties of
broom plants, sunflowers, okra, aloes,
and especially the Yucca filamentosa,
which grows abundantly on poor
soils in the Carolinas and South.
The Sisal hemp is from a Mexican
agave ; the A. Americana also furnish-
es much fibre when the leaves are
prepared ; but, with the exception of
some of the nettle plants, none ap
proach the hemp in the amount of
lint they produce.

The genus Apocynum yields some
good hemp plants, of which A. can-
7uihinum, or Indian hemp, is best
known. It has a perennial root, and
throws up shoots two to four feet tall
annuallv-

HEMP, CHEMICAL COMPOSI-
TION OF ITS ASHES. The stem,
dried at 212° Fahrenheit, yields 4-54
per cent, ash, the leaves 22 per cent.
Composition :

Tlie plant (Kane). Seeds (Leucbtweiss).

Potash and soda
Lime and magnesia
Pliosphoric acid .
Sul|]huric acid
Chlorine, ahimina,
sand, and iron .

•20

46-93

3-22

110

22-33
27-63
34-72
0-18

15-14

j 40-55 .

IW- 1U(F~

From this we gather that hemp is
a lime plant, and will be much bene-
fited by that manure, and also see
why the seed crops are so exhausting,
as they draw a large proportion of
bone earth from the soil.

HENBANE. Hyoscyamus 7iigcr.

This narcotic herb grows to a small
extent in Northern New-York. It is
biennial, and the leaves are active in
the second year of its growth. It is
an excellent medicine, and no danger
may bo apprehended from animals
touching it, as they always avoid the
plant. If swallowed by children, an
emetic should be instantly given.

HENTING FURROW. Two fur-
rows lying in different directions.

HEPATIC (from jjirap, (he liver).
Relating to the liver.

IIEPATIC/E. A family of flow-
erless plants, resembling mosses, and
growing in damp places.

HEPTANDRIA, HEPTAN-
DROUS. Flowers with seven sta-
mens.

HERBACEOUS. Of the succu-
lent texture of an annual plant.

HERBAL. An account of plants ;
a collection of plants.

HERBARIUM. A collection of
dried plants.

HERBIVOROUS. Eating herbs.

HERD. A number of beasts.

HERD'S GRASS. Agrostis stricla.
The red-top of the North, an indige-
nous perennial grass in wet places.
See Grasses.

HERMAPHRODITE. An animal
or plant in which there is a real or
apparent concurrence of the genera-
tive organs of both sexes. It is most
common in plants, and is also found
among some of the lower inveftebrate
animals. In the higher orders it is
unnatural.

HERMETICALLY SEALED.
When the glass of a vessel is fused
so as to be perfectly closed on all
sides. Entirely shut up.

HERNIA. A rupture or protru-
sion of any part of the body, espe-
cially of the intestines. It is to be
returned to its place, and kept there
by bandages and trusses. Hernias
often prove fatal. When the intes-
tine cannot be returned by the hand,
recourse is to be had to an operation,
which, however, requires considera-
ble skill.

HERPETOLOGY(from ipKeroc, a
reptile). The natural history of rep-
tiles.

367

HERRING. A migratory fish, of
the genus Clupea, resembling shad in
flavour, but much less in size.

HESPfJRlDIUM. In botany, a
many-celled, few-seeded, superior,
indehiscent fruit, covered by a spongy,
separable rind ; the cells easily sep-
arable from each other, and contain-
ing a mass of pulp, in which the seeds
are imbedded .- example, the orange.

HESSIAN CRUCIBLE. A melt-
ing-pot made of fine clay and sand ;
the small sizes are much used in the
laboratory to fuse metals, &c.

HESSIAN FLY. See Wheat In-

HETEROCEPHALOUS (from ire-
poc, various, and /ce^a?,??, a head). In
composite flowers, when some heads
contain male, and others female flow-

HETEROGAMOUS (from trepoc,
and ya/iof, marriage). When the
spikelets of the same grass contain
dissimilar sexes, or when the flower
heads of compositae contain florets
with different sexes.

H E T E R O G Y N I A (from erepoc,
and yvvrj, a female). A tribe of hy-
menopterous insects, as the bee and
ant, in which one female is neuter
and another fertile.

HETEROMERANS (from ertpof,
and fi7ipoc, a leg). A class of coleop-
terous insects, having the first and
second pairs of legs with five joints
in the tarsus, and the third pair with
only four.

HETEROPTERANS (from [repoc,
and TVTepov, a wing). A tribe of he-
mipterous insects, in which the upper
wing cases terminate abruptly by a
membrane.

HETEROTROPAL (from erepof,
and TpetTu, I turn). When the em-
bryo of a seed lies across it, but does
not point towards its base or apex.

HEXAGYNIA. With six pistils.

HEXANDRIA. With six stamens.

HEXAPODS (from ef, six, and
TTODf , a foot). A tribe of wingless in-
sects with six feet.

HIBISCUS. A genus of mucilagi-
nous plants of the Malvaceous family.

HICKORY. Carya. An Ameri-
can genus of trees resembling the
3G8

HIP

walnut. They all produce a hard,
compact, but coarse-grained wood, of
great strength. The shag-bark (C.
alba) and the Southern pecan-nut
(C. anguslifolia) produce the best
fruit. The hickories do not flourish
far North, but require a temperate
climate and good soil ; most of them
require a moist soil, especially the
shell-bark and pecan-nut ; the com-
mon hard-bark (C. tomcntosa) is, how-
ever, partial to a drained soil. The
pig-nut hickory (C. porcina) is the
largest variety, often rising to 90 feet,
and produces wood equal, if not su-
perior, to the other species.

Hickory wood is very liable to in-
sects, and decays soon when exposed
to changes of moisture and heat. It
is much used for axletrees of car-
riages, wooden screws, cogs, handles
of various kinds, especially hand-
spikes. The young trees form the
best hoops for casks.

The wood forms the best fuel of
our forests, from its density.

HIDE. The strong skin of horses,
oxen, &c. Green hides just removed
from slaughtered animals are alto-
gether superior for the tanner. Dry
ing by exposure to the sun, and rub-
bing with ashes, or salting, make il
more difiicult to thoroughly tan after-
ward.

HIDEBOUND. A condition of the
skin of animals when it seems to ad-
here to their bones. It is usually
the result of want of care, or a symp-
tom of disease. Slight purging and
alteration of food, with better care,
will alter this state.

HIDE, or HIDE OF LAND. An
ancient measure of from 100 to 150
acres.

H I L U M. The scar on a seed,
where the funicle is attached, or
where it is united with the carpel.

HIPPOBOSCA. A genus of vi-
viparous, two-winged insects, which
prey on horses and other animals ;
the forest flies are of this race.

HIPPURIC ACID (from Itvttoc, a
horse, and ovpov, urine). An acid exist-
ing in combination w'ith soda, in the
urine of horses, cows, and persons eat-
ing certain vegetables. It is separated

I

HOC.

hoc;

hy muriatic acid, and, when pure, is
f'lvstallized in sillcy needles. It is
.sli<,rhlly bitter, soluble in hot water
and alcoliol. The formula is NCis
lis O5 -\- Aq. for the crystals. It is
converted by heat into benzoic acid,
ammonia, and prussic acid. Any quan-
tity of this acid can be formed by ta-
king doses of benzoic acid, which be-
comes transformed into hippuric. Its
compounds with bases are called hip-
puratcs.

HIRCIN. The fluid fat separable
from suet, which gives it the peculiar
odour resembling the smell of goats.
By saponifying, hircic acid may be ob-
tained.

HIRSUTE. Set with stiff hairs.

HIRUDIN.^. The tribe of leeches.

HIRUx^DO. The genus of swal-
lows.

HISPID. Set with minute spines,
or stiff bristles.

HISTER, HISTERID.E. A fam-
ily of coleopterous insects with live
joints on each tarsus, and belonging
to the section of Clavicornes. They

Fig. 1. Fig.

are peculiar from the quickness with
which they feign death when in dan-
ger.

HIVES. See Beehives.

H O A R F R O S T. Frost attended
with the precipitation of much watery
vapour.

HOARY. In descriptive botany,
covered with short hairs, so as to have
a white or frosted appearance.

HOE, HAND. The practice of hoe-
ing, though laborious, is eminently
useful in pulverizing the soil, admit-
tmg air, warmth, and dew. Soils,
well broken and rendered fine, are
very much more fertile than when al-
lowed to bake and become hard. Land
siiould be hoed when hard and par-
tially dry, especially about young
plants. The figure of the hoe is al-
tered to suit different tillage. The
common hoe and grubbing hoe are
familiarly known. Fig. 1 represents
the head of the Spanish hoe for weed-
ing. Fig. 2 is the thrust hoe, for the
same purpose. Fig. 3 is a useful com-
pound hoe, the fork of which may be

;. Fig. 3.

-1

used first on stiff lands, and the blade

afterward. Some hoes, for weeding

small plants, are made with the blade

O cut into two or more

I teeth : they enable the

/\/\ gardener to scrape the

y ^ ^ earth about young plants

very effectively.

HOG. " The hog is one of the do-
mestic animals which is most widely
dispersed through the world, and
yields to no other in its usefulness.
It lives and thrives on every kind of
food, vegetable or animal. It grazes
like the ox, and will even eat hay ;
and its stomach can digest what few
other animals could swallow with im-
puiiitv. The sow bears two litters
in the year, having from eight to
twelve, and even sometimes eighteen
or twenty young at a time. No ani-

mal converts a given quantity of corn
or other nutritive food so soon into
fat, or can be made fat on so great a
variety of food.

"The food of the hog in a wild state
is grass, roots, acorns, beach-mast,
and wild fruits.

" There are many varieties of the
domestic hog. The brindle hog most
nearly resembles the wild species ;
but although the flesh is savoury, he
does not fatten so soon, nor is he so
profitable as the more indolent and
softer-skinned sorts are. The great
quality of a hog is his power of di-
gestion : the more rapidly he fattens,
and the earlier he can be made to in-
crease in flesh without increasing in
bone, the better is the breed. Some
of the small hogs which are brought
from Chma are remarkable for this
369

HOG

quality, as well as for their prolific
nature ; and when, by judicious cross-
ing, the size is increased, they are a
very profitable breed. The Chinese
pig (Fig. 1) is short in the head, with
Fig.l.

small ears, very wide in the cheek,
high in the chine, and short in the
leg. When a sow of this breed is
hea\7 in pig, her belly generally drags
on the ground. The young pigs of
the Chinese breed, especially the
white variety, are excellent for roast-
ers, at three weeks or a month old.
They are small and fat, with little
bone, and their skin is very delicate.
They also make excellent "porkers at
about three months old, when kept
for some time after weaning on the
refuse of the dairy. They may be
kept fat from the time they are wean-
ed till they are fit to be killed for ba-
con ; and although they do not come
to a great size, they will pay very
well for their food if killed at a twelve-
month old.

" The breed that is nearest to the
Chinese is the SnfTolk. They are
generally white, with the ears point-
ed and rather forward ; they are broad
in the chest and loins, short and com-
pact : they make fine bacon hogs at
twelve or fifteen months old, weigh-
ing from twelve to fifteen score when
killed. The sucking pigs and pork-
ers are also very delicate. The Es-
sex breed is mostly Wack and white ;
the pure breed, however, is said to
be quite black, and is so nearly al-

lied to the smootli Neapolitan breed,
which has scarcely any hair, that we
cannot help supposing a consanguin-
ity between them. \Mien crossed
with the Neapolitan, they produce a
breed which fattens at a very early
age, and to an astonishing degree. A
breed of this cross, carefully select-
ed by Lord Harborough, has gained
the first prizes for fat pigs at the
Smithfield annual Christmas shows
for several years past. They were
fed extravagantly, no doubt, but at
twenty-two weeks old they were so
completely covered with fat that their
feet were scarcely to be seen ; and
if they could stand, which is doubtful,
it is certain that they could not walk."
Mr. Coleman speaks favourably of a
grass breed raised in New- York :
" This is a hog, raised with little oth-
er feed than clover pasturage for the
first six months, of a white colour,
with black patches sprinkled over him,
long and well formed, of good thrift,
and who, with good keeping, at eigh-
teen months old is easily brought to
400 and 500 pounds weight."

" The Neapolitan hog is black,
without any hair, very plump, with
pricked ears. No breed can excel it
in the aptitude to fatten. The sows
often become so fat on very scanty
food, that they will not breed : they
are extremely tender, and if they hap-
pen to have litters in wmter, it is dif-
ficult to save the young pigs from dy-
ing in cold nights. A cross of the
Neapolitan with some of our hardier
breeds greatly improves their useful-
ness, without injuring their aptitude
to fatten : the best cross is with the
Berkshire, which is a well-shaped hog
[Fig. 2), with short legs, small ears,
broad chines and loins, and good hams.

" From the prolific nature of the
hog, it is not difficult to select the

370

HOG. .y

best indivuhials to breed from. In
every litter there will be pigs better
formed than the iif''><'''alil^y> a"tl by
careful selection of these any breed
maybe soon much improved without
crossing ; but experience teaches that
when the sows and boars are too
nearly related, the fecundity grad-
ually diminishes ; and by continually
breeding from the same stock the
sows at last produce only two or three
diminutive pigs at a litter. Hence
the advantage of frecjuent crossing.
To restore fecundity no breed is so ef-
fectual as the Chinese. A breed com-
pounded of the Berkshire, Chinese,
and Neapolitan may, by careful se-
lection, produce every (juality which
can be desired ; numerous litters,
early fatting, and fine hogs for bacon
at twelve or sixteen months old, are
the result of care and judicious breed-
ing. Fig. 3 represents the Bedford
or Woburn hog. It is large, hardy,
and well-formed, generally white, va-
riously spotted, with small limbs and
head, and fattening rapidly.

" The black hogs are preferred, on
the whole. They are much less sub-
ject to diseases of the skin than the
white, and the sun affects them less
in sunuuer. For sucking pigs or
porkers many prefer the white, mere-
ly for the appearance, for the black
skin is in general the finest.

" There are some very large
breeds, which have been recommend-
ed under the idea that, in a large hog,
the bone and ofllil are less in pro-
portion to the flesh than in a small-
er. But these large breeds do not
come so soon to maturity. They
cannot be profitably put up to fatten
till eighteen or twenty months old, or
more ; and although some of them
may make hogs of thirty or forty
score when killed, they are so long
fatting, and require so much food,
that it is very doubtful whether they
pay for it as well as the smaller. For
delicate bacon, the hogs killed at a
twelve-month old, and weighing ten
or twelve score, are much preferred,
and we are inclined to think that they
-.3.

are most profitable. When hams are
the principal object, the hogs should
be killed before they are so fat as
they might be ; and the carcass is
then cut up and pickled, instead of
being converted into dry bacon. To
keep hogs profitably, a regular system
should be pursued both in the breed-
mg and feeding. Proper hog-sties
should be constructed with chambers,
in which the pigs of different ages
and the breeding sows may be kept
separate. The food should be pre-
pared for them by boiling or steam-
ing in an apparatus conveniently pla-
ced, and the greatest cleanliness and
regularity should be maintained. It
Is a great mistake to suppose that the

hog loves dirt. If he can keep him-
self clean he will do so ; and the wal-
lowing in the mud is not from a love
of dirt, but from a heat and itching in
the skin in warm weather, which is
relieved by rolling in the cool mud
If hogs have plenty of clean straw
and clean water they never will be
dirty, and nothing makes them thrive
so quick or pleases them more than
being washed and curried regularly.
If the hogs are not closely confined,
they will always lay their dung at a
distance from the place where they
sleep or feed, and in all well-construct-
ed sties there should he a small yard
to each apartment in which the hogs
can deposite their dung.

371

iKx;.

*' When a sow is lujar the 1 ime of
farrowing, wiiich is four months after
she has taken the hoar, she should be
put in a sty by herself, with a mod-
erate quantity of straw, for if tlicre
be too jfreat an abundance she is ai)t
to lie down on the young pigs when
they bury themselves in the loose
straw. Sows, although very careful
of their pigs, are very apt to lie on
them, especially when any of them
are near a wall : to prevent this, it is
very useful to have a ledge of wood
six inches wide, and six inches from
the ground, all round the stye, so that
she cannot lie down close to the wall ;
and if a young pig should be acci-
dentally behind her, he can take ref-
uge behind the ledge, and thus es-
cape being lain upon. When no pre-
cautions are taken, one fourth of a
litter is often lost in the first day or
two after they are born. Some sows
have the unnatural propensity of eat-
ing their young pigs as soon as they
drop : good feeding will prevent this
in some measure, but attention at
the moment of farrowing is the sa-
fest and surest preventive. When
once the young pigs have sucked,
much of the danger is past.

" A sow with many pigs should be
well fed ; bran and meal, with milk
or whey, are the best food ; grains,
where they are at hand, are excel-
lent ; and it is useful to let the sow
go out to graze in a meadow or clo-
ver field for an hour or two every day,
shutting up the pigs during that time
till they are a fortnight or three weeks
old, when they may accompany the
sow. A sow will live many years,
and bring numerous litters, and the
older she is the better luirse she is in
general. When a sow has ten or
twelve pigs at a litter, and two litters
in the year, one in spring and anoth-
er in autumn, she is too valuable to
be killed, and ought to be kept as long
as she will breed. But otherwise it
is very profitable to let a young sow
have a litter at ten months old, and
spay her immediately ; she will then
fatten most readily as soon as the
pigs are weaned, and the bacon will
be as good as that of a maiden pig.
372

Whenever a sow does not bring a
sufficient number of pigs, or is not a
good nurse, or has overeaten any of
her pigs, she should be spayed and
lattened immediately. The young
I)igs intended to be kept for stores or
for porkers are castrated or spayed
at a month or six weeks old. The
males are then called harrmv pigs, and
when fatted make the best bacon.
They are usually put up at a twelve-
month old, and fatted in three or four
months. At first they have potatoes
raw or boiled ; pumpkins, artichokes,
apples, brewers' grains, are all ex-
cellent mixed with bran, or bean meal,
or they have dry beans and water.
After they are half fat they should
have pease meal, corn meal, flax
meal, and water, unless in a dairy,
where they have the skimmed milk
or whey. Hogs fattened on potatoes
only do not make so good bacon as
those which are fatted on corn. Po-
tatoes are an excellent food for store
pigs, and may be given boiled and
mixed with meal in the early part of
the fatting process ; but beans and
pease make the firmest flesh, and
corn meal the sweetest. Before a
hog is killed he is usually fed for
some time on corn meal and water
alone, given as thick as porridge, and
very little, if any water is given to
him. This last rule is often carried
to too great an extent. Much water
will make the food pass through too
rapidly, and it will not be digested,
but the hog should never sufTer from
thirst, or he will not thrive. Before
a hog is killed he should be kept with-
out food for twelve hours at least ;
he may, however, have water. He
should be killed without giving him
more pain or causing more struggling
than is necessary, by a resolute stab
with the knife in the lower part of
the neck, where the knife may sever
the large artery which comes direct-
ly from the heart. The blood should
be allowed to flow freely till it is all
out of the body. The hog, if intend-
ed for salt pork, must then be scald-
ed with water not quite boiling, and
well scraped, to take off the hair with
the cuticle ; but for bacon it is best to

HOG.

singe the hair by burning straw over
the body, and tlien scraping the skin.
Care must be taken not to allow the
.'^kin to be burned so as to crack. The
hog is then hung up, and the entrails
taken out. Tlie inside of the body
is washed clean with a cloth or sponge
dipped in water, that no blood may
remain, and the next day the hog is
cut up. The head and feet are cut
off, the chine is taken out, and the
upper part of the ribs, with the back
bone, are cut out, leaving as much
flesh as possible adhering to the fat
outside. The small ends of the ribs
remain attached to the bacon."

The preserved flesh of the hog is
termed pork when placed in brine,
and bacon when dried. The prepara-
tion of pork for shipping, especially to
England, is a matter of importance.
The following is the English method,
as published by Messrs. Hitchcock 6c
Co. :

" Pork is cut into four or six-pound
pieces, according to the size of the
hog. Where the carcass weighs two
hundred and fifty and under, it is cut
into four-pound pieces ; large hogs
are cut into six-pound pieces. The
hog is first split through the back
bone in half ; then passed to the
trimming-block, where the half head
and legs axe cut off, the leaf and ten-
der-loin taken out, and the whole side
split lengthwise through both the
shoulder and ham, and as near the
centre as is consistent with the prop-
er shape and size of the different pie-
ces. From the trimming-block the
strips pass to the scales, where the
weight is ascertained and called to
the man at the cutting-block, who di- ;
vides each strip into the requisite
sized pieces. Both the splitting and
piercing require skill and judgment,
as much depends upon having the
pieces well and sizably cut. From
thence it goes to the rubbing-table,
where each piece is thoroughly rub-
bed in salt in the same manner as in
curing bacon. After the salt has been
well rubbed in, it is put into pickling
tubs, holding from three to five hun-
dred pounds, well covered with salt,
but no water or brine added. Here ,
Ii

I they remain Irom eight to ten days.

] It is then taken tothewashing-trougU

or vat, where each piece is thorough-

; ly washed in clean brine, trimmed,

I and tormented, as the process of try-

i ing is called, to ascertain that it is

j properly cured and free from taint.

It is then messed and weighed, so

I that the requisite number of pieces

j shall weigh exactly the number of

; pounds for the barrel or tierce. It is

1 then put up in the proper package,

and freely salted while packing, and

, saltpetre added at the rate of a

I common wineglassful to the hundred

I pounds. The last layer is pounded

in by a heavy iron weight, and capped

with coarse salt. It is then passed

to the cooper, who puts in the head,

and puts on to the barrel one, and on

to the tierce at least three iron hoops

at each end. The package is then

filled with clean strong brine, bunged

tight, branded, and is then ready for

market.

" The great utility of this method
of curing consists in the certainty ot
the meat keeping in good condition
for years in any climate. The blood
gets all drained out of the meat be-
fore it is barreled, and hence one
great cause of injury is avoided. I
saw pork and beef which had been
two years in the barrel, which was as
sweet as when first put up, and the
brine was perfectly clear. The large
hogs, or heavy pork, which is uni-
formly cut in six-pound pieces, is
packed in tierces, and is then called
India or navy pork. The four-pound
pieces are put in barrels.

" A barrel of prime pork should
contain from 25 to 30 pieces, cut
from the ribs, loins, chines, and belly
pieces, all lying between the ham
and shoulder, forming what is called
the broadside or middle. Three hands
and two hind-leg pieces, or three
hind-leg pieces and two hands, and
fifteen or twenty pieces from other
parts of the hog, except no part of
the head. The meat must be of prime
quality, firm, and well fattened, cut
into four-pound pieces, exactly fifty
to tlie barrel, and weigh not less than
two hundred pounds nett, and must
373

HOG.

have a good capping of St. Ubes, or
other coarse salt. This is indispen-
sable. Bacon mess,p()rk is so called
when the full proportion of prime
pieces in prime mess is withheld :
there are, therefore, various classes
of bacon pork. Tierces contain the
same number, that is, lifty pieces of
six pounds, and the same rules as to
messing are to be observed as in the
barrel. The tierces must have not
less than three hundred pounds, and
well capped with salt. It is usual to
put in fifty-two pieces. In bacon
mess, the number of prime mess pie-
ces should be marked upon the head.
No part of the hog's head is allowed
in any instance."

Bacon differs from pork in being
dried. The following is the Hamp-
shire method, which is in the highest
repute in England, and makes the
best article ; the ham only is remo-
ved from the side, the shoulder and
middling being allowed to remain to-
gether, and called a side or flitch of
bacon :

" The hair is burned off with light-
ed straw, and the cuticle of the skin
scraped off. The carcass is hung up
after the entrails have been removed,
and the next day, when it is quite
cold, it is cut up into flitches. The
spare ribs are taken out, and the
bloody veins carefully removed ; the
whole is then covered with salt, with
a small quantity of saltpetre mixed
with it. Sometimes a little brown
sugar is added, which gives a pleas-
ant sweetness to the bacon.

" The flitches are laid on a low
wooden table, which has a small
raised border all round it. The table
slants a little, so as to let the brine
run off into a vessel placed under it
by a small opening in the border at
the lower end. The flitches are
turned and resalted every day: those
which were uppermost are put un-
der, and in three weeks they are
ready to be hung up to dry. Smo-
king the bacon is no longer so com-
mon as it used to be, as simply dry-
ing it is found sufficient to make it
keep. Those who, from early asso-
ciation, like the flavour given by the
374

smoke of wood, burn sawdust and
shavings in a smothered fire for some
time under the flitches ; when they
are quite dry, they are either placed
on a bacon-rack for the use of the
family, or are packed with wheat
chaff into chests till they are sold.

" The practice of cutting the hogs
into pieces and pickling them in a
vat, being attended with less trouble,
is very generally preferred when there
is only a sufficient number of hogs
killed to serve the farmer's family ;
but flitches of bacon, well cured, are
more profitable for sale."

The common method in the United
States is to kill in November to Jan-
uary, scald the carcass by immersion
in a hogshead of water heated by hot
stones, and rub off the bristles and
scarf-skin by knives : the chine, head,
and feet are also taken off.

In Virginia the side is cut into a
shoulder, taken off as far down as
the spare ribs, a middhng and ham ;
it is thoroughly salted, one bushel of
Liverpool salt serving for 1000 pounds
of pork ; this is mixed with one or
two pounds of pounded nitre. The
pieces are piled in a hogshead, the
hams being first put in, the shoulders
next, then the middlings, and on top
the necks, jowls, heads, &.c. There is
an admirable piece, called the round,
formed by cutting the neck close to
the head, and again off the side by
the upper spare rib. The pieces re-
main untouched from four to six
weeks ; they are then hung on laths
across rafters, shank downward, and
at least eight feet above the ground
in the smoke-house, and a smothered
fire made with corn cobs, hickory
and oak chips. At first they are
smoked three times a day, and later
but twice. The laths are moved ev-
ery week, so as to bring the different
pieces nearest the smoke. As the
weather becomes mild, a handful of
red pepper is thrown upon the fire
occasionally to annoy any insects in
the smoke-house. In six weeks or
two months the smoking is stopped,
the pieces are taken down, rubbed
with pounded red pepper, and hung
again, shank upward, until dry, till

HOG

April or May. They are now taken
down, exposed to the sun lor a few
days, rubbed agahi with red pepper,
and if perfectly sound, are ready to
be stored ; this is best done in hogs-
heads, with fresh ashes, or in a per-
fectly dark dry room. Some cover
the hams with canvass, and coat it
heavily with whitewash, hanging I
them up until disposed of Dipping
the pieces in hot lye will kill mag- i
gots, skippers, and other enemies, '
but the salts being deliquescent, the j
bacon remains always damp. There
is nothing superior to ashes, for it not
only hinders maggots, but keeps the
bacon from rats.

The Westphalian hams enjoy so
much reputation, that it may be ser-
viceable to give the method of cu-
ring ; we also add the most approved
English method :

" The method of curing hams in
the most celebrated districts is to
rub them very hard with bay or oth-
er salt, then leave them on a stone
bench, in order that the brine may
discharge itself In a few days the
rubbing process is repeated, about
half an ounce of saltpetre {nitrate of
putassa) being added to each ham.
"\^"hen they have continued about a
week longer on the bench, or in the
salting-tub, among the brine, they
are commonly hung up to dry in the
sides of large open chimneys ; some
have them exposed to the smoke of
wood, peats, coals, or other sorts of
fuel, while others carefully avoid hav-
ing them smoked ; and when not sold
sooner, they are continued in these
situations till the approach of warm
weather, when they are packed up in
casks with straw, or the chatTof oats,
and consigned for sale. Hams lose
about 20 per cent, of their weight in
drying.

" Hams may be cured in order to
resemble in taste those of Westpha-
lia, by the following process : Cover
a young ham of pork with dry salt ;
let it be for 24 hours to draw off the
blood, then wipe it perfectly dry, and
take one pound of brown sugar, a
quarter of a pound of saltpetre, half
a pint of bay salt, and three pints of

salt ; incorporate these mgrcdienta
in an iron pun over the fire, and stir
them continually till they acquire a
moderate degree of heat. In this
pickle the ham must be sutTered to
remain for three weeks, frequently
turning it, when it should be sus-
pended in a chimney for drying by
means of smoke from no other but a
wood fire. The smoke from oak
sawdust or shavings is the best for
imparting a fine flavour. This smoke
contains imperfectly-formed pyrohg-
neous acid, which is the agent that
communicates the flavour to the
Westphalia hams. In Dumfriesshire
the pickle for hams is sometimes
made with one half ale, which ren-
ders the hams shorter, and adds
greatly to the richness of their fla-
vour. The imports of bacon and
hams into England have greatly in-
creased, the duty being reduced to
lis. the cwt., or just half of what it
was for many years. On those im-
ported from British colonies, the duty
is 3^. 5(1. On hands in pickle, 6*."

'• Diseases of Hugs. — The diseases
of swine are generally the result of
want of care and cleanliness, or arise
from injudicious and irregular feed-
ing, and from their being kept in loath-
some and uncomfortable situations.
Is it to be wondered at that they be-
come subject to internal and cutane-
ous diseases ! Fortunately, they will
generally eat even when sick, and
salts (one to two oz.), sulphur (two
to three drachms), antimony, and
such like aperients, may be mixed
with their food for measles and simi-
lar disorders. If they will not eat,
there can, of course, be no cure ap-
plied.

" In swine-pox, sulphur may be
administered in small quantities, with
treacle, in the wash ; fresh brewer's
grains, or pollard, may also be given.
But lor cutaneous diseases in gen-
eral, an ointment formed of equal
parts of mutton suet and tar, with
the addition of a little sulphur, will
be found beneficial.

" In cases of surfeit, indigestion,
or injury from eating slightly poison-
ous matter, swine will refuse their
375

iiO(;.

food, constantly lie down, and have
the stoniarli distended. In this case,
two heads of garlic, mixed with six
oz. of fresh butter, will aflbrd relief,
given every six hours.

"The most formidable of the dis-
eases to vvliich swine are liable is
inflammation of the lungs and other
internal parts ; this disease has been
known to destroy a fourth of the hogs
in a distillery in the course of a few
weeks. The chief indications of the
disease will be the distressing cough,
the heaving of the flanks, and the re-
fusal of all food. Bleeding must be
l)romptly resorted to, and moderate
purges cautiously administered. The
safest aperients are castor oil, or Ep-
som salts, after which the following
powder may be given : antiiiionial
powd., 2 grs., nitre, half a drachm.

" In cases of murrain, a species of
leprosy, which prevails chiefly in hot
seasons, the best advice that can be
given is to keep the animal cool, and
not to suffer any animal food to be
given.

" The health of swine is to be es-
timated by their cheerfulness, by the
gloss upon their coats, their skin
being wholly free from eruption. If
pigs snort on being disturbed, it is
an excellent sign of sound health and
good keep. The state of the excre-
ment or digestions will generally in-
dicate pretty correctly the thriving
condition of the animal ; for, unless
these are of a firm consistence, the
hog will not fatten rapidly. If store
or stock pigs are kept well and in
good condition, it will prevent most
of the diseases to which the animals
are subject, and they will also thrive
and fatten at half the expense when
shut up for that purpose. From the
confinement of the hog, and the na-
ture of his food, a description of in-
digestion takes place, with cutaneous
eruptions."

HOGSHEAD. An old measure
containing 63 wine gallons. A large
barrel in which sugar, tobacco, and
coarse produce are packed, contain-
ing from 10 to 14 cwt.

HOG'S LARD. The fat from the
kidneys, over the chines, intestines,
376

&c., is converted into lard for family
use and sale. Being separated from
skin and lean, it is to be put into a
copper or iron boiler, with water, and
melted thoroughly, being constantly
stirred with a wooden bat, lest it be-
come burned : a handful of salt is
added to the 100 lbs., and stirred in ;
as soon as it is well boiled it is to be
removed from the fire and passed
through a colander and closely woven
strong cloth into the wooden or earth-
en-ware vessels in which it is to be
kept. By straining in this way, all
the pieces of skin are separated. The
cracklings are well pressed in the
colander to obtain all the fat. A lay-
er of salt may be placed above the
top of the cold lard, the vessels closed,
and stored in a cool cellar. The
cracklings serve to "fatten poultry, or
may be kept for domestic soap. ^•-,^

Lard consists ^f 38 stearin and 62
elain in 100 parts. These are now
separated for commercial purposes,
the formef resembling spermaceti,
aiW making admirable candles, the
latter affording the lard oil so exten-
sively used for lamps, wool dressing,
and maclWnery : it sells at from 75 cts.
to $1 the gallon. Indeed, lard itself
furnishes a good light when burned
in suitable lamps with short wicks.

From the low price of hogs in the
West, it has been found profitable to
render the carcass, excepting the
hams, into lard ; the lard is subse-
quently divided into the oil and stear-
in ; these processes are simple, and
fully explained by the following pa-
per of iMr. Stafford, of Cleveland,
Ohio. The skin is removed from the
parts steamed.

" The average Ohio hogs (common
breeds) will produce, when tried by
steam, 50 per cent, lard, after de-
ducting the hams and shoulders.
The plan now generally adopted is,
not to take out the shoulders ; the
sale for them is limited, and price
low ; the covering of fat will produce
more in lard than the expense of cu-
ring would warrant. The mixture
of the China and Berkshires, fed upon
potatoes or any other vegetable con-
taining starch as a principal food.

HOG

would produce, when very fat, at
least 70 per cent., after taking out
only the hams.

•'The steaming apparatus is merely
a tub with a false bottom, perforated
with holes, lying about two inches
above the bottom. The steam is in-
troduced between tiie two bottoms,
and so entirely separates the fat from
the cells in which it was enclosed
that no pressing of scraps is neces-
sary. The bones, lean, and scrap
are left on the false bottom, and the
lard floats on the surface. With
steam, at a pressure of five lbs. to
the inch, it will require from 18 to 20
hours to try off a tubful of any given
quantity, steam in proportion, of
course ; 60 lbs. pressure would do it
in one third the time. Tiie great ad-
vantage of steam is, the whole of the
lard or tallow is produced, and there
is no danger of burning either.

" The quality of the lard is good,
but not equal to leaf lard or suet ; the
carcass fat does not contain as much
of the concrete principle (stearin).
Whole hog lard cannot be refined and
made hard without a portion of the
oil is extracted. I take from 20 to 40
per cent, of the oil ; then the balance
goes through several washings in
pure rain leaUr by steam, after which
it is refined lard. Tiie expense is
not more than one quarter cent per
pound, but it is of more value to us
than common lard, as we have a great
deal of trouble and expense with it ;
and in only extracting a portion of
the oil we would lose by it, did it not
command a better price in the mar-
ket, which it should from its purity.

" The bones are worth at least
half a cent per pound to calcine.
From them ivory black is made
(worth 2^ cents per pound), by char-
ring them in close iron vessels.

" I used to decompose the lard in
acid and neutral salts. When the
allinity between the parts is destroy-
I'll, I separate them by means of can-
vass bags placed in powerful screw-
presses. If I wish to make candles
of the residue, the pressure is con-
tinued until all the oil, by this means,
is forced out. The contents of the
Ii2

HOG

bags are then subjected to the action
of a powerful hydraulic press, and the
stearin pressed to dryness.

" To produce the winter oil, we
have to expose the decomposed lard
to the cold."

For the purpose of furnishing most
oil, the hogs are fed on oil cake, cot-
ton-seed cake, flaxseed, beech-nuts,
and anything that is full of grease.

The perfect separation of the stear-
in of lard and suet is the subject of
several patents, and belongs to the
department of manufactures, as the
process requires much machinery,
and is full of chemical details.

Oxen and sheep are now steamed
in the same way as hogs in the West
for their tallow. See Ox.

HOG-STY. " Much of the profit of
breeding and fattening hogs depends
on the economy of labour in prepa-
ring their food. Any place is often
thought good enough to lodge a pig
in, and a sty is a word synonymous
with a filthy place ; but in every
well-arranged farm-yard there should
be a convenient place for keeping
hogs and feeding them, which may
be erected at a small expense, and
which will soon repay the outlay.
There should be a place to boil and
mix the food in, with one or more
large coppers, and a steaming appa-
ratus. The food should be mixed in
square brick tanks sunk in the ground
and cemented, that there may be no
filtrations. If there is only one tank,
there should be a partition in it.
From the boiling-house there should
be an immediate communication with
the feeding-sties, undercover, if pos-
sible. Each sty should open into a
small yard behind, svhich should com-
municate by a door with the princi-
pal farm-yard, where the barn is sit-
uated, in which the corn is thrashed,
and be enclosed with a low wall or
paling. There should be separate
sties for breeding-sows, for porkers,
and for fatting hogs. Not more than
three or four of the latter should be
in one sty. The food should be given
in troughs, in a separate compart-
ment from that in which the hogs lie
down, and no litter should he allowed
377

HOG

llOL

Elevutiuu aud Section.

A, Root-house ; B, boiling and steaming house ; a, steamer ; b, copper ; c, r, steaming ves-
sels ; d, d, tanks to mix the food ; C, passage to the sties ; 1, I, feeding-rooms ; 2, 2, sleeping-
rooms ; 3, 3, yards.

there. The floor, which should be
of brick or stone, should be frequent-
ly washed clean, and the troughs
should be cleaned out before every
meal. Any of the food left from the
last meal should be taken out and
given to the store pigs. A very con-
venient contrivance for keeping the
troughs clean is to have a flap or
door, made with hinges, to hang hori-
zontally over the trough, so that it
can swing, and alternately be fasten-
ed by a bolt to the inside or outside
edge of the trough. When the hogs
have fed sufficiently, the door is
swung back, and the trough is easily
cleaned out. It remains so till feed-
ing time, when the food is poured in
without any impediment from the
greedy hogs, who cannot get at it till
the door is swung back. This sim-
ple contrivance saves a great deal of
trouble, and is easily adapted to any
378

common sty. It is a great advan-
tage to be able to inspect the sties
without going into them, and this is
effected by placing them under a com-
mon roof, which may conveniently
be a lean to the boiling-house, or any
other building, with a passage be-
tween them.

" The preceding figure will best
explain this, and show its superiority
over common sties."

Where the establishment is much
larger, a passage may be run entire-
ly through the sties, and the feeding
troughs be arranged along it ; the
food may also be made to pass along
a gutter to the various troughs.

HOLCUS. The genus of soft
grasses. See Grasses.

HOLERACEOUS. Culinary
plants, pot-herbs.

HOLLY. Evergreen shrubs, and
small trees of the genus Ilex. The

HOM

HOO

prickly Christmas holly, naturalized
in Virginia, is the 1. aguifolium ; the
native holly of the Middle States, oft-
en becoming a tree of 30 feet, is the
/. opaca. The prickly holly is much
used for hedges in England ; a good
bird-lime is prepared from the inner
bark. The /. vomitoria, or cassina, is
a handsome southern shrub. The
decoction of the toasted leaves is the
Indian black drink : it is emetic.

HOLM. A marshy place or island.

HOLM, or HOLLY OAK. Quer-
cus ilex, a European species.

HOLY GRASS. Holcus odoratus.
See Grasses.

HOMESTEAD. The regular ar-
rangement of farm buildings.

HO.NLMIN Y. Corn, usually of the
smaller white flint kinds, bruised in
a mill or mortar until the external
covering is removed, and then sifted.

HOMOGAMOUS (from ofiov, to-
gether, and ya/xof, marriage). When
all the florets contain both sexes.

HOMOGENEOUS (from ofiov, and
yevoc, kijul). Bodies, all the parts of
which are similar in composition.

HOMOLOGOUS (from ofiov, and
Aoyoc, ratio). Having the same ratio
or proportion.

HOMOPTERAXS, HOMOPTERA
(from ouov, and nrepov, a icing). The
name of an order of insects, inclu-
ding those in which the wing-covers
are of a uniform semi-membranous
consistency. Latreille divides this
order into the three followmg divi-
sions, viz. :

1. The Cicadarm, having the tarsi
three-jointed and the antennae very
short, terminated by a line bristle.

2. The Aphidians, having the tarsi
two-jointed and the antennae longer,
without a terminal bristle ; contain-
ing the families Aphidce and Psyllida.

3. The Gallmsccta, having the tarsi
one-jointed, terminated by a single
claw. The males have two wings,
and are destitute of a mouth ; the fe-
males are wingless, and furnished
with a sucker.

HOMOTROPAL (from ouov, and
rpETTG), I turn). In botany, having the
same direction as the rest of the
plant, or that part to which it belongs.

HONEY. The fluid stored by bees;
it is collected from flowers and hon-
ey-dew. The colour and flavour de-
pend upon the age of the bees, and
their food ; white clover and some
aromatic plants of the sage family
yield the best. Chemically, it con-
sists of glucose, mannite, gum, wax,
colouring matter, and albumen. When
mixed with water it readily ferments ;
a liquor is made in this way called
mead. See Bee.

HONEY-DEW. An exudation of
sweet gummy matter from the leaves
of plants, especially the oak, beech,
linden, and hop. Curtis and Willde-
now, with many other naturalists, at-
tribute it to the excretions of innu-
merable plant lice, Aphidians ; but
Sir J. E. Smith and others to the
exudation of sap during very moist
hot weather, especially when the sky
is overcast, hindering evaporation
from the leaves. If the honey be
washed off by rain or by watering,
the plant usually survives ; but if it
becomes caked on the leaf by hot
weather, it is killed. Bees flourish
exceedingly on honey-dew. The
plants of a well-drained soil are much
less liable to honey-dew than those
in damp places.

HONEY LOCUST. Gledkschia
triacanthos. Three-thorned locust. A
large leguminous tree. It is very
common in the western forests of
Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, &.C., on
rich bottoms, where it is one of the
largest trees. The pods furnish a
sweet but nauseous pulp. The wood
is porous, but hard ; it is inferior for
cabinet purposes, and rarely used, ex-
cept for posts and rails. The young
plants are recommended by some for
hedges, and are to be often pruned :
they form a good hedge, but are apt
to throw out shoots from their roots
to a considerable distance from the
stem.

HONEY-STONE. A rare miner-
al, mellate of alumina, belonging to
the class of ambers and lignites, found
only in Thuringea.

HONEYSUCKLE. Climbing
plants of the genus Lonicera, &c.

HOODED. CucuUate. A descrip-
379

HOG

HOO

live term in botany, to express the
partial covering of a flower, &.C., by a
petal or leaf, vvliich is curved over it.

HOOF. The solid or cloven nail
of the feet of cattle or horses ; it re-
sembles horn in composition. Hoofs
are used in the manufacture of glue
and Prussian blue ; scraped into
shreds, they form admirable manure,
yieldmg 15 per cent, nitrogen in the
natural state, or upward of 18 per
cent, ammonia during decay. Four
hundred pounds in compost will be
sufficient for an acre.

HOOP. The wooden or metallic
fastening of casks. Hickory is in
the greatest esteem for this purpose ;
but young trees of ash, oak, birch,
&c., answer well. Several machines
have been patented for splitting
hoops ; they are, however, expensive.
The usual principle is to pass the
wood between rollers, which carry it
upon a sharp edge that splits it cen-
trally ; motion is given to the rollers
by horse power.

HOOVE, or HOVEN. See Ox.

HOPPER. The receiver of a mill
or machine in which the grain, roots,
&c., are placed.

HOP-OAST. A kiln used for dry-
ing hops. The floor of the kiln is
generally of wire cloth, and the heat
is generated in a stove with flues be-
low. The hops, after being put on
the kiln, are frequently turned, and
in general they are rendered suffi-
ciently dry in the course of a few
hours ; when dried, they are taken to
a loft and left to cool for a day or two,
and then put into bags, having been
previously subjected to the slight ac-
tion of the fumes of burning sulphur
(sulphurous acid), by which they are,
to a certain extent, bleached. This
is not to be recommended, for it par-
tially destroys the fine odour.

HOPPLE. A mode of fettering
the legs of horses and cattle turned
out to graze.

HOPS. Humuliis lupulus : family
Urdcacea. The following is chiefly
from Mr. Rham :

" Hops are extensively cultivated
for the flowers, which give flavour
and permanence to beer, by being
380

boiled with the wort in brewing
They impart a pleasant, bitter, and
aromatic flavour, and prevent the too
rapid progress of fermentation. Beer
which is well hopped will keep long
and become very fine, without any
of those artificial means of fining
wiiich make the common brewer's
beer so much inferior in quality to
that which is home-brewed.

"The hop is a slender climbing
plant, with a perennial root, which
requires careful cultivation. It is
very tender, and the produce is pre-
carious, sometimes giving a great
profit to the grower, and at other
times failing altogether. The soil of
a hop garden must be rich to a con-
siderable depth, or made so artificial-
ly. The subsoil must be dry and
sound ; a porous rocky subsoil, cov-
ered with two or three feet of good
vegetable mould, is the best for hops.
The exposure should be towards the
south, on the slope of a hill, or in a
well-sheltered valley. Old rich pas-
tures make the best hop gardens.
They should be dug two or more spits
deep, and the sods buried at the bot-
tom, where they will gradually decay
and afford nourishment to the slen-
der roots of the plants, which strike
deep. A very large quantity of the
richest rotten dung, at least 100 cu-
bic yards per acre, should be well in-
corporated with the soil by repeated
ploughings, till it is entirely decom-
posed, and produces that dark tint
which is the sure sign of an abun-
dance of humus. The ground should
be prepared by laying it up with the
spade in high ridges before winter, to
expose it as much as possible to the
mellowing influence of the frost. A
succession of green crops, such as
rye, cut green or fed off with sheep,
or clover, are an excellent prepara-
tion, by cleaning the land. It is bet-
ter to be two, or even three years, in
preparing the ground and getting it
perfectly clean, than to plant the
hops in a foul or unprepared soil.

" The young plants are raised in
beds, and may be raised from seed ;
but it is more usual to plant the young
shoots which rise from the bottom

HOPS.

of the stems of old plants. Thoy are
laid down in the earth till thoy strike,
when they are eut off and jilanted in
the nursery-bed. Care mu.st he ta-
ken to have only one sort of iiops in
a plantation, that they may all ripen
at the same time ; but where there
arc very extensive hop grounds it
may be advantageous to have an ear-
lier and a later sort in ditTerent divis-
ions, so that they may he pieked in
succession. The varieties most es-
teemed are the grape hop, the white
vine, and the golden hop. The
ground having been prepared for
planting, it is divided by parallel
lines, six or more feet apart, and
short slicks are inserted into the
ground along these lines at si.x feet
distance from each other, so as to al-
ternate in the rows, as is frequently
done with cabbage plants in gardens.
At each stick a hole is dug two feet
square and two feet deep, which is
filled lightly with the earth dug out,
together with a compost prepared
with dung, lime, and earth, well mix-
ed by repeated turning. Fresh dung
should never be applied to hops.
Three plants are placed in the mid-
dle of this hole six inches asunder,
forming an equilateral triangle. A
watering with liquid manure greatly
assists their taking root, and they
soon begin to show runners. A stick,
three or four feet long, is then stuck
in the middle of the three plants, and
the runners are tied to these with
twine or bass, till they lay hold and
twine round them. During their
growth the ground is well hoed and
forked up around the roots, and some
of the line mould is thrown around
the stems. In favourable seasons a
few hops may be picked from these
young plants in the autumn, but in
general there is nothing the first year.
Early in November the ground is
carefully dug witii the spade, and the
earth beingturned towards the plants,
is left so all the winter. Beets, po-
tatoes, &c., are grown in the inter-
vals between the plants.

" In the second year, early in
spring, the hillocks around the plants
are opened, and the roots examined. |

The last year's shoots are cut off
within an inch of the main stem, and
all the suckers quite close to it. The
suckers form an agreeable vegetable
for the table, dressed like asparagus.
The earth is pressed round the roots,
and the cut parts covered so as to
exclude the air. A pole about twelve
feet long is then firmly stuck into
the ground near the plants ; to this
the runners are led and tied as they
shoot, till they have taken hold of it.
If, by any accident, the runner leaves
the pole, it should be carefully brought
back to it and tied till it takes hold
again. A stand ladder should be at
hand to do this, when the runner has
acquired some height. The ground
being well hoed and the earth raised
round the plants, the produce this
year will average fourcwts. per acre,
if the season is favourable.

" Some hop planters plough up or
dig the ground before winter ; others
prefer doing it in spring, in order not
to hasten the shooting, which weak-
ens the plants. The same opera-
tions of pruning the shoots, manuring,
and placing poles, which were per-
formed the preceding year, are care-
fully repeated. Particular attention
is paid to proportion the length of
the poles to the probable strength of
the runners ; for if the pole is too
long, it drawls up the runner, and
makes it bear less ; if it is too short,
the runners entangle when they get
beyond the poles, and cause confu-
sion in the picking. In September,
the flower containing the seed will
be of a fine straw colour, turning to
a brown ; it is then in perfection.
When it is over-ripe, it acquires a
darker tint. No time is now lost,
and as many hands are procured as
can he set picking. In the picking,
the poles are taken down, and the
stems cut three feet from the ground ;
if they were cut shorter it would
weaken the root, by causing it to
bleed. The poles are laid sloping
over a frame of strong wood, nine
feet long and four feet wide, support-
ed by legs three feet high ; this is
called a bin. A piece of coarse bag-
ging is fixed to this frame by hooks,
381

HOPS.

so as to form a bag which does not
re<ich the firound. Tlirce men or
women, or four boys or girls, are
placed on each side oi' the bin, and
pick the hops from two poles at a
time. Where they are very careful
of the quality of ibc hops, they divide
them nito three sorts : the green,
which are not quite ripe; the light
yellow-hrown, which are in perfec-
tion ; and the very dark, which are
past their prime. The dew should be
o(f entirely before they begin ; for
otherwise the hops might become
musty, or take too long in drying, and
lose their fragrance. The hops, when
picked, are dried on a cloth in a kiln.
When they appear sufficiently dry at
bottom, they are turned ; it is, how-
ever, thouglit by some hop-driers that
the turnnig of the hops is apt to in-
jure them, and that it is best not to
do so ; but, in order that the upper
part may be dried equally with the
lower, a wooden cover, lined with
tin plates, is let down over the hops
on the hair cloth, to vi'ithin a few
inches of the surface ; this reverber-
ates the heat, and the whole is dried
equally. The heat must be carefully
regulated, in order that it may not
alter the colour. When the leaves
of the hops become brittle and rub
off easily, they are sufficiently dried.
They are then laid in heaps on the
floor, where they undergo a very
slight heating. As soon as this is
observed they are bagged. This is
done through a round hole, twenty-
five or tliirty inches in diameter,
made in the floor of the loft where
the hops are laid. Under this hole
is a bag, the mouth of which is drawn
through the hole and kept open by a
hoop, to which it is made fast. The
hoop is somewhat larger than the
hole, and the bag remains suspended ;
a handful of hops is now put into
each corner of the bag, and there tied
firmly by a cord. A bushel or two
of hops are put into the bag, and a
man gets into it to tread the hops
tight. The bag does not reach the
floor below. As the hops are pack-
ed by the feet, more are continually
added till the bag is full. It is now
382

taken off the hoop, and filled up with
the hands as tight as possible. The
corners are stuffed as soon as the
mouth is partly sewn up, and tied, as
the lower corners were ; when sew-
ed close and tight, it is stored in a
dry place till the hops are wanted for
sale.

" The crop of the third year will
average eight cwt. per acre. In some
very extraordinary seasons, on good
land, fifteen cwt. have been picked
per acre : in Flanders, where they
manure with urine and the emptyings
of privies, this is not an uncommon
produce. The plantation lasts fifteen
to thirty years.

"Rape cakes, malt dust, woollen
rags, horn shavings, and nitrogen
manures are used with good success
in hop grounds : bones have been
tried, but with an uncertain result.

" The hop is a dioecious plant (Fig.),
i. c, some of the individuals are male
plants, and others female, which have

respectively flowers of a different con-
struction and of different habitudes.
The male or staminiferous flowers
{a), which grow on stalks quite dis-
tinct from the female flowers, pre-
pare the pollen, or fertilizing dust,
and afterward wither away, when
this dust has escaped from the an-
thers, and been committed to the air,
to be by it conveyed to the female
flowers. The female flowers are in
the form of strobnli (i) or cones, con-
sisting of scales, which have at their
base the germ of the future seed, and

i

nor

ilOK

which have the liabit of enlarging, as
the scales of the fir-conos do, more
particularly after the fertilization of
the ovule, or future seed, by a quan-
tity of the pollen falling upon it.

" Though the pollen, from its ex-
treme lightness, can be wafted to a
considerable distance, and some seeds
in each cone may be so fertilized, yet
it would be well to rear a number of
the male plants among the others, or
along the hedges of the hop gardens,
to ensure the fertilization of all the
seeds. But as the farmers observe
that the flowers of the male (termed,
in Kent, seedling, blmd, or wild hop ;
in Sussex, buck or cock hop) wither
away, they generally extirpate them
at the digging season, as unfruitful
cumberers of the ground. That this
is an error may be proved in various
ways, but an appeal to the result of
an opposite practice is the most con-
vincing. A bushel of hops, collected
from plants of the fourth year, raised
from seed, weighed 36 pounds, there
being male plants near ; a second in-
stance, where the plants were raised
from cuttings, weighed thirty-five
pounds, while a bushel, grown in a
garden where the male plants were
always eradicated, weighed only 22
pounds. Besides the greater quan-
tity of hops thus obtained, the aroma
is much greater (the lupulin, on which
the aroma depends, is considered by
Plancheto be the unappropriated pol-
len dust which has alighted on the
scale of the females), and the strength
of the bitter much greater. The value
of a specimen of hops depends upon
the amount of lupulin dust it con-
tains, and its aroma ; when of the best
quality, they command from sixteen
to twenty cents the pound. After the
period when the males have elabora-
ted the pollen, and the strobuli of the
females begun to enlarge, the males
may be cut down, and the stalks em-
ployed to make cordage for hop-bags
against the following harvest. In
1760 the Society of Arts awarded pre-
mium.'5 for cloth made from the hop
runner.

" The poles of oak, ash, larch, and
chestnut are the most durable. They

should be put into a shed during win-
ter : where this cannot be done, they
are placed on end in the form of a
cone, leaning against each other."
The hop is very liable to diseases :
it suffers from the aphis ; a species of
haltica attacks the young plant ; sev-
eral moths deposit their eggs upon
it : honey-dew is often destructive ; it
is also liable to attacks of mildew and
fire-blight towards maturity.

HORDEIN. The impure starch
of barley.

HORDEUM. The genus of barley
grasses.

HORE HOUND. Marruhium vul-
garc. A perennial, labiate plant, of
a bitter, aromatic taste, used as a
popular remedy in colds, and to fla-
vour candies. It is readily propaga-
ted by dividing the roots.

HORIZONTAL. Level. A plane
parallel to the horizon.

HORN. Indurated skin, consist-
ing, for the most part, of modified al-
bumen. It resembles hair in its chem-
ical and agricultural properties, and
when shaved into thin strips, answers
the same purpose as a manure. Horn,
whalebone, tortoise-shell, which are
all similar, are readily softened by
heat or hot water, and are then va-
riously cut or moulded into a num-
ber of articles, as combs, handles for
knives, rings, &c. Digested with wa-
ter in an iron cylinder, under press-
ure, they are dissolved, and yield glue.

The horns of oxen and many oth-
er animals are only a covering over
a bony process rising from the front
bone of the head. This bone, called
the horn pith, is remarkably porous,
and full of blood-vessels, so that, when
it is cut or injured, violent haemor-
rhage follows, which can scarcely be
stopped, except by applying a white-
hot iron, or bv pressure.

HORNBEAM. A tree of the same
family as the oak, the Carpinus bet-
ulus, of small size, and formerly used
as tall hedging. The wood is very
hard and durable, and used by turn-
ers for cog-wheels, presses, levers,
and stout handles. The only Amer-
ican species is the C. Americana, wa-
ter beech, or hornbeam. It grows oa
383

IIOR

HOR

the margin of rivers in the Middle
States, rising twenty to forty feet.

The term iiornbcani, or ironwood,
is also applied to the Ostrya Vtrfrin-
iaca, a tree of twenty to forty feet
high, of the same family, found in the
Southern States. 'J'he wood is as
serviceable as that of the hornbeam.

HORNBLEND. A dark green or
black mineral, massive or crystal-
lized in prisms, of glassy lustre, and
readily scratched by a knife. It is
very abundant in primary, transition,
and trap formations, and consists of
silica, 46 ; lime and magnesia, 34 ;
iron, from 4 to 7 ; alumina, &c., 13
per cent. It forms the basis of nu-
merous minerals, and is found in sev-
eral varieties, as augite, amphibole,
pargasite, tremolite, actinolite.

Hornblend slate and schist are
transition rocks, consisting of a mix-
ture of hornblend, quartz, and some-
times feldspar. A soil formed from
these rocks is necessarily rich, from
containing lime, magnesia, potash,
clay, and sand. The crystals also
occur in siennite, or Boston granite.
Greenstone, the common ingredient
of dikes, is a mixture of hornblend
and feldspar, varying but little from
trap. Soils rich in hornblend have a
greenish colour.

HORNBUG. The beetles of the
genus Lucanus, or stag beetles, espe-
cially L. caprcolus. The grubs live
in the trunks and roots of old trees.

HORN DISTEMPER. A disease
of the horns of oxen, especially cows,
in which an accumulation of pus
takes place in the pith ; the treat-
ment is, to let it out by boring into
the horn, two inches from the head,
with a small gimlet. The animal
affected first exhibits the signs of a
cold, the eyes become dull, the ap-
petite diminishes, the creature lan-
guishes and lies down ; but it is also
occasionally attended with symptoms
of diseased brain ; the animal tosses
his head and groans much.

HORN PITHS or FLINTS.
These answer in manuring for bones,
having a composition nearly identical
with bones, namely, gelatin and fat,
86 ; bone earth, 54 per cent. : they de-
384

cay more rapidly from their porous
structure. They are ditiicult to crush
in the common bone mill, but may be
broken by a heavy bark mill, or dis-
solved in strong acid. They are much
used for the extraction of size and
glue.

HORNET. Vespa maculala, the
American species. They build a
globular nest of a substance like pa-
per upon branches of trees, &c. Its
sting is painful, but may be allayed
by oil, with a little hartshorn. It
preys upon fruit, flies, and is very de-
structive to bees. The European
species is V. crabro.

HORNSTONE. A flinty mineral.
Chert, also, is known by this name.
Hornstone is wrought in stones for
crushing flints in potteries ; it also
forms a good hone. The varieties
are variously coloured, gray, white,
red, and dark greenish ; it is infusi-
ble before the blow-pipe, and contains
76 per cent, silica, with 13 alumina,
colouring oxide, and water.

HORSE. " Natural Histcny and
Deyitition of the Horse. — The native
country of the horse is unknown.
From very remote periods he has
been found in almost every part of
the Old World, but his appearance
on the continents and the islands of
the New World, whether of the At-
lantic or Pacific Ocean, is of com-
paratively recent date. Everywhere
he is recognised as the most useful
of the servants of man, and he yields
in intelligence to the dog alone. If
he difl'ers in ditTerent countries in
form and in size, it is from the in-
fluence of climate and cultivation ;
but otherwise, from the war-horse,
as he is depicted on the friezes of an-
cient temples, to the stately charger
of Holstein and of Spain, or from the
fleet and beautiful Arabian to the di-
minutive Shetlander, there is an evi-
dent similarity of form and destina-
tion which clearly stamps his common
origin.

" He is naturally, and of choice, an
herbivorous and granivorous animal.
His thin and muscular lips, his firm
and compressed mouth, and his sharp
incisor teeth, are admirably adapted

HOUSE.

to seize and to crop the grass ; a
provision is given in the structure of
some of the bones of the face, by
means of which he can comminute
and grind down his food as perfectly
as in the best-contrived mill.

" The teeth of the horso require
some lengtliened consideration, not
only from their admirable adaptation
to this purpose, but as indicating, by
the various changes which tliey un-
dergo, almost beyond the possibility
of error, the age of the animal. He
may, when young in years, be re-
duced nearly to the decrepitude of
age by the barbarous usage of those
who ought to be his most zealous
protectors ; the cavity above the eye
may be deepened, the under lip may
fall, the limbs may be bowed, and the
feet may be battered and distorted,
but it is not easy to alter the charac-
ter of the teeth.

" The colt is generally dropped with
the first and second molar and grind-
ing teeth having forced their way
through the gum. When he is about
seven or eight days old the two cen-
tral front, or incisor teeth, above and
below, appear (Fig. a). At the ex-
piration of five or six weeks the two
next incisors may be seen. At three
months they will have overtaken the
central ones, and both pairs will have
nearly attained their natural level.
A third grinder will then have ap-
peared ; and a little before or after
the eighth month the third nipper,
above and below, and on each side,
will be seen. The colt will now have
his full complement of front or cut-
ting teeth.

" These teeth are beautifully adapt-
ed to their purpose. They have in
front an elevated cutting edge of con-
siderable sharpness. It is formed of
enamel, a polished substance almost
too hard to be acted upon by the file,
which covers the tooth. This eleva-
ted edge is bent somewhat inward
and over the tooth, so that there is
a depression behind it, which gradu-
ally becomes stained by the food,
and constitutes what is called 'the
mark' in the mouth of the colt or
horse.
K K

" This elevated edge of enamel,
hard as it is, is gradually worn down
in the act of nipping and cutting the
grass ; and as it wears away, the
hollow behind becomes diminished,
and is at length totally obliterated.
By the degree in which this mark is
effaced, the horseman, not only with
regard to the first, but the permanent
teeth, judges of the age of the ani-
mal. This obliteration begins to be
manifest at a very early age. At six
months it is sufficiently evident in
the four central nippers. At a year
and a half the mark will be very faint
in the central nippers, diminished in
the other two, and the surface of all
of them will be flattened.

" At twelve months a fourth grind-
er protrudes, and a fifth at the expi-
ration of two years.

" These are all temporary teeth.
They were only to last during a very
early period of the life of the animal ;
and when his jaws were considera-
bly expanded, they were destined to
give way to another set, larger, firm-
er, and "that would probably last du-
ring life. The permanent teeth had
been long growing in the socket be-
neath the temporary ones, and had
been pressing upon their roots, and
that pressure had caused an absorp-
tion of these roots, until at length
they lost all hold, and were displaced.

" When the animal is about three
years old the central pair of nippers,
above and below, are thus removed,
and two fresh teeth, easily distin-
guishable from the first by their in-
creased size, make their appearance,
so that a three-year old colt is easily
recognised by these two new and en-
larged central nippers.

" A three-year old colt has his form
and energies much more developed
than a two-year old one, and is con-
siderably more valuable ; therefore
some dishonest breeders endeavour
to pass him upon the unwary as be-
ing a year older than he really is, and
they accomplish this in an ingenious
but cruel manner. This cannot, how-
ever, be effected until a portion of
the second year is past, when the
permanent teeth below are beginning
385

HORSE.

to press upon the roots of their pred-
ecessors, and then the breeder ex-
tracts the central milk-teeth. Those
below, having no longer anything to
resist their progress, grow far more
rapidly than they otherwise would do,
and the scoundrel gains four or five
months in the apparent age of his
colt.

"Can this trickery he detected 1
Not always, except by him who is
well accustomed to horses. The
comparatively slow wasting of the
other nippers, the difference of the
development of these nippers in the
upper and under jaw — for the breed-
er usually confines his roguery to the
lower jaw, the upper one being com-
paratively seldom examined — these
circumstances, together with a defi-
ciency of general development in the
colt, will alone enable the purchaser
to detect the attempted cheat.

" The honest mouth of a three-
year old horse should be thus form-
ed : the central teeth are palpably
larger than the others, and have the
mark on their upper surface evident
and well defined. They will, how-
ever, be lower than the other teeth.
The mark in the next pair of nippers
will be nearly worn away, and that
in the corner nippers will begin to
wear (Fig. 3).

" At three years and a half the
second nippers will be pushed from
their sockets, and their place gradu-
ally supplied by a new pair ; and at
four and a half the corner nippers
will be undergoing the same process.
Thus, at four years old the central
nippers will be fully grown ; the next
pair will be up. but will not have at-
tained their full height ; and the cor-
ner nippers will be small, with their
mark nearly effaced. At five years
old the mark will begin to be effaced
from the central teeth, the next pair
will be fully grown and the blackness
of the mark a little taken off, and the
corner pair will be protruding or part-
ly grown.

" At this period, or between the

fourth and fifth year, another change

will have taken place in the mouth ;

the tushes will have begun to appear

386

{Fig. 5). There will be two of thcnx
in each jaw, between the nippers and
the grinders, considerably nearer to
the former than the latter, and par-
ticularly so in the lower jaw. The
use of these tushes in the domestica-
ted state of the horse is not evident ;
but they were probably designed as
weapons of offence in the wild state
of the animal. Attempts are too fre-
quently made to hasten the appear-
ance of the second and the corner
teeth, in the same manner as de-
scribed with regard to the first, and
the gum is often deeply lanced in or-
der to hastei^ the appearance of the
tush.

" At six years old the mark on the
central nippers will be diminished, if
not obliterated. A depression and a
mark of rather brown hue may re-
main, but the deep blackened hole in
the centre will no longer be found.
The other incisors will also be some-
what worn, and the tush fully de-
veloped.

"At seven the mark on the next
pair of incisors will have nearly dis-
appeared, and the tush will be round-
ed at the point and the edges.

"At eight the mark will have dis-
appeared from all the incisor teeth,
and the tush will be evidently rounder
and blunter.

" At this period another piece of
trickery is occasionally practised.
The breeder had, until the animal
was five years old, been endeavour-
ing to give him an older appearance
than his years entitled him to, be-
cause in proportion as he approached
the period when his powers were most
perfectly developed his value increas-
ed ; but now he endeavours to con-
ceal the ravages of age. The horse
is cast, and with a sharp-pointed steel
instrument a little hole is dug on the
surface of the corner incisor, to which
a red-hot iron is afterward applied.
An indelible black mark is thus left
on the tooth. Sometimes the roguery
is carried farther ; the next tooth
is slightly touched with the engraver
and the cautery ; but here the dis-
honest dealer generally overreaches
himself, for the form and general ap-

HORSE.

pearance of a six-year old horse can
rarely be given to one who has passed
his eighth year. The eighth year hav-
ing passed, it is difheult to decide on
the exact age of the horse. The in-
cisors of the iii)per jaw are then the
best guides. At nine years the mark
is said to be worn away from the
central teeth ; at eleven, from the
next pair ; and at twelve, from the
corner ones. The tush likewise be-
comes shorter and blunter.

" There are many circumstances
which render a decision as to the
age of the horse very difficult after
the marks are effaced from the lower
incisors, and even before that period.
Horses always kept in the stable have
the mark much sooner worn out than

those that are at grass, and it is im-
possible to form any calculation at all
as to crib-biters.

" Of the age to which the horse
would naturally arrive it is impossible
to say anything satisfactory. Many
have exceeded thirty, and some of
them even forty years ; but, from ill-
usage and over-exertion, the majority
come to their end before they have
seen 15 years."

" The various progressive changes
that take place in the appearance of
the teeth of horses at different ages,
from a few weeks old (marked a in
Fig.) to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12.
and 18 years, may be seen in the
following dental map, constructed by
Mr. Blaine."

387

HORSE.

" Tlie Proper Conformation of the
Horse. — A very general account only
can be given of this, for it varies es-
sentially with the breed and destina-
tion of the animal. There are some
points, however, which are valuable
in horses of every description. The
head should not be disproportionally
large, and should be well set on, i. e.,
the lower jaw-bones should be suffi-
ciently far apart to enable the head to
form that angle with the neck which
gives free motion and a graceful car-
riage to it, and prevents its bearing
too heavy on the hand. The eye
should be large and a little promi-
nent, and the eyelid fine and thin.
The ear should be small and erect,
and quick in motion. The lop-ear
indicates dulness or stubbornness;
and when it is habitually laid too far
back upon the neck, there is too fre-
quently a disposition to mischief
The nostril in every breed should be
somewhat expanded : it can hardly
be too much so in the racer, the
hunter, the roadster, and the coach-
horse, for this animal breathes only
through the nostril, and would be
dangerously distressed when much
speed is required of him, if the nos-
tril could not dilate to admit and to
return the air. The neck should be
long rather than short. It then ena-
bles the animal to graze with more
ease, and to throw his weight more
forward, whether he is in harness or
galloping at the top of his speed. It
should be muscular at its base, and
gradually become fine as it approach-
es the head. The withers should be
somewhat high in every horse, ex-
cept, perhaps, that of heavy draught,
and it does not harm him, for there
is larger surface for the attachment
of the muscles of the back, and they
act at greater mechanical advantage.
A slanting direction of the shoulder
gives, also, much mechanical advan-
tage, as well as an easy and pleasant
action, and a greater degree of safe-
ty. It must not, however, exist in
any considerable degree in the horse
of draught, and particularly of heavy
draught. The chest must be capa-
cious, for it contains the heart and
388

I the lungs, the organs on which the
speed and endurance of the horse de-
pend. Capacity of chest is indispen-
sable in every horse, but the form of
the chest admits of variation. In the
wagon-horse the circular chest may
be admitted, because he seldom goes
at any great speed, and there is com-
paratively little variation in the quan-
tity of air required ; but in other
horses the variation is often fearful.
The quantity of air expended in a
gallop is many times that required in
hard work. Here we must have
depth of chest, not only as giving
more room for the insertion of the
muscles on the action of which the
expansion of the chest depends, but
a conformation of the chest which
admits of that expansion. That
v/hich is somewhat straight may be
easily bent into a circle when greater
capacity is required ; that which is
already circular admits of no expan-
sion. A few words more are all that
our limits permit us to add, and they
contain almost all that is necessary
to be added on the conformation of
the horse. ' The loins should be
broad, the quarters long, the thighs
muscular, and the hocks well bent
and well under the horse.' "

Varieties of the Horse. — All the va-
rieties are attributed by naturalists
to one common origin, either of Tar-
tary or Arabia, the diminutive size of
the Shetland, Iceland, and other po-
nies being attributed to climate and
provender.

As our breeds are derived from
Europe, it being asserted that the
wild Mexican and Pampas horses are
the offspring of those introduced by
the Spaniards and early settlers, it
will be well to make some remarks
on the original stock.

William the Conqueror introduced
Spanish horses (of Arabian stock) into
England. The thorough Arabian w^as
introduced in 1121.

The Arabian horse is of small size,
usually of a dark or black colour, fine
eye, neat limbs, and amiable disposi-
tion ; his form is the model for en-
durance and speed. Several Arabi-
ans have been introduced into the

HORSE.

United States, one of which is now

in Virginia. The figure represents

Fig. 1.

an Arabian brought to Paris by Na-
poleon, and now in the Royal Gar-
den.

From this breed the finest horses
of Spain, Barbary, France, and Ger-
many have been improved.

The race-horse is a well-marked an-
imal, derived from a judicious mix-
ture of the Arabian, Persian, and
Barbary ; it is, therefore, formed out
of Arabian varieties entirely. His
figure indicates swiftness, which has
even reached four miles in seven and
a half minutes in the case of Fash-
ion. The same characteristics be-
long to the American thorough-bred,
which has, indeed, been derived from
the best English stock, and crossed
with the thorough Arabian. It is the
opinion of those best informed, that
this breed is now beyond the Arabi-
an, and can only be improved by judi-
cious selections from the same stock.

more bone, and shorter in the body
than the turf horse. His forehead
should be lofty, the shoulder high, but
thicker than in the race-horse : a
broad chest is indispensable. The leg
deeper, but shorter than that of the
racer. The foot is all-important ; it
should stand upright, or a little out-
ward ; the loins must be broad, the
thighs muscular, the hocks well bent
and under. Dr. Gibson is of opinion
that the Irish racer, though not so
highly bred, is now a better horse
than the English racer : of this stock
Harkaway and Skylark, introduced
into Virginia, were the finest speci-
mens. The horses of Virginia and
New-Jersey, gotten by Shark and
Tallyho, out of the best common
mares, are fine hunters and improved
hacks.

The improved hack; or roadster, is
the most important horse. It is now
in England of the same breed as the
hunter, being preferred rather for the
figure than any other quality. In se-
lecting breeding stallions and mares,
those with high and well-placed shoul-
ders, light heads, and moderate necks,
with straight legs, and full hunting
hind quarters, are selected. Such
an animal is safer, and possesses all
the bottom of the hunter. These
points are well shown in the figure.
Fig. 3.

It is a diflicult thing to place the

New-Yark trotters ; for while, by their

speed, they are entitled to the rank of

See Breeding. The figure represents ' racers, their bottom and figure place

the characters of the racer remarka- 1 them in the list of roadsters.

bly well. The Morgan or Goss horse of Ver-

The hunter is three quarters bred, I mont occupies a position between

fifteen to sixteen hands high, with the thorough roadster and draught

K K 2 3S9

HORSE.

horse. Tliey are fourteen to fifteen
hands, bay, sliort and round, small
heads, deep cliost.s, fore-legs sot wide
apart, stroniLj backs, good wind and
bottom. Tliey are spirited, with good
action and form, and an admirable
roadster and carriage horse.

The Norman horse, or I'crchcron, is
a cross of the .Spanish upon the Flem-
ish draught horse. He is remarkable
for spirit, liveliness, and draught qual-
ities. He averages sixteen hands,
head short, jaw heavy, neck short
and thick, shoulder oblique, short
back, quarters broad, chest deep and
wide, legs sliort. It is a very obedi-
ent race, bearing great hardships and
coarse fare. Mr. Harris, of New-
Jersey, has imported a fine pair. The
well-known and justly celebrated
Canadian horse has all the qualities
of the Norman, from which it is de-
rived, except the size. This breed,
although not so powerful, is much
more valuable than the English,
Dutch, or Flemish draught horse, for
it is a good roadster, carriage, and
wagon horse.

The Clydesdale (Fig. 4) is the best

English cart-horse, and has much of
the qualities of the Norman. It is
much lighter than the Suffolk punch ;
the chest is broad, shoulder thick and
oblique, the back straight and broad.
This horse is remarkably true and
faithful, with great endurance. It is
an admirable plough horse, and often
sufficiently lively for the carriage.

The Conestoga horse of Pennsylva-
nia is a good carriage and draught an-
imal.

The heavy English cart and dray
horse, although of great power, is not
390

suited to our wants from his extreme
slowness.

Among the different varieties of
horse, there is nothing equal in beau-
ty, liveliness, and docility to the Shet-
land pony, of eight and nine and a
half hands high. They are frequent-
ly used to draw light carriages. The
Welsh pony is occasionally a beauti-
ful creature.

" General Management of Horses. —
The foal, as soon as it is dropped,
should be turned with its dam into a
sheltered and good pasture, in which
there is a hovel for occasional retreat
from the wind and the rain. Some
hay or corn, or both, should be al-
lowed, if it is early in the season, or
the grass has scarcely begun to shout.
There is nothing so detrimental to
the colt as insufficient food. It should
be regarded as a fundamental princi-
ple in breeding, that if the growth is
checked by starvation, beauty, and
energy, and stoutness will rarely be
displayed in after years.

" In five or six months, according
to the growth of the foal, or the con-
venience of the farmer, the weaning
may take place. The colt should be
removed from his former haunts to
some distant rick-yard, or confined
to a stable until he becomes a little
reconciled to the loss of his dam.

" In the ensuing spring the break-
ing may commence ; a process on
which will materially depend the tem-
per and the value of the horse, and
the pleasure of the rider. The foal
should be handled and haltered, and
led about by the servant who has the
chief care of him, and whose con-
duct towards him should always be
kind. ' The principle,' says the au-
thor of ' The Horse,' ' on which the
after usefulness of the animal is
founded, is early attachment to and
confidence in man, and obedience,
resulting principally from these.'

" With regard to the racing colt,
the processes of breaking and train-
ing are injuriously and cruelly com-
pleted in the second year, and thou-
sands of horses are irreparably in-
jured by this early exaction of labour
and speed ; but in the hunter, the

HORSE.

hackne}', the agricultural, and the car-
riage horse, tlie serious part of this
business is not entered upon until
the third year.

" .\ horse is well broken vhen he
has been taught implicit and cheer-
ful obedience to his rider or driver,
and dexterity in the performance of
his work. A dogged, sullen, spirit-
less submission may be enforced by
the cruel and brutal usage to which
the breaker so frequently has re-
course ; but that prompt and eager
response to the slightest intimation
of the rider's will ; that manifest aim
to anticipate every wish, that gives
to the horse so much of his value,
must be built on habitual confidence
and attachment. The education of
the horse should be that of a child.
Pleasure should be, as much as pos-
sible, associated with the early les-
sons ; while firmness, or, if need be,
coercion, must establish the habit of
obedience.

" The breaking being accomplish-
ed, the management of the hftrse will
vary according to his breed and des-
tination ; but the good usage of our
domesticated slaves should be re-
garded as a principle that ought nev-
er to be violated. The agricultural
horse is seldom over- worked, and on
large farms is generally well fed :
perhaps, in many cases, too much
above his work ; this, however, is an
error on the right side. A very slight
inspection of the animal will always
enable the owner to determine wheth-
er he is too well or not sufficiently
fed. The size of the horse and the
nature of the work, and the season
of the year, will make considerable
difference in the quantity and quali-
ty of the food. The following ac- ,
counts will sufficiently elucidate the
general custom : Mr. Harper ploughs
seven acres per week, the year
through, on strong land, with a team
of three horses, and allows to each,
weekly, two bushels of oats, with
hay, during the winter six months,
and during the remainder of the
year one bushel of oats per week,
with green food. Mr. Ellman allows
two bushels of oats, with pease haulm ,

or straw, with but very little hay, du-
ring thirty winter weeks. He gives
one bushel of oats, with green food,
during the summer. There is very
little difference in the management
of these two gentlemen, and that
probably arising from circumstances
peculiar to their respective farms.
The grand principles of feeding, with
reference to agricultural horses, are,
to keep the animal rather above his
work, to give him good and whole-
some food, and. by the use of the
nose-bag, or other means, never to
let hiui be worked more than four or
five hours without being baited.

" The horse of quick work, the stage-
coach horse and the poster, should
be allowed as much as he will eat,
care being taken that no more is put
into the manger than he will readily
dispose of. The quantity actually
eaten will depend on the degree of
work and the natural appetite of the
horse ; but it may be averaged at
about 66 pounds of cut straw, 17^-
pounds of beans, and 77 of oats per
week. When the work is unusually
hard, the quantity of oats may be di-
minished, that of beans increased.

" During the sporting season the
hunter is well fed, and with that kind
of food which contains a great pro-
portion of nutriment in little com-
pass. A small quantity of hay, rare-
ly more than eight or ten pounds per
day, is allowed, and less than that on
the day before work. The quantity
of oats may vary from 14 to 16 pounds
daily. There is a prejudice in most
hunting stables, and probably well
founded, against chaff, and it is sel-
dom that the beans and oats are
bruised. A bran-mash is given after
a day of more than usual fatigue, and
is serviceable at other times, when
there has not been more than ordi-
nary work, provided that at least
two days are suffered to elapse be-
fore the horse is again taken into the
field.

" No horse should be urged on after
he has exhibited unequivocal symp-
toms of distress, such as a drooping
pace, a staggering gait, a heavy bear-
mg on the hand, a rapid inspiration
391

HOUSE.

like a hurried sigb, and a peculiar
convulsive action of the diaphragm,
as though tlie heart were violently
beating against the side. The loss
of blood, the administration of some
cordial medicine, and slow leading to
the nearest stable, are the best re-
storatives at the moment of distress ;
although the cordial would be abso-
lutely destructive a few hours after-
ward, when inflammation had com-
menced.

" The hunting season having
passed, the horse used to be turned
into the field as soon as the grass
had begun fairly to sprout, and there,
with his feed or two feeds of corn
daily, and his hovel, into which he
might retreat from the sun or the
storm, he remained until the middle
of June, or the flies began to be troub-
lesome. It was delightful to see how-
much he enjoyed this short period of
liberty ; and well had he earned it.
Of late years, however, it has be-
come the fashion to confine him to
his box, whence he stirs not, except
for an hour's walking exercise on
the road, until he is taken into train-
ing for the next winter's business.

" Nothing can be so erroneous or
cruel as this. There are few horses
that have not materially suffered in
their legs and feet before the close of
the hunting season. There cannot
be anything so refreshing to their
feet as the damp coolness of the
herbage which they tread at that pe-
riod ; and there is no physic which
so safely and effectually as the spring
grass carries off every humour that
may be lurking in their frame.

" The training of the hunter for his
work is a simple affair ; it is, by
means of exercise and physic, getting
rid of all superfluous fat and flesh
without debilitating him. The phys-
ic is useful ; it is indispensable ; but
the chief thing is gradually to accus-
tom him to the exertion of every
power that he possesses, without too
much hurrying his breathing or over-
straining or injuring him.

" The training of the race-horse is
of a similar character, but it is far
more severe, for his strength, his
392

speed, and his endurance must be
tested to the utmost. The hunter
has to carry his rider gallantly and
well through perhaps a long burst,
and if he tires, and the sportsman
has the good sense and humanity to
cease to urge him on, the greatest
evil is some temporary suffering to
him, and disappointment to his mas-
ter ; but if the race-horse breaks
down, or if his capabOities have
not been accurately calculated, the
most serious loss may be sustained.
Thence arises the necessity of strain-
ing and of testing every power in the
preparation of the turf horse ; and
thence, too, it happens, from the
strange and impolitic sacrifice of the
endurance of the modern racer to
speed during short distances, that so
many young horses break down and
become perfectly useless in their
training.

" The watering of the horse is a
very important but disregarded por-
tion of his general management. The
kind of water has not been sutBcient-
ly considered. The difference be-
tween what is termed hard and soft
water is a circumstance of general
observation. The former contains
certain saline principles which de-
compose some bodies, as in the cur-
dling of soap ; and prevent the solu-
tion of others, as in the making of
tea, the boiling of vegetables, and the
process of brewing. It is natural to
suppose that these different kinds ot
water would produce somewhat dif-
ferent effects on the animal frame,
and such is the fact. Hard water,
freshly drawn from the well, will fre-
quently roughen the coat of the horse
unaccustomed to it, or cause griping
pains, or materially lessen the ani-
mal's power of exertion. The racing
and the hunting groom are perfectly
aware of this, and so is the horse,
for he will refuse the purest water
from the well if he can obtain access
to the running stream, or even the
turbid pool, ^^'here there is the pow-
er of choice, the soft water should
undoubtedly be preferred.

"The temperature of the water
is of far more consequence than

HORSE.

its hardness. It will rarely harm if i
taken from the pond or the running
stream, but its cohhiess, when re-
cently drawn from the well, has often
been injurious. It lias produccul col-
ic, spasm, and even death. It should,
therefore, be exj)osed for some hours,
either in the stable or in some tank.

" There is often considerable prej-
udice against the horse being fairly
supplied with water. It is supposed
to chill liim, to injure his wind, or to
incapacitate him for hard worlc. It
certainly would do so if, immediate-
ly after drinking his till, he were gal-
loped hard, but not if he were sutTer-
ed to quench his thirst more frequent-
ly when at rest in the stable. The
horse that has free access to water
will not drink so much in the course
of a daj' as another who, to cool his
parched mouth, swallows as fast as
he can, and knows not when to stop.

" \^'hen on a journey, a horse may,
with perfect safety, be far more lib-
erally supplied with water than he
generally is. An hour before his
work commences he should be per-
mitted to drink a couple of quarts.
A greater quantity might be probably
objected to. He will perform his
task far more pleasantly and effect-
ively than with a parched mouth and
tormenting thirst. The prejudice
both of the hunting and the training
groom, on this point, is cruel as well
as injurious. The task or the jour-
ney being accomplished, and the
horse having breathed a few min-
utes, another quart, or even two, will
be delightfully refreshing to him, and
will never do him harm. His corn
may then be offered to him, which he
will readily take ; and, before he has
eaten the whole of it, two or three
more quarts of water may be given.

" Towards the close of the day, the
speed of the traveller should some-
W'hat abate, and the horse should ar-
rive at his resting-place as dry and
as cool as circumstances will permit.
If he is hot, he must be walked about
a while, or the perspiration will re-
turn in the stable. If he is wet, he
must be carefully rubbed dry. The
sooner this is done the better; and.

after lie is clothed, watered, fed, and
bedded, he shoukl, as soon as possi-
ble, be left to his repose. Professor
Stewart, of Cilasgow, has lately pub-
lished a very useful work on the ' Sta-
ble Economy, or General Manage-
ment of Horses.' We abridge his
account of ' the kinds of work, and
the preparation for them.'

" Travelling. — The horse should
undergo some degree of training as
to the pace, the distance, and the
burden. When there has been no
preparation, the stages must at first
be short, and the (lacc gentle. For a
journey of 300 miles the horse may
travel from twenty to twenty-five
miles a day, resting on the Sunday,
and doing the work in two stages, at
the pace of six miles an hour. This
requires a seasoned horse, and the
number of working hours per day is
about four.

" Hunting requires speed and
stoutness. The pace seldom exceeds
twelve miles an hour, and the run is
short, soon over, or interrupted ; yet
soft, sinking ground, hills, and leaps
make this pace severe even on the
best horses. The time for prepara-
tion varies from two to four months.
On the day before work, the horse
should have exercise enough to emp-
ty the bowels. If he is a good feed-
er, he should have no hay within
eight hours of starting, nor water
within four hours, nor corn within
three hours ; but if he has five or six
miles to go to cover, these restric-
tions are less necessary. The work-
ing days will vary according to his
condition and the hardness of the
running. He may be able to go out
every second day, and sometimes not
more than once in six or seven. His
spirits and appetite, and the state of
his legs, will decide this. Even on
the blank days some exercise should
be taken in order to evacuate the
bowels and create an appetite.

" Coaching. — The horses are best
prepared for their work by good feed-
ing and gradual increase of speed and
distance. The ordinary length of a
stage is eight to fourteen miles ; the
pace being calculated at from eight
393

IIORSK.

to eleven miles an honr. The mus-
cular exertion is severe while it lasts,
but it is soon over. The excitement,
however, of high keep and excessive
exertion gradually wears the horse
down, and it is rarely that he contin-
ues in a fast coach more than six
years.

" Carting. — Cart-horses usually
work from eight to ten hours, six
days in the week. The pace varies
from two miles to three and a half
per hour, and the weight rarely ex-
ceeds twenty-four cwt., besides the
cart, which probably is seven or eight
more. All beyond this in weight or
in time of work is cruel.

" Ploughing. — The average work
is about eight hours in the day. The
severity of it depends on the pace,
the nature of the soil, and the breadth
of the furrow-slice. Tiie pace is from
two miles to two and a half per hour ;
the horse and the man can well sup-
port this as long as the ploughing
season continues.

" Diseases of Horses (from Youatt).
— It may be readily supposed that the
animal doomed to the manner of liv-
ing just traced in every variety of the
horse, will be peculiarly exposed to
numerous forms of suffering. Every
natural evil will be aggravated, and
many new and formidable sources of
pain and death will be superadded.

"Interest and humanity require
that we should become acquainted
with the nature, and causes, and rem-
edy of the diseases of the horse. Only
a slight sketch of them can be given
here, but sufficient, perhaps, to enable
the owner to recognise their exist-
ence, to avoid their causes, or to in-
duce him to apply to the proper quar-
ter for their removal or alleviation.

" The principal diseases of the
liorse are connected with the circu-
latory system. From the state of
habitual excitement in wliich the an-
imal is kept, in order to enable him
to execute his task, the heart and the
blood-vessels will often act too im-
petuously. The vital fluid will be
hurried along too rapidly, either
through the frame generally, or some
particular part of it, and there will be
39-i

congestion, accumulation of blood in
that part, or there will be inflamma-
tion, either local or general, disturb-
ing the functions of some organ or
of the whole frame.

" Congestion. — Take a young horse
on his first entrance into the stables ;
feed him somewhat highly, and what
is the consequence 1 lie has swell-
ings of the legs, or inflammation of
the joints, or perhaps of the lungs.
Take a horse that has lived some-
what above his work, and gallop him
to the top of his speed : his nervous
system becomes highly excited ; the
heart beats with fearful rapidity ; the
blood is pumped into the lungs fast-
er than they can discharge it : the
pulmonary vessels become gorged,
fatigued, and utterly powerless ; the
blood, arrested in its course, becomes
viscid, and death speedily ensues.
We have but one chance of saving
our patient, viz., the instantaneous
and copious extraction of blood ; and
one means of preventing the recur-
rence of this dangerous state, name-
ly, by not suffering too great an ac-
cumulation of the sanguineous fluid
by over-feeding, and, by regular and
systematic exercise, inuring the cir-
culatory vessels to prompt and efl?-
cient action when thej' are suddenly
called upon to exert themselves. The
cause and the remedy are sufficient-
ly plain.

" Again, the brain has functions of
the most important nature to dis-
charge, and more blood flows through
it than any other portion of the frame
of equal bulk. In order to prevent
this organ from being oppressed by
a too great determination of blood to
it, the vessels, although numerous,
are small, and pursue a very circui-
tous and winding course. A horse
highly fed, and full of blood, is sud-
denly and sharply exercised : the
course of the blood is accelerated in
every direction, and to the brain
among other parts. The vessels that
ramify on its surface or penetrate its
substance are completely distended
and gorged with it. Perhaps they are
ruptured, and the effused blood press-
es upon the brain ; it presses upoa

HORSE.

the origins of the nerves, on which all
sensation and motion depend, and
the animal suddenly drops powerless.
A prompt and copious abstraction of
blood, or, in other words, a diminu-
tion of this pressure, can alone save
the patient. Here is the nature, the
cause, and the treatment of ajmplexy.

" Sometimes this disease assumes
a different form. The horse has not
been performing more than his ordi-
nary work, or perhaps he may not
have been out of the stable. He is
found with his head drooping and his
vision impaired. He is staggering
about ; he falls, and lies half uncon-
scious, or he struggles violently and
dangerously. There is the same con-
gestion of blood in the head, the same
pressure on the nervous origins, but
produced by a different cause. He
has been accustomed habitually to
overload his stomach, or he was on
the previous day kept too long from
his food, and then he fell ravenously
upon it, and ate until his stomach
was completely distended and unable
to propel forward its accumulated
contents. Thus distended, its blood-
vessels are compressed, and the cir-
culation through them is impeded or
altogether suspended. T|ie blood is
still forced on by the heart, and driv-
en in accumulated quantity to other or-
gans, and to the brain among the rest ;
and there congestion takes place,
as just described, and the animal be-
comes sleepy, unconscious, and, if
he is not speedily relieved, he dies.
This, too, is apoplexy; the horseman
calls it stomach staggers. Its cause
is improper feeding. The division of
the hours of labour, and the introduc-
tion of the nose-bag, have much di-
minished the frequency of its occur-
rence. The remedies are plain :
bleeding, physicking, and the remo-
val of the contents of the stomach by
means of a pump contrived for that
purpose.

" Congestions of other kinds occa-
sionally present themselves. It is no
uncommon thing for the blood to loi-
ter in the complicated vessels of the
liver, until the membrane of that vis-
cus has t>urst, and an accumulation of

congealed black blood has presented
itself It is the same with the spleen.
It constitutes the swelled legs to which
so many horses are subject when they
stand too long idle in the stable. Con-
gestion is the source of many of the
accumulations of serous fluid in vari-
ous parts of the body, and particular-
ly in the chest, the abdomen, and the
brain.

" Inflamtnalion is opposed to con-
gestion, as consisting in an active state
of the capillary arterial vessels ; the
blood rushing through them with far
greater rapidity than in health, from
the excited state of the nervous sys-
tem, by which tticy are supplied.

" Inflammation is either local or dif-
fused. It is confined to one organ,
or to a particular portion of that or-
gan ; or it involves many neighbour-
ing ones, or it is spread over the
whole frame. In the latter case it
assumes the name offerer. Fever is
general or constitutional inflamma-
tion, and is said to be sympathetic or
symptomatic when it can be traced to
some local affection or cause, and
idiopathic when we cannot so trace
it. The truth probably is that every
fever has its local cause, but we have
not a sufficient knowledge of the an-
imal economy to be able to discover it.

" Inflammation may be considered
with reference to the membranes
which it attacks.

" The mucous memhranes line all the
cavities that communicate with the
external surface of the body. There
is frequent inflammation of the mem-
brane of the mouth. Blain, or Glos-
santhrax. is a vesicular enlargement
which runs along the side of the
tongue. Its cause is unknown. It
should be lanced freely and deeply,
and a little aperient medicine admin-
istered, iifl/is, or ^a/).«, are smaller en-
largements, found more in the neigh-
bourhood of the bridle of the tongue.
They should never be touched with
any instrument : a little cooling med-
icine will generally remove them.
Lampas is inflammation of the palate,
or enlargement of the bars of the pal-
ate. The roof of the mouth may be
slightly lanced, or a little aperient
395

HORSE.

medicine administered ; but ilie sen-
sibility of the nioulli should never be
destroyed by the application of the
heated iron. Canker and wounds in
the mouth, from various causes, will
be best remedied by diluted tincture
of myrrh, or a weak solution of alum.
Foreign bodies jn the gullet may gen-
erally be removed by means of the
probang used in the hoove of cattle :
or the oesophagus may be opened,
and the obstructing body taken out.
It is on the mucous membranes that
poisons principally exert their influ-
ence. The yerv is the most frequent
vegetable poison. The horse may be
saved by timely recourse to equal
parts of vinegar and water injected
into the stomach, after the poison has
been, as much as possible, removed by
means of the stomach-pump. For
arsenic, hydrated peroxide of iron ;
corrosive sublimate, white of eggs.
Spasmodic colic is too frequently pro-
duced by exposure to cold, or the
drinking of cold water, or the use
of too much green meat. The horse
should be walked about ; strong fric-
tion used over the belly, and spirit of
turpentine given in doses of two oun-
ces, with an ounce each of laudanum
and spirit of nitrous a3ther, in warm
water or ale. If the spasm is not
soon relieved, the animal should be
bled, an aloetic ball administered, and
injections of warm water with a so-
lution of aloes thrown up. This spas-
modic action of the bowels, when
long continued, is liable to produce in-
trosusception, or entanglement, of them,
and the case is then hopeless. Su-
perpurgation often follows the admin-
istration of a too strong or improper
dose of physic. The torture which
it produces will be evident by the ag-
onized expression of the countenance,
and the frequent looking at the flanks.
Plenty of thin starch or arrow-root
should be given both by the mouth
and by injection ; and twelve hours
having passed without relief being
experienced, chalk, catechu, and opi-
um should be added to the gruel.
Worms in the intestines are not often
productive of much mischief, except
they exist in very great quantities.
306

Small doses (two drachms) of emetic
tartar, with a little ginger, may be giv-
en to the horse half an hour before
his first meal, in order to expel the
round white worm ; and injections of
linseed oil or aloes will remove the
ascarides, or needle-worms.

" The respiratory passages are all
lined by the mucous membrane. Ca-
tarrh, or cold, inflammations of the
upper air passages, should never be
long neglected. A few mashes or
a little medicine will usually remove
it. If it is neglected, and, occasion-
ally, in defiance of all treatment, it
will degenerate into other diseases.
The larynx may become the princi-
pal seat of inflammation. Laryngitis
will be shown by extreme difficulty of
breathing, accompanied by a strange,
roaring noise, and an evident enlarge-
ment and great tenderness of the lar-
ynx when felt externally. The wind-
pipe mu.st be opened in such case,
and the best advice will be necessa-
ry. Sometimes the subdivisions of
the trachea, before or when it first
enters the lungs, will be the part af-
fected, and we have bronchitis. This
is characterized by a quick and hard
breathing, and a peculiar wheezing
sound, with the coughing up of mu-
cus. Herfe, too, decisive measures
must be adopted, and a skilful prac-
titioner employed. So should he in
distemper, influenza, and epidemic ca-
tarrh, names indicating the same dis-
ease, and produced by atmospheric
influence, varying to a certain degree
in every season, but in all character-
ized by intense inflammation of the
mucous surfaces, and by rapid and
utter prostration of strength, and in
all demanding the abatement of that
inflammation, and yet no expenditure
of vital power.

" Cough may degenerate into in-
flammations of the lungs ; or this fear-
ful malady may be developed without
a single premonitory symptom, and
may prove fatal in twenty-four, or
even in twelve hours. It is mostly
characterized by deadly coldness of
the extremities, expansion of the nos-
tril, redness of its lining membrane,
singularly anxious countenance, con-

HORSE.

slant gazing at the flank, and an un-
willingness to move. A successful
treatment of such a case can be found-
ed only on the most prompt, and fear-
less, and decisive measures. The
lancet must be freely used ; counter-
irritants must follow as soon as the
violence of the disease is in the slight-
est degree abated ; sedatives must
succeed to them, and fortunate will
he be who often saves liis patient af-
ter all the decisive symptoms of pneu-
monia are once developed.

" Amongthe consequences of these
severe affections of the lungs are
chronic cough, not always much in-
terfering with the usefulness of the
horse, but strangely aggravated at
times by any fresh accession of ca-
tarrh, and too often degenerating into
thick wind, which always materially
interferes with the speed of the horse,
and in a great proportion of cases
terminates in broken wind. It is
rare, indeed, that either of these dis-
eases admits of cure, nor does that
obstruction in some part of the re-
spiratory canal, and varying in al-
most every horse, which produces
the peculiar sound termed roaring.

" Glanders, the most destructive of
all the diseases to which the horse
is exposed, is the consequence of
breathing the atmosphere of foul and
vitiated stables — the winding up of
almost every other disease, and in
every stage of it most contagious.
Its most prominent symptoms are a
small but constant discharge of sticky
matter from the nose, an enlarge-
ment and induration of the glands
beneath and within the lower jaw,
on one or both sides ; and, before the
termination of the disease, cancer-
ous inflammation of the nostril on
the same side with the enlarged
gland. Its contagiousness should
never be forgotten, for if a glandered
horse is once introduced into a sta-
ble, almost every horse in it will soon-
er or later become infected and die.

" The urinary and genital organs
are also lined by mucous membranes.
'I'he horse is subject to injlammalion
of the kidneys from eating musty oats
or mow-burned hay, from exposure
L L

to cold, and from injuries of the loins.
Bleeding, physic, and counter-irri-
tants over the region of the loins
should be had recourse to. Diabetes,
or profuse staling, is diflicult to treat.
The "inflammation that may exist
should first be subdued ; and then
opium, catechu, and the uva ursi ad-
ministered. Inflammation of the blad-
der will be best alleviated by mucila-
ginous drinks of almost any kind. Li-
flammation of the neck of the bladder,
evinced by the frequent and painful
discharge of small quantities of urine,
will yield only to the abstraction of
blood and the exhibition of opium.
A catheter may be easily passed into
the bladder of the mare and the urine
evacuated ; but it will require a skil-
ful veterinary surgeon to effect this
in the horse. ^4 stone in the bladder
is readily detected by the practition-
er, and may be extracted with com-
parative ease. The sheath of the
penis often becomes diseased from
the presence of corrosive mucous
matter : it may easily be removed
with warm water and soap.

" To the mucous membranes belong
the conjunctival tunic of the eye, and
the diseases of the eye generally may
be here considered. A scabby itchi-
ness on the edge of the eyelid may be
got rid of by a diluted nitrated oint-
ment of mercury. Warts should be
cut off with the scissors, and the roots
touched with lunar caustic. Inflam-
mation of the haw should be abated by
the employment of cooling lotions,
but that useful defence of the eye
should never, if possible, be removed.
Common ophthalmia will yield as read-
ily to cooling applications as inflam-
mation of the same organ in any oth-
er animal ; but there is another kind
of inflammation, commencing in the
same way as the first, and lor a whde
apparently yielding to treatment, but
which changes from eye to eye, and
returns again and again, until blind-
ness is produced in one or both or-
gans of vision. The most frequent
cause is hereditary predisposition.
The reader cannot be too often re-
minded that the quahties of the sire,
good or bad, descend, and scarcely
397

HOH.SE.

changed, to his ofTspring. How moon-
blindness was first produceil, no one
knows ; but its continuance in our
stables is to be traced to this cause
principally, or almost alone, and it
pursues its course until cataract is
produced, for which there is no rem-
edy. Gutta scrcna (palsy of the optic
nerve) is sometimes observed, and
many have been deceived, for the
eye retains its perfect transparency.
Here, also, medical treatment is of
no avail.

" Tlie serous membranes are of
great importance. Tlie brain and spi-
nal marrow, with the origins of the
nerves, are surrounded by them ; so
are the heart, the kings, the exterior
coat of the intestinal canal, and the
testes.

" Inflammation of the Brain. — Mad
staggers falls under this division ; it
is inflammation of the meninges, or
envelopes of the brain, produced by
over-exertion, or by any of the caus-
es of general fever, and it is charac-
terized by the wildest delirium. No-
thing but the most profuse blood-let-
ting, active purgation, and blistering
the head, will aflbrd the slightest liope
of success. Tetanus, or Locked Jaw,
is a constant spasm of all the volun-
tary muscles, and particularly those
of the neck, the spine, and tlie head,
arising from the injury of some ner-
vous fibril — that injury spreading to
the origin of the nerve — the brain be-
coming afTecled, and universal and
unbroken spasmodic action being the
result. Bleeding, physicking, blister-
ing the course of the spine, and the
administration of opium in enormous
doses, will alone give any chance of
cure. Epilepsy is not a frequent dis-
ease in the horse, but it seldom ad-
mits of cure. It is also very apt to
return at the most distant and uncer-
tain intervals. Falsy is the suspen-
sion of nervous power; it is usually
confined to the hinder limbs, and
sometimes to one limb only. Here
bleeding and physicking, and antimo-
nial medicines, and blistering of the
spine, are the most rational applica-
tions, but they too often utterly fail
of success. Rabies, or madness, is
398

evidently a disease of the nervous
system, and once being developed, is
altogether without cure. The utter
destruction of the bitten part with
the lunar caustic, soon after the in-
fliction of the wound, will, however,
in a great majority of cases, prevent
the development of the disease.

"Pleurisy, or inflammation of the
serous covering of the lungs and the
lining of the cavity of the chest, is
generally connected with inflamma-
tion of the substance of the lungs ;
but it occasionally exists independ-
ent of any state of the lungs. The
pulse is in this case hard and full, in-
stead of being oppressed ; the ex-
tremities are not so intensely cold as
in pneumonia, the membrane of the
nose is little reddened, and the sides
are tender. It may be of importance
to distinguish between the two, be-
cause in pleurisy more active purga-
tion may be pursued, and the effect
of counter-irritants will be greater,
from their proximity to the seat of
disease. Copious bleedings and sed-
atives here also should be had re-
course to. It is in connexion with
pleurisy that a serous fluid is effused
in the chest, the existence and the
extent of which may be ascertained
by the practised ear, and which in
many cases may be safely evacuated.
" The heart is surrounded by a se-
rous membrane, the pericardium, that
secretes a fluid, the interposition of
which prevents any injurious friction
or concussion in the constant action
of this organ. If this friction increa-
ses to too great a degree, the action
of the heart may be impeded or de-
stroyed ; this is dropsy of the heart ;
it is difficult to detect, and more dif-
ficult to cure. The heart itself is
often diseased ; it sympathizes with
the inflammatory affection of every
organ, and therefore is itself occa-
sionally infiamed. Carditis, or in-
flammation of the heart, is character-
ized by the strength of its pulsations,
the tremour of which can be seen,
while the sound can be heard at a
distance of several yards. Speedy
and copious blood-letting will afford
the only hope of cure in such a case.

HORSE.

" Tlie outer coat of the stomach I
and intestines is composed of a
serous menihrane. the peritoneum,
which adds strength and firmness to
their textures ; attaches, and sup-
ports, and confines them in their re-
spective places, and secretes a fluid
that prevents all injurious friction be-
tween them. This coat is exceed-
ingly subject to inflammation, some-
what gradual in its approach ; the
pulse quickened, but small ; the legs
cold ; the belly tender ; there being
constant pain, and every motion in-
creasing It ; there also being rapid
and great prostration of strength.
These symptoms will sufficiently
characterize peritoneal inflammation.
Bleeding, aperient injections, and ex-
tensive counter-irritation will aflTord
the only hope of cure.

" The time for caslration varies ac-
cording to the breed and destiny of
the horse. On the farmer's colt it
may be effected when the animal is
not more than four or five months i
old, and it is comparatively seldom
that a fatal case then occurs. For
other horses much depends on their
growth, and particularly on the de-
velopment of their fore quarters. Lit-
tle improvement has been effected in
the old mode of castrating, except
the opening of the scrotum, and the
division of the cord by the knife in-
stead of the heated iron.

" Si/novial, or joint membranes, are
interposed between the divisions of
the bones, and frequently between the
tendons, in order to secrete a certain
fluid that shall facilitate motion and
obviate friction. Occasionally the
membrane is lacerated, and the sy-
novia escapes. This is termed open-
ed joint, and violent inflammation rap-
idly ensues. The duty of the prac-
titioner is to close this opening, and
as quickly as possible. Nothing is so
effectual here as the old application
of the cautery. A great deal of in-
flammation and engorgement is pro-
duced around the opening, partially,
if not ahogether, closing it, or, at
least, enabling the coagulated syno-
via to occupy and obliterate it. Per-
haps, in order to ensure the desired

result, the whole of the joint should
be blistered ; a bandage should then
be firmly applied, and kept on as long
as possible. If, after this, there is
any escape of the synovia, the cau-
tery must again be had recourse to.
" The Navicular Disease is a bruise,
or inflammation, or perhaps destruc-
tion, of the cartilage of the navicular
bone, where the flex or tendon of the
foot passes over it in order to reach
the coftin bone. The veterinary sur-
geon can alone ascertain the exist-
ence and proper treatment of this dis-
ease. Sparin is an enlargement of
the inner side of the hock. The
splent bones, which support the infe-
rior layer of those of the hock, sus-
taining a very unequal degree of con-
cussion and weight, the cartilaginous
substance which unites them to the
shank bone takes on inflammation,
it becomes bony instead of cartilagi-
nous, and the disposition to this change
being set up in the part, bony matter
continues to be deposited, until a
very considerable enlargement takes
place, known by the name of spavin,
and there is considerable lameness
in the hock joint. The bony tumour
is blistered, and probably fired, but
there is no diminution of the lame-
ness until the parts have adapted
themselves, after a considerable pro-
cess of time, to the altered duty re-
quired of them, and then the lame-
ness materially diminisheaf and the
horse becomes, to a very considerable
extent, useful. Curb is an enlarge-
ment of the back of the hock, three
or four inches below its point. It is
a strain of the ligament which there
binds the tendons down in their place.
The patient should be subjected to
almost absolute rest ; a blister should
be applied over the back of the tu-
mour, and, occasionally, firing will be
requisite to complete the cure. Near
the fetlock, and where the tendons
are exposed to injury from pressure
or friction, little bags or sacs are
placed, from which a lubricating mu-
cous fluid constantly escapes. In the
violent tasks which the horse occa-
sionally has to perform, these become
bruised and inflamed, and enlarged
399

HORSE.

and hardened, and are termed ■wind-
galls ; lliey blemish the horse, but
are no cause of lameness after the
inflammation has subsided, unless
they become very much enlarged.
The cautery will then be the best
cure. Immediately above the hock,
enlargements of a similar nature are
sometimes found, and, as they pro-
ject both inwardly and outwardly,
they are termed thorough puis. They
are seldom a cause of lameness, but
they indicate groat, and perhaps in-
jurious exertion of the joint. On the
inside of the hock a tumour of this
kind, but of a more serious nature, is
found. It is one of these enlarged
mucous bags, but very deeply seated,
the subcutaneous vein of the hock
passing over it. The course of the
blood through the vein is thus, in some
measure, arrested, and a portion of
the vessel becomes distended. This
is a serious evil ; for, from the deep-
seatedness of the mucous bag, it is
almost impossible to act effectually
upon it. It is termed bog or blood
spavin.

" The cellular tissue which fills the
interstices of the various organs, or
enters into their texture, is the seat
of many diseases. From the badness
of the harness, or the brutality of the
attendant, the poll of the horse be-
comes contused. Inflammation is
set up, considerable swelling ensues,
and an ulcerative process soon com-
mences, and chasms and sinuses of
the most frightful extent begin to ap-
pear. The withers are probably bruis-
ed, and the same process takes place
there, and sinuses penetrate deep be-
neath the shoulder, and the bones of
the withers are frequently exposed.
These abscesses are termed poll evil
anA Jisivlous withers, and in the treat-
ment of them the horse is often tor-
tured to a dreadful and disgraceful
extent. A better mode of manage-
ment has, however, been introduced :
setons are passed through the most
dependant parts ; no collection of sa-
nious fluid is permitted to exist, and
milder stimulants are applied to the
surface of the ulcer.

"An abscess of a peculiar charac-
400

ter is found between the branches of
the lower jaw in young horses ; it is
preceded by some degree of fever. It
is usually slow in its progress, but at
length it attains a considerable size,
including the whole of the cellular
tissue in that neighbourhood. There
is one uniform mass of tumefaction.
This is strangles. Vtvcs appears to
be the first stage of this disease. It
seems to be an effort of nature to get
rid of something which oppresses the
constitution, and the treatment of it
is now simple and effectual. It is
encouraged by fomentations and by
blisters : it is punctured as soon as
the fluctuation of a fluid within it can
be fairly detected, the pus speedily
escapes, and there is an end of the
matter.

"To one disease of the absorbent
system a brief reference must be
made.

" Farcy. — While the arterial capil-
laries are engaged in building up the
frame, the absorbents are employed
in removing that which not only is
useless, but which would be poison-
ous and destructive. They take up
the matter of glanders and of every
ulcerating surface, and they are occa-
sionally irritated, inflamed, and ul-
cerated, from the acrimonious nature
of the poison which they carry. The
absorbents are furnished with numer-
ous valves ; the fluid is, for a while,
arrested by them, and there the in-
flammation is greatest, and ulcera-
tion takes place. This is the history
of the farcy cords and buds. Farcy
is a highly contagious disease, wheth-
er or not it be connected with glan-
ders. It, however, occasionally ad-
mits of cure from the application of
the cautery to the bud, and the ad-
ministration of very small doses of
corrosive sublimate, or the sulphate
of iron, internally.

" The skin of the horse is subject
to various diseases. Large pimples,
or lumps, suddenly appear on the
skin, and, after remaining a few days,
the cuticle peels off, and a circular
scaly spot is left : this is called sur-
feit. The cause is obscure, but prin-
cipally referable to indigestion. A

HOR

slight bleeding will always be ser-
viceable ; physic rarely does good ;
but alteratives, composed of nitre,
black antimony, and sulphur, will be
very beneficial. Mange is a disease
of a different character. It is the
curse of the stable into which it en-
ters, for it will almost certainly affect
every horse. Thorough dressings
vpith Barbadoes tar and linseed oil, in
the proportion of one of the former to
three of the latter, will be the most
effectual external application, while
alteratives and physic should be giv-
en internally. Hulc-bound is a very
appropriate term lor the peculiar
sticking of the hide to the ribs when
a horse is out of condition. The sub-
cutaneous adipose matter is all ab-
sorbed. The alterative above rec-
ommended will be very useful here.
Grease is an undue secretion of the
fluid which was designed to lubricate
the skin of the heels, and that secre-
tion being also altered in quality.
The hind legs begin to swell, a fluid
exudes from the heels, the hairs of
the heels become erect like so many
bristles, and the skin of the heel is
hot and greasy. Soon afterward
cracks appear across the heel, they
discharge a thick and offensive mat-
ter, and then deepen. They spread
up the leg, and so does the tumefac-
tion of the part. In process of time
the skin, inflamed and ulcerated, un-
dergoes an alteration of structure ;
prominences or granulations appear
on it, assuming the appearance of a
collection of grapes, or the skin of a
pineapple. They increase, and a foe-
tid discharge appears from the crev-
ices between them.

" The cause is generally neglect of
the horse. He is suffered to stand
iu the stable with his heels cold and
wet, and this must necessarily dis-
pose them to inflammation and dis-
ease.

" In the first stage of grease, bran,
or turnip, or carrot poultices will be
serviceable, with moderate physic.
Then astringents must be employed,
and the best are alum or sulphate of
copper in powder, mixed with eight
limes the quantity of Bole Armenian,
Ll2

HOR

and sprinkled on the sores. These
should be alternated every three or
four days. The grapy heels are a
disgrace to the stable in which they
are found, and admit not of radical
cure."

Wounds in horses seldom heal by
first intention ; the lips should, how-
ever, be brought together nicely and
bound by sticking plaster or a ban-
dage ; if suppuration occurs, keep the
wound clean by warm water. For
the medicines, see Pharmacopaia.

HORSE'S FOOT. The structure
of the feet of horses is much more
complex than one might suppose at
first sight ; it is contrived so as to
furnish an arrangement of springs,
whereby the weight of the body in
alighting on the hoof is broken, and
the animal is enabled to leap from
the ground with facility. This struc-
ture will be seen in Fig. 1, which
Fig: 1.

f-

represents a section of the lower
part of the leg. a is the coflin bone ;
b the navicular, or nut bone ; c the
coronary, or little pastern bone ; d
is the pastern bone ; e the tendon,
or sinew, of the muscle which bends
the foot backward ; / is the same
tendon sliding over the navicular
bone, and g its insertion in the bot-
tom of the coflin bone ; h the elas-
tic matter of the sensible frog ; i
the insensible or horny frog ; k the
horny sole covering the sensible parts
of the foot ; / the front horn that
protects the coffin bone ; m the pro-
cess of the coflin bone, to which the
extensor tendon, n, is attached, for
the purpose of throwing the foot for-
ward ; 0 the attachment of the ex-
tensor to the coronary bone, to assist
401

HOR

HOll

in making the spring. From this it
will be seen that when a horse is
alighting his whole weight is not ex-
pended upon an unyielding and hard
hoof, but upon a series of bones which
participate and divide the shock, re-
ducing it to a trifling pressure on each
part. It is this complexity of ar-
rangements which renders the horse's
foot so liable to injuries : when any
of the ligamentous connexions or
synovial membranes between the
bones is irritated it produces lame-
ness, which, if not speedily attended
to, may become permanent.

The hoof, or horn, of the foot on
the under side is marked by certain
projections, which are altered in their
form in disease. Fig. 2 represents
Fig. 2.

secrete horn, and produces pus and
ulcers in its place ; this is a result
of foul stables. But the whole in-
sensible sole may become painful and
sensitive from bad shoeing, if the
shoe fits ill, compresses any part, or
duriag the growth of the nail be-
comes buried in it.

HORSESHOE. The best veteri-
nary surgeons are unanimous in con-
demning the common horseshoe,
from its want of width or web, from
being usually too wide behind, from
the calkins, or turned-up parts at the
heels, and from the clinches being
driven in too far back towards. the
heels, as well as the want of level
and irregular figure. According to
the practice of Moorcroft and others,
the seated shoe of Osmer is the prop-
er form. It is shown in the figure,

a healthy sole : the rounded portions
of the hoof, a, a, behind where the
nail is curved inward, are called the
heels ; between these lies the horny
frog, b ; the inflected or bent por-
tions of the hoof, c, c, running on the
outside the frog, are called the bars ;
d d are the angles of the bars, in
which corns occur in diseased feet ;
in the latter case the frog becomes
contracted, and often fissured, pro-
ducing pus (thrush) ; the bars are run
together, and the heels, instead of
being rounded and wide apart, are
contracted to a mere slit. The space,
e, lying between the front edge of
the hoof and the bars in the sole
should be broad and concave. When
this external covering is removed
from the foot, it is found to rest on
the sensible sole and frog, both of
which, and especially the latter, are
highly vascular and sensitive ; they
are, indeed, to the hoof what the
quick is to the human nail, they se-
crete the tough horn to protect them-
selves. In disease it sometimes oc-
curs that the sensible frog refuses to
402

a being the under or ground side, and
b the upper surface. Its peculiarities
are, 1st, a flat, wide surface towards
the ground, a, d ; this is made true in
forging by gauging on a flat iron ;
there is no groove or fullering, which
only assists the wear ; it is punched
with conical holes with square tops,
and clinched to the crust by conical
nails, e ; the nails are obliquely driv-
en outward, and their figure keeps
the shoe fast as long as any portion
of them remains in place. The up-
per surface, b, c, is bevelled in the
fore part and sides, but not behind,
so as to offer a good support to the
heel ; there is no increase of thick-
ness, clubbing, or calkings, but the
whole shoe is uniformly thick, from
one half to five eighths of an inch,
and perfectly level. This is regard-
ed by Loudon as a perfect shoe.
I Calkings may be made where the

IIUR

HOR

ground is slippery and much up hill ;
and a turn-up in front is also useful
in rocky {)laccs. There is a shoe
called the bar shoe, which is of an
oval figure, the iron heing complete
around the heel, curved and thick-
ened to suit it ; hut it is seldom used :
it answers well to protect a tender
frog. In putting on the shoe, all the
crust trimmed should he taken quite
level, and the shoe never put on hot
to make it fit better ; it may be gauged
while hot for a minute to enable the
smith to cut the crust true, but not
clmched while hot. Racing shoes
are very light, and of the figure
above.

HORSE-CHESTNUT. Mscnlus
hif-pocastanum. This tree is remark-
able chiefly for the beauty of its fig-
ure, flowers, and early foliage. The
wood is soft and of little value. The
nuts contain much nutritious matter,
which is combined with a disagreea-
ble bitter ; but it is said that pigs eat
them when pounded into meal. A
writer in the American Farmer says
that they are very saponaceous, and
will take spots out of linen. The
Buckeyes are of this genus, or, at
least, of the sub-genus Pavia.

HORSE DUNG. See Farm-yard
Manure.

HORSE-FLY. Hippobosca, which

SG6,

HORSE-HOE. See Cultivator.

HORSE POWER. In physics,
the effect produced by the strength
of a horse. James Watt allowed in

his engine an effect equal to 32,000
pounds lifted one foot in a minute ;
but from experiments with horses,
D'Aubuisson found it was only equal
to 16,440 pounds raised one foot in a
minute.

In acrriculturaJ machines, a horse
power is a contrivance or gearing to
make the labour of horses available in
turning thrashing and other machines,
where great swiftness is wanted.

The simplest horse power {Fig. 1)

is a triangular wooden frame bearing
a wheel, the upper axis of which is
inserted into the lever, a ; the horse
is hitched at b, and, as he walks in a
circle, turns the wheel, d, which
plays into an endless screw, the
end or rod of which, c, is made to
revolve rapidly, and may be put in
communication with a machine by
the hook or by a small roller. The
same arrangement, with several ad-
ditional wheels to multiply motion,
and a crown wheel instead of the
endless screw, forms Warren''s horse
power {Figure 2), as well as other
kinds.

The old power for thrashing con-
sisted of an upright beam, carrying
at the top a crown or bevelled wheel
of large circumference, and turning a
small wheel, which was directly in
contact with the thrasher or grinding
mill. The horses were attached to

levers, projecting from the central
beam, and below the wheel. This is
a simple and very efficient contri-
vance. A modification is introduced
by Mr. Scripture, who puts no cogs
to the wheel, but causes it to turn a
roller by friction.

403

HOR

TajtliTi's horse power {Fig. 3) is a
large wliecl revolving on a short ax-
is near to tlie ground. Tlie driver
sits on the top of the axis, and the

HOR

horses work within the circumfer-
ence, being hitched to it. The under
side of tlie wheel carries iron tcolh,
which play upon a small wheel con-

nected by a drum with the thrasher.
It is readily carried, and set up on the
field in a few minutes.

Gleaso7i's horse power {Fig. 4) is on

another principle : an endless chain,
carrying oaken slats for the horse to
tread on, is made to turn a wheel,
which carries a drum on the outside
of the frame, from which a leathei
band communicates with the thrash-
er or mill. The horse or mule works
within a framing to hinder accidents.
Pitt's machine is of this class.

A very similar contrivance is used
for dogs, the machine being reduced
to a proper size. In this way churn-
ing and other light operations may be
conducted.

These horse powers contain the
three principles on which all the rest
are constructed. The prices of the
powers are from $60 to ^90 for the
single horse, and $100 to $120 for
two or more horses.

HORSERADISH. CoMcaria ar-
moracia. A cruciferous plant, with a
perennial root, used as a condiment
404

for its hot taste, resembling mus-
tard.

The plants are obtained from cut-
tings, or otfsets, from the crown of
the preceding roots, each cutting hav-
ing two eyes : they are set early in
spring, in a deep, mellow earth that
has been trenched. The soil should
be moist and well manured. The
sets may be placed in drills, eighteen
inches to two feet apart, by six inch-
es in the row, and during the first
year beets or other plants can be
raised in the drill intervals. Weed-
ing and hoeing are necessary. The
roots will be lit to be taken up in Oc-
tober and November of the second
i year, when they may be kept for use
] in sand. In taking up the roots the
eartli must be thoroughly loosened
to obtain the whole, as they are fre-
quently two feet deep. Oflsets and
broken pieces containing eyes will
vegetate the next year, and in this
way a bed once established may, by
manuring, be kept up for a long pe-
riod ; but the best way is to select
cuttings for a new bed the next year.
HORSE-R.AKE. See Hay-makiiig.
HORSE-TAIL. The genera Equi-
setum, or scouring rush, and Hippuns,
remarkable for the large amount of sil-
ica they contain. They grow in rich,
wet places, and some varieties are of
value in the arts for polishing met-

HORTICULTURE (from hortus,
a garden, and colo, I cultivate). The
cultivation of gardens and orchards.
See Garden Husbandry.

HOT

HUM

HORTUS SICCUS. An herbari-
um, a collection of dried plants.

HOT-BED. See Frame.

HOT-HOUSE. A glazed structure,
sufficiently high to allow persons to
enter, and with conveniences for the
production of artiticial heat. The
means of heating are various : some
depend upon dung pits constantly re-
newed, others upon flues running in
the walls, and conveying the hot air
of a furnace. Steam is also convey-
ed by iron and copper pipes, and made
to circulate several times through
the house, especially under the beds.
Hot water is also conveyed from a
boiler round the house and back, so
as to maintain a constant circulation,
the boiler being provided with a safe-
ty-valve. The direct introduction of
steam from a boiler through an open
pipe is occasionally used as an eco-
nomical way of heating the house
when the plants are adapted to a very
moist air.

The arrangements of the hot-house
are various, according to the object
m view. The roof usually sustains
grapes ; the highest wall, tigs, apri-
cots, early peaches, nectarines, and
choice fruits : in the centre is arran-
ged a rising frame containing the ex-
otics, which require heat during win-
ter, or the ground may be used as a
place to forward vegetables. The
walk is around the central stand. The
height and dimensions will depend
upon the plants protected.

HOTTENTOT BREAD. Tamus
(Tcstudinaria) clcphantipcs. A South
African climbing perennial, produ-
cing an immense above-ground tuber,
very similar to the yam in flavour.
It forms a large portion of the food
of the natives.

HOT- WALLS. Walls in which
heat circulates for the advancement
of fruit, and ripening of the wood in
the fall. They are made by conduct-
ing flues from a furnace at various
heights, or back and forth, and ter-
minating in a chimney ; by enclo-
sing steam pipes, or, what is much
better, bv building the wail hollow
throughout, binding the two sides to-
gether occasionally by cross bricks

' or stones, and a coping, and passing
a large hot-water pipe along the bot-
[ tom between the sides : the heat
from this rises upward, and produces
an equal temperature throughout the
wall.

Hot -walls are much assisted by
a moveable arrangement of glazed
sashes, which can be set up to pro-
tect the trees from frost in early
spring, and may be removed during
summer.

Ordinary walls, painted of a dark col-
our, and looking to the south, become
heated by ten to twenty degrees high-
er than the adjacent grounds during
summer, and therefore advance the
ripening of fruits considerably, espe-
cially if all the leaves lying around
the fruit be removed, which shade it
from the sun or wall. The introduc-
tion of reflecting surfaces of white
wood or sheet tin, so as to concen-
trate light and heat on walls, would
i doubtless much advance the maturi-
ty of fruits. Such reflectors might be
moveable, made very light, and read-
ily adjusted to heat any particular
wall.

HOUXD. The dogs of chase are
so called.

HOUND'S TONGUE. The genus
Cynoglossum : rough-leaved weeds of
little value.

HOUSELEEK. Exotic plants of
the genus Scynpervivum, with succu-
lent leaves, which are mucilaginous.

HOVEL. A shed for cattle, sheep,
&c.

HOVEN, HOOVE. See Oxen, Dis-
eases of.

HUCKLEBERRY. Whortle-
berry.

HUMAN F^CES. See Night-soil.

HUMATES. Salts of humic acid.
See Humus.

HUMECTATION. Moistening.

HUMERUS. The upper bone of
the arm.

HU.MIC ACID. See Humus.

HUMIFUSUS, HUMIFUSE.
Spreading over the ground, procum-
bent, like the stem of the melon,
sweet potatoe, &c.

HUMILIS. Low, humble, applied
to small species.

405

HUiM

HUMMELLER. An implement for
the separation ol" barley from the
glumes or awns. This may he clone
by the means described under barley.
An instrument extensively used in
Scotland is formed of a hollow cyl-
inder of staves or metal, in which an
axis revolves very rapidly. To the
axis is attached three sets of cross
pieces of wood, which reach nearly to
the cylinder, and are at right angles
to it. The barley being slowly ad-
mitted by a hopper above, enters the
cylinder, where it is beaten rapidly
by the cross pieces, and perfectly
cleaned of awn by the time it escapes
from below.

HUMMING-BIRD. Birds of the
genus Trochilus, remarkable for their
minuteness, brilliancy, and rapid
flight. They live upon the nectar of
flowers and on small insects.

HUMOUR. In anatomy, fluid se-
cretions natural to the eye or other
parts of the body.

HUMUS. The decayed carbona-
ceous residue of plants, of a dark-
brown or black colour, and mouldy
smell. It is called by gardeners vege-
table mould, and has received the
name of humus, humic acid, humin,
humic extract, coal of humus, ulmin,
ulmic acid, geine, geic acid, apoth-
eme, &c., &c.

Being vegetable matter in a state
of decay, its composition is subject
to change ; and hence a great num-
ber of bodies will be formed by treat-
ing it with re-agents, as potash, soda.
But Mulder has recently shown that
the various bodies enumerated by
other chemists, as well as the crenic
and apocrenic acids, are no more
than woody fibre, cellulose, starch,
gum, sugar, and similar vegetable
bodies in a progressive state of de-
cay ; that by the absorption of oxy-
gen, carbonic acid and water are
constantly being formed, and pro-
gressively the different products of
decay. From Mulder we learn that
ulmic or humic acid consists of 40
carbon, 14 hydrogen, and 12 oxygen ;
crenic acid, C-i H12 Oio ; apocrenic ■
acid, Chs H;2 Oi4, and that the two
latter are not, as Berzehus and olh- j
406

HUM

crs assert, bodies containing nitro-
gen, but only that in the soil the
apocrenic acid is usually combined
with ammonia. Moreover, Mulder
failed to discover in the vegetable
mould or humus any other organic
bodies than humin and its deriva-
tives, with cre'.iic acid and its deriva-
tives, acting as acids. The bases wiih
which apocrenic and humic acid are
combined are chiefly lime and am-
monia. The humates of lime, pot-
ash, and soda existing in the soil are
either insoluble or sparingly soluble ;
the humate and apocrenate of ammo-
nia are soluble, and form a brown so-
lution. Woody tissue, straw, leaves,
and vegetable rubbish, exposed to air
and kept moist, and at a temperature
above 60. decay or run into erema-
causis, producing at first ulmic, cre-
nic, and apocrenic acids ; these will
combine with bases present, and still
continue to decay, giving out water
and carbonic acid. The ammonia
present participates in this change,
and becomes converted into nitric
acid. The rapidity of decay is much
hastened by the presence of caustic
lime, potash, or soda, or by their car-
bonates. If air be not freely admit-
ted, then gaseous compounds of hy-
drogen, carburet of hydrogen, sulphu-
retted hydrogen, &c., are formed.

From this we learn that humus is
vegetable matter in the act of decay,
the products of which depend upon
the age, exposure to air or water,
temperature, and similar conditions.
But there is a variety called inert hu-
mus, as peat, turf, &.C., which, from
the presence of moisture and absence
of air, coiTibined with other causes,
decays very slowly ; this may, how-
ever, be hastened by drying and free
exposure to air, by admixture with
putrescent bodies, or by the action of
lime and bases. The solution of hu-
mus, obtained by boiling potash or
soda ash with peat, is not strictly a
humate of these alkalies. The hu-
mic acid can be precipitated by add-
ing the strong mineral acids. The
portion of humus not soluble in alka-
line solutions is called insoluble hu-
mus, humin, coal of humus.

HUM

HUS

Humus, i. c, vegetable mould, has
been highly commended as the food
of plants, some people imagining that
in the soluble state it entered the
root and fed the tissues ; this view,
propagated for the purpose of exem-
plifying the utility of applying all ma-
nures in the state of solution, is a
ridiculous absurditij. That solutions
of humus find their way into the in-
terior of plants, is very true ; but it
has never been shown that such so-
lution was in any way necessary to
vigorous growth. Indeed, plants set
in soils containing only insoluble hu-
mus (humate of lane) are as healthy
and vigorous as those growing un-
der the influence of solutions. Nu-
merous plants require no humus, as
grasses, clovers, various forest-trees ;
these, indeed, by their dead leaves
and roots, produce and accumulate
humus. Charcoal powder, which is
insoluble, answers, in many cases,
equally well with humus.

The real utility of humus, irrespect-
ive of the ashes which mould con-
tains, arises from the following ef-
fects : 1st. It is constantly decaying,
and thus producing carbonic acid and
water, which feed the plant and moist-
en the soil. 2d. During decay it con-
stantly absorbs nitrogen from the air,
which becomes converted into am-
monia and nitric acid, and is thus ad-
mirably fitted to sustain vegetation.
3d. It not only imparts valuable me-
chanical qualities to the soil by in-
creasing its warmth, porosity, and
friability, but the carbonic acid pro-
duced, as well as the nitric acid, by
acting on the insoluble minerals of
the soil, as the silicates of potash,
soda, lime, and its bone earth and
other phosphates, dissolves or decom-
poses them, rendering them food for
plants. In this manifold way humus
becomes of great utility to culture,
but is neither the only manure, nor
competent of itself to produce fertil-
ity ; for accumulations of humus are
by no means desirable : 10 per cent,
in the soil is an abundance, and two
to three per cent, is quite enough for
most plants. Potatoes, the roots,
corn, cotton, tobacco, cruciferous

plants, and wheat, are most partial
to this body ; they are all plants de-
veloped by culture, and require a sup-
ply of food by the roots as well as
leaves. Grasses, clovers, and many
beans increase instead of exhausting
the soil of humus ; hence their utility
in rotations.

The amount of humus in the soil is
readily increased by green fallows, by
ploughing in straw, prepared peat,
and all vegetable rubbish. The great-
er part of the solid matter of all pu-
trescent manures is humus, decayed
wood, the rotten interior of the trunk
and branches, &c.

Humus IS hastened in its decay, and
consequently in the several effects it
produces, by liming and the use of ash-
es, as well as by hoeing and all means
that increase the quantity of air ad-
mitted to the soil. Indeed, much of
the surprising effect that lime often
exhibits arises from its action on the
vegetable matter in the soil ; even
cornstalks and twigs of trees are
rapidly reduced by its action when in
the earth.

HUNDRED WEIGHT, or CWT.
112 pounds avoirdupois. It is com-
mon in the United States to speak of
hundreds, or 100 pounds ; and 100
pounds is frequently called a hundred
weight.

HUNGER-ROT. Disease occa-
sioned in sheep by bad keeping ; star-
vation.

HUNGRY SOIL. Poor, sandy, or
gravelly soil, requiring frequent ma-
nuring.

HURDLE. A light, moveable
fence of wood, iron, or wire ; it re-
sembles a light gate, and is some-
times made of osiers, woven like a
basket. Hce Fence. Sheep ^Te hurdled,
folded, or enclosed on turnips, clo-
vers, grass, &c., by means of hurdles,
and readily shifted from place to
place. The shifting often takes place
daily, and if the manure dropped be
ploughed in as soon as the shift is
made, a considerable economy is
practised ; but if it be left to dry and
waste, the plan is bad.

HUSBANDRY. Agriculture. The
following short sketch of British hus-
407

HUSBANDRY.

bandry may be found serviceable ; it
is by Mr. Rham :

"The first and most inartificial is
that which consists in breaking up
portions of pasture land and sowing
corn on a sliglit ploughing, which
cannot fail to be productive tor some
time. Several crops may thus be ta-
ken, until the land is so exhausted
that the crop no longer repays the
seed and labour. To extend this
time, experience soon pointed out the
crops which succeeded best after each
other. Wheat or barley were proba-
bly the first crops ; afterward pease,
beans, or oats, until the ground,
being overrun with weeds, would be
left to the renovating effect of time,
and a fresh spot would be broken up.

" The first improvement on this
system is that of infield and outfield.
The infield is cultivated more care-
fully, somewhat like a garden, and
all the dung of the cattle is exclu-
sively put upon this part. The out-
field is a continuation of the first-
mentioned system. The infield con-
sisted of enclosures or open fields
near the dwelling, which it was most
convenient to cultivate as arable
land. Thus two distinct systems of
husbandry were carried on at the
same time ; and whatever improve-
ments were introduced in the man-
agement of the infield, the outfield
continued to be managed as it was
before.

"The mode of recruiting lands
which had been exhausted by crops,
or were overrun with weeds, by
means of a fallow, seems to have
been introduced into England by the
Romans. The alternate crop and
fallow seem to have been later intro-
duced than a fallow after several
crops. The triennial system, which
consists of a summer fallow, a win-
ter crop, and a spring crop, was prob-
ably longer established than any oth-
er, and is still the practice in many
parts of England. The deteriorating
effect of the outfield system would
lead to its abandonment as soon as
population increased, and with it the
want of land for infield.

" When common fields are divided
408

and enclosed, a better system of hus-
bandry geiiprally follows. Clover and
turnips are more regularly sown, and,
on the light lands, take the place of
summer fallow. Clover generally
comes after a crop of wheat, in which
it was sown the preceding year in
spring ; and as most crops succeed
well after clover, wheat was usually
chosen for the next crop as the most
profitable. Thus arose the Norfolk
system, without any very sudden de-
Iiarture from the old rotations. Two
crops raised for the food of animals in
four years require more cattle on the
farm to expend them profitably ; and
thus more manure is made. In the
light soils the sheep, when folded on
the turnips, not only enrich the land
by their dung and urine, but likewise
render it more compact by treading
it, which is advantageous to the clo-
ver and wheat which come after. If
the land is a good loam, beans are
sometimes sown after wheat, the land
having been recruited with manure ;
and if the beans are kept clean by
hoeing, another good crop of wheat
may be obtained after them. Thus
arises the improved rotation of tur-
nips, barley, clover, wheat, beans,
wheat ; after which the land is again
cleaned and prepared for turnips with
all the manure that can be spared.
As in this system there is always a
crop with succulent leaves interve-
ning between two which have a white
straw, it has been called the alternate
system of husbandry. These are the
most common systems in England.
The removal of the fallow year, pro-
vided the land be kept clean, is a de-
cided step towards improvement ;
the best farmers effect this by the in-
troduction of artificial grasses and
tares fed off by sheep, and especially
by sowing every crop in rows and
keeping the intervals stirred, which
is a partial fallow, without losing a
crop. Here TuU's system is intro-
duced, which in its complete state,
as the author recommended it, was
soon abandoned.

"As the English systems have ta-
ken their origin chiefly from the in-
field cultivation, so the Scotch appear

HUSDA.NDIIY

to have arisen from that of the out-
field. Fallows were unknown, but
the invigorating effect of grass fed off
by cattle must soon have been per-
ceived ; and, instead of leaving the
land to recover slowly by the spon-
taneous growth of natural herbage,
which on poor land takes a long time,
it was obvious that this might be
accelerated by sowing grass seeds.
Hence the origin of the Scotch con-
vertible system of husbandry, which
is gaining ground daily, and bids fair,
in remote situations, where no ma-
nure can be purchased, to be firmly
established. The order of the con-
version has been somewhat altered
from what it was originally. Instead
of sowing grass seeds after the land
is exhausted, it has been found advan-
tageous to accelerate the growth of
grass by manuring the crop in which
it is sown ; and experience has
proved, that the richer the grass is,
the more productive are the crops
which come after. The grass, in-
stead of being a mere substitute for
fallowing and manuring, is made high-
ly profitable by feeding cattle and
sheep ; and the profit of the years
when the land rests, as it were, by
being depastured, is often as great as
that of the years when it is cropped ;
and the risk and expenses are much
less. The convertible system is not
very generally known or adopted in
England, and is often confounded
with the alternate system. The al-
ternate system interposes a green
crop between two white-straw crops.
On good land the convertible hus-
bandry may consist of three or four
years' tillage and three years' grass.
If the land is not quite clean, a sum-
mer fallow on heavy soils, or a tur-
nip fallow on light soils, should be-
gin the course ; and only one crop
should be taken after the fallow in
which the grasses are sown, wheth-
er it be wheat, corn, barley, or oats.
It should he fed off the first year,
mown the second, and ied off again
in the third ; when it is broken up,
oats are usually sown as the first
crop in Scotland, then beans, if the
land admits of them, and then wheat.

M M

If a fallow is mtended, a crop of
pease may be sown after the wheat,
and then the course begins again, as
before, with a clean fallow or with
turnips. In this manner the land
may be kept clean and continually
improve in fertility by means of the
cattle which are kept upon it, with-
out the aid of any purchased manure,
except lime, the expense of which is,
in most cases, well repaid by the
crop. These are the only regular
systems in Britain, and every mode
of cultivation and cropping may be
reduced to one of them, unless it be
capriciously anomalous.

" \Miat renders the improved sys-
tems of British husbandry so supe-
rior to that of other nations is the
attention paid to the perfection of
the different breeds of domestic ani-
mals, especially the horse, the ox,
and the sheep. In this respect, Brit-
ish husbandry surpasses every other.
No expense or trouble is spared to
improve the qualities of cattle and
sheep. It has been objected, that
the rewards given by different so-
cieties for excessively fat cattle are
not judicious, as these animals are
never profitable to the feeder. The
same might be said of very high-bred
race-horses ; they are not so useful
as a good hackney or hunter ; but
unless some individual animals pos-
sess the power, courage, and speed
which is the mark of the best blood,
it would soon degenerate ; so, like-
wise, if some oxen were not occa-
sionally fatted to an extraordinary
degree, the fatting qualities of the
breed could not be proved. A badly-
bred ox will never become so fat,
whatever food may be given him, as
one of a choice breed ; this the breed-
ers are well aware of, and never hes-
itate to pay a good price for a young
bull related in blood to a prize ox."

HUSK. The dry exterior of
fruits.

HYACINTHINE COLOUR. The
colour of the hyacinth gem : a clear
reddish-brown.

HYALITE. A variety of glassy
quartz of a gray or yellowish colour,
and concretionary.

400

HYD

HYD

HYALOID (from va?uoc, glass). A
transparent membrane.

H YBERNACULUM. The winter
leaf-l)ud.

HYBERNATION. The torpid
conciition in which numerous animals
and reptiles exist during winter ;
they usually retire in a fat state, and
become very lean by spring, the fat
being consumed in maintaining the
temperature necessary to preserve
life.

HYBRID (from Upic, a nmle).
The offspring of animals or plants of
different species. They are usually
barren, as mules, or yield only by
connexion with one of the same race
as the parents. Much of the im-
provement in horticulture has been
effected by hybridizing. To perform
this, the plants selected should be of
near varieties, and of similar quali-
ties ; they should also flower at the
same period. The flowers on the fe-
male plant are to be reduced to a few
only, and its situation must be dis-
tant from others of the same variety.
The stamens of all the flowers are to
be cut out by a pair of scissors as
soon as the blossom is developed, and
before pollen is emitted ; and as soon
as the stigma is fully dilated, stami-
nate flowers from the male variety
are to be brought and shaken over
them, care being taken that the pol-
len is well scattered over the stigma.
The seed germinates readily, and will
produce a new variety that may be
valuable, and is to be maintained by
slips, cuttings, buds, and any other
means except by seeds, which are
either infertile or defective. This
was a favourite method with Mr.
Knight. Hybrids are frequently form-
ed in gardens by the close neighbour-
hood of varieties, the pollen being
carried by wind, insects, &c., and
they frequently destroy fine seeds.
Hence, plants raised for seed should
be planted apart, and out of the reach
of the pollen of other varieties. Bi-
geiicrs, the hybrid offspring of plants
of different genera, are very rare.

HYDATID (from iSaric, a bladder).
A race of enlozoic animals resem-
bling a .small bladder, and infesting
110

the liver, brain, uterus, and other
parts of mammals. See Diseases of
Sheep.

HYDRACIDS. Acids containing
hydrogen, as muriatic acid, &c.

HYDRAGOGUE (from v6o>p, ica-
ter, and ayw, / expel). Violent cathar-
tics, which cause an expulsion of much
fluid.

HYDRANGEA. A highly orna
mental flowering shrub.

HYDRARGILLITE. A name foi
wavellite.

HYDRATES. Compounds iu
which water combines, as an acid in
its equivalent of nine, as hydrate of
lime, or water slacked lime.

HY'DRAULIGS (from v6up, and
avlo^, a pipe). The science which
treats of the movement and mechan-
ical effects of water and liquids.

HY'DRO. A chemical prefix, indi-
cating the presence of hydrogen ; as
hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydrocar-
bon, and hvdriodic.

HYDROCARBONS. A general
term for the oily, waxy, and resinous
products of vegetation, which are rich
in hydrogen, and often contain hy-
drogen and carbon only ; they are
also called hydror.arburets, which term
includes ethers, alcohols, gaseous
compounds of carbon with hydro-
gen, naphthas, &c.

HYDROCELE. A collection of
water in the scrotum.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID. See
Chlorine. Muriatic acid.

HYDROCHLORATES. An old
term fur chlorides.

HYDROCY^\NIC ACID. Prussic
acid, a pellucid fluid, of strong odour,
one of the deadliest poisons known.
Ammonia is the best antidote. It is
a compound of one eq. cyanogen and
one hydrogen, and produced in the
distillation of bitter almonds, peach
blossoms. Numerous plants of the
rosaceous family contain a portion of
it. See Cyanogen.

HYDRODYNAMICS (from v6up,
and dwafiL^, power). The science
which shows the methods of applying
the properties of fluids to mechanical
purposes.

HYDROFLUORIC ACID. A pun-

HYD

gent, gaseous aciJ formed of one cq.
fluorine, and one hydrogen. See Fin-
orinc.

HYDROGEN. Inflammable air
The lightest body in nature : an ele-
mentary gas, without oduur or eolour,
very inflammable in air, forming ex-
plosive eompounds with oxygen. It
has little chemical activity alone, and
is irrespirable : 100 cubic inches weigh
213 grains. Its equivalent is 1 on
the hydrogen scale, and 12 5 on the
oxygen : symbol H. Hydrogen does
not exist uncombined in nature ; but
in a compound state, in water, annno-
nia, and vegetable products, is large-
ly accumulated. It combines with
oxygen, forming water, by the aid of
heat or electricity. In all its prop-
erties hydrogen resembles a metal.
It combines with oxygen, chlorine,
bromine, &c., in the same way as
other metals, and is readily displaced
by the greater number, sometimes
with the evolution of pure gas, at oth-
ers by the simultaneous combination
of the liberated hydrogen with oxy-
gen, to form water. Its compounds
with carbon, forming coal gas and oil
gas, are of considerable economical
value : these, with sulphuretted hy-
drogen, are also thrown out from wet,
putrescent manures, stagnant ditch-
es, &;c. For other compounds, see
the usual names.

Some writers state that plants pos-
sess the property of decomposing wa-
ter and appropriating its hydrogen ;
but this has never been proved : the
decomposition is readily effected by
galvanism. Plants contain six to sev-
en per cent, of hydrogen in the dried
portions without the water, in which
there is one ninth by weight : fats and
waxes contain ten to thirteen per
cent.

HYDROMETER. Areometer. An
instrument to take the specific grav-
ity or density of fluids, spirits, &c.
It is of great value in testing the
strength of spirits, of solutions, of
sugar, dyestufTs, &c. The form of
the implement, which is made of
brass or glass, is shown in the fig-
ure. It is sometimes furnished with
a series of weights, ^V, which arc pla-

HYD

fjlA ced on the short stem, C
D, to enable it to sink in
different solutions. The
stem A B is usually flat
and graduated ; the scale
depcnduig upon the use,
and varying with the ma-
ker. Sykes's instrument,
which is used for taking
the strength of spirits, is
furnished with a table.
Baume's areometer, or hy-
drometer, is extensively
used by sugar-makers and
manufacturers. It is grad-
uated from a central point in the
stem, — upward, for fluids lighter than
water, and -{- below, for those that
are heavier. The 0 (zero) marks the
density of distilled water at 58° Fah-
renheit, and the downward marks cor-
respond to the density of solutions
of salt and water, containing for each
mark an additional one per cent, of
salt ; thus, 5° indicates a fluid of the
same density as that produced by
mixing 5 parts common salt and 95
water. The real specific gravities are,

F(ir Fluids of lesB gravity.

0=10000 —11 = 0 9932

+ 1 = 10066 —12 = 0-9865

4- 5=10340 —15 = 0-9669

-1-10=1-0701 —20 = 0-9359

-f 20= 11515 -25 = 0-9068

+ 30=1-2-159 -30 = 0-8795

+ 40 = 13571 —35 = 0-8538

-+-50=1-4902 —40 = 0-6295

+ 60=16522 —45=0-8066

+ 70=1-853" —50=0-7849

-1-76 = 2-0000 —60 = 0-7449

HYDROPHILID.E. Aquatic, pen-
tamerous beetles. They are vegeta-
ble feeders.

HYDROPHOBIA. See X>o^.

HYDROPHYTES (fromvdwp, and
6vrov, a plant). Plants living in fresh
water.

HYDROSTATIC BALANCE.
The common balance, furnished with
a scale that may be suspended near
the beam, and under which a hook is
placed to hang any substance to be
weighed in water. See Gravity, Spe-

HYDROSTATIC PRESS. See
Press, Hydraulic.

HYDROSTATICS (from viup, and
GTau, I stand). The science which
411

II VG

II VP

explains the mechanical properties of
fluids.

HVDROSULPIIURIC ACID. Sul-
phuretted hydrogen. Sec Sul/ihur.
Hydrosulphurets are the sulphurets
or sulphides of metals and bases.

HYGEIXE (from vyteia, health).
The arts necessary to the preserva-
tion of health.

HYGROMETER (from vypoc,
moist, and fierpov, a measure). A con-
trivance or implement to measure
the amount of moisture or vapour of
water in air. Formerly hygrometric
substances, as hair, catgut, whale-
bone, sponge dipped in pcarlash, &c.,
were used ; but their indications are
of little value. The plan of ascer-
taining the deiv point (see) is the sim-
plest ; this may be done as directed
under dew point, with the hygrome-
ter of Professor Daniel, or by a sim-
ple implement of Professor Bache,
which consists of a small bar of pol-
ished steel, in which several perfora-
tions are made, at short intervals,
large enough to receive the bulb of
a small thermometer. When used,
one end of the bar is plunged in iced
water, the other being sustained in
the air : after a short time, dew will
be seen to form near the lower parts,
and to rise gradually until it attains
a stationary point. If the thermom-
eter be now placed in the nearest ap-
erture, it will indicate the tempera-
ture of the dew point, or the hygromet-
ric condition of the air. If the place
occupied by the dew be situated be-
tween two perforations, the thermom-
eter may be placed in both, and one
half the difference added to the de-
gree of the lower, to mark the dew
point.

The real amount of water in a giv-
en bulk of air is not measured by any
instrument. It is, however, a mat-
ter of calculation. From Professor
Daniel's table, it appears that at a
dew point of 30-' Fahrenheit, there is
about 2i grains of water in a cubic
foot of air ; at 40^, 3i grains ; at 50°,
U grains ; 60°=-6i grains ; 70° Fah-
renheit = 8k grains ; at 80° Fahren-
heit, Hi grains.
HYGROMETRIC, HYGROSCOP-
412

IC. Having the quality of absorb-
ing moisture during wet, and partially
losing it in dry weather.

HYGROSCOPE. The hygrometer.

HYhOBIUS. A genus of tetram-
erous beetles, resembling the curcu-
lios, and infesting trees.

HYMENIUM. The gills or porous
membranes in which the spores of
fungi are placed.

HY.MEXOPTERANS, HYMEN-
OPTERA (from vfir/v, a membrane, and
nrepov, a wing). An order of mandib-
ulate insects, comprehending those
which have four membranous wings
with few nervures. Latreille divides
this order into the following sections
and tribes :

1. Tcrcbrantia : Abdomen of the fe-
males furnished with a saw or borer.

a. Sccurifera: Abdomen sessile, fur-
nished with a saw ; larvee with
feet.

h. Pupivora : Abdomen peduncula-
ted, furnished with a borer ; lar-
vae footless.

2 Acidcata : Abdomen of the fe-
males armed with a sting.

a. Hcterogyna : Females wingless.

b. Fossores: Females winged, wings
not folded ; basal joint of poste-
rior tarsi simple.

c. Diploplcra : Females winged,
wings folded.

d. MelUfera : Females winged,
wings not folded ; posterior tar-
si enlarged, and converted into
a poUinigerous organ.

HYPERSTHENE. A species of
mineral resembling hornbiend, with
little lime and twenty-four per cent,
iron. In some greenstone rocks it
takes the place of hornbiend.

HYPERTROPHY. An unusual
increase in size of any organ of the
body.

HYPOCHONDRIUM. The region
of the body under the cartilages of
the false ribs. The liver lies in the
right, and the spleen in the left hyp-
ochondrium.

HYPOCR.ATERIFORM. Salver-
shaped. A corolla consisting nearly
entirely of a tube.

HYPOGASTRIC REGION", HY-
POGASTRIUM (from vno,under, and

ICR

ICE

yaarnp, the slomach). Tlie portion of
the abdomen reaching from the low-
est parts to near the navel.

HVPOGENE ROCKS. The crys-
talline rocks, both stratified and un-
stratified, as granite, gneiss, mica,
and hornblend slates. These are
cither rocks of fusion (Plutonic), or
have been modified by heat {Transi-
tion).

HYPOGYNOUS (from imo, and
yvvj/, a female). Stamens, or other
organs, attached below the base of
the ovarium.

HYPOMTROUS ACID. A very
instable and unimportant acid, com-
posed of 1 eq. nitrogen and 3 oxygen.

HYPOPHOSPHOROUS ACID.
A compound little known, with acid
properties ; it has not been isolated,
and consists of 1 eq. phosphorus and

1 oxvgen.
HYPOPHYLLUM. A partial leaf,

clasping the stem, and without lamina.
HYPOSULPHURIC ACID. An
instable body, not isolated, composed
of 2 sulphur, 5 oxygen. Hyposulphu-
rous acid is not isolable ; consists of

2 S-j-2 O. ; its salts, the fu/jwsid-
])hitcs, are of use in photography :
they are very readily decomposed.

H Y P 0 T E N i; S E. The longest
side of a right-angled triangle.

HYPOTHESIS. A speculation
not based on facts, but explaining
certain phenomena.

HYSSOP. Hyssopus officinalis. A
perennial rooted, labiate plant, of aro-
matic and bitter properties. It grows
on a dry, light soil, and is propagated
by cuttings and seeds.

HYSTERIA. A nervous com-
plaint, attended with convulsions and
peculiar flatulency.

HYSTRICID.E (from hjstrix, a
jiorcupine). The family of Rodentia,
to which the porcupine belongs.

I.

IBEX. A wild goat {Capra ibex)
inhabiting the mountains of the Old
M'orld, with long horns, marked with
knotted ridges.

ICE. Water congeals at and be-
low 32' Fahrenheit, and expands ^th
of its volume at 40' Fahrenheit;
M M 2

hence, when freezing occurs in the
pores of rocks, the earth, &c., it oft-
en produces a disruption of the par-
ticles. It is this action that mellows
lands ploughed in the fall.

ICE-HOUSE. A sandy or porous
soil is to be preferred ; the place
should have a nortiiern aspect, and
be protected by trees, a wall, &,c.,
from the action of the sun. The pit
may be conical or rectangular, with
sloping sides ; for a family, twelve to
fourteen feet depth, and twelve feet
square, will be sufficient, but some
houses are twenty-four feet deep ;
the sides may be bricked and cement-
ed, or lined with wooden piles cut
from small pines, and set horizontally,
as in making a log house, and after-
ward boarded ; the framing may rise
one or two feet above the ground, and
a quantity of earth be rammed against
it. At the bottom, a well three or four
feet deep, and one third the width of
the pit, should be dug, and covered
with timbers or an iron grating ; into
this the water of the melted ice drains
and is removed ; if the soil be po-
rous, nothing more is wanting, but if
retentive, a drain must be made from
the bottom to carry off the water ;
this is to be protected with a water-
trap to hinder circulation of air. If a
sandy bed be supposed to exist at a
short depth, it is best to sink the well
to it, or, at least, to make an open
bore ; unless the water can be drain-
ed, the ice will not keep.

The roof may be a sharp gable or
conical, well protected by shingles or
thatch ; the door is to be on the north
side, and should lead along a short
passage to a second inner door. A
gutter must be placed around the
eaves to carry off every drop of rain.

The house should be filled in dry,
frosty weather ; if of wood, the ice
may be thrown directly in, but in
stone or brick houses a layer of straw
or leaves may be first spread on the
bottom. The clearest ice is best ; it
should be driven closely together
with a rammer, and, as the house fills,
straw or leaves may be placed around
the sides. If the weather be very
cold, water may be thrown over the
413

ICE

ILI

ice, so as to freeze and consolidate
the mass, otherwise the crevices
should bo filled with small or broken
pieces. If the house has been filled
early, it is customary to leave it un-
covered until the new year, so as to
add to the mass as it settles during
February. As soon as the winter is
passed, the top should be well cov-
ered with dry leaves or straw. A
ladder is used to reach the ice, and,
placed upon it as soon as necessary,
it remains during the season. Snow,
well rammed, keeps well, especially
if water be frozen amid it.

Some houses are made with a
double lining, the outer being of piles
and the inner of plank, the space be-
tween them varying from four to
eight inches, and filled with pounded
charcoal, sawdust, dry tan, or leaves
well rammed. In this way a non-
conducting pit is made that will keep
less quantities of ice very perfectly.
Such a house may even be made
above ground, if surrounded with a
thick mould of earth, and kept free
from wet and well drained.

The uses of such a house are ap-
parent : meats, liquids, butter, fruits,
are preserved ; but, besides these, in
silk raising, it affords the tneans of
delaying the hatching ; scions may be
kept back, and, above all, the ice is
invaluable in the sick-chamber in in-
flammations.

ICE PONDS. Any natural lake
or accumulation of clear water will
furnish fine ice ; but where that is
w'anting, a temporary dam thrown
across a spring branch will soon pro-
duce a sufficient amount of water.
Where the operation of taking ice is
carried on on a large scale, the sur-
face is cut by a plough of suitable
construction, and thus the removal
assisted. The Boston dealers take
only the transparent ice ; they have
any accumulation of snow shaved off
by skim-coulters a few days before
use, and the thickness of the real ice
is rapidly increased afterward. The
largest blocks are preferred for sto-
rage ; and as they are cut of the same
Bize, they can be laid in the house
like courses of masonry.
411

ICELAND SPAR. Calcareous
spar.

ICHNEUMON FLIES. Small hy-
menopterous insects, which lay eggs
in the bodies of aphides, caterpillars,
and other insects, and even in the
eggs of these ; the young eat and de-
stroy the creatures in which the egg
is deposited. The Fig. represents a
common species {Tragus fulvus).

ICHOR. A thin, purulent, and
acrid discharge.

ICOSANDRIA, ICOSANDROUS
(from eiKoai, twenty, and avrjp, a male).
Flowers with 20 stamens.

ICTERUS. Jaundice ; hence icte-
roid, yellowish, like the colour of the
skin in jaundice.

IDIOPATHIC. Independent of
other diseases.

IDIOSYNCRASY. A peculiarity
of constitution.

IDOCRASE. Volcanic garnet. It
crystallizes in a square-based prism
of a brownish colour, and is found
massive. Composition of the Vesu-
vian : silica, 35 5; alumina, 33 ; lime,
22-25 ; iron, 7 5.

IGASAURIC ACID. A vegetable
acid found in plants yielding strych-
nine.

IGNIS FATUUS. A luminous me-
teor seen over marshes ; it consists
of marsh gas (light carburetted hy-
drogen) inflamed.

IGNITION (from ignis, fire). Com-
bustion, burning.

ILEUM. The lower portion of the
small intestines.

ILIA. The lower sides of the ab-
domen ; hence ihac, iliacus, related
to the ihum.

I Ml'

INC

ILIAC PASSION. A violent col-
ic, in which feculent rnaUer is vom-
ited.

ILIUM. The haunch bone.

IMAGO. The winged ins'ect.

IMBRICATED. Overlapping, like
the shingles of a roof.

IMPACT. The concussion of one
body on anotiicr.

IMPENETRABILITY. An es-
sential property of matter, whereby
one molecule only can occupy a given
space at a certain time.

IMPETUS. The force or momen-
tum of a body in motion.

IMPERMEABLE. Rendered wa-
ter-proof; this may be done with cot-
ton, silk, or other cloths by satura-
ting wiih drying linseed oil ; linseed
oil holding in solution India rubber ;
a varnish made by dissolving India
rubber in naphtha ; by pitch ; a solu-
tion of glue applied to cloth, which is
afterward dipped in infusion of galls.

Jinpermcahlc, in physics, also means
capable of resisting the passage of
gases as well as fluids.

IMPINGE. To strike upon; a
word much used in optics to express
the incidence of light.

IMPLEMENTS. Suitable care
should be taken in keeping them free
from rust and unnecessary exposure ;
parts subject to movements should
be kept oiled, and the whole stored
in a dry place in the barn.

IMPONDERABLE. A term used
to express light, heat, or electricity,
which are destitute of any discovera-
ble weight.

I.MPOSTHUME. An abscess.

I.MPREGNATION. Conception.
In horticulture, the contact of pollen
with the stigma is called impregna-
tion ; without this, no seed is pro-
duced. Arlilicial impregnation is
called hybridizing. See Hybrid. By
it numerous choice fruits, vegetables,
and flowers have been produced.

I M P R O \^ E M E NT O F LANDS.
See Barren Land and Arable Land.

I.MPROVE.MENT OF PLANTS.
The chief means are manuring, care-
ful tillage, proper exposure to sun or
shade, pruning, summer pruning, hy-
bridizing, becuring line seeds. Ira-

proved varieties are maintained by
grafting, slips, parting the roots, and
high culture ; without the latter, an-
nuals degenerate. Nature often vol-
unteers an improvement, which the
orchardist should at once avail him-
self of by propagation, and by care-
fully collecting the seeds. In this
way several varieties of wheat, or
other plants, sown together occa-
sionally, exhibit a new kind, superior
to the rest, the seed of which must
be carefully separated and sown alone
on excellent soils.

INANITION. A state of languor,
emptiness.

INARCHING. A kind of grafting,
in which the scion is not cut from its
parent, but the scion and stock are
made to come together at a certain
place ; they are then both pared down
to the new wood, and a tongue made
in each wound, so as to enable
them to fit closer ; the two are then
bound together (the parts being ad-
justed) by bass and grafting clay, and
supported by a stake driven in the
ground. The plants should be sha-
ded, most of the buds removed, and
the stock headed down nearly to the
scion. When the parts are firmly
united, which requires three or four
months, the scion is cut from its pa-
rent. This process is sure, but troub-
lesome. The scion may be some-
times a slip, the heel of which is kept
in water. The operation is perform-
ed in April or May, and usually on
jessamins, myrtles, camellias, wall-
nuts, and firs.

INCANDESCENCE. A luminous
heat.

INCANUS. Hoary ; covered with
a whitish down.

INCH. The twelfth part of a foot.

INCIDENCE. The meeting of one
body with another. The angle of in-
cidence is formed by the direction of
the light to a line perpendicular to
the plane of the surface on which it
falls.

INCINERATION. Burning to
ashes.

INCISED. Cut with a sharp knife.

INCI.SIONS IN TREES. Draw-
ing a sharp knife through the bark
415

IND

and into the new wood of plum, cher-
ry, and oilier trees, is often very ser-
viceable when they are i)urk-huund.
Jt should he done in summer, and the
incision made Irom the branches to
the earth.

INCISOR S. The sharp cutting
or nipping teeth placed m front of the
mouth of animals.

LNCO.MBUSTIBLE. Not capable
of burning. Cloths and wood are
rendered almost incombustible by
soaking in a solution of borax, alum
s^al ammoniac, phosphate of soda'
&c. The metallic salts used in pre-
serving timber render it very incom-
bustible ; It smoulders, but does not
burn with flame.

INCOMPATIBLES. Substances
which cannot exist in solution with-
out decomposition.

INCUBATION. Hatching. This
may be done by artificial heat distrib-
uted through a chamber by steam •
the temperature is about 102 ' Fahren-
heit. See Gestation. A contrivance
tor artificial hatching, called the Ec
caleobion, has been exhibited in New
York.

INCUMBENT. In botany, leaning
against. ^

INDEHISCENT. In botany, a
iruit which does not open when rine
as succulent berries '

INDIAN BLACK DRINK. See

Holly.

INDIAN CORN. See Corn.

J^Sft^SF^^- Thenasturtion.
INDIAN HEMP. See Hemp.

rSm'^^ MILLET. See Millet.
INDIAN PHYSIC. Gdlcmatnfo-
liata. An indigenous herb, the peren-
nial root of which is a good emetic

INDIA RUBBER. Caoutchouc,
i he dried mdky juice of the Sipho-
ma elastica, and other euphorbiaceous
trees. It is a compound of 90 car-
bon and 10 hydrogen, or C3 H.. India
rubber is much used in the laboratory
to unite tubes, &c.

It is dissolved by coal naphtha,
lornriing a varnish, which, brushed on
cloth, renders it water-proof; two
pieces of cloth are used, the varnish
rubbed on one, and the other brought I
at once into contact ; they adhere
416 '

INI)

firmly. Linseed and other fixed oils
dissolve a small amount of caout-
chouc ; pure ether has the same prop-

^Vhen heated to 600% it throws ud

a vapour, which, by refrigeration, is

I obtained as a volatile fluid, called

^01? .I"''"*'- '^''"^ '^ ^ remarkable
sohent of common India rubber res-

'"'mn?fv 'l^r.»°''!^'' ^"'^ '"^"y oils.

INDIAN TURNIP. Annatnphul.

llf .V'^T'"'"- A^-on'monmarsh
plant, the bulbous roots of which con-
tain much starch, and are occasion-
ally eaten, after being dried, but it is
I acrid when fresh

I /.^^^^I«ESTION This is charac-
terized by loss of appetite, flatulen-
cy, uneasiness over the stomach, ir-
regularity of the bowels, and imper-
fect dejections. It requires to be
treated by exercise, gentle purges
change of diet, abstemiousness, and
tonics.

INDICATION. The particular
treatment indicated by the symptoms
ot a disease.

INDIGENOUS. Native plants
&c., are so called.

INDIGO. A blue dye-stuff pro-
cured from many leguminous plants
but chiefly from the Indigofera imcto-
ria (Fig.), which is cultivated in the

East and West Indies, the continent
ol America, and the United States,
as It yields the largest amount of col-
ouring matter. In Guatimala. the

I

i

l.NDKK)

shrubby, /. disperma, yielding a supe-
rior (lye, is cultivated. Ure, also,
states that the /. pscudo tinctoria of
tlie East Indies furnishes the best in-
digo. The most successful culture of
these plants is near the tropics, where
the mean temperature reaches 75^^
and 80= Fahrenheit ; but species of
indigofera grow to the north of this
position. The soil should he light
and rich ; the seeds are sown in April
in drills, run at distances from 15 to
20 inches apart ; they require moist-
ure, but should not be planted in an
undrained soil. Twelve pounds of
seed answer fur the acre. Tlie young
jjjants are to be kept free from weeds,
tlimned, and hoed up. The plants
are cut with a reaping hook near the
earth, when about to flower, or as
soon as the lowest leaves begin to
turn : this period will be in July in
South Carolina. A second crop is
taken at the end of August, and a
third crop in Guatimala and India.
The root stems also yield good indi-
go a second year in rich soils, but
one year is usually the term for suc-
cessful cultivation. The first crop is
the best. The excellence of the in-
digo will depend upon the brightness
of the season ; long-continued wet
weather produces large plants, but a
smaller quantity of die.

Preparation of Fresh Leaves. — The
harvested plants are at once carried
to a vat or steeping-tank of wood or
masonry ; here they are unmersed in
water, being kept imder by weighted
boards ; fermentation soon begins,
and is allowed to continue about 18
hours, during which the colouring
matter is extracted from the leaves.
The fermenting vat is some 20 feet
square, and two to three feet deep,
and the bottom set on a level with
the top of a second or mashing-tank.
As soon as the scum produced in fer-
mentation begins to subside, the li-
quid should be allowed to flow into
the lower vessel. The decanted fluid
is of a yellowish tinge ; when in the
mashing vessel, it is to be violently
beaten with paddles or other means
for an hour or more, when the blue
begins to form in flocks and precipi-

tate. At first there is much froth,
but this subsides as soon as the flocks
become granulated ; the beating is
stopped when the granulations occur,
and the fluid begins to clear if allowed
to stand. If tlie fermentation has
been defective, the froth is very abun-
dant, and must be allayed by pouring
oil over the surface ; if over-ferment-
ed, a thick fatty crust covers the li-
quid, whicli does not disappear on in-
troducing oil. In this ease the beat-
ing or churning is to be moderated.
The indigo precipitates during 20
hours, leaving the water transparent
and free from froth. Tlie surface
water is now to be drained off by
stop-cocks or plugs in the side of tlie
vessel. In Central America, the thick
semifluid mass of indigo is scraped
up and placed on a stout cloth, to
drain and dry in the sun, and after-
ward cut into small pieces for the
market. " Stove-drying is equally ef-
fective. When dried, any white ef-
florescence that appears should be
wiped off. Limewater is sometimes
used to assist the precipitation of the
indigo ; but it is not advisable, as the
colour is injured.

Preparation of Dried Leaves. — In
India the plants are sometimes care-
fully dried in the sun, the leaves
thrashed from the stems, and stored
in barns until enough is accumulated
for sale or manufacture. The leaves
change, in four or more months, from
green to a blue gray in the mass, and
then become ready for use. They are
placed in the steeping-vat with six
times their weight of water, and con-
tinually stirred for two hours or more,
until the floating leaves sink. The
solution is now green, and to be im-
mediately run off into the mashing-
vat, where it is treated as before.
There is no fermentation in this pro-
cess. Limewater is sometimes used
to hasten the granulation, but is not
necessary, except in the case of plants
which yield little colour, as woad
[Isatis tinctoria).

In some cases the leaves are pound-
ed ; the solution is then strained be-
fore beating.

The product of indigo in South
417

INDIGO.

Carolina and Louisiana avprajes 65
pounds the acre: in Guatimala, 112
pounds is ol)tainrd on good soils.
The low price of labour in India
tends to the discouragement of the
cultivation of indigo in the United
States ; it is, however, raised for
plantation purposes. The following
is a sketch of the plan in the South
for this object, by the Southern Agri-
culturist ; it produces an imperfect
article, but good enough for the plant-
ers" use :

" Cut the indigo when the under
leaves begin to dry, and while the
dew is on them in the morning ; put
them in a barrel, and fill this with
rain water, and place weights on to
keep it under water. When bubbles
begin to form on the top and the water
begins to look of a reddish colour, it
is soaked enough, and must be taken
out, taking care to wring and squeeze
the leaves well, so as to obtain all the
strength of the plant ; it must then
be churned (which may be done by
means of a tolerably open basket,
with a handle to raise it up and down)
until the liquor is quite in a foam.
To ascertain whether it is done
enough, take out a spoonful in a
plate, and put a small quantity of
very strong lye to it. If it curdles,
the indigo is cliurned enough, and
you must proceed to break the liquor
in the barrel in the same way, by ])ut- \
ting in lye (which must be as strong
as possible) by small quantities, and
continuing to churn until it is all suf-
ficiently curdled : care must be ta-
ken not to put in too much lye, as
that will spoil it. When it curdles
freely with the lye, it must be sprin-
kled well over the top with oil, which
immediately causes the foam to sub-
side, after which it must stand till
the indigo settles to the bottom of the
barrel. This may be discovered by
the appearance of the water, which
must be let off gradually by boring
holes first near the top, and afterward
lower, as it continues to settle. When
the water is all let off, and nothing
remains but the mud, take that and
put it in a bag (flannel is the best),
and hang it up to drip, afterward ;
418

spreading it to dry on large dishes.
Take care that none of the foam,
wiiich is the strength of the weed,
escapes ; but if it rises too high, sprin-
kle oil on it."

Indigo is found in numerous legu-
minous plants besides the indigofera,
as the Baplisia ; it also exists in the
Polygonum tinclorium, in species of
ncrium and isatis. One plan of dis-
covering the presence of this colour-
ing matter in any leaf is to place it
in strong ether until the green is ex-
tracted, and it becomes white or of a
light yellow ; then expose this freely
to the air, and if indigo be present,
the colour is changed to blue.

Chemical Observations and Dyeing.
— The lumps sold in commerce for
indigo are a mixture of several bod-
ies, as gluten, orgliadine, brown, red,
and blue colours ; lime, and other
mineral substances. The proportion
of blue colour varies from 19 to 75 per
cent., according to the experiments
ofUre, the rich purple, violet-coloured
samples being best, and the East In-
dian generally superior to the Guati-
mala. It is insoluble in water, alco-
hol, or dilute acids. The blue indi-
go sublimes at 554° Fahrenheit, with
a purple smoke, and forms purple,
shining scales, but much is destroyed.
The sublimed indigo consists of car-
bon, 73 1 ; oxygen, 131 ; nitrogen,
108 ; hydrogen, 4. Indigogene, of
C4.5 His N3 O4 . — (Dumas.)

Indigo is readilydissolved in strong
sulphuric acid, seven to eight times
the weight of commercial oil of vit-
riol being necessary ; this is called so-
lution of indigo, sulphate of indigo,
Saxon and chemical blue, and is ex-
tensively used for dyeing. It may be
prepared in quantity and kept, and is
sold at the proper stores. To make
it, the acid must be placed in an
earthen-ware dish, surrounded with
water to keep it cool, and the pound-
ed indigo added, with stirring, in small
quantities ; when it is dissolved, the
whole is covered and left for 48 hours ;
it is then mixed with twice its weight
of pure water, and bottled. This so-
lution contains the indigo, red and
brown colours, and gluten, and does

IND

not produce a clear dye. It may be
puritied by adding the solution to a
considerable amount of boiling wa-
ter, and putting into it wool to mace-
rate in the cold for 24 hours. The
wool becomes deep blue, and should
remain until the liquor is greenish
blue ; it is then to be taken out,
drained, and washed in a stream of
pure water until the fluid ceases to
be coloured or acid. The washed
wool is next to be placed in a copper
full of water, containing two per cent,
of pearlash, or carbonate of soda (or
three times the weight of indigo), and
kept boiling a quarter of an hour ;
The pure blue (sulphate and hypo-
sulphite of indigo) colours the wa-
ter, the wool remaining dyed a dirty
brown (indigo red) : the solution may
be used as a dye, yielding a bright,
good colour, called distilled or soluble i
blue. I

Wools and other textures are first [
boiled in alum before being perma-
nently dyed in the soluble blue, the
depth of tone being increased by sev-
eral applications of alum and immer-
sions in the solution ; it also serves
to make olives, greens, and other
mixed colours.

Other means of dyeing are exten-
sively used, founded on the property
of indigo to become s(jluble in alka-
line solutions, or limewater, and col-
ourless when brought in contact with
a deoxydizing substance, as green
vitriol, and recovering its hue on sub-
sequent exposure to air. The indigo
(indigogene) may be thrown down
from solution by acids as a white
body, of which blue indigo is suppo-
sed to be the oxide. The most com-
mon means of dyeing is the cold or
copperas vat ; this is made as follows :
The indigo is well rubbed into a fine
paste with water or lye ; it is then
stirred into a vat of hot water, and
newly slacked lime added ; a solution
of green vitriol is then stirred into
the preparation. The quantities em-
ployed are one pound of indigo, four
pounds of lime, and three pounds of
copperas The dyeing vat is sep-
arate, and furnished witli the result-
ing solution, which conlaujs deoxy-

INF

dized indigo of a reddish yellow col-
our. There is a precipitate left in
the preparing vat of sulphate of lime,
lime mixed with indigo, brown, and
some blue, and peroxide of iron.

In using this cold vat, cotton and
linen are to be first boiled in a weak
alkaline lye, and the cloth, whether
cotton, wool, or silk, is to be merely
I dipped without starring, and allowed
' to remain from eight to ten minutes ;
they are hung to drain over the vat ;
1 they are then to be exposed to the
: air to acquire a blue colour, and dip-
ped until the proper tint is obtained.
When suitably coloured, they must
; be plunged into a sour bath of very
I dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid to
remove the lime, and finally rinsed
in running water.

j Boussingault is of opinion that the
dye-stuff might be prepared in the
beginning from the mash- vat by this
process with great advantage. Nu-
merous products obtained by the ac-
tion of re-agents on indigo are known
in chemistry, but are of little impor-
tance to us.

LNDUCTIOX. The process of ar-
riving at generalizations, or laws, by
a judicious investigation of numerous
facts. In electricity, it is the influ-
ence one electrified body exerts on
another, whereby its nearest surface
is made to exhibit a kind of electri-
city differing from that of the excited
substance.

INDUMENTUM. The coating of
feathers on birds.

INDUSLE. The cases of certain
water insects ; they are silicious,
calcareous, or ferruginous.

INDUSIUM. The thin membrane
covering the fruit of some ferns.

INDU\LE. Organized remains;
the withered leaves of monocotyle-
donous trees, &c.

INERMIS. Unarmed; without
spines or prickles.

INERT VEGETABLE MATTER.
Peat, tan, &c., which does not readi-
ly ferment ; mixture with dung, lime,
or ashes reduces it.

INERTIA. The indifTerence of
matter to rest or motion
INFIELD. Under improved tillage
419

i.\(;

INS

and rotations, as distinguislied iVom
outfield lands.

LN'FLAM.MATION. An unnatu-
ral increase of circulation, lilood, and
lieat in any part. It originates in
irritation, colds, contagion, and un-
healthy conditions of the nervous
system, and may attack any part. It
begins with dryness, heat, pain, and
tension, which is succeeded hy in-
creased vascularity, swelling, and se-
cretion, and terminates naturally hy
resolution to the primary states, by
the adhesion of parts or the forma-
tion of pus, ulceration, mortification,
and death of the part.

If the animal be vigorous, it is to
be treated by bleeding, purging, blis-
ters, and cooling applications. But
the inflammations of weakly animals,
especially when arising from conta-
gion and ending in ulcerations and
gangrene, is to be treated by stimu-
lants and tonics, of which carbonate
of ammonia {sal volatile) and bark are
the best.

INFLATED. Distended like a
full bladder, as the carpels of some
plants.

INFLEXED. Bent inward.

INFLECTION. In optics, the
same as diffrfiction.

INFLORESCENCE. The group-
ing of flowers on the stems of plants ;
the principal forms are the spike, ra-
ceme, corymb, umbel, panicle, tliyr-
sus, catkin, capitulum.

INFLUENZA. An epidemic cold,
with sore throat and fever, prevail-
ing in some springs.

INFUNDIBULIFORM. Shaped
like a funnel.

INFUSION. A liquor obtained by
macerating herbs, &c., in hot or cold
water.

INFUSORIA. The minute ani-
malcules of infusions and stagnant
waters ; some possess a mineral ca-
sing ; and the remains of innumera-
ble myriads are found in rocks, such
as tripoli, polirsheifer ; hence termed
infusorial, or infusory rocks or forma-
tions.

INGLUVIES. The crop of birds.

INGUINAL. Connected with the
groin (ingueti).
4^0

INK. To make black ink of the
best quality, take 12 parts gall-nuts,
f) of green vitriol, and 5 of gum ; the
galls are to be well pounded and
boiled, and the other ingredients af-
terward added ; 1 gallon of water is
used for every pound of galls. Oak
bark, logwood, and otiier substances
are often used in place of the galls :
the quantity must be two or three
times greater.

The indelible ink, for marking lin-
en, is a solution of nitrate of silver
(lunar caustic). It is used with a
clean pen on a place previously soaked
with a little salt ; the marking is to
be exposed to light to blacken. It is
removable by chlorine and ammonia.

Blue ink is a patent solution of
Prussian blue in oxalic acid and wa-
ter ; gum is added to make it adhere
to paper ; it is perishable, and easily
dissolved.

INJECTION. In farriery, a fluid
medicine thrown into any cavity of
the body by a squirt or syringe.

INNER BARK. The liber of bof^
anists, bass.

INNOMINATUM BONE. The
bone of the buttock ; aitch, or adze
bone.

INOCULATION. The introduc-
tion under the skin of animals of a par-
ticular poison, fluid, or virus, to pro-
duce a specific disease, as smallpox.
Budding and the transfer of grass
turfs are also called inoculation by
farmers.

INORGANIC. Not organic or de-
structible by heat, as the ashes of
plants, minerals, &c.

INOSCULATION. The union of
the extremities of veins and arteries.

INSECTIVOROUS. Birds, ani-
mals, or reptiles that prey on insects.

INSECTS. The following brief
sketch of Entomology is chiefly by
Mr. Swainson, from Loudon's Ency-
clopaedia :

"Insects, above all other animals,
are by far the most injurious to the
agriculturist, not only from their num-
bers, but from their attacking the
produce of the earth in all its stages
of growth and maturity.

" Insects are distinguished from

INSECTS.

worms {Vermes, Lin.) by always liav-
iiig feet in their perfect state, as the
beetle, butterfly, 6cc. Worms crawl
upon their bellies, and have no feet,
as the earth-worm, slug, snail, &c.
The generality of insects have only
six feet (Hexapods) ; but some few,
generally called by this name, have
a great many, as the wood-louse, cen-
tipede, &c.

" Nearly all insects are oviparous ;
that is, produced from an egg. These
eggs are seldom found singly. Tiiosc,
of some species, are hatclied in a few
days, while others remain during the
winter, and tlie young do not come
forth untd the season at which the
leaves of the plants upon which they
feed begin to e.xpand.

" The second state of the insect is
called the eruca, or larva. Caterpil-
lars are those larvaj which are ex-
posed, and feed upon leaves and
plants. The larvae of beetles usual-
ly live in the earth, in the trunks of
trees, or in the substance upon which
they feed ; they are generally of a
whitish colour, thick and clumsy in
form, and are called grubs ; whde
the name of maggots is usually given
to the larvaj of flies, bees, ants, &c.,
all of which live in the same confined
state as those of beetles. It is in
this stage of existence that insects
are most voracious, and, consequent-
ly, most destructive to plants.

" When the larva has attained to its
full size, it changes into the pupa or
chrysalis state. This is done m dif-
ferent situations, according to the
tribes to which they belong. The
chrysalis of butterflies are naked, and
are either suspended or attached to
trees, branches, walls, &.c. Those
of moths are either concealed in a
case, like the cocoon of the silkworm,
or the caterpdlar undergoes its change
in the earth. The period in which
insects remain in this state varies
according to the species ; but in most
cases ihey are inactive and torpid.

•' The imago, or perfect insect, is
produced from the ciirysalis, and is
t.'ie only state in which all its parts
and members are fully developed.
'I'he appearance and economy of per-
N .V

feet insects, in general, is totally dif-
ferent from those of the larva; and
pupae, and it is only in its final stage
of existence that the species can be
ascertained. With the exception of
such insects as form the aptera of
Linnajus, all others are furnished with
wings, either four or two in number.
Some few exceptions, however, oc-
cur to this rule ; the female of the
glow-worm and of some few moths
are apterous, while many beetles (al-
though furnished with hard winged
cases) are destitute of real wings.
The body is divided into a head, tho-
rax or chest, and abdomen : the head
sustains a pair of antennas, resem-
bling horns, two eyes, often very
compound ; the parts of the mouth
are a labium, labrum, mandibles, and
maxilla;, or jaws ; to the latter are
attached the organs of feeling (palpi).

"The duration of insects is ex-
tremely variable : the greatest pro-
portion appear to be annuals, emer-
ging from the egg and passing through
the three stages of their existence
within the space of a year. But there
are a great number of species, particu-
larly among the beetles, which pass
three, and even four years in the cat-
erpillar state ; and instances are on
record of beetles remaining in timber
from ten to fifteen years. The greatest
proportion of moths are biennial, pass-
ing the winter in the chrysalis state,
and closing their existence in the suc-
ceeding summer. The transitory life
of the ephemera is proverbial ; the
perfect insect, indeed, exists but for
a day, and seems born only to con-
tinue its species, yet in the larva state
it enjoys a life of one, two, or even
three years.

" Anano-ement or Classification of
Insects. — AH insects may be divided
into two groups : 1. Apterous insects,
having either no metamorpho^s, or
only that kind of it the tendency of
which is confined to the increase of
the number of feet : these, as their
name implies, are destitute of wings.
2. True insects, or those whose met-
amorphosis has a tendency to give
wings to the perfect or image slate,
but never more than six feet.

421

INSECTS.

"True insects are again divisible
into two priiiiary groups : the first of
these are organized lor mastication
in tiicir perfect state, and the second
are organized for suction alone. Each
of these divisions, according to the
system of Macleay, contains five sep-
arate orders, the principal characters
of which we shall endeavour to naake
intelligible in common language.

" The Mandibula/a, or masticating
insects, are furnished with javvs(/ro-
pA?) of a horny or membranaceous sub-
stance, infinitely diversified in their
form and structure. They are divi-
ded into the following orders :

" 1. Trickoptera. — The wings are
four, soft, and generally transparent ;
the upper pair slightly hairy, and the
lower folded when at rest. The in-
sects of this order are comparatively
iew. The caddy, or cadis worm, is
the larva of the spring ^y{Phrijganea),
and lives in the water, concealed
within a tube of its own construction.

" 2. HymenopLcra. — The wings are
four, clear and transparent. The tar-
sus (or outer division of the foot) is
composed of five joints, and the body
is armed with a sting. The bee, the
ant, and the wasp are familiar ex-
amples.

"3. Coleoptera. This well-defined
and most extensive order compre-
hends all insects known by the name
of beetles. They have two wings,
concealed beneath a pair of hard
wing-cases, which meet close togeth-
er in a straight line down the back.
There are many tribes of these in-
sects, which, both in their larva and
perfect state, are extensively injuri-
ous to man.

"4. Orthoptera. — The true wings
are but two, very large when expand-
ed, and folded lengthwise when at
rest. They are covered, either par-
tiali^or wholly, by two wing-cases of
a thin, tough, and rather opaque sub-
stance, somewhat resembling parch-
ment, and reticulated with small
nerves. The leading characters of
this order are exemplified in the Blat-
ta, or cockroach, the pest of tropical
countries, and frequently troublesome
in our kitchens and larders.
422

"5. Neuroptera. — The wings, with
very few exceptions, are four in num-
ber, clear, transparent, and reticula-
ted with numerous areolets, or irreg-
ularly square divisions ; the tail of
the female is not armed with a sting.
Few, if any of these insects may be
considered as injurious : some are,
indeed, beneficial ; as, from their pred-
atory habits, they attack and devour
a vast number of smaller insects.
This is more particularly the habit of
the green dragon fly {Agrwn virgo),
which every one may see, during sum-
mer, hovering over ponds, and flying
about like a hawk in search of its prey.
The ephemera, or day-fly, likewise be-
longs to this order.

" The HaustcUata, or suctorial in-
sects, likewise contain five orders.
Although apparently destitute of jaws,
there is every reason to believe that
the rudiments of the masticating or-
gans exist in these insects, but that
they are so slightly developed as to be
totally useless, and only discoverable
under a very strong magnifier. The
suctorial insects in their larva state
are mostly furnished with strong and
well-defined jaws, and feed voracious-
ly upon animal and vegetable bodies ;
yet, from the perfect insect being sup-
ported by suction alone, it is obvious
that in this state they can do no in-
jury to the agriculturist. The orders
into which they have been divided
are these :

" 1. Lepidoptera. — The wings are
four, thin, membranaceous, and cov-
ered with a fine powdery substance,
which, by the magnifying glass, is
shown to consist of minute scales,
lying one upon another, like those on
fishes. The butterfly and moth tribes
are familiar to every one as well-
known examples of these insects, the
larva of which are called caterpillars.

" 2. D'lptera. — The wings are two,
clear and transparent, like those of
the common house-fly. This order
is very numerous, and contains many
insects which are injurious to vege-
tables as larva;, and troublesome to
man in a winged state, as the gnat
(Cvlcx), whane-fly {Tabanus), crane-
fty {Tipula).

INSECTS.

'• 3. Aplera. — Entomologists of the t ed and flat, is convex and thick ; the

last century arranged all insects with
out wings under this order ; hut it is
now restricted, by Latreille and Mac-
leay, to such only as have a bivalve
articulated sheath to their mouth or
rostrum, and no wings, as in the case
of the common Ilea. -

" 4r. Hcniiptira.— Insects of this or-
der are furnished with two folded
wings, covered by wing-cases, also
crossing over each other, of a semi-
corneous substance, and which are
likewise useful as organs of flight.
The tarsi are composed of three, two,
or sometimes only of one joint, and
the body is much flattened. The va-
rious insects commonly called fleld-
bugs, which emit a strong and disa-
greeable smell when handled, are all
arranged under this order.

Homoptera. — These insects

wings, also, instead of being folded
over each other, are deflexed, and
embrace the sides of the body.

" The ditferent orders of insects
we have now enumerated are con-
nected by others of an inferior ex-
tent, and which are called osculent
orders. But a description of these
is not essential to our present pur-
pose, as they do not contain any de-
cidedly injurious insects.

" Insects injurious to Live Stock. —
The horse. The principal foes to this
animal are the horse-\)ee{CEstrus eq7ti)
and gadfly (CE. hccmorrhoidalis). The
first deposites its eggs on such parts
of the body as are liable to be licked
by the tongue, and the animal thus
conveys its enemy into its stomach ;
the young larvae are there nourished,
and become whitish rough maggots

have a great resemblance to the last ; j {Fig. 1, c). which are known by the
but the body, instead of being depress- | name of bols. They attain their full

Fig. 1.

size about the latter end of May, and
are voided about the end of June. On
dropping to the ground, they find out
some convenient retreat, where they

deposites its eggs upon the lips, and
causes excessive and distressing un-
easiness to the animal. The pre-
vention of bots belongs to the farm-

change into a chrysalis, and in six or I er, the cure to the veterinary sur-
seven weeks the fly appears. The ! geon. The first may be effected by
female (i) is distinguished from the ' watching the animal at the season
mal»(rt) by the lenirthencd shape of when the female deposites her eggs
her body. The inside of the knee is ' (usually in August and September),
chiefly selected for depositing her and should the horse appear much
eggs, which will frequently amount ' agitated in its pasture, there will be
tol'our or five hundred on one horse, ijood reason to suspect it has been
The other species (ffi./ic2morr^oi(/a/;.v, attacked hy the fly; the eggs may
Lin.) is still more troublesome ; it , then be removed by the brush and

423

INSEC'l-S

currycomb, or by a pair of scissors.
When the disease is certain, one of
the best methods to destroy the in-
sect is to fasten a bag net on the
horse, for tiie purpose of catching the
excrement, as well as the full-fed lar-
vae. By throwing the dung every
morning into a deep pit, any larvae
that may be enclosed in it will thus
be prevented from working their way
to the surface when their last trans-
formation is about to take place, and
their death will cut off a numerous
progeny. There are other dipterous
insects which feed upon the blood
both of horses and cattle ; the most
formidable of these are the horse-
flies {Tabani, k, I); others, much
smaller {Stomoxijs calcitrans), assail
him in every situation during sum-
mer, and dart their long probosces
into his legs and belly. But none are
more trying to him than the forest
fly {Hippobosca equina, L.), which runs
sidewise or backward, like a crab,
and shelters itself in those parts least
covered by hair : it may, however, be
caught by the hand when the animal
is in his stall ; but its substance is so
hard, that it can only be destroyed
by rolling it between the finger and
thumb.

" Horned cattle are likewise sub-
ject to the attacks of a peculiar spe-
cies of gadfly (GE. hovis, (i,c,/), which
causes them great terror and distress.
The larva (e) is smooth and fat, and
the chrysalis (/) opens by a lid (m)
when the insect {<!) emerges from it.
The herdsman may know when this
insect appears among his flocks, by
the agitation they exhibit; the whole
herd, with their tails erect, or carried
in some grotesque attitude, gallop
about and utter loud lowings. "When
oxen are employed in agriculture, the
attack of this fly is often attended
with danger, as they become quite
unmanageable, and, whether in har-
ness or yoked to the plough, will run
directly forward. Their harness at
this season should, therefore, be so
constructed as to be easily loosened.
The eggs are deposited icithin the
skin of the animal, and in a wound
made by a tube resembling an auger,
424

with which the female is provided.
These flies only attack young -and
healthy subjects ; but, independently
of the terror they create, do not ap-
pear to occasion any material injury.
" Sheep are also infested by anoth-
er species of gadfly (CB. ovis, L., g, h,
i), which deposiles its eggs in the
inner margin of their nostrils. The
moment the fly touches this part of
the sheep they shake their heads, and
strike the ground violently with their
fore feet ; at the same time, holding
their noses close to the earth, they
run away, looking about them on ev-
ery side, to see if the fly pursues: they
will sometimes crowd together in a
rut or dusty road, with their noses
close to the ground. The larvae (i)
are white, flat on one side and con-
vex on the other ; they inhabit the
cavities of the maxillary sinuses,
and crawl, when the animal is dead,
into those of the horns and frontal si-
nuses ; when full grown, they fall
through the nostrils, and change to
the chrysalis (/;), which produces the
fly {g) in about two months. Swine,
pigeons, and all kinds of poultry are
subject to fleas and lice of various
kinds, but never to such a degree as
to occasion death.

'• Fish, in their young or fry state,
are the food of the larvae of water-
beetles {Dylisci). These insects are
frequently seen in great numbers in
ponds ; they may be caught by a hand
net (made of very small meshes), in-
serted beneath the insect, as he re-
poses (With his head downward) on
the surface, and then suddenly drawn
upward.

" Insects injurious to Vegetables.—
The ravages of insects upon plants
commence from the time that the
seed is committed to the ground, and
continue until the produce is gathered
into the barn. We have noticed the de-
structive insects which are, in a great
degree, peculiar to certain plants,
as wheat, barley, &c., in a general
way ; we shall now enumerate those
that infest the grains, clover, pas-
tures, cabbages, and fruits, planta-
tions, as well as those universal de-
stroyers of all vegetables, the wire-

INSECTS.

worm, tlie plant lice, antl the differ-
ent species of crane-fly.

" Wheat, in every slate, is subject
to many insect depredators. Mr.
Marsham describes a small grub
which eats into the young plant about
an inch below its surface, devours the
central part, and thus causes its im-
mediate death. At a later period this
grain is attacked by a fly nearly re-
lated to the 3Iosillu$ arcuatus of La-
treille. It makes a lodgement in the
licart of the principal stem just above
the root, which stem it invariably
destroys, giving the crop at first a
most unpromising appearance. When
tiie wheat blossoms, it becomes ex-
posed to the attack of a small or-
ange-coloured gnat, which deposites
its eggs in the centre of the flower.
The weevil is destructive to wheat
when in the granary, where it feeds
both in the larva and perfect state.

" Rye is subject to the attacks of a
small fly {Musca pumilionis), which
introduces its eggs into the heart of
the shoots, and occasions a loss of
from eight to fourteen plants in a
square of two feet. No remedy has
yet been proposed for this pest, which,
if not extensive, may be checked by
plucking the injured ears and burn-
ing them.

" Barley, besides other insect foes,
has one peculiar to itself, in the shape
of a small moth (Tinea hordci, K.).
This fly deposites from 20 to 30 eggs
on a single grain ; when hatched,
each of the larva; disperses, and, se-
lecting a grain for itself, enters from
without, and lies totally concealed.
Should these moths be observed in a
granary, the injury may be stopped
by carefully covering the grain, leav-
ing a few handfuls exposed; upon
these the moths will deposite their
eggs, and by roasting or destroying
this small quantity, the rest may be
saved from infection.

" Oats are subject to few diseases ;
but, like all other grain, the plants
are liable to be destroyed by that uni-
versal devastator, the wire-worm, of
which a more particular account will
be found in treating of insects uni-
versally injurious to vegetables. The
N N 2

chinch bug is often very injurious in
the South.

" The diseases of peas are mil-
dew and blight, but these are only oc-
casional ; its insect enemies, howev-
er, are formidable ; the principal of
these is the plant louse (Aphis), one
species of which is peculiar to this
plant. Beans are exposed to the
same injury from another species of
aphis of a black colour, which begins
at the top of the plant, and multiplies
downward. In both cases the most
cffectaal remedy is to top the plants
at an early period of the infection,
and burn the parts so gathered ; this
plan is likewise advantageous, as it
improves both the quality and quan-
tity of the crop. The earlier pease
are sown, the better chance they
stand of escaping this pest ; or if a
small quantity of quicklime is sprin-
kled upon them when they are a few
inches high, experience has shown
that the plants remain uninjured,
while the aphis is totally destroyed.

" Turnips are subject to several
peculiar diseases, and are the food of
many noxious insects. On the first
appearance of the leaves, a whole
host of little jumping beetles (Haltica
ncmorum), called by farmers the fly
and blackjack, attack and devour
them, so that the land i« often obli-
ged to be resown. Nearly as much
damage is sometimes caused by a lit-
tle weevil (Cwrcw/zo contractus. Marsh-
am), which in the same manner pier-
ces a hole in the cuticle : watering
with lime water, &c., may serve to
check both these evils.

" The hop is liable to many disea-
ses caused by insects. When the
plants first emerge above the ground,
they are infested by a small beetle
(Haltica concinna), vulgarly called the
flea. In a more advanced state the
tops and branches are devoured by
the hop aphis, known to some by the
name of the green fly, while at the
same period the roots are subject to
the attack of the caterpillar of a sin-
gular species of moth, named by col-
lectors the ghost moth.

" Clover is very subject to be in-
jured by a very small weevil (Apion
425

INSECTS.

flavifcmoratum, K), which at all sea-
sons feeds upon the seed of the pur-
ple clover, while another species of
the same tribe {A. flaripcs) devours
that of the white or Dutch clover ;
the injury, unfortunately, cannot be
known while the plants are growing,
as they have then every appearance

ofbeing perfectly healthy. The young
shoots of the purple clover are often
devoured by jumping beetles {Haltica,
F.).

" Pastures in general are often de-
stroyed, to a very great extent, by
the larva or grub of the cockchafer
(.Fig- 2, a).

Fi>. 2.

" The ravages of the larvae are
even exceeded by those of the per-
fect insect, which sometimes appears
in the country in prodigious multi-
tudes, and, like a flight of locusts,
devour every green thing on the face
of the earth. The eggs of this terri-
ble devastator are white, and are de-
posited in the ground, where they
soon change into a soft whitish grub
with a red head, and about an inch
and a half long (/)). In this state it
continues four years, during which
time it commits most destructive rav-
ages on the roots, not only of grass,
but of all other plants and young trees.
"Whole acres of the richest pastures
are thus rendered unproductive ; all
verdure is lost, and the turf will roll
up almost with as much ease as if it
had been cut with a spade. The
whole of this injury being carried on
under ground, admits neither of pre-
ventive nor palliative measures ; but
the destruction to be expected from
the perfect insect may yet be prevent-
ed. If the dried and withered turf is
now removed, the soil underneath
will appear turned into a soft mould
for about an inch in depth, like the
bed of a garden ; in this will be found
the grubs, lying on their backs in a
curved position, and vast quantities
may be gathered and given to pigs

and poultry. "When full grown, the
larv£E dig in the earth to the almost
incredible depth of five or six feet,
spin a smooth case, and then change
into a chrysalis. In this inactive
form they remain until the following
spring.

" The perfect insect or beetle then
comes from the ground, and com-
mences an immediate attack upon
the leaves of all trees. Their num-
bers are sometimes immense. The
best, and, indeed, the only effectual
remedy for the destruction of the
perfect insect, is to shake the trees
or bushes at noon, when they are ei-
ther asleep, or in a state of stupor,
and then to. sweep or gather them
up. One person in this way has been
known to capture a thousand in a day,
which, on a moderate calculation,
prevented no less than one hundred
thousand eggs from being laid. Some
judicious farmers plough the ground
when they have reason to think it is
infested by the grub, and this is gen-
erally indicated by the rooks attempt-
ing to reach them. They are also
greedily devoured by crows and jays,
whose sole employment, for nearly
three months in the spring of tlie
year, is to search for insects of this
sort ; and the destruction they cause
among them is above all calculation.

INSECTS.

" Cabbages, ami other esculent ve- 1 different kinds of wliile butterflies
getablcs, are well known to be great- (Fig. 3) ; one of these {Pieris brassi-
ly injured by the caterpillars of two | cec, c) is much larger than the other ;

F(>. 3.

the caterpillar is pale >ellow, with
black spots (a) : when full fed, it
shelters itself on walls, pales, or
trunks of trees, and changes into the
chrysalis state (i), in which it still
preserves the same cast of colouring.
The perfect insect (<:) appears early
in spring, and continues until the end
of summer. The other species of
caterpillar is green (J) ; the chrysalis
(«) is of the same colour ; and the
butterfly (/) is produced about the

Far. 4

same time as the preceding. Hand-
picking the larva, and searching for
the chrysalis, are the only plans of
destruction, either for these or the
gooseberry and currant caterpillars.
" Fruit-trees of all kinds, and their
produce, are attacked and devoured
by a great variety of insects. We
shall, however, advert to those cu-
rious, minute insects (Thrips Physa-
pus, Fig. 4, /, h) so often seen in flow-
ers and blossoms during the spring,

and which, in their natural size (/), their form cannot be w^ell distinguish

appear like short black lin<'s. Near-
ly all fruit-trees are liable to consid-
erable injury from different species
of Coccus, or cochineal insects ; they
are mostly so small (Fig. 4, a, </), that

cd without the aid of a magnifying
glass ; many of them resemble small
scales, or scabs, fixed on the bark and
shoots. One is entirely of a brown
colour (^Coccus pcrsicorum. a): when
427

INSECTS.

magnified (//), it somewhat resembles
the tortoise beetle (Caxsiila, L ), the
legs and head being only iliscernilile
when the insect is turned on its back
(c). Another (C. fvl. ijucrcits, d, c, c)
does much injury to tlie oak ; while
the C. fagi attacks the twigs of the
beech {g), and causes small round
excrescences to appear ; these arc,
however, very different from the gall-
apples of the oak ( /), which are often
found of considerable size, and are
produced by the C'ynips quercus folii,
L. (A), or oak-gall-fly, and always
contain either the larva or imperfect
insect. The weevils {Curculionidcz)
form an exceedingly numerous fami-
ly, subsisting principally upon fruit,
seed, and grain ; one of these is the
nut-weevil ( C. nudum, Fig. 2, e, e), the
larvae of which (c, d) are the maggots
so frequently found in this fruit.

" The Aphides, or plant lice, next
to locusts, are the most universal
devastators ; almost every plant has
its peculiar species ; their fecundity
is so prodigious, that Beaume has
calculated that in five generations
one aphis may be the progenitor of
5,904,900,000 descendants ; and it is
supposed that in one year there may
be twenty generations ! Those which
attack the different kinds of grain
seldom multiply so fast as to be very
injurious ; but those peculiar to pulse
increase rapidly, and take such pos-
session that the plants are greatly in-
jured, afid frequently destroyed, be-
fore the seeds are matured.

" These insects are equally injuri-
ous in their winged (Fig- 4, 1, magni-
fied) and in their larva, or apterous
state (m, magnified) ; they are a fa-
vourite Ibod of sparrows and other
birds, who destroy numbers ; they are j
likewise exposed to other deadly and ;
cruel enemies ; one of these is a small ;
hymenopterous insect, which depos- 1
ites its egg in the body. But the most i
inveterate and destructive foe to the {
plant lice is the lady-bird, or lady-cow ,
(Coccinella, Lin), which, in its larva i
state, feeds entirely upon these in-
sects ; and the havoc made among
them may be conceived, from the |
myriads upon myriads of these little j
428

creatures which are usually seen in
years when the plant louse abounds ;
every one, probably, destroying tens
of thousands. On this account, the
lady- bird is the greatest friend to the
gardener and Airmer ; and could there
be any method devised of increasing
these useful insects at will, our hot-
houses, gardens, fields, and hop plant-
ations would soon be cleared from
the ravages of plant lice. The larvie
of several bee-like flies {Si/rplui.s) are
no less useful in this respect. Their
form very much resembles that of the
leech, having no apparent head. Some
species are green, with a white stripe
down the middle ; others brown, va-
riegated with darker shades. They
are always found upon those plants
most infected by aphides, upon which
they solely depend for nourishment ;
hence they become mo.st beneficial,
and should on no account be destroy-
ed. As palliative measures, the ap-
plication of powdered quicklime may
be resorted to, or the infected parts
pruned off before the insects greatly
multiply.

"The wire-worm is a name that has
been given, without discrimination,
to the larva;, or grubs, of various in-
sects, totally different from each oth-
er ; hence it is, that much confusion
and contradiction will be found re-
specting it in agricultural books The
true wire- worm is the grub of a small
beetle {Elalcr segctis), and it derives
its name from its slender Ibrm and
uncommon hardness. It lives in the
larva state nearly five years, during
which time it is supported by devour-
ing the roots of wheat, rye, oats, and
grass, which it attacks indiscrimi-
nately, and causes annually a large
diminution of produce ; it abounds
chiefly in newly broken-up land, and
is particularly destructive in gardens
recently converted from pasture land.
In the larva state it may be decoyed
by offering it more tempting food ;
but no method has yet been devised
for destroying the perfect insect.

"The grub is a general name for
several larvae of crane flies (Tipu-
lida), called by the country people
long legs, or gaffer long legs

INSECTS.

" One of the most destructive
among these insects to the roots of
grass and grain is the Tipiila oleracea.
The larva is said, by some authors,
merely to loosen the roots by bur-
rowing among them ; but others as-
sert that it likewise feeds upon the
fibres. No effectual remedy has yet
been discovered for this evil ; and
Steckney observes, that the insect is
not killed by lime, even when applied
in much larger doses than usual.

" There are several other species
of a large size, as the Tipula crocata
{Fig. 5, a), and Tipula nro.?a(c) which,
in a less degree, are also injurious to
such lands as are moist and humid.

" Another minute species is partic-
ularly destructive, and is generally
known as the wheat ^y {Tipula or Ce-
cidomyia fritici, d, magnified) ; its his-
tory and economy have been ably in-
vestigated by Mr. Marsham and Mr.
Kirby. The injury first appears in
the ear, several of which, on being
opened, will be found to contain an
orange-coloured powder ; in this are
concealed very minute larva?, which,
on being magnified, are seen to be
thick at one end, extending and con-
tracting themselves at pleasure, and
frequently jumping half an inch at
one spring : they take their station in
the longitudinal furrow of the grain,
and, by sucking its milky juice, cause
it to shrink up, and become what the
farmers call pungled: the last sown
wheat always appears the most in-
fected. In the beginning of June the

perfect insect (</) may be seen in in-
numerable multitudes, flying in the
evening in all directions over the
corn-fields ; but during the day not
one is to be perceived. The female
lays her eggs by means of a retractile
tube, which encloses a very long and
acute sting resembling a hair ; but
this can only be distinctly seen when
the insect is magnified. The wheat
fly would soon become a formidable
enemy to mankind, were not its race
exposed to an inveterate foe, scarce-
ly larger than themselves ; this is
the Ichneumon Tipula, the female of
which carefully searches out the
grubs of the wheat fly, and deposites
in each one of her eggs ; these are
hatched, and ultimately the larva de-
vours the body which gave it life.
One ichneumon will thus cause the
death of many dozens, and prevent
the future multiplication of thou-
sands. The only palliative that has
been recommended for stopping the
progress of this insect originated
in Mr. Kirby : this naturalist thinks
much benefit would be derived by fu-
migating the corn with tobacco and
sulphur, when the wind is in a fa-
vourable quarter : this must be done
as soon as the ear begins to shoot
from the leafy stalk. — See Wheat In-
sects.

" Insects iiijurious to Food, Clothing,
cj-c. — The cockroach is called by some
the black beetle {Blatta oricntalis).
Like most of its tribe, it shuns the
light, both natural and artificial. It

INSECTS.

is very abundant, and indiscriminate-
ly devours broad, meat, flour, and
even clothes. The young arc con-
tained in a singular horny case, which
is divided into a number of trans-
verse partitions or chambers ; it is
rather flattened, and quite smooth,
except one side, which is toothed.
The larva and pupa are both without
wings, and generally larger than the
perfect insect.

" The house-cricket {Gnjllus do-
ttiest icus, Lin.) is sometimes abun-
dant in farm-houses. It devours ev-
ery kind of food, and is often found
drowned in pans of water, milk, and
other fluids ; it is said it will even
attack stockings, or linen hung out to
dry. Another species is peculiar to
pastures, which, in conjunction with
the mole cricket, feeds only upon
roots.

" The bacon-grub (Dermeslcs larda-
rius, Lin.) is a great pest to the win-
ter provisions of the farmer, devour-
ing hams, bacon, and all sorts of dried i
meats. This is principally done when
the insect is in its larva or grub state ;
(Fig. 2, /). When full fed it becomes
a chrysalis (g), which ultimately chan-
ges into a small beetle {h) about a \
third of an inch long, of a dusky
brown colour, with the upper half of
the wing-cases whitish or ash col-
oured, marked with black specks. |
The grub, from lying concealed in the ]
meat, cannot be effectually removed ;
but by watching the time when the
perfect insects appear, they may then
be destroyed, and a recurrence of the
evil in a great measure prevented.

" Woollen clothing of every de- I
scription, furs, are liable to be de- !
voured by the larva;, or caterpillars,
of no less than five distinct species
of small moths. Most of these en-
close themselves in little tubular ca- '>
ses of a silky texture, and are so well i
disguised externally by fragments of j
the stuff they feed upon as often to
escape immediate observation. As a
preventive, tobacco leaves may be i
laid between the folds of garments
(in drawers) which are not often used.
If there is reason to fear the moths '
are in the house, these garments |
430

1 should be frequently opened, and air-

; ed by exposing them to the sun.

j When furs of any kind are laid by

I for the summer, they may either be

I sprinkled with snuff or camphor, and

Russia leather or tobacco leaves put

I in the drawer or box. Should the

I moth actually have got into furs, the

only way of checking the evil is to

; put them into an oven moderately

heated, and by keeping them in this

situation a quarter of an hour, every

j grub will be effectually killed ; the

degree of heat maybe ascertained, in

' the first instance, by putting in some

common feathers, which should come

out uninjured.

"Means of suhduing Insects. — The
operations for destroying insects, or
counteracting their injurious effects,
are various, and in most cases must
be regulated according to the species.
These we have already pointed out in
treating upon the insects themselves,
or of the particular plants upon which
they feed. It only remains to offer
such general rules as are more or less
applicable to all destructive insects ;
these are of three kinds, preventives,
palliatives, and efficient processes.

" The preventive operations are
those of the best culture as relates to
the choice of seed or plant, soil, sit-
uation, treatment, and climate ; the
first four are under the control of
man, and an attention to them will
undoubtedly lessen the risk of injured
crops ; but as regards weather, nei-
ther his foresight nor care can avail
anything.

" The palliative operations are nu-
merous ; and such as are eminently
successful may be considered as effi-
cient, inasmuch as it rarely, if ever,
happens that any insect can be ex-
terminated, even from one district ;
its numbers may be diminished, but
the species will still remain, although
in such small numbers that its oper-
ations may escape notice. Most in-
sects will be injured, and in part de-
stroyed by artificial bad weather, such
as excessive waterings, stormy appli-
cation of water with a syringe, and
shaking the tree or plant : many will
thus be bruised, and others that ar9

INSECTS.

shaken to the ground can be destroy-
ed. Insects may be farther injured
by watering the plants upon which
they feed, either with tobacco or lime-
water, solution of whale-oil soap, or
by scattering upon the leaves pow-
dered quicklime, soot, ashes, salt, ilv-c.
The smell of tar is particularly ofRMi-
sive to all insects, and the eflects pro-
duced by the fumes of tobacco, sul-
phur, urine, &,c., are well known.
Hot water may be applied with much
advantage. Water heated to 120 or
130 degrees will not injure plants
whose leaves are fully expanded, and
it may be increased to 200 for such
as are without leaves.

" Insects may be destroyed in a
much more effectual manner by en-
ticement, or placing in their way oth-
er food as a trap. The late Sir Jo-
seph Banks has the merit of having
recommended and made known this
most efficient method. It simply con-
sists in cutting slices of potatoes or
turnips, sticking them upon skewers,
and then burying them near the seeds
sown : the vermin will collect upon
them during night, and by examining
them every morning, vast numbers
may be destroyed ; this plan has been
very advantageously tried with the
wire-worm, and, no doubt, W'ould be
equally beneficial in clearing all crops
that are attacked by under-ground
feeders. Mr. Kirby states ' that it
was very successfully employed to
preserve some wheat-fields from the
ravages of a small, gray slug, which
tlireatened to demolish the plant.
Having heard that turnips had been
used with success to entice tbe slugs
from wheat, he caused a sufficient
quantity to dress eight acres to be got
together, and then, the tops being di-
vided and the turnips sliced, he di-
rected the pieces to be laid separate-
ly, dressing two stetches with them,
and omitting two alternately, till the
whole field of eight acres was gone
over. On the following morning he
employed two women to examine and
free from the slugs (which they did
into a measure) the tops and slices ;
and when cleared, they were laid
upon those stetches that had been
E E

omitted the day before. It was ob-
served invariably, tbat in the stetch-
es dressed with the turnijis no slugs
were to be found upon the wheat, or
crawling upon the land, though they
abounded upon the turnips ; while,
on the undressed stetches, they were
to be seen in great numbers both on
the wheat and on tiie land. The quan-
tity of slugs thus collected was near
a bushel.

" The turnip-net is the most suc-
cessful expedient that has yet been
thought offor the capture and destruc-
tion of the little beetles, called by
farmers the black jack, and by hop-
growers the flea. It consists of two
pieces of stout wood, the ends of
which, at one extremity, are fixed
into a handle in a forked direction ;
the other ends are left thick and curv-
ed upward, for the purpose of passing
the instrument smoothly and easily
over the surface of the ground ; to-
wards this end, the sticks are con-
nected by a cross-bar formed by a
thin iron rod, that may be taken on
and off at pleasure ; these three sides
constitute the frame work for sup-
porting a long and ample bag, made
of strong, glazed calico. The meth-
od of using it is by the operator
shoving it before him on the ground,
over the tops of the turnips or other
plants ; by this means tiie insects that
are upon the leaves fall into the bag,
which may be occasionally shaken du-
ring the process, so as to bring them
to the bottom (which is made nar-
row), where they will remain. Vast
quantities of insects, which, from their
smallness and agility, defy hand-pick-
ing, will be thus captured. The tur-
nip-net may be made either large or
small ; perhaps two feet and a half
for the side sticks is the best lengtii,
! it being obvious that the wider they
are apart, the greater space will be
brushed at once.

j "The lime-duster (F/^. 6) is a recent
1 invention by Mr. Samuel Curtis, and
has been used by him with great suc-
cess in throwing pulverized quick-
lime over apple-trees infected by
caterpillars and other insects. His
orchard, containing many thousand

INSECTS.

fruit-trees, and occupying fifty acres,
had been for many years completely
divested of most of their foliage and
young fruit in the spring months.
A^'ashing the stems and branches with
lime and water (as might have been
expected) was found ineffectual for
the destruction of insects which feed
only on the young buds and leaves.
The instrument in question consists
of a canister twelve inches long, sev-
en inches wide at its broadest, and
four inches on its narrowest part ;
the handle (a) is five inches and a
half long. The top of the handle is
fitted with a cap (b), which is put on
when the lime is to be thrown on low
trees ; but when high trees are to be
operated upon the cap is removed,
and a pole of sufficient length to reach
the height required is inserted into
the handle. Quicklime pulverized
(and often sifted through a fine sieve)
is put into the canister, and shaken
over the young foliage just as it was
expanding. The time for doing tliis
is in the dew of the morning, or
whenever the leaves are damp ; and
if there should be a gentle breeze suf-
ficient to carry the dust obliquely
through the head of each tree, it is
the more quickly performed. Under
favourable circumstances of this na-
ture, Mr. Curtis says, ' I found that
three men, provided with the powder
in a large box on a light wheelbar-
row, could dress from two to three
thousand trees in a day : when the
wind changed, I had the trees dress-
ed on the other side. Although used
ever so freely, no person need fear
432

any injury, from the caustic quality
of the lime, on the most delicate and
fresh expanded foliage ; it is only prej-
udicial to insects of all kutds, and to
dead vegetable matter.' {Hort. Trans., \
vol. vi., pt. 2, page 124). We know
not whether the lime-duster has ever
been tried upon hop plantations in-
fected by the green fly or plant louse ;
but it appears to us equally well adapt-
ed to effect a great destruction among
those insects.

" Grain of all descriptions that is
infected by weevils, or by the grubs
of other insects, should be spread in
the sun, and frequently turned : the
warmth will bring the animals out of
the grain, and considerable numbers
may be destroyed. It has been said
that they may be kept away by strew-
ing boughs of elder or branches of
henbane among the grain, but this
wants confirmation. It should be
steeped in strong brine.

" Hand-picking, independent of the
foregoing methods, is too tedious and
too ineffectual for general adoption
in large crops, but is probably the
best that can be resorted to in gar-
dens or small enclosures. In this
way the different esculent vegetables,
and the common and low kinds of
fruit-trees, as currants, gooseberries,
&c., may be cleared of a vast num-
ber of caterpillars.

" Catching the perfect insect is un-
doubtedly the most certain plan for
preventing a return of the same in-
jury the following year, for the death
of one female will cut ofTa generation
of a hundred larvae ; but from the dif-
ficulty that attends an extensive adop-
tion of this plan, it is not likely to be
much attended to.

" Worm-like Animals injurious to
Agriculture. — Of worms {Vermes, L.),
generally so called, there are but few
which may be considered as injurious
to agriculture. The principal of these
are the various species of slug (Arion,
F., Limax, L.) and the large and small
snails (Helix horlcnsis and nemoralis,
L.), mostly found in garden planta-
tions. The earth or dew worm (Lmto-
bricus terreslris, L.), unless existing in
great numbers on a single spot, can-

INS

LNT

not be ranked among injurious ani- I
mals, notwithstanding the prejudices
of farmers and gardeners against
them. Without worms, the earth
would soon become hard, cold, inca- i
pable of receiving moisture, or of !
giving nourishment to roots : they
are, in fact, the great promoters of |
vegetation, by boring, perforating, and
loosening the soil beneath, and by i
manuring it above with their excre- j
ment, which is thrown up into lumps i
called worm casts. Tiie wire-worm ;
does not belong to this tribe, but is ,
the larva of a small beetle already
noticed.

" Worms of the slug kind are with-
out shells. There are several spe- j
cies, all of which subsist on leaves,
ro(Jts, and vegetables. The most
common is the Lvmax a^rcstis, of
which there are several varieties inju- ^
rious to the agriculturist and garden-
er ; they devour the young shoots of
turnips, wheat, and, indeed, all kinds
of grain, frequently to a ruinous ex- [
tent ; their eggs are small, round, of a
semipellucid whiteness, and are de-
posited in the earth. The methods of
destroying or eradicating the perfect
animal have been already described.

" The shell slug (Teslacellus mangi)
is a native of TenerifTe, remarkable
for feeding upon earth worms ; and
may, therefore, be beneficially intro-
duced into such gardens as are over-
stocked by that otherwise useful an-
imal. It is readily distinguished from
all other slugs by having a thin, oval
shell affixed to the hinder part of its
body. Slugs in general are easily
enticed by cabbage leaves, scattered
near such garden vegetables as they i
appear to injure most. j

" Snails are slugs covered by a
shell. The two species most preju-
dicial to cultivated vegetables are
the garden snail {Helix aspersa, Gm.),
and the variegated snail (Helix nemo-
ralis) ; both these seek the same de-
scription of food, and are equally in-
jurious as slugs, and, like them, may
be enticed by cabbage leaves and oth-
er juicy vegetable refuse."

The most important insects are no-
ticed under each plant.
O o

INSERTION. In botany, the di-
rection in which an organ, as the sta-
mens, is attached to the part that sus-
tains it.

INSESSORES (from insideo, I
sit). Birds which perch on trees.
Pcj'chcTs.

INSOLATION. Scorched by the
sun.

INSPIRATION. In physiology,
the act of inhaling air.

INSTEP OF THE HORSE. The
part of the hind leg reaching from the
ham to the pastern joint.

INSULATION. In electricity, sur-
rounded by non-conducting substan-
ces, as glass, resin.

INTEGERRIMUS. With a per-
fect edse, or margin, in botany.

INTEGRANT PARTS. The
smallest parts of a body, by the union
of which the mass is produced.

INTEGUMENT. A membranous
covering or expansion. It is used in
botany for the coverings of seeds.

INTERCELLULAR SPACES. In
botany, the minute spaces existing
between the sides of cells. Along
these the movement of sap occurs in
herbs and the lower plants. In some
water plants they are large, to assist
natation.

INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT.
The effects produced by causing two
pencils of light to be reflected or
transmitted at very minute intervals
or distances from each other, where-
by they interfere and produce col-
ours. If the light be homogeneous,
they produce bright and black bands.

INTERVAL LANDS. Lands on
the margin of rivers. Alluvial lands.

INTERNODE. The space be-
tween two knots, leaves, or leaf
buds, in stems.

INTESTINALIA. Worms inhab-
iting the interior of the bodies of an-
imals. Entozoa. Those of the in-
testines are destroyed by purges and
large doses (2oz.) of oil of turpentine.

INTRADOS. The lower line or
curve of an arch.

INTRORSE. Turned inward.

INTUSSUSCEPTION. The fold-
ing of one portion of the intestines
into another.

433

lOD

IRO

INULIN. A variety of starch.
It is coloured yellow by iodine. For-
mula, C34 H21 0:i. — {Parnei.)

INUNDATION OF LANDS.
Fields are sometimes covered with
water in agriculture, especially mead-
ows, and in the cultivation of rice.
The water is let in by sluices, and
allowed to remain for several days
or weeks, and, in meadows, during
the whole winter. It kills those
weeds which are not aquatic, serves
to manure the soil, and, in the case
of meadows, advances the grass by
some weeks, the water protecting it
from frost. The lands should be well
drained, or on a porous soil ; other-
wise the water, sinking, will stag-
nate, and become injurious ; it should
be perfectly let out by numerous
drains. By this practice, meadows
have been rendered fertile without
other manure for ages. The sedi-
ment deposited is sometimes called
wiirp, and the inundation warping.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS,
INVERTEBRATE. Animals with-
out an internal skeleton or back bone
(vertebral column), such as crabs
(crustaceans), insects (articulata), or
shell-fish {molluscans), &c.

INVOLUCEL, INVOLUCEL-
LUM. A small or partial involu-
crum surrounding the secondary um-
bels, &c.

INVOLUCRUM. A collection of
bracts at the union of several flower
stems. A covering of the fructifica-
tion of ferns and equisetums In
anatomy, a name for the membrane
covering the heart (pericardium).

IODINE (from njdj], violet). An
elementary body, of a black colour,
found in lustrous scales, converted
by a heat of 345° F. into a beautiful
violet vapour. It closely resembles
chlorine in its chemical characters ;
is not found in inland plants, but only
in sea-weeds, and such as grow in
salt marshes. Its equivaleiit is 126,
symbol I. It combines directly with
metals, forming iodides. With hydro-
gen, it forms hydriodic acid ; with ox-
ygen, it forms iodic acid. Iodine, as
well as most of its compounds, is
poisonous.
434

lOLITE. A dark-blue mineral,
massive, and crystallized in six or
twelve sided prisms ; found imbed-
ded in primary rocks. Composition :
silica, 49 17; alumina, 33 10 ; mag-
nesia, 11-48; oxide of iron, 4 33. —
(Slromeyer.)

IPECACUANHA. Ccphaclis ipe-
cacuanha. A shrubby plant, of (he
natural tamily Cinchoniacea, the root
of which is extensively used as an
emetic. It is a native of tropical
America, and especially Brazil, from
whence it is exported. In 20 grain
doses it is emetic ; but in smaller
quantities, expectorant.

IPOALEA. A genus of plants re-
sembling the convolvulus.

IRIDESCENT. Exhibiting bright
colours by reflection.

IRIS. In anatomy, the coloured
membrane of the eye which sur-
rounds the pupil, and, by its contrac-
tion or dilation, regulates the amount
of light entering.

IRIS. A genus of ornamental
flowers, the flag. The /. jlorentina
yields the orris root, esteemed for
tooth-powder, from its odour resem-
bling violets.

IRISATED. Exhibiting the pris-
matic or rainbow colours.

IRON. A ductile metal, sp. gr.
7 78 ; susceptible of magnetism, and
taking a high polish. By exposure
to damp air, it absorbs oxygen, be-
coming rust. Its ores are very nu-
merous. Few soils are destitute of
some admixture. The ashes of plants
are also furnished with a small quan-
tity.

Cast iron contains carbon, sand,
and other impurities, w-hich are re-
moved, to a great extent, in wrought
iron. The former is brittle, harder,
and lasts longer when exposed than
wrought iron, which is ductile, soft,
malleable, and fibrous.

Steel is a compound of carbon and
iron, remarkable for its elasticity and
hardness. Iron combines, also, with
sulphur and halogen bodies.

The equivalent of iron is 27- 18,
symbol Fe (ferrum). It combines
with two proportions of oxygen, and
forms, 1st. A protoxide, 1 Fe -j- 1 0=

IRQ

37 18. This is the black oxide, and
exists in green vitriol and the proto-
salts of iron, serving as a base. 2d.
The peroxide, 2 Fe-f 3 0 = 78 36.
This is the common red or brown
oxide ; it is also a base, producing
the persalts of iron. Iron is readily
dissolved by acids, being lirst oxidi-
zed, and then uniting with the acid.
The salts of the protoxide are, for the
most part, instable, changing to per-
oxides when exposed to moist air.

Iron is discovered in solution by
an infusion of gall-nuts, which, soon-
er or later, produces a black colour
(ink). If the colour arises immedi-
ately, the peroxide is present ; if the
mixture requires stirring and expo-
sure to air, the protoxide is present.

Many of the compounds of iron are
of great interest to the farmer. The
protosulphate (copperas) is much used
in dyeing, in making ink, and as an
emetic. In Switzerland it is added to
urine and fluid manures, to fix their
ammonia, which it converts into a
sulphate. It is also powerfully disin-
fecting, removing bad smells. This
body is sometimes present in marshy
and peaty soils, and makes them per-
fectly barren ; they are, however,
quickly recovered by liming. The py-
rolignate of iron (persalt) is used in
dyeing and the preservation of timber.
The muriate has the same properties,
and is also a medicine. Prussian blue
is a sesquiferrocyanide of iron.

The iron work of the farm should
be painted with coal-tar for protec-
tion from rust, or kept in a dry place
imder cover. Portable fencing, hur-
dles, and many other fixtures on a
farm are now made of iron, which
heretofore were wooden. It is well
adapted for the sashes of hot-houses :
wire is extensively employed for
slight trellises. Wires should be pro-
tected from moisture by coal-tar, or
other coarse paint.

IRON PYRITES. Native sulphu-
ret of iron ; it forms a mineral often
crystallized, of a golden colour. Its
presence in soils produces barren-
ness, which is soon rectified by li-
ming ; it is the origin of most of the
sulphur springs. Water flo\nng over

IRR

the pyrites decomposes it in part,
and becomes tainted with sulphuret-
ted hydrogen.

IRON WOOD. See Homheam.
IRRADIATION. The brightness
that surrounds luminous objects, and
increases their apparent size.

IRRIGATION. " Of all the sub-
stances which concur in the vegeta-
tion and growth of plants, water is
the most essential ; without moist-
ure the seed cannot germinate, nor
can the plant receive nourishment.
Hence in warm climates, where rains
are periodical, and where the soil is
dried and parched by a continued
evaporation, no verdure exists, ex-
cept where springs or rivers supply
the waste of moisture. The warm-
er the climate, and the more rapid
the evaporation, the more luxuriant
is the vegetation, provided there be
an abundant supply of water. This
circumstance has suggested the plan
of diverting streams and conducting
them in channels to fertilize as great
an extent of land as possible. The
water used always contains sahne
and other matters very necessary to
the growth of plants, and which are
supplied by irrigation.

" If water stagnates and is evapo-
rated, and the noxious matter held in
solution remains in the soil, all the
advantage of irrigation is lost, and
the better kinds of grasses are suc-
ceeded by rushes and coarse aquatic
plants, as may be seen in all marshy
spots. The circulation of the water,
I therefore, appears to be as necessary
I as its presence ; and, provided there
be a sufficient supply of water of a
proper quality, the more porous the
soil, and especially the subsoil is,
the more vigorous is the vegetation.
It is on this principle alone that we
can rationally account for the great
j advantage of irrigation in those cli-
: mates where rain is abundant, and
I where the soil, which is most benefit-
\ ed by having a supply of water run-
I ning through it, is of a nature to re-
j quire artificial draining as an indis-
pensable preliminary to being made
' fertile by irrigation. By keeping
these principles in view, great light
435

IRRIUATION.

will be thrown on the practical part
of irrigation, which, having been long
established by experience, before
these principles were thought of, de-
pends not on their correctness, but
only confirms their truth.

" The whole art of irrigation may
be deduced from two simple rules,
which are. first, to give a sufficient
supply of water during all the time
the plants are growing ; and, second-
ly, never to allow it to accumulate so
long as to stagnate. We shall see,
hereafter, one apparent exception to
this last rule, but it will be readily
explained.

"The supply of water must come
from natural lakes and rivers, or from
artificial wells and ponds, in which it
is collected in sufficient quantity to
disperse it over a certain surface.
As the water must flow over the land,
or in channels through it, the supply
must be above the level of the land
to be irrigated. This is generally the |
principal object to be considered. If
no water can be conducted to a reser-
voir above the level of the land, it
cannot be irrigated ; but there must
also be a ready exit for the water,
and therefore the land must not be
so low as the natural level of the
common receptacle of the waters,
whether it be a lake or the sea to
which they run. The taking of the
level is therefore the first step to-
wards an attempt to irrigate any ;
lands. '

" Along the banks of running
streams nature points out the decliv-
ity. A channel, which receives the
water at a point higher than that to
which the river flows, may be dug
with a much smaller declivity than
that of the bed of the river, and made
to carry the water much higher than
the natural banks ; it may thence be
distributed so as to descend slowly,
and water a considerable extent of
ground in its way to rejoin the streain.
This is by far the most common mode
of irrigation, and the shape, size, and
direction of tlie channels are regula-
ted by the nature of the surface and
other circumstances, which vary in
almost every situation. A few ex- j
436

amples will give to those who are
not acquainted with the best modes
of irrigating land, a pretty accurate
notion of the system.

" We shall suppose a river to run
I with a rapid current between high
banks : at some point of its course a
portion of the water is diverted into
, a canal dug along the bank with a
■ very small declivity. The water in
this canal will flow with less rapidity
than the river, but will keep the same
level as that part of the river where
it has its origin. Thus the water
may be carried over lands which are
situated considerably above the bed
of the river farther down. All the
lands between this canal and the riv-
er may be irrigated, if there is a suf-
ficient supply of water. The canal
may be carried to a considerable dis-
tance from the river. The size of
the canal and its declivity depend on
the quantity of water which may be
inade to flow into it. A dam is often
constructed across a stream, in or-
der that as much of its water as is
possible may be diverted, and the
original channel is often laid quite
dry, to take advantage of all the wa-
ter at the time when it is advanta-
geous to irrigate the land. To have
an entire command of the water,
there are flood-gates on the main
channel and on the lesser branches ;
by opening or shutting these, the wa-
ter may be stopped or made to flow
as may be required. It must be re-
membered that, to carry water to a
considerable distance, and in great
quantity, a larger channel and more
rapid declivity are required ; and it
is a matter of calculation whether it
is most advantageous to bring a
smaller quantity to a higher point, or
a greater abundance somewhat low-
er. Having a certain command of
water, it may be carried from the
main channel by smaller branches to
different points, so as to irrigate the
whole equally. These branches should
be nearly horizontal, that the water
may overflow the sides of them, and
be equally distributed over the land
immediately below. Every branch
which brings water over the land

IRRIGATION.

should have a corresponding channel
below to carry it off; for the water
must never be allowed to stop and
stagnate. When it has run 15 or 20
feet, according to the declivity, over
the land situated below the feeder, or
the channel which brings the water,
it should be collected into a drain to
be carried off, unless it can be used
to irrigate lands which lie still lower.
Finally, it runs back into the river
from which it was taken at a lower
point of its course.

"When there is a considerable fall
and a sufficient supply of water, a se-
ries of channels may be made, so sit-
uated below each other that the sec-
ond collects the water which the first
has supplied, and in its turn becomes
a feeder to irrigate the lower parts
of the declivity ; a third channel re-
ceives the water and distributes it
lower down, until the last pours it
into the river : this is called catch-
work, because the water is caught
from one channel to another. This
method is only applicable where there
is a considerable fall of water and a
gentle declivity towards the river.
But it must be borne in mind that the
water is deteriorated for the purpose
of irrigation when it has passed over
the land, and that it is not advanta-
geous to let it flow over a great ex-
tent when a fresh supply can be ob-
tained ; but where only a small por-
tion of water can be commanded,
that must be made the most of; and
it will irrigate three or four portions
of land in succession without there
being any very marked difference in
the effect : beyond this it rapidly loses
its fertilizing qualities.

" The general principle of irriga-
tion may be described as the supply-
ing of every portion of the surface
with an abundance of water, and ta-
king it off again rapidly. In many
situations, the great difficulty in irri-
gation arises from the want of a sup-
ply of water ; but even then a partial
irrigation may be effected, which, al-
though not perfect, will have its ad-
vantages. A small rill, which is oft-
en quite dry in summer, may still, by
judicious management, be made to
O o2

improve a considerable portion of
land ; its waters may be collected
and allowed to accumulate in a pond
or reservoir, and let out occasionally,
so that none be lost or run to waste.
If there is but a small quantity, it
must be husbanded and made to flow
over as great a surface as possible.
If there is water only at particular
seasons of the year, and at a time
when it would not be of much use to
the land, it may be kept in ponds, and
it W'ill lose none of its qualities by
being exposed to the air. If animal
or vegetable matter, in a partial state
of decomposition, is added to this wa-
ter, it will much improve its quality,
and by a judicious distribution of it
over the land, a great benefit may be
obtained.

" If there is not a want of water,
there may be a want of declivity to
enable it to flow off, which, it should
always be remembered, is an essen-
tial part of irrigation : art may in this
case assist nature, by forming a pas-
sage for the water, either in its course
towards the land to be irrigated, or
from it after it has effected its pur-
pose. Where there is no natural ex-
it— and it might lead to too great an
expense to make an artificial one —
the water may sometimes be led into
shallow ponds, where a great part is
evaporated ; or porous strata may be
found by boring, into which it can be
made to run and be dispersed. Along
rivers where the fall is very imper-
ceptible, a channel, brought from a
considerable distance, may give such
a command as to throw the water
over a great extent of surface ; and
to carry it off, another channel may
be cut, emptying itself at some dis-
tance below ; so that lands which lie
along the banks of a river may be ir-
rigated, although they are actually be-
low the level of the river, and require
banks to protect them from inunda-
tion.

" When the surface to be irrigated
is very flat and nearly level, it is ne-
cessary to form artificial slopes for
the water to run over. The whole
of the ground is laid in broad beds,
undulating like the waves of the sea.
437

IRRIGATION.

The upper part of these hods is quite
level from end to end, and here the
channel, or float, wliich brings the
water on, is cut. From the edpe of
this channel the jTround is made to
slope a foot or two on both sides, and
a ditch is cut at the bottom, parallel
to the float (Fisr- 3), The whole of
the ground is laid out in these beds.
All the floats are supplied by a main
channel, at right angles to the beds,
and somewhat above them, and all
the ditches or drains run into a main
ditch, parallel to the main float, and
below the lowest drain. The course
of the water is very regular. As soon
as the flood-gates are opened, it flows
into all the upper channels, which it
fills till they overflow in their whole
length. The sloping sides are cov-
ered with a thin sheet of running wa-
ter, which the lower drains collect,
and carry into the main ditch. The
upper drains should be puddled, to
hinder the water from sinking.

" Experience has shown that there
are particular seasons when the wa-
ter has the best efl^ect ; a perfect
command of it is, therefore, indispen-
sable, and also a regular supply. Du-
ring mild frost, when all dry mead-
ows are in a state of torpor, and the
vegetation is suspended, the water
meadows, having a current of water
continually flowing over them, are
protected from the effect of frost, and
the grass will continue to grow as
long as the water flows over it. Too
much moisture, however, would be
injurious, and the meadows are
therefore laid dry by shutting the
flood-gates whenever the tempera-
ture of the air is above freezing. By
this management the grass grows
rapidly at the first sign of spring.
Before the dry upland meadows have
recovered the effects of frost and be-
gun to vegetate, the herbage of the
water meadows is already luxuriant,
the effect being due to the tempera-
ture of the water, which must be
above that of freezing. As soon as
they are fed off or cut for the first
crop of hay, the water is immediate-
ly put on again, but for a shorter
time ; for the warmer the air, the
438

less time will the grass bear to be
covered with water. A renewed
growth soon appears, and the grass
is ready to be cut a second time when
the dry meadows only give their first
crop. Thus, by judicious manage-
ment, three or four crops of grass are
obtained in each season, or only one
abundant crop is made into hay, and
the sheep and cattle feed off the oth-
ers. The early grass may be fed till
the end of April. A short flooding
soon reproduces a crop, which is
mowed for hay in June ; another
flooding gives an abundant after-math,
which is either mowed for hay, or
fed off by cows, bullocks, and l^rses ;
for at this time the sheep, if pastured
in water meadows, are very subject
to the rot. The value of good water
meadows could scarcely be believed
by those who are not familiar with
them. Where the water is suited to
irrigation, they never require manu-
ring. The fertility is kept up contin-
ually, and the only attention required
is to weed out coarse aquatic plants,
which are neither nutritious nor
wholesome in hay or pasture.

" The best soil for a water mead-
ow is a good gravel. The finest wa-
ter meadows on the Avon, in Wilt-
shire, where the richest herbage is
found, have scarcely any soil at all,
but are on a bed of shingle and peb-
bles, matted together by the roots of
the grass ; which proves to demon-
stration that the waters of the Avon
contain all the principles essential to
rapid vegetation. Great attention is
required, and some experience, to
irrigate meadows so as to give the
greatest profit.

" In hot weather, when we should
imagine that the land must be thirsty,
and that too much water cannot be
poured over it, much mischief may
be done by injudicious flooding. In
winter, on the contrary, the land may
be covered with water for weeks
without injury ; and if an earthy de-
posite takes place, the subsequent fer-
tility is greatly increased. But this
is not properly irrigation ; it is inun-
dation ; and the effects depend on
entirely different causes. When low

IRRIGATION.

meadows are inundated in winter
and spring, it is the muddiness of
the water which enriches the land ;
a fine layer of extremely divided mat-
ter is deposited, and when the water
subsides this acts as a coat of ma-
nure.

" Water may be carried in small
channels through meadows without j
being allowed to overflow ; and in
this case the effect is similar to that
caused by rivers or brooks which
wind slowly through valleys, and
produce a rich verdure along their
course. This is watering, but not
properly irrigating. When this is
done judiciously, the effect is very
nearly the same as when the land is
irrigated ; and in hot climates it may
be preferable, by giving a constant
supply of moisture to the roots while
the plants are growing. The great
advantage of water meadows is not
so much the superior quantity of grass
or hay which is obtained when they
are mowed, as the early feed in spryig,
when all kinds of nutritive fodder are
scarce. At that time an acre of good
grass may be worth as much for a
iiKJuth as a later crop would for the
rfinaiiider of the year. When it is
intended to form a water meadow on
a surface which is nearly level, or
where a fall of only two or three feet
can be obtained in a considerable
length, the whole of the land must be
laid in beds about 20 or 30 feet wide,
ihe middle or crown of these beds
being on a level with the main feed-
ers, and the bottoms or drains on a
level with the lower exit of the wa-
ter, or a little above it. To form
these beds most expeditiously, if the
ground is already in grass, the sod
may be pared oft' and relaid after the
beds are formed, by which means the
grass will be sooner re-established ;
but, except in very heavy soils, where
the grass is some time in taking root,
the easiest and cheapest way is to
plough the land two or three times
towards the centre, and dig out the
draih with the spade. The earth out
of the drains, and that which is taken
out of the upper trench or feeder,
may be spread over the bed, to give

it the proper slope. A roller passed
over the bed in the direction of its
length will lay it even, and the seeds
of grasses being sowed over it, the
water may be let on for a very short
time, to make them spring. As soon
as the grass is two or three inches
above ground, a regular flooding may
be given, and in a very short time the
sward will be complete. Instead of
sowing seed, turfs of grass cut from
old sward may be spread over the
newly-formed beds, and they will
soon cover the ground. The Italian
rye grass grows so rapidly that, if it
be sowed as soon as the snow and
frost are gone, it will aflbrd a good
crop to feed otf in May, or to mow for
hay by June, and after that it may
be cut repeatedly during the summer ;
but where the soil is good and the
water abundant, good natural grasses
will spring up without much sowing,
and soon equal the old water mead-
ows.

" It seems essential to the forma-
tion of a good water meadow, that
the bottom be porous, and free from
stagnant water ; hence under-drain-
ing is often indispensable before a
water meadow can be established ;
and a peat bog, if drained and consol-
idated, may have water carried over
its surface, and produce very good
herbage. If the soil is a very stiflT
clay, draining is indispensable, where
a water meadow is to be made. The
more porous the soil, the less depth
of water is required, which is not ob-
vious at first sight ; but the clay lets
the water run over the surface with-
out soaking into the roots, where-
as the porous soil is soon soaked to
a considerable depth. The water
must, therefore, be longer on the
clay than on the sand or gravel to
produce the same effect. If the wa-
ter is properly applied, all kinds of
soils may be converted into fertile
water meadows. On very stiff clays
a coat of sand or gravel, where it can
be easily put on, will greatly improve
the herbage. It should not be plough-
ed in, but laid on the surface, two or
three inches thick.

"The usual time of letting on the
439

lUllKJATION.

water on water mradows is just be- 1 invariably be injured. Small ditches
fore spring, and it may continue to or clianncls are usually dug, by which

flow over the land as long as the
frost lasts ; in mild weather it may
be turned off during the day and put
on again at night, until the frost is
gone. The grass will soon begin to
grow, and be ready to be fed off.
When this is done, the water is im-
mediately let on for a short time, and
turned off again to allow the ground
to dry after a few days' flooding, and
the water is let on again at short in-
tervals. The warmer the air is, the
shorter time must the water be al-
lowed to cover the meadows. As
soon as the grass is five or six inch-
es long it must be left dry entirely
till it is mowed or fed off. In sum-
mer the floodings must be very short,
seldom more than twenty-four hours
at a time, but frequent. Thus a great
weight of grass may be obtained, year
after year, without any manure being
put on the land, care being taken that,
where the surface is not quite even,
the hollows be filled up with earth
brought from another place, or dug
out of the drain, if that should be par-
tially filled up with the soil which the
■water has carried into it. We allu-
ded before to a case where water
may remain a considerable time on
the land without injury ; this is when
there are inundations from rivers
which rise above their beds in spring,
and cover the low meadows which lie
along their banks. In this case, the
grass, which had not yet sprung up,
is protected from the cold ; and if
there is a deposite from the water,
there is a considerable advantage ;
but when it subsides it must be made
to run off entirely, without leaving
small pools, by which the grass would

all the water may run off, unless
where the subsoil is very porous, or
the land is well under-drained, which
is seldom the case in these low mead-
ows, for the drains would be apt to
be choked by the earthy deposite
from the water. These inundations
can sometimes be regulated by means
of dikes and flood-gates, in which
case they partake of the advantages
of irrigation, and also of that deposi-
tion of fertilizing mud which is called
warping. See Warpi?!^.

" The opposite plan (Fi^. 1) will ex-
plain what has been said respecting
the different modes of irrigating land.
A A is a river, which has a consider-
able fall, and then flows through a
level plain. Channels are cut at B B,
where there is a rapid fall over a nat-
ural or artificial dam. The channels
are carried round a hill, and supply a
series of channels, C, C, C, placed
below each other, forming catch-
work along a declivity. A portion of
the water goes on to D, where it sup-
plies the feeders of a regular set of
ridges, or beds, made as before descri-
bed, from which the water returns
into the river by a main trench, into
which all the drains run. E E repre-
sent flood-gates, to direct the water
into different channels.

" On the other side of the river,
where the slopes lie somewhat dif-
ferently, there are several examples
of catch-work, the black lines repre-
senting the drains which receive the
water after it has flowed over the
surface, and carry it into the river be-
low. It is evident that all the feed-
ers are nearly horizontal, to allow
the water to flow over their sides."

Fig. 2 is the section of calch-work. a, a are the feeders ; b, the diaius ; c, c, c, c, interme-
diate channels, which act as feeders and drains.

^^,.^^^-~~^,^^^ Fig- 3. ^^..^L^-^-^,^^

Ridge-work.
Fig. 3 is the section of two adjoining ridges, a, a the feeders ; b, b, b the drains,
440

Figure 4, on the following page, ; c, c, which run down hill ; they are
represents a plan of irrigation where stopped at intervals with small banks
the soil is very porous and gently of clay or turf, which cause a portion
inclined, the supply of water being of the' fluid to shoot out over the land
abundant. The flood-gate, a, which and moisten the field. There is no
may be replaced by the perforated | catch-work necessary, as the excess
trunk of a tree, allows water to flow i of water percolates into the soil,
into the upper straight ditch, b, h. The inundation practised in Carolina
which is well puddled ; from this the and elsewhere, for the cultivation of
water descends into the channels, c, ' rice, is warping, and can hardly be

441

IKR

ISO

a'u}\

said to be irrigation, iiiasuuifh as the
principal object is to kill weeds.

The Dutch and Germans often dis-
tribute fluid manures by a system of
irrigated work. "Where a head of
■water is wanting, pumps maybe used
to raise it, the fluid running in a gut-
ter to the upper ditch.

Fiff.5.

Fig. 5 is a simple kind of sluice to regulate
the flow of water.

IRRITABILITY OF PLANTS.
Many plants, as the sensitive mimo-
sas, exhibit a power of contracting
their leaflets upon touch ; this phe-
nomenon, the most prominent of
those attributed to the irritability of
plants, is a mechanical function de-
pending upon the action of light.
442

Plants possess no nervous system,
and are therefore incapable of volun-
tary motion, or any other than chem-
ical and mechanical movements.

IRRITATION. In farriery, an in-
creased vascularity of any part, with
pain, but not amounting to inflamma-
tion. It is treated like inflammation,
but by milder means.

ISCHIUM. The lower portion oi
the haunch bone.

ISCHURIA. Retention of urine.

ISINGLASS. Pure gdalin obtain-
ed from the sounds of flsh ; it is also
manufactured from calves' feet, ckc.

ISNARDIA. A genus of aquatic
weeds.

ISOLATED. In electricity, sur-
rounded by non-conductors, as glass,
dry silk, resin.

ISOMERIS.M, ISOMERIC (from
laoc, equal, and fxepoc, pari). Com-
pounds having the same number of
atoms of the same bodies, but exhib-
iting dissimilar properties, are called
Isomeric. Chemists consider that the
difference arises from a distinct group-
ing or aggregation of the atoms.
Very many organic bodies are isom-
eric, as starch {amylln) and dextiine:
Ca Hio Oio : cyanic and fulminic acids.

ISO

ISO

&c. It is in consequence of the fre-
quent isomerism of organic com-
pounds that changes so readily occur
in them, either in plants, or by the
action of ferments.

I S O M O R P II I S M, ISOMORPH-
OUS (from itrof, and fiop(pr}, form).
Having the same crystalline form ;
this is associated with the same num-
ber of atoms, but of unlike elements,
and also with similar properties.
Thus, alum consists of sulphuric acid,
alumina, and potash ; but cither of
these bodies may be replaced by cer-
tain other isomorpkous bodies ; the
sulphuric acid by the selenic, chro-
mic, or manganic acids : the last two
of these produce a difference of col-
our in the crystal, but little else.
The alumina may be replaced by per-
oxide of iron, sesquioxide of manga-
nese, or sesquioxide of chromium ;
and the potash, by soda or hyd rated am-
monia. Thus, the alum may have none
of its primary constituents, but iso-
morphous atoms of the same number.
Isonwiphis7n, or ttie study of these
changes, is of great importance in ag-
riculture, for it is found that the same
substitution ttikes place in organic
bodies. This is not, however, a mat-
ter of indifference ; for the presence
of soda in grapes, instead of potash,
deteriorates their flavour ; lime in
the place of potash, in tobacco, in-
jures its excellence ; and lime or pot-
ash in place of soda, in onions and

Sulphuric acid is replaced by the
telluric, selenic, chromic, and man-
ganic acids, none of which, however,
are abundant in common soils.

Phos[)horic acid is isomorphous
with the arsenic acid (As O5), which
will seldom be found in soils.

Iron, as the peroxide (Fco O3), is
isomorphous with alumina (AI2 O3),
oxide of chrome (Cr^ O3), and sesqui-
oxide of manganese. These substi-
tutions, although of no apparent mo-
ment, are continually occurring in
plants.

ISOPYRE. A siliceous mineral
resembling obsidian, found in granite,
basalt, and primary rocks.

ISOSCELES (from tcrof, and oktj-
^or, a leg). A name given to the
angle two of whose sides are equal.

ISOTHERMAL (from laoc, and
"^epfirj, heat). Having the same aver-
age temperature. Geographical lines
drawn over the surface of countries,
and passing through places having
the same average heat, are termed
isolhermal lines ; they are very irreg-
ular, in consequence of the occur-
rence of mountains and large lakes
or surfaces of water, which modify
the temperature. The terms Isothcr-
al and Isochiinenal are used also ; the
first, to designate a line showing the
places having the same summer heat,
and the last, those with the same
mean winter temperature.

According to Humboldt, the iso-

asparagus, is also injurious to their ! thermal line which corresponds to the
mildness. The limit of isomorphous temperature of 32"^ Fahrenheit pass-
substitution is a chemical inquiry : so ' es between L'lea, in Lapland, lat. 66'=

far as we know, there are groups of
bodies wiiich can be substituted for
one another only ; these have the
same amount of oxygen in their com-
position. Such groups as are of im-
portance to the farmer or gardener
arc appended.

ISOMORPHOUS GROUPS. Pot-
ash, soda, hydratcd ammonia (N H4 O,
oxide of ammonium), hydrate of lime

and Table Bay, on the coast of Lab-
rador, lat. 54°. The isothermal line
of 41° passes near Stockholm, lat.
59^°, and St. George's Bay, New-
foundland, lat. 48 ^ The line of 50°
passes through the Netherlands, lat.
51°, and near Boston, in the United
States, lat. 42^° ; that of 59° between
Rome and Florence, lat. 43°, and Ra-
leigh, in North Carolina, lat. 36°. In

(Ca O, II O). Of this group soda only ; all these cases we see that the iso-
replaces potash in cerealia ; but lime, thermal lines, in passing from the
ainuionia (or organic alkalies), can western side of the continent of Eu-
rcpl. ce potash or soda in plants that rope to tiie eastern coast of America,
do i;ol require solul)le silicates, as deviate very considerably towards
tobacco, potatoes, &c. | the south, the deviation, lu one case,

443

IVY

JKJ

amounting to 1H° of latitude. In
passing over the American continent
they again recede to the northward ;
and in California, and to the north
of that peninsula, along the western
side of the continent, the annual tem-
perature is nearly the same as under
similar latitudes in the west of Eu-
rope. From the western to the east-
ern side of the old continent, the flex-
ure of the isothermal curves and the
diminution of the mean annual tem-
perature under the same parallels
are not less conspicuous. The iso-
thermal line of 55° passes through
Nantes, lat. 47°, and Pekin, lat. 39 p.
Edinburgh and Kasan (in the east of
Russia) have the same latitude ; but
the mean annual temperature of the
former is 48°, while that of the sec-
ond is below SS'^."

ISSUE. In farriery, an artificial
ulcer, made by cutting through the
skin and inserting a pea or smooth
stone in the wound ; it is to be care-
fully dressed and washed daily. It
is a means of establishing a local ir-
ritation to relieve some important
organ, as the eye.

ITALIAN RYE GRASS. LoUum
perenne. See Grasses.

ITCH. A disease of the skin, in
which small vesicles are produced in
the angles of the body by the irrita-
tion of an insect. It is cured by an
ointment of sulphur applied daily. It
is sometimes called mange in farriery.

lULUS. The generic name of the
gaily worm ; insects with numerous
feet (myriapoda).

IVORY. The compact bony struc-
ture of the tusks of elephants ; it con-
tains G6 per cent, bone earth and 24
gelatin.

IVORY BLACK. Bone black.

IVY. Hcdera helix. A hardy ev-
ergreen climbing shrub, used for rus-
tic coverings : it kills trees. It is
readily propagated by cuttings, and
once trained to a wall, will hold on
by its own branch roots. The Vir-
ginian creeper is sometimes called
American ivy, but in no way resem-
bles true ivy.

IVY, III I S H ( Canattensis). " A
fast-growing climber, with large lobed
4i4

leaves, which soon covers walls and
houses. It is propagated by layers,
or slips taken off and planted where
they are to grow." — {Johnson.)

J.

JACK. A general name given to
engines for raising heavy weights, as
well as some used for turning spits,
&c.

JACKDAW. A species of crow
{Corvus moncdula.)

JACK TIMBERS. Those in a bay
of timbers which are shorter than the
rest.

JACOB'S LADDER. Polemojiium
ccruleum. A common flower.

JACOB'S STAFF. Thecross
staff used by surveyors in measuring
heights and distances.

JADE. Nephrite.

JALAP. The root of the Ipomcea
jalapa, a convolvulaceous, Mexican
plant, which might be readily cultiva-
ted in the Southern States. It climbs,
and has a perennial root, or tuber,
which is large enough for the market
in three years. It is a powerful purge,
the dose being ten to twenty grains
for a man.

JAMAICA PEPPER. Myrtus pi-
mcnta. Allspice, the produce of an
evergreen tree of tropical America.
The berries are warm and aromatic.

JAMBS. The sides or posts of
any aperture or door which bear the
cross piece on which the weight of
the wall rests.

JAMESTOWN WEED. Datura
stramonium. A poisonous weed. See
Stramonium.

JASPER. An ornamental and col-
oured silicious mineral.

JATROPA. A genus of euphor-
beous, tropical plants, of which the
J. Manihot yields a root from which
cassava is extracted ; the J. curcas,
purging seeds resembling castor oil
seeds.

JAUNDICE. A disease in which
the biliary secretion is much changed,
the skin coloured yellow, with much
lassitude.

JEFFERSONITE. A kind of au-
gite.

JEJUNUM. The portion of tho

JUJ

J UN

Binall intestines next the duode-
nmii.

JELLY. Gelatin with water: ve-
getable jelly is pectin.

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. See
Artichoke.

JESSAMIN. Jasminum officinale.
A climbing shrub, the flowers of
which, when distilled with water,
yield a penetrating perfume.

JET. A bituminous coal of fine
te.xture, and taking a hiiih jioli-sli.
JETERUS. The yellows of plants.
JOGGLED JOINTS. Joints of
masonry or wood, which are made
by indenting the faces and fitting
them together.

JOGGLE PIECE. A truss post,
whose shoulders and sockets receive
the lower ends of the struts.

JOHN'S WORT. Plants of the
genus Hypericum, especially H. per-
foratum, a common weed in mead-
ows. Much prejudice exists against
it, and, being a perennial-rooted plant,
it is not easy of extirpation. A kind
of itch, and even inflammation of the
stomach, are said to be produced by it
in sheep, but salt is said to be a pre-
ventive, and the itch is treated with
sulphur ointment.

JOISTS. The timbers to which
the flooring is nailed.

JUBA. The mane, or crest of
hair which runs along the back bone
of animals. I

JUDAS-TREE. An ornamental
genus (Cercis) of trees, of which the j
C. Canadensis, or red bud, is the only |
indigenous species.

JUGAL BONE. The cheek bone.
JUGULAR VEINS. The veins
running on the sides of the neck,
which bring the blood from the head.
The external jugular is that from
which blood is taken in the horse.

JUGULUM. The fore part of the
neck in animals.

JUJUBE. Zizyphus vuliraris. The
fruit of this shrub, or sma'l tree, re-
sembles a small plum, and is edible ;
is red, with a coriaceous skin, and of
tlie size of a large olive : they are
readily dried, and become sweeter.
It is a native of Italy and Spain. A ;
sirup made from the dried fruit and j
P ?

mixed with gum forms the original
jujube paste.

JULY. In the North, corn, pota-
toes, and late crops are tilled for the
last time, and white crops and grass-
es harvested ; late cabbages set out ;.
celery put into trenches, and seeds
collected. After harvest, turnips, car-
rots, and fall crops are put in : bud-
ding is performed on the apple and
pear. In the South, cotton and to-
bacco receive a last working. It is
the great month for working the soil,
and destroying weeds and shrubs.

JUNCACEiE. Thefamilyof
rushes.

JUNE. In the North, potatoes for
winter and ruta bagas are set ; sheep
sheared. Weeding is very important
this month. Fruit-trees are trimmed,
and caterpillars destroyed ; late gar-
den vegetables, as pease, beans, cab-
bages, turnips, melons, are also sown.
In the South, this is the month for
weeding, hoeing, and working corn,
cotton, tobacco, sweet potatoes ; of
the last, increase the hills by cuttings.
Carrots and other roots for late crops,
as well as cabbages, may be sown ;
melons require working ; white crops
are harvested.

JUNE BERRY. Mespilus arhorca.
Wild pear, service. This tree is found
extensively ditrused in the United
States, but abounds on the Alleghany
Mountains, and the banks of its
streams. The fruit is scattered,
small, one third to one half an inch
across, and pleasant. It is improved
by cultivation, and ripens in June.
On the streams of the West it some-
times grows thirty-five to forty feet
high.

JUNGERMANNIACE-E. A nat-
ural family of acrogens, resembling
mosses, and growing on the bark of
trees, and in moist, shady places.
The Hepalictr, or true liverworts.

JUNIPER BERRIES. Juniperus
communis. A bushy evergreen shrub,
the berry of which yields an aromatic
flavour to gin. The shrubs grow read-
ily on the poorest soils : they are of
the pine family (conifcra).

JUNIPERUS. The genus yield-
ing the juniper berries. It contains,
446

KID KIR

also, the J. Sahina (savine), J. Virgin-
tana (red cedar).

KALE. A name for some varie-
ties of cabbage or borecole.
KALE, SEA. See Sea-kale.
KALL A contraction for alkali,
potash ; also the ashes of salsola kali,
or barilla.

KALIUM. Potassium.
KALML\. A genus of handsome
flowering shrubs, called American
laurels. The leaves and flowers are
poisonous, especially to lambs : those
poisoned should be drenched with
milk and castor oil.

KAOLIN. Porcelain clay, the fine,
white, disintegrated feldspar of some
primitive countries.

KATYDID. A kind of grasshop-
per inhabiting trees, the Plalyphylluvi
concavum of Harris.

KEEL. Canna. The two lower
petals of papilionaceous flowers are
termed the keel.

KELP. A term used both for sea-
weeds and their ashes. See Sea-
weeds. The ashes used to be sold
for the manufacture of soap and glass,
but is now superseded, in a great
measure, by manufactured carbonate
of soda.

KENNEL. A hole inhabited by a
fox or other animal. A shelter for
dogs. It should be kept clean, and
the straw changed often. A kennel
is also used to designate a collection
or pack of hounds.

KERMES GRAINS. Insects of
the genus Coccus, or bark lice, collect-
ed from numerous plants, as the oak, I malt, grain, &c
&c., and formerly much used for dye- over a wire-work
ing a red colour, but to a great ex-
tent superseded by cochineal.

KERMES MINERAL. The hy-
drosulphuret of antiinony.
KETCHUP. Catsup.
KEUPER. The upper portion of
the new red sandstone formation.

KEY. In building, apiece of wood
let into another in the contrary di-
rection of the grain.

KEYSTONE. The central stone
of an arch.
KID. A young goat. The flesh is
446

tender, and much esteemed by some
persons.

KIDNEYS. The reins. The or-
gans in which urine is secreted, from
whence it flows along tubes (ureters)
into the bladder. They are situated
in the loins and attached to the spine.
KIDNEY BEAN. See Bean.
KIDNEY - SHAPED. Reniform,
of an oval figure, with one side in-
dented, so as to resemble a sheep's
kidney.

KIDNEY VETCH. Anthyllis. An
ornamental flowering plant.

KILLING ANIMALS. It is cus-
tomary to keep oxen two days, and
smaller animals one day without food.
The ox is felled by a blow on the
forehead, and his throat immediately
cut. The Jews, who eat no meat
with blood in it, do not fell the ani-
mal, but, having tied it, divide the
throat down to the bone. Animals
killed by accidents are eaten with
propriety, but such as die from dis-
ease are unwholesome, and some-
times poisonous. A method of kill-
ing animals by pithing, or dividing the
spinal marrow high in the neck by a
sharp knife, is practised in Southern
Europe ; the animal falls at once, but
the flesh is said not to be free from
blood.

KILLINITE. A greenish lamellar
mineral, consisting of silica, alumina,
and iron, with six per cent, potash.

KILN. A furnace. The figure
depends on the object in view.

KILN ASHES. The ashes of the

wood, straw, &c., used in burning.

K I L N- DRYING. Drying hops,

a chamber, or

heated to 120"

Fahrenheit and upward by a kiln or

stove below.

KILOGRAMME. A French
weight, equal to 2 lbs., 3 oz., 5 dwts.,
avoirdupois.

KING-POST. The central post of
a trussed framing for supporting the
tie beam.

KINIO ACID. The acid with
which quina is associated.

KINO. A dark-brown astringent
extract containing much tannin.
KIRSCHWASSER. A liquor ob.

KOH

tained by fermenting cherries witli
which the stones are pounded, and
distilling the fermented liquid.

KIT. A pail, or wooden vessel.

KITCHEN GARDEN. See Gar-
aen Husbandry.

KNAPWEED. The genus of per-
ennial weeds Ccntaurca.

KNAWELL. Sclcranthiis annuus.
A weed slightly astringent.

KNAR S. Knots or excres-
cences on tlie bark of some trees,
which contam latent buds capable of
e.xpanding into branches : those of the
olive are used for propagation, being
cut with a part of the stem and set in
the ground.

KNEE. In architecture, an artifi-
cially or naturally bent piece of timber.

KNEE-PAN. A small, flat bone
(patella) situated before the knee jomt
to protect it.

KNEE GRASS. Rough panic
grass.

KNOLL. A hillock, or small hill.

KNOPPERN. Gall-like excres-
cences of oaks, used for dyeing and
tanning.

KNUT GRASS. Holcus avenace-
us, which produces bulbs on its
roots. The common weed Polygo-
mim avicularc.

KNOT WEED. A general name
for the Pohisonum genus, many of
which are very acrid.

KOHL RABI. A variety of cab-
bage, the stalk of which is terminated
above by a bulb as large as a turnip,
which is solid, and around which the
leaves are situated. It requires the
same management as cabbages, and
yields as much as ruta bagas. Two
pounds of seed supply an acre ; it is
sown in beds in the fall and planted
in spring. The value as food is not
given, but it is probably about the
same as cabbages, 500 pounds equal-
ling 100 of hay, and an ox requiring
100 pounds dady. Kohl rabi is cul-
tivated in Germany, and recommend-
ed lately in England, from its com-
parative freedom from the diseases
of turnips, as a substitute for that
root. It has occupied the attention
of some of our fancy gardeners, but
is not raised by us as a field-crop.

LAO

KRAMERIC ACID. It is obtain-
ed from the root of the Kromeria tri-
andria, or rhatany.

KY ANTTE. A silicate of alumina,
sometimes coloured by iron and other
bodies : it occurs in doubly oblique
prisms ; is white, gray, or blue. It is
common in primitive formations, and
sometimes forms a fine blue stone
resembling sapphire, and used by jew-

KYANIZING. The process of Mr.
Kyan for preserving timber by soak-
ing it in a solution of corrosive subli-
mate : it is now superseded by cheap-
er fluids. See Preservation of Timber.

LABARRAQUE'S DISINFECT-
ING LIQUID. A solution of car-
bonate of soda charged with chlorine :
it answers the same purposes as chlo-
ride of lime in disinfecting rooms.

LABELLUM. The lower petal of
a labiate or orchideous flower.

LABIAT.E. An extensive family
of plants, characterized by a two-lip-
ped, monopetalous corolla, an irregu-
lar number of stamens, and four-
lobed ovary. They are mostly herbs,
or small shrubs, with highly aromatic
flowers and leaves, as the mint, lav-
ender, sage, &c. None of them are
poisonous.

LABIUM. A lip, the divisions of
some monopetalous flowers. In en-
tomology, the moveable organ which
is at the front of the head, or face,
covering the mouth and representing
the upper lip.

LABORATORY. The workshop
of the chemist : chemical manufacto-
ries are often improperly so called.

LABRADORITE, or LABRA-
DORE STONE. An iridescent, opa-
line variety of feldspar, consisting of
silica, 55; alumina, S4 ; lime, 10 25;
soda, 3-50, in 100 parts. — {Klaprotfi.)

LABRU.M. The labium, or upper
lip of insects.

LAC. The dry resinous juice
of several trees of Southern India.
The trees are wounded by the Coc-
cus ficus, a bark louse, parts of which
being entangled in the juice, produce
a red colour like cochineal. The
447

LAC

LAC

fresh lac, incrusting twigs of trees,
is called stick lac; the resin being
separated, pounded, and stirred witli
water, yields a red solution, which,
when evaporated to dryness, forms
lac dye, the insoluble portion being
grain lac, and, when melted and run
on leaves or wood, shell lac.

LAC DYE. This is found in small
cakes ; it is dissolved in a mixture of
3 lbs. tin and 60 muriatic acid. To
produce a rich scarlet, the cloth is
mordanted with solution of tin.

LAC, SHELL. This is much used
for the best sealing-wax by various
manufacturers, and in varnishes. It
is rapidly dissolved by strong alco-
hol, by dilute muriatic and acetic
acids. Laccine and laccic acids are
bodies found in lac.

LACERATED. A botanical term,
used to designate a leaf which ap-
pears to have been torn.

LACERTID-E. The famUy of liz-
ards.

LACHRYMAL GLAND. A small
conglomerate gland placed in the up-
per portion of the outer angle of the
eye ; it supplies the eye with moist-
ure to lubricate the surface ; an ex-
cessive flow produces tears. The
lachrymal duct is a small channel
from the inner corner of the eye to
the inside of the nose.

LACINLVTE. Fringe-like ; petals,
leaves, &c., cut into numerous thin
shreds.

LACQUER. A varnish used to
cover brass and other metals, made
by dissolving shell lac in alcohol, and
colouring with gamboge, saffron, and
other bodies.

LACTARY. A dairy.

LACTATION. Giving milk, or
suckling.

LACTEALS. Minute vessels run-
ning from the interior of the small
intestines along the mesentery to the
thoracic duct ; they convey the chyle
or nutritious portions of digested
food. They form the lacteal glands
of the mesentery.

LACTIC ACID. The acid of sour

milk ; it is also found in digested food,

and sour starchy substances, saur

kraut, &c. It is a thick, colourless,

448

sour liquid, soluble in water and al-
cohol, and coagulates milk : formula
Cr, H4 O4. It readily combines with
bases, forming lactates.

LACTINE. Sugar of milk.

LACTOMETER, or GALACTOM-
ETER. " A term applied to a glass
tube for ascertaining the proportion
which the cream bears to the milk of
any particular cow, or the produce
of a whole dairy. Lactometers of
different kinds have been invented ;
the best is called the four or five glass
lactometer {Fig.).

"The principle of the instrument
is, that if new milk is poured into
glass tubes and allowed to remain,
the division between the cream which
floats upon the surface of the milk
will be so evident that its depth may
be easily measured ; and should the
milk from any cow produce jnore
cream than that of another, the dif-
ference will be seen by the divisions
or marks on the glass tubes. The lac-
tometer consists of four or five glass
tubes, about half an inch diameter
and 11 inches long, fitted into an up-
right mahogany frame ; each tube
having a fine line drawn round it 10
inches from the bottom ; three inch-
es from the line downward it is grad-
uated into inches and tenths of inch-
es. At milking time each tube is to
be filled up to the line with new milk.
After standing 12 hours, the quantity
of cream which floats upon the sur-
face is shown by the scale of inches
and tenths ; each division will there-
fore represent one per cent, of the
whole.

" If the milk given by a cow at one
meal is one gallon, or eight pints, and
the thickness or depth of the cream
which floats upon it measures 14 di
visions, multiply the number of pints,
8, by the depth of the cream, 14 ; the

LAC

result will be that the produce of the
cream of that meal is 112, or one
pint twelve one hundredths. Care
must be taken to fill these tubes as
soon as the pail is taken from under
the cow, for if any delay takes place
some of the cream will have ascend-
ed towards the top. The milk should
be taken from the middle of the

LAIR. The resting-place of sav-
age animals ; sometimes used, also,
for that of oxen and cows.

LAKES. Pigments obtained by
throwing down the colouring matter
of vegetable solutions by alum.

LAMB. For the farmer, late lambs
dropped at grass lime are best, as the
ewe yields more milk : the teat of the

pail, which is to be done by dipping a , ewe should be cleared of any tags

cream-pot below the fwth'"—{Jourii. \ that hinder suckling ; if she does not

Roy. Inst.) ■ own her lamb, put them together in a

LACTUCARIUM. The dry juice 1 pen and place a little salt on the lamb ;

of the wild lettuce (Lacluca virosa) :
it is very much like opium. 1

LACtUGIC ACID. It exists in
lactucarium.

LACUNA. A small pit. The
mouth of excretory ducts.

LACUNOSE. Having little pits,
or shallow indentations.

LACUSTRINE. Belonging to a
lake.

LADDER. A necessary imple-
ment on the farm for stackmg, re-
pairing, &c. The wall-tree ladder is
furnished at the top with two pieces
of wood projecting 10 inches, to hin-
der it from injuring the trees in pru-
ning, nailing, &c. An arrangement
of three ladders on a frame, capable
of being wheeled along, and in which
two of the ladders may be hoisted
one above the other, so as to reach
to the top of trees, is called an orchard
ladder.

LADY BIRD. A popular name for
tiie genus Coccinclla. Most of the
species are useful to the farmer by
preying on plant lice, or aphides.

LADY'S MANTLE. Plants of
the genus Alchcmilla ; they are slight-
ly astringent, but w'holesome.

LADY'S SLIPPER. Flowers of
the genus Cypripedium, of great beau-
ty.

LADY'S TRESSES. Small or-
chideous plants of the genus Ncotlia,
of no importance.
L.EVIS. Smooth.
LAGEN.EFORM. Bottle-shaped.
LAGOON. A shallow lake, into
which the sea flows.

LAGOPUS. The genus contain-
ing the grouse and similar birds feath-
ered down to the toes.
P p 2

if she licks it, a good feehng will soon
spring up. They are weaned at six
to eight weeks ; the rams are gelded
at one to three weeks old. By kill-
ing lambs at six months, the wool
becomes much more valuable. The
young ewes should not be put to ram
until two years.

LAMBDOIDAL SUTURE. The
line of junction between the bone at
the back of the head (occipital) and
the side bones (parietal).

LAMB'S LETTUCE. Corn salad.
LAMB SKINS. Their value de-
pends on the fineness, brightness, and
colour of the wool, black being most
esteemed. The skin is extensively
employed in making gloves.

LAMELL.E. The gills of mush-
rooms.

LAMELLICORNS. A division of
pentamerous beetles, in which the
short antennae are inserted into a
deep fossa at the side of the head :
the body is ovoid and heavy ; the an-
terior part of the head is commonly
dilated, and projects ; the mentum is
large, covering the labrum or incor-
porated with it, and bearing the pal-
pi. They are very numerous, feed on
excrements, rotten wood, and roots.
LAMENESS. " In the horse it
is brought on from various causes,
sprains, over-exertion, diseases of
the foot, &c. The muscles of the
shoulder are occasionally sprained,
and, in this case, the animal cannot
lift his foot without great difficulty ;
indeed, he will be observed to drag
his toe along the ground. In this
case few local measures can be adopt-
ed. The horse should be bled from
, the vein on the inside of the arm, fo-
419

LAN

LAR

mentations applied, and a dose of
physic given. In this, as in most oth-
er cases of lameness, quiet and rest
are essential to the restoration of
the animal." See Horse

LAMINA. The flat surface of a
leaf.

LAMIN.'E. A tribe of longicorn
beetles, distinguished by a vertical
head, filiform palpi, antennae bristly
and simple, thorax nearly equal
throughout : some species are ap-
terous.

LAMINATED. Rolled or beaten
to thin leaves or foil.

LAMPBLACK. Fine charcoal ob-
tained by imperfectly burning resins,
&c.

LAMPYRID.E. A family of soft-
skinned, serricorn beetles, a portion
of the females of which are phospho-
rescent.

LAMPYRIN-E. A tribe of soft-
skinned, serricorn beetles, character-
ized by palpi with enlarged termina-
tions, a soft, straight, slightly-de-
pressed body, by the thorax project-
ing over the head, which it partially
or wholly covers.

LANATE, LANATUS. Covered
with wool, or having the appearance
of wool.

LANCEOLATE. Lance-shaped,
oblong, and gradually tapering to the
ends.

LAND. In agriculture, the bed, or
stitch, between two water furrows.

LANDSCAPE GARDENING.
The art of laying out grounds : curv-
ed lines, clumps of trees, with a rich
sward, and shrubberies, are the ele-
ments of landscapes ; fences should
be sunken so as not to interrupt the
view, which should be opened as
much as possible, unless unsightly ;
in the latter case, a clump or grove
of trees may be made to hide the ob-
jects. Fountains, terraces, urns, and
other objects of art, are introduced as
ornaments. A winding stream is
a necessary element of extensive
grounds. — See Loudon's Encyclopedia
of Gardening.

■ LANDSLIP, or LANDSLIDE. A
quantity of land which has slidden
down the side of a hill : it is caused
450

by the undermining of water or by an
earthquake.

LAND SPRINGS. Springs which
only come into action after heavy
rains : all springs owe their origin to
rains. In the case of land springs,
the water, when it sinks through the
surface, is speedily interrupted by a
retentive stratum of clay or rock, and
there accumulating, soon bursts out
into a spring, which ceases to flow a
short period after the cause which
gave it birth ; but the water which
supplies constant springs sinks deep-
er into the earth, and accumulates in
rocky or gravelly strata, which be-
come saturated with the fluid.

L A N I A R I E S. Denies laniarii.
The dog teeth, or cuspidati, conical
teeth at the sides of the jaws, next
the incisors.

LANTANUM. A new metal found
in cerite.

LAPIDEOUS. Like stone, hard.

LA PILL I. Small volcanic cin-
ders.

LARCH. The European larch
{Larix communis) is much cultivated
in England for ship-building, bridges,
dock gates, and other purposes. The
timber is of remarkable excellence.
It is a native of the Tyrol, and grows
with great rapidity on the poorest
soils and in very elevated positions.
The bark is nearly as valuable as that
of the oak for tanning, and the trunk,
w^hen tapped, yields the Venetian
turpentine ; there is also a sweet
gum obtained from it called Brianvon
manna.

LARCH, AMERICAN. Hack-
malac.

LARD. See Hogs Lard.

LARK. This genus of birds is
granivorous.

LARKSPUR. The genus Delphi-
nium, many of which have handsome
blue flowers : these plants are diu-
retic and acrid. The D. consolida and
staphisagria were formerly used in
medicine.

LARVA. The caterpillar or mag-
got state of insect life ; the young of
some amphibious animals are also
called larvae.

LARVIPARA. Producing larvae.

LAT

LARYx\GOTOMY. The opera-
tion of making an opening into the
larynx ; this is sometimes necessary
in eases of t-hoking or severe inflam-
mation, where the opening of the
larynx, along which air passes, is
closed.

LARYNX. The upper part of the
windpipe, formed of cartilage, and ly-
ing at the root of the tongue.

LAST. A quantity, varying in dif-
ferent countries, and with respect to
various articles. The loliowing quan-
tities generally make a last : 12 doz-
en of hides or skins ; 12 barrels of
meal ; lOV quarters of cole seed ; 10
quarters of corn or rape seed (in some
parts of England 21 quarters of corn
go to a last) ; 12 sacks of wool ; 1700
pounds of feathers or flax. 4000
pounds is often the amount of a last.

LATENT HEAT. Heat sup-
posed to be present in all bodies, and
on which their form depends ; it can-
not be felt, but, by a change in the
form, is given out, and becomes sen-
sible or free heat. Vapours and gas-
es contain most, next fluids, and last
solids ; so that, by the abstraction of
heat, vapours are condensed, fluids
freeze, and, by the reverse, solids be-
come fluid or gaseous.

LATERITIOUS (from later, a
brick). A deposite of a reddish colour
from urine, &c.

LATEX. The milky or elaborated
juices of plants : it circulates in a pe-
culiar arrangement of tubes called the
laiiciferous vessels, which anasta-
mose over the plant.

LATH. A thin slip of wood, one
fourth or three eighths of an inch
thick, used in plastering, slating, &c.

LATHE. A machine for revolving
pieces of wood, metal, &c., which are
cut with different tools while rotating.

LATH FLOATED AND SET
FAIR. In building, three-coat plas-
terer's work, in which the first is
called pricking up, the second float-
ing, the third, or finishing, is done
with fine stuff.

LATH LAID AND SET. In
building, two-coated plasterer's work,
e.vcept that the first is called laying,
and IS executed without scratchmg.

LAX

unless with a broom. When used on
walls, this sort of work is generally
coloured ; when on ceilings, it is
white.

LATHYRUS. A genus of hand-
some climbing, leguminous plants,
much cultivated for ornament.

L ATI CI FERGUS VESSELS.
Milk vessels ; they carry the latex.

L.\UD.\NUM. Opium dissolved
in alcohol, tincture of opium.

LAUREL. Shrubs, or small trees,
of the genus haunts ; several are ev-
ergreen : they yield aromatic resins
and oils.

LAURINE. A fatty, acrid sub-
stance, found in the berries of the
common laurel (Laurus communis).

LAVA. The molten mineral mat-
ter which has flowed from volcanoes ;
it is very porous.

LAYER. A sea-weed (Porphrjra
laciniata and vulgaris), eaten as a del-
icacy when boiled ; sometimes green
laver (Ulm latissima) is substituted.

L.\ VENDER. Lavendula spica. It
grows on a poor, light soil, is propa-
gated by slips and cuttings of the
year's shoots ; these are set in IMay,
six inches apart, in a shady border,
and transferred by October to the
permanent beds, about two feet apart.
The ground is stirred in spring, and
the flowers gathered early in July ;
the beds, with a little care, last a
long time. The flowers are distilled
for their rich perfume, which is the
principal ingredient oi eaude Cologne.

LAWN. Ground covered with tlie
smaller perennial grasses, kept short
by mowing, and generally situated in
front of a house or mansion. Lawns,
when once established, require only
to be kept neat by the ordinary rou-
tine of rolling, mowing, and sweep-
ing, except keeping the surface per-
fectly even, by making up small hol-
lows with screened mould early in
spring. When lawns become worn
out, a top-dressing of any finely-divi-
ded manure will refresh them ; leach-
ed ashes are particularly useful, and,
at the same time, an additional quan-
titv of grass seed may be sown.

LAXATIVE. A gently-purging
medicine.

451

LAY

LLA

LAXATOR. Any muscle which
relaxes the tension of the part into
which it is inserted.

LAX, LAXUS. DifTiise, loose.

LAY, LEY, LEA. A term applied
to land in tlic state of grass or sward.
This kind of ground is frequently dis-
tinguisiied into such as has been long
in the stale of sward, and such as is
newly laid down to grass, or into old
and new lays. An old lay, fallowed
or turned under, yields an admirable
preparation for potatoes, corn, wheat,
and numerous other crops. The
proper method of managing a new
lay is of great importance to the
farmer, which Young thought should
be by keeping it perfectly free from
stock for the following autumn and
winter after being laid down, when,
in the spring, it will afford a growth
of young grass highly valuable for
s4ieep, with which it should only be
well stocked, and kept down then,
and during the following summer ;
nothing, in his opinion, being more
pernicious than mowing a new lay,
as directed by certain authors, if it
be intended for permanent meadow.

LAYERING. Propagation by lay-
ers, which are short branches of plants,
trees, or shrubs. The layer is strip-
ped of its lower leaves, a slit made
under one of the central buds, and
the branch twisted or the bark taken
partially off, and then bent and pinned
down in the soil by a wooden pin ;
the wounded portion is placed from
two to six inches under the soil, and
covered with line mould and sand ;
the end of the branch is trimmed to
one or two eyes above the soil ; in a
few weeks it will have thrown out
roots, and maybe cut away and trans-
planted at a suitable time elsewhere,
being a new plant. It is a very safe
method of propagation, and in some
flower plants nearly the only one. It is
practised in the summer and autunm,
and on the year's shoots in many ca-
ses, but usually on two-year shoots.
Plants so situated as to render it im-
possible to bend their branches to
the ground, may nevertheless be lay-
ered by having shoots introduced into
a i)ot or box of soil elevated to them,
452

and supported in a convenient posi-
tion. A piece of bass matting tied
around the limb near a crotch may
be made to sustain the soil. This is a
common practice among the Chinese,
who cause branches of trees to root
in this manner by partially ringing
them, and covering such parts with
a ball of clay, which is ke])t moist.

LAYERS OF ^VOOD. The cir-
cular rings of wood or bark produced
annually. The number of wood lay-
ers in a trunk gives us an idea of the
age of the tree.

LEA. See Laxj.

LEAD. A soft, inelastic, and duc-
tile metal, fusing at 612° Fahrenheit :
sp. gr., 11-44. Melted in open ves-
sels, it absorbs o.xygen, and becomes
converted into massicot, which, being
fused, is litharge, the protoxide of
lead. The equivalent of lead is 103-73,
symbol Pb {Plumbum). The metal,
in the form of sheet, is very use-
ful for covering buildings and form-
ing gutters. From its softness, it is
also adapted for pipes, which are
quite flexible. Lead cisterns and
pipes are objectionable as reservoirs
lor rain water. It is used as an al-
loy with other metals. Lead is read-
ily soluble in nitric acid, and slowly
in strong acetic and carbonic acids.
Its most important compounds are
the carbonate (white-lead) and ace-
talc (sugar of lead).

LEAD, BLACK. Plumbago. A
native carburet of iron.

LEAF. An expansion of cellular
tissue and vessels appended to the
stem at the nodes ; it receives ves-
sels from the new wood on the up-
per, and contributes them to the bark
from the under surface. Along the
upper channels the ascending sap
flows, and the elaborated juices leave
the leaf by the inferior system, de-
scending between the new wood and
bark, and organizing new wood for
the next year and roots. Leaves are
articulated, and fall off entire in ex-
ogenous plants, but are expansions
of tlie bark, and not articulated in
endogens ; hence, when they die, the
fragments remain, decaying in the air.
The figures of leaves are innumera-

LEA

LEA

ble, and furnish the principal means \
of recognising species of plants ; they
are also occasionally covered with
hairs, glands, prickles, and, for the
most part, with minute openings on
the under surface, called slomata. i
Physiologically, the leaf is not only .
the most important portion of a plant,
but the only living portion ; the trunk
and roots are only fibres extended
from the leaves : the fruit and seed I
are only modified leaves ; they pro-
duce the buds of plants, the great
means of propagation ; hence, in the
vegetable kingdom, more than half of
the known plants are no more than a
leaf, or foliaceous organ, as in ferns,
lichens, sea-weeds, fungi, and moss-
es ; and the leaf alone of many
plants is capable of giving rise to a
new individual, forming a root, a new ;
bud, and ultimately the entire tree or j
plant ; thus, the orange, water-cress, j
mint, hoya, clinanthus, and other spe- i
cies, have been 'propagated by a leaf. |
The planted leaf swells at its stalk, '
emits roots, and develops a bud.

A leaf is a porous or spongy body ;
the gases and fluids of the interior of
the plant, and the gases and fluids of
the air mingle together by chemical
laws in its structure ; light, acting
on these, produces a change of com-
position, and establishes a move-
ment. Out of carbonic acid gas and
water, light, and the chemical actions
of the leaf, evolve sugar, gum, starch,
and wood ; these principles, acted
upon by other substances present,
produce, in part, albumen, fibrin, oils,
&c. ; and thus, primarily in the leaf,
all the products of vegetation are
formed, and hence they l)ecome dis-
tributed throughout the whole plant.

The leaf only, with the green parts,
can elaborate sap for the whole ve-
getable ; the apparent changes in the
ascending sap are an increased den-
sity, and the separation of oxygen
and nitrogen gases, which escape into
the air. Leaves are to be carefully
preserved as the elaborating organs
of the plant, out of which come
growth and vigour.

L E A F B U D. Tiie collection of
small leaves with a central point

capable of expansion, which is pro-
duced at the base or axil of the
leaves. In the bark is laid up a de-
posite of food for their use in spring,
upon which the bud, whether separa-
ted to another tree (m budding), or
remaining in its native place, feeds
while young ; by its expansion, a
shoot is formed. Leaf buds perpet-
uate all the peculiarities of the tree
on which they originated.

LE.\FLET. The lesser leaves of
a compound leaf.

LEAF MANL'RE. The dead leaves
of the forest constitute an admirable
manure when rotted in the farm-yard,
pig-stalls, or in composts ; they have
precisely the value of straw, being
very similar in their action. The
leaves of oaks and plants growing on
a rich soil are better than those of
pine, or such as grow on poor lands.
They should be collected as early as
possible in the fall. If ploughed into
the soil directly, they form an excel-
lent amendment, but require rather
more time to yield vegetable food.
In this case, lime should be applied
with the leaves.

LEAF STALK. The petiole.
Leaves destitute of stalk are called
sessile.

LEAGUE. The sea league is the
one twentieth of a degree, or 345
miles. The French posting league is
2-42 English miles.

LEA\-TO. A building whose raf-
ters lean or pitch against the wall of
another building.

LEASH. A line to couple dogs.
Three head of game.

LEATHER. Skins of animals
preserved by rendering their gelatin
insoluble and impermeable to water ;
this is called tanning, when a solution
of tannin is used, and the product
becomes tannogclatin.

Tau-ed leather is formed by steep-
ing prepared skins in potasti liquor
and a solution of common salt and
alum ; in this way the resulting salt
of alumina combines with the gela-
tin : glove leather is so formed.
Curried leather is smeared with oil
while moist, which gradually pene-
trates the skin as it dries. A perfect
453

LEE

LE.M

hide of leather is tested by its section,
which should he glistening and mar-
bled, without any wiiite streaks, but
uniform and compact. See Tanning.

LEATHER WOOD. Dircapalus-
tris. A small indigenous shrub with
very flexible branches, and a tough,
leathery bark.

LEAVEN. A piece of sour dough
of flour or corn meal, used to make
other dough light ; it is well kneaded
into it, and produces fermentation,
but is altogether inferior to yeast.

LEDGERS. In building," the pie-
ces of timber used in scaffolding
which lie parallel to the wall, and
horizontal.

LEECH. Sanguisvga officinalis
and medicinalis. They inhabit shal-
low brooks and ponds, and are taken
by driving a horse or other animal in ;
the leeches attach themselves to the
legs. They are invaluable in reliev-
ing local inflammations by drawing
offan excess of blood.

LEEK. Allium, porrum. This is
a biennial of the onion genus, hut
without heads ; used in stews, broths,
&c. The best variety is the large
London. Leeks are obtained by seed,
which is sown in a bed early in spring
for the first supply, and in April for
the crop. The seedlings are trans-
planted when six or eight inches
high, being previously thinned and
weeded, and set in rows ten inches
apart, the rows being eight inches
distant. The leeks are set deep in
holes made by a dibble. The soil
must be well watered and loosened.
Tlie after-treatment consists of hoe-
ing and occasionally cutting away
the tops of the leaves to increase
the size of the root. The plants are
used from June to winter. Seed is
obtained by leaving some of the leeks
in the seed-bed 8 inches apart, cover-
ing with straw in winter, and allowing
them to flower in May. The seed clus-
ter is to be cut when turned brown,
and dried before being thrashed.

LEES. The dregs or refuse of fer-
mented liquors : when rotted, they
form good manure, and should, there-
fore, be put into the farm-yard or pig-
geries.
454

LEGHORN STRAW. It it de-
rived from the straw of wheat In
Tuscany, the long-awned spring
wheat, called marzolano, is cultivate^
on the sandy hills of the Valley of the
Arno. The seed is sowa in March
very thick, and the plants pulled when
the spikes are formed, but before any
grain : it is then eighteen inches tall.
It is bleached by exposure to air like
flax. The portion of straw between
the car and uppermost knot is ah that
is employed : this is selected, tied in
bundles, and carried home. Before
use, the straw is bleached by the va-
pour of sulphur, either in barrels or
appropriate rooms ; the plait is also
bleached, and the bonnets are again
bleached. English Leghorn is made
from rye similarly managed. Both
these plants yield better straw than
that from grasses.

LEGUMEN, LEGUME. A pod
like that of the pea, bean, &c. A
one-celled, one or many seeded, two
valved, superior, and commonly de-
hiscent fruit.

LEGUMIN. The casein of legu-
minous plants.

LEGUMINOS^E. An extensive
natural family, very important in ag-
riculture, from yielding pease, beans,
clovers, indigo, &c. The genera are
often immense trees in the tropics,
as logwood, mahogany, but are usu-
ally small herbs in the North. The
most remarkable characters are the
presence of legumens whh irregular,
often papilionaceous flowers.

LEGUMINOUS CROPS. Crops
of clover, beans, tares, lucern, and
other leguminosa?. Some writers,
however, very improperly allude to
root and leaf crops under this term,
imagining that all ameliorating crops
should be called leguminous, as being
distinguished from white or culmif-
erous crops, which are also exhaust-

LEICESTER SHEEP. See Sheep.

LEMON. Curvs mcdica. A small
tree, native of Asia, but extensively
cultivated in tropical America and
temperate climates free from heavy
frosts. The citron, lemon, and lime
are considered only varieties, notwith-

LEN

LET

standing their great difference in size
and tlie sharpness of the juice. The
tree can be cultivated in southern
Florida, but requires an orangery
northward.

LEMON, ESSENCE OF. The oil
distilled from the peal, mixed with al-
cohol. The pure oil is termed the oil
of lemo/is.

LEMON SIRUP. Lemon juice is
kept with difficulty in bottles ; made
into a strong sirup, it is better pre-
served. The fluid sold by this name
is only common sirup, acidulated with
a little oil of vitriol.

LENITIVE. Medicines which
gently soothe in diseases. A gentle
purgative.

LENS. A thin solid, the faces of
which are curved, and the general
figure usually circular. The glasses
of spectacles are lenses. Those len-
ses which have two conve.x or pro-
tuberant sides, or one side plane, mag-
nify objects, and concentrate the rays
of heat to a burning focus ; hence they
are termed magnifying or burning
glasses. Concave lenses minify, and
do not collect heat to a real focus.
The name of the lens differs with the
figure of the curved surface

LENTICULAR. Shaped like a
double convex lens ; thus ().

LENTICELLS, or LENTICULAR
GLANDS. The small specks or knots
on the stems of some trees, from
whence, if in the soil, roots would
proceed.

LENTIL. Ercum lens {Fig.). A

leguminous annual, similar to the
vetch. It is much cultivated in France

and some parts of Germany as food for
man. The French have three varie-
ties : the small brown, for soups, the
yellowish, and the large Provence,
with luxuriant straw, and which may
be cultivated in the place of tares.

They are sown on a dry, warm,
sandy soil, later than the pea, one to
one and a half bushel to the acre,
and afterward treated like pease, un-
less they be planted for horse prov-
ender, when the whole plant is cured,
as in the case of tares. The yield is
much less than from the latter crop.
The lentil is as nutritious as the bean.
It contains 22 per cent, of Icgumin
(casein), 48 5 of starch, gum, and su-
gar, and 2 5 oil. Schwartz states the
crop at 39| bushels, of 62i pounds
each, to the acre.

LENTOR (from lentus, clammy).
Visciditv, clamminess in fluids.

LEPIDOPTERA. Insects of the
moih and butterfly tribe. See Insects.

LEPIDOTUS, LEPIDOTE (from
/.e-Jic, ascale). Scurfy, scaly. A bo-
tanical term.

LEPIS.M.\. A family of wingless
insects, the bodies of which are cov-
ered with glistening scales, the feet
short. They are very active, and
found about old wood, and in dark,
mouldy places.

LEPRA, LEPROSY. A disease
of the skin, which becomes rough and
covered with scaly patches. Warm
baths, sulphur, and, lastly, tar oint-
ment, with proper attention to the
health, are the best remedies.

LEPTURA. A genus of longi-
corn beetles, of the family Leplundce.
'• Head inclined posteriorly behind the
eyes, or contracted at its junction
with the thorax into a neck ; thora.x
conical or trapezoid, narrowed ante-
riorly ; elytra becoming gradually nar-
rower ; eyes rounded and entire, or, if
emarginate, antennae inserted before
emargination."

LETHARGY. Drowsiness, mor-
bid desire to sleep. It is sometimes
a precursor of apoplexy, and calls for
blood-letting if occurring in a full
habit.

LETTUCE. Lactuca saliva. The
varieties are very numerous ; the
455

LLV

LEV

most hardy are tlie large green heatl,
cabbage, tennis ball, Kgyj)tian green
coss, larged green curled, and .Madei-
ra, which may be kept alive through
winter if protec-ted by a coating of
straw : they are sown in Scpieiiiber.
Other esteemed spring kinds are the
early Silesia, sugar loaf, Paris loaf
coss, pale green, and a later sort,
the large summer Silesia. Lettuces
in this latitude require to be raised
in slightly warmed beds. An ounce
of seed produces upward of ten thou-
sand plants. It should be sown very
thin early in March, and transplanted
when about one inch and a half high,
as soon as the frost is out of the
ground. The soil should be rich and
fine, and the plants set a foot apart
each way. They must be well wa-
tered after transplanting, for the let-
tuce is partial to moisture. The
plant must be kept weeded and well
worked, at least every fortnight ; in
this way they will head before hot
weather, after which they usually run
to seed without heading. The coss
lettuces required to be blanched by
tying up the leaves with a bass hand-
age. Seed plants are procured by
allowing fine specimens to flower :
the seed sown should be fresh, as it
frequently loses its vegetating power
after two j'ears.

LETTUCE. LAMB'S. Corn salad.

LEVIGATION. The reduction of
hard substances, by rubbing or tritu-
ration, to fine powder.

L E U C IN. A white, crystalline
body like spermaceti, produced by the
action of alkalies or sulphuric acid
on protein : formula, Ci^ Hi^ N O4

LEU CITE. White Vesuvian
garnet. It is abundant in some of
the Vesuvian lavas, and contains up-
ward of 23 per cent, potash, alumina
23, silica 54.

LEUCOL. One of the products of
the di.stillation of coal tar.

LEUCOMA. Opacity of the cor-
nea, which becomes whitish.

LEUCOPHLEGMATIC. A con-
dition of the body in which the skin
is pale and flabby.

LEVATOR MUSCLES. Those
wOiich raise a limb or part. They are
456

situated in the front portions of the
animal.

LEVEE. A provincial name for a
large embankment.

LEVEL. An instrument for as-
certaining the level or the direction
of a horizontal line. It is of great
utility in drainage, building, and lay-
ing out grounds.

Levels in which the plumb-line
forms the essential part are those
most usually employed for the com-
mon purposes required by bricklayers,
masons, carpenters, &c. They are
constructed under many difTerent
forms, but the general principle is as
follows : A frame or board is prepared,
having one edge perfectly straight,
and an upright line is drawn on the
frame at right angles to the straight
edge. To some point of this line a
thread carrying a plummet is attach-
ed ; consequently, when the frame
is placed in such a position that the
thread of the plummet, hanging free-
ly, coincides with the upright line, the
straight edge of the frame, which is
at right angles, must be horizontal.
See Plummet.

Spirit Level. — By far the most con-
venient and accurate level is the spir-
it level (/-;-. 1), p,^ ,
" which is noth-
ing more than a
glass tube near-
ly filled with spirit of wine, the bub-
ble in which, when the tube is placed
horizontally, would rest indiflerently
in any part, if the tube could be made
mathematically straight ; but that is
impossible to exe- f,g, 2.
cute, every tube hav- a h

ing some slight cur- j^ ^

vature." k^^.^:

The spirit level
in surveyors' instru-
ments is fixed to a
frame carrying a tel-
escope or compass ;
Figure 2 represents a
spirit level mounted
on a stafT, for com-
mon farm levelling.

" It is furnished
with eyesights, a h,
and when in use is

LEVEL.

placed into a framing of brass, which
operates as a spring to adjust it to the
level position, (/, by the action of the
large-headed brass screw, c. A stud
is affixed to the framing, and pushed
firmly into a gimlet-hole in the top of
the short rod, e, whicii is pushed or
driven into the ground at the spot
from whence the level is desired to
be ascertained. It need scarcely he
mentioned that the height of the eye-

sight from the ground is to be deduct-
ed from the height of observation.

Fijx. 3 represents a useful and very
simple form of level. " A slip of
wood must be procured, measuring
three inches broad by half an inch
thick, and sixteen feet nine inches
long, which must be cut into foui
lengths of five feet three inches, five
feet, three feet three inches, and three
feet three inches, marked as follows :

a a, five feet three inches ; h b, five
feet ; c d, three feet three inches ; c f,
three feet three inches : six thick
screw nails are also required, one
inch long. .loin c rf and e/ by a screw
nail, inserted about two inches from
tlie end of each, and exactly one inch
from their upper surfaces. From the
point i, upon c /, draw a line, meas-
uring thirty-six inches, towards/, and
exactly one inch distant from the up-
per surface, and divide this line into
thirty-six parts or inches. It is self-
evident that each of these points,
when elevated above r d, will show
g 'J

a rise of one in fifteen, twenty, thir-
ty-four, &c., as the case may be, pro-
vided c d, which should be divided
into inches numbered on the upper
edge, shall be horizontal ; and e f
shall point to a pole or mark as high
above the ground as c </ is ; this is
effected by fixing b h firmly upon c d,
at right angles, and either having a
plummet, g, suspended, as in the fig-
ure, or a spirit level fixed on the top
of c d. I prefer the plummet made
of bobbin or small cord, with a pierced
bullet at the bottom. The instru-
ment is retained in a level or hori-
4.57

LEV

Lie

zontal position by the assistance of
a a, whicli is upon a moveable pivot,
made l)y one of the screw nails at k.
The distance of « a from A i is imma-
terial. A small stoj) is fastened at
the back of h h, for the purpose of
preventing c / from falling below c d.
The rise of a road is shown by look-
ing from e towards /; the fall of a
road, of course, by looking from /to-
wards e, and, if great correctness is
required, the observation should be
rGvcrscd "

LEVELLING. The art of discov-
ering the level of surfaces, or how
high one place is above another ; jt
also means, in agriculture, the reduc-
tion of hills or mounds to a level or
plain surface, which is done by the
plough, or the machine figured under
the article Barren Soil.

The level set on a rod (F^o-- 1) in
the preceding article is all that is ne-
cessary for short distances ; but tel-
escopes are used in extensive sur-
veys.

LEVELLING STAVES. Straight
rods, six or more feet high, and divi-
ded into marks at the inches, which
can be distinctly seen at a short dis-
tance ; in more delicate observations
the stafT carries a moveable sight
with a central mark, which is adjust-
ed by an assistant, according to the
signs of the surveyor, until the level
line is reached.

LEVER. An inflexible bar capa-
ble of moving around a prop or ful-
crum : the advantage, or leverage,
gained depends on the distance at
which the power acts from the prop,
and weight or resistance. The lever
is not only the simplest, but the only
true mechanical power. Writers
speak of levers of the first, second,
and third kinds : in the first, the ful-
cnini is between the power and
w^eight ; in the second, the fulcrum
is at one end and the power at the
other, the weight being between
them ; in the third, the fulcrum and
weight are at the ends, the power
intermediate ; in this case there is
loss of power, but gain in the rapidi-
ty of movement of the weight : the
treadle of a lathe is an instance.
46S

LEVERAGE. The advantage
gaint^d in power by using a lever.

LEVERET. A young hare.

LEVIGATION. The reduction of
a solid to an impalpable powder with
the assistance of water or other
fluids ; this may be done in a mortar
or on a slab ; the mixture is after-
ward diffused in water, and the light
parts, which remain suspended some
seconds, poured off and retained, the
heavier portions being again tritu-
rated.

LEY. Grass land.

LEYDEN JAR. See EhctrkUy.

LIAS. An argillaceous limestone
of the secondary rocks ; abundant in
Europe, but unknown in the United
States.

LIBELLULINES. A tribe of neu-
ropterous insects like the dragon-fly,
which are found about water, and
prey on other insects. The word Li-
bclliila designates a genus of this
family.

LIBER. The innermost bark of
trees.

LICE ON ANIMALS. Nearly all
animals are subject to some of these
parasites : they are produced from
filth,confinement, herding with infest-
ed animals ; the creatures affected be-
come restless, rub themselves against
posts, bite the accessible parts of
their skin, and even become subject
to skin diseases. The best remedies
are, access to water, washing, comb-
ing, or currying the hide, anointing
with sulphur, mercurial, or whale oil
ointment ; decoctions of tobacco, and
other narcotic weeds, are also valu-
able.

LICE ON PLANTS. See Aphulcs.

LICHENIN. The starchy matter
of lichens.

LICHENS. " Plants of a very low
organization, which grow on the bark
of trees or rocks, when they form a
kind of incrustation, or upon the
ground, when they consist of irregu-
lar lobes, parallel with the earth's
surface. Occasionally, in all situa-
tions, they are found in a branched
state ; but their subdivisions are gen-
erally irregular, and without order.
Their fructification consists of hard

LIG

nuclei, called shields, which break
through the upper surface of the thal-
lus, or main substance of the lichen,
are of a peculiar odour and texture,
and contain the reproductive parti-
cles. Lichens abound in the cold and
temperate parts of the world. The
greater part are of no known use ;
but some, as the reindeer moss (^Ce-
7wmyce rangifcnna), the Iceland moss
{Cctrana Islandica), and various spe-
cies of Gyrophora, are capable of sus-
taining life, either in animals or man.
The Iceland moss, when deprived of
its bitterness by soaking in an alkali,
and then boiling, becomes, indeed, a
diet recommended to invalids. Oth-
ers are used as tonic medicines, as
Variolaria faginca and Parmclm pari-
etina. Their principal use is, how-
ever, that of furnishing the dyer with
brilhant colours ; orchall, cudbear,
and perolle, with many more, are
thus employed."

LIFTING PUMP. See Pump.

LIGAMENTS. Elastic fibrous tex-
tures uniting the bones together.

LIGATURE. A bandage. In hor-
ticulture, bass is used chiefly for this
purpose. In farriery, a ligature is a
fine, strong thread of silk, with which
blood-vessels, &;c., are tied in opera-
tions.

LIGHT. An imponderable agent,
emitted in great brilliancy by the sun :
it travels in straight lines at the rate
of 192,000 miles the second. The
sun's light consists of seven different
colours, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet, which, being uni-
ted, make the white light : they may
be separated by a prism of glass, or
a coloured transparent body.

Light is a most important agent in
the development of plants, the green
colour of their herbage being produ-
ced by its action ; it appears to be
the yellow light that effects this re-
sult. Although mould, and some
kinds of mushrooms, exist witliout
light, the plants usually cultivated
cannot exist without its presence ;
hence, few plants do well in the shade.
The bending of stems towards the
light is one of the most curious phe-
nomena of vegetation ; it seems to

LIL

be produced by the blue and indigo
rays.

A pencil of light is a small beam,
the parts of which are divergent.

LIGHTxMNG. The discharge of
electricity from immense surfaces of
clouds ; it may occur from one cloud
to another, or to the earth ; in the
latter case, the highest points and the
best conductors receive the stroke.
Hence, rods of iron one inch or more
thick, and rising four to ten feet above
buildings, are used for protection ;
the upper ends should be beaten out
into several points, and either gilded
or covered with platina, and the low-
est extremity buried in the earth sev-
eral feet, or brought in contact with
moisture ; in cities, the iron or lead
pipes circulating through the streets
form a good point of attachment. In
a large building several rods are want-
ed. Large trees are admirable con-
ductors of lightning, but, as their bark
is often torn off violently during the
passage of the fluid, it is dangerous
to take shelter near them.

LIGNEOUS- (from lignum, wood).
Wood-like.

LIGNTN. The pure fibre of wood
divested of starch and other impuri-
ties ; according to Payen, it consists
of an investing or cellular matter,
cellulose, Ciz Hio Oio, isomeric with
starch, the true internal matter, or
lignin, being Gis H.m 0;o. Fine linen
from hemp or flax is insoluble in wa-
ter, decays very slowly, and is con-
verted into dextrine by the action of
dilute sulphuric acid and heat, and
finally into starch sugar.

LIGNIPEllDOUS INSECTS.
Those insects \\hich bore into or oth-
erwise destroy wood.

LIGNITE. A kind of partially-
formed coal, in which the woody
structure is distinct. It belongs to
the secondary formations.

LIGULA. An appendage of the
sheathing petioles of some grasses.
The lower lip, or labrum, of insects.

LIGULATE. Shaped like a rib-
and. The outer florets of some
composite flowers are called ligu-
late.

LILAC. Syringa vulgaris. A beau
459

LIM

LIM

tiful ornamental shrub, readily prop-
agated in a rich, light soil.

LlIJACE.i:. A family of endoge-
nous plants, remarkable for their brill-
iant llowers, including the lilies, hy-
acinths, tuberoses, &c. They are
characterized by six petals, six sta-
mens, superior ovary, anthers burst-
ing inwardly.

LILIACEOUS. Flowers resem-
bling the lily.

LILY. Lilium. Several species
produce beautiful flowers. They are
propagated by bulbs.

LILY, DAY. Hcmcrocallis fuha.
This has been recommended as a
herbage plant. It is perennial, stands
the summer well, and cattle are very
partial to the leaves. It yields abun-
dantly.

LILY OF THE VALLEY. Con-
vallaria majalis. Sheep and cattle
browse on it. Propagated by part-
ing the perennial root.

LILY, WATER. Nymphea alba.
A beautiful ornament on ponds.

LILY, THE AMERICAN WA-
TER. Nelumbium lutcutn. The sa-
cred bean. It bears the largest flow-
er in the Northern States. The beans
are edible.

LILY, THE YELLOW WATER.
Nupar lutca. Common in ditches and
ponds, bearing a yellow flower.

LI.VIACID.E (from Umax, a slug).
The family of slugs and snails.

LIMB, LI.MBU8. The flat or ex-
panded portion of the petal.

LI.ME. The oxide of calcium ; the
latter is a brilliant wiiite metal, known
only as a chemical curiosity. Lime,
from its great chemical activity, is
unknown in nature, but always exists
combined, chiefly with carbonic acid,
as limestone, chalk, marl, or calcare-
ous minerals. It is also combined
with sulphuric acid (gypsum), phos-
phoric acid (bone earth), and silicic
acid.

The base (quicklime) is separated
from the carbonate by a white heat.
It is white, caustic, soluble in 500
parts water ; specific gravity, 23.
The solution is powerfully alkaline,
changing vegetable colours, and with
an acrid taste. It is much used as a
460

test in the laboratory. The equiva-
lent of lime is 28 5, symbol Ca.

When a small quantity of water is
added to the quicklime, it sv^"ells,
cracks, becomes hot, falls into pow-
der, and absorbs the fluid, combining
with it, and forming slacked or hydrate
of lime. This contains 24 per cent,
water, and is highly caustic. If quick-
lime be exposed to the air, so as to
become air slacked, it absorbs water
and carbonic acid to the extent of 38
per cent., about one half becoming
carbonate or mild lime, and the rest
hydrate. This mixture is slightly
caustic. Both the hydrate and air-
slacked lime continue to absorb car-
bonic acid, and finally become alto-
gether mild ; but this is slower in
the case of the hydrate. Lime, be-
ing an active base, coml)ines readily
with nearly every acid, forming a host
of salts. Its presence in any solu-
tion is made known by the action of
dilute sulphuric acid, which precipi-
tates if as an insoluble white powder
(gypsum).

LIME IN AGRICULTURE. It is
the most important amendment used
in farming, and is employed in the
state of quicklime, water-slacked, and
air-slacked lime, and in quantities de-
pending upon the object in view.

Its uses may be enumerated as fol-
lows :

1st. It assists in pulverizing the
soil, by acting chemically upon the
silicates therein, dissolving out a por-
tion of the silica, and liberating pot-
ash and soda. It is for this cause
that heavy doses of lime tell so well
on poor granitic soils. The quick-
lime is best for this purpose, plough-
ed in thoroughly to a depth of three
inches. From 100 to 600 bushels the
acre are used ; wet, stiff lands, and
those destitute of calcareous matter,
requiring most. It should be applied
upon a fallow of four to six months,
and stirred three times. This large
addition shows its effects for many
years. It should be made to poor
lands to bring them into tilth, or to
destroy insects and weeds. Sandy
soils should receive much less lime
than stiff lands.

LIM

LIM

2d. Lime corrects injurious sub-
stances in the soil, as sulphate of
iron, &c. For this purpose, a heavy
dose is required.

3d. Liinc breaks up or pulverizes
stiff clays, improving their texture.
For this purpose, a heavy dose of
quicklime is most effective.

4ih. It decomposes inert vegetable
matter, as peat, roots, &c. The dose
for this purpose may be less than
above ; 30 to 100 bushels will be
enough, if lime has been previously
employed ; but on peat lands, well
drained, much more is necessary.

5th. Lime is found in large quan-
tities as an ingredient in leguminous
plants, potatoes, and other roots ;
hence it may be added as a special
manure to such plants, three or four
bushels being placed in the manure
used for them.

6th It hastens the decay of stable
manure and putrescent substances,
and may be sprinkled over them when
ploughed into the soil, but not allow-
ed to be added for any length of time
to heaps of manure, for it drives off
any ammonia already formed, and ul-
timately reduces the action of the
dung. One bushel to three or four
loads will be enough.

A first liming for improvement of
barren lands may be heavy ; but if
afterward a dose of 20 bushels the
acre be added every four or five years,
it will save a very heavy addition for
some time. Quicklime would be the
best to add as an amendment, but it
is difficult to handle, from its causti-
city, and must never be added to wet
soils, lest it convert them into a hard
mortar. On the whole, therefore,
water-slacked lime is the most useful.
Air-slacked hme is used as a top-
dressing to meadows, the other being
too caustic ; it is also employed to
kill and annoy insects, which it does
without injury to the plant. It is
also added, in doses of a half to one
peck, to the roots of fruit-trees, work-
ed into the soil. The best kind of
lime for the former is that obtained
from burned shells, the common lime-
stone usually containing magnesia,
M'hich, in a caustic state, is injurious
Qg2

j to vegetation, from the slowness with
i which it becomes mild, so that it in-
! jures the roots of plants long after
I the lime has become quite mild. The
! older limestones, and especially those
of a bright white, crystalline appear-
ance, form the best lime.

Lime is also much used in com-
posts to pulverize inert vegetable mat-
ter, which it does very effectually,
converting it in part into humate of
lime ; the action of the lime is simi-
lar to potash or soda, and termed by
1 chemists catalytic, or predisposing.

Lime-water, and a cream of lime,
made by mixing lime with water to
the consistence of cream, are much
! used as a steep for seeds, and to wash
j the bark of trees, &c., to preserve
them from insects ; it is also suppo-
sed to preserve timber.

LLME-KILX. A rough furnace for
burning limestone or shells into quick-
lime. It is usually of a circular fig-
ure, constructed of hard rock or
bricks, arched below, and furnished
with a moveable grate. The building
is six or more feet across, and 15 to
20 feet high, the wall being nearly
perpendicular. The limestone is bro-
ken into pieces of the size of half a
brick, and thrown from above, mixed
with half or one third part of wood
or other fuel, according to the kind
of stone used ; this is most conve-
niently done when the kiln is erected
against a steep hill, so that carts can
approach near the mouth to throw in
the charge. Before adding the charge,
fuel is placed above the grate to en-
able the whole to be lighted ; and fresh
quantities of limestone, and wood or
coal, are added as the first portions
burn and settle down. In the com-
mon kiln the charge is allowed to
burn out, and then drawn when cold
by removing the lower grate ; but in
the best modern kilns the charge can
be partly removed without allowing
the fire to die out. Good stone yields
about 56 per cent, of lime, but the
impure kinds leave more. It should
slack into a fine powder with water,
or it is impure or imperfectly burned.
Shells and limestone, or marl, can
be burned in mass by heaping them
461

LIM

LIN

with fuel and leaving air passages, as
in making charcoal.

LIME, MILD. Carbonate of lime,
which possesses little of the action of
burned lime. Quicklime returns to
this condition in the soil after a time,
depending upon the porousness of
the earth and amount of vegetable
matter it contains. Chalk is much
used in England as an amendment ;
but with us the reduction of lime-
stones to a powder would be much
more expensive than beneficial. Marl
answers this purpose when rich in
calcareous matter ; some sands and
gravels are so rich in broken shells as
to afford a good calcareous manure :
10 to 30 cart-loads are applied. Car-
bonate of lime is slowly soluble in
water containing carbonic acid.

LIMESTONE, LIME ROCK. The
best for agricultural purposes are the
oldest crystalline rocks destitute of
magnesia. Limestone formations
appear from the earliest transition
epoch, in which they constitute hard
crystalline marbles, through the sec-
ond, and into the tertiary period.
They frequently form the richest
lands when disintegrated, in conse-
quence of the large amount of corals
and organic remains they contain,
which often yield two per cent, of
bone earth : some of the linest wheat
soils are of this kind. Calcareous
rocks, sands, or gravels are of every
colour and admixture ; sometimes
flinty, sandy ; at others, aluminous ;
but if the carbonate of lime be in any
quantity, they are readily recognised
by adding a few drops of strong acid,
which should produce an evolution of
gas or effervescence.

LLME PLANT. The May apple
is sometimes called by this name.

LIME-TREE. Tilm Europea. The
linden, a tree of great beauty, often
attaining 90 feet, and bearing a large
amount of sweet flowers in spring,
which constitute a favourite food of
bees. It is propagated with great
ease from suckers, layers, seed, and
cuttings. The wood is soft, but used
in turning, and forms a fine charcoal
for gunpowder : the inner bark af-
fords the best bass.
462

The linden has been for ages a fa-
vourite tree in parks, groves, and
avenues of towns ; it is very patient of
trimming, and can be cut into arches
and other figures. Several varieties,
differing consideraoly in height, are
known.

Michaux describes three species of
American trees of the genus TUia .•
the alba, Americana, or bass wood, and
the puhescens, or downy ; they are
not of much economical value, the
wood being soft and destructible.

The linden of Europe is frequently
planted as an ornamental tree ; in
the Northern and Middle States, it is,
however, extremely hable to the at-
tacks of numerous insects and cater-
pillars, and requires much attention
to be preserved from destruction.
Numerous span and canker worms
infest the young buds and foliage ;
the use of lime and tobacco washes,
or smoke, might diminish the number
of these enemies.

LINACE.E. The family of plants
to which flax belongs : they are re-
markable for their mucilaginous seeds
and tough fibres.

LINCHPIN. The pin at the end
of the axletree to confine the wheel.

LINDEN. See Lmie-trce.

LINE ATE, LINEATUS, LIN-
EAR. Used in describing leaves,
&c., which are narrow and of the
same width throughout.

LINEN. The cloth or texture spun
from the fibres of flax.

LINE OF DIP. In geology, the
inclination of strata from the hori-
zontal line ; it is estimated in angles,
and the direction of the dip towards
the point of the compass given.

LINES. In agriculture, these are
of great use to mark out the straight
direction of ditches, banks, hedges,
&c. In gardening, drills, beds, bor-
ders, &c., are made by means of a
line. It is usually rolled upon two
sticks, which are pointed at the lower
ends, and can be fixed into the ground.

LING. Common heath ( Calluna
vulgaris). It grows ver)' abundantly
on the barren hill-sides in England
and Scotland ; the woody stems
make good brooms and fuel, and the

T'

LIN

seed nourish grouse and many small
animals.

LINGUA. A tongue. In ento-
mology, an organ placed within the
labium, and serving the office of a
tongue.

LINGUATE, LINGUATUS, LIN-
GUIFOR.VI. A thick leaf, &c., shaped
like the human tongue.

LINLMENT (from lino, I anoint).
In farriery, a semitluid omtniciit, or
a soapy application to rul> u|)oii pain-
ful joints, sprains, tumours, &c. The
term is also applied to s|)irituous and
other stimulating applications for ex-
ternal use. Liniments are intended
either to lubricate or to stimulate ;
but in either case they can only be
regarded as topical applications, their
influence not extending beyond the
part to which they are applied. In
some instances thoy are anodyne,
and contain solutions of opium or
camphor in oil.

Linseed oil and lime-water form an
admirable liniment for burns. Harts-
horn and sweet oil for tumours, to
discuss them, or hinder suppuration.
Liniments with soap, hartshorn, and
camphor, or opium, for stiff and pain-
ful joints or sprains.

LINING. In building, any cover-
ing of an interior surface. The li-
nings, for instance, or boxings of
window-shutters, are the pieces form-
ing the backs of the recesses into
which the shutters are folded. In
doorways, they are the facings on
each side the aperture : to sashes,
they are the vertical pieces parallel
with the surface of the walls.

LINSEED. The seed of flax. It
is used for the extraction of oil, for
feeding cattle, and medicinal purpo-
ses. The method of raising the crop
is detailed in the article on Flax.
The composition of the seeds is by
no means well known ; they contain
from II to 27 per cent, of oil, 22 per
cent, of starch, gum, and mucilage ;
10 of sugar, and six parts of albumen
and fibrin. The oil is extracted by
grinding and pressing ; or grinding,
heating by steam, and pressing, the
hot-drawn oil being, on the whole,
best for painters, &e. The produce

LIN

of seed is variously estimated at from
10 to 30 bushels, according to the
richness of the soil ; the latter quan-
tity will furnish 385 |)ounds of oil the
acre, leaving 69 per cent, of cake or
refuse after pressure. The bushel of
seed weighs from 50 to 52 pounds,
and yields a quarter of oil

The entire seed, when defective,
is sometimes used as provender ; it
is exceedingly fattening, and in all
respects strong food ; but the meal
and cake are belter. The seed are
also boiled or steeped in boiling wa-
ter for the mucilage they afford ; it
is mixed with hay, and used at the
rate of three pounds daily for an ox ;
rather less meal is necessary, but the
refuse cake is more strengthening
and economical.

LINSEED CAKE. The refuse of
linseed after expression. According
to Payen, it still contains 9 per cent,
of fattening matters, and 5 2 per cent,
nitrogen ; equal to nearly 32 per cent,
of albumen. 22 lbs. are equal, in nu-
tritious value, with 100 of prime hay.
It is, for the most part, used to fatten
cattle ; four or five pounds of the cake,
broken into powder, and either boil-
ed or steeped in hot water, are mi.xed
along with hay and cut straw. The
quantity of oil it contains renders it
very fattening, at the same time that
the albumen makes it strengthening.
Some persons use linseed oil with
hay and meal, adding a quart of oil to
a bushel of bean, oat, or other meal.

LINSEED JELLY or MUCIL-
AGE. This is made by boding six
quarts of water on one quart of the
seed for ten minutes. It is of great
use in the cough of animals, and
forms a good provender for calves.

LINSEED MEAL. Ground lin
seed.

LINSEED OIL. For commercial
purposes it is nearly always hot-
drawn. It forms a drying oil when
boiled with white-lead or sugar of
lead, and is much used by painters
and others. It is an excellent pur-
gative for cattle. Sheep and calves
require 2 to 3 oz., oxen 16 oz , and
horses 16 to 24 oz. ; but castor oil, in
smaller doses, is equally serviceable.
463

LIG

LIT

LINT. The staple of flax, hemp,
and other textile plants. The scra-
pings from pieces of linen, of great
use in dressing wounds and stopping
slight haemorrhages.

LINTEL. A horizontal timber or
stone over a door, window, or other
opening, which sustains the weight
above.

LIP. Labcllum. In botany, the
divisions of a monopetalous corolla,
as the sage, mint, &c. It is divided
into an upper and lower lip.

LIPPED AND HARLED. A wall
built without mortar, but afterward
having the joints filled with mortar,
and the whole rough-cast or harled.

LIQUEFACTION. Melting, fu-
sion, converting bodies into the fluid
state, solution.

LIQUID MANURES. Manures
applied in a soluble state, especially
stable urine. A watering cart is used
to diffuse it. They are especially of
servit-e to produce rapid growth in
young plants, and serve for steeps.
In very dry seasons manures may
also be applied in this state ; but
when added any length of time be-
fore the plants there is a great loss
by drainage ; and the expense of ap-
plication must always be heavy. The
liquid soaked into peat, charcoal, &c.,
and added, as a top-dressing, during
moist or wet weather, appears to be
much preferred in the United States,
and to be more economical. See
Urine.

LIQUORICE. GhjcyrrUza glabra

(Fig.). Officinal liquorice. This is a
leguminous herb, with perennial
roots, which grow to a great length,
and contain a peculiar sugar, with mu-
cilage. The roots are used in coughs,
or an extract, made by boiling, and
called Spanish juice, liquorice, Ponte-
fract lozenges, &c. It requires a
deep sandy loam, and is best propa-
gated from root slips containing an
eye. The root is raised in the third
year, in November, and sold fresh,
or made into extract ; the small roots
are ground into powder. The ex-
pense of digging is considerable. A
fair crop is 1800 to 2000 lbs. The
root is extensively raised in Italy and
Spain, to manufacture into the com-
mercial extract (liquorice). It also
grows well in England.

A species of Glycyrrhiza (lepidvta)
is indigenous to Missouri, and produ-
ces fair roots.

LIQUORICE SUGAR. See Gly-
cyrrhizine.

LIQUORICE, WILD. Galium cir-
cazans. The leaves have the taste
of liquorice.

LIQUOR AMNIOS. The fluid sur-
rounding the foetus in its mother's
womb. In botany, a fluid contained
in the nucleus of the ovule, and sup-
posed to nourish the embryo. It is
absorbed during the ripening of the
seed, sometimes leaving behind a del-
icate sack only.

LIQUOR AMMONLE. Solution
of ammoniacal gas in water.

LIQUOR OF FLINTS. A solu-
tion of silicate of potash, made by fu-
sing three parts carbonate of potash
with one of sand.

LIRELLA. In lichens, a linear
shield, with a furrow in the centre.

LITHARGE. An impure fused
protoxide of lead. It is used for
some plasters.

LITHIA. A rare alkali, resem-
bling potash. It corrodes platinum,

LITHIUM. The metal of lithia ;
equiv. 10. Lithia is the protoxide.

LITHIC ACID. Uric acid.

LITHOLOGICAL (from lidog, a
stone, and /lO^of, a discourse). Re-
lating to the structure, characters,
&c., of minerals or stones.

464

LIT

h\V

LITHOMARGE. A kind of de-
composed clay slate; sp. gr., 2-43:
ye'.lowisli-gray or bluish, soft, adhe-
sive to the tongue, greasy earthy,
opaque, giving a shining streak. A
variety consists of scaly, glimmering
particles.

LITHONTRIPTICS (from /uOoc,
bnd rpiftcj, I wear awai/). Remedies
which are supposed to dissolve stones
in the bladder. .Many bodies have
been recommended for this purpose,
but none have given remarkable re-
sults. An abundance of water acid-
ulated with carbonic acid is the best.

LITHOTO.MY (from Z/0of, and
Tsuvu, I cut). The operation of cut-
ting through the perinccum into the
bladder to extract a stone.

LITHROTRITY (from ?u9oc, and
TEipcj, I break down). The operation
of introducing an instrument into the
bladder through the natural passage,
to crush and break to small pieces a
stone.

LITMUS. Turnsole. A blue col-
our prepared from a lichen (Rocdla
tarlarea), and used in the arts {archil)
ami in chemistry. Solution of lit-
mus, or paper stained thereby, is of
great use m detecting any acidity in
a fluid, the blue changing rapidly into
red by the acid. Alkaline mixtures
restore the paper so reddened. Both
blue and reddened litmus paper are
extensively used in the laboratory.

LITRE. The French standard
measure of capacity in the decimal
system. The litre is a cubic decime-
tre ; that is, a cube, each of the sides
of which are 3-937 inches ; it con-
tains 61 028 English cubic inches,
and is, therefore, rather less than our
quart. Four and a half litres are a
close approach to the imperial gallon.

LITTER. The straw, weeds, or
other dry substances which are pla-
ced under horses and cattle in the
stables, cow-houses, farm-yards, pig-
geries, &c., for the purpose of keep-
ing the animals clean and warm, and
providing a supply of manure. In
this last view, all sorts of dry mate-
rials should be carefully collected and
stacked up for winter use.

LITTORAL, LITTORALIS (from

litus, the seashore). Of the seashore
Littoral formations, in geology, are
such as have evidently been ancient
sea beaches.

LIVE OAK. Quercus virens. Ev
ergreen swamp oak of Florida.

LIVER. A large gland or viscus,
placed, in quadrupeds, on the right
side of the body, immediately under
the chest, and adjoining the stomach
It is saturated with blood-vessels,
and separates the bile from blood.
The bile is stored up in a small bag,
called the gall-bladder, and thrown
from hence, during digestion, into the
small intestines, to be mixed with the
chyme. The function of the liver is
of the first consequence to health ;
but it is readily impaired, especially
in damp, foggy places, subject to ague
and bilious fevers. Its action, when
insufficient, is rapidly stimulated by
the use of calomel. Jaundice and
yellowness of the white of the eye
indicate disturbance of the liver.

LIVER OF SULPHUR. A brown-
ish substance, of a t'oetid smell. Fu-
sed sulphuret of potassium.

LIVERLEAF, LIVERWORT.
Hepatiea Americana. An herbaceous,
perennial-rooted plant, of small size,
found on the skirts of woodlands. A
decoction is used in coughs.

LH'ERWORTS. The plants re-
sembling Marcantia, &c.

LIVE STOCK. The cattle, hor-
ses, sheep, and swine kept on the
farm.

"The live stock on a farm must
vary according to circumstances.
The number of horses or oxen kept
for the cultivation of the land and
other farming operations should be
exactly proportioned to the work to
be done. If they are too few, none
of the operations will be performed
in their proper time, and the crops
will suffer in consequence. If there
are too many, the surplus, beyond
what is strictly required, is maintain-
ed out of the profits of the farm. To
have the exact number of animals
which will give the greatest profit is
one of the most important problems
which a farmer has to solve ; what
may be very profitable in one case
465

LIVE STOCK.

maybe the reverse in another; and,
as a general maxim, it may be laid
down, that the fewer mouths he has
to feed, unless they produce an evi-
dent profit, the less loss he is likely
to incur. But this rule admits of
many exceptions. It is of great im-
portance, in taking a farm, to calcu-
late the extent of the arable land, so
that it can be properly cultivated by
a certain number of pairs of horses
or oxen. It is an old measure of
land to divide it into so many ploughs ;
that is, so many portions which can
be tilled with one plough each. When
there are several of these, it is useful
to have an odd horse over the usual
number required for two or three
ploughs, to relieve the others occa-
sionally. The work is thus done
more regularly and with greater ease.
Where there are two ploughs, with
two horses each, a fifth horse should
be kept, and so in proportion for a
greater number. The odd horse will
always be found extremely useful, if
not indispensable, and the expense
of his keeping will be amply repaid
by the regularity and ease with which
the whole work of the farm will be
done, and the relief which occasional
rest will give to the other horses.

" The other part of the live stock
kept on a farm must depend on vari-
ous circumstances. Where there is
good grazing land, the profit on the
improvement of the live stock, or
their produce, is evident and easily
ascertained. But where animals are
kept upon artificial food, or fatted in
stalls, it is often a difficult question
to answer whether there is a profit
on their keep or not. In most cases,
the manure which their dung and lit-
ter afford is the chief object for which
they are kept. If manure could be
obtained in sufficient quantities to
recruit the land at a reasonable price,
it might often be more advantageous
to sell off all the hay and straw of a
farm, and to keep only the cattle ne-
cessary to till the ground or supply
the farmer's family ; but this can
only be the case in the immediate
neighbourhood of large towns. In
the country at a greater distance no
466

manure can be purchased ; it must,
consequently, be produced on the
farm ; and for this purpose live stock
must be kept, even at a loss. The
management and feeding of live
stock are, therefore, an important
part of husbandry. The object of the
farmer is, principally, to obtain ma-
nure for his land ; and if he can do
this, and at the same time gain some-
thing on the stock by which it is ob
tained, he greatly increases his prof-
its. Hence much more skill has been
displayed in the selection of profita-
ble stock than in the improvement
of tillage. Some men have made
great profits by improving the breed
of cattle and sheep, by selecting the
animals which will fatten most read-
ily, and by feeding them economical-
ly. It requires much experience and
nice calculations to ascertain what
stock is most profitable on different
kinds of land and in various situa
tions. Unless very minute accounts
be kept, the result can never be ex-
actly known. It is not always the
beast which brings most money in
the market that has been most prof-
itable ; and many an animal which
has been praised and admired has
caused a heavy loss to the feeder.
Unless a man breeds the animals
which are to be fatted, he must fre-
quently buy and sell ; and an accu-
rate knowledge of the qualities of
live stock, and their value, both lean
and fat, is indispensable. However
honest, may be the salesman he may
employ, he cannot expect him to feel
the same interest in a purchase or
sale, for which he is paid his com-
mission, as the person whose profit
or loss depends on a judicious selec-
tion and a good bargain. Every farm-
er, therefore, should endeavour to ac-
quire a thorough knowledge of stock,
and carefully attend all markets with-
in his reach, to watch the fluctuation
in the prices. It will generally be
found that the principal profit in feed-
ing stock is the manure ; and to this
the greatest attention should be di-
rected. A little management will
often greatly increase both the quan-
tity and quality of this indispensable

LOG

substance, and make all the difference
between a loss and a profit in the
keeping of stock.'" — (IF. L. Rham.)

LIXJVIATION. The process of
washing out the soluble from the in-
soluble portions- of mineral substan-
ces, as in making lye ; hence, Uziviiim
means a lye or alkaline solution.

LIZARDS. Lacertiil(P, Lacertians.
These reptiles are perfectly harmless,
and of great utility to the farmer from
the insects which they devour.

LOAD. A vague measure ; it is
better understood when divided into
one, two, or three horse loads. A
single horse load is generally estima-
ted at thirty bushels, one cubic yard,
or one ton by weight.

LOAM. A very vague term, mean-
ing a good soil, neither too light nor
too stiff, and generally containing a
large proportion of vegetable matter
and clay. In Prof. Johnston's lec-
tures, a loam is represented as a soil
containing 30 to 60 per cent, of sand,
the rest being clay, limestone, or ve-
getable matter : a clay loam contains
but 20 to 30 per cent, sand, and a
sandy loam upward of 60 per cent,
sand. This word is often improper-
ly written loom, and applied to a fria-
ble rich soil, containing much decay-
ing vegetable matter.

LOBBY. An anteroom or hall.

LOBATE, LOBED. Divided into
large curved segments more or less
circular.

LOBELIA. A genus of plants con-
taining many very poisonous species,
as the Indian tobacco (L. inflata),
which is of use in asthmas, and as an
emetic. They are pretty herbaceous
plants, with perennial roots, and oft-
en cultivated for their beauty.

LOBLOLLY BAY, or HOLLY
BAY. Gordonia laxianlhus. A large
Southern evergreen found growing in
swamps, producing large white flow-
ers. The wood is rosy, but light and
brittle ; the bark is extensively used
in tanning in the Southeastern States.
It very much resembles the magnolia.

LOBLOLLY PINE. The old field
pine {Piniix l(F(1a).

LOCKED JAW. Tetanus, tris-
mus. A consequence of injuries about

LOG

the feet, worms, or severe nervous
diseases ; the muscles become rigid,
and finally locked jaw supervenes.
When it arises from a wound or la-
ceration, the case is usually hopeless ;
when it is a disease {telanus), large
doses of opium are found to do most
good, with the removal of all causes
of irritation. The strength must be
sustained by injections of broths and
soups.

LOCKING WHEELS. Hindering
the rolling of one or more wheels in
descending steep hills. It is done
by fastening a chain from the body
of the wagon to the spokes of the
wheel, or by levers or a drag.

LOCOMOTION (from loci motio).
Change of place.

LOCULAR (from locus, a place).
A cell or division in a fruit ; thus,
fruits are unilocular, bilocular, &c.

LOCULICIDAL. A terra desig-
nating the bursting (dehiscence) of a
seed vessel along the back suture.

LOCUSTA. The inflorescence re-
sembling the spike, but occurring in
grasses, the flowers having no caly-
ces, but bracts onlv.

LOCUST BORER. Clytus pictus.
Found on the trees in September ;
it is velvet black, adorned with trans-
verse yellow bands ; the eggs are
snow-white, and deposited in the
crevices of the bark : the grubs are
soon hatched, and bore into the ten-
der wood, where they commit great
havoc until the next year. White-
washing, washing with whale oil
soap solution, spirits of turpentine,
and catching the beetles, are to be
adopted as preventives, otherwise the
trees are rapidlv killed by these borers.

LOCUST, HONEY. See Honey
Locust.

LOCUSTS. Cicadeee. Insects of
the grasshopper family. The per-
fect msects are very short-lived, but
the larvffi are long-lived ; one species
{Cicada scptcndccim) existing in that
state in the earth for seventeen years
or thereabout. The perfect insect
bores the young twigs of trees to de-
posite its eggs, and thereby does much
mischief to orchards and forests. The
harvest, or dry fly, is the C. canicularis.
467

LOG

LCD

These locusts are in no way simi-
lar to the destructive insects which
occasionally devastate the east shores
of the Mediterranean and Southern
Europe {Gnjllus (acri/dium) migrato-
rius), producing famine from their
ravages on the grain crops, and pes-
tilence by the decay of their bod-
ies. The immense numbers of this
large grasshopper which move for-
ward over whole nations is almost
incredible ; they appear like dense
black clouds, sometimes hundreds of
miles in extent, and emit, during
flight, a loud, sharp noise.

LOCUST-TREE. Rohinia fseuda-
cacia. Sometimes improperly called
the Acacia. This is a highly orna-
mental tree of the leguminous family,
and of rapid growth while small. The
seeds are usually rather imperfect,
and the safest method of propagation
is by suckers obtained from trees cut
down, the soil being ploughed for the
purpose of dividing the roots. The
seeds propagate more certainly if im-
mersed in boiling water before plant-
ing.— {Bard). The following particu-
lars from Dr. Ackerly may be accept-
able :

" I was led to admire Judge Mitch-
ell's nursery of young locust-trees,
planted in the spring.

"The judge took a quantity of
seed collected on Long Island, and
put it in an earthen pitcher, and pour-
ed upon it water near to boiling.
This he let stand for twenty-four
hours, and then decanted it, and se-
lected all the seeds that were any
ways swelled by this application of
heat and moisture. To the remain-
der he made a second libation of hot
water, and let it remain also twenty-
four hours, and then made a second
selection of the swelled seeds. This
was repeated a third time on the un-
changed ones, when nearly all were
swelled, and then he prepared the
ground and planted them. He plant-
ed the seeds in drills about four feet
apart, and in eight or ten days they
were all above ground, and came up
as regular as beans, or any other
seeds that are cultivated in gar-
dens. When I saw them, the mid-
468

die of July, they were about a foot
high, all thrifty, and of a good colour
and condition.

" It is the judge's intention to
leave them in their present situation
about three years, .and then trans-
plant ; and provided he does not mu-
tilate the roots in removing them,
they will bear transplanting, live, and
thrive, and be the most productive
forest-tree that a farm can have.
This method of preparing the seeds
and planting the locust cannot be too
warmly recommended to the farming
interest. On Long Island, where
fencing timber is growing scarce, the
cultivation of the locust-tree is of
great moment. In the centre of the
island, on and about Hempstead
plains, where there is no timber at
ail, it must be a most valuable acqui-
sition ; and from the trials made in
raising it from the seed, all difficulty
must be removed to its extensive
cultivation.

"After this account was written.
Judge Mitchell transplanted the young
trees referred to on a side hill of
waste ground, which had lain for many
years uncultivated, and his farm was
soon improved by the addition of a
large grove of valuable locust-trees
in the most thrifty condition.

" When planted out from the nur-
sery the young trees must be pro-
tected from cattle, which are fond of
the buds."

The locust yields a timber of great
solidity and durability ; it is also re-
markably tougli, and resists the ac-
tion of moisture; hence it is of great
value for posts, piles, and shipping.
It is somewhat cultivated, and prom-
ises, on the prairies, to become ex-
tended for its utility for fencing, fuel,
and rapid growth. In the northeast,
it has been much injured of late by
the borer. Besides the borer, the
leaves of the tree are sometimes
stripped by the ravages of a large
green caterpillar, the larva of the
Eudamus tilyrus : the perfect insect
is seen among the flowers.

LODGE. A small house situated
in a domain ; the house at the en-
trance to a park.

LOP

LOY

LODICULA. The two minute
fleshy hypogynous scales beneath the
ovary of grasses.

LOESS. Alhivial formations. By
the English it is often used for a yel-
low loam, with chalky concretions.

LOG. A portion of the trunk of a
tree.

LOGWOOD. Hamatoiylon Cam-
peachianum. A small leguminous tree
of Central America and the tropics.
The central heart wood, deeply stain-
ed, from old trees is preferred : the
logwood bath is of gi-eat service in
the production of black dyes, browns,
and reds.

LOLIU.\L The generic name of
rye grass. See Grasses.

LOMEXTUM. An indehiscent
pod resembling a legume, but divided
bv membranes between each seed.
'LONG-HORNED CATTLE. "A
breed of neat cattle now nearly ex-
tinct, chiefly distinguished by the
length of the horn, the thickness and
firm texture of the hide, the length and
closeness of the hair, the large size
of the hoof, and the coarse, leathery
thickness of the neck." — (Johnson.)

LONGICORXS, LOXGICORNES.
Coleopterous insects with long an-
tennee, often longer than the body :
they are borers.

LONG! PALPS, LONGIPALPL A
family of short-winged beetles, with
the maxillary feelers {palpi) almost as
long as the head.

LONG MANURE. Unfermented
dung and straw.

LOOM. A corruption of loam,
which see.

LOOPERS. Caterpillars of the
familv Geometers : span worms.

LOOSENESS. Excessive dis-
charge from the bowels, flux, diar-
rhoea. See Ox, Horse ; and for the
remedies, Fharmacopceia.

LOOSESTRIFE. Small weeds
of the genus Lysimachia ; they are
wholesome. The creeping loose-
strife, or money wort (L. nummula-
na), is said to be a good remedy
against insects, when steeped in oil
and sprinkled over the granary floor.

LOPPED MILK. Sour, curdled
milk.

R E

: LOPPING TREES. The removal
of the lateral branches for profit. The
I lop of a timber-tree is a subject of
bargain witii the purchaser.

LORE (from lorum, a strap). In
ornithology, the space between the
bill and the eye, which is bare in
some birds, as the great crested
grebe, but is generally covered with
feathers. In entomology the term is
applied to a corneous angular ma-
chine observable in the mouth of
some insects, upon the intermediate
angle of which the mentuni sits, and
on the lateral ones the cardines of
the maxillare, and by means of which
the trophi are pushed forth or retract-
ed, as in the hymenopterous insects.

LOTION. An external wash : it
may be evaporating (spirituous) or
watery. Indolent sores require stim-
ulating lotions ; painful wounds, ano-
dyne lotions, &c. Lotions are also
used to discuss tumours and inflam-
mations near the skin.
I LOUSINESS. '-An affection of the
j skin, arismg, in cattle, from the irri-
j tation of lice or animalculee, which
may be distinguished by the naked
I eye. Most animals, and even insects,
are subject to this annoyance. Lou-
siness in live stock is produced by
neglect and low keep. The best rem-
edy is more attention to cleanliness,
with better food. The lice may be
killed by a dressing' applied with a
brush to the chiefly affected parts,
composed of four ounces of black sul-
phur, mixed with a pint of train oil,
or a small portion of weak mercurial
ointment."'

LOUSE\\"ORT. Pedicularis Cana-
densis. An insignificant perennial,
herbaceous weed ; the rattle.

LOYAGE. . Ligusticum lecisticum.
A perennial (biennial), herbaceous,
disagreeable aromatic plant, of the
family Umbelliferce. the seeds of which
are used as medicine in flatulence.
The seeds grow anywhere on a dry,
light soil.

LOVE APPLE. Tomato.

LOVE GRASS. A small grass,
ornamental, with pretty spikelets.
Eragrostis.

LOY.^ A narrow spade

469

LUC

LUBRICATION. Anointing with
grease and oils.

LUCAMA. A Chilian fruit resem-
bling, in size and flavour, a peach.

LrCANIU.E, LUCANINE.S. A
family of coleopterous lamellicorn in-
sects, of the stag beetle kind (Lm-
canus).

LUCERN. Mcdicago sativa{Fig.).

Grand trefoil, French clover, alfalfa,
Brazilian clover. A perennial, herba-
ceous forage plant of the clover family.
It forms a very long, vigorous root,
and requires a deep, rich soil, with
some lime, for cultivation. It is oft-
en cut, year by year, for six and ten
years, and yields, in three cuttings
each season, from six to eight tons
of excellent fodder, equal to the best
clover. An acre soiled will supply
three to four cows during the season.
It grows eighteen to thirty inches
high, and bears a jnirple flower, and
possesses all the good qualities of
clover in addition to its preference
for a dry, warm climate. Fifteen to
twenty pounds of seed are sown
broad-cast, with a few oats, early in
spring ; but the lucern does not reach
perfection until the third year ; the
land must therefore be harrowed and
rolled to keep down weeds. It is not
quite as hardy as clover. The vari-
eties of lucern are unimportant. The
seed is collected and hay made in the
same manner as with clover : but it
is best for soiling cut always when
470

LUN

the flowers first show, as the stems
i)ecome rigid. Sometimes the seed
is drilled in rows, at nine inches
apart, and in this way sooner comes
to perfection, and less seed is want-
ed. Like clover, it is much benefit-
ed l)y plaster of Paris and lime. It
will grow even in tropical countries
which are not too parched. On lands
where it is fully established, the soil
should be forked twice a year, after
cutting, and a top-dressing applied
every second or third season : it must
never be depastured ; eighty pounds
per day of fresh lucern is enough for
a cow, and produces an abundance
of milk.

LUCERN, ASHES OF. One hun
dred pounds green yield 2 58 pounds,
and one hundred pounds dried 955
pounds, consisting of

Sprtngel.

Potash 13-40

Soda 615

Lime 48-31

Magnesia 3-48

Phosphoric acid .... 13-07

Sulphuric acid 4-04

Chloun 318

Silica . 3-30

Iron, alumina, &c. . . . 0-60
95-53

From this we see why gypsum, lime,
marl, and ashes are so serviceable to
lucern. Bone-dust and salt are also
to be considered as manures for it.

LUG. A pole of land, 16^ feet ; a
vulgar term for the ear of animals.

LUMBAR, LUMBALIS. Belong-
ing to the loins.

LUMBER. Timber, especially in
the rough state.

LUMBRICUS. The generic name
of worms resembling the earth worm ;
some species infest the bodies of an-
imals. The earth worm, when not
too numerous, tend to improve the
soil by their castings ; when over nu-
merous, they eat the roots of plants,
and may be destroyed by a heavy
salting (twenty bushels to the acre),
or liming, with a surruner fallow.

LUNAR CAUSTIC, LUNAR
CORNEA. Prepared nitrate of silver,
sold in thin cylinders, and used as a
caustic .- it is one of the best caustics.
A solution is very valuable as a lotion
in some forms of inflammation.

LUP

LYC

LUNATE (from
Crescent-shaped.

LUNATION. The period from
one new moon to another, the synod-
ic revohition.

LUNGS. The viscus in which air
is received, and the blood changed by
its presence. The lights, pulmonary
apparatus. The substance of the
lungs resembles a fine regular sponge ;
they are so light as to float on wa-
ter ; the windpipe communicates with
every cell throughout the viscus
Common air received is changed in
the lungs by an absorption of four
percent, of oxygen and the substitu-
tion of an equivalent of carbonic acid,
derived from the blood. This oxy-
genation, or aeration of the blood,
taking place in the lungs, is one of
the great functions on which life de-
pends, and cannot be interrupted for
a minute without injury or death.
By this change, black venous blood
is changed into the scarlet arterial
fluid, which alone is capable of sus-
taining the wants of the body.

LUNGWORT. Pulmonaria offici-
nalis. An exotic, perennial, herba-
ceous plant. The whole genus are
pretty flowers, and readily propaga-
ted by seeds.

LUNULATE. Crescent-shaped.
LUPINE. Lupinus albus. An an-
nual leguminous herb {Fig.), cultiva-

ted in Italy and France to a limited
extent for forage and soiling. The

luna, the moon). I seeds are as large as a pea, and very
] nutritious : they were used as food
by the Romans. It grows on poor,
dry, light soils, but is finest on rich
loams ; the seeds are sown as soon
as frost is out of the ground, and the
plants blossom in May and June. It
is principally raised as a green fallow
crop, and ploughed in just before the
second flowering. Plants for seed
must be mowed when moist, as the
pods very readily burst. The lupin
IS considered inferior to other legu-
mens as fodder, but is valuable for fal-
lows, from growing on very poor lands,
which it rapidly enriches. Por this
purpose, there is no doubt the Com-
mon wild blue lupin (L. perennis),
turned in the first season, would an-
swer equally well.

LUPININE. A gummy matter of
lupins. Lupinitc, a bitter substance
extracted from the leaves of the lu-
pine.

LUPULINE. The yellow resin-
ous dust hanging about the scales of
the hop, on which its flavour and val-
ue depend.

LURCHER. A coursing dog, of
the greyhound tribe, with a shaggy
coat and pricked ears ; it is very
swift and sagacious.

LURID, LURIDUS. A colour of a
pale-yellowish purple, frequently as-
sociated with poisonous properties in
mushrooms and flowers.

LUSUS NATURAE. A sport
of Nature. Unnatural form in ani-
mals.

LUTE (from lutnni, clay). In chem-
istry, pasty matter, used to adapt two
vessels, or coat their surfaces from
fire. Clay, putty, dough, lime, white
of eggs, and melted India rubber are
variously used.

LUTEOLINE. A yellow crystal-
line colouring matter of weld.

LUTESCENT (from luteus, yel-
low). Yellowish.

LUXATION. A dislocation of a
joint.

LYCOPERDON. The genus of
pufl!'-ball mushrooms.

LYCOPODIACE.E. A family of
cr\'ptogauuc plants, growing in moist
places, and resembling ferns, but with
471

MAO

a higher organization, approaching
that of the Comfcnr, or pine-trees.

LYCOSA. A genus of spiders
dwelling in holes on the ground, or
in chinks, and pursuing their prey
with great activity. The tarantula
is of this kind.

LYE. A fluid saturated with pot-
ash or other salts.

LYME GRASS. See FAymus.

LYMPH. The fluid of "the lym-
phatic vessels. It is slightly milky,
but becomes pink on exposure to air,
and divides into a clot and fluid part.
It is the surplus nutritious fluid re-
turned from every part of the body
to the blood through the thoraric
duct.

LYMPHATIC GLANDS. In
anatomy, small masses formed of
contorted lymphatics, found in the
groin, axilla, mesentery, &c.

LYMPHATIC HAIRS. In bot-
any, the transparent hairs on some

LYMPHATIC VESSELS. Minute
transparent tubes, found in every part
of the body, and discharging their
lymph into the thoracic duct.

LYRATE, LYRATUS. A leaf
which is pinnatifid, but with segments
larger at the extremity than the foot
stalk.

M.

MACARONI. The dough of some
fine wheats drawn out into tubes.

MACE. The envelope (anllus) of
the nutmeg. It is of a pleasant aro-
matic flavour, and contains much but-
yraceous oil.

MACERATION. The softening
of animal or vegetable bodies by im-
mersion in fluids, either water, alco-
hol, ether, &c.

MACHICOLATED. With para-
pets projecting beyond the walls, and
supported by arches springing from
corbels or consoles.

MACHINE. In a general sense
this word signifies anything which
serves to increase or regulate the ef-
fect of a given force. Machines are
either simple or compound. The sim-
ple machines are usually reckoned six
472

MAD

I in number ; namely, the lever, the
wheel and axle, the pulley, the wedge,
the screw, and the funicular or rope
machine. Compound machines arc
formed by combining two or more
simple machines.

MACLAURA. Maclaura aurantica.
See Osage Orange.

MACLE. Dark or black spots in
minerals, supposed to arise from in-
terruption in crystallization.

MACULATE, MACULATUS
(from macula, a spot). Spotted.

MADDER. Rubia Unctorum (.Fig).

An herbaceous perennial of the familj
RubiacccB. The following account of
its culture by Mr. Bateham is the
plan pursued for five years by Mr.
Swift, of Erie county, Oliio :

" Soil and Preparation. — The soil
should be a deep, rich, sandy loam,
free from weeds, roots, stones, &c.,
and containing a good portion of ve-
getable earth. Alluvial land is the
most suitable ; but it must not be wet.
If old upland is used, it should receive
a heavy coating of vegetable earth
(from decayed wood and leaves). The
land should be ploughed very deep in
the fall, and early in spring apply
about one hundred loads of well-rot-
red manure per acre, spread evenly,
and ploughed in deeply ; then harrow
till quite fine and free from lumps.
Next, plough the land into beds four
feet wide, leaving alleys between
three feet wide ; then harrow the beds

MADDER.

with a fine, light harrow, or rake them
by hand, so as to leave them smooth
and even with the alleys : they are
then ready for planting.

" Preparing Sets and Planting. —
Madder sets, or seed roots, are best
selected when the crop is dug in the
fall. The horizontal uppermost roots
(with eyes) are the kind to be used ;
these should be separated from the
bottom roots, and buried in sand, in
a cellar or pit. If not done in the
fall, the sets may be dug early in the
spring, before they begin to sprout.
They should be cut or broken into
pieces, containing from two to five
eyes each, i. e., three to four inches
long. The time for planting is as
early in spring as the ground can be
got in good order and severe frosts
are over, which, in this climate, is
usually about the middle of April.
With the beds prepared as directed,
stretch a line lengthwise the bed, and
with the corner of a hoe make a drill
two inches deep along each edge and
down the middle, so as to give three
rows to each bed, about two feet
apart. Into these drills drop the sets,
ten inches apart, covering them two
inches deep. Eight or ten bushels of
sets are requisite for an acre.

" After Culture. — As soon as the
madder plants can be seen, the ground
should be carefully hoed, so as to de-
stroy the weeds and not injure the
plants ; and the hoeing and weeding
must be repeated as often as weeds
make their appearance. If any of
the sets have failed to grow, the va-
cancies should be filled by taking up
parts of the strongest roots and trans-
planting them ; this is best done in
June. As soon as the madder plants
are ten or twelve inches high, the
tops are to be bent down on to the
surface of the ground, and all except
the tip end covered with earth shov-
elled from the middle of the alleys.
Bend the shoots outward and inward,
in every direction, so as in time to fill
all the vacant space on the beds, and
about one foot on each side. After
the first time covering, repeat the
weeding when necessary, and run a
single horse plough through the al-
ii K -Z

leys several times to keep the earth
clean and mellow. As soon as the
plants again become ten or twelve
inches high, bend down and cover
them as before, repeating the opera-
tion as often as necessary, which is
commonly three times the first sea-
son. The last time may be as late as
September, or later if no frosts occur.
By covering the tops in this manner,
they change to roots, and the design
is to fill the ground as full of roots as
possible. When the vacant spaces
are all full, there will be but little
chance for weeds to grow ; but all
that appear must be pulled out.

" The second year keep the beds free
from weeds ; plough the alleys and
cover the tops, as before directed, two
or three times during the season. The
alleys will now form deep and nar-
row ditches, and if it becomes difficult
to obtain good earth for covering the
tops, that operation may be omitted
after the second time this season.
Care should be taken, when covering
the tops, to keep the edges of the beds
as high as the middle, otherwise the
water from heavy showers will run
ofT, and the crop suffer from drought.

'• The third year very little labour
or attention is required. The plants
will now cover the whole ground. If
any weeds are seen, they must be
pulled out, otherwise their roots will
cause trouble when harvesting the
madder. The crop is sometimes dug
the third year ; and if the soil and
cultivation have been good, and the
seasons warm and favourable, the
madder will be of good quality ; but
generally it is much better in quality,
and more in quantity, when left until
the fourth year.

'■'■Digging and Harvesting. — This
should be done between the 20th of
August and the 20th of September.
Take a sharp shovel or shovels, and
cut off and remove the tops, with half
an inch of the surface of the earth ;
then take a plough of the largest size,
with a sharp coulter and a double
team, and plough a furrow outward,
beam deep, around the edge of the
bed ; stir the earth with forks, and
carefully pick out all the roots, re-
473

MADDER.

moving the earth from the bottom of
the furrow ; thon ploiiirh another fur-
row beam deep, as before, and pick
over and remove the earth in the
same manner; thus proceeding until
the whole is completed.

" Washing- and Drying. — As SOOn
as possible after digging, take the
roots to some running stream to be
washed. If there is no running stream
convenient, it can be done at a pump.
Take large, round sieves, 2J or 3 feet
in diameter, with the wire about as
fine as wheat sieves ; or if these can-
not be had, get from a hardware store
sufficient screen-wire of the right
fineness, and make frames or boxes
about two and a half feet long and
the width of the wire, on the bottom
of which nail the wire. In these
sieves or boxes, put half a bushel of
roots at a time, and stir them about
in the water, pulling the bunches apart
so as to wash them clean ; then, hav-
ing a platform at hand, lay them on
it to dry. (To make the platform,
take two or three common boards, so
as to be about four feet in width, and
nail cleets across the under side.) On
these spread the roots about two inch-
es thick for drying in the sun. Carry
the platforms to a convenient place,
not far from the house, and place
them side by side, in rows east and
west, and with their ends north and
south, leaving room to walk between
the rows. Elevate the south ends of
the platforms about eighteen inches,
and the north ends about six inches
from the ground, putting poles or
sticks to support them : this will
greatly facilitate drying. After the
second or third day drying, the mad-
der must be protected frotn the dews
at night, and from rain, by placing the
platforms one upon another to a con-
venient height, and covering the up-
permost one with boards. Spread
them out again in the morning, or as
soon as danger is over. Five or six
days of ordinarily fine weather will
dry the madder sufficiently, when it
may be put away till it is convenient
to kiln-dry and grind it.

" Kiln-drying. — The size and mode
of constructing the kiln may be va-
474

! ried to suit circumstances. The fol-
lowing is a very cheap plan, and suf-
ficient to dry one ton of roots at a
time : Place four strong posts in the
ground, twelve feet apart one way,
I and eighteen the other ; the front two
fourteen feet high, and the others
eighteen ; put girts across the bot-
! tom, middle, and top, and nail boards
perpendicularly on the outside as for
a common barn. The boards must
be well seasoned, and all cracks or
holes should be plastered or other-
wise stopped up. Make a shed-roof
of common boards. In the inside,
put upright standards about five feet
apart, with cross-pieces to support
the scaffijlding. The first cross-pie-
ces to be four feet from the floor, the
next two feet higher, and so on to the
top. On these cross-pieces lay small
poles about six feet long and two
inches thick, four or five inches apart.
On these scaffolds the madder is to
be spread nine inches thick. A floor
is laid at the bottom to keep all dry
and clean. When the kiln is filled,
take six or eight small kettles or hand-
furnaces, and place them four or five
feet apart on the floor (first securing
it from fire with bricks or stones),
and make fires in them with charcoal,
being careful not to make any of the
fires so large as to scorch the mad-
der over them. A person must be in
constant attendance to watch and re-
plenish the fires. The heat will as-
cend through the whole, and in ten
or twelve hours it will all be suffi-
ciently dried, which is known by its
becoming brittle like pipe-stems.

" Breaking and Grinding. — Imme-
diately after being dried, the madder
must be taken to the barn and thrash-
ed with flails, or broken by machin-
ery (a mill might easily be constructed
for this purpose), so that it will feed
in a common grist mill. If it is not
broken and ground immediately, it
will gather dampness, so as to prevent
its grinding freely. Any common
grist mill can grind madder properly.
When ground finely it is fit for use,
and may be packed in barrels like flour
for market.

" Amount and Value of Product, &c.

MAB

MAG

— Mr. Swift measured off a part of
his ground, and carefully weighed the
product when dried, which he found
to be over two thousand pounds per
acre, notwithstanding the seasons
were mostly very dry and unfavour-
able. With his present knowledge of
the business, he is confident that he
can obtain at least three thousand
pounds per acre, \\ hich is said to bo
more than is often obtained in Ger-
many. The whole amount of labour
he estimates at from eighty to one
hundred days' work per acre. The
value of the crop, at the usual whole-
sale price (about fifteen cents per
pound), is from three hundred to four
hundred dollars. In foreign coun-
tries it is customary to make several
qualities of the madder, which is done
by sorting the roots ; but as only one
quality is required for the western
market, Mr. Swift makes but one,
and that is found superior to most of
the imported, and finds a ready sale."

The presence of calcareous matter
in the soil is an essential to the pro-
duction of good dyeing madder.

Madder is used in dyeing numerous
colours, as black, blue, red, olives,
and buffs, and alone forms the rich
Turkey reds. It contains several col-
ouring principles, the chief of which
is, however, Alizarine, an insoluble
crystalline, bright red body.

MADDER, FIELD. Shcrardia ar-
vensis. An insignificant weed.

MADDER, WILD. Ruhia ■pcregri-
na. It yields an inferior madder root.

MADEIRA CIDER. Mix new ci-
der with honey until it bears an egg ;
boil in a copper for one quarter of an
hour, skim, cool, barrel, and bottle in
March. It will be as strong as Ma-
deira wine in si.x months.

MADEIRA NUT. The walnut.

M A D I A. Madia sativa, some-
times called Gold of Pleasure, which
see. A composite plant inhabiting
South America, the seeds of which
yield an abundance of good table oil.
Boussingault obtained 41 per cent,
in an analysis, and 264 per cent, by
trie conmion press. It is e.xtensively
cultivated in Germany, is a summer
crop, maturing in 127 days from seed ,

in Alsace, and yielding 2500 pounds
of seeds per acre, or 635 oil, and 1700
of excellent oil -cake for fattening
stock. 'I'lie soil should be rich and
in good tilth, and the seeds sown in
drills in spring, and the young plants
kept clean from weeds.

MAGM.\. A thick fluid, or mud.
Thick, feculent matters from solu-
tions.

MAGGOT. The larva of dipterous
and other insects. The fly in sheep.

MAGNESIA. An alkaline earth,
very similar to lime, sp. gr. 23, the
proto.xide of ma<rnc.sium. It is spa-
ringly soluble in pure water, but unites
freely with most acids. Its equiva-
lent is 20 (or magnesium 12, oxygen 8),
symbol Mg. O. Calcined magnesia
is the true oxide, common magne-
sia being the carbonate, or mild mag-
nesia. Caustic or calcined magne-
sia is much more injurious to plants
than lime, from its retaining the caus-
tic quality longer, and not uniting
with carbonic acid so readily. It also
forms a harder mortar with water,
and is more apt to cake about the
stems and roots of herbage ; but mild
magnesia (the carbonate) is of ser-
vice to vegetation, being found in the
ashes of most plants, in all probabil-
ity replacing lime. The carbonate of
magnesia is slightly soluble, and, like
mild lime, is freely dissolved by wa
ter, containing carbonic acid in solu
tion.

The sulphate of magnesia, Epsom
salt, is the most important salt. Sil-
icates of magnesia are abundant in na-
ture, forming serpentine, soapstone,
&c.

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE.
Limestone rocks containing magne-
sia ; they abound above the coal for-
mation. As the magnesia is to be re-
garded as injurious when lime is
wanted for farming, its amount may
be discovered by the following means :
Take 100 grains of the rock, add four
times its weight of strong muriatic
acid, filter the clear solution, and add
clear limewater ; it will precipitate
all the magnesia as a white powder,
which may be collected, dried, and
weighed.

475

MAI,

MAGNESIUM. The metallic ba-
sis of magnesia ; it is bright and
white like silver : symbol Mg. ; eq.
1269.

MAGNETIC NEEDLE. A small
bar or needle of steel, fully magnet-
ized, and suspended or supported so
as to move freely over a card divided
into the points of the compass. It is
much used by surveyors to take down
the bearing of the fences and other
lines of a farm.

MAGNETISM. The electric fluid
manifesting itself on a metallic body ;
iron, cobalt, and nickel are the only
magnetic metals.

MAGNOLIA. A genus of hand-
some llowering trees. There are
about 15 native species, of which M.
grandtfolia, rising 90 feet, is the no-
blest. The 31. macrophylla, though a
small tree, produces magnificent flow-
ers and leaves. The M. glauca is a
favourite in Northern shrubberies.

M.AHALEB. A species of plum
or cherry, used as a grafting stock :
the fruit affords a violet dye.

MAIDEN HAIR. Ferns of the
genus Adiantum, a beautiful race :
the sirup of capillaire is supposed to
be made from a species.

MAIZE. Indian corn. See Corn.
MALACODERMS (from fia/MKOi;,
soft, and Sepua, skin). A tribe of soft-
skinned, serricorn beetles.

MALARIA. The poisonous exha-
lations of stagnant marshes and low
new lands, producing bilious fever,
agues, and plagues. It is most ac-
tive at nightfall and during night, and
may be partially avoided by remain-
ing at home at these times, and ta-
king care to keep the premises warm
and dry : the spring and autumn are
the worst seasons. Strangers are
more liable to the influence of mala-
ria than natives.

MALE FLOWERS. Such as have
stamens only, and no ovary or swell-
ing under the petals.

MALIC ACID. The sour princi-
ple of apples, oranges, and numerous
fruits ; wiien pure, it is intensely sour
and crystalline ; combines with ox-
ides to form mallates : formula 0$ H^
Oj + 2 H 0 : it is bibasic. By heat-
476

MAL

ing the hydrated acid, it is converted
into maleic acid and fumaric acid.

MALIGNANT. Rapidly fatal, poi-
sonous.

MALLEABILITY. The property
of being extended by hammering, as
in the case of gold, copper, silver,
platina, iron, &c.

MALLENDERS. A disease pro-
duced in horses by neglect and over
work, in which chaps or cracks ap-
pear on the inside of the fore legs,
near the knees, attended by a dis-
charge of a red ichorous fluid ; the
sores should be washed with soap
and water, and kept clean ; after-
ward they are to be dressed with an
ointment containing blue vitriol : the
animal is also to be kept quiet and
purged.

M A L L 0 W. The genus Malva ;
plants usually with perennial roots,
and abounding in mucilage : they are
eaten by all animals.

M A L T. Barley which has been
prepared or malted, by which sprout-
ing is induced, and the grain becomes
much sweeter.

MALTING. The process consists
of three steps : 1st, steeping. The
good barley is thrown into large
wooden cisterns, and covered with
water a few inches, being left for
48 to 60 hours, or until the grains
are soft, but do not yield milk on
pressure. 2d, couching. The steeped
grain is removed to a floor of stone,
and piled in heaps 12 to 16 inches
high ; here it first dries, and then
heats : roots begin to appear as the
heat advances; the couch is spread
and made thinner : the time required
is from 16 to 20 days, at a tempera-
ture of GO- Fahrenheit. Indry weath-
er, the couch is watered when too
dry. 3d, kiln-drying. As soon as the
barley is sufficiently germinated and
become dry, it is carried to the kiln
to destroy the vegetative power and
secure the sugar formed. It is here
laid three or four inches deep, and
kept at 100- Fahrenheit, till all the
moisture is driven off, the malt being
repeatedly turned, ^^'hen nearly dry,
the heat is raised to 160^ Fahren-
heit, until the grains become coloured

MAN

to suit the beer or market ; the fire
is then allowed to die out. The pro-
cess requires nearly two days. The
malt should he kept in a dry loft un-
til wanted : 100 jwunds of good bar-
ley will yield 80 of malt. The kiln, in
small operations, need be no more
than a room with a draught through
it, heated by the pipe of a stove. In
drying, the small roots break off, and
furnish the malt dust.

MALT DUST. It is sometimes
called malt combs, and has been found
useful as a manure or a top-dressing
when sown over the cereal grasses
in the early spring season.

The proper quantity of dust is, if
top-dressed, for wheat, 36 to 40 bush-
els ; if drilled with the crop, for bar-
ley and turnips, 30 to 34 bushels. It
is also eminently calculated for grass
lands, and if applied in the latter pro-
portion, it will produce a very con-
siderable increase of the best feed.
Malt dust is also in some places em-
ployed in the feeding of milch cows
and pigs.

M A L U S. The generic name of
the apple.

MALVACEAE (from Malca, one of
the genera). " A natural order of
mucilaginous, exogenous plants, with
polypetalous flowers and monadelph-
ous stamens. The species are herbs,
bushes, or trees, and are found all
over the temperate and tropical parts
of the world, especially the latter.
Their flowers are in many cases large
and handsome ; but the order is chief-
ly interesting from the Gossypium, or
true cotton plant, forming a part of
it. Another species is the marsh-
mallow, or Allhaa officinalis ; and
some yield a fibre fit for manufacture
into cordage." — (Lindlci/.)

MAMMALIA (from mamma, a teat).
The highest division of animals, with
developed extremities, a vertebral col-
umn, and mammsR.

M A M M A R V. Relating to the

M A M MILL A R Y. In minerals, |
covered with rounded knobs like small
teats

MANDIBLE, MANDIBULA (from
mandibiUa, a jaw). In zoology, this I

MAN

term is applied to the lower jaw of
mammals, and to both jaws of birds
(except by Illiger, who restricts its
appellation to the lower jaw in this
class also). In insects, it is applied
to the upper or anterior pair of jaws.

MANDIBULATES, MANDIBU-
LATA. The name of a grand section
of insects, including all those which
preserve their organs of mastication
in their last or perfect state.

MANDISC. The cassava plant
{Janipha manihot).

MANDRAKE. A fabulous root.

MANDREL. A revolving shank
to which turners affix their work in
the lathe.

MANEGE. The management of
horses.

MANGANESE. A black mineral,
the peroxide of manganese. The
metal is gray, brittle, and hard ; sp.
gr., 8 : not used in the arts. The black
oxide is used to obtain oxygen; it
consists of Mg. 28 -f- oxygen 16.
The protoxide of manganese forms
numerous salts, some of which are
occasionally present in the ashes of
plants, probably as a substitute for
iron ; they do not appear to be im-
portant. There is also a vmnganic
and per manga7iic acid, which are, how-
ever, without agricultural interest.

MANGE. " A skin disease, which
attacks several domestic animals, es-
pecially the dog, and which is at-
tended with an eruption and loss of
hair.

" In the horse it is known to exist
by the animal's constantly rubbing or
biting himself, so as to remove the
hair, and sometimes produce ulcera-
tion. The hair of the mane and tail
frequently falls off, and small scabs
may generally be observed about the
roots of those which remain. This
disease is seldom met with, except in
common stables, where scarcely any
attention is paid to the horses, and
where their food is of the worst qual-
ity : horses highly kept, if not prop-
erly attended to, are also subject to
this disease, which is very conta-
gious.

" The causes of mange are sud-
den charges of temperature, hot sta-
477

MAN

bics, baddiet, joined to want of clean-
liness. The perspirable nialter being
never properly removed by friction,
and being frequently mixed with dust,
&.C., completely plugs up the exter-
nal exhalants, whereby they become
obstructed, and a diseased action
takes place. It may also be caused
by infectious matter coming in con-
tact with the skin ; as when a sound
horse rubs himself against the stall
in which a" mangy horse has been
kept. The principal symptoms are
the horse growing very thin with-
out any apparent cause, attended
with a staring of his coat ; this is
soon follovved by eruptions, which
discharge a thick yellowish matter,
forming a kind of scurf, which peels
off, and is succeeded by fresh erup-
tions, and the hair falls off. This,
though partial at first, soon spreads
all over the body, is attended with an
itching, and causes the horse to rub
against everything he comes near.
In this disease, great attention to
cleanliness is necessary.

" In the horse, the following will be
found the best remedy. Bleed to the
extent of two or three quarts, ac-
cording to the constitution of the an-
imal, and after first preparing the
horse by bran mashes, give the fol-
lowing dose of physic :

Barbadoes aloes 6 drachms

Powdered ginger 2 "

Castile soap 2 "

Oil of caraways 20 drops.

Honey or molasses, sufficient to form
a ball. After which, give the fol-
lowing alterative balls : 2 oz. each of
powdered black antimony, powdered
nitre, flour of sulphur, Castile soap,
and anise seed powder, 1 oz. of rosin,
added to a sufficient quantity of hon-
ey to make eight balls, one to be giv-
en every night.

" The following ointment may be
applied externally :

Black sulphur 8 ozs.

Strong mercurial ointment . . 2 "

Soft soap 4 "

Train oil 1 pint.

"These ingredients to be well
mixed, and one third part carefully
rubbed in daily. If the above oint-
ment should be found ineffectual,
478

MAN

four ounces of spirit of tar may be
added.

"Dogs and swine are frequently
subject to mange. For the common
scabby variety in the dog, the fol-
lowing ointment is recommended :

Powdered sulpliur 4 ozs.

Muriate of ammonia, powdered . J "

Venice turpentine J "

Lard, or other fatty matter . . 6 "
Well mixed.

MANGEL WURZEL, MANGOLD
WURZEL. See Beet.

MANGER. The trough or crib
from which animals eat.

MANGO. " It is a very large fruit-
tree, inhabiting the tropical parts of
Asia, throughout all which it is as
extensively cultivated as the apple
and pear trees are in Europe. Old
specimens have been seen with a
trunk from 10 to 15 feet in circum-
ference. The fruit is something like
a nectarine, but more compressed,
longer, and more curved. It contains
a large stone, covered with coarse
fibres, which lose themselves in the
succulent flesh. The wild and infe-
rior varieties of this fruit taste so
strongly of turpentine as to be wholly
unfit for use by Europeans ; but in
the fine varieties this flavour is re-
placed by a rich sugary quality, which
renders it very delicious. The fruit
of the Mangifera Indica, a tree culti-
vated in Asia, is also called mango."
— (Brandc.)

MANGOSTEEN. The fruit of the
Garcinia mangostana., growing in Ja-
va and the Molucca Islands ; it is of
the size of an orange, and of a deli-
cious flavour.

MANGROVE. Small trees of the
genus Rhizophora, inhabiting the riv-
ers and coasts of the tropical world.

M A N H AD D E N. Clupea manha-
den. A migratory fish, resembling
the herring, taken in immense quan-
tities off the eastern and northern
coasts for manure ; they should be
made into a compost with earth or
peat : some apply them naked to the
land.

MANIOC. Cassava, tapioca.

MANIPULATION. The opera-
tions of the laboratory.

MANITRUNK, MANITRUNCUS.

iM.W

The anterior segment of the trunk of
insects, on which the head is placed.

MANNA. A sweet, giinnny exu-
dation of the ash (F. ornus) and otli-
, er trees, used in medicine as a laxa-
- tivc. Manna, dissolved in hot alco-
hol, and allowed to cool, deposites
a white powder (mannitc) ; this, al-
though sweet, is incapable of vinous
fermentation.

MANTEL. In building, the wood,
stone, &c., lying from one jamb to
the other of the chimney.

MANTIS. A genus of orthopte-
rous insects, with an exposed head,
long and narrow body, and wings
plaited longitudinally : they are vege-
table eaters.

MANURES. Substances intended
to increase the fertility of the earth.
They are usually divided into miner-
al or fossil, animal, and vegetable
manures, as they are derived from
these kingdoms ; but in this way we
gain no knowledge of their action on
the soil or plants. A better division
is into Amendments, or such manures
as improve the texture of soils, as
lime, marl, peat ; Manures supplying
elements deficient in the soil, as gyp-
sum, bone earth, ashes ; and, third-
ly, manures intended to advance or
stimulate vegetation, as putrescent
animal matters. But the greater num-
ber of manures are natural composts
that supply everything necessary to
the development of plants, in a more
or less concentrated form, as stable
manure, straw of different kinds, gua-
no, night-soil, &c. The manures are
treated under their separate heads, i

In the application of manures in- j
tended to remedy a defect in the soil, I
as gypsum where sulphuric acid is i
absent ; bone earth where phosphor-
ic acid is wanting, it may be econom- I
ical, by an analysis of the soil, to be j
certain that such a deficiency exists, '
otherwise our manures might be bet- '
ter applied elsewhere. But most of
our soils require good tillage, amend-
ments, and then natural composts to
increase the crop ; hence the values
of manures in the experience of the
farmer does not exactly coincide with
the theoretical value, and the amount

MAN

of nitrogen or stimulating element
they contain is in practice the best
criterion of their effects, the soil be-
ing in good order and tilth. Hence
Boussingault and Payen, practical
men, have constructed a table of the
value of all maimres, as compared
with farm-yard manure, on this basis.
The first column gives the kind of
manure in its ordinary state, the sec-
ond the amount of water it contains,
the third and fourth the per centage
of nitrogen in the dry and wet states,
the fifth and sixth the quality of the
manure in the dry and wet states, so
far as the effects of the ammonia or
nitrogen are concerned, the seventh
and eighth columns represent the
amount of the manures, respectively,
equivalent to 100 lbs. of farm-yard
manure, both in the dry and wet
states, so far as the nitrogen is con-
cerned. Thus we learn that 8 lbs. of
linseed oil-cake are equally servicea-
ble with 100 lbs. of farm-yard manure
in the ordinary state of moisture, &c.
(For table, see the following pages.)

The greatest improvements in ma-
nures recently made are their econ-
omy for different plants, or the sys
tem of special manures referred to
under the principal crops in this work,
and their application with the seed
or on growing plants, by drills and
other contrivances. The old method
of scattering immense amounts over
the soil a long time before the crop
is justly considered unprofitable.

The following table of the weight
of a cubic yard of several manures
is of some practical value :

cwts. qr3. lbs.

Garden mould 19 3 23

New dung 9 3 18

Leaves and sea-weed ... 90 3

Water 15 0 3

Compost of dung, with weeds

and lime 1-J 0 5

— See Farm-yard Manure.

MANURES, ARTIFICIAL AND
SPECIAL. These are compounds
prepared for sale to farmers, as arti-
ficial guano, poudrette, silicate of
soda, sulphate of soda, sulphate of
ammonia, soda ash, solution of bones,
saltpetre, and urate. Special manures
are those which are designed to ad-
vance particular crops.

479

MAMKES.

TAULE OF THE COMPARATIVE VALUE OF MANURES, DEDUCED FROM ANALYSES MADK
BY MESSRS. PAYEN AND BOUSSINGAULT.

-

^

Qua

ity «c-

Equivalent

s.

lUOt)f matter

ing to

according to

Kinds of Manure.

ts

>

stale.

state.

Remarks.

Dry.

Wet

Dry.

Wet.

Dry.

Wet.

FHrmyard dung.

mT

1-9.')

0-41

100

100

100

100

Average of Bechelbrono.

Dung wnter

a'j-6

1-54

0-06

78

2

127

68

Washed by the rain.

Whcnt straw

19-3

0-30

0-24

lo

60

6,'H)

167

Fresh, of Alsace, 1838.

Rve straw .

l'Z-2

0-20

0-17

10

42-5

975

233

Of Alsace.

Mem .

I-2-6

O-.W

0-42

26

105

390

95

Environs of Paris, 1841.

Oat straw

21-0

0-.3fi

0-28

18

70

543

143

1

Barlej straw

n-u

0-2 ti

0-23

13

57-5

750

174

Whrat chiiH-

7-6

0-94

0-85

48

212-3

207

47

y Of Alsace.

Pea straw .

8-5

l-9.i

1-79

100

447-5

100

22

1

Millet straw

19-0

0-9'i

0 78

49

195

203

61

J

Buckwlieat straw

11-6

0-54

0-48

27

1-20

3(il

83

Lentil straw

9-2

112

1-01

67

250

174

40

Dried potato lops

13-9

0-43

0-37

22

92-5

453

108

Withered madia stalks

143

0-66

0-57

33

142-5

295

70

Afler seeding.

Idem turned under while j

reen

70-6

1-53

0-45

79

113

136

89

Before seeding.

Dried broom

10-4

)-37

1-22

70

305

142

33

Stalk and leaves.

Withered leaves cf beet ro

ot

88-9

4-60

0-50

230

125

43

80

Of mangel wurzel

Do. of potatoes .

-f,0

2-30

0-55

117

137-5

85

73

Withered top and leavea.

Do. of carrots

70-9

2-94

0-85

150

212-5

66

47

Leaves of heather

7-0

1-90

1-74

97

425

103

23

Dried in the air.

Do. of pear-trees

14-5

lTi9

1-36

81-5

340

137

29

Do. of oak .

25-0

1-37

1-18

80

293

125

34

Do. of poplar
Do. of beech

51-1
:i9-3

1-17
1-91

0-54
1-18

66
78

134

294

167
102

74
34

> Leaves fallen in autumn.

Do. of acacia

53-6

166

0-72

80

180

1-25

66

Box-tree .

59-3

2-89

1-17

147

293

68

34

Branches and leaves.

Clover roots

9-7

1-77

1-61

90

402-5

no

25

Dried in the air.

Fucus digitatus .

39-2

1-41

0-86

72

215

139

46

J

Idem ....

40-0

1-58

0-95

81

237-5

123

42

> Dried in the air.

Fucus saccharinus .

40-0

2-29

1-38

117

345

85

29

s

75-5

0-54

135

74

Fresh.

Burned .sea weed

3-S

0-40

0-38

20

95

488

103

Oyster sliells

17-9

0-40

0-32

20

80

488

1-25

Sea shells .

0-05

005

3

13

3750

769

Dried sea shells of Dunkirk.

Mud of the Morlaix River

3-7

0-42

0-40

21

100

464

100

> Sea sand.

Trez of Roscofi' roads

0-5

0-14

0-13

7

32-5

1393

308

Sea-side Marl .

1-0

0-a2

0-51

26-5

138

377

78

Salt cod-fish

38-0

10-86

6-70

,537

1675

18

6

Cod-fish washed and

iress

2d

10-0

18-74

16-86

961

4315

10

3M

Dried in the air.

Fir sawdust

24-0

0-22

0-16

11

40

886

250

> Dried in the air.

Idem .

24-0

0-31

0-28

15

57-6

629

174

Oak sawdust

2rv0

0-72

0-54

36

133

2.56

74

S

White lupine seed

10-5

4-35

3-49

2-23

872-3

46

n\H

Tuscan, boiled and dried.

Malt grains .

6-0

4-W

4-51

251

1127-6

40

9

Grape husks

48-2

3-31

1-71

169

427-6

57

23

Oilcake of linseed

13-4

6-00

6-20

307

1300

33

8

Do. of colewort .

10-.-3

b-M

4-92

282

12-30

35

8

Do. of.-iracliis .

6-6

8-89

8-33

655

2083-5

21

4H

Do. of madia

11-1

6-70

5-06

292

1263

34

8

Do. ofsejanie .

6-5

6-93

5-52

304

1378

33

^M

Do. of hemp seed

5-0

4-78

4-21

245

1052

41

9H

Do. of poppy

6-0

6-70

6-3G

292

1340

.34

7>3

Do. of beech mast

6-2

3-53

3-31

181

838

56

12

Do. of walnuts .

6 0

s-.io

5-24

287

1310

.33

73^

Do. of cotton seed

U-O

4 62

402

231

1000

32

10

Cider-apple refuse

«-4

0-63

0-.59

32

147

309

68

Dried in the air.

Refuse of hops ,
Beet- root refuse .

730

2-23

0-66

114

140

88

67

9-3

1-26

1-14

64

283

153

35

Dried in the ,iir.

Idem ...

70-0

0-38

64

85

106

Fresh from the press.

Squeezed beet root

94 '5

1-76

0-01

90

2

HI

4137

Process of Dombasle.

Pot.ito refuse

73-0

1-95

0-53

100

131-5

100

76

1*01,-110 juice

95-4

8-28

0-38

425

94

23

106

.Settled and decanted.

AVater of the starch m-anufactory

99-2

8-28

0-07

425

17-6

671

( From washing in fourvol-
f unies of water.
Drainings from heap.

Deposite from the water of do.

80

1-81

0-36

92

90

108

111

Idem

1,1
86-9

1-81
2-30

1-.54
0-32

92
117

384-6
80

24
126

Dried in the air.

Solid cow diing '.

84

Urine of cows .

88-3

3-80

0-44

194

110

61

91

Mixed cow dung

84-3

2-59

0-41

132

102-5

7.3

98

Solid liorse dung

75-3

2-21

0-55

113

1-37-5

88

73

Horse urine

79-1

12-50

2-61

641

632-5

15K

15.S'

The horse drank but little;

Mixed horse dung

7.i-4

3-02

0-74

154

185

66 "

64

the urine was thick.

Pig dung

81-4

3-37

0-63

172

1,37-6

68

63

Sheep dung

ra-o

2-99

111

1.53

277-5

65

36

Goat dung .

4GO

3-93

2-16

201

640

60

18K

Liquid Flemish manu
Idem . . .
P.iudrette of Belloni

0-19
0-22
3-85

47-5
55
962

210
182

In the normal state.

T?!

4-40

225

44

Dried in the air.

Do. of Montfnucon

4I-'4

2-67

1-56

137

390

73

25l<<

Urine of public vats

96

17-56

16-83

900

4213

U

2''i

Dried in the stove.

Idem . . .

96-9

23-11

0-72

1133

179

8',;

56

riiin, ammoniacal.

480

MANURES.

TABLE (Continued )

Kinds or Manure.

Ss

Dry. Wet.

(Juality ac-
cording to
state.

Equivalent

according to

state.

Wet. Dry. Wet

Animalized black

Idem from the neiglibourhood >

of Pans J

Idem, called Dutch manure
Animalized sea weed

Pigeon's dung

Quano imported into England

Idem

Do. imported into France
Silk-worm litter .

Idem

Chrysalis of silk-worm
Cockchafers
Dried muscular flesh
Soluble dried blood .
Liquid bloud

Idem

Blond coa^Iated and pressed

Insoluble dried blood .

Dregs from Prussian blue mjxi-

ulactory . . . •
Melter's bones ,
Fresh bones • •
Fat bones, not heated
Drega of bone blue .
Glue dregs ....
Graves ....
Animal black of the sugar refiners
Sugar reBner's black .
Scum from the sugar refinery

Fijli-h black .

F-t;liers ....

* .-.v hair (lock .

^^'oAlle^ raga

H rn sh.-ivings .

' > il !ioot ....

^^^.od soot ....

6-:o

7t«
l.i-73
3-4S
3-71
8-99
13-93
I -1-25
le-aO

etable mould from In

111^ (terreau)

0-91
5-63

12-93
2-04

1901
1-38
8-0-2

17-til

15-1-2

15-73
1-59
1-31

071
1-03

I -84
1-36
2-40
8-30
6-00
540

13-93
3-»
3-1:9
1-93
3-20

13-04

1-2-18
9-13
2-71
4-51

!4-M

1-31
7-02
5-31
6-2-3
0-53
3-73

11-88
1-06

13-75

6-93
1.3-34
13-78
17-98
14-36
1-33
1-13
0-65

3-23
361
807

178-7

310-:

340

600

2075
1247
1349
3487
827
823
485

580
1128
371^

1754
1326
1334

IS3

933-3
•29693<5

265
3437

134
1733
3835
3445
4495
3390

337-5

21K
31>i

21K

i3v;

1-2>|

29K
16>£

2")^

2K
30>^

?«

Prepared for 11 moDth&
Recently made.
Made at Lyons.

( Dried in stove (fromM^^

{ .eilles).

of Bechelbronn.

In the ordinary state.

Sifted.

Dried in the air.

As sold.

From slaughter bouse*.

From worn-out horses.

Just out of the press.

Dried in manufactory.

Animalized with blood.

Dried in the air.

As sold by tlie melters.

Including 0-10 of Tat.

As sold by the maken.

As sent out.

From Paris.

5 From the sugar baiery of

\ Vigneuj.

Blood, lime, soot.

Dried in the stove.

^lAPLE. Trees of the genus Acer,
of which seven are indigenous to
America ; they are for the most part
natives of the North and Canada,
where extensive forests of the sugar
maple exist. The wood, though often
beautifully ornamental, curled and
spotted (bird's-eye maple) from the
sugar-maple trees, is soft, and inca-
pable of enduring exposure ; it is
therefore confined to cabinet uses,
and forms excellent fuel, yielding an
ash from which four fifths of the pot-
ash of commerce is derived. The
maples require a deep, light soil, and
become fully developed on rich allu-
vial plains.

The white maple (.4. eriocarpum) is
a Western tree, ver>' early, and yields
a saccharine juice, from which sugar
is made in Ohio. The red (A. rubnim)
is also sweet, and yields a handsome
wood : it flourishes on rich bottoms.
The striped or moose wood {A. stri-
atum) is confined to the most North-

em localities, and furnishes excel-
lent browse for cattle. The mount-
ain maple (.1. viontanum) is a small
Northern dwarf, of six or eight feet.
■The sugar maple {A. saccharinum)
abounds from 43° to 46° North lati-
tude : it often rises to 70 or 80 feet,
with a beautiful white bark. The
wood is highly ornamental. The
trees are tapped with a three-quarter-
inch auger early in March, at eighteen
to twenty inches from the ground ;
two holes are made in each tree, not
deeper than two inches within the
wood. Tubes of wood are inserted
into the holes, which convey the sap
to troughs or buckets on the ground.
The sap is collected each day, and
kept in casks until it can be boiled
down. All the arrangements for fin-
ishing the work are taken to the su-
gar camp, so that the boiling advan-
ces nearly as fast as the juice is ob-
tained. The boilers are of iron, of
fifteen to twenty gallons, and only
4S1

MAP

half filled. The process of boiling is
rapid ; and if much scum rises, a little
butter or lard is used to hinder it from
flowing over : the sirup is sufficient-
ly strong when a small portion gran-
ulates on cooling. The sirup is pour-
ed into granulating moulds, and the
molasses drawn oft".

Great care is necessary as the sir-
up approaches the crystallizing point,
to prevent burning ii ; as in such a
case, instead of sugar, only a black,
wax-Uke mass will be produced, bit-
ter to the taste, and unfit for culinary
purposes. The excellence of maple
sugar is in a great degree dependmg
on the cleansing of the sirup. To do
this effectually, the sirup, after being
brought to the proper consistence,
should be strained and allowed to be-
come cool, when it will be of the
thickness of good molasses. Into
this some albuminous substance (the
whites of eggs are the best, though,
where eggs are not to be had, milk
will do very well) must be thorough-
ly incorporated by stirring, while it
is cool, and then, when placed on
the fire, suffered to remain entirely
at rest until on the point of boiling.
The albumen diffused through the
mass coagulates by the heat, and
rising to the surface, brings up with
it all the impurities contained in the
sirup. If this operation of cleansing
is performed skilfully, the sirup re-
maining in the kettle will be pure li-
quid, free from specks, and when
crystallized will make a beautiful su-
gar. The skimming of the sirup
should be carefully kept from all ani-
mals, for, though nearly all are ex-
ceedingly fond of it, it is injurious to
all. and fatal to many. Maple sugar
is hard, of a light brown, with an aro-
matic taste ; it yields the purest re-
fined sugar, and is as good as any
variety for domestic purposes.

The sap flows of good quality for
six weeks, and afterward the juice is
only fit for molasses. A tree some-
times yields two gallons daily of sap,
containing a quarter of a pound of
crystallizable sugar to the gallon.
The sap rapidly ferments in warm
weather, running into vinegar in three
482

MAR

or four days. This may be partially
averted by adding a little lime-water
to the juice. Three persons can
manage 250 trees, and may expect
1000 lbs. of sugar, or four pounds from
each. The sugar yielded from trees
previously tapped increases. ;

In the Western States, sugar is !
made from the black maple {A. ni- ,
grum), the leaves of which are dark-
er than the Northern sugar maple.
The white maple, from the quickness
of its growth, has been recommend-
ed for sugar plantations as far south
as North Carolina.

Marasmus. Leanness., wasting
away.

MARBLE. Limestones with a
granular and crystalline appearance ;
they are for the most part primary or
transition. The colours and varie-
gations are adventitious, depending
upon the presence of other minerals.
Good marble being entirely carbonate
of lime, yields 56 per cent, of lime
when well burned.

MARC. The refuse remaining in
the press after expression of fruits.

MARCESCENT. Withering on
the stem, like the leaves of endogens,

MARCH. The third month, in
which the soil is yet frozen, hut gar-
den operations in frames should be
pushed forward, manures collected
and carried out, and everything got
in readiness for the start of vegeta-
tion. In the South, early grains are
sowed, and the soil is prepared for
the staple crops.

MARE. Female of the horse.

MARE'S TAIL. Hippuris vulgaris.
A useless weed, growing in wet,
sandy places.

MARGARIC ACID. The acid of
margarine, obtained by saponifying.
It IS pearly, insoluble in water, but
readily in hot alcohol ; fuses at 140°,
reddens litmus, and resembles stear-
in. It exists in human fat and nu-
merous oils : formula, Ces Hoe Og -}-
2 H O.

MARGARINE. The solid, white
fat of olive and other oils. A mar-
garate of glvcvrine.

MARGARITIC ACID. One of the
fat oils peculiar to castor oil.

MAR

MARGARONE. A product of the
distillation of inargaric and stearic
acids ; a white, pearly mass : formu-
la, C33 IIm O.

MARGARYL. A compound rad-
ical : formula, C34 H33 O3.

MARIGOLD. Calendula officinalis.
A composite plant, with bright yel-
low flowers, partially used in soups.
It is an annual, readily propagated by

MARINE ACID. Muriatic acid,
hydrochloric acid.

'marine salt. Common salt,
chloride of sodium, muriate of soda.
MARIOTTE'S LAW, BOYLE'S
LAW. The law which expresses the
constant relation between the bulk
and pressure of a permanent gas, the
elasticity or pressure being directly
proportional to the density, and in-
versely to the bulk.

MARJORA.M. Origanum. "A ge-
nus of well-known, pungent, and
gratefully aromatic herbs. The plants
are all of easy cultivation ; the shrub-
by kinds are increased by cuttings or
slips ; the herbaceous species by di-
viding at the roots. There are as
many as eight species, besides nu-
merous varieties. The species gen-
erally cultivated are the common or
pot marjoram (O. vulgarc), and sweet
or summer marjoram (O. majorana),
and bastard or winter marjoram (0.
heracleoticum).

" A light, dry, and moderately fer-
tile soil is required for their healthy
growth ; and if it is one that has not
been cropped for a considerable time,
it is the more favourable for them.
If the soil is wet or rich, they are de-
ficient in their essential qualities, and
the perennials are unable to with-
stand severe weather. The situation
cannot be too open. The sweet mar-
joram is propagated solely by seeds ;
the two perennials by seed, as well
as by parting their roots, offsets, and
slips of their branches. Sowing may
be performed of all the species, from
the conclusion of February, if open
weather, to the commencement of
June ; hut the early part of April is
the usual time for performing it. Por-
tions of the rooted plants, slips, ikc,

MAR

may be planted from February until
May, and during September and Oc-
tober.

" The sowing is performed eithei
in drills, six inches apart, or broad-
cast, in either case the seed being bu-
ried not more than half an inch deep.

" The tops and leaves of all the
species are gathered when green, in
summer and autumn, for use in soups,
&,c. ; and a store of the branches is
cut and dried in July or August, just
before the flowers open, for winter's
supply." — {Jo/utson.)

^IARK. The black dot on the cor-
ner teeth of the horse when five and
a half years old. It is gone, or rased,
when he is eight years.

MARKETS, AGRICULTURAL.
" The more numerous markets are in
any well-cultivated country, provided
they are at a sufficient distance not
to interfere with each other, and on
different days of the week, the great-
er saving there is of time and labour
of conveyance. Good roads or nav-
igable rivers are of great importance
to a market-town ; and if there are
mills in the neighbourhood where
corn can be ground, they will increase
the advantage to the farmer by caus-
ing a regular demand above what the
immediate consumption of the place
may require.

" The vicinity of a good market,
where every kind of agricultural prod-
uce will always find purchasers at a
fair price, greatly adds to the value
of a farm, especially if good roads
lead to it ; and the advantage is the
greater if it be a populous town, which
not only consumes much produce, but
from w hich various kinds of manure
may be brought by the teams which
have carried the produce to market.
It is this which so much enhances
the rent of land near London and all
great cities, and makes the agricul-
ture there approach nearer to horti-
culture, which entirely depends on
extraneous manure "

MARKING INK. See Indelible Ink.

MARKING NUT. The seed of
the Semicarpus anacardium, a tropical
tree, the juice of which stains hnen
of an indelible black.

483

MAR

MAR

MARL. A mixture of earths con-
taining a largo amount of mild lime.
It is clayey or arjjillaceous when it
has the mechanical characters and
touch of clay, sandy when silicious,
and calcareous when almost entirely
composed of mild lime : it is also
shelly when full of fossil shells. There
is one feature common to all true
marls, viz., effervescence with acids.
Marl may be derived from ancient
formations, more especially the upper
red sandstone, but is for the most
part of tertiary origin, or modern, be-
ing produced in ponds and rivers flow-
ing in limestone countries. The rich-
est shell kinds are best, as they con-
tain bone earth. The value of marls
is precisely as the amount of lime
they contain. When very rich, they
may be burned for quicklime, which
much increases their activity and val-

ue. Marls seldom contain more than
twenty per cent, of carbonate of lime
associated with sands or clay. They
are applied at the rate of fifteen to
thirty wagon loads the acre, and do
much good by altering the texture of
some soils, as when a clay marl is
applied to sandy lands. In some ca-
ses one hundred wagon loads have
been applied. They are chiefly indi-
cated where the soil lacks lime, or
may be improved mechanically ; but
being, for the most part, mineral com-
posts, marls arc usually serviceable,
and often extremely beneficial, espe-
cially to poor, sandy lands. Shell and
coral sands are of the nature of si-
licious marls, but more active, from
containing organic matter.

The following analysis, by Spren-
gel, gives the composition of sever-
al kinds of marl :

c

omposition

of MarJs from

I.uneburg.

Osna-

Magde-

Bruns-

Wewr-

Bruns- .:

bruck.

burg.

wick.

marsh,

wick.

Powdery.

Stony.

Clayey.

Loamy,

Powdery.

Stonv. ,

Quartz-sand and silica .

5-6

230

56-4

734

78-9

71 i

Alumina

0-4

10-0

8-4

1-9

31

4-0

Oxides of iron

4-2

1-9

6-7

32

3-8

6-5

Do. of magnesia

trace

trace

03

0-3

0-3

11

Carbonate of lime ....

85-5

35 0

J8-2

18-1

8-2

133

Do. of magnesia .

1-25

0-9

''3-8

1-5

30

2-6

Sulphuret of iron ....

T-3

Potash and soda, combined with (
silica . . . . . . i

0 05

trace

1-6

0-8

0-9

0-2

Common salt . • . . .

0-03

trace

trace

trace

01

trace

Gypsum

006

0-9

21

01

0-5

trace

Phosphate of lime (bone earth)

23

0-5

0-5

0-7

1-2

1-2

Nitrate of lime ....

001

carbon

Organic matter ....

0-6

20-05

100

lUO

100

100

100

100

The marls are usually applied on a
fall fallow, on the surface, and left to
crumble during the winter and spring;
they are also applied as top-dressings
to meadows.

The quality of any marl is ascer-
tained by weighing 300 grains of
strong muriatic acid into a flask,
and then 100 grains of the marl, add-
ing it to the acid carefully in pow-
der ; and weighing again after all ef-
fervescence has subsided, the loss
in the 400 grains will be carbonic
acid, and is about equivalent to the
amount of lime in the specimen, in
the ratio of 22 gas to 28 lime. Marl-
ing is particularly serviceable for clo-
4S4

vers, pease, beans, hemp, and pota-
toes.

i MARMALADE. A sweatmeat of
the pulp of fruit, usually of the peel

j of oranges,

MARMORATUM, In building, a

cement of pounded marble with lime.

MARRAM. The sea reed {Arundo

I arenaria).

\ MARROW. The oily fat filling
the cavities of the long bones.

I MARSH. A low, partially flooded
tract of land overgrown with coarse
grasses and sedges. The herbage of
salt marshes is often very good fod-
der, and regularly cut for cattle. They

I are frequently made available by em-

MAS

oankments and drainage, and consti-
tute fertile, wet meadows.

MARSH MALLOW. AUhcea offi-
cinalis. An herbaceous perennial, of
the family Malvacat, preferring moist
lands, and very readily cultivated by
seeds, slips, &c. It is very mucilagin-
ous, and is used in coughs as a sirup.
MARSH MARIGOLD. Caltha.
Ornamental water plants.

MARSH MIASM. The pestilen-
tial emanations from marshes, produ-
cing agues and intermittent fevers.

MARSH MUD. The scrapings of
rivers, bogs, and marshes often yield
a fertile mud, which may contain
much decaying vegetable matter,
marl, or other fertilizing bodies. It
i.s, therefore, occasionally added to
lands with great advantage, especial-
ly where there is much difference in
the texture of the land and mud.
That which is black and foetid will
usually be best : admixture with lime
will greatly improve it. As much as
twenty per cent, of vegetable matter
has been found in some specimens,
but as the composition is very differ-
ent, it is best for the farmer, while he
recognises the utility of marsh mud,
to make small trials with it first, be-
fore going to much expense in cart-
ing a quantity out. It may be applied
in the natural state, after being ex-
posed one winter to frost, or compost-
ed with lime, animal matter, &c.
Thirty or more loads are applied per
acre, and where a different texture is
to be given to the land, several hun-
dred may be used. The point to be
considered is the economy of using
such coarse amendments.

MARSUPIALS. Quadrupeds with
an abdominal pouch, in vvhich their
young reside, as the opossum, kan-
garoo.

M A R T I \ G A L. A part of the
bridle fastened by a thong to the girth,
and furnished with two straps carry-
ing rings, throuirh which the reins
pass. It hinders the horse from toss-
ing his head.

MARUM. Bitter, strong-scented.
MASCAGNIN. Native sulphate
of ammonia, found in volcanic dis-
tricts. ]
S s 2

MAT

MASH. A mixture in hot water.
A soft sort of diet occasionally given
to horses. It is prepared by pouring
boiling water upon a small quantity
of ground malt, bran, or other similar
substance, m a pail, so as just to wet
it well. After this has been done, it
should be well stirred about, till it is
thoroughly mixed and sweetish to
the taste, when, after becoming luke-
warm, it is in a proper state to be
given to the animal. It is frequently
used after purges to increase their
operation, as well as after hard la-
bour, and in the time of disease.
Mashes are very useful for restoring
animals in these circumstances.

MASONRY. The art of building,
especiallv with stones.

MASSETER. The muscle which
moves the lower jaw.

MASSICOT. Yellow oxide of
lead.

MAST. The nuts of beach, oak,
chestnut, &c., forming admirable food
for hogs, and often worthy of collec-
tion for winter store.

MASTIC. The resin of the Pista-
cia Icntiscus, extensively used in ma-
king varnishes. Also a cement used
in plastering walls.

iMASTlCATION. Chewing. The
reduction of grains, &c., into meal
by the teeth. Old animals require
this to be done artificially for them.
It is very essential to health that it
be properly performed.

MASTIFF. The large guard dog.
He has .small, drooping ears, smooth
skin ; is variously coloured, hanging
lips, large jaws, and is strong, and
very large.

MASTOID. Small knobs or ele-
vations on bones, &c.
MATE. The Paraguay tea.
MATERIA MEDICA. The col-
lection of drugs used in medicine, far-
rierv, &c.

MAT GRASS. Nardus stricta.
An insignificant Southern grass,
growing un barren lands.

M A T R ASS. A chemical flask,
with a long neck, used for heating or
boiling fluids.

MATRIX. A womb. A place
where anything is formed. The min-
485

May

ME A

eral in which motallic ores or choice ] viilla, and other plants. Perennial-
crystals are imbedded. rooted, composite herbs, overrunning
MATTER. Anything that has rich cultivated lands ; they should be

weight or sensible properties, as di-
visibility, impenetrability, extension.
It is organized or inorganic, element-
ary or compound.
MATTOCK. The pickaxe. The

mowed before flowering, and exter-
minated by cultivating hoed crops.

MEAD. A wine made by ferment-
ing one part honey boiled in three
parts water, and flavoured with va-

iron ends may be pointed or of the rious aromatic herbs, according to
figure of a chisel ; the handle of oak | the taste.

or ash.

MATURATION. Ripening. The
formation of pus in abscesses.

MAT WEED. The sea reed.

MAUL. A large mallet, or beetle,
to split wood.

MAW. The stomach. Maw shin
is the prepared stomach for rennet.

M E A D 0 W S. " Properly, low
grounds on the banks of rivers, which,
being kept moist by their situation,
and also occasionally flooded by the
rise of the waters, are best adapted
for the growth of grass, and are gen-
erally mown for hay.

■ \Vhen meadows are private prop-

MAW SEED. The small Poppy, erty they become much more valua-
which see. ble. The flooding is encouraged or

AIAXILLA. The jaw. In zoolo- . prevented, according to circumstan-
gy, it means the upper jaw ; in ento- ces, and, in many cases, artificial ir-
mology, the inferior pair of jaws. | rigation is adopted (see Irrigation).

Maxillary. Related to the if they are exposed to be too often
jaws, as the maxillary glands, ar- | inundated, they are protected by

teries

MAY. The most important agri-
cultural month. In the North, oats
being sowed, and the land manured
and in good tilth, corn planting is
commenced ; potatoes are also to be
set out ; meadows should be harrow-
ed where wanted, and manured ;
hemp and most crops are sown this
month ; everything is to be done out
of doors ; in the garden, cabbages, cu-
cumbers, melons, lettuce, &c., are
transplanted from the hot - beds ;
pease, beans, root crops, &c., sowed ;
spring budding and grafting are car-
ried on until trees are in leaf In the
South, tobacco is transplanted, the
young cotton plants are cleaned,
pease are sown in the corn-hills, the
sugar-cane is to be worked, and sweet
potato cuttings set out.

MAY-APPLE. Podophyllum pel-
tatum. Wild mandrake. An herba-
ceous perennial, growing in moist
woods, bearing one stem with two
leaves ; the roots are cathartic : the
yellow fruit, often two and a half inch

I dams and sluices.
I " The herbage of low, wet mead-
I ows is generally coarser and less
nutritious than that of those which
lie higher ; hence upland hay, as it is
called, is preferred for the better sort
of cattle. Good grass land, to which
the floods never rise, is often called
meadow land when the natural herb-
age is permanent, and frequently
made into hay.

" Upland meadows are very valua-
ble wherever there is a demand for
good hay. A considerable degree of
attention is required to make them
most productive. Not being annual-
ly recruited by flooding, they would
soon degenerate if some pains were
not taken to keep up their natural fer-
tility. This may be done in various
ways : the most obvious is to recruit
them frequently with the richest ani-
mal and vegetable manure, which,
being spread over the surface at a
time when showers are abundant,
that is, either early in spring or im-
mediately after midsummer, is wash-

es long, is acid and pleasant : it is : ed down to the roots of the grass.

worthy of cultivation. A rapid growth is thus produced,

MAY-TREE. The hawthorn. which is soon perceived by comparing

MAY- WEED. Matricaria chamo- the appearance of a meadow which
486

MEADOWS.

lias hern rnanuiPd with that of one
left in its natural state. It has been
asserted l)y many agricultural au-
thors tiiat the |)ro(iuce of hay is great-
er when the meadows are mown ev-
ery year, provided they he occasion-
ally manured, than when mown and
depastured alternately. But the pro-
ductiveness of a meadow depends en-
tirely on the circumstances of soil
and situation. A meadow, the soil
of which IS naturally of a rich nature,
and adapted t<» produce fine grasses,
may he mown year after year with-
out any perceptible change in the
quality of the hay ; while another of
inferior quality requires to be occa-
sionally cropped close, to check the
growth of the coarser grasses, and to
allow the finer to rise As to the
effect of taking off the hay by mow-
ing it, compared with that of the bite
of cattle, there is little difference,
except that, in pasturing, the grass
is repeatedly cropped close to the
ground as soon as it rises to such a
height that the teeth of the cattle
can sever it. It consequently spreads
by the roots, and the pile becomes
closer.

" The urine of the cattle greatly
promotes luxuriant vegetation in
rainy weather, but in hot, dry weath-
er it does more harm than good. The
dung, when dropped on the grass, is
of little or no value compared with
what it would be if mixed up with
straw, earth, or peat, or diffused
through water in a tank. It is there-
fore an excellent practice to employ
women and children to collect the
fresh dung in the pastures, and to
carry it to a heap of earth, where it
may be covered up, or to a tank,
where it may be diluted with water.

" Of late years the practice q{ soil-
ing has been extensively adopted ;
that i.s, all the grass is mown and car-
ried every day in a green state to
cows or horses tied up in a stable. By
this means all the advantage of mow-
ing for hay is obtained, besides an
abundant supply of rich manure,
which can be applied to the land in a
liquid and diluted state, when its ef-
fect ic powerful and certain. So

much more fodder is produced from
the land by the system of soiling, that
arable fields are converted into arti-
ficial and temporary meadows, in
which tiie different species of grasses
are sown, in order to he cut green or
made into hay ; and when, from the
nature of the soil, the herbage degen-
erates, the field is ploughed up again,
greatly improved by this change of
cultivation.

"When a natural meadow has been
neglected, and the grass is of an in-
ferior quality, and mixed with rank
weeds and moss, it requires much
care to restore it to its original fer-
tility. In most cases, the bhoriest
method and the best is to plough it
up, clean and manure it during a
course of tillage, without taking very
exhausting crops from it, and then
to lay it down again in a clean and
enriched state, by sowing the best
sort of grass seeds ; or, which is pref-
erable, by inoculating, or planting in
it small tufts of grass from some rich
meadow, which will soon increase,
and produce a new and improved
sward. But where the soil is a very
stiff clay, with only a small depth of
good mould over it, there is some
danger in breaking the old sward, for
it will take a long time and much ma-
nure to reproduce a proper covering
of grass. In this case it is a prefer-
able practice to scarify the mead >w
by means of instruments which do
not go deep, but only tear up the sur-
face. If this is done early in spring,
when the ground is moist, and the
whole surface is brought to resemble
a fallow field, good grass seeds may
be immediately sown. If rich ma-
nure, mixed with lime orchalk, is then
spread over the land, and the whole
well harrowed and rolled, the old and
young grass will spring up together,
and show a wonderful improvement
in a very few months. It is prudent to
mow this renovated meadow before
the seeds of the grasses are formed,
contrary to a common notion, that in
a thin meadow the seed should be al-
lowed to shed, in order to increase
the number of plants. The notion is
good, but it should be done by sow-
487

mi: A

MEA

ing seed which has been produced on
other ground ; for the ripening of the
seed tends to exhaust the soil. If the
grass be cut before the flower is fa-
ded, the roots will soon spread, and
produce a new and improved sward.

" It must be observed that it is not
indifTerent what cattle are turned
into the meadow after hay-making.
Horses invariably produce coarse
weeds by their dung and urine ; cows
may be depastured in autumn, as long
as the surface is dry ; but sheep are
far more advantageous, and may be
kept in the meadows at all times, if
they are not too wet for the health
of the sheep, and if there is no dan-
ger of their having the rot. As soon
as the surface becomes soft by the
autumnal rains, all heavy cattle
should be excluded : every tread of
a horse or cow at this time destroys
a portion of good grass, and makes a
hollow, in which the water remains,
killing the finer grasses, and produ-
cing rushes and aquatic plants.

" The meadows which are to be
mown should be shut up early in
spring, and those which are soft and
■wet should have nothing larger than
a sheep in them from November till af-
ter hay-making time the next year."

MEADOW FOXTAIL. Alopecu-
rus pratensis. See Grasses.

MEADOW GRASSES. See
Grasses.

MEADOW SAFFRON. See Col-
chiaim.

MEAL. The flour of corn, oats,
pease, &c. A meal of milk means
the quantity obtained at a milking.

MEASLES. A skin disease of
hogs. See Hng, Diseases of.

MEASURES. See Weights and
• Measures.

MEASURING CHAIN. A chain
of 100 links, or 22 yards, used in sur-
veying ; the link is 792 inches.

MEAT. " L Selection of Cattle and
Beef. — In the selection of cattle to be
sent alive to market, they should in-
variably possess fine symmetry and
small bone, carrying the greatest
weight of beef on the most valuable
points, such as rumps, loins, and
crops ; the back well covered, the
488

buttocks and flanks well filled up, and
the whole carcass exhibiting a ful-
ness of flesh, excepting the necks and
coarser parts. They should handle
hard and firm, in order to stand well
the voyage, and handle and look well
in the market. Firm handlers, wheth-
er heifers or oxen, always cut well
up. An ox or heifer of these proper-
ties, weighing 80 stones (stone of 8
lbs.), will actually realize more money
than a coarse ox or heifer weighing
100 stones. Heavy cattle, however,
do not take readily in market, unless
they are remarkably handsome ; nor
do very light cattle, under 40 stones,
for two or three months in summer,
unless they are really neatly shaped,
and thick on the backs and best
points.

" The meat intended to be sent to
the carcass market should be taken
from such cattle as we have descri-
bed. It is not large quantities of
lean and fat that are wanted there,
but both well mixed. Ox and heifer
beef of equal quality command ti\e
same prices. Rumps, loins, crops,
and other fine parts fitted for roast-
ing and steaks, are more in demand
than the boiling pieces, and realize
comparatively higher prices.

" 2. Selection of Sheep and Mutton.
— Ripe, compact sheep, of light
weights, carrying a large proportion
of lean on the back, loins, and shoul-
der, with a full, round leg, and hand-
some carcass, are admirably suited
for market. Such, from 14 lbs. to 20
lbs. per quarter, will take readily ;
but they are most valuable from 16
lbs. to 18 lbs. The nearer the form
and quality approach those of South
Downs, the more likely are they to
command the top prices ; for the
Downs have long been unrivalled fa-
vourites. Pure bred Leicesters are
too fat, unless they are sent young,
and do not exceed 20 lbs per quar-
ter ; when above that weight, they
fetch inferior prices.

"The carcasses of mutton to be
sent to market should, of course, be
those of sheep such as are here rec-
ommended to be sent alive. Large
quantities of fat are not so desirable

MEAT.

as a proportionable mixture of fat
with the lean. In using the loins
and other parts of very fat mutton
lor chops, much of it has to be pared
away, and sold i'or the price of raw
fat. The great point is to select
ripe mutton and sheep, for the latter
will stand the journey better than half
fat, and will not lose half the quan-
tity of llesh in three days as tiie lat-
ter. IS'o overgrown animals, having
masses of fat on one place and not
on another, would, therefore, com-
mand the top price ; but those having
plump carcasses, well mixed with fat
and lean, firmly and equally laid on,
with fine symmetry and valuable
points, will always command the top
price, both at Smithfield and the car-
cass markets.

"3. Selection of Lambs. — Lambs
are a favourite stock to send to mar-
ket, and they are always sent alive.
Leicester lambs are admirably adapt-
ed for the market. They are hand-
some, compact, thick on all the
points ; and although they might be-
come too fat when grown to sheep,
they cannot be too fat as lambs.
Their flesh is white, and every joint
of them looks well on the table. The
lambs of the cross between the Lei-
cester and the Cheviot and black-
faced ewes are next best for fat and
lean, and cut well into joints, although
they have not the handsome figures
of the pure Leicester. No lambs
should be sent to market until they
are at least three months old, and
have attained the weight of 9 lbs. or
10 lbs. a quarter; and if they are not
fat enough, and have not attained
that weight at that age, they should
be kept on. Ewe lambs are prefer-
red, being more delicate than weth-
ers, which are next in value. All
wether lambs, therefore, should he
castrated when a few days old, and
their tails cut short, leaving not more
than three inches. The docking gives
them a very compact form, and it
causes the flesh to grow up towards
the back, long tails giving a contrary
tendency.

" 4. Selection of Pigs and Pork. —
A very mistaken notion prevails that

pigs must be fat to suit the market.
The fact is quite the reverse, for
the larger the pig is fattened the less
money per pound it fetches. Pigs
are worth the most money when their
weight ranges from 3.5 lbs. to 40 lbs. ;
and from this weight up to 60 lbs. or
70 lbs. they are termed dairy fed pork-
ers. If, at the former weight, they
are of good symmetry, fine quality,
delicate and white in the flesh, and
not more than 1 inch or 1| inch thick
of fiit on the back, they will fetch the
top price of the day. Indeed, we need
not be surprised at this preference,
when we consider that only the small
lean and fat porkers are used for
roasting, chops, and pickled pork, and
the large, fat pigs are chopped down
for sausages. No pigs, therefore,
should be sent to market exceeding
100 lbs., exclusive of head and feet,
but which are only moderately fat
and of fine quality ; all other quali-
ties should be cured as bacon and
hams. Occasionally they arrive in
pretty good order in carcass ; but in
carcass, in thick weather, the flesh
becomes very soft, and the skin dry ;
and in dry weather the skin becomes
quite hard and brown coloured. Of
equal qualities, the live pig will draw
from a halfpenny to a penny a pound
more than in carcass. Feeders of
pigs should be careful on what they
feed their pigs, especially fish. The
retail butchers are such nice judges
of pork that, on buying a carcass and
cutting a slice, they can detect the
least peculiarity in taste.

" Cutting up Meat. — The mode of
cutting up meat is more diversified
even than the slaughtering ; but as
London is the great emporium of th^
export meat trade, the method of cut-
ting up meat in the metropolis should
constitute the particular study of the
shippers of meat. In the carcass of
any animal, an ox, for instance, there
are different qualities of meat, and
these qualities are situated in differ-
ent parts of the carcass. All the best
parts-are, in London, used for roast-
ing and steaks, and the inferior for
boiling, either in pieces, or making
stock for soups, or minced meat, in
48Q

MKAl'.

the various forms of pies, sausages, l into the following pieces, as may be
&c. seen on referring to the numbers on

"The carcass of an ox is cut up | the annexed cut {Fig. 1).

Hind Quarter.

1. Lnin.

2. Rump.

3. Itch or adze-bone.

4. Buttock.

5. Hock.

6. Thick flank.

7. Thin flank.

8. Fore rib.

"The relative value of these differ-
ent cuts of an ox may be stated at
their current value, namely, when
the rumps, loins, and fore ribs of a
line ox fetch 8d. a pound, the thick
flank, buttock, and middle rib will
fetch 6d. ; the itch or adze-bone, thin
flank, chuck rib, brisket, and leg-of-
mutton piece, od. ; the clod and stick-
ing, and neck, 3d. ; and the legs and
shins, 2(f. a pound. Such is the differ-

Fore Quarter.
9. Middle rib.
}0. Chuck rib.

11. Brisket.

12. I,eg-of-mutton piece.

13. Clod and sticking and neck.

14. Shin.

15. Leg.

ence in value of the different cuts of
an ox in the meat markets in London.
" As an object of comparison, we
shall also give a figure of an ox cut
up in the Xew-York method, as in
Fi^. 2, and the great difference be-
tween both methods may be seen at
a glance. It is from the American
Agriculturist. The prices are those
asked in the New-York market, Jan-
uary, 1845.

a b\c\d

liilL

-Vr

772.
1 S

The 01 as cut up for fresh ir.eat.

" a. Neck, for corning or mince I left in one whole piece, for large
meat ; price, 2 to 3 cents per lb. | roasts for hotels or public dinners,

"A, c, d. Chuck rib, for roasting [ and sometimes cut in two pieces only,
pieces or steaks. It is sometimes j If the animal be small, it may, for
490

MEAT

moderate roasting cuts, be divided
into two only ; price, 7 cents per lb.
for roasts, and 8 cents for steaks.

" ^' /> ffy ^' '■ ^fiddle or crop rib
roasting pieces, also called prime
ribs. They are sometimes left in
two or three pieces, only for the
same reason as the chuck rib ; price,
9 cents per lb.

";'. Sirloin or tenderloin steaks. It
is cut into thin slices, for steaks, as
wanted. Steaks should not be cut
to the required size until they are to
be put on the gridiron, as they thus
lose their juice ; price, 9 to 10 cents
per lb.

"A-. Sirloin roasting piece; price, 9
cents per lb.

" /, m. Rump steaks. The steaks
from I are nearly (perhaps quite) as
good as those of the sirloin ; these
pieces are also corned. If the steaks
be cut from I only, they are worth 7
to 8 cents ; if from I and m together,
6 cents per lb.

" n, t. Brisket, for corning, and the
finest corning beef in the animal,
when there is a full, deep brisket.
These pieces are subdivided before
corning ; price, 5 cents per lb.

"o. Shoulder, or arm, for soup and
mince meat ; also corned ; price, 2
to 3 cents per lb. It is sold, ordina-
rily, by the piece.

"/). Cross-piece, for roasting, and
also cut for steaks ; it makes a good
corning piece. From the cross-piece
is cut the shoulder clod ; cross-piece
is worth 6 cents ; shoulder clod, 5
cents per lb.

"y. Plates for corning. When
corned, it is cut smaller : price, 5
to 6 cents per lb.

"r. Flank, for corning ; price, 4 to
5 cents per lb.

"s. V. Thigh or round, for beef a
la. mode ; s, worth 5 cents, and i', 4
cents per lb.

" u. Navel, for corning ; to be cut
smaller before corning ; price, 5 to 6
cents per lb.

" if. Shank, for soup, or mince
meat, or corning; price, 2 to 3 cents
per lb., or sold by the piece. This,
as well as the shoulder or arm piece,
o, makes poor corned beef, and is

more economically used for soups ;
and, after serving that purpose, may
be made into mince meat or hash.

" Sometimes it is desirable to corn
nearly the whole of the quarter for
dried beef If so, m, s, and v are left
in one piece, / and w being taken off ;
/ is made into steaks or corned, and
ic into soup or mince meat. The bal-
ance of the thigh, consisting of m, s,
and V, is cut into long, narrow pieces,
from the upper part of the thigh down ;
they are broad at top, and run to a
point below. When corned, they are
hung up to dry and smoke, and should
be hung up by the small or lower end.
" e, f, g, are the primest roasting
pieces in the carcass ; next come c,
d, h, i ; then k ; then b. Many per-
sons prefer k, the sirloin roasting
piece, to all others ; but a true epi-
cure in beef always chooses the rib
cuts ; and of the rib cuts, the crop
ones are far the finest.

" The butchers ask most for e,f, g,
h, i, _f* k. They are about equal in
price ; but e, f, g are more valuable
for roasts, and h for steaks. Prices
vary according to the goodness or
badness of the animal ; as he may
be good in his chine and crops, and
bad in his loins and rumps ; or the
reverse ; or equal in both ; also, ac-
cording to the knowledge of the
butcher, founded on the fancy of his
customers. The highest price is al-
ways asked for sirloin steaks when
cut by the butcher. Next come f>,
c, d, chuck rib roasting pieces and
steak.s, and /, the rump steaks ; then
m, lower part of rump, p, cross-piece,
q, plate, and «, navel ; r, flank ; s,
round ; n, t, brisket ; v, lower round
or thigh ; a, neck ; o, shoulder ; and
ic, leg.

" We would respectfully suggest
to all our readers to follow the above
directions in cutting up their beef It
is the most economical, as proved by
long experience, and will avoid all
waste. It separates all the pieces
properly, so that the good and indif-
ferent are not joined. If a prime part
be left coupled with an inferior one,
and roasted, the prime only will be
eaten, and much of the inferior waa»
491

MEAT.

ted, or used in some other form, as
for hash or mince meat. There are
parts enough for those purposes that
ought not to be wasted, and should
not be corned. The roa.sting cuts
and the steaks require the juiciest
meat, with inlersporsod fat, making
what is called marbling or sparkling
cutting ; and the fat should not be in
separate masses, nor in great abun-
dance. The prime parts are all juic}'.
For corning, beef should be fat ; and
the proper corning parts have fat in
large, separate masses. If the prop-
er corning piece be roasted fresh, the
lean gets soaked with melted tallow,
and the roast is worthless. A\'hen
boiled, this does not take place. Ju-
dicious cutting is, therefore, of great
importance.

" Sheep and swine are cut up near-
ly in the same manner as the ox, and
have nearly the same relative value
of the different parts."

"Veal is cut up, in London, in a
different way from any other «rieat.
The knife is drawn between the but-
tock and itch bone, and through the
pope's eye, taking a sloping direction
through the coarse end of the but-
tock, leaving a flap. The piece thus
cut out is called ?i fillet of veal. It is
like a round of beef, with a part of
the thin flank left to be skewered
around it. The round bone is taken
out, and stuffing put into its place.
When the itch bone and hook bone
are cut from the loin, the piece is
called a chump of veal. The hind
quarter of veal thus consists of fillet,
chump, loin, and leg. The fore quar- |
ter is cut in the same manner as
mutton, having shoulder, breast, and
neck. In Scotland veal is cut very
much like mutton."

Jugged beef consists of the lean
parts of the flanks, salted, and dried
in the sun.

Curmg Beef for Exportation to Eng-
land.— '• Beef is uniformly cut into
eight-pound pieces, and cured, in all
particulars, precisely as pork (see
Hog), except a larger proportion of
saltpetre is used in packing. Beef is
almost entirely packed in tierces. For
export, tierces only should be used.
493

I "A tierce of prime India beef
should contain 42 pieces, eight lbs.
each, and weigh not less than 336
pounds nett. It should be made from
I well fed bullocks, and contain 32 pie-
j ccs of loins, flanks, ruinps, plates, but-
j tocks, and briskets ; 10 pieces con-
I sisting of four chines, two mouse but-
I tocks, two shells of rumps, two pie-
ces cut close up to the neck, with
j bone taken out ; no shins, thigh-
bones, or necks. To be well salted,
and capped with St. Ubes, or other
i coarse salt.

"A tierce of prime mess beef
should contain 38 pieces of eight
I pounds, and weigh not less than 304
pounds nett. It should be made from
! prime fat cows or heifers ; 28 pieces
of prime, from loins and chines, with
one rib in each, flanks, rumps, plates,
briskets, and buttocks, with 10 coarse
pieces, consisting of two neck pieces
(not the scrag), two thighs or but-
tock bones, with some meat to them,
two shells of rumps, two, or even
four chines, not cut too close to the
neck, and two shoulder pieces, with
part of the blade bone in them, well
salted, and capped with St. Ubes,
or other coarse salt. The tierces,
whether for beef or pork, must be
made of well-seasoned oak, with
eight wooden and three iron hoops
on each end.

" No pains to be spared in prepa-
ring and putting up, as the neat and
tasty appearance of the packages will
ensure a more ready sale than if put
up in a slovenly manner.

" It may be useful to see the mode
of cutting up the carcass of an ox in
London. The provisions exported
from that metropolis rule the trade
in the West India Islands, and ia
other distant places abroad. It is
very proper, therefore, that American
packers should understand the Eng-
lish methods.

" The relative value of the differ-
ent cuts of an ox may be stated at
their current value, viz. : when the
rumps, loins, and fore ribs of a fine
ox fetch Sd. a pound, the thick flank,
buttock, and middle rib will fetch 6(/. ;
the itch or adze bone, thin flank,

MED

mi:d

chuck-rib, brisket, and leg of-mutton
piece, 5d. ; the clod and sticking, and
neck, 3d. ; and the legs and shins, 2(Z.
a pound. Such is the difference in
value of the diffei-ent cuts of an ox
in the meat markets in London.

" It is well to observe that the
greatest attention should be paid to
making the brine or pickle, whether
for beef or pork. Pure water should
he used in its manufacture ; for the
sediment from that which is impure
will settle down upon the meat, and
give it a bad colour and a slimy feel.
Whether river or rain water is used
(and soft water sliould always be pre-
ferred), it would be exceedingly desi-
rable to tilter it through sand, or, at
least, to strain it. A great deal of
beef and pork is utterly unfit for ex-
portation by the use of unfiltered wa-
ter in making the brine.

'• In packing provisions, the tier-
ces, barrels, &c., should be made
with great care and neatness. Clean,
handsome ash staves are preferred,
and of such other hard, close-grained
woods as will not stain the meat.
Tierces should have four iron hoops,
or three — one at each bilge and one
at each chime ; barrels^ with an iron
hoop at each chime. The fuller hoop-
ed the barrel or tierce is, the better."

MECHANICAL POWERS. The
simple machines, the lever, pulley,
wheel and axle, rope machine, wedge,
and screw.

MECHOACAX. Convolvulus pan-
duratus. Wild potato vine. A peren-
nial, herbaceous bindweed, with tu-
berous root, of a slightly cathartic
property.

MECONIG ACID (from meconium,
opium). The acid with which mor-
phia is combined. It is tribasic, white,
crystalline, acid, and soluble in water
and alcohol : the solution turns red
when a per salt of iron is introduced
into it. Formula, 3 HO C14 HO,i-{-
G HO (Graham), with 6 atoms of wa-
ter of crystallization. Comenic and
pyro-meconic acids are derivatives.

MECONIUM. Opium. The ex-
crement found in the intestines of
new-born animals.

MEDIAS riNIJM. The portion of
Tt

the cavity of the chest made by the
folding of its membrane (pleura).

M E D I C. The genus Mcdicago.
The principal species is the M. sativa,
lucern. They are mostly small an-
nuals, with minute leguminous flow-
ers, are all very nutritious and readily
propagated. M. lupulina, or black
medic, is indigenous, but small ; M.
falcala, yellow medic, has been recom-
mended lor cultivation, and is hardi-
er, although not so luxuriant or suc-
culent as lucern : it is perennial.
They all prefer a dry, calcareous, 01
marly soil.

MEDICINES FOR CATTLE. See
PkarmacopcBia.

MEDIUM. In science, the sub-
stance in which any body is immer-
sed. It is called rare, dense, opaque,
or transparent, according to its na-
ture. It causes resistance to motion,
and, more especially, acts upon the
passage of light, bending (refracting)
It from its straight course. Astron-
omers are disposed to admit the ex-
istence of a very rare medium or
ether beyond the earth's atmosphere,
filling the space of our solar system.

MED L A R. 31espilus Germanica.
A European tree resembling the pear ;
the fruit is about two inches in di-
ameter, and llattened ; it is very hard
and austere until decayed, when it
becomes of a pleasant acid sweet-
ness. The Dutch and Nottingham
varieties are best ; but as the fruit
keeps only for a short time when
ripe, and is in no way handsome, it
is but little cultivated. The wood is
hard and tough, resembling that of
the apple and pear. It is propagated
in the same way as these trees.

MEDULLA. Marrow, pith, the
pith of herbaceous plants. The me-
dulla oblongata is the uppermost por-
tion of the spinal marrow, which is
sometimes called the medulla, and its
membranous coverings the medulla-
rtj sheath. The same term is used in
botany to designate the vessels sur-
rounding the pith of exogenous plants.

MEDULLARY RAYS. The sil-
ver grain of wood, a prolongation of
the pith of trees from the centre to
the bark, in exogens.

493

\

MEL

MEDULLARY SUBSTANCE.:
The whitp, internal portions of the [
brain. Mcdullanj tumours contain a j
substance of the same appearance.

MEDULLIN. T[ie pith of plants ; [
the cellulose of Payen, to a consider- !
able extent.

MEERS, MERES. Pools, lakes,
ponds.

MELASOMES, MELASOMA. A
tribe of heteromerous coleoptera, of
a black or dark uniform colour.

MELASSIC ACID. The product
of heat and alkalies on solutions of
grape sugar ; the acid of molasses.

MELIC GRASS. Mclica. A ge-
nus of perennial, harsh grasses, but
little esteemed. M. spccwsa is the
only indigenous species : it grows
near Charlestown, South Carolina.
Some species are made into domestic
brooms and baskets in Europe.

M E L I L O T. Tnfoliu m officinale.
" The melilotus, or honey-lotus of
botanists, so called from its smell, is
a tall, yellow-flowered annual. It has
loose racemes of small flowers, form-
ed like those of clover, of which it
was once regarded as a species.
The melilotus has long roots, and a
branching stem two or three feet
high. It grows wild in woods, hedg-
es, and neglected fields. "When cul-
tivated in a dry soil and made into
hay, it has a powerful aromatic smell,
and, mixed in a small proportion with
meadow hay, gives it an agreeable
flavour. This plant is used in ma-
king the Swiss cheese called Schab-
zieger. It is ground in a mill, and
mixed with the curd into a kind of
paste, which is put into conical
moulds and there dried.

" The white or Siberian melilot (M.
alba) rises several feet high, with a
strong, branching stem, often six feet
high. It was strongly recommended
by Tliouin, in a memoir addressed to
the Agricultural Society of Paris in
1788, and has been tried occasionally
with some success by various agri-
culturists, without, however, having
been so generally adopted for cultiva-
tion as might have been expected from
the high encomiums pas.sed upon it.
It will bear four cuttings in the year,
494

MEL

and produces a very great quantity
of green fodder. It should be cut be-
fore the stems become woody, and
thus it will continue several years in
the ground, although it is naturally
only biennial. A light and moist soil
suits this plant best. It is thorough-
ly acclimated."

MELILOTUS MAJOR. Bokhara
clover. See Clover. It grows nine
feet high, but becomes woody when
above two feet.

MELLIPHAGANS (from fic?.i,
honey, and <j>a-/u, I eat). A family of
birds ( Tenuirostcrs), some of whom
feed on honey.

MELOE. A genus of coleopterous
insects. The wings are wanting; the
outer cases oval or triangular ; abdo-
men large. They crawl on the ground
and low plants, and are remarkable
for the blistering power they possess.

MELOLONTHIANS. The family
of coleopterans to which the May-bug,
or cockchafTer, belongs {Melolontha
vulffaris).

MELON. Cucumis melo. An
Asiatic fruit, of the family Cucurbita-
cecE, much improved by cultivation.
The best varieties are Skillman'snet'
ted, green-fleshed citron, green-flesh-
ed nutmeg, large yellow cantaleup,
green-fleshed Persian, pineapple, and
musk-scented. The first is, for the
most part, cultivated for the New-
York market. The varieties of mel-
on require a rich, sandy soil ; it should
be well prepared and rich, a spade of H
old dung being dug into the place .H
where the seeds are dropped. Sow
in shallow hills, five or si.x leet apart
each way, soon in .May. Six to ten
seeds to the hill will be enough, one
ounce serving for 100 hills : plant
over in ten days, if the seeds fail.
They are to be managed like cucum-
bers, two or three plants being left in
the hill. When fine fruit is preferred
to great numbers, the branches should
be summer-pruned after a few melons
are set ; otherwise, when many are
required, the first fruits, near the
centre, should be plucked off. The
fruit ripens in six weeks : it should
part from the stem readily, be very
fragrant, and well cracked or marked.

MKR

MET

Never plant melons near other cucur-
bitacea;, and keep choice kinds quite
separate. The Persians cover tiie
younij melons with leaves and a little
earth, to obtain them larger and more
tender. An acre, well planted, will
produce 400 bushels of cantaleups.
Guano and a compost of fowl dung
are especially reputed as manures for
melons.

MELON, WATER. Cumrbita ci-
trullus. Varieties : New-Jersey, (Car-
olina, dark-skinned Spanish, Good-
win's imperial.

They require a loose, dry, sandy
soil, made rich as for the muskmel-
on ; hills six to eight feet apart. An
ounce of seed serves for forty or fif-
ty hills. The skins make good pre-
serves with spices. The juice is fer-
mented into a beer in some parts of
Europe : when boiled down to a
proper consistence, it makes a good
sirup.

MEMBRANE. The tissue or ex-
pansion of animal or vegetable mat-
ter surrounding the bones and lining
cavities. That lining the intestinal
and urinary apparatus is mucous.
The fibrous membrane covers all the
bones and many muscles ; and the
serous tissue exists on the outer sur-
face of the lungs and intestines, &c.

MENDING. Improving the tex-
ture or quality of land.

MENISCUS. A lens, concave on
one side and convex on the other.

MENISPERMIC ACID. An or-
ganic acid in Cocculus Indicus.

MENSTRUUxM. Any fluid which
dissolves a given solid.

MENSURATION. The admeas-
urement of the contents of solids or
areas of surfaces.

MENTUM. The chin. The low-
er and anterior portion of the under
jaw of animals.

MENYNGES, or MENINGES.
The membranes which cover the
brain.

MEPHITIS. A noxious vapour;
hence mepiiitic.

MERCURY. Quicksilver, fluid,
white, brilliant : sp. gr., 13-5 ; freezes
at — 40^ ; boils at 660°, rising in va-
pour unchanged ; equivalent, 101-43 ;

symbol, Hg. {Hydrargyrum). It is
soluble in nitric acid, and the oxides
combine; with numerous acids. Cal-
omel is a chloride of mercury ; cor'
rosivc sublimate, a bichloride, has been
used to preserve timber, and is one
of the most fatal poisons.

MERCURY, MERCURIALIS. A
genus of insignificant weeds.

MERIDIAN (from mcr'uUes, mid-
day). A great circle passing through
the zenith of any place and the North
and South Pole, on which the sun
comes at 12 o'clock. The magnetic
needle lies nearly in the meridian, the
departure from this line being called
its variation east or west.

MERINO SHEEP. See Sheep.

MESENTERY. The membrane
which binds the small intestines to
the back bone ; it is a fold of the per-
itoneum, and contains the vessels,
nerves, and absorbents, going to or
from the bowels.

MESITE, MESITEN. Substances
existing in wood spirit.

MESITYLENE. An oily product
from acetone.

MESLIN. In Spain, a union of
flocks ; more commonly a mixture
of seeds sown together, as wheat and
rye, oats and pease, &c.

MESO (from /^fffof, middle). An
affix to many compound words, mean-
ing the middle.

MESOCOLON. The membrane
surrounding the colon.

M E S O P H Y L (from ixeaoc, and
(^vl7.ov, a leaf). The central layer
of the leaf; we have also mesocarp,
the fleshy part of the fruit.

MESOTHORAX (from fiecoc, and
^(jpa^, the chest). In entomology,
the posterior segment of the thorax,
bearing the second pair of wings and
third pair of legs.

MESOTYPE. The silicate of alu-
mina and soda ; it occurs in trap and
ancient lavas.

MESTA. A mixture of flocks.

META (from jiera, between). A
prefix to many compound words.

METABOLIANS. Insects which
undergo complete metamorphosis.

METACARPAL. That portion of
the hand between the lingers and
495

MET

wrist ; metatarsal is the same part in
the foot.

METAGALLIC ACID. Galhc
acid changed by licat ; its formula is
Cij H.., O3.

METALLOID. Potassium, sodium,
and other alkaline metals ; it is some-
times applied to the inflammable el-
ements, as sulphur, phosphorus.

METALS. Elementary bodies, re-
markable for their lustre ; they con-
duct electricity and heat, and are neg-
ative electrics. The following table
gives their names, specific gravity,
and melting points :

Names of Metals.

Specific

Melting

Gravity.

Points.

i''a/tr.

1. Gold ....

19-25

2016"

2. Silver .

10-47

1873

3. Iron

7-78

C2800?

( Smith'efbrgo.

4. Copper .

8-89

1996

5. Mercury

13-56

—39

6. Lead

11-35

612

7. Tin

7-29

442

8. Antimony

6--0

9. Bismuth

9-80

497

10. Zinc

-7-00

773

11. Arsenic ,

5-88

12. Cobalt .

8-53

2810?

13. Platinum

20-)8

( oxyhydrogen
> blowpipe.

H. Nickel .

8-37

2810?

15. Manganese

6-85

Smith's forge.

16. Tungsten

17-60

17. Tellurium

6-11

620?

18. Molybdenum

7-40

1 °

19. Uranium

9-00

^

20. Titanium

5-30

<<

21. Chromium

22. Columbmm

"^■3

23. Palladium

11-50

■ a'J

24. Rhodium

"

2.5. Iridium .

sr

26. Osmium

i

27. Cerium .

.

1

28. Potassium

0-86 -

136

29. Sodium .

0-97

190

30. narium .

ST. Strontium

32. Calcium

.

33. Cadmium

8-60

442

34. Lithium .

3.5. Silicium .

36. Zirconium

. .

37. Aluminum

38. Glucinum.

39. yttrium .

40. Thorium

41. M.asnesium

4-2. Vanadium

METAMORPHOSIS (from fiera,
change, and uopcpri, form). Transform-
ation. In entomology, the changes
the metabolian insects pass through
of larva, pupa, and imago. In botany,
the doctrine that the flowers, sta-
mens, carpels, and seeds are modifi-
cations of the leaf

METAPHOSPHORIC ACID. See
Phosphorus.

METASTASIS (from uera, change,
496

MIC

and araaic, place). The change of an
affection or pain from one part of the
body to another.

Metayer, a farmer who rents
land at a certain proportion of the
crop, usually half, the owner finding
tools and animals.

METEOROLOGY (from fzereopuc,
aerial, and ?.oyoc). The science which
treats of the physical changes occur-
ring in the atmosphere, the formation
of clouds, fogs, rain, winds, and the
phenomena of lightning.

METEORITE, AEROLITE. The
masses of metallic iron occasionally
precipitated to the earth ; they are
supposed to be derived from the
moon : showers of many hundreds
have sometimes fallen together.

METEORS. The transitory phe-
nomena occurring in the air ; thus,
aerial meteors are winds, tornadoes,
&c. ; aqueous meteors are rains, hail,
fogs ; luminous meteors are halos,
rainbows, lightning, northern lights.

METHEGLIN. Mead.

METHOL. A hydrocarbon, ob-
tained by distilling xyhte with sul-
phuric acid.

METHYL. A volatile, combusti-
ble spirit, soluble in water, closely
resembling alcohol, is obtained from
wood, and contains this compound
radical, symbol Me. ; formula, C2 H.-) ;
it has not been isolated. Numerous
compounds of methyl are known.

MEZEREOX. Daphne mczereum.
A highly ornamental shrub with pink
flowers, the spurge laurel .- the w hole
plant is poisonous. It is readily cul-
tivated, although exotic.

MEZZANINE. In architecture, a
low story introduced between two
taller ones.

MIASM. Malaria, infectious va-
pours from marshes, &c.

MICA. Isinglass, silver. A bright
laminated mineral of every colour,
elastic, and more or less transparent.
An ingredient in granite and most
ancient rocks, often occurring in
large sheets, and used as a substitute
for glass. It consists of silica, 42 ;
alumina, 16 ; magnesia, 25 ; potash,
7i ; manganese, iron, &c., 9-5 in 100
parts.

MICA SLATE. A transition slate,
full of bright specks of mica mixed
with quartz.

MICROMETER. An instrument
affixed to microscopes and telescopes
for measuring the size of objects.

MICROPYLE. In botany, a small
hole over the apex of the nucleus of
a seed.

MICROSCOSMIC SALT. Phos-
phate of ammonia and soda, used in
blowpipe analysis.

MICROSCOPE (from lUih-pof, small,
and oKo-eu, I vieiv). An optical in-
strument which enables us to see and
examine objects which are too mi-
nute to be seen by the naked eye.
Microscopes are single or compound,
according to the nature of their con-
struction ; a single microscope being
one through which, whether it con-
sists of a single lens or a combina-
tion of lenses, the object is viewed
directly ; and a compound microscope
one in which two or more lenses are
so arranged that an enlarged image
of the object formed by one of them
is magnified by the second, or by the
others, if there are more than two,
and seen as if it were the object it-
self. A single microscope is no more
than a magnifying glass.

MIDDEN. A dung heap.

MIDDLE RAIL. The central rail
of the door, on which the lock is
placed.

MIDRIB OF A LEAF. The cen-
tral collection of woody fibres and
vessels ; the prolongation of the leaf
stem.

MIDRIFF. The diaphragm; the
muscle which divides the cavity of
tiie chest from the abdomen.

Fig. 1.

-MIL

MIGNONETTE. Reseda odorata
An annual, but may become peren-
nial by keeping in a hot-house during
winter and pruning.

MIGRATORY. Of the habit of
migrating or moving with the season
to the north or south, as numerous
birds and fishes.

MILDEW. This is a thin and whi-
tish coating with which the leaves
of vegetables are sometimes covered,
occasioning their decay and death,
and injuring the health of the plant.
It is frequently found on the leaves
of hop, pea, hazel, fruit-trees, and
the white and yellow dead-nettle ; it
is found also on wheat, in the shape
of a glutinous exudation, particularly
when the days are hot and the nights
without dew. J. Robertson {Hort.
Trans., v., 178) considers it as a mi-
nute fungus, of which different spe-
cies attack different plants. Sulphur
he has found to be a specific cure.
In cultivated crops mildew is said to
be prevented by manuring with soot;
though by some this is denied, and
soot, by rendering the crop more lux-
uriant, is said to be an encourager of
mildew, the richest parts of a field
being always most infected by it. As
it is least common in airy situations,
thinning and ventilation may be con-
sidered as preventives.

Liming, the use of salt, and saline
manures generally act as prevent-
atives. The varieties of mildew are
many, the Puccinia graminis being
that" affecting wheat and grasses.
See TJreio. The eflTects of mildew and
bhght have sometimes been averted
by lighting fires to windward, so that
the smoke swept over the field, and

Fis. 2.

T T 2

497

MIL

MIL

also by drawing a rope tliroiigh the
field and moving it across the wheat
or grain in the morning wiicn the dew
was on the plants in dull weather.
One of the commonest forms of the
white mildew that covers leaves is
that of the Aspergillus {Fig. \) : a is
the plant enlarged. The mildew of
roots, which destroys potatoes, &:c.,
is usually the Rhizoctonia (Fig. 2).

MILE. 1760 yards. The sea mile
is l-60th of a degree, or 2025 vards.

MILFOIL. Achillea milUfolmm.
Yarrow. A common flowering plant
in meadows, marking a good soil.

MILIARY. Granulated, like many
small seeds.

MILK. The secretion of the mam-
mary glands, but especially that from
the cow. Its composition varies
somewhat, but averages per cent., of
curd or casein, 4-5 parts ; of butter,
3-2 ; milk-sugar, 48 ; saline matters,
•60 ; water, 86-9. The butter is held
in suspension in the milk, but sep-
arates when it is heated or much
shaken. The specific gravity of
fresh milk is 1 03. The flavour and
quality of milk vary much with pas-
ture and food ; it is also affected by
cleanliness. See Butter, Cheese, Cow.
Milk may be kept for a long time
sweet if heated in bottles to 180°
Fahrenheit and tightly corked while
the steam is issuing, and immediately
after removing it from the fire.

MILK FEVER. Puerperal fever.
" Cows in high condition are most sub-
ject to this fever. This inflammato-
ry disease sometimes appears as ear-
ly as two hours after parturition. If
fourorfive days have elapsed, the ani-
mal may generally be considered safe.
On the appearance of the fever, from
six to ten quarts of blood should be
taken, according to the age and size
of the animal. The bowels must be
opened, or the disease will run its
course ; and purging once established
in an early stage, the fever will, in
the majority of instances, rapidly sub-
side, leaving the strength of the con-
stitution untouched." Calomel pur-
ges are best in the first stage.

MILK CELLARS. Dairy.

MILKING. " When you milk,
498

take a vessel of cold water and sponge.
Wash the udder and teats clean, dash-
ing on the cold water. This will pre-
vent the teats from becoming sore,
and the udder hot and feverish. Milk
with clean hands. The whole busi-
ness of milking is frequently conduct-
ed in such a slovenly manner that
the milk is entirely unfit for food.
The cow should be milked while eat-
ing her fodder at morning and even-
ing. She should always be milked
and fed at the same time in the day,
and uniformly by the same person.
Milk without interruption. Be sure
to milk the cow as dry as possible.
To be milked by different hands, at
different times in the day, in a slow,
interrupted manner, and leaving part
of the milk in the udder, will ruin the
best cow in the world. If the cow
have sore teats, foment them before
milking with warm w-ater, and after-
ward dress them with the following
salve : Melt together one oz. of yel-
low wax and three oz. of lard, and as
these begin to get cool, rub in a quar-
ter of an oz. of sugar of lead, and
a drachm of finely-pounded aloes." —
(Youatt.)

MILK SICKNESS. Trembles. A
frightful, contagious disease, attack-
ing the cattle of certain districts of
the Western States, more especially
Indiana and Illinois ; one of the in-
fected districts lies for 100 miles
near the banks of the Wabash. The
animals are poisoned by some arti-
cle of food or drink ; their breath is
foetid, eyes blood-shot, gait stagger-
ing and wild ; when driven, they fall
into convulsions, and frequently die.
The milk, butter, cheese, and meat
of such animals are highly poisonous,
two or three ounces bringing on the
same disease in man and other ani-
mals in from six hours to four days.
In man it com.mences with foetid
breath, general uneasiness, lassitude,
loss of nervous power, vomiting fre-
quently with blood, loss of appetite,
constipation, loss of biliary secre-
tion, and, finally, all the symptoms of
low typhus fever, with nervous tre-
mours and delirium, the brain and me-
ninges becoming inflamed : it is very

MIL

MIL

fatal. The cheese and butter of the
infected districts are abundantly ex-
ported to St. Louis, Louisville, &c.,
and frequently produce fatal effects.
It IS probable that the extensive poi-
soning in this city (Xew-York) in the
spring of 1840 arose from cheese im-
ported thence.

The treatment is very doubtful,
but should proceed as in typhus fe-
vers, by sustaining the strength, and
allaying nervous irritability.

There seems to be much connex-
ion between this peculiar disease and
the malignant pustule, which affects
cattle in Europe, and occasionally
the seaboard states, except only that
it is said to be strictly local in places
now infested, having been so for 100
years, as known to the settlers, and
there is no pustule produced.

MILK PARSLEY. Sclinumpalus-
trc. A perennial, herbaceous weed,
growing in wet places in Europe ;
the roots are acrid, and said to serve
the Russians for ginger.

MILK, SUGAR OF. See Milk.

MILK-TREE, COW-TREE. Pa-
lo de leche, Galactodcndron duke. A
tree of Upper South America (Carac-
cas), of the same family as the fig
( Urticacea). The sap obtained by tap-
ping is precisely like milk, and very
palatable; it contains a creamy matter i
like bees" wax, fibrin, sugar, an acid,
salts, and water. Other trees about
Maracaibo yield good milk, as the
Clusea galactodcndron. In the East,
at Ceylon, the Tabcrnamontana utilis
also yields a good milk. The rnilky
juice of most plants is acrid, and oft-
en very poisonous.

MILK VESSELS. In plants, the
anastomosing tubes lying in the bark
or near the surface of plants, in which
a white turbid fluid is secreted ; they
are one of the forms of the vital veins I
(latici/erons) of Schahz, the fluid being
called the latex. I

MILK VETCH. Plants of the
genus Astragalus : they are legumi-
nous, wholesome weeds. The A.
bwlicus is cultivated for its seeds,
which resemble cofli'ee.

MILK WORT. Plants of the ge-
nus Polygula, mostly annuals, with

pretty leguminous flowers ; the roots
are often medicinal, especially the P.
Senega, or snake-root.

MILL. A machine in which va-
rious substances are crushed or
] ground bv a rotatory motion. See
! Gnst Mill Oil Mill.
I MILLEPEDE. The thousand
feet ; the centipede.

MILLET. Several distinct plants
are known under this name, two of
which arc much cultivated, viz., the
common millet {Paiucum miliaccum),
and the doura or Indian millet (Sor-
ghum vulgare). Besides these, there
is a Polish millet {Digitaria sangui-
nalis), German millet {Setaria Ger-
manica), and Italian millet {S. Italtca),
of which the Polish only is at all cul-
tivated now.

Common millet rises from three to
four feet high, is like a reed, and bears
a large loose panicle of seeds hang-
ing on one side.

" Culture. — This plant will grow
upon any soil of tolerable richness,
though it does best on a loam. The
ground should be prepared as for or-
dinary crops. The seed may be sown
broad-cast, and covered with the har-
row. If sown early, the crop may be
gathered in August, though if sown
any time before the 25th of June it
will come to maturity. If seed is the
object, four quarts of seed to the
acre will be enough ; but if intended
principally for cattle feed, the quan-
tity of seed may be increased to eight
quarts. Birds are fond of the seed,
and devour it as soon as it begins to
ripen ; the crop should be, therefore,
cut before the whole has matured,
and while the straw is green. It may
be cut with a sickle, scythe, or cra-
dle, and should be housed as soon as
it is sufficiently dry.

"Product. — The product will be ac-
cording to the soil, and will vary from
10 to 30 bushels of seed, and from
one to three tons of forage on the
acre. It sometimes produces more
than a thousand fold return.

" Use. — We have found it an excel-
lent substitute for corn in fattening
hogs, either ground or boiled, and its
early maturity renders it particularly
499

iMIN

MIS

useful for this purpose. It is an ex-
cellent food for poultry, pigs, and, if
ground, would probably be useful for
neat cattle and horses. The straw
is eaten freely by cattle, and both the
seed and straw abound in nutritious
matter."

Indian Millet. — This plant very
closely resembles broom corn, ex-
cept that the seeds are collected to-
gether in a bunch at the top of the
stalk. It grows from five to seven
feet high ; the seeds are round, yel-
lowish, and easily thrashed. It re-
quires the same management as In-
dian corn, but may be sown in much
closer drills. It often yields 80 bush-
els per acre of seed, besides an abun-
dant straw. The grain is good fod-
der for horses, cows, pigs, and poul-
try, and forms nearly the only bread-
stuff of the Arabians. The meal is
very much like that of corn. Eight
quarts of seed are enough for the
acre : it is sown in May on land pre-
pared as for corn.

MILLET GRASS. Milium. The
only species which appears to be cul-
tivated is the M. ejjusum ; this is per-
ennial, from four to eight feet high,
with a loose, spreading panicle : it
very much resembles the panic grass-
es. If the seed is sown in the fall
broad-cast, and raked in, it will ripen
in the following July. It is indige-
nous.

MILL-STONE. See Buhr-slone.
Conglomerates, or sandstones, are
sometimes used for coarse purposes,
but should not be set up for flouring.

MILL-STONE GRIT. A geologi-
cal formation immediately under the
coal, and made of beds of coarse
quartzoze sandstone.

MILSEY. A sieve in which milk
is strained.

MILVINES. A family of raptorial
birds, of which the kite {Milvus) is a
member.

MIMUS. The genus of passerine
birds, of which the mocking-bird {M.
polijglottus) is a species.

MINUERERUS SPIRIT. Solu-
tion of acetate of ammonia, a febri-
fuge.

MINERALOGY. The science
500

which has for its object the exam-
ination and description of minerals.

M 1 N I .M. A measure equal to a
drop of water: there are sixty min-
ims in a fluid drachm.

MINIUM. Red-lead, used in
painting.

MINT. The genus Mentha, but,
especially, the M. viridis, or green
mint ; a well-known fragrant peren-
nial, of the natural family Labiala,
used in juleps, with pease, &c. The
M. ■piperita yields the valuable pep-
permmt oil.

All the mints are creeping-rooted
perennials ; they require a rich, moist
soil, and, when cultivated for their oil,
are grown in beds with trenches be-
tween them for irrigation. They are
propagated from pieces of stem, set
in rows six inches apart each way,
in April : the third year gives a full
crop, which is continued for five or
six seasons. The plants are cut as
soon as the flowers expand, and dis-
tilled while fresh, with a large quan-
tity of water, the essential oil pass-
ing over with the steam, and float-
ing on the cooled distilled water :
the latter forms the best peppermint
water.

MINUS. Less, distinguished by
the mark — , and used in physics to
designate quantities below a stand-
ard ; thus, all degrees of temperature
below zero (0) are minus, and read
minus 50, — 30, &c.

MIOCENE (from /jeiuv, less, and
Kaivoc, recent). The intermediate
portion of the tertiary epoch, in which
some seventeen per cent, of recent
shells are discovered.

M I R A G E, FATA MORGANA,
LOOMING. An optical delusion, in
which ships and objects at sea appear
depicted against the clouds.

MIRROR. A looking-glass, spec-
ulum, or any polished surface, used
as a reflector. Mirrors are plane,
concave, or burning (magnifying),
and convex, or minifying.

MISCARRIAGE. See Abortion.

MISLETOE. Viscus album, verti'
cillatum. Shrubby, parasitical plants,
growing occasionally on large trees.
Manv fabulous virtues are attribu-

MOL

MON

ted to it ; sheep are said to be very ,
fond of the leaves. The white ber- j
ries make good birdlime, when pre-
pared, i

MIST. Fog.

MITES. Wingless insects of the
genus Acariis, inhabiting animal mat-
ters in certain stages of decay. Tlie
cheese mite is the Acanis domcsticus.

MITRAL V.\LVES. The valves
of the left ventricle of the heart.

MITRE. In building, the junction
of two pieces of wood, Sec, by cross
fitting.

MOCKING-BIRD. A species of
thrush. See Mimus.

MIXEN. A compost.

MOBILITY. Capacity tor move-
ment, mobile.

MODILLON. An ornament, or
scroll, placed at intervals under the
corona.

MOHAIR. The silky hair of the
Angora goat, used for camlets and
other costly stuffs.

MOLARS, MOLARES (from mola,
a mill). The grinding teeth, placed
behind the incisors.

MOLASSE. A soft, green sand-
stone, of the miocene epoch, found
in Switzerland

MOLASSES. The thick, dark
fluid which runs from the Muscovado
sugar ; it consists of uncrystallizable
sugar, an acid, aromatic bodies, and
water : when fermented, it yields
rum by distillation. But under this
name the refuse of the sugar-house
is also sold, a compound which is
more correctly called treacle. The
inspissated juice of the corn, maple,
&.C., is also called molasses by some
persons.

MOLE. The American mole is the
Scalops aquaticus, an animal distinct
from the European (Talpa Europea).
Moles live in pairs, in rich soils
abounding in worms, slugs, and m-
sects, upon which they feed ; they do
much good in this way, and should
not be disturbed unless in great num-
bers. They may be destroyed by set-
ting traps in their paths ; the trap is
no more than a half cylinder of wood
made hollow, each end of which
should be furnished with a ring con-

taining a noose, orloop, of horsehair ;
these are loosely fastened in the cen-
tre by means of a moveable peg, and
the hair stretched above the ground
by a bent stick capable of springing
up. As the mole passes, he forces
the central peg away when half
through the trap, and the spring above,
acting on the hair, draws it tightly
and strangles the animal.

MOLE CRICKET. Achcta gryllo-
talpa. Earth crab. A kind of crick-
et, with a remarkable hand like a
mole, by which it burrows in the soil ;
it devours the roots of plants, and is
often very injurious to meadows :
when found, they should be killed.

MOLECULE. An atom not ca-
pable of being reached by mechani-
cal subdivision.

MOLE PLOUGH. A plough pro-
vided with a deep sharp foot beneath
the sole to penetrate the earth. See
Draining.

MOLE-TREE. Euphorbia lalhjrus.
Spurge caper, epurge. A biennial
herb, the fruit of which, when half
ripe, is pickled for capers. It is an
acrid plant, and was supposed to be
injurious to moles.

MOLLITES (from mollis, soft). A
disease of the bones, hoofs, &c., in
which they become soft, and often
flexible.

MOLLUSKS, MOLLUSCA. The
animals inhabiting shells, and those
of similar conformation, but without
that covering : they are of low or-
ganization, and cold-blooded.

MOLYBDENUM. A rare metal,
not used in the arts.

MO.MENT, MOMENTUM. The
available force of a moving body at
any time ; its velocity multiplied into
its weight.

MONADELPHOUS, MONODEL-
PHIA (from /novoc, one, and a6e?.(pia,
a fratcrintij). Flowers in which the
stamens are united into one mass by
their tilaments.

MONANDROUS, MONANDRIA
(from fiovor, and avrip, male). Plants
or flowers having one stamen only.

MONAS, plural MONADS. A ge-
nus of extremely minute simple poly-
gastric infusiorials.

501

MON

MOO

MON I LI FORM Resembling a
siring of beads.

MONKSHOOD. Acomtuni napcl-
lus. Wolfsbane, aconite. Handsome
perennial-rooted plants, witb large
blue flowers, inucli cultivated. Tbey
are very poisonous and narcotic. An
extract of tbe leaves of monkshood is
used in medicine.

MONO (from fiovo^, one, single). An
affix to many compound words.

MONOCHROMATIC (from jiovo^,
and xP^I^'^1 colour). Having but one
colour, incapable of decomposition by
the prism.

MONOCHLAMYDE.^, MONO-
CHLAMYDEOUS (from fiovo<:, and
Xkafiv^, a coat). Flowers with only
one envelope, or perianth, as the tu-
lip, lily. Those furnished with a ca-
lyx also, are called diclamydeous.

MONOCOTYLEDONS, MONO-
COTYLEDONIA (from iiovo^, and
KOTvlsduv, lobe). Endbgens. Those
plants and trees the seeds of w-hich
have but one lobe, as grasses and
palms.

MONCECIA (from fiovoc, and oikoc,
a house). The twenty-first class of
Linnaeus ; plants which bear pistillate
and staminate flowers, perfectly dis-
tinct, but on the same stem, as In-
dian corn.

MONOGYNTA (from /.lovog, and
yvvri, a female). Flowers with one
pistil.

MONOMERANS (from fiovoc, and
(iTjpo^, a limb). A section of the co-
leopterous insects, in which the tarsus
is supposed to be formed of a single
joint.

MONOPETALOUS. A corolla,
the petals of which cohere into a tube :
synpetalous, gamopetalous.

MONOPHYLLUS. A calyx with
the sepals united. Monoscpalous is
used to indicate the same form.

MONOSEPALOUS. With the se-
pals of the calyx united into one
tube.

MONSOONS. The periodical
trade winds of the Indian Ocean.

MONSTROUS PLANTS, MON-
STROSITY. Plants which by cul-
tivation or otherwise have become
changed from their original forms.
502

MONTANT. In building, any up-
right piece in framing.

M O O N. The common notions
of the operation of the moon on
changes of weather, &c., have been
often and fully proved to be errone-
ous : they are altogether destitute of
truth.

MOONSTONE. Adulana. Sem-
itransparent feldspar.

MOON TREFOIL. Medicago ar-
borea. A species of medic.

MOON WORT. Botryclnum fuma-
rmdes. An indigenous, unimportant
fern.

MOOR. " A name given to exten-
sive wastes which are covered with
heath, and the soil of which consists
of poor light earth, mixed generally
with a considerable portion of peat.
The want of fertility in moors arises
chiefly from a deficiency or supera-
bundance of moisture, the subsoil be-
ing either too porous to retain it, or
too impervious to allow it to escape.
Both extremes occur in some moors,
which are parched up in dry weather,
and converted into a dark mud by any
continuance of rain. A considerable
portion of iron is also generally found
in the soil of moors, which is very
hurtful to the vegetation of plants,
except heath, furze, and other coarse
plants, which almost entirely cover
the moors. This iron is carried down
through the light surface-soil, and, if
it meets with a less porous eartli be-
low, is frequently deposited in a thin
layer, cementing the particles of si-
licious sand, which are carried down
with it, and forming what is called
the hcatk-pan or moor-band. This sub-
stance is perfectly impervious to wa-
ter, and wherever it exists in a con-
tinous state, all attempts at improve-
ment are vain, till it is broken through
or removed. The roots of trees oc-
casionally find a passage through in-
terstices or fractures of the pan, and
then often grow luxuriantly. But
wherever young trees are planted,
without the precaution of breaking
through the moor-band, they invaria-
bly fail, and disai)i)oint the expecta
tions of the planter, who, seeing fine,
large trees growing around, naturally

MOO

MOO

imagined that the soil was peculiarly
fitted for them. If the stump of a
large tree, which has been cut down,
is grubbed up, pieces of the moor-
band may often be seen all around
the stem, at a short depth below the
surface, so arranged as to show evi-
dently that the tap-root, having found
an aperture, and extending its fibres
downward into a better soil, has, in
swelling, broken the pan and pushed
it aside. When the moor consists of
a loose, peaty earth of little depth in-
cumbent on a rock, as is the case in
many mountainous countries, no art
can fertilize it. In dry weather the
whole surface has the appearance of
a brown powder like snuf^", which be-
comes a spongy peat as soon as it
is soaked with rain. The hardiest
heaths and mosses alone can bear
this alternation ; and where the sub-
stratum of rock is not broken into
crevices through which the roots pen-
etrate, ail vegetation ceases except
mosses and lichens.

" ^foss land is often confounded
with moor ; but it is very distinct in
its nature. Moss land is produced by
the accumulation of aquatic plants,
and its origin is chiefly vegetable.
When it has a considerable depth,
and its substance has lost all power
of vegetation, it forms peat bogs of
more or less consistency, as the wa-
ter is dramed otf or retained in its
pores. In the latter case it appears
like a spongy vegetable mass, con-
sisting almost entirely of fibres, so
interwoven as to form a very light
substance, in which water is'easily
retained, which keeps up a kind of in-
ternal vegetation, by which the quan-
tity of the moss is gradually increas-
ed. This is the substance which cov-
ers the surface of bogs, and where it
is of some consistence it allows a
passage over them ; but where it is
very thin and loose it deceives the
eye by an appearance of solidity, like
that of a smooth, green pasture,
which, however, gives way to the
pressure of the foot, and allows it to
sink through it with very little resist-
ance. The only way to improve
moss is to drain it, and then convert

the vegetable matter of which it is
composed into soil, by means of lime
and pressure. The latter is efTccled
by putting on a considerable quantity
of earth, especially sand and gravel,
which, incorporating with the moss;
consolidates it, and assists the lime
in decomposing the vegetable fibre.
After this it becomes extremely fer-
tile, producing abundant crops of po-
tatoes and oats ; and whenever it has
acquired sufiicient solidity by the
treading of sheep and cattle, it will
produce good crops of wheat, or, if
laid down to grass, give abundance
of hay and pasture. Trees do not
thrive in mossy soil, there being too
little solidity for the roots, and the
large trunks which are frequently
found in bogs must have grown be-
fore the moss was formed. This may
be easily imagined. A wood laid flat
by a storm or hurricane may obstruct
the natural flow of the waters, and
cause them to accumulate. The pros-
trate trees become surrounded by
aquatic plants, which spread their
fibres and roots freely through the
water, and, decaying, make room for
others. Thus the trees are gradually
covered and buried in the moss till
future generations find them, when
the moss or bog is explored for fuel
or for improvement. The trees which
are found buried in mosses frequent-
ly show evident signs of having been
gradually covered. The upper sur-
face is often decayed and uneven,
while the lower surface shows that
it has remained submerged and pro-
tected from the contact and influence
of the air, and has thus been preserv-
ed from rottins " — {W- L. Rham.)

MOOR-BAND PAN. The incrus-
tation produced in some ferruginous
soils. See Muor. The pan may be
calcareous in limestone soils, and
when not very hard can be destroy-
ed bv the subsoil plough.

MOOR GR.\SS. Scsleria dactylo-
ides. An unimportant Southern grass.

MOOSE. Cervus alecs. The lar-
gest of the deer genus. They live in
troops in swampy places, and are con-
fined to the northern portions of the
States, and to Canada.

503

MOU

MOR

MOOSE EI.M. The red elm.

MOOSE WOOD. Acer striatum.
The striped maple. Thi.s term is also
applied to the Dirca ■paltistns,ox\edi\.\\-
er wood.

MORAINE. The longitudinal
masses of stones and rubbish found
at the bases and along the edges ol
great glaziers, or in places where
they have existed.

MOR.^SS. Swampy moor land.

MORDANT. A substance which
unites chemically with the fibre of
wool, cotton, &c., and with the col-
ouring matter also, forming with both
insoluble compounds. See Cotton
Dyemg. Acetate of alumina, alum,
solution of tin, and pyrolignite of iron
(red liquor) are the most important
mordants.

MORDELLA. A genus of coleop-
terans, now the type of a family, Mar-
dellidcp. They are heteronierans, with
an elevated and arched body, low
head, thorax semicircular, or trape-
zoid, elytra very short, pointed at the
tips.

MOREL. Morchdla esculcnla. Lat-
ticed mushroom. An edible mush-
room much esteemed in Europe,
where it is stuffed with force-meat,
and fried for the table. It grows in
woods, has a wide, hollow stalk two
inches high, with a yellowish or gray-
ish ribbed head, of small width, arid
two or three inches deep.

MOROCCO LEATHER. The true
sort is of goat's skins, tanned on the
grain side ; but sheep skins are often
sold. The skins are first steeped in
a fermenting mixture of bran and
water for a few days, worked on the
horse, steeped twelve hours in fresh
water, and rinsed. They are then
steeped in lime-pits until the hair can
be removed, cleansed, and the sur-
face dressed with hard schist to ex-
pel the lime. They are then work-
ed on the horse-beam, and subjected I
afterward to a species of fulling by
being agitated by pegs in a revolving |
cask with water.

The skins are again immersed a

night and day in a fermentmg bath,

worked, and salted for dyeing. They

are first mordanted by solution of tin

504

or alimi, two skins being sowed to-
gether to make a bag to hold the fluid,
and the colour given by a solution of
cochineal, in cream of tartar and wa-
ter.

MOROXITE. A native phosphate
of lime of a mulberry colour.
I MOROXYLIC ACID. An acid
tound in the bark of the white mul-
berry-tree.
I MORPHIA. The active narcotic
• principle of opium. It is extremely poi-
sonous : composition, 72 34 carbon,
} 6-36 H . 5 N., 16 3 oxygen.— ([//•£.)

MORPHOLOGY (from /iop0;/,
\ form, and /.oyor, a discourse). The
' doctrine of the metamorphosis of
I)lants, from which it appears that pe-
1 tals, stamens, and carpels are merely
modified leaves ; that their position
and mode of development are similar
with that of leaves. A seed is also
analogous to a leaf bud.
[ MORTAR. " This is composed of
quicklime and sand, reduced to a
paste with water. When dry, it be-
comes as hard as stone and as dura-
ble ; and adhering very strongly to
the surface of the stones which it is
employed to cement, the whole wall,
in fact, becomes nothing else than
one single stone. The bricks or stones
should be dipped in water before mor-
i tar is added, otherwise it does not
j adhere to them so perfectly. But
this effect is produced very imper-
! fectly unless the mortar be very well
I prepared. The lime ought to be pure,
i completely free from carbonic acid,
i and in the state of a very fine pow-
der ; the sand should be free from
clay, and partly in the state of fine
sand, and partly in that of gravel ;
j the water should be pure, and if pre-
I viously saturated with lime, so much
j the better. The best proportions, ac-
i cording to the experiments of Doctor
j Higgins, are three parts of fine sand,
I four parts of coarse sand, one part of
quicklime, recently slacked, and as
I little water as possible. The stony
j consistence which mortar acquires is
] owing partly to the absorption of car-
I bonic acid, but principally to the com-
■ bination of part of the water with the
, lime. This last circumstance is the

MOR

reason that, if to common mortar one j
fourth part of lime, reduced to pow-
der without being slacked, be added, I
the mortar, when dry, acquires much
greater solidity than it otherwise
would do. This was first proposed
by Loriot ; and afterward Morveau
found the following proportions to an-
swer best ;

Paris.

Fine s.ind 3

Cement of well-baked bricks .... 3

Slacked lime 2

Unslacked lime _2

10

The same advantages may be ob-
tained by using as little water as pos-
sible in slacking the lime. Higgins
found that the addition of burned
bones, in the proportion of not more
than one fifth of the lime employed,
improved mortar by giving it tenaci-
tv, and rendered it less apf to crack."
' M O R T A R, H Y D R AU L I C.
" When a little clay is added to mor-
tar, it acquires the important property
of hardening under water, so that it
may be employed by the farmer in
places whicii are constantly exposed
to the action of water. Limestone is
found not unfrcquently mixed with
clay; and in that case it becomes
brown by calcination, instead of white.
These native limestones are employ-
ed for making leater mortar ; but
good water mortar may be made by
tlie followiuL^ process : Mix together
four parts of blue clay, six parts of
black oxide of manganese, and 90
parts of limestone, all in powder ;
calcine this mixture to expel the car-
bonic acid ; mix it with 60 parts of
sand, and form it into a mortar with
a sufficient quantity of water. The
best mortar for resisting water is
made by mixing lime with puzzolano,
a volcanic sand brought from Italy.
Morveau informs us that basalt, which
is very common, may be substituted
for puzzolano. It must be heated in
a furnace, thrown while red-hot into
water, and then passed through a

MORTIFICATION. Gangrene ;

the death of a part of the body. When

it occurs in the limbs, a distinct line

of separation of a red colour may he

I' r

MOS

seen between the mortified and living
parts ; the limb should be removed
as soon as possible above the healthy
part. Mortification of internal or-
gans, when extensive, is necessarily
fatal ; when it comes on, there is
great loss of strength, freedom from
pain, usually a disagreeable or gan-
grenous odour, delirium, cold sweats,
and death. The lungs are most sub-
ject to gangrene, as a consequence
of inflammation. Sloughs and spha-
celus are small portions of gangrenous
flesh removed from wounds.

MORTISE. Tiie union of two pie-
ces of wood or other substance, by
introducing one into a hole made in
the other : the former is called the
tenon.

MORUS. The generic name of
the mulberry, now often applied to
the Chinese, or M. muUicauUs.

MOSAIC WORK. Inlaying pave-
ments, walls, &c., with' small dies of
different shapes, colours, and mate-
rials, more especially to represent
historical subjects.

MOSSES. Musci. In common
language, any minute, small-leaved,
cryptogamic plants. Thus, club-moss
is a lycopodium ; Iceland and rein-
deer mosses are lichens, and the nu-
merous species of Jungermannia are
all comprehended under the same
term ; but in systematical botany,
no plants are considered mosses ex-
cept such as belong to the natural or-
der BniacecE or Musci. Such plants
are sitri pie-leaved, without spiral ves-
sels or stomata ; with a distinct ax-
is of growth, and with the sporules,
or reproductive matter, enclosed in
cases, called sporangia or thecae, cov-
ered by a cap or calyptra ; they have
cases, called staminidia, containing
I powdery matter. None of the moss-
i es are of any known use, except for
the purpose of packing plants, and
surrounding their roots when they
are sent to a distance.

MOSS LANDS, or MOSSES. See
Moor.

MOSS IN PASTURES. See Mead-
owx. Scarifying and manuring with
ashes form the most ready method of
treatinff Uu* defect.

505

MOT

MUU

MOTH. The perfect insect of an
extensive class of lepidoineroiis in-
sects, furnished with scaly wings.
The houschuld nuisances known un-
der this name are usually of the tribe
tineans ( Tineada). The clothes moth
is the Tinea vcslianclla; the carpet
moth, T. tapetzella; the fur moth, T.
jiellionella.

They lay their eggs in the spring,
and the moth dies immediately after ;
their eggs are hatclied in 15 days ;
the white caterpillars begin at once
to feed on the fabric, covering them-
selves with fragments of its texture,
which they mould into a tube. With
these protections they move about
all the summer; in the autumn they
fix their habitation, remain torpid in
the winter, change to crysalids in
spring, and some twenty days after,
in May and June, come cut as moths
to lay their eggs in the evenings.

Preventives^ — In spring bring out
all the clothing, feathers, &c., sub-
ject to their ravages, expose them to
the sun for some hours, taking care
to brush and shake them thoroughly ;
by this means the insects are dis-
lodged. When they are in the crev-
ices of walls, &c., all suspected pla-
ces should be reached with spirits of
turpentine or tobacco smoke. There
should be placed in clothes-drawers
camphor, tobacco leaves, pennyroyal,
and lavender ; it is found, also, that
cedar wood is offensive to moths.
Where there is no cause against it,
substances infested may be dipped in
boiling water, or a solution of corro-
sive sublimato, "which is a violent poi-
son.

The Tinea granella sometimes at-
tacks stored wheat and other grains,
but they are destroyed by kiln-drying
at 180° Fahrenheit.

MOTHER-W^\TER. In chemis-
try, the solution from which crj'stals
have been obtained, and which furnish
a second supply when evaporated.

MOTION. " In mechanical philos-
ophy, motion is the change of place ;
that is, of the part of space which
the body occupies, or in which it is
extended. Motion is real or absolute
when the moving body changes its
506

place in absolute space ; it is relative
when the body changes its place only
with relation to surrounding bodies;
and it is apparent when the body
changes its situation with respect to
other bodies that appear to us to be
at rest. All the phenomena of mo-
tion are derived by mathematical de-
ductions from the three I'oUowing
laws of motion of Newton :

" 1 . A body must continue forever in
a state of rest, or of uniform motion in
a straight line, if it be not disturbed by
the action of an external cause.

" 2. Every change of motion pro-
duced by any external force is pro-
portional to the force impressed, and
in the direction of the straight line in
which the force acts.

"3. Action and reaction are equal,
and in contrary directions ; that is,
equal and contrary changes of mo-
tion are produced on bodies which
mutually act on each other."

MOTOR. Producing motion.

MOTTLED. Maculalus. Stained
with coloured blotches or dots

MOULD. Finely divided soil, rich
in vegetable matter : it is to be dis-
tinguished from decayed leaves, &c.,
which constitute vegetable mould or
humus.

M O U L D-B 0 A R D. The large
curved side of a plough, which turns
the furrow slice.

MOULDEB.ERT, MOLLEBART.
A Flemish levelling machine, figured
in the article Barren Lands.

MOULDINESS, MOULD, MII^
DEW. Minute cryptogamic plants,
of a grayish aspect usually, but of all
colours, which appear upon damp
linen, cotton, and vegetable substan-
ces, as bread ; they belong to the
genera Aspergillus, Mucor. and other
mucedines, and are to be avoided only
by dryness, and proper exposure to
the sun and dry air. The genera
which appear on plants, as the hop,
pea, &c., are very numerous.

M O U L D 1 N G. The curved or
straight lines, or fillets, used in archi-
tecture, as decorations, or members
of the common orders.

MOULTING. Change of plumage.
It takes place annually for the entire

MOW

plumage, and also partially whrre
feathers of new colours are produced.

MOUNTAIN ASH. Pyms aucu-
partd. Rowan-tree. A handsome ex-
otic shrubbery-tree, with beautiful
hunches of red berries, which are oc-
casionally prepared by soaking in wa-
ter, and preserved as a sweetmeat.

MOUNTAIN LAUREL. Kalmia
lalifolia. A handsome shrubbery
plant ; the flowers are poisonous. It
sometimes grows to 15 or 20 feet.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. The
strata of this material immediately
below the coal measures.

MOUNTAIN MAHOGANY. Be-
lula Icnta. The black birch.

MOUNTAIN RICE. Oryzopsisas-
perifolia. A perennial, native of the
South ; culm almost naked, leaves
rigid, erect, and sharp at the point ;
flowers in a panicle ; height IS inch-
es : flowers in May.

MOURAT. A name given to the
brown wool of some sheep.

MOUSE. Several species of the
genus ^[us, of the family Rodenlia.
They are the food of cats, the terrier
family of dogs, hedgehogs, snakes,
and owls. Mice not only destroy the
products of the farm, but, when they
are shut out by well-made granaries,
gnaw the trunks and roots of trees,
doing much mischief to the orchard.
See Field Mice. Numerous common
traps are contrived for their capture.
The carbonate of barytes is recom-
mended in the Mark Lane Express as
a poison in the place of arsenic ; a
drachm should be mixed in the food
for each mouse, which should also be
flavoured with oil of anise seed to at-
tract them. The removal of grain
stacks is a good occasion to destroy
mice and rats : let the stack be sur-
rounded at four feet by a few stakes,
some four feet high ; stretch around
these either hurdles or a coarse can-
vass, so that the vermin cannot es-
cape underneath ; as the grain is re-
moved, they will attempt to run away,
and may be killed by sticks within
the enclosure.

M 0 W. The mass of hay, straw,
grain, &c., put up to dry and be pre-
served.

MUC

MOW-BURNED. Injured by fer-
mentation in the mow. Fodder, when
too green, heats rapidly, becomes
black, and acquires a bituminous
taste ; this is disagreeable, and some-
times injurious to cattle.

MOWING. The operation of cut-
ting down grass or other crops with
a scythe. The instruments used
are the common scythe, the cradle-
scythe where grain is cut, and the
Hainhault scythe and hook, which
answers for heavy crops. The op-
eration is extremely fatiguing, and
requires great strength and practice
from youth, as the body is swung
round in a very unusual manner.

MOWING MACHINES. See
Reaping Machines.

MOXA. A conical mass of calico
or linen, rolled tightly, and with a
base of half an inch or more ; used
to produce a sore on the skin in cer-
tain diseases. The moxa, being pla-
ced on the part selected, is set oa
fire at the upper part, and, burning
slowly downward, acts as an actual
cautery. The sore is kept open by
being dressed with basilicon, savin,
and irritating ointments, and serves
as an issue.

MOYA. Mud poured out by vol-
canoes.

MUCIC ACID. An acid produced
by the action of nitric acid on gum
and sugar of milk. It is a white,
crystalline powder, feebly acid, solu-
ble in six parts boilmg water, and
insoluble in alcohol. It is bibasic.
Formula, C12 Hs Om -f- 2 HO. It was
formerly called saccholactic acid.
Mucic acid is converted into the py-
romucic by dry distillation. Cm H3 O5
-j- HO. Both these acids form chlo-
ro compounds with chlorine.

MUCIL.\GE. A thick solution of
gimi in w^ater. The ropy fluids ex-
tracted from certain plants by pres-
sure are also called mucilage.

MUCIVORA. A family of dipte-
rous insects, which feed on the juices
of plants and decaying matters.

MUCK. A vulgar name for peat,
marsh mud, and decaying vegetable
matter generallv.

MUCOUS MEMBRANE. The
507

MUL

MUL

membrane which lines the mouth,
nostrils, exterior of tlie eyes, lungs,
stomach, intestines, bladder, and uri-
nary apparatus. It secretes an ani-
mal fluid, uuiciis, by which it is moist-
ened and [)r()tectcd from tlie contact
of air and other substances. Irrita-
tions and inflammations are very
common, and do not extend so rap-
idly as in otber membranes. They
are usually subdued by bleeding, ca-
thartics ; or special medicines, when
the lungs or urinary membrane is at-
tacked.

MUCIIONATE. In botany, a leaf
or other organ, having a rounded ex-
tremity, tipped with a sharp point or
prickle.

MUCUS. The viscid, ropy secre-
tion of the mucous membrane. It
contains five per cent, solid matter
(albumen), and is azotized.

MUD. The fine particles of earth
and organic matters suspended in
rivers, &c., and deposited by subsi-
dence. When mellowed by exposure
to frost, and composted with one
bushel of lime to tbe cubic yard, it
makes a good amendment to loose,
thin soils, destitute of humus.

MUD WALLS. See Cottages.

MUDAR. Calotropis giganica.
An asclepiadeous plant, used medi-
cinally in scrofula in the East.

MUFF L E. A serai-cylindrical
vessel of earthen-ware, capable of re-
sisting a high temperature, in which
crucibles are placed in assaying, and
by which means they are exposed to
a great heat without coming in con-
tact with the fuel. The upper, curv-
ed side, is usually cut into slits, to
allow the passage of reflected heat.

MUGWORT. Artemisia xndgaris.
A kind of wormwood. It is used in
decoction, as a weak stomachic bit-
ter.

MULBERRY. The genus Morus.
They prefer a moist, deep, loamy soil,
and good exposure. The mulberries
are readily propagated by layers and
cuttings put down in spring. The
black fruit {M. nigra) mulberry grows
to a large size. The fruit is rather
sickly, and used as a sirup in medi-
cine. There is a red variety. The
ri08

wood is yellow, and tolerably hard ;
it is used in carving and turning.
The bark makes strong ropes, when
separated by steeping in water and
twisted. A common wine is made
from mulberries in some parts of Eu-
rope. The bark of the root is a ver-
mifuge and cathartic.

The wild mulberry {Mortis rubra)
of the United States yields smaller
and pleasant fruit. The M. tarlanca
of the north of Europe yields an in-
sipid fruit, which is, however, pre-
served, dried, and made into a wine
and spirit.

The 31. tinctoria, or yellow mulber-
ry, yields the fustic of commerce.
See Fustic.

The white Italian mulberry {M.
alba) is a small tree of 15 to 20 feet,
and extensively cultivated in France
and Italy as food for silk-worms.
This tree has been much developed
and improved. From it the choice
Moretta, Provence, and Lombardy
mulberries, for silk culture, have been
obtained. The multicaulis, Broussa,
and Canton, with the hybrid multi-
caulis, are most suitable for silk cul-
ture in the United States, especially
the last, which can bo cut down to
the roots annually, and thus kept per-
fectly free of frost, for all the mul-
berries are tender with respect to
climate. The Broussa and white
yield the earliest foliage, but that of
the latter is too small.

The paper mulberry {Broussonetia
papyrifcra) is a tree of some 20 feet,
cultivated, in China and .Japan, for
the paper which is made from the
bark of the young shoots. The bark
is steeped in water, then boiled,
washed, and beaten into a pulp ; this
pulp, being put into water, separates
like grains of meal ; to this a miTci-
lage from rice and the root of the
manihot is added, to give it consist-
ence ; it is then spread, pressed, and
dried. The juice of the tree also
furnishes a glutinous varnish, used
in gilding. The inner bark of the
same tree supplies the Otaheitans
with a white cloth. The muUicau-
lis and other varieties, treated in the
same way, make a coarse paper ; the

MUL

MUR

the pulp is best prepared by steam-
ing.

MULBERRY CALCULUS. A
stone of the bladder of the colour
and appearance of the mulberry fruit,
and consisting of oxalate of linie. It
is uncommon.

MULCH. Straw or litter half rot-
ted. Shrubs surrounded with it are
said to be mulched.

MULE. "The well-known off-
spring of the ass and the mare, or of
the she ass and the horse. In the
latter case, the produce is called a
jennet, and is much less hardy, and
therefore rarely bred. The term
mule is generally applied, in the ani-
mal creation, in the same sense with
hybrid in the vegetable world, signi-
fying tiie intermixture of two distinct
species. Mules are very hardy ani-
mals, and therefore much used in
warm climates, where they are pre-
ferred to horses, either for the pur-
poses of draught or carriage. No
animal is more sure-footed or more
hardy ; but the pace of the mule is
disagreeable to those unaccustomed
to its action. The diseases to which
the mule is liable are few. He at-
tains double the age of the horse,
and is much more easily maintained.
The mules of the South of Europe
are frequently very fine animals, 16
or 17 hands in height, active, hand-
some, and peculiarly patient of la- ^
hour, but very inferior in beauty to
the horse, particularly about the head
and tail. The importation of Span-
ish jacks has tended greatly to im-
prove mules, many of which, when
bred with care, are sufficiently thick-
set and heavy for all those purposes
in which our largest draught-horses
are employed. I

"To have large and handsome I
nmles, the mare should be of a large
breed, well proportioned, with rather
small limbs, a moderate-sized head,
and a good forehead ; and the ass I
should be of the large Spanish breed." I
They are incapable of propagation. I

MULING. Hvbridizmg. ^ee Hy- i
brid. ' j

MULLEIN. Verhascum thapsus. A
common, biennial, large weed, with ]
U u 2

yellow flowers. They are readily
overcome by cultivation, and are usu-
ally seen only on neglected fields.
There are other species of Verbas-
ciim, but they arc unimportant weeds.

MULLION. The upright post or
bar dividing two lights in a window.

MULTIARTICULATE. A term
applied, in natural history, to the an-
tenna;, legs, &c., of animals or in-
sects which have many joints.

MULTIFID. Divided into many
segments.

MULTILOCULAR. Having many
compartments or chambers.

MUMPS. An irritation of the pa-
rotid and neighbouring glands, at-
tended with much swelling.

MUNJEET. A kind of madder
cultivated in the East. — (Urc).

ML'KEXIDE. A beautiful red prod-
uct of the decomposition of uric acid
by nitric acid. Murexan is formed
by dissolving murexide in solution of
caustic potass.

MURIACITE. A kind of sulphate
of lime, containing common salt.

MURIATES. Salts containing
chlorine, more properly called chlo-
rides ; muriate of soda is common salt.

MURIATIC ACID, SPIRITS
OF SALT, HYDROCHLORIC
ACID, MARINE ACID. The sub-
stance obtained in commerce is a so-
lution of the true gaseous acid ; it is
of a yellowish colour from impurities,
and at specific gravity 1-15 contains
30 per cent, of real acid : this fluid
fumes, possesses a disagreeable smell,
and is highly caustic ; it decomposes
carbonates rapidly, and unites with
most mineral oxides. The composi-
tion of pure hydrochloric acid is 1
equivalent chlorine with 1 hydrogen ;
its combining number is, therefore,
36 47 : it is procu^^d by distilling
common salt with sulphuric acid in
an earthen-ware apparatus, and re-
ceiving the vapour i.i water.

Muriatic acid forms soluble com-
pounds with many oxides, and is
iience extensively u.sed as a solvent
in chemistry ; the pure acid should
be colourless and yii.'ld no precipitate
with solution of barytes. The pres-
ence of muriatic acid and chlorine is
509

ML'S

MUS

detected by the peculiar curdy pre-
cipitate they yield with nitrate of sil-
ver, which is soluble while I'resh in
ammonia, but blackens by exposure
to light.

A\'hen muriatic acid acts on a me-
tallic oxide, there results a chloride
of the metal for the most part, the hy-
drogen of the acid and oxygen of the
oxide forming water.

MURICATE. Thorny. In zoolo-
gy, a surface armed with short conical
eminences, having a sharp apex.

MURID.E. A famUy of rodents, of
which the mouse is a type.

MURRAIN. " A contagious, ma-
lignant epidemic, which prevails in
hot, dry seasons among cattle, carry-
ing off numbers. It once used to
sweep off the horned stock of whole
districts. It principally appears in
marshy and woody districts, or where
draining has been neglected, or the
cattle have been exposed and half
starved. The disease is known by
the animals hanging down their
heads, which are swollen, by short
and hot breathing, cough, palpitation
of the heart, staggering, an abundant
secretion of viscid matter in the eyes,
rattling in the throat, and a slimy
tongue. The early stage of murrain
is one of fever, and the treatment
should correspond with this : bleed-
ing and small doses of purgative med-
icine will be serviceable. The pecu-
liar foetid diarrhoea must be met with
astringents, mingled also with vege-
table tonics. In combating the pus-
tular and gangrenous stage, the chlo-
ride of lime will be the best external
application ; while a little of it, ad-
ministered with the other medicines
inwardly, may possibly lessen the
tendency to general decomposition.
Above all, the infected animal should
be immediately removed from the
sound ones." — {Youatt on Cattle.)

MUSACE^. A small family of
tropical plants, resembling the ma-
rantaceae, and including the plantain
(Musa sapientum) and banana {M. par- I
adisiaca), which, together, yield the ,
greater part of the nourishment of j
tropical America. The leaves are i
also used for thatch, and the fibres of j
510

the stem for cordage. The curious

flowering plants called strelitzias are
of this family,

MUSCHEL-KALK. Shell lime-
stone, the strata belonging to the new
red sandstone series.

MUSCI. See Mosses.

MUSCICAPA. Agenus ofdenti-
rostral passerine birds ; they live on
insects and small birds.

MUSCID.E. A family of dipterous
insects, resemblmg the fly (musca).

MUSCLE. Fleshy fibres, suscep-
tible of contraction and relaxation,
and by which the phenomena of mo-
tion in animals takes place. They
are voluntary, or under the influence
of the will, and involuntary, as the
heart, the muscles of the intestines,
&c. They are of a red colour when
filled with blood-vessels, but are nat-
urally white, and consist of fibrine,
surrounded by cellular tissue, and
supplied with nerves, &c.

The lean of meats consists of mus-
cular fibre mostly ; it contains about 23
per cent, solid matter, the rest being
water. The solid consists of 51 8
carbon, If) hydrogen, 150 nitrogen,
21-3 oxygen, with sulphur and phos-
phorus, and 2 3 ashes per cent. It is
one of the most nutritious aliments.
MUSCOVADO. The brown moist
sugar as separated from the mo-
lasses.

MUSHROOM. A term commonly
used to designate the tribe of fungi,
toadstools. More correctly, the Agar-
icus cainpestris, a mushroom w'iih a
white smooth cap, with flesh-colour-
ed gills, a pleasant odour, growing in
fertile meadows during the autumnal
months, and collected as a delicacy,
and for the manufacture of catsup.
Mushrooms are propagated from
spawn, which is kept by the seeds-
men, or it may be collected in the
fall in those places where the plants
abound ; it resembles pieces of thread,
and is imbedded in earth or dung.
When kept quite dry, the spawn will
retain its germinating power for three
or four years. The following is chief-
ly from Loudon and Bridgeman :

" A mushroom bed is simply a heap
of animal dung and earth, so tern-

MUSHROOM.

pered as to be capable of producing
and preserving spawn ; but, in order
to have fruitful spawn at all times, it
should be so formed as to be always
at command. To this end, a quan-
tity of fresh horse droppings, mixed
with short litter, should be collected ;
add to this one third of cow dung,
and a small portion of good earth, to
cement it together ; mash the whole
into a thin compost, Hke grafting
clay ; then form it in the shape of
bricks, which being done, set them on
edge, and frequently turn them until
half dry ; then, with a dibble, make
one or two holes in each brick, and
insert in each hole a piece of spawn
the size of an egg : the bricks should
then be laid where they can dry grad-
ually. When dry, lay dry horse
dung on a level floor, six or eight
inches thick ; on this pile the bricks,
the spawn side uppermost. When
the pile is snugly formed, cover it
with a small portion of fresh warm
horse dung, sufficient in quantity to
produce a gentle glow through the
whole, \^'hen the spawn has spread
itself through every part of the bricks
the process is ended, and they may
be laid up in any dry place for use.
Mushroom spawn, made according to
this receipt, will preserve its vegeta-
ting powers for many years, if well
dried before it is laid up ; if moist, it
will grow, and soon exhaust itself.

" Mushroom beds are often formed
in ridges in the open air, and covered
with litter and mats, so as to prevent
heavy rains exciting fermentation ;
and sometimes in ridges of the same
sort undercover, as in the open sheds
of hot-houses. They are also made in
close sheds behind hot-houses, or in
houses built on purpose, called mush-
room-houses. A moderately warm,
light cellar is peculiarly suited for the
purpose in the winter season, as no
fire is necessary, and but little water,
the application of which frequently
proves injurious, when not judicious-
ly managed. Mushrooms may also be
raised in pots, boxes, hampers, &c.,
placed in warm situations, in old beds,
in pits with glazed frames, and in
dark frames or pits.

" The general way of making mush-
room beds is to prepare a body of
stable dung, moderately fermented,
about a yard in thickness, more or
less, according to the size and situa-
tion in which the bed is to be formed ;
when the strotig heat has subsided,
an inch of good mould may be laid
over it, and the spawn planted there-
in in rows five or six inches apart ;
after this is done, another layer of
mould, an inch thick, may be added,
and then a coat of straw. Beds well
constructed will produce mushrooms
in five or six weeks, and will con-
tinue to produce for several months,
if care be taken in gathering not to
destroy the young ones. As mush-
rooms are gathered, from time to
time, the straw should be spread
carefully over the bed.

" Beds made in a convenient place,
where there is space all around, may
be formed so as to make four sloping
surfaces, similar to the roof of a
house ; this, by being spawned on
the four sides, will yield abundantly.
The celebrated Mr. Nichol makes his
beds without spawn.

" After having laid a floor of ashes,
stones, chips, gravel, or brickbats, so
as to keep the bed quite dry and free
from under damp, lay a course of
horse droppings, six inches thick.
These should be new from the sta-
bles, and must not be broken, and the
drier the better. They may be col-
lected every day until the whole floor
or sole be covered to the above thick-
ness ; but they must not be allowed
to ferment or heat. In the whole
process of making up, the bed should
be as much exposed to the air as pos-
sible ; and it should be carefully de-
fended from wet if out of doors.
A\'hen this course is quite dry, and
judged to be past a state of ferment-
ation, cover it to the thickness of
two inches with light, dry eartii ; if
sandy, so much the better. It is im-
material whether it be rich or not,
the only use of earth here being for
spawn to run and mass in. Now lay
another course of droppings, and
earth them over as above, when past
a state of fermentation : then a third
511

MUS

MI'S

I'ourse, which, in likft manner, cartli
ail over. Tiiis finishes the bed,
which will be a very strong and pro-
ductive one if properly managed af-
terward.

" Observe that, in forming the bed,
it should be a little rounded, in order
that the centre may not be more wet
or moist than the sides. This may
be done in forming the sole or floor
at first, and the bed would then be of
equal strength in all parts. If it be
made up against a wall in a cellar,
stable, or shed, it may have a slope
of a few inches from the back to the
front, less or more, according to its
breadth. I have sometimes been con-
tented with two courses, as above, in-
stead of three; and often, when ma-
terials were scarce, have made them
up slighter, thus : three four-inch
courses of droppings, with one inch
of earth between each, and a two-
inch covering at top. Such a bed as
this I have had produce for ten or
twelve months together ; but very
much depends on the state of the ma-
terials, on the care taken in making
it up, and also on the after manage-
ment.

" The droppings of hard-fed horses
only are useful. Those of horses
kept on green food will, of them-
selves, produce few or no mush-
rooms. I have made up beds from
farm horses, fed partly on hard and
partly on green food, and from car-
riage or saddle horses, fed entirely
on corn and hay ; treated them in the
same way in every respect, and have
found, not once, but always, those
made from the latter most produc-
tive. Droppings from hard-fed horses
may be procured at the public stables
in towns, or at inns in the country,
any time of the year ; and if the sup-
ply be plentiful, a bed of considerable
dimensions may be made and finish-
ed within five or six weeks. In as
many more weeks, if in a stable or
dry cellar, or a flued shed, it vvdl be-
gin to produce, and often sooner ; but
if the situation of the bed be cold, it
will sometimes be two or three
months in producing mushrooms.

" It may be necessary to state, far-
512

thnr, that e.vtremes of heat, cold,
drought, and moisture should be
avoided iii the cultivation of mush-
rooms. If the temperature keeps up
to 50^ in the winter, the beds will be
safe, and the heat in the beds may
rise to GO^, or even 70°, without inju-
ry. Air, also, must be admitted in
proportion to the heat, and GO' should
be aimed at as a medium tempera-
ture. Water, when given a little at
a time, is better than too much at
once, after the spawn has begun to
spread, and the water for this pur-
pose should always be made blood-
warm. A light covering of straw
may be used to preserve moisture on
the surface ; and if the beds are made
in open frames, or otherwise subject
to exposure, the straw may be laid
thicker than on beds made in a cellar.

" Should beds fail in producing
mushrooms after having been kept
over hot or wet, it may be inferred
that the spawn is injured or destroy-
ed ; but if, on the contrary, a bed
that has been kept moderately warm
and dry should happen to be unpro-
ductive, such bed may be well replen-
ished with warm water, and a coat
of warm dung may be laid over the
whole. If this does not enliven the
bed after having lain a month, take
off the earth, and if, on examination,
there is no appearance of spawn, the
whole may be destroyed ; but if, on
the contrary, the bed should contain
spawn, it may be renovated by cov-
ering it again, especially if any small
tubercles be discernible ; if the heat
should have declined, the spawn may
be taken out and used in a fresh bed.
If beds be formed in hot-bed frames
under glass, some mats or straw must
be laid over the glass to break off the
intense heat of the sun."

If any accidents arise from eating
improper mushrooms, vomiting, by
means of a mixture of salt and wa-
ter, should be encouraged.

M U S K M E L O N. The common
yellow melons, of little flavour, and
unworthy of cultivation. See Melon.

M U S Q U I T O, MOSQUITO. In-
sects of the genus Culex, armed with a
sharp proboscis, by which they pierce

MIS

MIT

the skin. They abound in damp pla-
ces.

MUST. The fresh juice of the
grape before fermentation. Other
juices capable of fermentation.

-MUSTARD. Two species are cul-

tivated, both annuals ; the Sinapis
alba (a), for salad, oil, as an jngredi-
ent in pickles and medicine ; and S.
nigra (b), or black mustard, for the
condiment known by that name. For
salad, the seeds are sown very thick
in rows of two or three inches wide,
and the crop cut while in the second
leaf It grows up in a few days, and
may be sown any time during the
season, if well watered and sheltered
from the hot sun.

For a lield crop the soil should be
fine, rich, and loamy, deeply plough-
ed, rather moist and light than oth-
erwise. The seed is sown thinly,
broadcast, in April or May : two to
three gallons are used per acre. The
plants are hoed in the fourth leaf,
and, to keep down weeds, thinned to
eight or twelve inches apart, and col-
lected as soon as the pods have
changed from green. It may be sown
jn drills two feet apart, and twelve
inches in the row. It must be well
dried before thrashing, which is done
b}' a flail. It ought not to be exposed
to rains. A good crop is twenty-four
to thirty-two bushels per acre, which
will bring from S70 to SIOO, at eight
cents the pound for seed. In the

■ manufacture of mustard the white
and black seeds are combined, al-
though tiie black is best ; they are
pressed between rollers, and ground
in a mill set apart for the purpose,
and sifted and screened as fine flour.
: The pungency of mustard, by which
it raises blisters on the skin, is due
j to a volatile oil containing sulphur,
I which is not originally present in the
: flour, but results from the action of
i the moistened emulsin {myrosyne)
of the seeds upon a peculiar acid
present, to which the name of my-
ronic acid has been given. The se-
cret of making good flour, therefore,
consists of keeping the whole perfect-
ly dry from the seeds to the lime of
sale, otherwise the changes which
produce the active principle will have
taken place before it is wanted. Vin-
egar diminishes this change, and
should not be used with mustard : te-
pid water is the proper fluid to mix
up the condiment, or make the irrita-
ting poultice. The seeds of many
cruciferous plants are occasionally
substituted for the true mustard.

The white mustard yields a bland
oil in large quantity, from twenty-five
to thirty per cent, by expression. The
cake is employed as a good manure.
The black species is also sown in
borders around seed beds, to protect
them from the black flies (haltka).

MUSTELLA. The genus contain-
ing the weasel and other vermin
quadrupeds.

MUTAGE. A process to stop the
fermentation of must. It is practised
either by diffusing sulphurous acid in
the cask into which the liquor is rack-
ed by burning sulphur matches, or by
adding a little sulphite of lime to the
must : the latter is the best.

M U T I C U S. Beardless, without
awns, or arista.

MUTTON. The flesh of the sheep.
The best meat is that from wethers
three to five years old, of the South
Down or improved Leicester breed.
The spayed ewe five years old is also
said to make equally good m.eat. The
offal of a well-made animal with fine
bone should not exceed one third of
the live weight.

513

nm;v

NAP

MUZZLE. The nose of an animal.
A kind of halter fastened over the
nose to prevent an animal from biting.
Muzzle of a plough is the end of the
beam to which the clevis is attached.

MYCELLA. The young, floccu-
lent filaments of fungi.

MYOLOGY (from fzvuv, a muscle,
and ?Myor, a discnvrse). An account
of the muscles of the body.

MYOPS. Shortsightedness.

MYRIAMETER. Ten thousand
metres, equal to two leagues.

MYRICIN. That portion of wax
which is insoluble in alcohol.

MYRISTICACE.i:. A family of
tropical trees, exogens, containing the
nutmeg. They are nearly allied to the
laurels.

MYRONIC ACID, MYRON-
ATES. An acid existing in crucif-
erous seeds, and containing sulphur.

MYROBALANS. A bitter, aus-
tere fruit, used in India in calico dye-
ing and medicine.

MYROSYNE. A substance re-
sembling emulsin, or caseum, in mus-
tard seeds.

MYRRH. An odoriferous gum
resin imported from the East, and
supposed to be the product of a spe-
cies of Amyris. Sweet cicely is some-
times called by this name.

MYRTACE.E. A family of small
trees and shrubs, particularly devel-
oped in tropical climates, and yield-
ing the pimento, cloves, guava, caje-
put, and other aromatic products.

MYRTLE. Myrtus communis. An
evergreen, fragrant bush with white
flowers. It is a Southern plant, and
requires protection from frosts.

MYRTLE BILBERRY. The
whortleberry.

MYRTLE, DUTCH, or SWEET
GALE. Myricagale. A sweet-scent-
ed, swamp shrub, three or four feet
high, bearing waxy berries.

N.

NACREOUS. Reflecting irides-
cent light, like pearl.

NACRITE. A pearly mineral.
Silicate of alumina and potash

N ^E V U S. A natural mark or
blotch on the skin.
614

\AG. a small horse.

NAILS. The horny extremities
of tlie skin, modified into claws, tal-
ons, hoofs, &ic. They are of the same
composition as hair, and yield an
equally valuable manure. 100 lbs.,
during decomposition, yield 20 lbs.
of ammonia. Tliey are best in com-
posts, at the rate of 300 to 400 lbs.
to the acre, and show their efl^ects
for several years. The composition
of horn gives that of nails, hoofs,
&c., 52 carbon, 6-7 hydrogen, 173
nitrogen, 24 oxygen and sulphur, with
less than one per cent, ashes, in 100
parts. All these textures are used
m the manufacture of glue.

NAKED. In botany, without the
customary covermg, as a stem with-
out leaves, corolla without calyx, &c.

NAKED DISEASE, PELT ROT,
HUNGER ROT. A disease of sheep
poorly kept, in which the wool, and
sometimes the horns and hoofs, drop
off. It is to be remedied, if taken m
time, by shelter and good food in suf-
ficient quantity.

NAKED FLOORING. The tim-
ber-work of the floor.

NANKIN, NANKEEN. A buff
colour. Calico may be dyed of this
colour by the followmg means : Take
300 lbs. of yarn, scour and boil in pure
water, wince the hanks in an alum
bath containing 2 lbs. of alum to 96
gallons of water at 165^ Fahr. ; drain,
expose to the air, rinse in pure wa-
ter, and wring. Boil 40 lbs. of oak
bark, contained in a canvass bag, for
two hours, in 100 gallons of water;
wince the cotton through the boiling
bath a quarter of an hour ; while it is
draining above the bath, add 28 ounces
of alum ; and, when it is dissolved,
wince through again for a quarter of
an hour ; drain, wring, and expose to
the air. It is now of a yellowish col-
our. Make a clear liniewater bath
of about 150 gallons, or a weak soda
lye ; dip the hanks, without washing,
into it rapidly three times ; then
move each hank separately in the
bath until it is of the proper colour ;
squeeze, rinse, and air them, and,
finally, brighten by passing them
through a weak solution of tin.

NAT

NEA

NAPHTHA. A highly-inflammalile
fluid, of a peculiar odour, sp. gr. 0 75,
which exudes from tlie earth in some
places. A similar fluid is distilled
from wood tar, and called wood naph-
tl a. It is used as a solvent of India
rubber.

NAPHTHALINE. A white, crys-
talline, volatile product of the de-
structive distillation of pit coal.
Naphthalic acid, naphthalamide, &c.,
are derivatives.
NAPIFORM. Turnip-shaped.
NARCEIA. A vegetable alkaloid
from opium, producing salts of a blue
colour. Little is known concerning
its effects.

NARCISSUS. Ornamental bul-
bous flowers.

NARCOTICS. Anodynes. Drugs
which produce sleep, drowsiness, and
allay pain. Opium, henbane, tobac-
co, camphor, stramonium, &.C., are
of this kind.

NARCOTINE. A vegetable alka-
loid existing in opium, to which its
stimulating effects is due.
NARES. The nostrils.
NASCENT. In the act of being
produced or evolved. A chemical
phrase given to the evolution of gas-
es from fluids, at which time they
are more fitted to unite with other
bodies. Hydrogen, nitrogen, and oth-
er gases, in the aeriform state, com-
bine only slowly with substances,
but when nascent enter readily into
union.

NASTURTIUM. Cress, Indian.
NASTJTA (from nasus, the nose).
A prolongation of the muzzle into the
form of a nose.

NATANS, NATANT, NAYANT.
Floating or swimming.

NATATORY. In zoology, when
the feet or tail are provided with a
membrane or hairs to repel or dis-
place water, and buoy up the insect
or animal.

NATRIUM. Sodium. See Soda.
NATROLITE. A fibrous, yellow-
ish mineral. Silicate of alumina and
soda.

NATRON. Soda. Impure, native
sesquicarbonate of soda, found in
Egypt, Fezzan, Tartary, Hindostan,

in Mexico near Zacatecas, and in Co-

lunihia forty-eijrht miles from Merida.
That of Fezzan is called Trona, and
the Columbian Urao. All these lo-
calities are cither in lakes or on the
sites of ancient lakes. Egyptian na-
tron consists of 22 44 carbonate of
soda, 18 35 sulphate of soda, 38.64
common salt, 6 0 insoluble matter,
and 14 0 water : trona, of 65 75 car-
bonate, 7 65 sulphate, 2 63 salt, 24
water, 1 insoluble matter.

NATURAL HISTORY. A de-
scription of natural objects, as ani-
mals, plants, insects, fishes, miner-
als, fossils.

NATURAL ORDERS OF
PLANTS. Natural system of Jussieu.
Groups of plants having a close sim-
ilarity in internal organization, and
frequently in external characters and
properties.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
Physics, mechanical philosophy. The
science which investigates the me-
chanical laws of nature ; and the rela-
tions of weight, movement, pressure,
or of mechanical forces in masses.

NAUCA. A seed in which the
scar of the hilum occupies a third of
the surface.

NAUSEA. A feeling similar to
that preceding the act of vomiting.

NAVE OF A WHEEL. The hub,
the block in the centre of the spokes,
which receives them. It is bound by
two nave-bands of iron on the outside,
and contains in the inside an iron box
or washer, to save the friction of the
axle.

NAVEL ILL See Calf.
NAVEL-WORT. The American
plant is Hydrocotyle umbellala, and a
water weed.

NAVE W. Brassica campestris.
The wild plant is a native of Eng-
land : in the cultivated form it is
known as colza and rape.

NAVICULAR (from navis, aship).
Having the figure of a ship's body. It
is applied to the nut bone of the foot,
as well as to the form of seeds, &,c.
NEAT CATTLE. Horned cattle,
oxen.

NEAT'S-FOOT OIL. The fat ob
taiaed by boiling calve's feet.

615

NEIl

NUT

NEBULA. A cluster of small stars
appearing like a minute cloud.

NECK, COLLL.M. In [.lants. the
space between the stem and roots,
often swollen in size. 'I'lie neck of a
capital is the sj)ace ahove the shaft
between the ring {annulet) above, and
the astragal at the top of the shaft.

N E C K O P H A G A N S, NECRO-
PHAG A (from vei<poc, dead, and <payu,
I cat). A family of clavicorn beetles,
some of which live on decomposing
animal matters.

NECROSIS (from vsKpoeiv, to de-
stroy). A disease, resembling morti-
fication, of the bony structures. In
plants, the term means the rotting of
the part.

NECTARY, NECTARIUM. The
part of a flower which secretes hon-
ey. It is usually an appendage of
the petals or disk.

NECTARINE. The smooth peach.
See Peach.

NEGATIVE SIGN. Minus, or
— . It is employed to denote quan-
tities or measures below a standard.

NELUMBIUM. A marsh plant of
China, the seeds of which, of the size
of an acorn, are eaten green, or pre-
served as sweatmeats, and have a
nutty flavour. The succulent roots
are also eaten raw as a fruit, or boil-
ed as a vegetable.

NEMOCERA. A family of dipte-
ra, with filiform antennae.

NEMOGLOSSATA. The bee
tribe, and those hymenoptera which
have a long, thread-like tongue.

NEMOROSE, NETilOROSA. Be-
longing to the woods.

NEP. Catmint.

NEPHRITE. A tough, greenish
mineral, used to manufacture orna-
ments. A silicate of alumina and
magnesia with iron.

NEPHRITES (from ve(f>poc). In-
flammation of the kidney. Bleeding,
warm baths, purges, diluents are
used.

NEPTUANIAN THEORY. The
theory of Werner, that geological for-
mations were due to aqueous causes.

NERIUM. A genus of important

Eastern plants. N. ayUidyscntericum

affords the codaga bark ; N. tinctori-

616

urn, a beautiful evergreen of India,
affords some indigo from its leaves.

NEROLI, OIL OF. The distilled
essential oils of orange flowers.

NERVES. The white, thread-
like fibres which, proceeding from
the brain or spinal marrow, ramify
throughout every part of the bodies
of the higlier animals. They convey
impressions from and to the brain,
preside over the functions of the dif-
ferent organs, and regulate motion
and the senses. Nerves can hardly
be said to be absent in any animals,
although they become extremely ru-
dimentary in many. Chemically, ner-
vous matter consists of seven parts
albumen, five fatty matter, and eighty
water. The fat is peculiar, contain-
ing phosphorus.

Most diseases affecting the whole
body are accompanied, or commence
in an impaired state of the nervous
system, which presides over health.
Nerves are said to be cerebral when
they proceed directly from the brain :
there are nine pairs of these, and
they preside over the senses. The
nerves arising from the spinal mar-
row are termed spinal nerves, and di-
vided into cervical, dorsal, lumbar,
and sacral. They preside over mo-
tion and ordinary sensation, as well
as the functions of the lungs, stom-
ach, liver, and other viscera. The
great sympathetic nerve is a series of
junctions between the spinal nerves,
and is connected with the brain ; in
its course, small masses of a reddish
colour occur, called ganglions : it
renders the functions of the different
organs uniform. A plexus of nerves
is a net-work formed by the union of
various filaments.

NERVES, or NERVURES. In
plants, the raiuifications of woody
tissue and vessels seen upon leaves,
flowers, &c. They support the cel-
lular tissue of the leaves.

NETHERLANDS, HUSBANDRY
OF. See Flanders.

NETTED. Reticulated, marked
like the meshes of a net.

NETTLE. The genus Urtica,
herbaceous and shrubby plants, often
furnished with stinging hairs : their

NEW

MD

burning is lessened by vinegar and ; NEW HUSBANDRY. The drill
oil. A rennet is made bv adding salt , and iiorse-hoe husbandry,
to a strong decoction of liettles. Ass- j NEW RED SANDSTONE. The
cs eat the common nettle, and some- series of strata lying immediately
times the boiled sprouts are used as i above the coal formation. It con-
vegetables. The commonest sting- sists of conglomerates, and contains
ing species are U. dioica, urcns. Can- \ marl, gypsum, and large quantities
adcnsis, and proccra. The common | of rock salt. It is found abundantly

nettle (dwica) is a troublesome peren-
nial weed in cultivated lands, and re-
quires to be ploughed out by tillage.
The U. nivca and ainnabina yield fine
hemp. The U. Canadensis, Canada

in New-York, the Valley of Virginia,
and of the Connecticut.

NEW ZEALAND FLAX. Plwr-
mium lenax. Iris-leaved flax lily. It
grows with broad, stiff leaves, like

or Albany nettle, grows six feet high, 1 those of lilies, the fibres of which are
is indigenous, perennial, and has been ; readily obtained by rotting. They

recommended as a hemp plant. It is,
however, covered with stings.

NETTLE-TREE. The genus Cf^
tis, amentaceous trees. The princi-
pal American species is the C. occi-
dcnlalts, the sugar or pompion berry.
It is seldom twenty feet in the Mid-
dle .States, but becomes seventy on
the Savannah. It is ornamental, with
small, white flowers, and sweet, red-
dish fruit.

NETS. They are useful in the or-
chard and garden to protect seed and
fruit from buds.

NEURALGIA. Painof the nerves.

NEURILEMA. The covering of
the nerves.

NEUROPTERA. Insectswith
four netted winss. See Insects.

are of extraordinary strength, and
used for fishing-lines, cordage, and
coarse cloth. It requires a warm
climate for successful cultivation.

NICARAGUA WOOD. The dye-
wood of the Ccesalpina eckinata, a tree
of South America. The red colour
is fugitive with solution of tin.

NICHE. A recess in a wall for a
statue.

NICKEL. A rare white metal,
like iron. Its salts are green for the
most part. It exists in meteoric
stones.

NICKING AND DOCKING.
Pricking. Cutting off'part of a horse's
tail, and making nicks on the under
side, to divide the two cords which
draw down the tail ; this causes the
NEUTERS. Infertile animals or j stump to stand out in what a stable-

plants, having neither stamens nor
pistils.

NEUTRAL, NEUTRAL I-
ZATION, NEUTRALIZED. The
combination of an acid with an alka-

boy supposes a graceful fashion. It
is nearlv obsolete.

NICOTIN, NTCOTINA. An ac-
rid, soluble, volatile alkaloid found
in tobacco. It combines with acids,
11, or of two active bodies together, '■ and forms salts. It is very poisonous,
by which the properties of either are i NICOTIANIN. A fatty, volatile,
perfectly destroyed. The addition azotized body, insoluble in water,
mast be made in the proportion of \ lormed during the fermentation of
their equivalents to produce neutral tobacco in preparing for the market,
compounds. and to which its odour is due. It is

NEUTRAL SALTS. Salts which poisonous, especially to insects and

betray neither an acid nor alkaline re
action.

NEWEL. In building, the space
around which a flight of steps is
turned.

NEW-JERSEY TEA. Ceanothus
Americana. A common marsh shrub
with fragrant bunches of flowers. It
was used in the Revolution for tea.
X X

reptiles.

NICTITATION. Winking. The
movement of the membrane covering
the eyes of birds and some animals,
called the membrana niclilans.

NIDUS. A nest. A suitable po-
sition or matrix for development.
Niduliis and nidulale are deriva-
tives.

517

NIG

M(J

^'ul^J!'^!'^:'^'"!' ^™"- I The salts had the fbll

ing black. AVr/r««.v, blackish. s()(,fv
NIGHTSHADES. The gonus *V
lajaun. They are iiiostlv pcrennia] or
shrubby, of th(3 faiiiilv fio/anaccie, the
fruit and leaves being often poison-
ous, especially in the S. niirrum and
dulciimiira, or bittersweet. They are
common weeds in moist, cultivated
grounds. 'l"he deadly nightshade is
the Atropa belladonna. The potato
egg fruit, and tomato are of this ffcnus' I

NIGHT SOIL. The contents of
privies. It IS a very valuable manur
/or all crops. In the fresh state it is
applied at the rate of six to twelve
cart loads the acre; but this is an
unpleasant and wasteful application
It may be dried, and rendered ino-
dorous by union with charcoal, char-

owing com-

position :

('.irhunate of soda ... 90 /i

I Chloride of sodium 9, *

Sulphate of soda . j?.?

Ammoiiiaco-magnesian phosphate ! ' 'll-fi
Phosphate of lime ....... .235

JOiFo

Human urine is one of the most
powerful of all manures. Left to it-
self, u speedily undergoes putrefac-
tion, and evolves an abundance of am-
moniacal salts. Its composition is :

Urea ,

IJricacid ..:;■■ Oil

Iiidetermjnate animal matter )'

LactsR acid, and lactate of ammonia • .1 "1

AIucus of the bladder . . nno

Sulphate of potash ... • • • ■ ""^

Sulphate of soda . . • • • • "J/

Phosphate of soda ....';;'■ (J.gg

rpri nf>Tt ni- hvr.I.„„ „ 1 ",'' ^''"'" ( ''hloride of sodium . .

nr /no L , 1 ^ ^''^^' ^"''^ ^^'^^S Phosphate of ammonia . . . ^ ' In

or tine mould, and drying by e.xno r^'''"^"Mraie of ammonia . ' ' " n-i^

sure to the air. This fonus one kind
of poudrette. It is best treated with
charcoal powder, gvpsum, or very
small quantities of gVeen vitriol the
sulphuric acid of which fixes the vol-
atile ammonia. Quicklime and un-
leached ashes are objectionable addi-
tions, as they liberate the ammonia
and cause loss. The most econom-
ical method, so far as the soil of the
Jarni 's concerned, is to keep pound-
ed charcoal and a little gypsum in the
cess pool, so as to have it ready for
use as soon as removed. Dryint^
night soil in tlie air, without any ad"^
dition, is wasteful ; for fermentation
comes on rapidly, and great loss of
ammoniacal matters arises. For the
Flemish method of using night soil,
seeF/andcrs Husbandry.

Night soil is a mixture of urine and
faces, and, as such, must vary in
composition, and has never been ex-
amined. The fffices and urine sep-
arately were analyzed by Berzelius

Phosphate of lime and of magnesia

•Silica

Waler

010

traces

fl3-30

lOOOO

The phosphates of lime and mag-
nesia which it contains are extreme-
ly insoluble salts, and have been sup-
posed to be held in solution by phos-
phoric acid, lactic acid, and very re-
' cently, by Professor Liebig, by hip-
puric acid, which he now states to
be a regular constituent of healthy
human urine.

From the interesting inquiries
upon urine made by M. Lecanu, it
appears that a man passes nearly
half an ounce of azote with his urine
in the course of 24 hours. A quan-
tity of urine taken from a public urine
pail of Paris yielded 7 per 1000 of
azote. The dry extract of the same
urine yielded nearly 17 per cent.

It is difficult to give an estimate
of the comparative value of nitrht
soil, for the urine present is nearly

faces to be as follows :

Remains of food
Bile ....
Albumen

Who found the composition of the ^''""'^t'''"'' ^^e valuable part, and the
"" ■ ■ - *=' amount varies. It is, however, more

active (hotter) and valuable than the
best horse dung, being estimated at
14, and horse dung at 10. A Young
increased his crop of wheat, on I
poor gravel, from 12 to 31 bushels
by 160 bushels, upward of six bush-

els more than he obtained by 60 cu-

1000 1 bic yards of farm-yard manure. Ac-

A peculiar extractive matter . .' ' " ' 2-7
Indeterminate animal matter, viscous niat-
ter, resin, and an insoluble residuum . 140

*8ltS

W'''" . . . - • 73 3

518

NIT

cording to Boussingault, when dri-
ed in the air it is 10 tiiiirs as fertili-
zing as good farm-yard manure. It
may be composted \\ ith any of tiie
ordinary manures, and should be
plou<fhed under shallow, and near to
seed time. As a poudrctte, it is used
to the hill, or as a top-dressinjj. It
is best applied to quick-gro\vinj;f, rank
plants, as turnips, and cruciferous
plants generally, Indian corn, pota-
toes, &c.

NIjMBUS. The rain cloud. It is
black, and near the earth.

NIPPERS. The four front teeth
of the horse. They are put forth be-
tween the second and third years.
Pincers, forceps.

NIPPLE. A conical elevation.
The extremities of the udder. Teats.

NITIDUS. Shining, polished,
smooth.

NITRATE OF AMMONIA. This
has been used as a steep, in the same
way as nitre, but is, perhaps, too ex-
pensive, except for garden crops.
Nitrate of lime, for leguminous crops,
and perhaps all others, would prob-
ably be as serviceable, and much
cheaper.

NITRATE OF SILVER. In the
fused state, called lunar caustic, and
much used as a caustic. It consists
of one equivalent of nitric acid united
with one of oxide of silver. A solu-
tion is used in the laboratory to de-
tect the presence of muriatic acid and
chlorine in solutions, with both which
it forms a wliite, curdy precipitate.
It is also a test for organized matter,
becoming black in its presence.

NITRATES. Sails containing ni-
tric acid combined with a base, as ni-
trate of potash, soda, lime, ammonia.

NITRE. Saltpetre, nitrate of
potash. A compound of 54 parts (1
eiiuivalent) of nitric acid with one
equivalent, or 48 parts potash. It
crystallizes in six-sided prisms, with
two faces at the summits ; is soluble
in seven parts cold, and less than its
weight of hot water. It is for the
most part derived from the soil of
India. Egypt, and Spain, and exists
in most limestone caverns and about
dunghUls. The crude nitre contains

NIT

nitrate of lime ciiiefly, but by adding
fresh ashes, boiling, andcry.stallizing,
nitrate of potash is obtained. It is
extensively used in the manufacture
of gunpowder, preserving meats, and
as a chemical and medical compound.
The coarser kinds have also been
used, to a great extent, in agricul-
ture, principally as a steep for corn,
wheat, and grain generally. For this
purpose, one pound, dissolved in one
gallon and a half of water, answers
for a bushel of grain. This is the
strength used by Mr. Campbell, but
ordinarily five or more gallons of wa-
ter are employed. The grains re-
main for 60 hours. This steep not
only forwards their germination and
start, but is one of the best preserva-
tives against rust, smut, and insects.
The ix)unded nitre has been used at
the rate of from 50 to 100 lbs. to the
acre as a top-dressing to grass, wheat,
barley, and other crops. It frequent-
ly does great good, especially on poor,
sandy soils, but 'is not so apparent on
very rich lands, and sometimes fails
altogether. The high price of $7 to
$9 the cwt. forbids its use except as
a steep ; which seems, also, to be the
most effective application. Nitre and
nitrates are by no means uncommon
in plants. It has been found in the
sunflower, borage, barley, tobacco,
Indian corn, beet root, and probably

I exists in all grain plants. It does

; not seem to have any remarkable ad-
vantage over the nitrate of soda, or

I cubic nitre of Peru, which is one half

! the price.

j NITRE, CUBIC. Nitrate of soda.
It consists of one equivalent nitric
acid and one soda ; is crystallized in

' rhomboids ; is very soluble and de-
liquescent, requiring but three parts

I water, at 60^ Fahr., for solution. It
has been used to land jjrecisely as ni-

I tre, with similar eflccts. The great

] part of the salt in commerce is deri-
ved from Peru, where inmiense de-
posites of it occur in Taracapa and
Atacama.

NITRIC ACID. Aquafortis. The

pure acid is unknown, that of the

shops iieing a solution in water ; the

strongest specimens have a sp. gr. of

519

NIT

NIT

1-5, and contain one atom of acid (54),
with two of water ; it is of a yellow-
ish tinge, smokes, and is extremely
caustic, dissolving most metals. The
pure acid consists of one atom of ni-
trogen with five of oxygen (formula,
N Or,). The commercial specimens
are adulterated with oil of vitriol and
muriatic acid, which are detected by
the occurrence of a precipitate when
nitrate of silver or limewater is
added : this does not occur in pure
acid. Nitric acid is extensively em-
ployed in the laboratory as a solvent,
and, from its active action on many
compounds, it readily parts with a
portion of its oxygen, oxydizing or-
ganic and other bodies presented to
it. Its salts are soluble in water,
and decrepitate on a hot coal.

NITRIC OXIDE, NITROUS G-\S.
Binoxide of nitrogen. This gas is
given off when dilute nitric acid acts
on a metal ; it turns red in the air,
being changed into nitrous acid.

NITRIFICATION, NITRE
BEDS. Nitrates of lime or magne-
sia are often artificially formed, and
the compound subsequently convert-
ed into nitre by boiling with wood ash-
es, &c. The production of nitrate of
lime in agriculture, to be applied to
the field and form steeps, is worthy of
attention ; this is readily effected by
mixing animal and vegetable rubbish
with air-slacked hme in loose heaps
of any desired length, and six feet
wide by three feet high ; these should
be arranged under a shed, to protect
them from rain and heat, and kept
moist with urine, blood, ditch water,
and animal or putrescent fluids ; the
heaps should be built on tempered,
dry ground that will not absorb fluid,
and occasionally spaded over. In
from four months to one year, ac-
cording to ttie heat and abundance of
animal matter, the heaps will be rich
enough for use as a top-dressing, or
may be washed, to separate the ni-
trate : as much of the nitre-bed sub-
stance as contains 100 pounds of ni-
trate may be used as a top-dressing
to the crop, or put into compost with
other fertilizers. As soon as one bed
is removed another should be erect-
520

ed, and thus a succession formed, in
which every kind of offensive garbage,
night soil, and every kind of animal
texture will be consumed with profit to
the farmer, and one of the most active
manures for poor soils created. Peat,
fine mould, river mud, and such sub-
stances may be used to mix with the
nitre bed when a basis is wanted.

The rich mould of the forest, old
manure heaps, damp calcareous tracts
of land are all natural nitre beds,
which may be put up without any or-
ganic matter, but in which, the more
we add, the. more rapidly nitrates are
formed.

NITRITES. Salts of nitrous acid.
They are not of agricultural impor-
tance.

NITROGEN. Azote. An ele-
mentary gas, colourless, inodorous,
inactive, of nearly the same weight
as air, incapable of sustaining life or
flame, forming 8-lOths of the atmo-
sphere, and existing in nitric acid,
ammonia, cyanogen, and numerous
compounds. It is abundantly present
in animal textures, and forms a mi-
nute part of all plants, rarely attain-
ing 5 per cent. Its equivalent is 14-2,
symbol N. Its compounds with oxy-
gen are numerous ; of these, nitric
acid is the most important ; nitric
oxide, or the binoxide, seems to be a
compound radical. With hydrogen
it forms ammonia, a substance of
great importance, of which w^e shall
treat here.

Ammonia {volatile alkali), in the
pure state, is a very pungent, inflam-
mable gas, consisting of one equiva-
lent of nitrogen (14-2) and three of
hydrogen (3), and having a combi-
ning number of 173 : symbol N H3.
Water dissolves 700 to 800 times its
volume of the gas ; the solution, or
liq. ammonia, of sp. gr. 87, contains
32 per cent, ammonia : it becomes
caustic, pungent, and alkaline. It is
the usual form in which this body is
known. It readily unites with acids,
forming salts of ammonia, of which
the sesquicarbonate, or sal volatile,
preserves the odour.

Ammonia is one of the products of
fermenting animal matter, and its

-MT

NOS

smell may be detected in cess-pools
and dunghills ; the carbonate and
muriate usually formed are volatile,
and escape into the air ; hence it is
recommended that charcoal be used
to absorb these substances, or that
sulphuric acid, gypsum, or green vit-
riol (sulphate of iron) be employed to
convert them into sulphates, which
are not volatile at ordinary tempera-
tures. Liebig asserts that an appre-
ciable amount of ammonia exists in
the air and rain storms, derived from
decompositions occurring on the
earth. Much of the fertility of de-
caying putrescent matters is said to
depend on the evolution of ammonia-
cal compounds, or the nitrates which
they originate by farther decay.

In the compounds of ammonia with
bases, it becomes converted — accord-
ing to modern authorities — into an
oxide of ammonium, or N H^ 0, or
an hydrate of ammonia ; hence, a ni-
trate of ammonia is, according to this
nomenclature, a nitrate of the oxide
of anmionium, N H4 O + N 0,-,. The
nitrate, sulphate, muriate, and nu-
merous organic salts of ammonia,
have been found in plants. The sul-
phate, carbonate, muriate, and ni-
trate have been used as steeps in the
same way and dose as nitre, but are
too expensive in the commercial
form ; most of these are found in sta-
ble manure and putrescent composts.
The amount of ammonia taken by a
crop from an acre rarely exceeds 30
pounds, except in such crops as tur-
nips, cabbages, and cruciferous plants,
which often carry off upward of 100
pounds. Some plants evolve ammo-
nia from their leaves, and all throw
off nitrogen, which is most probably
derived from ammonia taken from
the soil. The common salts of this
alkali are all soluble, and decomposed
or volatilized at a red heat.

NITRO. A prefix to the name of
bodies containing nitric acid or nitro-
gen.

NITRO-MURIATIC ACID. Aqna
rcgia. A mixture of strong nitric
and muriatic acid, whereby chlorine
is evolved, which dissolves gold, pla-
tinum, and other metals.
X x2

NITROUS ACID. A pungent, or-
ange-coloured, volatile acid, consist-
ing of one equivalent nitrogen and
four oxygen.

NITROUS OXIDE. Protoxide of
nitrogen, laughing gas.

N 6 C T i: R N A L. Of the night.
Many birds and insects prey only at
night.

NODE. A knot or lump. A bony
tumour. The swelling on the stems
of plants where leaves start ; also
called nodi. A 7wdal point, in physics,
is a place of rest, where several for-
ces counterbalance one another.

NODOSUS. Knotty.

NODULE. Rounded, irregular
lumps or masses.

NOGGIN G. In building, brick-
work carried up between uprights of
timber scantling.

NOMENCLATURE. The lan-
guage employed in scientific descrip-
tions.

NON-CONDUCTOR. A substance
incapable of conducting heat or elec-
tricity.

NONESUCH. The black medic
( M. lupuUna ), common in upland
meadows.

NOOTH'S APPARATUS. A se-
ries of three glass vessels, placed ver-
tically, for the purpose of impregna-
ting water -with carbonic acid gas.
The lower vessel contains the mar-
ble and muriatic acid for the evolution
of the gas ; the central vessel holds
the water, through which it is made
to pass, under the pressure of the col-
umn of water in the third or upper ves-
sel, which is closed by a conical stop-
per, which serves as a safety-valve.

NOPAL. The Opunlia cochinillif-
era, a cactus on which the cochineal
insect lives : native of the sandy
tracts of Mexico.

NORDHAUSEN SULPHURIC
ACID. Fuming strong acid obtain-
ed by the distillation of green vitriol.
NORMAL. Regular, straight,
usual.

NOSE-BAG. A bag containing
corn or oats to be tied to the horse's
nose.

NOSE-BAND. That part of the
headstall of a bridle which comes
521

MR

XI I R

over a horse's nose. It is sometimes
termed maserole.

NOSOLOGY. A classification or
dissertation on diseases.

NOTCHED. Crenate.

NOTCH-BOARD. In building, the
board which receives the ends of the
steps of a staircase.

NOTHUS. Spurious.

NOVACULITE. Hone stone.

NOVE.MBER. In this month the
later or fall crops, as carrots, turnips,
cabbages, &c., are collected, and sto
red up from frost ; preparation is to be
made for securing the fodder in a
suitable place for stock ; the farm-
stead is to be set right for wintering.
All stiff lands are now ploughed for
spring crops. The latter steps of
curing tobacco, the preparation for
rotting hemp, and securing cotton for
market, are now made. In the gar-
den, early vegetables are to be look-
ed after, and frames got ready to pro-
tect them from winter. The land
may be trenched for spring crops ;
transplanting can take place until the
ground begins to freeze too deep.

NUCLEUS. The point around
which crystals or organized struc-
tures are developed : the origin. In
botany, the upper, pulpy mass of an
ovule ; the interior of a seed. The
shield of lichens.

NUCULA. A fruit like the acorn,
or a one-seeded, hard seed-vessel.

NUDUS. Naked.

NURSERY. " In gardening, a plot
of ground, or an entire garden, set
apart for the propagation of plants,
more particularly trees and shrubs.
The situation ought to be open and
airy, and the soil of an average qual-
ity, neither too heavy nor too light,
so as to be adapted to the majority of
plants ; but in a complete nursery
there ought also to be shady borders
for plants requiring shade, and beds
or compartments of peat soil, or oth-
er peculiar soils, for such plants as
are not readily propagated and grown
in ordinary soils. Where tender
plants are propagated, or where hardy
plants are to be raised from seeds,
or struck from cuttings which are not
easily germinated or rooted in the
522

open ground and in the ordinary man-
ner, hot-beds, frames, and hand-glass-
es are also requisite. Every private
garden of any extent requires a nur-
sery' to raise and bring forward young
plants as a reserve for supplying fail-
ures by disease or accident in the
general garden.

"The seeds of the trees to be cul-
tivated are first sown in what are
termed the seed beds. The pits of
peaches and stone fruits may be ei-
ther broken, or placed in wet sand in
the fall, so as to open in the spring of
themselves. The beds may be made
about four feet wide, with little paths
for passages between.

" The ground of these beds being
carefully digged, and rendered smooth
by the rake, and a little of the sur-
face soil being laid aside for the pur-
pose of covering the seeds, these are
to be scattered evenly over the sur-
face, and a light wooden roller then
passing over it, the earth which had
been laid aside is to be spread care-
fully and equally over the seeds.

" The seeds of resinous trees must
be lightly covered, and so also must
some of the hard-wood kinds. Those
of the larch and the spruce should be
covered about a quarter of an inch,
and sown in the month of April, while
those of the oak, the ash, the chest-
nut, the sycamore, and others, may
be more deeply covered, and sown
at an earlier season. But some of
the hard-wood kinds require to be
sown at a later period, on account
of their being subject to injury from
frost ; and some may be sown in sum-
mer and autumn.

" The young plants remain in the
seed beds for one or two years, du-
ring which period they are termed
seedlings. Some of the hardier spe-
cies, as the larch and pine, may be
transplanted at once from the seed
beds to the place which they are to
occupy in the forest, while others, in-
cluding several of the resinous, and
all the hard-wood kinds, are first
transplanted into lines in another part
of the nursery, where they remain for
one or more years, and then are trans-
planted to their place in the forest.

NUR

NUT

The most of the resinous trees, when
they are to be transplanted into the
nursery hnes, may he one year's seed-
lings ; others of the resinous, and all
the hard- wood kinds, should not gen-
erally be less than two years' seed-
lings before being transplanted to the
lines. Those that require grafting
are worked either in the first or sec-
ond year, and removed the next sea-
son. The transplantation from the
seed beds to the nursery lines may
take place in autumn, after the de-
scent of the sap, or in spring, before
vegetation has commenced. The
operation may be performed by the
spade, but is often performed by the
dibble. The plants are set at such
distances in the rows that the hori-
zontal branches of the young trees
shall not interfere with one another.
In transplanting, no part of the root
should be lopped or shortened by the
knife, nor the roots doubled in put-
ting them into the ground ; and care
should be taken in planting, where
the dibble is used, that the root shall
be fixed firmly, without being com-
pressed at the neck.

" Certain kinds of tree plants, in-
stead of being propagated by seeds,
are propagated by cuttings, consist-
ing of a portion of the shoot of the
previous year's growth, twelve or
fifteen inches long. These cuttings
are planted by thrusting one end a
few inches into the ground. This
is the manner in which willows and
certain poplars are raised.

" Certain kinds, again, are best prop-
agated by layers. This practice con-
sists in bending down the branches
of a growing tree, fixing them in the
ground by means of crooked pins of
wood, and covering them partly with
earth. In this state the covered part
quickly shoots forth roots, and the
branch, being then separated from the
parent tree, becomes a distinct plant.

'■ But, in the case of the greater
number of species, the practice is to
sow the seeds in the seed beds in the
manner described. The hardier are
often planted at once, but most of
the hard-wood are not planted in the
forest until they have been one or

more years in the nursery lines,
where they extend their roots, and
acquire strength and size.

" During the period in which the
plants remain in these lines they are
to be kept free from weeds. They
require no pruning at this early stage
farther than to the extent of causing
the leading or principal ascending
shoot to preserve its ascendency over
the lateral and more horizontal ones,
so that the plant shall not become
what is termed forked. This may be
simply efTected by shortening one of
the branches, or by simply nipping off
the terminal bud of the branch, by
which means its vertical growth will
be interrupted, and the mam stem per-
mitted to preserve its ascendency."
NURSES IN PLANTATIONS.
Shrubs or trees which grow rapidly
and protect the young plants. Thus
the vine is used as a nurse to the
cork-oak in Spain. By this means a
profit is obtained from the soil. They
must not shade the trees too much.

NUT, NUX. A fruit with a hard
covering, indehiscent, with one seed
(nucida).

NUTANT, NUTANS. Nodding,
inclined forward, or to the ground.

NUT OF A SCREW. The head,
or piece of wood or metal turned
down upon the screw.

NUTMEGS. "The fruit of the
Mynsiica moschata, a beautiful tree of
the family of the Laurinea: of Jussieu,
which grows in the Molucca Islands.
All the parts of this tree are very ar-
omatic, but only those portions of
the fruit called mace and nutmeg are
sent into the market. The entire
fruit is a species of drupa, of an ovoid
form, of the size of a peach, and fur-
rowed longitudinally. The nutmeg
is the innermost kernel or seed, con-
tained in a thin shell, which is sur-
rounded by the mace ; and this, again,
is enclosed in a tough, fleshy skin,
which, opening at the tip, separates
into two valves. The nutmeg-tree
yields three crops annually : one in
April, which is the best, one in Au-
gust, and one in December.

" Good nutmegs should be dense,
and feel heavy in the hand. M'heu
5'.i3

OAK

they liave been perforated by worms
they feel light ; and thou.,'h the holes
Have been fraudulently stopped, the
unsound ones may be easily detected
by this criterion.
"Nutmegs afford two oily products :
- 1. Butter of nutmeg, vulgarly cahed
oil of mace, is obtained in'the Moluc-
cas, by expression, from the fresh
nutmegs, to the amount of fifty per
cent, of their weight. It is a reddish-
yellow, butter-like substance, inter-
spersed with light and dark streaks
and possesses the agreeable smell
and taste of the nutmeg, from the
presence of a volatile oil. It consists
ot two fats : one reddish and soft,
soluble in cold alcohol ; another white
and solid, soluble in hot alcohol 2
1 he volatile oil is solid, or stercoptcne I
and has been styled myristicine." I
_ The nutmegs are exclusively trop- '
ical, and found in America as well as i
India. The Santa Fe nutmeg is the
Myristica oloba. I

A- U T R I T 1 0 N. The manner in I
Which a living animal or plant, or i
any part of their structure, is sustain- '
ed, and the organs preserved from
Waste and decay

NUX VOMICA. The seeds of the
^trychnos 7iux vomica, a tree of India
Ihey are very poisonous, and con-
tain strychnia and brucia.
N^ MPH. A pupa, or grub.

OAK

O.

OAK. Trees of the genus Quercus,
remarkable for the durability and
toughness of their timber, their size
and handsome appearance. Their
acorns are also of considerable value
as food for pigs, and in Europe are
often collected and sold as produce
The oaks require, for the most part
a rich, clayey soil, rather moist and
deep; hence many oak lands form
good wheat soils. The followin<r is
iMichaux's classification of American I
oaks, including three exotics only :

First Division. |

Fruclification annual.
First Skctio-^.— Leaves lobcd.
1. White 0!^k {Quercus alba), seventy
to eiglity feet higb. I

524

2. Common European oak {Quercus
robur), sixty to eighty feet high

3. European white oak {Quercus ro-
bur pcdunculata), sixty to eijjhtv
feet high. "^'S^iy

4. Mossy-cup oak {Qiiercus oHvcfor-
viis), seventy to eighty feet high

5. Over-cup white oak {Quercus mac-
rocarpa), seventy to eighty feet
high.

6. Post oak {Quercus obtusiloha), thir-
ty to fifty feet high.

7. Over- cup oak {Quercus lyrata),
sixty to seventy feet high.

Second Section.— Leaves toothed

8. Swamp white oak {Quercus bi-
I color), sixty to seventy feet high

9. Chestnut white oak {Quercus pri.
I nos) seventy to eighty feet high.
j 10. Rock chestnut oak {Quercus mon-

, , '?»«). thirty to forty feet high.
11. lellow oak {Quercus acuminata)

sixty to seventy feet high
I 12. Small chestnut oak{Quercus chin-

quapin), a shrub of three to four

teet high.

Second Division.

Fructification biennial; leaves mucro-

nated (except in the 13th species).

First Section.— Leat-e^ obtuse or en-

tire.

13. Live oak {Quercus virens), ever-
, . g;''een, forty to sixty feet high.

14. Cork oak{Qucrcus suber), Spanish
tree.

15. V^'iUow oak {Quercus phellos), thir-
ty to sixty feet hi</h

I IG. Laurel oak {Quercus imbricario),
I shingle oak, forty to fifty feet high
, 17. Lpland willow oak {Quercus cin-
erea), evergreen Southern, twen-
j ty feet high.

, 18. Running oak {Quercus puniila)
I two feet high.

Second Section.— Zearfs lobcd.

19. Bartram oak {Quercus hcterophyl.
la), said to be found only on one
plantation.

20. Water oak {Quercus aquatica),
thirty to forty feet high.

21. Black Jack oak {Quercus ferru^i.
nca), small, barren oak.

22. Bear oak {Quercus banisteri, v.
iljci/olia), two to nine feet high.

OAK

OAK

Third Section. — Leaves niuUIJld, or
many-cJcft.

23. Barren serul) oi\\i {Qucreus Cates-
b(ei), fifteen to thirty feet high.

21. Spanish oiik ^Qiicreusfalcata), sev-
enty to eighty feet high.

25. Black oak (Qucreus tinctoria), six-
ty to seventy feet high.

26. Scarlet oak {Quercus coceinea),
eighty feet high : produces brown-
ish ink galls.

27. Gray oak (Quercus ambi^ua), a
hybrid, seventy to eighty feet high.

28. Pin oak (Qucreus jmlustris), forty
to sixty feet high.

29. Red oak (Quercus rubra), seventy
to eighty feet high."

To this list a few others have been
added, and some of the names of
Michaux changed. Of the additions,
the Southern (Q. Michauxii), flft}' to
sixty feet high, is the most important.
The list is, indeed, extended now to
some forty-five trees and shrubs, but
many of these are unquestionably hy-
brids, or varieties, in which list Q.
ambigua, kemispherica,humiilis, obtusa,
mollis, and others are to be reckoned.

The most important of this noble
class of trees is the white oak (Q.
alba), which is especially developed
on tiie clay and calcareous soils of
the Middle States : it is a close-grain-
ed, tough, and durable wood, exten-
sively employed in building, naval
structures, and almost every purpose.
The black oak (Q. /incloria) yields a
good timber,- but it is porous, and in-
ferior to the preceding; the bark is,
however, much employed for tanning,
and the inner bark yields the quer-
citron bark, extensively exported as
a yellow dye-stuff. The bark of Q.
acuminata vcl caslanca, a northern
tree, is also used for a yellow dye.
The bark of the Spanish oak is pre-
ferred for tanning, but the wood is
liable to worms. The Q. virciis, Flor-
ida, or live oak, produces a timber of
remarkable toughness and durabili-
ty, said to be superior to all other
kinds for naval purposes. It is not
extensively developed, and grows in
swampy situations.

The proper time for felling timber
is a question much agitated ; from

October to March is adopted by the
French ; mid-winter by the English.
Duhamel examined this subject thor-
oughly, and concluded that the time
was by no means important, for that
timber felled in summer, and care-
fully seasoned, was as tough and du-
rable as winter-felled. Barking is
practised in June and July, and it is
an advantage to allow the tree to
stand until the fall, and then fell for
timber ; indeed, Duhamel recom-
mends that it be allowed to stand
two years after, and this is practised
by the Dutch, and in some measure
by the English. It is not, however,
to be recommended for more than
one season, since the moisture of a
swamp and other causes may bring
on the growth of fungi.

OAK APPLE. A spongy excres-
cence growing on the young stems
of various oaks, especially the red
oak ; it is produced by an insect, the
Ci/nips conjlucntus. On the white oak,
excrescences, very nearly resembling
small gall-nuts, are produced by the
C. oneratus. Other species of cy-
nips sting the various oaks, forming
excrescences more or less large ; of
these, the gall-nuts of the white and
scarlet oak are most used for making
ink, and the former closely resemble
the commercial galls.

OAK BARK. The innermost lay-
er of the black and Spanish bark are
of the greatest service in tanning ;
the tan often amounts to 77 parts in
the 100 in this bark during the spring,
but is very much less in autumn and
winter: the difference, as ascertain-
ed by Mr. Higgins, is upward of two
thirds. The bark, when split off,
should be set up in loose piles to dry,
the pieces being so placed as to throw
off water, which injures its quality.
As soon as dry it ought to be kept
under a shed, and not ground till
wanted. The exhausted bark of the
tanner is much used by gardeners for
various purposes, and when rotted,
forms a good humus manure. See
Bark and Tan.

OAK PRUNER. Oaks are infest-
ed by numerous insects, the most cu-
rious of which is the pruner (Stcnoco-

OAT

OAT

rus putator), which severs the young
branches ; these contain the insect,
and if collected in the autumn, when
just fallen, and burned, will serve as
a means of destroying them.

0 A K U M. The yarns of hemp,
which are spun into ropes.

OASIS. A green spot in a desert ;
usually a valley.

OAST, OAST-HOUSE. A drying-
house, heated by hot air circulating
in pipes or flues. It differs in this
respect from a kiln, in which the
smoke and heat pass into the grain.
It is used in drving hops and malt.

OAT-FIELD LAND. Open or un-
enclosed arable land.

OAT GRASS. The Avcna genus.
See Grasses.

OAT MEAL. The flour of oats, es-
pecially the Scotch oat ; it is exten-
sively employed for cakes, like bat-
ter cakes, and for porridge or brose.
Oat meal is very nutritious, and fre-
quently much more so than wheat or
corn, this point depending upon the
proportion of gluten or albumen they
contain. The oat meal cakes are al-
lowed to ferment slightly, so as to
become acid (lactic acid) before being
used. For the production of meal, the
oats are first kiln-dried, then passed
through a coarse-set mill to separate
the hull or shellings ; this forms
groats or gnts, and they are then
ground in a mill into a coarse meal.

OATS. Avcna saliva. A cultiva-
ted annual of the gramineous family.
Other varieties of the avena are also
cultivated, as the A. oncntalis, Tar-
tarian oat, with a one-sided head ;
the A. slrigosa, or bristle-pointed oat.
The varieties of the common oat are
classified into the black, gray, and
white ; of these, the black kinds are
smallest and lightest, but most hardy ;
and the white kinds best, especially
the imperial, potato, Georgian, and
the Dutch or Friesland oat. Tlie
Polish oat is one of the finest of the
black kind, but requires careful till-
age, and scatters. It is urged as an
objection to the potato oat that the
skin is too hard, so that they are oft-
en voided by horses unbroken ; it, how-
ever, yields the most meal, and rises
536

to 46 pounds the bushel. The com-
mon black and gray varieties are
often less than 25 pounds the bushel,
and seldom reach 30 ; but the Polish
is said to reach 50 pounds.

Oats do better north of Philadel-
phia than south, although they can
be cultivated to the Gulf of iMexico ;
their habitat is, however, northern.
This plant grows so rapidly in a good
soil that it is not uncommon to ob-
tain two crops in a year, especially
if they be cut for fodder while the
grain is in the dough. A good yield
is 50 bushels, but 90 bushels have
been taken from well-prepared soils.
The straw varies from H to 3 tons
the acre. As food for horses, no-
thing except beans can be compared
with oats ; Indian corn is much too
oily : while oats contain about four
per cent, of oil, Indian corn rises
above 10 per cent. In point of nu-
tritiousness they are also superior to
corn, and are equal to double their
weight of fine hay : the straw of a
greenish tinge is the best kind of ce-
real straw for fodder, and about a
quarter the value of prime hay. A
draught horse should receive from
seven to nine pounds of oats daily,
with as much prime hay and straw :
this is the ration for the heavy French
cavalry. The following is by the
Rev. W. L. Rham :

" The great use of oats, and the
ease with which they are raised on
almost every kind of soil, from the
heaviest loam to the lightest sand,
have made them occupy a place in
almost every rotation of crops. Of
all the plants commonly cultivated in
the field, oats seem to have the great-
est power of drawing nourishment
from the soil, and hence are justly
considered as greatly exhausting the
land. With proper management, a
crop of oats may give as great a prof-
it on the best land as any other crop,
when it is considered that it requires
less manure and produces an abun-
dance of straw, which is very fit for
the winter food of horses and cattle,
especially when aided by roots or oth-
er succulent food.

" To make a crop of oats profitable

OATS.

some attention must be paid to the
preparation of the soil and to free it
from weeds ; for to sow oats on a foul
wheat or barley stubble slightly turned
in by the plough, as is sometimes done,
is the reverse of good husbandry.

" The best oats are raised in Scot-
land and ui Friesland, and in both
countries the land is carefully culti-
vated. In Scotland, oats are gener-
ally sown on a grass layer which has
been in that state for some years, and
sometimes on old pastures which are
broken up for the purpose. The crops
exceed in bulk and weight of grain
all that the most sanguine person, un-
acquainted with the system, would
expect, and in many seasons, not fa-
vourable for the wheat crop, oats are
much more profitable. Wherever
the land is not of a good quality, and
wheat is apt to fail, oats are a much
safer crop, especially in retentive
soils, as rye is on poor sands. I

" When oats are sown after tur-
nips, cabbages, or any other green ,
crop, the land should be well plough-
ed, if the green crop was not con-
sumed on the spot, and a moderate
supply of manure will be well repaid
by the increased produce. A heavy
loam is best suited for oats : they re-
quire a certain degree of moisture,
and a deep soil is very favourable to
their growth. On land which has
been trenched, or where the subsoil
plough has been used, after careful
draining, if required, oats will thrive
wonderfully without requiring so rich
a soil as barley or wheat. The roots
are hardier, and have a stronger ve-
getative power. When once they
have struck deep into the soil, a good
crop, according to the quality of the
land, may be relied on.

" When oats are sown after artifi-
cial grasses, the land is seldom
ploughed more than once, and the
seed is sown on the fresh mould
which has been turned up ; but, un-
less the land be very free from weeds,
it would be better to plough the sward
with a shallow furrow early in au-
tumn. Before winter the scarifier
would break the rotten sward, which
might then be buried deep by another

ploughing. The land would be ready
for sowing early in spring, which is
a great advantage, both as to the
quality of the oat crop and the earli-
er harvest, especially in those dis-
tricts where the latter part of the au-
tumn is apt to be stormy and rainy.
The land thus treated would be clean,
and the fallow, which is often resorted
to of necessity after a crop of oats,
might be dispensed with, as the
weeds have been destroyed and bu-
ried deep.

" \\'hen oats are sown on light land
after turnips, it may be ploughed with
as shallow a furrow as will turn in
the surface : the preparation for tur-
nips will have sufliciently moved the
soil. On poor, moist land, oats are
more profital)le than barley. Clover
and grass seeds may be sown among
them with equal advantage, as they
will seldom grow so high as to be laid
and smother the young clover ; and
barley is very apt to fail on land sub-
ject to retain the water.

" In sowing oats, more seed is oft-
en used than of any other grain, be-
cause, although the plants tiller where
they have room, the straw of the sec-
ond shoots is weaker, and the grain
is not ripe so soon as that of the
principal stem ; but when the plants
rise close and thick, there are no til-
lers, the main stem is stronger, and
the corn is more plump and equal.
Six l)ushels of oats are often sown on
an acre ; but if they are drilled, four
bushels are sufficient ; and when dib-
bled, which is sometimes the case in
Norfolk and Suffolk, much less seed
is used. A good preparation of the
land is of more consequence than a
superabundance of seed.
I " In a field where oats are sown
I broad-cast, and covered by the har-
rows, many seeds remain exposed
to the depredation of birds, which
j soon find them out at a time of the
i year when food is scarce. When the
] seed is sown and ploughed in, the
1 same object is attained ; but as the
1 furrow must be shallow, in order that
I the seed may not be buried too deep,
I the land must have been ploughed
i before to a considerable depth : in cl-
537

OATS,

ther case, Tour bushels of seed per
acre are an aniplr allowance. Tliey
are sown as soon as frost is out of
the ground, but not in land too wet,
lest they rot in the soil. A second
crop is often ploughed in to enrich the
soil, but tliey arc inferior to clover.

" M'hcn the ground has been well
prepared, there is no necessity for
weeding or hoeing the crop as it ad-
vances ; but if large weeds appear,
such as charlock, May-weed, docks,
or thistles, they must be carefully
weeded out, or else the ground will
be so infested with their seeds or
roots, that it will be difficult to erad-
icate them afterward. Oats, when
fully ripe, are very apt to shed, and
many are lost for want of attention.
As soon as the straw turns yellow
under the heads, the oats should be
reaped, however green the lower part
of the straw may be : the straw will
be better fodder for cattle, and all the
corn will be saved. Oats are gener-
ally mown with a scythe, and- raked
into heaps to dry like bay ; but this
is a wasteful and slovenly practice.
A good crop of oats should be reaped,
like wheat, close to the ground, and
tied in sheaves. A cradle scythe, or
a short Hainault scythe, does the
work well in the hands of an expert
mower, who should be followed by
binders, who gather the straw with
their hands, and lay it regularly on
the ground, if it be not fit to tie up
immediately : the straw should after-
ward be tied up into sheaves, and set,
with the corn uppermost, in shocks
of ten or twelve sheaves, leaning
against each other, and open at bot-
tom, in order to allow the air to pass
through. Thus, in a short time the
oats become sufficiently dry to be
stacked, or carried immediately into
the barn.

" Oats, ground into a coarse meal,
form a considerable portion of the
food of labourers, and many men in
the middle ranks of fife in Scotland,
Ireland, and the north of England.
The meal is simply stirred into boil-
ing water with a little salt, until it
becomes of the consistence of a has-
ty pudding ; it is then called porridge,
528

or stirabout ; and, when eaten with
milk or treacle, makes a wholesome
and palatable food. It is sometimes
mixed with the thin liquor of boiled
meat, or the water in which cabbages
or kale have been boiled, and ac-
quires the denomination of beef-
brose or kale-brose. When made
into a dough with water, and baked
on an iron plate in thin cakes, it
makes a bread which is very palata-
ble to those who are accustomed to
it, and who often prefer it to wheat-
en bread. In Germany and Switzer-
land the coarsely-bruised oatmeal is
put into an oven till it becomes of a
brown colour ; it is then called haber-
meel, and is used in broths and pot-
tages, as the semolina, made from
wheat, is used in France and Italy.
The coarsely-broken grains, after the
husk has been removed, form grits,
which are extensively used to make
gruel for children and invalids. The
chaff of oats, put into a canvass bag,
forms a good substitute for feather
beds.

"In some countries the oats are
given to horses in the straw, without
thrashing thern ; and, where the quan-
tity can be regulated, the practice is
good. The horses masticate the corn
better in the chaff, and the straw is
wholesome ; but where horses do
hard work they would be too long in
eating a sufficient quantity, and it is
better to give them oats thrashed and
cleaned, with clover hay cut into
chaff. When hay is dear, it is often
cheaper to increase the quantity of
oats, and to give it with wheat straw
cut fine. In this way very little hay
is required. The calculation is easi-
ly made, when we consider that a
pound of good oats gives as much
nourishment to a horse as two pounds
of the best clover or sainfoin hay. A
truss of hay of 6G pounds is therefore
equal to 28 pounds of oats, or a bush-
el of the best oats will go as far as
one truss and a half of hay.

" Farmers who have hay-ricks,
from which they often allov/ their
men to take as much as they please
for their horses, will carefully meas-
ure out the oats, which probably are

OB

OCT

much cheaper. Some men, who
keep many horses, cut all the hay
into chaff by a machine, and, mixing
this with a proper proportion of oats,
feed all their horses in mangers with
a certain allowance of the mixture,
a practice much more economical
than that usually adopted. In France
and Germany the practice of baking
oats, as well as rye, into loaves for
horse food, is gaining ground, and is
said to be attended with an evident
saving of food." ^

The oat is a pretty sure crop ; the
smut and chinch-bug sometimes re-
duce the yield, and rust impoverishes
the straw ; but as these enemies
come late, it is best to cut the crop
as early as they appear : the wire-
worm sometimes destroys a portion.

OATS, COMPOSITION OF. The
general composition of the oat is sim-
ilar to the other cerealia, and the spe-
cial compost given for wheat will
serve for this crop and for barley.
By Boussingault, the yield of an acre
perfectly dry in graiu is 975 pounds ;
straw, 1176 in the dried state (small
crop) ; the ashes, 4 0 per cent, grain,
5 1 straw, or, per acre, 39 pounds
for the grain, and 60 pounds for the
straw. The composition of the ash,
per cent., was,

Grain

Potash 12-9

Soda 0 0

Lime 3-7

Magnesia 7-7

Phosphoric acid 14'9

Sulphuric acid TO

Silica 53-3

Chlorine 0-5

Irou, carbonic acid, and loss . 6-0
1000

It would appear, therefore, that bone
earth, common salt, gypsum, and,
where the composition can be formed
at little expense, silicate of potash,
would be excellent manures, and
might be combined in compost with
nitrate of soda.

The ultimate composition of the
grain gives 2-24 per cent, nitrogen ;
the straw, 0 38 ; and, according to the
Scotch, 14 pounds of oats yield eight
of meal.

OB. A very common affix to de-
scriptive words in botany, &c., as

y T

i obcordate, ohrotund, &c., signifying
nearly or somewhat heart-shaped,
round, &c.

OBESITY. Extreme or morbid
fatness.

OBJECT GLASS. The glass, or
lens, of the telescope nearest the ob-
ject.

OBJECT STAFF. The survey-
or's staff. See Letelling Staff.

OBLATE. Somewhat spherical,
but flattened in the perpendicular ax-
is, as an orange, the world.

OBSIDIAN. A black, glassy, com-
pact lava, consisting of potash and
soda, 7 to 10 per cent. ; silica, 7750 ;
alumina, 1175 ; iron, 125.

OBTUNDENTS. Mucilaginous,
oily, or bland substances, which re-
duce the acrimony of other medi-
cines.

OCCIPITAL BONE. The bone
which forms the back portion of the
skull, to which the spinal column is
attached.

OCHRE. Peroxide of iron mixed

with clay : the colour is very durable.

OCHREA. The leaf-stems which

clasp or surround the stem, as in the

case of some grasses.

OCTAGON. A superficial figure,
with eight sides or angles.

OCTAHEDRON. A solid, with
eight regular sides ; it is one of the
most common figures of crystals, and
may be a derivative from the cube or
tetrahedron.

OCTANDRIA (from oktu, eight,
and avTip, male). The Linna;an class,
in which the flowers contain eight
stamens.

OCTOBER. This is one of the
most important months. Whenever
frost begins to occur, all tender roots
and potatoes should be stored. Ap-
ples, pumpkins, and other fruits are
also to be stored. Turnips, parsnips,
and carrots may remain in the ground.
Hemp, sugar, tobacco, and cotton
are either quite or nearly collected.
This month is also preferred for tim-
ber cutting. Wheat sowing, as well
as winter grains, should be draw-
ing to a close, as the season is late
except for the South. In the garden
and orchard, transplanting and prop-
529

OFF

OIL

agation by cuttings, &c., may com-
mence as soon as the leaves have
fallen, or in evergreens ; arrange-
ments should be made for early vege-
tables, and the frames looked to. As
soon as frost comes on, collect straw
and leaves to cover the vegetables
remainmg in the soil, spinach, turnip
tops, &.C., and secure the roots and
stems of tender fruit or shrubbery
plants ; prepare for laying vmes, &c.
Ewes put to the ram this month bring
lamb in March, which is seasonable
in the South, but too early for the
North.

ODERITE. A species of black
mica.

ODOMETER (from 66oc, a road,
and jicTpov, a measure). A wheel,
the axis of which turns a graduated
scale, so that the distance over which
it passes on a road is recorded in feet
and miles. It may be attached to a
carriage wheel, or rolled along by the
hand

ODONTOLOGY (from o6ovg, a
too/h, and Zoyof). A treatise on the
teeth.

0 D 0 R I N. A very concentrated
empyreumatic oil, obtained by recti-
fying oil of bones.

CEDEMA. Puffiness of a part of
the body, produced by a dropsical ef-
fusion or collection of watery fluid.

CENANTHIC ETHER. A vola-
tile oily body, to which the peculiar
vinous flavour of wine is owing ; by
boiling with potash it becomes con-
verted into cEnanthic acid and alco-
hol. Liehig traces its existence to
the free tartaric and racemic acids of
certain grapes, which yield the oil
by their transformation.

CESOPHAGUS. The gullet or
swallow.

CESTRUS. The genus of Gad
Flies, which see ; as also Insects.

OFFSET. In building, the supe-
rior surface left uncovered by the
continuation upward of a wall where
the thickness diminishes, forming a
ledge.

OFFSETS. In surveying, short
distances from the chain-line, usually
measured with a rod, called an offset-
staff, the most convenient length for
5:J0

which is 6 feet 72 inches, being
equal to 10 links of the surveying
chain.

OFFSETS. In gardening, young
radical bulbs, when separated or ta-
ken off from the parent roots, are so
called. One of the chief methods of
propagating plants is by offsets.

OGEE. In moulding, is a line re-
sembling the italic/.

OGIVE. The pointed arch.

01L-(3AKE. The remainsof seeds,
especially linseed, after expression
for oil. Linseed and several other
cakes are used for fattening, two to
four pounds being broken up into the
daily food ; it is remarkably rich in
oil, containing often 15 per cent., and
ranks high as nutriment. See Fodders.
Animals do not always take to it
readily, and are therefore to be grad-
ually fed. Rape, mustard, hemp,
castor oil, and other cakes are admi-
rable manures ; half a ton of rape
cake, well broken and sown broad-
cast, is a well-established manure in
England. The Flemish mix them
with their fluid manure. See Flan-
ders Husbandry. The cake of any
particular seed is the best manure for
the same crop. They are suitable
for the drill.

OIL OF BRANDY. OIL OF PO-
TATOES, OIL OF GRAIN SPIRIT,
FOUSEL OIL. This volatile aro-
matic oil is formed in the fermenta-
tion of potatoes or grains where hops
are not employed, and which yield an
alkaline mash ; it comes over in the
last portion of the distillation for the
alcohol ; when concentrated, it is
oily and very nauseous. It is also
called amylic alcohol, and hihydrate
of amylene : formula (Cm Hu), 0 HO,
the flrst term being the compound
radical Amyl of Dumas.

OIL OF VITRIOL. Sulphuric acid.

OIL OF WINE. Two liquid oily
bodies, as well as the oenanthic ether,
are known by this name ; the former
arise from distilling ether off caustic
lime, and are sulphates of the oxide
of ethyl.

OILS. Compounds consisting of
carbon and hydrogen for the most
part, but occasionally containing oxy-

OILS.

gen, and having an affinity for that
element, whereby tliey beconae rancid
or are converted into resins. They
are compounds of the margaric, oleic,
or stearic acids, with glycerine, and
owe their value not only to their pe-
culiar properties, but to the soaps
and liniments they form with alkaline
substances. They are in all respects
fluid fats of vegetable and animal ori-
gin, agreeing very closely in struc-
ture. Thus per cent.,

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen.
Olive oil consists of 77-2 133 9'5

Spermaceti " 780 ITS 10-2

Oils are divided into expressed or
fixed oils, which are also subdivided
into drying oils and common oils, and
into distilled or essential oils. The
common fat oils are like almond and
olive, bland, preserving their flavour
for a long time, but becoming ran-
cid ; palm oil is solid. The drying
oils are like linseed, hemp seed, nut
oil ; they attract oxygen readily from
the air, evolving heat, and become
solid. The essential oils impart to
flowers and aromatic bodies their
odour ; they are very volatile, and are
obtained by distilling the leaves or
flowers with water. All vegetables
contain a proportion of oil of some of
these varieties, which may be obtain-
ed by digesting them in ether and al-
cohol ; it is, however, frequently be-
low one per cent., while in other
cases, as the nut, it is more than sixty
per cent. In provender, the fattening
quality is closely related to the per
centage of common oil. The follow-
ing table contains the best informa-
tion on this topic :

. 8 to 12 per ceut.
0-8

Common maize

Rice . . . .

Oats . . . .

Ditto . . . .

Rye . , . .

Rye flour . .

Hard wheat • .
Wlieat flour

Ditto . . . .

Fine bran . .

Coarse bran . .

Dry clover . .

Dry lucern . .
Meadow hay

Oat straw . .

Bean uieal , .

Beans . . , .

Haricot* . . .

Peas 20 per cent.

Lentils 2-5

Potatoes 008 "

Mangel-wurzel. ... 01 "

Carrots 017 "

Oil-cake 90 to 15 "

M. Payen found that the oil was
everywhere present in the seeds of
gramineous plants. The embryo
contains much, the husk less, the
farinaceous portion still less ; but
maize and oil-cake contain about 9
per cent., whence the universally ad-
mitted superior fattening power of
these two articles.

The crops enumerated in the fol-
lowing tal)le are those principally
raised for oil (the bene might be add-
ed) : it is from Boussingault ;

>. ^ c

u

3 c«: c

"S

Crop.

Seed produced

0^a

•5 ,

per acre m

Cwts. qrs. lbs.

5

■a

Cnlewort . . .

ly 0 15

875-4

40

64

Rocket . . .

15 1 3

320-8

18

73

R.ipe ....

16 2 18

641-6

33

&t

.'iwpdipli turnip

15 1 25

6*5-8

33

62

Curled colewort

16 2 13

641-6

33

m

Turnip cabbage

13 3 19

565-4

33

61

Gold of pleasure

17 1 16

545-8

27

Tt

Sunflower . .

15 3 14

275-0

IS

80

F\^x ....

15 1 25

3850

22

69

White poppy .

10 1 18

.ShO-8

46

bi

Hemp ....

7 3 21

22y-0

25

70

Summer rape .

11 3 17

412-5

30

65

55
3.3
1-8
35
2-6
2-1
14
4-8
5-2
40
3-5
3-8
51
21
2-0
30

A few oils, as the castor and caje-
put, are eminently medicinal, al-
though expressed ; this arises from
the presence of peculiar principles in
them. Camphor is by some writers
regarded as a concrete volatile oil.

The process for procuring express-
ed oils is either conducted with or
without heat ; where no heat is era-
ployed, less, but a superior kind is ob-
tained, which resists the action of air
longer, and is of a more delicate fla-
vour. For virgin oils the seeds are
first crushed, either between iron rol-
lers, in mortars, or in an edge mill, re-
sembling the bark mill (see Oil Mill) ;
the crushed mass is then enclosed in
strong hempen or woollen bags, and
this often in another of horse hair,
and subjected to the pressure of a
screw, placed in a hydraulic oil mill,
or merely into press boxes of stout
materials, and pressed by driving
wedges perpendicularly between the
sides of the box and bags. The hy-
531

OILS.

draulic arrangement is most effective .
(See Press, Hydraulic) Tlie oil is
collected as it flows into appropriate
casks or vessels. The cake is now
boiled, heated by hot water, or press-
ed between hot plates in the hydrau-
lic press ; by this means more oil is
obtained, which, if water be used,
rises, after a time, to the surface, and
may be skimmed off. Coarse oils, as
castor, hemp, cotton, &c., can be
heated in an oven, or over flues, or
parboiled in the first case ; but olive,
almond, and table oils should not be
heated, the second drawing being fit
only for machinery. The cake or
marc is always serviceable as food
or manure. Sometimes oils are ob-
tained by merely bruising, and then
boiling in a great deal of water, the
floating produce being taken off by
skimming; but this is a very objec-
tionable method for table oils. For
farther particulars, see the oil plants.

OILS AS MANURE. Train oil
and blubber have been recommended,
and much used in composts as ma-
nures ; and, from some of the re-
sults, many farmers have taken up
an idea that oils are great fertilizers.
Train oil and other animal oils con-
tain impurities rich in nitrogen, and
their decay produces a fertilizing ac-
tion, but otherwise it is difficult to
understand that oils should be, to any
extent, manures. The idea is prob-
ably erroneous, although of very an-
cient date ; but the old writers were
altogether in the wrong in calling
night soil and such bodies oily
compounds ; they do not, therefore,
speak of real oils in many of their
observations.

OIL MILL. This is made in sev-
eral ways, but the most common is
that called the edge mill, the stones
of which are large and heavy. See
Figure.

532

OLF

OINTMENT. A medical prepara-
tion containing lard, suet, or fat as
a basis.

OKRA. Hibiscus cscidejitus. An
annual of the family Mahaccct,
abounding in a ropy mucus. It is
readily cultivated, and much valued
for soups and as a vegetable, served
with butter. It is said that the ripe
seeds, which are as large as a small
pea, when roasted and prepared like
cofTee, are a perfect substitute for
that product. They are sowed in
settled weather (May), in rich lands,
in drills three feet apart each way,
and improved by manure and tillage.
The plants grow three or four feet
high, and bear numerous pods, which
are cut green, and while sufficiently
tender to break across. In good sit-
uations they grow six to ten inches
long. They are boiled, and served
with butter, or sliced, and introduced
into soup, with tomatoes, &c. The
green pods also make a good pickle.
They are regularly brought to the
Southern markets.

OLD RED SANDSTONE. The
formation of red sandstones and con-
glomerates next below the coal.

OLEACE-E. The family of trees
and shrubs containing the olive, ash,
and privet.

OLEANDER. Nerium oleander.
A beautiful evergreen, with large, ro-
saceous flowers. It requires, shel-
ter in the green-house, and is prop-
agated with ease by cuttings kept
moist.

OLECRANON. The bone of the
elbow. A process of the ulna.

OLEFIANT GAS. An inflamma-
ble gas, condensing spontaneously
into a fluid oil, with an aromatic
odour. It consists of two atoms
carbon and two hydrogen. It is re-
garded as a hvdrate of acetyl (C4
H3-fH).

OLEIC ACID. The acid of olein
(elain), or the fluid portions of fats, sep-
arated by alkalies from the glycerine.

OLERACEOL'S. Of the nature
of culinarv vegetables or pot herbs.

0LFAC;T0RY nerves. The
first pair proceeding from the brain,
and distributed in the nose.
Y V 'i

OME

OLIBANUM. a fragrant Eastiern
gum resin. Frankincense.

OLIVE. Oka Europea {Fig.). A

small evergreen tree, requiring a
mild climate, similar to that of South
Georgia, and a dry, granitic soil. It
is propagated from slips or seeds.
The trees bear well at ten years, and
live for centuries, when undisturbed
by frosts. They are more hardy than
the orange. The unripe fruit, pre-
served in salts and water, form an es-
teemed culinary and desert article.
The variety of tree with long leaves
(longifoJia) yields the best table oil.
It is cultivated in Fiance. The oil is
procured from fruit fully ripe, which
is allowed to sweat in heaps for a
few days, and then crushed in an
edge mill, and pressed without heat.
The oil becomes tine by standing for
a time.

OLIVE, AMERICAN. Olea Amer-
icana. Devil wood. A large ever-
green shrub of the South, growing
near the seashore, with aromatic
flowers and a small fruit. The wood
is very hard, but is '-tile used.

OLIVILE. An amylaceous body
obtained from the gum of the olive-
tree.

OLIVINE. A grosn, volcanic min-
eral. A silicate of magnesia and iron.

0 M B R O .\t E 1" E R (Irom nu6poc,
rain, and fierpov). A rain gauge.

OMEXTL'.M. Tiic membrane or
caul that lies over the intestines, and
becomes loaded with fat.

6^

0\I

ONI

OMNIVORES, OMNIVOROUS.
Eating animal and vegotahle food.

OMPIIALODIUM. Tiic point in
tlie hihim or scar of a seed tlirough
which the nutritions vessels pass.

ONION. Allnim ccpa. The fol-
lowing article is chiefly from Mr.
Bridgeman : " Varieties. — New-Eng-
land white, large red, yellow or sil-
ver-skinned, yellow Dutch, Stras-
burgh or Flanders, Madeira.

" Of the several varieties of on-
ions, the yellow or silver-skinned and
large red are the best for a general
crop. The bulbs are handsome, of
firm growth, and keep well through
the winter. The New-England white
are handsome for the table, and very
suitable for pickling, as well as to pull
while young, and generally prove a
very profitable crop.

"Previous to sowing onion seed
for a general crop, the ground should
be well prepared by digging in some
of the oldest and strongest manure
that can be got. The earlier this be
done in the spring, the belter ; and
the planting should not be delayed
longer than the middle of April. The
seed may be sowed moderately thick,
ia drills one inch deep and twelve
inches apart, in April or May.

" Those who cultivate onions for
the sake of their bulbs may use at
the rate of four or five pounds of
seed per acre.

" As market gardeners, in the vi-
cinity of large cities, find it most
profitable to pull a great proportion
of their onions while young, they gen-
erally require at the rate of from eight
to ten pounds of seed to an acre of
land.

" When the plants are up strong,
they should be hoed. Those beds
that are to stand for ripening should
be thinned out while young, to the
distance of two or three inches from
each other. If a few should be re-
quired for use after this, those can
be taken which incline more to tops
than roots ; and if the beds be fre-
quently looked over, and the small
and stalky plants taken away where
they stand thickest, the remaining
bulbs will grow to a larger size.
534

: The plants should be hoed at least
three times in the early part of their
growth ; but if the season prove
I damp, and weeds vegetate luxuri-
antly, they must be removed by the
hand ; because, after the onions have
begun to bulb, it would injure them
to stir them with a hoe.

" When the greenness is gone out
of the tops of onions it is time to
take them up, for from this time the
fibrous roots decay. After they are
pulled they should be laid out to dry,
and when dry, removed to a place of
shelter."

The crop is put up into ropes of
three and a half pounds, and a fair
crop is from 6000 to 8000 such ropes.

" The small onions may be planted
in the following spring. Even an
onion which is partly rotten will pro-
duce good bulbs, if the seed stems be
taken off as soon as they appear."

The admirable Portuguese onions
are only raised in perfection near the
seashore, in places moistened by the
tide ; hence moisture and a little salt
should be secured to the growing
plants.

" The Allium fistulo sum, Welsh on-
ion, or Ciboule, is cultivated for
spring salad ; it forms no bulbs, but
is very hardy. If the seed be sowed
early in September, in rich ground,
although the tops may die down in
the winter, yet the roots will continue
sound, and put up new leaves early
in the spring.

" The Allium cepa, or common
white and red onions, are most gen-
erally cultivated by market garden-
ers, as a substitute for the Allium
fistulosum. They sow the seed in
the spring and autumn months ; the
product of which is pulled and sent
to the market while young, and gen-
erally meets with a ready sale.

" The Allium proliferum, or tree
onion, is propagated by planting the
bulbs in spring or autumn — either the
root bulbs or those produced on the
top of the stalks ; the latter, if plant-
ed in the spring, will produce fine
onions. These may be planted in
rows with a dibble, the same aa
shallots.

OPI

ORA

" The potato onion {Allium tubero-
sum) does not produce seed as other
onions, hut it increases by the root.
One single onion, slightly covered,
will produce six or seven in a clump,
partly under ground.

" The bulhs are generally planted
in the spring, from twelve to eighteen
inches apart ; but they will yield bet-
ter whcti planted in autumn, as they
will survive the u inter if slightly cov-
ered with dung, litter, or leaves of
trees, &,c."

ONION, WILD. A troublesome
weed in meadows and open grounds.
It is to be removed by a few hoed
crops and heavy liming.

O N I S C I D ^. Insects like the
wood louse {Oniscus).

OOLITE. Roe stone. A lime-
stone of the secondary epoch, the
parts of which are rounded so as to
resemble a fish roe. It is unknown
as a formation in the United States,
at least on the seaboard. Oolitic is
a derivative.

OP.\L. An iridescent, silicious
mineral.

OPEN CUTS. Ditches not cov-
ered.

OPERCULUM. A lid or covering.
The coverings of the theca of moss-
es. In zoology this term is applied
to the apparatus supported by four
bones, which protects the gills of
fishes ; also to the horny or calcare-
ous plate which closes the aperture
of univalve shells ; and to the four
calcareous pieces which defend the
entrance to the tube of Balanites, or
bell barnacles.

OPHIDIANS, OPHIDIA (from
oi>L^, a snake). The order of reptiles
resembling snakes.

OPHTHAL.MIA (from o<j>6alfioc,
an eye.). Inilammation of the mucous
membrane of the eye.

OPIU.M. The concrete juice of
the poppy, obtained by woundmg the
unripe seed capsules of the Papaver
soinni/erum, collecting the milky juice
%vhich exudes and driers in the sun,
and kneading it into cakes. The
cakes of the best opium are covered
externally with pieces of dried leaves
aud the seed capsules of some spe-

1 cics of Runiex. It should be of a rich
; brown colour, tough consistency, and
I smooth, uniform te.\ture ; its pecu-
liar narcotic smell should be strong
and fresh ; its taste bitter, warm, and
somewhat acrid. The chemical anal-
ysis of opium has rendered it proba-
ble that its activity as a medicine de-
pends upon the presence of a peculiar
alkaline base, called morpUia, in com-
bination with an acid which has been
termed meconic acid. Opium also con-
tains narcoline. narccitie, codcin, gum
resin, extractive matter, and small
portions of other proximate princi-
ples.

The chief countries in which opi-
um is prepared are India. Egypt, Tur-
key, and other parts of Asia ; it is
even cultivated in Italy, France, and
England ; but the climate of Europe
seems to be too uncertain to allow
of its regular production.

There is no substitute for this in-
valuable drug in allaying pain. See
Poppy.

OPOBALS.\M. Balm of Gilead.
A fragrant gum resin, from a species
of Amyris.

OPODELDOC. A liniment of
soap with camphor.

OPOPONAX. A gum resin of a
bad odour, from the Pastinica opo-
ponax.

OPOSSU^^ The genus Didelphis
of marsupials, peculiar to the Amer-
ican continent.

OPTIC NERVES. The second
pair from the brain. They enter the
back of the eyes, and form the re-
tina.

OPTICS. The science which in-
vestigates the property of light, and
all that relates to vision.

ORACHE. The genus ^?rz>/ex, of
the family Chenopodmcecz, which con-
tains the beet and spinach ; most of
the species are weeds in rich soils,
but A. hortensis is cultivated and
used like spmach in some parts of
Europe.

ORANGE. Citrus auranlium.
This tree and the genus are cultiva-
ted only in situations tree from frost,
and suffer even in Florida ; with suf-
ficient shelter to protect them from
535

ORA

ORG

frost, they are readily raised in or-
angeries kept above 32=" Fahrenheit.
They are evergreens : the flowers
are large, white, and odoriferous, ex-
isting at the same time as the fruit,
which is too well known to require
description. Orange-trees thrive best
in a good loamy soil, mixed with a
quantity of rotten dung. The differ-
ent kinds are procured by budding or
grafting on common stocks. Stocks
for working upon are raised from any
oranges, lemons, &c. They are some-
times raised from cuttings, in which
case they produce fruit when very
small plants. The flowers of the or-
ange-tree yield, by distillation, a fra-
grant volatile oil, known by the name
of oil of Neroli. The fruit of the
bignaroll, or bitter orange, makes one
of the best preserves that can be eat-
en, namely, Scotch mai-malade. The
unripe fruit is used for flavouring the
liquor called Curagoa. The ripe fruit
is wholesome, and a useful refriger-
ant in fevers."

ORANGE DYE. A mixture of
red and yellow dyes.

ORANGE, OSAGE. Maclaura au-
rantica. A small, handsome, decidu-
ous tree or shrub of 15 feet, bearing
a large fruit somewhat like an orange
in appearance. It is a native of Ar-
kansas, but grows in New- York. Be-
ing a branching, thorny, and quick-
growing shrub, it has been recom-
mended for hedges ; it is readily prop-
agated from seeds, and grows suffi-
ciently in three years to form a fence :
the seeds germinate in a few weeks,
and one fruit yields some two hun-
dred ; three may be set in holes five
feet apart, and thinned to one after
the first year.

OR.^NGERY. "A kind of gallery
in a garden, or parterre, to preserve
orange-trees in during the winter sea-
son. For trees in large boxes a pro-
portionably large and lofty house is
requisite ; it may be opaque on the
north side, with a glass roof, front,
and ends, of any convenient or de-
sired length, width, and height. For
one of moderate size, the height at
the back wall may be fifteen feet, at
front ten feet, and the width of the
636

house fifteen feet. The floor may be
either perfectly level, and the boxes
placed on it, the largest behind, so as
their tops may form a slope to the
front glass ; or if the trees are young,
a stage may be erected for a few
years, in order to raise the plants to
the light ; but if the trees are of a
considerable size, the best way is to
have square pits in the floor at regu-
lar distances, somewhat larger than
each box, and in these to sink the
boxes, covering them with mould,
sand, or moss, nearly to the level of
the pavement, so that each tree so
placed and dressed will appear as if
placed in a small compartment of
earth."

ORANGE, WILD. Prunus Caro-
liniana. A kind of cherry evergreen,
and growing to the size of a small
tree ; the fruit is not edible, but the
tree is much esteemed on the South-
ern seaboard as an ornamental plant.
It is a native of Florida.

ORBIT. In birds, the skin which
surrounds the eye : the bony cavity
in which the eye is set.

ORCHARD. A collection of fruit-
trees. The operations of the orchard
are to be found under their respective
heads. The best soil is somewhat
calcareous or marly for the Potnacecs,
or apples, pears, peaches, cherries,
plums, and apricots ; but the " hard
gravelly soil of the Eastern States,
the sandy soil of New Jersey, the clay
soil of Pennsylvania, and the rich al-
luvial bottoms of the West, all pro-
duce an abundance of the different
varieties of fruit, when proper atten-
tion is given to the trees. Mr. Phin-
ney, of Lexington, Massachusetts,
has ditched and drained one of his
swamps, and has now on it a luxu-
riant orchard of apple-trees. The
great point is to have a dry soil. If it
is not sufficiently rich, make it so ;
no man should expect to have fine
crops of anything unless his soil is
rich.

" Setting out Trees {Mr. Pell's plan).
— If by exposure the roots have be-
come dry, immerse them in water
for 20 or 30 hours previous to setting
them out. Prepare a compost as fol-

ORG

ORG

lows : Take 3 bushels of rich soil, or
3 bushels of swamp nuick would be
better, 1 bushel night soil, 1 bushel
fine charcoal (if charcoal is plenty, 3
to 4 bushels are to he preferred), 1
bushel air-slacked lime, 1 bushel of
leached wood ashes, and 1 peck of
salt. Mix the above well together.

" Dig the holes 3 feet wide, 2 feet
deep, keeping the top soil by itself;
fill in a portion of the bottom soil un-
til nearly ready for the tree, then fill
in half a bushel of the compost and
set in the tree, spreading out the roots
to their natural position, and fill in
the top soil, gently shaking the tree
two or three times to settle the soil
around the roots. The tree should
be set the same depth in the orchard
that it stood in the nursery. Leave
the soil a little hollowing about the
tree, to catch and retain the rain-wa-
ter. Put around each tree half a peck
of fine charcoal and half a peck of
slacked lime. Witli these precautions
neither peach nor any other fruit
trees will be infested with worms at
the roots, provided they have suitable
after-culture.

^' CuUiirc of Orchnrds. — The soil
around the trees should be kept loose,
either by spading, digging with a mat-
tock, or by ploughing. If a crop is put
in the orchard, nothing should be
planted or sowed within five feet of
the trees, as the nourishment taken
up by the crop is so much taken from
the growth of the trees. After the
lime and charcoal has laid around the
trees one year, spread it around the
trees in a circle of ten feet in diam-
eter. This should be done in the
spring, when the soil is cultivated,
and a fresh supply of lime and char-
coal applied.

" When the trees have been set out
three or four years, the soil should
be enriched with a compost of ma-
nure, swamp muck, and ashes. Early
every spring the trunlcs of the trees
should be washed with strong lye,
strong soapsuds, or thin soft soap.
Apply either of these with a white-
wash brush as high as a man can
reach. When the trees grow rapid-
ly, their girth will be increased by

' slitting the outer bark the whole
Irngtb, from the ground up to the
limbs. This gives the trees room to
expand.
I '■^To render Old and Barren Orchards
Thrifty and Productive. — Early in the
spring plough the entire orchard, and
enrich with a compost of manure,
swamp muck, lime, and chip manure.
Scrape offall the old bark with a deck
\ scraper, or a hoe ground sharp. Ap-
ply half a bushel slacked lime, and the
same of fine charcoal, around each
I tree. Apply then soft soap or strong
^ soapsuds on the trunks and limbs as
higii as a man can reach. ^V'hile the
I trees are in full bloom, throw over
I them a good supply of fine slacked
j lime.

I ^^ To dcstroxj Caterpillars. — As soon
as the nests can be seen, procure
some spirits of turpentine ; tie a small
' piece of sponge to a pole that is long
i enough to reach the highest nests, fill
\ the sponge, and once filling will be
sufficient to rub off and destroy sev-
eral nests."
I ORCHARD GRASS, ^ee Grasses.
ORCHIDACE.E. Herbaceous en-
j dogens with remarkably irregular and
I beautiful flowers ; they are propaga-
j ted by seeds, and bear bulbs contain-
ing an agreeable farina (salcp), for
which the Orchis masnila is partially
cultivated. They are natives of cal-
careous soils. In the tropics the spe-
cies and genera often become splen-
did parasites.

ORCHIL, or ARCHIL. The Ro-
cella tinctoria. A lichen indigenous
to the Canaries, and yielding a pur-
ple dye.

ORCINE. The colouring matter of
the Violaria orcina, or lichen dealbatus.
ORDER. A style of architecture,
or column.

OREGON ALDER. Alnus Orego-
na. An alder of 25 to 30 feet.

ORES. Minerals containing a
large amount of some metal.

ORGAN. In anatomy, a viscus,
or structure of the body.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. The

chemistry of organic matters, or such

as are directly or indirectly derived

from plants or animak. The invea-

<3^

0R.\

ORN

tigation or analysis of such hodies arc
proximate or ultimate ; the former
when the parts are merely separated
by solvents, as water, alcohol, eiher,
and acids; the latter when the ele-
mentary composition is ascertained.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro-
gen, combined in binary, ternary, or
quarternary compounds, with a small
amount of saline matters, form the
majority of organic bodies ; sulphur
and phosphorus are present in a few
only. The modern process of organic
analysis is briefly described in Kane's
and in Graham's Chemistry. These
manipulations require great experi-
ence and skill. Vegetable tissues are
distinguished from animal by the
great amount of nitrogen in the latter.

ORGANIC DISE.\SE. Disease
attended with an alteration of tbe
structure of a viscus or organ.

ORGANIC REMAINS. Fossils.

ORGANIZATION. The process-
es by which an organized body is
formed ; also the totality of the parts
which constitute, and of the laws
which regulate, an organized body.

ORGANOGRAPHY. A descrip-
tion of the structure of plants.

ORLO. The plinth to the base of
a column or pedestal.

ORNITHICNITES (from opvic, a
bird, and ixvo^, a trace). Certain
marks in the new red sandstone, sup-
posed to be bird tracks.

ORNITHOLOGY (from opvLc, a
bird, and ?.o}0(, a description). The
science which teaches the natural
history and arrangement of birds.

" The subdivision of the class of
birds is by no means so clearly indi-
cated by either external or anatomi-
cal characters as that of mammals,
and the systems of ornithology pre-
sent, in consequence, greater dis-
crepancy.

" In the quinary arrangement of
birds, proposed by Mr. Vigors, there
may be traced a similar principle to
that which guided Nitzsch in his ter-
nary classification. Thus, the first
order {Raptores, Virg ) includes the
birds which soar in the upper regions
of the air, which build their nests and
rear their young on the highest rocks
639

and loftiest trees. The second ordei
(Inccssorcs) includes the birds which
affect tiie lower regions of the air, and
wbicli are peculiarly arboreal in their
habits ; whence the name of perch-
ers. The third order corresponds
with Nitzsch's Aves terrcstres, and is
termed Rasorcs. If the aquatic birds
of Nitzsch be divided into those
which frequent the fresh waters, and
are restricted to wading into rivers,
lakes, &c., in search of their food,
and those which have the power of
swimming or diving, and, for the
most part, frequent the ocean, we
shall then have the two remaining
orders of the quinary arrangement,
viz., Grallalores and Natatores. The
chief merit of this arrangement is its
aim to express the natural affinities,
and their circular progression in the
whole and in the several parts.

" Linnaeus and Cuvier have six or-
ders of birds, which are character-
ized as follows by the latter nat-
uralist :

" Of all classes of animals, that of
birds is the most strongly character- I
ized ; that in which the species bear \
the greatest mutual resemblance, and
which is separated from all others by
the widest interval. Their system-
atic arrangement is based, as in the
mammalia, on the organs of mandu-
cation, or the beak, and in those of
prehension, which are again the beak,
and, more particularly, the feet.

" One is first struck by the charac-
ter of webbed feet, or those wherein
the toes are connected by membranes
that distinguish all swimming birds.
The backward position of their feet,
the elongation of the sternum, the
neck, often longer than the legs, to
enable them to reach below them, the
close, glossy plumage, impervious to
water, altogether concur with the
feet to make good navigators of the
Palmipedes.

"In other birds, which have also
most frequently some small web to
their feet, at least between the two
external toes, we observe elevated
tarsi ; legs denuded of feathers above
the heel joint ; a slender shape ; in
fine, all the requisites for wading in

ORN

OSI

shallow waters in search of nounsli-
ment. Such, in fact, is the source of
food of the greater number ; and al-
though some of them resort exclu-
sively to dry places, they are, never-
theless, termed • shore birds,' or 'wa-
ders' {Gi-allcc).

" Among the true land birds, the
Gallinacccc have, like our domestic
cock, a heavy carriage, a short flight,
the beak moderate, its upper mandi-
ble vaulted, the nostrils partly cover-
ed by a soft and tumid scale, and al-
ways the edges of tlie toes indented,
with short membranes between the
bases of those in front. They sub-
sist chiefly on grain.

" Birds of prey (Accipitres) have a
crooked beak, with its point sharp
and curving downward, and the nos-
trils pierced in a membrane that in-
vests its base : their feet are armed
with strong talons. They live on
flesh, and pursue other birds ; their
flight, accordingly, is mostly power-
ful. The greater number still retain
a slight web between their external
toes.

"The passerine birds (Passcres)
comprise many more species than all
the other families ; but their organi-
zation presents so many analogies
that they cannot be separated, al-
though they vary much in size and
strength.

" Finally, the name of climbers
(^Scansorcs) is applied to those birds
in which the external toe is directed
backward like the thumb, because the
greater number of them avail them-
selves of a conformation so favoura-
ble for a vertical position to climb the
trunks of trees.

" The primary division of the class
of birds adopted by the author of the
article ' Aves,' in the Cyclopccdm of
Anatomy and Physiology, includes
seven orders ; the struthious birds,
by virtue of tlieir remarkable ana-
tomical peculiarities, being separated
from tlie GrallcB of Linnaius and Cu-
vier. The following are the orders ;

1. Raptorks, AcapUres, Linn., Cuv.
Birds of prey.

2. Incessokes, f asserts, Cuv. Perch-
ers.

3. ScANsoREs, Cuv. Climbers.

4. Rasores. Gallina:. Linn., Cuv.
Scratchers.

5. CuRsoREs, Illig. Coursers.

6. Grall.atores, Gra/te, Linn. Wa-
ders.

7. N.'iT.ATORES, Palmipedes, Cuv. ; An-
sercs, Linn. Swimmers."
ORPIMENT. Yellow sulphuret

of arsenic : it is poisonous ; the so-
lution in li(iuor ammonia has been
used as a yellow dye.

ORPI\E. Scduin tclephium. An
exotic perennial succulent plant, of
the family Crassulacccz.

ORRIS. Ins Florenlina. The root
of this flag is remarkably fragrant,
and used in powder as a dentifrice.
It is readily cultivated in moist, light
soils, and grows rapidly from offsets.

ORTHOPNGEA. Difficulty of
breathing, especially when lying
down.

ORTHOPTER.ANS. See bisects.

ORTHOTROPOUS (from opOot;,
straight, and Tperrcj, I turn). Seeds in
whicli the hilum and foramen are op-
posite.

ORTOLAN. A bird of passage of
the family Fringillidce. They migrate
from Africa to Southern Europe, and
are fattened for the tables of the lux-
urious.

ORYZ.\ (from Aruz, Arabian). The
genus of the rices.

OSCILLATION. Movement sim-
ilar to that of the pendulum.

OSCILLATORIA. Plants of the
lowest organization, living in wet or
damp places, and consisting of
threads, which have sometimes an
apparent movement.

OSIER. Salix viminalis. Com-
mon osier ; there are, however, other
useful species, but this only is accli-
mated in the United States ; the S.
Forbiana is cultivated in England for
fine baskets, and also the 6'. rubra.
They are botanically willows, but are
remarkable for their slender and
tough twigs, which answer admirably
lor baskets and hoops ; for the first,
they are cut annually ; for the second,
every two years. They require a
marshy, rich soil.

" In the fens of the east of Eng-
539

OUT

OVI

land, many holts (as they are provin-
cially called) or plantations of osiers
are raised, which beautify the coun-
try, keep the stock warm in the win-
ter, and provide much useful wood
for baskets and all kinds of wicker-
work. The mode of planting is very
simple : it is, first, to dig the land
from six to twelve inches deep, and
then to prick down cuttings of four
years' growth, and eighteen inches
long, about three feet apart. The
soil may be moor or clay, or any that
is low and wet."

OSMAZOME. The brown, fra-
grant extractive matter of roasted
meats.

OSMIUM. A rare metal, associa-
ted with platina in ores.

OSSEOUS BRECCIA. Fragments
of bones and mineral matters found
cemented together in some caverns
and fissures of rocks.

OSSIFICATION. The process of
the deposition of bone.

OSTEOLOGY. A dissertation on
bones.

OTITIS (from ovc the ear). In-
flammation of the internal parts of
the ear.

OTTO, or ATTAR. A perfume,
the essential oil of roses. The fresh
flowers are distilled with water by a
gentle heat, as in the case of other
essences.

O U N C E. In troy weight, 480
grains, -j^ of a pound ; in avoirdu-
pois, jg of a pound ; it contains only
437i troy grains.

OCRARI. A virulent poison from
the Strychnos toxifera, of Guiana. It j
produces convulsions and suspended
respiration.

OUTCROP. In geology, the ex-
posure of rocks or strata above the
earth.

OUTFALL. The lower end of a
water-course.

OUTFIELD. Unenclosed lands,
distant from the farm-stead.

OUTLIER. A detached portion
of rock, distant from the mass.

OUTRE. Unusual, unnatural,
without taste

OUZE. The muddy deposites of
the 3ea, or waters.
S40

OVARIA. The oval bodies which
contain the eggs, or germs, in female
animals.

OVARIUM. " In plants, a hollow
case, enclosingovulesor young seeds,
containing one or more cells, and ul-
timately becoming the fruit ; it is al-
ways situated in the centre of the
flower, and, together with the style
and stigma, constitute the female
system of the vegetable kingdom.
When it is united to the calyx, it is
called inferior ; when separate from
it, it is termed superior."

OVEN. A domestic furnace used
for baking bread, pies, tarts, &c.
Ovens are generally constructed of
brick-work, with a semicircular and
very low roof; the bottom is laid
with stone, and in the front is a small
aperture and door, by the shutting of
which the heat is confined while the
bread is baking. They are usually
heated by means of dry fagots, wood,
dec, introduced into the cavity, and
are without any grate below. As
these ovens, however, are not calcu-
lated for small families, on account
of the quantity of fuel they consume,
others have been contrived, on a
more diminutive scale ; these are
usually formed of cast iron, and may
be heated by the same fire which
serves for the cooking of other pro-
visions, the hot ashes being applied
upon the lid, as well as helow the
oven ; but for baking bread they are
inferior to the brick (or Dutch) oven.

OVERLAND FARM. Without
buildings.

OVERSHOT WHEEL. That form
in which the water falls from above
the wheel upon the upper parts. It
is the common kind.

OVIDUCT. Fallopian tube, a
membranous tube which conveys the
germs, or eggs, from the ovarium into
the womb, or out of the bodv,

OVIPAROUS. Producing eggs.
Birds, serpents, insects, and fishes
are usually oviparous.

OVIPOSITOR. A pointed tuDe
whereby many insects deposite their
eggs in holes or chinks ; they are
sometimes boring or stinging organs
{^aculeus).

\

ox

ox

OVIS. The generic name of the
sheep. The Mouflons are supposed
to be the original of our domestic
animal, but this is questionable.

OVIVIPAKOWS. Producing liv-
ing young, enclosed within an egg-
like membrane ; the marsupials, the
viper, flesh fly, and several mollusks,
are instances.

O V U L U M. In botany, the rudi-
mentary seed before impregnation.

OWL. Raptorial or preying and
nocturnal birds of the genus .S7r(.r ;
they prey on mice and small birds,
and are useful to the farmer.

OX. For the varieties, see Cattle.

" The ox or steer is the castrated
male of neat cattle. He is called an
oxcalf, or hull calf, until he is a twelve-
month old, a steer until he is four
years old, and after that an ox, or bul-
lock. A sufficient number of the
most likely of the male calves being
selected for the future propagation of
the breed, the others are castrated
between the lirst and third months.

" The advantages derived from the
performance of this operation are
very great. The nutriment, which is
no longer directed to the sexual or-
gans, goes to the general enlarge-
ment of the frame ; the propensity to
fatten is abundantly increased, and
the animal becomes far more docile
and tractable. The use of the ox in
agricultural and other labours may be
traced in almost every country, and
to periods of the remotest antiquity.

" The education of the steer should
commence between the second and
third year. At an earlier period he
has scarcely sufficient strength, and
at a later one he may have become
obstinate and self-willed. His edu-
cation should be founded on patience
and kindness, and then the term of
it will be far shorter than is generally
imagined, and the result will be per-
manent.

" There has been much dispute
with regard to the comparative ad-
vantage of the employment of cattle
and horses in agricultural labours.
The former are said to cost less, and
to be supported at less expense. For
the latter it is pleaded that a smaller
Z z

number are needed, that the work ia,
on pressing occasions, far more quick-
ly i)erformed, and that it is always
abundantly greater. The plain mat-
ter of fact, however, is, that, although
the ox is still used for slow and heavy
work on many farms, he is not so
generally employed as he used to be,
even by his warmest advocates, and
the use of him has been completely
abandoned by a very considerable
number of agriculturists.

" In the native counties of the best
breeds, he is still admired and valued
as a beast of draught, but by the ma-
jority of farmers his value is now
chiefly or solely estimated by the
quantity and quality of the meat that
he will yield, according to the care
that is bestowed upon him, and the
expense that is incurred. He is in
the fullest perfection at four years
old, and he will then prove more
profitable to the farmer than if he
were worked four or five years lon-
ger, when the quality of his flesh
will be deteriorated, and his disposi-
tion to fatten considerably impaired.

" The diseases of cattle may be
conveniently made the subject of
consideration in the present article.
They are not so numerous as those
of the horse, but there is often con-
siderable difficulty attending the
treatment of them. From the pecu-
liar temperament of cattle, ami the
comparatively great quantity of blood
which flows in their veins, prompt-
ness in the recognition and the treat-
ment of disease is of far greater con-
sequence than in the horse, rapid as
is often the progress of his maladies.
Few of the diseases of the horse de-
stroy him at once ; but there are
many maladies of the ox which must
be met at the instant, or they will be
uselessly struggled with afterward.
Let the owner and the veterinary
surgeon take good heed of this.

" The diseases of calves should be
first considered. They are as numer-
ous as those of the colt, and more
fatal. At the head of them stands
diarrluca. This sometimes occurs
when the calf is suflercd to continue
by the side of its own dam. Both
Ml

ox.

etavvalion and excess of food in the
niotlier will produce it ; more partic-
ularly will tliis be the case when a
foster-mother is employed. If she
has calved but a very few weeks be-
fore the newly-dropped young one is
put to her, the bowels of the calf j
will almost certainly be disturbed, j
Where it can conveniently be accom-
plished, every calf should be reared
by its own dam. A state of consid-
erable purging should never be neg-
lected many days, and more especial- j
ly if the animal loses its gayety or is
in evident pain, or the dung is una- ;
sualiy offensive or tinged with blood.
The grand cause of this is acidity in
the stomach or intestines, wiiich grad-
ually causes inflammation of the inner
coat of these vessels. The irritation
here set up is communicated to the
constitution generally, and exhaus- {
tion and death ensue. Then recourse
must be had to a compound medi- |
cine, the value of which cannot be |
too highly estimated, and the farmer [
should never be without it. There \
should be a base, chalk, to neutral- i
ize the acid ; an astringent, catechu, |
to arrest the discharge ; a sedative, !
opium, to allay the irritation ; and a \
carminative, ginger, to support the
strength of the patient. These should
be mingled in the proportions of eight
parts of the first, four of the second, j
one of the third, and two of the fourth.
A large tea-spoonful of this powder
should be given twice or thrice in the
day, according to circumstances.

'• Costivcntss is a contrary disease
to this ; it should never be suffered
to continue long, for it is fraught
with danger. The best aperient for
calves and cattle is Epsom salts, in
doses of from one to two ounces,
with a scruple or half a drachm of
ginger.

" Cough should be promptly at-
tended to the moment that it is heard.
A dose of physic, small doses of pow-
dered foxglove, with nitre, or, in bad
cases, a slight bleeding, will usually
remove it.

" In proceeding to the diseases of
adult cattle, we are struck wiih the
numerous diseases of the eye. Ulcera-
542

tion of eke lids will generally yield to
the nitrated ointment of mercury, lo-
cally applied, and a course of altera-
tive medicine. Warts should be ex-
cised by means of a pair of scissors,
and the root touched with nitrate of
silver.

" For inflammation of the hau% or
membrane at the corner of the eye,
a weak Goulard lotion, or the tincture
of opium, lowered with ten times its
quantity of water, will be useful ; but
if there is any fungous growth on the
haw, extirpation will afford the only
cure. h)Jiammalion of the eyelids will
generally yield to fomentations of
warm water. For inflammation of the
eye, warm or cold fomentations, the
former at the first, and the latter a
day or two afterward, with the opiate
lotion at the commencement, and a
very diluted one of white vitriol — two
grains to the ounce — when the in- I'
flammation is subdued, with a mod- I
erate bleeding or a dose of physic, ■
will constitute the most successful
means of cure. Ulceration of the eye
will be best treated with the opiate i
lotion, but cataract and gutta serena 1
do not admit of cure.

'• In fracture of the horn, if the bones
are not quite separated, they may be
bound together by tarred cords or
splints. If there is a perfect fracture
of the bone, it should be sawn off as
closely as possible to the head, and a
hot iron passed over the suriace.

" Water in the head in calves, known
by the enlargement of the head and
the stupidity of the animal, admits
not of any cure. The giddiness which
is sometimes observed in them, and
even in the adult beasts — turning
round and round — is usually hope-
less.

" Apoplexy, or sudden determina-
tion of the blood to the head, produ-
ced by the forcing system being car-
ried too far and the process of fatten-
ing hurried too rapidly on, can be
cured only by the most decisive meas-
ures. The animal that is Wms struck
must be bled until he faints, and
powerful purgatives administered and
continued.

" Phrensy is produced by the same

ox

cause, and can only be cured by the
same treatment. In these cases, 15
or '20 drops of the crotoii oil should
be added to the aperient.

" Locked jaw too frequently bids de-
fiance to medical treatment ; the only
hope of cure consists in active bleed-
ing and the continued use of Epsom
salts and croloii oil, until the bowels
are opened. Immediately after the
bleeding, the jaws wdl usually be
found sufficiently relaxed to admit of
the administration of medicine. This
golden opportunity should never be
lost. As an adjuvant, a seton of
black hellebore in the dewlap may be
tried.

" Young cattle are occasionally
subject to Jils. Almost without warn-
ing the beast staggers, fails, bellows,
and is convulsed in every limb : this
is the consequence of over-heating
or over-driving, or both. The physic
and the fleam must be here put into
active use. Perhaps it would be pru-
dent to send such a patient to the
butcher with very little delay.

" Rheumatism. — There are few dis-
eases of more frequent occurrence
among cattle than this. It is not long
absent in a low marshy situation, and
it is the constant attendant on care-
less or cruel exposure to cold and
wet. It is recognised by the difficul-
ty of motion and the occasional ex-
pression of pain. The cure is com-
prehended ill one word, 'comfort.' A
little mild physic, with warm, com-
fortable drinks and gently stimulating
applications, will hasten and confirm
the cure.

" Connected with, or a consequence
of rheumatism, is swelled joints, yield-
ing sometimes to stimulating embro-
cations and comfortable lodging.
There are, however, otiier tumours
unconnected with the influence of
cold ; such are fluctuating tumours,
usually about the knees, which re-
quire stimulating embrocations, and
the occasional use of the budding-
iron, followed by the a|)plication of a
blister when the fluid lias escaped
Oilier tumours, also in the neighbour-
hood of joints, are of a hard charac-
ter; they will generally yield to fric-

tions with an ointment of the hydrio-
date of potash, this drug being also
administered internally in doses of
six or eight grains daily. The too
frequent consequence of these affec-
tions is palsi/, at first confined to cer-
tain limbs, but gradually spreading
over the frame, being, however, most
visible in the hind extremities. Here,
again, the whole treatment may be
included in the comprehensive word
' comfort.' Small doses of physic,
the administration of the white anli-
monial powder, the use of stimula-
ting embrocations, with warm lodg-
ing and good food, especially mashes,
will be useful adjuvants.

" As for that species of nervous
affection rabies or madness, it admits
not of cure ; and it lias but one cause,
namely, the bite of a rabid or mad
dog. If a farmer knows that certain
beasts have been bitten, or has strong
reason to suspect it, he will act wise-
ly in sending them to the butcher, for
after the disease has once appeared
there is no cure, and the meat is
spoiled.

" It is time to recur to the diseases
of other systems and parts. Too fre-
quent and destructive is that inflam-
mation of the tongue and mouth rec-
ognised by the name of blain ; it con-
sists of vesicles and tumours occu-
pying the side of the tongue and the
membrane of the mouth, speedily ul-
cerating, becoming gangrenous, pro-
ducing much swelling of the face and
head, and rapidly destroying the ani-
mal. It often appears under the form
of an epidemic, and it is frequently
contagious. The mouth should be
well cleansed with a solution of the
chloride of lime. Blood should be
abstracted in an early period of the
disease, and mild purgatives admin-
istered ; but if the complaint has at-
tained its height before any treat-
ment is adopted, the chloride of lime
should still be used, and also the
physic, but it should be accompanied
by some stimulating ingredients, as
gentian or ginger, or boih.

"All cattle are subject to fever;
the dry muzzle, and the heat at the
root of the horn, and the heaving at
543

ox.

the flanks, are sufficient proofs of it.
If this is early observed, a dose of
physic and one or two mashes will
usually set all right. At times, how-
ever, the attack is sudden and more
violent, and danger is evident from
the very commencement. The farm-
er recognises this affection by the
terms black-quarter, quarler-iU, blood-
striking, &c. ; the beast is seen with
his head protruded, his nostrils ex-
panded, and his flank heaving, the
breath and horn hot, and the eyes
bloodshot ; there is a peculiar crack-
ling sound if the loins are pressed
upon, and the slightest pressure gives
extreme pain ; ulcers appear on vari-
ous parts of the body, and every part
seems tending to corruption. This
disease is sometimes epidemic, but it
is quite as often the consequence of
the fattening process being hurried
on too rapidly. In the early stage of
such a complaint the treatment will
consist of copious bleeding and brisk
purging ; these should be continued
until tliey produce their effect, and
then some sedative medicine, as fox-
glove, or emetic tartar, administered
and persisted in until the disease is
evidently yielding. After this, some
mild stomachics, as gentian and gin-
ger, should be administered.

" Too frequently, however, the
treatment has not been sufficiently
active, or was not commenced early
enough, and a peculiar low fever be-
gins to be apparent. There is dys-
entery, which no astringent will ar-
rest ; ulcers, which defy the power
of every disinfectant ; and the ani-
mal dies one mass of putridity. In
this stage of the disease, and also in
many of the complaints that have
been described, the assistance of an
educated veterinary surgeon should
be requested, for the treatment is
complicated and difEcuH to a great
degree.

" The diseases of the respiratory
system require particular notice :
most frequent among them is cough.
It is too little regarded by the owner,
but it is often the unsuspected mes-
senger of consumption and death.
There is no rule of more universal
£44

application in cattle practice than
that a chronic cough is the forerun-
ner of everything that is bad. While
the beast feeds well, and the muzzle
is cool and moist, and the flanks are
quiet, the dairyman feels no alarm,
although he hears the cough almost
every time that he enters the cow-
house. By-and-by, however, he finds
that the cow is losing condition,
and her quantity of milk is evidently
diminishing, and he begins to think
that there is some necessity for at-
tending to the case. It is then too
late ; the seeds of consumption are
sown, and he must part with her im-
mediately, or she will pine away and
die. In every case of severe cough,
moderate bleeding and purgation
should be had recourse to, with warm
mashes and a comfortable cow-house.
The same treatment will apply to the
epidemic catarrh, which is sometimes
so prevalent. When this catarrh as-
sumes a malignant form, as in mur-
rain, the treatment will be little dif-
ferent from that of black-quarter. ■
Sore throat, or inflammation of the '
upper part of the throat and the back
of the mouth, should be treated as
cough, except that a blister or some
stimulating application should be had
recourse to. The same may be said
of bronchitis, but there is a peculiar
form of It to which young cattle are
subject, and which bids defiance to
all medical treatment, namely, the
choking of the windpipe and passa-
ges of the lungs by an innumerable
host of minute worms. No medicine
will be of avail here.

" Cattle are comparatively seldom
attacked by pure inflammation of the
lungs ; this disease principally occurs
when the beasts have been compelled
to travel too far or too fast, and when
they are exposed to sudden varia-
tions of temperature. It may be
known by the drooping head, the
heaving flank, the frequent painful
cough, the obstinate standing, the
hot mouth, and the cold feet. The
animal should immediately be bled
until the pulse falters. In all cases
of inflammation and danger, this is
the guide. No specific quantity should

ox.

be ordered or taken. The faltering
of the pulse is the unerring indica-
tion of the abstraction of the proper
quantity. If the pulse again throbs
hardly, the bleeding should be repeat-
ed. The bowels should be opened
by means of Epsom salts. Setons in
the dewlap should not be forgotten,
and blisters should be rubbed on the
sides with right good earnest. The
diet should consist of thin gruel and
mashes. Pleurisy may often be dis-
tinguished by a peculiar symptom,
twitchings and shiverings about the
chest and shoulders, these being the
parts external to the seat of pain.
Little waves appear to be stealing
over the skin, and the animal shrinks
when the sides are pressed upon.
The treatment is the same as in in-
flammation of the lungs. Consump-
tion is the most frequent and fatal of
all the diseases of the chest in cattle ;
it is the consequence or the winding
up of every other pulmonary com-
plaint. It is distinguished by a feeble
and hoarse cough, evidently accom-
panied by pain, and interrupted be-

fore it is perfectly completed ; for
a while the beast may continue to
thrive ; she — for it is oftenest a dis-
ease of the female — may increase in
condition ; but she will presently be-
gin to waste rapidly away. Medi-
cine is powerless in this disease.
The animal must be disposed of or
destroyed.

"First among the diseases ofthedi-
gestive system is choking, or the stop-
ping of a piece of carrot or turnip, or
other hard substance, in its passage
down the gullet. The cart-rope or the
cart-whip is resorted to in order to
force it along the canal, and much mis-
chief has ensued from the violence
that has been resorted to on these
occasions. Probangs are now con-
structed at trifling expense, and may
be had from most surgical-instrument
makers in town and country, by means
of which the purpose may be readily
effected, and without danger. See
Probang.

" From the gullet the food passes
into the stomachs of the animal, of
which there are four (see Fig.). The

the gullet.

J, tlie paunch, c, the honeycomb, d, tlie maiiy;ilies. e, the reed. /, the
commencement of the duodenum.

first is the rumen, or paunch, into i will reveal the real state of the case,
which the imperfectly- masticated The stomach-pump will be of admi-
food, as it is hastily gathered, de- I rable use here. Any quantity of fluid
scends ; it is there macerated and I can be injected into the stomach,
prepared to be returned for a second j and the hardened mass may be ren-
or more complete grinding. Some- dered more fluid, and removed by

times this stomach becomes over-
loaded with food : this is the grain
side of the dairy. The animal refu-
ses to eat, he becomes uneasy, moans,
swells at the flank, and a kind of un-
consciousness gradually steals upon
him. The symptoms are often treach-
erous, and would deceive him who
was not thoroughly acquainted with

means of the pump ; or, if the stom-
ach is too full to admit the probang,
and to be thus evacuated, an incision
may be made in the flank, and the
accumulated mass withdrawn by the
hand.

" At other times an unnatural fer-
mentation commences, and the stom-
ach is inflated with gas. One look

the diseases of cattle ; but the intro- at the sides will sufficiently indicate

duction of the probang, if necessary, , the inflation of the paunch ; this is

Z z 2 545

ox

termed Jwovc. The first indication of
cure is to get rid of the gas ; this
may be accomplished by the introduc-
tion of substances that will chemi-
cally combine with it : the chloride
of lime will effect this. The princi-
pal gas in the inflated stomach is a
compound of hydrogen. The chlo-
rine leaves the lime and combines
with the hydrogen, and the compound
does not occupy a thousandth part of
the space previously occupied by the
hydrogen. Two drachms of the chlo-
ride of lime will form a cheap and a
very efficient agent ; but if this is
not at hand, then a puncture may be
made into the left flank with perfect
safety. If this is done with a trocar,
the canula may remain in the wound,
and the gas will continue to be ex-
tricated while any considerable por-
tion of it remains. In default of a
trocar, a penknife may be used ; but
as the upper portion of the stomach
sinks with the disengagement of the
gas, the aperture through the skin
and that into the rumen will cease to
be accurately opposed to each other,
and some of the gas and the contents
of the stomach will enter the cavity
of the abdomen, and will be the cause
of future illness, or, perchance, of
death.

" The gas having escaped, a pur-
gative should be administered, with
a double dose of the aromatic, in or-
der to excite the stomach to resume
its duty. Hoove, or hoven, is to be
avoided by not letting cattle get at
too much green food in spring.

"The loss of cud, or the cessation
of rumination, is only the indication
or the consequence of other disease,
and will cease with it. If the nature
of that disease is not clear, a dose of
physic, with the usual or more than
the usual quantity of the carminative,
may be given.

" The diseases of the second stom-
ach, the reticulum, or honeycomb, are
few, and not easily distinguished :
the simple function of that stomach
is to prepare the pellet of food for re-
mastication.

" The third stomach, the manyplies,
has more to do. The food which has
546

not undergone sufficient comminu-
tion in the second mastication is
seized by the rough and powerful
leaves of this stomach, and is ground
down, as it were, in a living mill.
Sometimes, however, there is a de-
ficiency of moisture in this stomach,
or the muscular apparatus of the
leaves does not act with sufficient
energy ; and at length the manyplie
becomes perfectly paralyzed by the
distention caused in consequence of
the undue quantity of food which is
accumulated in it : this is known by
the name of fardel-bound. The symp-
toms are not always evident. Dul-
ness, want of appetite, disinclination
to move, and costiveness, are among '
the usual indications. The treatment
is simple, but too often ineffectual.
It consists in the frequent adminis-
tration of small doses of purgative
medicine, with more than the usual
quantity of carminatives ; at the same
time, a small stream of warm water
is, by means of a horn or the stom-
ach-pump, made to flow down the _
gullet and pass through the canal at I
the base of this stomach, thus grad- '
ually dislodging and washing away a
portion of the accumulated and hard-
ened contents.

" The principal disease of the abo-
masum, or fourth stomach, is inflam-
mation, designated by evident unea-
siness, the resting of the muzzle on
the situation of this stomach, or a
peculiar stretching out of the fore
legs. Venesection and purgatives
should be used in this case. Of the
indications of disease in the spleen,
little is known ; inflammation is oft-
en found in it, with enlargement, in-
duration, or softening of its sub-
stance. These circumstances, how-
ever, are rarely suspected during life.

" To diseases of the liver these ani-
mals appear to be peculiarly prone.
A yellowness of the skin betrays the
existence of biliary affections in a
great proportion of the inhabitants of
every dairy. When acute inflamma-
tion of the liver exists to any con-
siderable extent, not only this yellow
tint of the integument will be found,
but tenderness on the right side, ful-

ox.

ness there, and the direction of the | cus actually discharged, or, in other
muzzle to it. The proper remedies words, of the danger of the case.
are those used in intlammation of The progress of the disease is rapid
other viscera, with the addition of blis- or slow, according to circumstances
ters over the diseased part. Chronic which it is difficult to appreciate;
inflammation is far more prevalent but, in the usual course of things,
than that which is acute. The indi- the animal wastes away almost to a
cations are, want of condition, the skeleton, and then dies.
same tint of the skin, and obstinate '• Notwithstanding the purging, the
cough. The remedies are gentle pur- first indication of cure is to bleed. It
gatives, and succulent food. When is an inflammatory disease, and that
obstruction of the biliaiy ducts takes ; mflammation must be subdued. To
place, there is a still deeper yellow, the abstraction of blood should sue-
invariably accompanied by loss of ceed the administration of an aperi-
condiiion. The animal then has jaun- ent ; and castor oil, as being the least
dice, or the yelloics. If much fever irritative, will be the best. Injections
accompanies it, recourse must be had of gruel should follow ; and when the
to bleeding and to physic. Cattle in dung has somewhat resumed its nat-
swampy places nearly always have , ural character, astringents may be
disease of the liver, and even die ofi administered, at the very head of
bilious fevers. which, in this case, stands opium :

" Among the various intestinal dis- [ a little calomel should, perhaps, be
eases of the ox stands enteritis, or in- mingled with if, as an alterative ;
flammation involving all the coats of and after that the vegetable tonics
the intestines. Young and fattening \ must perfect the cure. Cattle are
cattle are most subject to it. It is s\i\i]ftc\.io flatulent anA spasmodic colic,
not, however, of very frequent occur- for both of which the vegetable tonics
rence, except as an epidemic, and will be the best cure, with a little of
then it is very destructive. Wood- the chloride of lime to absorb the gas,
evil and moor-ill are varieties of the i and the abstraction of blood if there
same disease. They must be treat- is any inflammatory action. Walk-
ed by bleeding, demulcents, blisters ' ing exercise and friction of the belly
on the belly, mashes, and gruel. should not be omitted. For strangu-

" Diarrhaa, or purging without the lation of the intestines there is sel-
discharge of mucus mingling with dom any cure but by means of an
the faeces, is produced by various operation, which a skilful veterinary

causes, and particularly by a change
or excess of food. It is often epi-
demic in the autumn. A mild pur-
gative should first be given, and then
the mingled, but very efficacious med-

surgeon alone can perform. In ca-
ses of constipation, the aperients must
sometimes be long administered be-
fore the bowels will be opened. There
will be no danger in this, provided the

icine already recommended for a sim- Epsom salts, alone or with a small
ilar disease in calves. portion of aromatic powder, are ad-

" Dysentery, in the adult as well as | ministered. Dropsy in cattle seldom
in the young animal, is, indeed, a admits of cure. Although an opera-
fearful disease. Its causes are often tion may be resorted to, the belly fills
obscure, and the means of success- -again, nor will any physic or diuretic
fully arresting its progress are a de- \ arrest the evil.

sideratum. Its principal character- ! " Among the supposed diseases of
istic is the discharge of mucus with the urinary organs, but much oftener
the faeces, recognised by the appear- [of the digestive ones, stands red-ica-
ance of bubbles standing for a while | tcr, so called from the colour of the
on the fa;ces. The length of time fluid which is evacuated. It is ma-
which they continue there unbroken torially connected with the pasture,
may be considered as a kind of ad- \ but sometimes it has an epidemic
measurement of the quantity of mu- J character. In the acute form of

547

ox

OXE

the disease the water is red. This
must be combated by bleeding and
purging until the bowels respoiul. In
chronic red-water, the urine has a
brown tinge at first, but a red hue
gradually mingles with it. This is
difficult to treat. The principal
hope of cure consists in the; exhibi-
tion of Epsom salts until thorough
purging is produced. Some mild car-
minative may then be given. Black-
water is only a variety, or the conclu-
ding stage of red-water.

" Puerperal fever, or dropping after
calving, is a disease that has been
very much misunderstood. A few
days after calving, the cow suddenly
loses all power over her hind limbs.
She falls, and continues down three,
four, or more days, until the power
of voluntary motion returns, or she
dies It is inflammation of the womb
or of the spinal cord, which extends
to the organs of motion in the hind
extremities. She must generally be
bled, and always purged. No half
measures will do here ; the bowels
being once opened, the cow will fre-
quently get up, and there will be an
end of the matter. Injections will ma-
terially assist the action of the phys-
ic. Whatever apparent weakness
there may be, no tonic must be giv-
en until the bowels have been well
opened.

" Garget is inflammation or ulcera-
tion of the udder. The milk coagu-
lates in the bag, and produces inflam-
mation there. In an early stage, the
sucking of the calf will afford the
greatest relief. If this does not suc-
ceed, fomentation must be had re-
course to, and friction with an ungu-
ent composed of elder ointment, with
an eighth part of camphor, and mer-
curial ointment. To this, if necessa-
ry, iodine may succeed ; but it must
be a last resource, on account of its
absorbent power.

"The treatment of cowpox will
consist in fomenting the teats, apply-
ing an emollient ointment, and giving
a little physic.

" The diseases of the feet must not
be forgotten. Foul in the foot con-
sists in ulceration about the coronet
648

or between the claws, which produ-
ces great lameness, and occasionally
loss of the hoof It is very conta-
gious. The treatment is simple : ev-
ery pustule or collection of purulent
matter must be opened ; the horn
which is separated from the parts be-
neath must be carefully and wholly re-
moved ; a linseed-meal poultice appli-
ed foraday ortwo, andthen the sores
touched with the hiiller of antimony.

" Mange is a too frequent and very
troublesome disease among cattle.
An ointment, however, the basis of
which is sulphur, with a small por-
tion of mercurial ointment, daily and
well rubbed on every affected part,
will usually remove the complaint.
Sulphur given internally will be a
useful adjunct." — {Youatt.)

For the medicines and their do-
ses, see the article Pharmacopoeia.
OXALATES. Salts of oxalic acid.
OXALIC ACID. See Acids.
O X A L I S. The genus of wood
sorrels. "The 0. crenata is a peren-
nial, ornamental plant, native of Chili.
The flowers are beautiful, of a yel-
low colour, and in umbels ; the stalks
and leaves are succulent, of an acid
taste, and useful as salads ; the roots
or tubes are produced in clusters ;
their taste, when boiled, somewhat
resembles a chestnut. They are rais-
ed from the tubers, are very produc-
tive, as easily cultivated as the pota-
to, and decidedly superior in flavour.
They require a rich soil, and, like the
potato, are stored during winter in
cellars." — {Keyinck.)

OXAMIDE. A white, insoluble
sublimate, rising in a dense vapour
when oxalate of ammonia is decom-
posed by heat ; formula, N Hj d
O2. It is a test of the goodness of
African guano.
OX BOOSE. A stall for oxen.
OXEN IN THE WEST. The
abundance of cattle sustained by the
prairies, and their cheapness, has led
to the introduction of various plans
for disposing of the carcasses. See
Ellnvorth's Report, 1844.

The hide is salted for the English
market, and netts four to five cents
the pound. The hoofs and horns are

oxr

OXY

eimilarly disposed of. From the thigh
and shoulder. 75 to 100 lbs. of lean,
fit for drying into jugged beef, are ob- ,
tained ; 100 lbs. of the best pieces
are also salted for shipping. The
liver is rubbed with nitre, and salted
for home consumption. |

But the great object is to obtain the '
tallow. For this, the rest of the car-
cass is cut up, and placed in an iron
cylinder holding 10,000 to 15,000 lbs.
The top is made fast, and steam let
in at 70 lbs. pressure, equal to 306-
Fahr. In 12 to 14 hours the grease
will be free, and may be drawn off
into barrels. The soup formed un-
der the tallow is used, with meal,
<S:c.. to fatten hogs. 40 oxen per day
will feed 600 to 1000 hogs. The pigs, '
in time, are steamed into lard. J

An ox of 700 lbs. yields 25 lbs. suet
from kidneys, 50 lbs. from intestines,
100 lbs. hide, 100 lean meat, and the
rest yields 10 to 20 per cent, tallow,
from a fat animal.

It is to be remarked that the fat is
not equal to that taken without steam-
ing. The bones, burned into bone-
black, form a rich manure and excel-
lent purifying substance for sugar re-
finers. They are also assorted for
buttons, knife handles, &c., and the
rest exported for manure.

OX EYE. The genus Chnjsarithe-
mum. "Weeds growing among wheat
and small grain, with large white and
yellow composite flowers.

OX FEET. When the horse's
hoof splits before, so as to become
apparently divided into two parts.

OX GALL, or BILE. It is an ex-
cellent substance to refresh the col-
our of old, greasy carpets. For this
purpose, a small quantity is mixed
with water, and the carpet or cloth
well brushed with it. The dry gall
is very purgative.

OX GANG. An old, uncertain
measure of land, varying from 6 to
40 acres.

OX HARROW. A large, heavy
harrow.

OXICHLORIDES. Compounds of
chlorine with metallic oxides, as
bleaching salt.

OXIDATION, OXIDIZING. The

act of combining with oxygen, usu-
ally that of the air.

OXIDE. A compound of oxygon,
with an element or other compound.
Numerous oxides arc, however, call-
ed acids, when they become sour, or
are capable of neutralizing alkalies.
The most powerful oxides are pro-
toxides ; and these are bases. A
protoxide contains one equivalent of
oxygen ; a binoxide or deutoxide, tw^o
equivalents ; a sesquioxide, three,
with two equivalents of the base ; a
tritoxidc or teroxide, three equiva-
lents of oxygen ; a quadroxide, four
equivalents ; and a peroxide repre-
sents the highest state of oxidation,
which varies much with different
bodies. A dioxide is a compound of
one equivalent oxygen with two of

OXYGEN, VITAL AIR (from
ofi'f, and yevvaeiv, to generate). This
important element was discovered in
1774 by Dr. Priestley. There are sev-
eral compounds of oxygen which,
when exposed to heat, are decompo-
sed, and yield the gas in a state of
purity. Of these, the best is chlorate
of potash ; but as that salt is expen-
sive, we generally resort to black ox-
ide of manganese, which, at a dull-red
heat, gives out a considerable quan-
tity of tolerably pure oxygen gas.

Oxygen gas is colourless, taste-
less, and inodorous ; it is electro-
negative, and therefore, when com-
pounds containing it are electrically
decomposed, it always appears at the
positive surface. It is a little heavi-
er than atmospheric air, in the pro-
portion of 11 to 10 ; 100 cubic inch-
es weighing 34 18 grains. Its equiv-
alent is 8 on the hydrogen scale, but
it is often made the 100th of what is
called the oxygen scale, symbol 0. It
is absorbed by water to the extent of
less than one per cent., and is neither
acid nor alkaline. It has a powerful
attraction for most of the simple sub-
stances, especially for the electro-
positive bodies. The act of combi-
ning with it is called oxidation. The
compounds thus formed are divided
into acids and oxides ; among the
latter are the alkalies, and almost all
549

OXY

salifiable bases. Oxidation is often
attended wjtli the evolution of heat
and light, as in all processes of com-
bustion in atmospheric air ; some-
times it is slow, and unattended with
such phenomena, as in the gradual
rusting of metals. Oxygen is a most
powerful supporter of combustion ;
it constitutes one fifth of the bulk of
the atmosphere, and is the principle
which enables combustible bodies to
burn in it. The product of combus-
tion, that is, the oxide or acid, is
sometimes itself gaseous, as when
charcoal, by burning, is converted
into carbonic acid ; or it is liquid, as
hydrogen, by combustion, produces
water ; or it is solid, as when iron,
by burning, produces oxide of iron.
Oxygen gas is also essential to res-
piration ; that is, to the evolution of
carbonic acid from the blood ; but
requires to be diluted with nitrogen,
as in the air, otherwise it destroys
life by producing over-activity. Seeds
cannot germinate without oxygen,
and are, therefore, not to be buried
too deep in a compact soil. The
leaves of trees, also, cannot perform
their functions without its presence,
although they are always exhaling a
large quantity of this gas. Oxygen
is very extensively ditTused in na-
ture ; in the compound state it forms
eight ninths of all waters, and at
least one half of all structures, wheth-
er mineral or organic, except a few
oils and resins.

OXYGENATION, AERATION.
The introduction of atmospheric air
into the blood through respiration.

OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE.
A contrivance for burning hydrogen
gas in an atmosphere of pure oxygen,
whereby the most intense heat is ob-
tained. Dr. Hare's apparatus is con-
sidered equal, if not superior, to most
others.

OXYMEL. A mixture of honey
and vinegar, for coughs.

OXYMURIATES, OXYCHLO-
RIDES. An erroneous name for
salts of chlorine, formerly called ox-
ymuriatic acid.

O X - Y O K E. The timber placed
above the heads of oxen, and fasten-
550

OYS

ed by a throat-latch or piece, to yoke
them. The French fasten a flat
board to the foreheads ; and it is
found best to have one for each ox,
as shown in the Figure. Harness-

ing oxen in the same way as horses,
if they be well broken, is a very su-
perior method, and highly recom-
mended in hilly countries, where it
has been practised from time un-
known, as in ^Vales, Cornwall, and
Devonshire in England.

OXY- SALTS. Chemical com-
pounds containing an acid and alkali,
which are both oxides. This class
of salts comprehends the greater part
of those used in the arts.

OXYURES. A family of hyme-
nopterous insects with an external
ovipositor resembling a tail. They
are pupivorous, and prey on other in-
sects. A genus of intestinal worms,
also.

OYSTERS. Ostracca. A family
of inequivalve bivalves, of which the
Ostrca. edulis, or common oyster, is an
esteemed luxury. Those from the
Chesapeake Bay are best. They are
frequently transplanted and set in
beds in the North and East Rivers,
and elsewhere, divided by stakes, in
shallow water, within reach of the
tide ; water which is only partially
salt is best. They grow sufficiently
for use in two or three years. They
should not be disturbed in May, which
is the spawning season, but are fit to
eat in August.

OYSTER SHELLS. They con-

PAL

sist, according to Brandes, of one half
percent, matter resembling glue, 983
carbonate of lime, and l 2 per cent,
of phosphate and sulphate of lime.
They are, therefore, a manure re-
sembling chalk, when ground into
powder, and have been used with
good effects on wheat and legumin-
ous crops. They can be crushed with
a common bark mill. When burned
in an open kiln, the animal matter is 1
driven off, and the best description of
lime is formed. These remarks apply
to all shells which are not porcelanous.
OZOENA (from ofw, I smell). A
putrid discharge from the nose.

P.

PACAXE-NUT, The Louisiana
hickory. The nut is the best of the
hickory kind.

PACE. A distance of from four to
five feet.

PACHYDERMATA (from naxvc,
thick, and depfxa, skin). l"he order of
quadrupeds with thick hides, as the
horse, elephant, oxen, pig, &c.

PACING, AMBLING. A natural
pace of the horse, in which both legs
of one side are raised.

PADDLE STAFF. A staff or im-
plement used to free the ploughshare
from earth, &c.

PADDOCK. A small enclosure at
pasture.

PAG IN A. The flat surface of the
leaf.

PAGODITE. A kind of steatite.

PALATE. The roof of the mouth.
It is divided into hard or bony palate,
and soft palate, the latter being the
membrane at the innermost portion.
The shape and markings of the pal-
ate are adduced by zoologists in their
descriptions. The elevated portion
of the lower lip of a personate flower.

PALE.E, CHAFF. A name giv-
en to the bracts that are stationed
upon the receptacle of compositae be-
tween the florets, and having gener-
ally a membranous texture and no
colour ; also the interior bracts of the
flowers of grasses.

PALINGS. Light fences made by
driving posts at distances of ten or
twelve feet into the soil, crossing

PAL

them above and below by stout tim-
bers, and nailing slabs or laths of
wood to these in an upright direction,
and at intervals of three or four
inches.

PALLADIUM. A rare metal, re-
sembling platinum : sp. gr., 11-8.

PAL.MA CHRISTI. The castor
oil plant, which see.

PALMATE. Resembling the hand,
five-lobed or toothed.

PALMETTO. Chamoerops palmet-
to. A cabbage-tree palm, growing as
far north as 34° N. lat. It some-
times rises ninety feet ; the stem is
nearly cylindrical, capped by a splen-
did frond, the centre of which, an
immense bud, is tender, and can be
eaten as a vegetable, but its removal
destroys the tree. Like other palms,
the outside of the trunks is very hard
and durable, and the interior spongy.
The hollowed stems make good tul)es
to convey water, or, being split in
halves, they serve for piles, and last
a long time in water. The fully-
expanded leaf is very large ; fans,
hats, and a good thatch may be made
from it. The fruit is like a date,
not very palatable. The genus Cha-
mcerops contains also the indigenous
species scrrulata and hystnx, with
creeping stems, and which, when
burned, are said to yield a large
amount of potashes.

PALMIPEDES. The anseres, or
swimming birds of Linnaeus.

P.\LM OIL. The solid, fragrant
oil oiihe Avoiraelais,dLn African palm-
tree

PALMS, PALMACEJE. A natu-
ral order of arborescent endogens,
like the palmetto, chiefly inhabiting
the tropics, distinguished by their
fleshy, colourless, six-parted flowers,
enclosed within spathes, and rigid
plaited or pinnate inarticulated leaves,
sometimes called fronds. They yield
bread, oil, wine, cordage, fuel, and all
necessaries to the savages of the
tropics.

PALP, PALPUS. The jointed or-
gans attached to the labium and max-
illa of insects : the feelers.

PALPATORS. Those clavicora
beetles w^ith long palpi.

SSI

TAP

PAR

PALSY. Loss of nervous power,
in horses, usually in the hind legs.
See the Horse, Ox. Sheep.

PALUSTRINE, PALUSTRIS.
Marshy, belonging to a marsh.

P A M B I N A. A species of high
cranberry, found near the Columbia
River.

PAMPAS. The South American
prairies.

PAN. A term applied to the bed
or flooring upon which the cultivated
soil lies or is placed. It is sometime
extremely hard. See Moor.

PANACEA. A universal and fab-
ulous remedy.

PANCREAS, The sweet bread.
It is composed of innumerable small
glands, the excretory ducts of which
unite and form one duct, called the
pancreatic duct, that conveys a fluid
very similar to saliva into the intes-
tines, called the pancreatic juice,
which mixes with the chyle in the
duodenum.

PANE OF GROUND. A small,
four-sided piece of ground capable of
irrigation.

PANDURIFORM. Shaped like a
fiddle or guitar.

PAN-FEEDERS. In horticulture,
the shallow vessels in which pots
are set.

PANIC GRASS. The genus Pcm-
icum. Coarse annuals, of little value
for grass. P. miliaceum is one vari-
ety of millet, which see.

PANICLE. A kind of inflores-
cence, in which the central stalk
throws out lateral stems, and these
bear the petioled flowers, as in oats.

PANNAGE. The food consumed
by hogs in woods.

PANSY. Heart's ease. Violets.

PAPAVERACE^. Plants allied
to the poppies ; they are for the most
part narcotics.

PAPAW. Carica papaya, Assimi-
nier. A Southwestern tree, attain-
ing sometimes twenty-five feet ; the
fruit is three inches long, soft and
insipid ; a spirituous liquor may be
made from it : the wood is useless.

PAPILIONACE^, PAPILIONA-
CEOUS PLANTS. The Legutni-
noscB.
552

PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS.
A name given to the corolla of legu-
minous plants, as that of the garden
pea and bean ; it consists of a large
upper petal, standard, or vexillum ;
two lateral petals, called ala, wings ;
and two intermediate petals, forming
the keel, or carina.

PAPILIONID.E. Lepidopterous
insects, properly called butterflies :
they feed by day.

PAPILLA, PAPILL.-E. Small
delicate eminences, as on the tongue.

PAPPUS. The hairy down of
thistles and other compositse. Pap-
pose is a derivative.

PAPYRUS. A large sedge (Cy-
perus papyrus), a native of the Nile
and Southern Asia, from which the
ancients made their paper, or papyrus.

PARACENTESIS. Tapping,
opening the covering of the abdomen,
&c., to let out water : it is done with
a trocar.

PARACYANOGEN. A brown
solid, with the composition of cyan-
ogen.

PARADOX. An apparent absurd-
ity, but really a fact.

'PARAFINE. A tasteless, inodor-
ous, fatty matter, obtained, among
the products of distillation, from
wood tar.

PARAGUAY TEA. Ilex Para-
guayensis. An evergreen holly, the
leaves of which contain theine, and
are used as tea in South America. It
grows well in Georgia.

PARALYSIS. Palsy. Paralytic
is a derivative.

PARAPLEGIA. Paralysis of the
upper or lower part of the body only.

PARASITE, PARASITIC
PLANTS. Plants which strike their
roots into the textures of others, as
the misletoe : mildew, smut, rust, &c.,
are also parasites. Many insects are
parasitical on animals.

PAR A ST ATE. Square pillars
standing from the wall.

PARCHMENT. Refuse or clip-
pings make glue, or sizing, when
boiled ; they constitute an excellent
manure of the same kind as woollen

rags.

PAREGORIC.

Tincture of opium

PAR

TAR

and camphor with oil of anise seed ;
an anodyne to allay pain.

PARELLA. Lfcanora parclla. A
lichen of Europe, used as a dye, ahd
similar to archil.

PARENCHYMA. The cellular
substance of vegetables or animals.

PARGASITE. A kind of horn-
blend (aclinolyte).

PARGET. The plaster of lime,
hair, cow dung, and water used in
coating the flue of a chimnev.

PARHELION. The appearance
of two or more suns from the misty
state of the air. Faraselcnd are sev-
eral moons seen from the same cause.

PARIETAL. In botany, any or-
gan which grows from the sides of
another is said to be parietal. The
parietal hones, in zoolog.v, are those at
the sides of the skull, which together
form the arch.

PARING AND BURNING. " This
operation consists in cutting a thin
slice from the surface of land which
is overgrown with grass, heath, fern,
or any other plants which form a
sward by the matting together of
their roots. The sods arc allowed to
dry in the sun to a certain degree,
after which they are arranged in
heaps, and burned slowly, without
flame or violent heat. The result is
a mi.\ture of burned earth, charred
vegetable fibre, and the ashes of that
part which is entirely consumed.

"The object uf th is operation is two-
fold : first, to kill insects and destroy
useless or no.\ious weeds completely ;
and, secondly, to obtain a powerful
manure, impregnated with alkalme
salts and carbonaceous matter, which
experience has shown to be a very
powerful promoter of vegetation.

" The instruments by which this
is eflTected are either a common
plough with a very flat share, which
may be used when the surface is very
level without being encumbered with
stone or large roots, as in low moist
meadows, or, in most other cases, a
paring-iron, which is used by hand.
The cross-bar of this instrument is
held with both hands, and the upper
parts of the thighs, being protected
by two small slips of board, push the

A K A

instrument into the ground, so as to
cut a slice of the required thickness,
which is then turned over by moving
the cross-handle. The labour is se-
vere, and a good workman can
scarcely pare more than one sixth of
an acre in a day.

" Paring and burning the surface
is an almost invariable preliminary
in the converting of waste lands to
tillage ; and where these lands are in
a state of nature, overrun with wild
plants which cannot be easily brought
to decay by simply burying them in
the ground, burning is the readiest
and most efTeclual mode of destroy-
ing them. In this case the practice
is universally recommended and ap-
proved of.

" But it is not only in the reclaim-
ing of waste lands, and bringing them
into cultivation, that paring and burn-
ing the surface is practised. The
fertility produced by the ashes, which
is proved by the luxuriance of the ve-
getation in the first crop, has induced
many to repeat this process so often
as materially to exhaust the soil, and
induce partial sterility. Hence the
practice has been recommended on
the one hand and strongly reprobated
on the other.

" A\'hen we come to apply to the
subject the test of experience, and
reason correctly on the facts which
are presented to us by the abettors
of the practice and its adversaries,
we shall find that the advantages and
disadvantages arise chiefly from the
circumstances under which the oper-
ation is carried on. But it may be
necessary to an impartial examina-
tion of the subject, to inquire into the
changes produced on the substances
subjected to the process of burning,
when it is done with due precautions.

" In burning vegetable matter in an
open fire, the whole of the carbon is
converted into carbonic acid and flies
off, leaving only some light ashes,
containing the earthy matter and the
salts which the fire could not dissi-
pate. These are, no doubt, very pow-
erful agents in promoting vegetation,
when they are added to any soil ; but
they are obtained at a very great ex-
5.-.S

PARING AND BURNING.

pense of vegptable matter, which, by
its decomposition in liie earth, might
also have afforded food for vegeta-
tion. If the earth which is burned
with the sods is of a cold, clayey na-
ture, the fire will change it into a
kind of sand, or hrickdust, which is
insoluble in water, and corrects the
too great tenacity of clays, by con-
verting them more or less into loams.
This is so well known, that clay
is often dug out of the subsoil to be
partially burned. On stiff clay soils,
therefore, there is a double advan-
tage in paring and burning, that of the
vegetable ashes and of the burned
clay. When the fire is so managed
that the vegetable matter is only par-
tially burned, the oily and inflamma-
ble portions being converted into va-
pour by the fire without being de-
stroyed, and absorbed by the earth,
the effect produced is only to impreg-
nate the earth with minute particles
of matter, readily converted into tl>e
constituent parts of vegetables. The
earth is the mere recipient of these
particles, which are held in its pores,
as water is in a sponge, ready to be
let loose to any substance which has
the power of attracting them. The
Dioisture, which the dry earth will
also absorb from the atmosphere if
no rain should fall, is retained and
inci'eased by the effect of the salts
with which it is impregnated.

'• The principal objection to burn-
ing is, that it destroys a great portion
of vegetable matter. But this is a
fact to be proved, and is, perhaps,
rashly taken for granted. It appears
that a clay soil may be pared and
burned without its real substance be-
ing diminished ; and if its texture is
improved, it becomes more fertile by
the operation.

" Many experienced farmers pare
and burn the soil on the edges of their
ditches and on the banks on which
the hedges grow, because they there-
by exterminate many rank weeds ;
and the burned earth mixed with
farm-yard dung makes an admirable
compost. Here the burned earth acts
as an absorbent, and no doubt attracts
many of the volatile parts of the ma-

00 1

nure, which are produced by the de-
composition of animal and vegetable
matter in it. Paring and burning,
therefore, should be joined to ma-
nuring, if a powerful and immediate
effect is desired without exhausting
the soil ; and, in tliis case, we do not
hesitate to recommend it on all cold
clay soils, where rank weeds are apt
to spring up, and coarse grasses take
the place of the better sorts which
have l)een sown. The proper time
to pare and burn is evidently after
the land has lain in grass for several
years, and is broken up for tillage.
The surface should be pared thin ;
about two inches is the extreme
thickness allowable for the sod if the
soil is very stiff and poor, and as thin
as possible in a better soil. The sods
should be moderately dried, and then
arranged into small heaps with a hol-
low in the middle to hold heath or
bushes to kindle the fire. When it
has fairly established itself, all the
apertures should be carefully closed.
Wherever any smoke breaks out, a
fresh sod should be immediately put
over it ; a heap containing a small
cart-load of sods should be smoulder-
ing for several days without going
out, even if it rains hard. If the fire
is too brisk, the earth will form hard
lumps, and even vitrify ; but other-
wise it comes out in the form of a
fine powder, in which evident marks
of charcoal appear. If this is of a
fine red colour, it is a good sign ; for
the iron in the earth has been con-
verted into a peroxide, which is per-
fectly innocent in its effects on ve-
getation, whereas all the saline im-
pregnations of iron are more or less
hurtful. It is better to burn the sods
in large than in small heaps ; for the
more the fire is smothered the better
the ashes.

" So great a quantity of ashes is
sometimes produced as to admit of a
portion being carried off on grass
land, or used to manure another field.
As this is evidently robbing the field
where the operation has been carried
on, an equivalent quantity of manure
should be brought in exchange. Per-
haps the most advantageous mode of

PARING AXD BURNING.

using the ashes is to spread them in !
the drills where the seed is to he '
sown, after a portion of dung has
been buried under them. In this
manner the ashes from one acre of j
land pared and burned, together with I
ten or twelve cart-loads of good yard j
dung, will manure two acres. But I
experience proves that the earth and ,
ashes almost ensure a good crop of
turnips in many poor, stiff soils, in ;
which they would probably not have
succeeded if sown in the cominon
course of cultivation without bones
or ashes.

"When a considerable erxtent of
poor land is brought into cultivation,
and there is no sufficient supply of
manure at hand, paring and burning
a portion of the land every year, by
wiiich a crop is obtained, is a most
effectual means of improvement.
I.ime may be used at the same time
with the ashes, and will increase
their effect. It would be a great
waste to burn the surface of a rich
piece of grass land, where the plants
growing m it are tender and succu-
lent, and would readily rot on being
ploughed under ; in such case a mod-
erate application of lime would have
a much better effect. This kind of
land will produce good crops without
any manure, and continue fertile for
many years if judiciously cultiva-
ted. To pare and burn rich land is
wasteful, and can never be recom-
mended. It is only on poor land
which has not strength to produce a
crop, and of which the texture re-
quires to be improved and its powers
stimulated, that paring and burnintr is
advantageous ; on poor, thin, chalky
soils, which have been laid down with
sainfoin, of which the roots and stems
are grown coarse and hard, so as not
readily to rot in the ground, the op-
eration is proper and advantageous.

"Many tracts of waste land might
be brought into cultivation by means
of paring and burning, which without
it would never repay the labour re-
quired. Where the soil is inclined
to peat, this operation and abundant
liming are the indispensable prelimi-
naries of cultivation. The ashes and

the lime will produce vegetation and
food for animals. These will produce
dung to supply what the vegetation
abstracts, and to assist, also, in the
farther decomposition of the peaty
matter, converting it into vegetable
mould.

" The first crop after paring and
burning should, if possible, be tur-
nips, and these should be consumed
on the spot ; but there are exceptions
to the rule. The soil may be a stiff
clay of a considerable degree of nat-
ural fertility, only encumbered with
rank weeds and grasses. In this
case the surface is burned to destroy
these, and a crop of corn may safely
be taken after the paring and burning,
the land coming into a regular alter-
nate rotation alter it. For example,
the next crop may be beans ; or clo-
ver may be sown with the first crop,
if the ground appears fit for it. The
effect of the ashes will be readily per-
ceived in the luxuriance of the clo-
ver. Such land may be afterward
cultivated, according to its nature
and quality, with the rest of the farm,
or laid down to grass after a course
of cleansing and ameliorating crops.
Thus old wet meadows, after having
been well underdrained, may be great-
ly improved, and either converted
into arable fields, or laid down again
with choice grasses.

" Old rough pastures may often be
greatly improved by a very thin pa-
ring and burning, so as not to destroy
all the roots of the grass. When
the ashes are spread over the pared
surface, some good grass seeds are
sown with them. The whole is well
harrowed or scarified and rolled, and
the grass which will spring up after
this will be greatly improved, and
will fully repay the expense of this
simple mode of renovating it. This
is the cheapest mode of improving
coarse pastures that we know, with-
out breaking them up.

" The partial paring and burning of
the headlands of fields, for the pur-
pose of mixing the ashes and burned
earth with dung in a compost, is a
most excellent practice, and often
superior to that of using the sods

PAR

PAR

only, without burning tlicin. Tliese
sods contain iiinuiuerable seeds of
weeds, and egi^s or magsols of in-
sects, which are not destroyed by tlic
fermentation of the heap, but, on the
contrary, are hrouglit to hfe. The
loss of "a portion of vegetable matter
in the burning is amply compensated
by the destruction of these enemies
of the future crops.

" It now only remains to take no-
lice of the soils and situations where
paring and burning cannot be recom-
mended. \\lierever the soil is very
loose from a great proportion of sili-
cious sand in its composition, and is
held together chiefly by the slender
roots which run through it, the burn-
ing would destroy the whole of the
vegetable matter ; for none of the
volatile parts which the tire dissi-
pates or generates would be retained
or absorbed, but would pass through
the loose sand in the same way that
water would. Here, then, would be
actual destruction ; and the residue
would be a mere barren silicious
sand, much worse and more porous
than it was when held together by
the roots. The only way to bring
such soils into cultivation is to put
clay, marl, or vegetable matter on
them, and to force vegetation by
means of liquid manures, chiefly the
urine of animals, consolidating them
by every means applicable, so that
they may retain moisture, and that
the manure may not be washed
through by the rains. Such soils may
be improved, but they are the most
ungrateful of any ; and it is only ne-
cessity and indefatigable industry
which can make them produce any
crops.

" It is very easy to ascertain wheth-
er any soil will be improved or not
by paring and burning. A few sods
may be taken and exposed to heat in
an iron pot closely covered over, or
in a large crucible ; the heat should
not be so great as to produce light,
but should be kept up for a consider-
able time, till the sods are consumed.
If the ashes are red, and the whole
is a fine powder, with particles of
charcoal in it, the soil from which it
556

was taken may be safely pared and
burned, especially if it forms a mud
with water, and the earth is not read-
ily deposited. But if it feels gritty,
lets the water readily through, and is
soon deposited when mixed with it,
burning will not be advantageous.
This is the evident result of the prin-
ciples laid down before.

" On the whole, the operation of
paring and burning, when judiciously
applied and properly performed, is a
most excellent and cheap improve-
ment of certain soils, and it will never
diminish their fertility, if they are
properly cultivated and manured, and
a judicious succession of crops is
adopted ; but, on the contrary, it will
improve their quality and texture,
and make them more productive." —
(Rham.)

P A R K. An enclosed woodland
pasture.

PAROTID GLAND. A large sal-
ivary gland, situated at the angle of
the jaws.

PAROXYSM. A sharp attack, an
increase of sickness.

P.\RSLEY. Aptum petroselinum.
A biennial, umbelliferous plant, the
aromatic leaves of which are much
used in cookery. It is propagated
readily by seed in a dr>', fair soil.
The curled variety is the prettiest.
A bed once formed will perpetuate
itself, if suffered to bear a few seeds
annually. It may be covered by straw
in the fall to protect it from winter.

PARSLEY, THE HAMBURGH.
Apitim lattfolium. This plant is cul-
tivated for its root, which resembles
a middling-sized parsnip ; it is man-
aged and used in the same way, and
is a good vegetable.

PARSLEY, WILD. Wild celery.
This and similar umbelliferous plants,
growing in wet places, are acrid, and
should be carefully weeded out from
pastures.

PARSNIP. Pastinaca saliva. Va-
rieties : Jersey long, and large Dutch,
a well-known umbelliferous plant,
cultivated for its roots. It grows
well in deep, rich, loamy clay, or
sandy soils, and is cultivated exactly
like the carrot. Sow in April or May,

PAS

in drills 18 inches apart, so as to ad-
mit the horse hoe. 5 pounds of fresh
seed per acre ; prick out to 12 inch-
es, and hoe well : produce in October
9 to 11 tons ; take up with the plough
or a fork : they keep well in sand.
All stock like them, especially if
steamed. The leaves are often given
to cows, &c. Its value as fodder will
be seen under Fodder.

PARSNIP. COW; MASTER
"WORT. Heraclcum lunatnm. A
large perennial, umbelliferous plant,
growing in wet places, and very poi-
sonous. Use the stomach pump and
warm water in poisoning by it.

PARTERRE. In gardening, a
system of beds of different shapes and
s^zes, in wiiich flowers are cultivated,
with intervening spaces, either paved,
of gravel, or turf, for walking on.

PARTURITION. The act of
bringing forth voung.

PASSERINES, PASSERES.
"Birds similar to the sparrow, inclu-
ding those which neither manifest the
violence ofbirdsof prey, nor have the
fixed regimen of the terrestrial birds,
but which feed on insects, fruit, or
grain, according to the slenderness or
strength of their beak ; some, with
sharp and toothed mandibles, pursue
and feed on small birds. All the pas-
serines have short and slender legs,
with three toes before and one be-
hind, the two external toes being
united by a very short n>enibrane.
They form the mo.st extensive and
varied order of birds, and are the least
readily recognisable by distinctive
characters common to the whole
group.

" The passerines, in general, have
the females smaller and less brilliant
in their plumage than the males ;
they always live in pairs, build in
trees, and display the greatest art in
the construction of their nests. The
young are excluded in a blind and
naked state, and wholly depend for
subsistence, during a certain period,
on parental care The brain arrives
in this order at its greatest propor-
tional size ; the organ of voice here
attains its utmost complexity ; and
all the characteristics of the bird, as

A A A 2

PAS

power of flight, melody of voice, and
beauty of plumage, are enjoyed in
the highest perfection by one or other
of the groups of this extensive and
varied order.

" The beak of the passerines varies
in form according to the nature of
their food, which may be small or
young birds, carrion, insects, fruit,
seeds, vegetable juices, or of a mixed
kind. The modifications of the ros-
trum have, therefore, afforded con-
venient characters for the tribes or
subdivisions of the order : these are
termed, 1. Dentirosters ; 2. Coniros-
ters; 3. Tcnuirosters ; 4. Fissirosters.'
See those words.

PASSIONFLOWER. Thegenns
Pdsssijlora, bearing beautiful flowers,
and, in the tropics, tolerable fruit,
and a good wood resembling ebony.

PASTEL. A dye stuff, resembling
indigo, woad.

PASTERN OF A HORSE. The
distance that intervenes between the
joint of that name and the coronet of
the hoof

PASTURE LANDS. " Consider-
able improvements have been made
in natural pastures, not only by the
raising of banks and stone walls as
shelter against the winter's storms,
but also by extensive draining and
clearing the surface of wild plants
and shrubs, which prevent the her-
bage from springing up, and greatly
diminish the feed. On the sides of
steep hills, where springs are apt to
break out and produce swamps and
bogs, drains judiciously made have
carried off the water, and laid dry
the pastures below them ; while res-
ervoirs have been constructed in
many places to receive the water and
to supply the stock in dry w^eather.
On peaty moors the application of
lime to the surface has often pro-
duced wonderful effects, and made
various kinds of clover and grasses
spring up, which wore never seen on
the sjMit before.

" Those who are possessed of ex-
tensive pastures often look upon
them as of too little value to lay out
any money in their improvement;
and unless when an attempt is made
557

PASTURE LANDS.

to bring them into regular cultiva-
tion, which often fails after a great
outlay of money, they are not tliought
worth attention. Yet many rough,
hilly pastures mi^lil be doubled and
tripled in value, merely by clearing
the surface, burning coarse grasses,
rushes, ferns, and furze, and .sowing ;
a few seeds where the ashes have
been spread. The additional number
of cattle or sheep which can be main-
tained by this means would surprise
any one who had not had experience
of such improvements. The forming
of convenient channels for the water
to run off is another important ob-
ject, which can often be effected at a
trifling expense ; and a loo.se surface
laid dry by this means may be much
improved by merely burning the heath
which grows upon it. After the fire
has scorched the ground, grasses will ;
spring up spontaneously ; and, at a
very small expense, a considerable '
tract of mountain pasture may be con-
verted from the state of a brown
heath, or moor, to that of a fine green |
sward. |

" Wherever there are large pas-
tures, proper and suitable buildings,
made of substantial materials, should
be erected. The cattle should have
numerous sheds for refuge in bad
weather, and sheep especially should [
have protection and shelter. Warmth 1
is in some cases of more importance
than food : and an animal exposed
to all the severities of a northern cli- '
mate requires more food to keep him
alive than when he is kept warm and
protected from the immediate influ- j
ence of cutting winds. ]

" To those who have extensive
pastures, as on the prairies, it is of
great importance to ascertain wheth-
er oxen, heifers, cows, or sheep are
the most profitable, and of these,
what breeds suit the situations ; and,
when this has been determined by
experience, to know what quantity
may safely be kept, without suffering
for want of sufficient food, or allow-
ing any portion of the pasture to
wither or become coarse from not
being duly fed ofl^. Whatever be the
stock depastured, the greatest atten-
558

lion should be paid to them by a
herdsman or shepherd of experience,
who should have a certain number
only under his care. It is a good
plan to give him some share or inter-
est in the produce as part of his wa-
ges. When any part of the stock is
sold off to drovers or butchers, he
should have a per centage on the sale.
This will give him the activity of an
owner, and he is not so likely to be
negligent and allow the stock to suf-
fer from a want of sufficient food, or
from accidents which can be prevent-
ed by proper attention.

"When the soil is naturally deep
and of a good quality, but the situa-
tion renders it not advisable to con-
vert the pastures into permanent
arable land, and the herbage has been
deteriorated and overrun with moss
or weeds, it is a very effective mode
of improving the pasture to plough
up the sward as thin as possible, and
then, having removed the sods into
heaps or rows, to plough and scarify
the bared surface to the depth of four
or five inches, so as to give it the
appearance of a fallow field When
it is well pulverized and harrowed
level, the sod, which had been taken
off, is chopped into small pieces by
the spade, and scattered over it ; and
after a shower has somewhat moist-
ened the surface, it is well rolled with
a heavy roller. Thus the moss is
effectually destroyed ; the root weeds
have been eradicated, and the fine
grasses, the roots of which are short
and fibrous, are preserved. They
will soon strike into the loosened
soil, and a fine close sward will be
the result. The improvement is still
greater if lime is put on the land be-
fore the spreading of the sods, and if,
at the same time, some of the best
grass seeds are sown over it. The
proper season for this operation is
after harvest, and no cattle should be
admitted till the next spring.

" In the richest pastures, an acre
will maintain and fatten an ox of
eighty or ninety stone, and some-
times keep several sheep in store or-
der besides. There is a marked dif-
ference between land that will fat-

PAV

ten an ox, and that which will only ;
rear him. This can scarcely be dis- }
coveretl by simple examination of the ,
land, but is found by experience. The ;
same appearance of grass has more
proof, as it is called, in one place than ;
another. The bite may be very short
and tlie pasture appear bare, and yet
the value of it may be seen on the
ribs of the cattle. Much of the skill
of a grazier consists in stockmg his
pastures to advantage. He should
know the power of every portion of
it, and stock it so that the grass may
not grow faster than it can be crop-
ped by the cattle or sheep, and that
the animals may always have the
full quantity required. Every animal
wants a certam quantity of food to
repair the daily waste occasioned by
the animal functions. If he has no
more he makes no progress : the
more he can convert into flesh and
fat beyond this quantity in a given
time, the more profitable he will be.
Hence the superior qualities of some
animals with respect to this point in-
dicate the superiority of their breed,
and afford the greatest nett profit to
the grazier. In the same pasture, one
beast or sheep will give a reasonable
profit, while another may occasion an
actual loss. The adaptation of the
stock to the nature of the pasture is
consequently an object of the great-
est importance, and requires much
judgment and experience.'' — {W. L.
Rham.)

PATELLA. The knee pan.
PATENS, PATENT. Spreading.
PATHOGNO.MIC (from Trado^, a
disease, and yvufiri, opinion). Symp-
toms which are characteristic of a
disease.

PATHOLOGY. A dissertation on
the effects of disease on the body.

PAVILION. " In architecture, a
projecting apartment on the flank of
a building, usually higher than the
rest of it. Summer-houses in gar-
dens are sometimes called by this
name, but improperly. The term pa-
vilion is also used to signify a milita-
ry tent." — (Branile).

PAVING ORCHARDS. Some-
times practised about plum-trees to

PEA

cut off the escape of the curculio. If
it is temporary, there can be no ob-
jection, but otherwise we are unable
to apply composts to the roots. It
is very effective against the curculio.
PEA. Pisnm sativum. An annu-
al of the leguminous family. It is
supposed that the gray pea is the P.
arvcnse. Varieties ;

Early Cedo NuUi, or Race Horse, 3 feet
Early Frame, 2 to 3 feet.
Early Warwick, 3 feet.
Early Washington, 3 feet.
Early Charlton, 3 feet.
Double Blossom Frame, 3 feet.
Bishop's Early Dwarf, 2 feet.
Dwarf Prolific, or Strawberry, 2 feet,
Dwarf Spanish, or Fan, 1 to 2 feet.
Early Nimble Dick, S feet.
Dwarf Blue Imperial, 2 to 3 feet.
Waterloo Blue, 4 feet.
Groom's Dwarf Blue Prolific, 4 feet.
Dwarf Blue, Prussian, 2 to 3 feet.
Dwarf .Marrowfat, 3 to 4 feet.
Lady's Finser Marrows, 4 feet.
Matchless Marrowfat, 6 feet.
Knight's Tall Marrow, 6 feet.
Knight's Dwarf .Marrow, 3 feet.
Woodford's Green Prolific, 6 feet.
Large Gray Rouncival, 4 feet.
Dwarf Sugar (eatable pods), 3 feet.
Tall Crooked Pod Sugar, 6 feet.
French Bouquet, or Sugar, 3 to 4 feet.
Albany Field, several varieties.

The time of sowing is early spring,
in drills four to six feet apart ; they
should be protected by straw, pine
brush, or similar substances. A sow-
ing may be made every two weeks
until the end of May ; a bushel will
plant an acre, and yield from fifty to
one hundred bushels of green peas.
The best soil is a deep, moderately
rich, clayey soil, containing some
amount of lime, or having been well
manured with it. They are usually
supported by sticks, but in field cul-
ture are allowed to grow on the
ground. They should be hoed sev-
eral times, and earthed up. A fall
crop can be obtained in the Middle
States by sowing in a shady place
after the heat of summer is passing
away.

Tlie field is sown broad-cast at two

and a half bushels the acre ; the crop

is readily collected by a short scythe

' and horse-rake. It should be done

I while the haulm is of a yellowish

I green, or the peas scatter. The

'. haulm in this state is a very valua-

659

I'KA

ble rough fodder, if carefully housed.
The grain is tlirastied out, and forms
one of the best kinds of provender
for all stock and poultry. 'I'lie yield
per acre is Irom twenty-five to forty
bushels.

Tlie pea can be readily forced in
the hot-house, and may be much ad-
vanced by glass. The diseases of
the pea are few-, mildew and plant
lice sometimes destroy late crops.

Manures. — Like all leguminous
plants, pease require lime and gyp-
sum, but as they yield much seed,
bone earth is also essential. They
are an exhausting crop. The com-
position of the pea is given by Spren-
gel : 1000 parts in the ordinary dry
state yield

Seed. Straw.

Potash and soda .... 15-50 235

Lime and magnesia . . . r95 30-70

Phosphoric acid .... 1-9U 2-40

Sulphuric acid .... 0-52 335

Chlorine 038 000

Silica, iron, &c 4-40 10-85

24-65 49^

PEA BUG. Bruchus fist. A well-
known coleopterous insect which lays
its egg in the young pea, and comes
out in May. Sowing pease two years
old, taking care invariably to destroy
the insects that are hatched, is a cer-
tain preventive.

PEA, COW. Yeatman's pea. A
very productive yellow Southern pea,
much used for green fallows in the
same way as clover.

PEANUT. See Pindars.

PEA PATTRIDGE. Cassia cha-
mcBcrista. Wild sensitive plant. It
is a beautiful ornamental plant.

PEACH. Amygdalus Pcrsica, of
the natural family Pomacea. The fol-
lowing account is partly from Mr.
Thomas :

" The peach is usually cultivated
by planting the stone in autumn, at a
depth of about two inches ; a small
part of them grow the succeeding
spring, and the remainder the year
following. Cracking the stones be-
fore planting ensures their growth the
first season, but it is best in thi« case
to expose the stones to the action of
frost during winter, mixed with sand
or earth, and to defer the planting till
560

PEA

spring. If the soil be fertile, so that
their growth is vigorous, they may
be budded the same season ; but if
not, the operation must be deferred
till the second. One and two years'
growth of the bud will render' them
large enough to transplant into the
orchard.

" The most suitable soil for the
peach is a rich, sandy loam ; a light
soil is generally preferred, but this is
not indispensable, if tlie ground be
well prepared. Peach-trees, when
transplanted, should not be large.

" To obtain good varieties with any
degree of certainty, budding must be
resorted to. Grafting rarely suc-
ceeds, and never unless perfonned
with unusual care on such kinds as
have the firmest wood. It is an ad-
vantage to bud on almond or plum
stocks.

" When the great difference be-
tween good and bad varieties is re-
membered, the importance of obtain-
ing the best must be obvious. The
reputation of some which are excel-
lent has been greatly injured by the
numerous errors in names which have
been introduced.

" This misapplication of names has
induced the attempt to arrange the
varieties and distinctive characters,
so that this inconvenience may be re-
moved. The peach presents facili-
ties for this purpose not existing in
other fruits. The following, which is
generally adopted as the best, is from
Lindley. Peaches and nectarines
(which may he considered as one and
the same fruit, the latter having
smooth skins) are separated into
three general classes, each of which
has three divisions ; these are each
separated into two suhdnusions, and
every subdivision into two sections :
consisting, in all, of thirty-six sec-
tions. Only a part of these sections
contain varieties with which we are
acquainted, and are only to be filled
up as new ones are discovered with
characters adapted to them.

" Class I. comprehends those the
leaves of which are deeply and doubly
serrated, and having no glands on the
serratures {Fig. 1).

I'KACII.

" Class II. contains those whose
h);ives are creiiate, and have glohose
f^lands (Fig. 2).

" Class III. inchules all those
■whose leaves are crenate or serru-
late, and have kidney-shaped glands
{F,g. 3).

Fig. 3. Fig.% Fig. I.
•' It will, however, sometimes hap-
pen that irlands are not discernible
on some of the leaves, especially on
those produced on weak branches ;
in this case other branches must be
sought for which do produce them.
They are represented as rather lar-
ger and more distinct, in the accom-
panying figures, than usually occur
in a state of nature.

"These classes, thus formed, are
each divided into three divisions.

" Div. I. embraces those which
produce large flowers.

" Dh\ II. includes those which pro-
duce flowers of medium size.

" Div. III. contains those which
produce small flowers.

" These divisions are not so dis-
tinctly marked as the classes, the
middle and small flowers only difTer-
iiig by the former being larger in all
their parts.

The subdivisions, two in number,
are determined by the fruit. The
first comprehends true peaches, or
those which have a downy skin ; the
second includes nectarines, or those
which have a smooth skin, similar to
that of the plum.

" Each of these subdivisions is
again divided into two sections ; the
former including the pacics, or cling-
stones ; the latter the mclters, or free-
stones.

" The same arrangement may be
adopted with the other classes.

" The following list contains some
of the best varieties, arranged accord-
ing to the preceding method :

SERRATED, GLANDLESS LEAVES. LARGE
FLOWER.

Peaches — I'avies.
Old Newington.

Early Newington, or Smith's New-
ington.

Peaches — Melters.
Early Anne. Tillotson.
Malta.
Noblesse.
Early While Nutmeg.

Nectarines — Pavies.
Scarlet Newington.
Tawny Newington.

SERRATED, GLANDLESS LEAVES. SMALL
FLOWER.

Peaches — Mclters.
Royal George.
Befle de Vitry.

CRENATED LEAVES, WITH GLOBOSE
GLANDS. LARGE FLOWER.

Peaches — Melters.
Grosse Mignonne.

CRENATED LEAVES, WITH GLOBOSE
GLANDS. SMALL FLOWER.

Peaches — Melters.
Bellegard.
Teton de Venus.
George the Fourth.
President.

CRENATED LEAVES, WITH RENIFORM
GLANDS. LARGE FLOWER.

Nectarines — Melters.
Fairchild's.

CRENATED LEAVES, WITH RENIFOKM
GLANDS. SMALL FLOWER.

Peaches — Pavies.
Incomparable.
Catharine.

Peaches — Melters.
Chancellor.
Late Purple.

Nectarines — Melters.
Common Elruge.
Violet Hative.
Aromatic.

" The following list of peaches will
give a constant succession from a
period immediately after wheat har-
I vest until autumnal frosts :

561

PEACH.

V:,ri.M.i,-H.

S,7V.

Kip«.

Remarks.

r Knrly White Nut nirj,' . .

small

July

slender growth.

Early Aiiiip J

Early TiUutsnn . . . . j

middling

August

slender growth.

Early Red Rareripe . .

large

August

very productive, excellent.

i:^

Early York

similar

— 1

Grosse Mipnonne . . .

largo

August

very productive, excellent.

s

White Im|i(,rial ....

larffo

August

very productive, excellent.

Red-cheek Malacatou . .

large

late, August

very imiductive, excellent.

Malta

largo

August

very productive, splendid.

Columbia

large

September

very productive, good.

President

large

September

very productive, good.

'Early Ncwington . . .
Oldniixon

middling

August

very productive, good.

ii

large

September

very productive, excellent.

Old Newington ....

large

September

very productive, excellent.

Lemon Clnif;slone, Pineap-

£

ple, or Kennedy's . .

large

September

very productive, excellent.

Heath

large

late, Sejitember

very productive, excellent.

" The early white nutmeg is a
peach of very small size, and a very
poor bearer ; and a cultivator may
count himself fortunate if he gets a
quart of peaches from a full-grown
tree. It ripens a week or more after
our wheat harvests, and is valuable
only for its early maturity. The
early Anne is later, but much larger
and a much belter bearer ; and were
it not for its very slow growth, would
be valuable.

" The peach appears to vary more
in quality from the effect of climate
than other fruits. Culture greatly
affects the quality ; thus, the Heath
clingstone, under favourable circum-
stances, is an excellent fruit ; but if
the branches are permitted to bear
full, the fruit is small and of little
value.

" Peach and nectarine trees are
liable to destruction from two causes,
the icorm, and Ihe yelloics. The pres-
ence of the worm is readily detected
by the gum, mixed with excremcnti-
tious matter, oozing from the trunk,
at the surface of the ground. The
best, and probably the only effectual
remedy is, to scrape the earth from
about the tree, and then, with a knife,
to follow the holes made by the worm
to their termination, and destroy it.
As this insect merely confines itself
to the bark, its destruction is very
easy. It rarely occurs that trees are
completely destroyed by this insect,
except they be small : death can only
take place when the bark is eaten
round the tree. Timely care will
prevent this ; the evil, in fact, is only
662

to be dreaded by negligent cultiva-
tors."

For an account of the yelloics, see
Yellows.

"I'lie shortness of life in the peach-
tree, and the consequent difficulty of
its culture in some places, appear to
be chiefly owing to this disease. In
Western New- York it is comparative-
ly unknown, and great care should be
used by cultivators that it be not in-
troduced by importations.

" The peach-tree, though generally
supposed to be very short-lived, when
not destroyed by unnatural causes,
will continue to flourish and bear for
many years. Trees twenty years old
and upward are frequently seen.

" The curled leaf, which frequently
appears on peach-trees early in sum-
mer, is occasioned by frost or chilly
weather. These leaves soon drop, and
the tree assumes a healthy appear-
ance. This would not be worth no-
ticing, except that it sometimes oc-
casions unnecessary alarm.

" The growth of some varieties is
retarded by mildew on the young
shoots. It appears to be exclusively
confined to those having serrated,
glandless leaves, as the early white
nutmeg, early Ann, and some of the
earlier varieties of the red rareripe.
It is not a very serious evil ; and the
best remedy appears to be good soil
and good culture to stimulate the
growth. All yellow-fleshed varieties
appear to be entirely free from it."

For the curculio, see Plum.

PE A C H B ORE R. See Borers.

PEACOCK. Pavo cristatus. The

PEAR.

young birds are good eating, but the
full-grown cocks are extremely troub-
lesome ill ttie poultry-yard, from their
voracity and tyrannical habits to-
wards chickens.

PEAR. Pijrus communis. The
varieties are very numerous : they
may be classified into summer, au-
tumn, winter, and perry kinds.

The following is from several lists :

SUMMER KINDS.

" Ah ! Mo\ DiEu. — Size medium ;
form handsome ; colour rich yellow,
with bright red cheek ; flesh juicy ;
flavour sweet and perfumed. Tree
vigorous and productive, the fruit
growing in clusters of four or five
together.

" Beurre d'Am.inlis. — A fine early
pear. Size large ; form obovate ;
colour green, changing to yellow, with
a fine blush when fully ripe, and rus-
set spots ; flesh melting, sweet, and
excellent : ripe in August and Sep-
tember. Tree vigorous and produc-
tive.

"Dearborn's Seedling. — The tree
is of vigorous growth ; fruit of me-
dium size, rounded at the crown, and
regularly diminishes to the stalk ; the
skin is smooth, thin, green, with rus-
set spots ; at maturity it turns to a
delicate yellow ; flesh very melting,
and of the finest flavour ; ripe in Au-
gust.

"Honey Ve.kr, American Honey. —
This pear in size and shape resem-
bles the Seckle ; the skin is yellow,
with a large portion of dull red ; the
flesh sweet, juicy, and good.

" Jargonelle. Epargne, Beau Pres-
ent, Saint Sainsoi, Grosse Cuisse Ma-
dame, Saint Lambert, Poire des Ta-
bles dcs Princes. — Fruit rather large,
oblong, of a pale green colour, a little
marked with red ; flesh melting, juicy,
with a slightly acid, rich, and agreea-
ble flavour. It ripens early in August,
is one of the most productive of all
pear.s, and the very best in its season.

" M-vdeleine, yiagdalenc, Citron des
Carmes, Early Chaumontcllc. — This
pear is of medium size, pale yellow,
with an occasional blush next the
sun J flesh white, melting, perfumed.

" RoUSSELET DE RhEIMS, Musk OT

Spice Pear. — Fruit small, pyramidal,
greenish yellow at maturity, but
brown red next the sun, with rus-
sety spots ; flesh half beurre, juicy,
very perfumed.

" Stevens's Genesee Pear. — A
beautiful pear, of medium size, and
of rather an oblong form ; its col-
our is mellow green, with russet
blotches ; its flesh is represented as
white, juicy, and melting ; flavour
sprightly, rich, and very delicious :
ripens towards the end of August.

" Su.M.MER Francreal, Francreal
d'Ete, Fondante, France Cannel, Gros
Micet d'Ete, Milan Blanc, Prcbles Beur-
re.— Fruit above medium size ; shape
oblong ; thickest about one third from
the eye ; skin yellowish green ; flesh
melting, rich, and excellent : ripe ear-
ly in September.

" SuM.MER .Melting, Summer Beur-
re, Fondant d'Ete — An excellent sum-
mer pear, of pyriform shape ; colour
yellow, tinged with brownish red ;
flesh soft, melting, and sweet. The
tree bears young, and ripens its fruit
in .August.

"\\'lLLlAMs'sBoNCHRETIEN, Bavtlet,

William's Early, Autumn Superb of
Prince. — The fruit is large, oblong ;
the stalk thick and fleshy, an inch
long ; the colour at maturity yellow,
tinged with red; flesh whitish, very
melting, and delicate; juice perfumed,
sweet, and abundant. Tree very pro-
ductive, and fruit ripe early in Sep-
tember.

AUTUMN KINDS.

" Belle et Bonne, Belledc Flanders,
Gracieu.'ie. — Fruit very large, globu-
lar, depressed ; the stalk long ; skin
greenish yellow, but next the sun yel-
low, with spots of russet ; flesh white,
sweet, exceeding rich, and agreeably
perfumed. The tree is very produc-
tive, and the fruit ripens in September.
" Belle Lucrative. — A beautiful
Flemish pear ; middle sized, rounds
ish, tapering at the stalk ; skin yel-
low, slightly russeted, and tinged
with pale red ; flesh melting, sweet,
and juicy, with a slight musky per-
fume : ripe early in October,

563

I'FAH.

" Beurrk Bosc. — Fruit large and
very long ; terminated with a crown
near three inclus in diameter ; some-
what calabash - formed ; skin gray
lawn colour, but russety yellow at
maturity ; flesh white, melting, high-
ly flavoured, and delicious : it ripens
in October.

"Bi.ekker's Meadow. — A native
fruit of medium size, roundish form,
and of a yellow colour, tinged with
dull red ; the flesh melting, juicy,
sweet, musky, and of delicious fla-
vour : ripe in October. A prolific
bearer.

" Capiamont, Beurr'e de Capiaumont.
— Fruit of medium size ; skin yellow,
tinged with fine red or cinnamon ;
flesh yellowish, melting, very rich,
and high flavoured : ripe in September
and October.

" Gushing. — Medium size and ob-
long shape ; skin, when ripe, smooth,
of a light yellow, mottled with dull
red on one side ; flesh white, melting,
sprightly, and good. Mr. Manning
says it comes early into bearing, and
produces plenty of fruit m September
and October.

" Delicks d'Ardenpont, Dcliccs
d'Hardenpont. — Fruit above medium
size ; oblong, pyramidal ; skin yellow
at maturity, and partially covered
with a thin cinnamon-coloured russet ;
flesh yellowish white, nearly melting ;
juice pleasant, sweet, and abundant :
ripe in October and November. The
tree is a good bearer.

" Dix. — A native variety ; originated
in the garden of Mr. Dix, in Boston ;
fruit large, oblong; skin, when ripe,
yellow, with a blush of red ; flesh
melting, juicy, and rich : ripe in Oc-
tober and November.

" Duchess of Angouleme, Duch-
esse d' Angouleme . — A pear of first-rate
excellence. Form roundish, oblong,
tapering towards the stalk ; skin dull
yellow, with broad russet patches ;
flesh white, rich, melting, very juicy,
and high flavoured, with a most agree-
able perfume. Specimens of this fruit
have been shown weighing twenty-
two ounces : at perfection in October
and November.

" Flemish Beauty, La Belle de
564

Flanders. — A fine Flemish pear in
great repute. It is of large size, ob-
ovate, obtuse at the stalk ; greenish
yellow russet, tinged with crimson ;
flesh rather firm, yellowish white,
sweet, rich, and excellent : it ripens
in October.

" Frederic of "VVurtembero, Koi
de Wurlemberg, Capiaumont of some
collections. — A large and splendid
pear, of pyramidal form and fine yel-
low colour, covered with beautiful
crimson on one side ; flesh melting,
and of delicious flavour. The tree
bears while young, and very abun-
dantly.

" FuLTox. — A finp pear of medium
size ; shape roundish, turbinate ; skia
dark yellow, russeted ; flesh melting,
juicy, and of delicious flavour: ripe
in September, and lasts a month.
The tree is a great and constant bear-
er, and highly deserving of cultivation.

" Gansel's Bergamot, Broca's Ber-
gamot, Ives's Bergamo/, Bonne Kovge.
— Fruit varying from middle size to
large ; ovate, flattened ; colour dull
green, slightly red next the sun ; flesh
white, melting, sweet, rich, and high-
flavoured. A delicious pear : ripe in
October, and good till Ghristmas.

"Golden Beurre of Bilboa. —
Fruit of medium size, oblong ; colour
a bright golden yellow, with patches
of russet ; perfectly melting, and of
fine flavour. A beautiful pear-tree, a
great bearer, and worthy of cultiva-
tion : ripe in October.

" Hacon"s In-comparable, Norfolk
Seedling. — Fruit middle sized, of pale
yellow colour, mixed with green, par-
tially covered with orange russet ;
flesh yellowish white, slightly gritty,
but very tender,juicy, sweet, and rich,
and possessing a high musky and per-
fumed flavour. The tree is a great
bearer, and the fruit excellent : ripe
in November and December.

" Henry the Fourth, Henri Qua-
tre. — Fruit of medium size, oblong ;
skin a dull yellow, mixed with brown
and green ; flesh yellow, rather grit-
ty, juicy, and melting, with a peculiar
rich flavour : ripe in September and
October. Mr. Manning says the tree
bears while young, and abundantly.

PEAR

"Marie Louise, Marie Chr'elicnnr..
— Fruit oblong, tapering towards both
ends ; size varying from medium to
large ; skin nearly smooth, yellowish
green, and cinnamon-coloured russet ;
flesh white, melting, juicy, and rich.
It ripens in October and November,
and is an excellent fruit in its season.

" N.^POLEON, Roi dc Rome. — Fruit
large, form of the Colmar ; skin
smooth ; colour bright green, but at
maturity pale green ; flesh very melt-
ing, with an unusual abundance of
rich, agreeable juice : in perfection in
October and November.

" Seckle, New- York Red Check,
Red Cheek Seckle, Sycle. — An excel- I
lent native fruit, in size rather small ;
colour varying from yellowish to
brownish russet, but bright red next
the sun ; flesh melting, spicy, and of
a most extraordinary rich flavour.
This fruit grows in clusters in great
abundance, and is in perfection in
September and October.

"Swan's Egg. — Fruit small, of an
oval figure ; colour yellowish green,
and dull, russety brown ; flesh ten-
der and melting, with a rich, saccha-
rine, musky flavour. An excellent
fruit : ripe in October. The tree is
large, vigorous, and productive.

" Urbamste, Beurri dti Roy. — The
fruit is of medium size, pyramidally
ovate ; skin pale green, inclining to
yellow, with green streaks ; flesh
white, but reddish-yellow next the
core ; it is quite melting, juicy, and
very sweet, with a little perfume : it
ripens from the middle of September
to November.

" White Doyexxe, Doyenne Blanc,
Saint Michael. — Fruit pretty large,
roundish, ol)long ; skin pale citron yel-
low, with cinnamon russet, speck-
led ; flesh white, juicy, very buttery,
and delicious : rijie in September and
October. An old and once-celebra
ted variety, still admired by many, al-
though excluded from some nurser-
ies, or cultivated under new names.
" \ViLKi\so\. — A native pear from
Cumberland, Rhode Island Tiie tree
bears young, and i.s very fniilfiil ; size
above medium ; Ibnu oblong ; skin
yellow, with a brownish blush near
13 B a

the sun ; flesh white, juicy, and melt-
ing : in perfection in October and No-
vember.

winter kinds.

"Beurre n'ARKMBERG. — The tree
is a great bearer, comes early into
cultivation, and the fruit will keep
till March. Fruit large, skin of a del-
icate pale green, dotted with russet,
which becomes of a deeper yellow at
maturity ; flesh whitish, fine, very
juicy, perfectly melting, and very e.x-
traordinarily rich, sweet, high fla-
voured, and excellent.

" Beurre Diel, Beurre Incompa-
rable of some. — This ranks among the
best of pears. The tree is of vigor-
ous growth ; fruit, when in perfec-
tion, four inches long, and three inch-
es broad ; the skin at maturity is
bright orange, with reddish russet ;
flesh clear, white, melting, juicy, and
of a delicious aromatic flavour : from
November to January.

" Beukre Range, Beurre Epine.
Hardcnpont dc Printemps. — This is a
first-rate pear. The tree is vigorous,
and a good bearer ; fruit middle si-
zed, oblong ; skin deep green, with
russety specks ; flesh green, melt-
ing, having a rich, delicious flavour,
with very little acid. It shrivels in
ripening, but will keep till April.

" Catillac. — Fruit very large, rath-
er turbinate ; pale yellow, stained
with red ; flesh firm and breaking ;
its flavour astringent ; an excellent
baking pear : from November to April.
Specimens of this variety have been
known to weigh upward of two
pounds.

" Colmar, Colmar Souvcrain, Poire
Manne, Bergamotle Tardive, Incompa-
rable.— This fruit is rather large ; skin
smooth, of a green colour, changing
to a yellow at nuiturity ; form pyram-
idal ; flesh melting, juicy, saccha-
rine, and of excellent flavour. The
fruit is in perfection from November
to February.

"Columbia, Columbian Virgalicu. —
A large native pear of oblong or py-
ramidal form, and fine yellow colour,
t.iiged with red ; flesh rich, firm, jui-
cy, and excellent : from November
565

PEAR.

to January. Tree productive and of
very haiulsonie form.

" Eastf.u Bkukrk, Bcurri d'Hiver,
Doyenne tVH>vcr. — Of all the late-keep-
ing pears, this is considered the best.
Fruit large, roundisli, oblong ; colour
green, but yellow at maturity, with
specks of russet iirown ; ilcsh yellow-
ish white, perfectly buttery and melt-
ing, also e.\treniely high flavoured.
It is eatable in November, and will
keep till May : it is a most profuse
bearer on a quince stock.

"Glout Morce.\u, Bcurre (TArem-
herg. — A very large Belgic variety,
of great excellence ; fruit of ovalish
form, pale green colour, inclining
to yellow, with russety specks and
blotches ; flesh whitish, firm, very
juicy, ai||i excellent : in perfection
from November to March.

" Lewis. — The size medium ; form
somewhat globular ; skin, when ripe,
a greenish yellow ; the flesh is white,
very melting, juicy, and excellent :
from November to March. The tree
grows quick, and bears abundance of
fruit.

" Louise Bonne de Jersey, Louise
Bonne d'Avranchcs. — A large pear ;
oblong ; a good substitute for the old
St. Germain; skin yellowish green,
sometimes tinged with red ; flesh ex-
tremely tender, and full of an excel-
lent saccharine, well-flavoured juice.
A first-rate fruit ; from October till
after Christmas.

" P.issE CoLM.^R. — A most valua-
ble pear, of medium size, conical, flat-
tened next the eye ; skin at maturi-
ty yellowish, sprinkled with russet ;
a tinge of red next the sun ; flesh
yellowish, melting, rich, and excel-
lent. The tree is a good bearer, and
the fruit is in perfection from Novem-
ber to February.

" Pound Pe.^r. — Fruit very large,
of a roundish, turbinate figure ; skin
rough, covered with dull russet ; flesh
hard and coarse, but excellent when
baked or stewed in winter. Grafted
on a pear stock, the tree bears so
abundantly as to bend like a weeping-
willow. A specimen of this variety
weighed thirty-three ounces.

" Prince's St. Germ.^in. — Fruit
566

about medium size ; form obovafe ;
skin russety yellow, with dull red
cheek; flesh melting and good. Mr.
.Manning says that its abundant bear-
ing, and its ripening gradually in the
house during winter, renders it a very
valuable market fruit : good till after
Christmas.

" Si'Rp.\ssE Marie Louise, PitCs
Prolific Marie, Pitt's Marie Louise. —
A large pear ; oblong or calabash
formed ; green, covered with brown
yellow russet ; flesh melting and rich-
flavoured : ripe in October and No-
vember. It is a very prolific bearer.

" Surpasse Vergout.euse. — Fruit
large, oblong, some specimens near-
ly round ; the skin smooth, its colour
yellow, with a light-red cheek ; flesh
rich, juicy, and delicious eating : in
October and November. The tree
bears young, yields large crops, and
is worthy of extensive cultivation.

" Winter Nelis, Nelis d'Hivcr. —
All accounts agree that this is a most
excellent winter pear. Its size is
above medium, somewhat oval ; its
skin green and russety, full of gray
dots ; flesh yellowish white, melting,
high-flavoured, with a musky per-
fume : in perfection in December and
January."

They prefer a deep, well-drained,
and tolerably rich soil ; are planted
for standards at twenty feet, but if
grafted on quince stocks for dwarfs,
may be set at six to ten feet, and
trained en quenouille, or distatT fash-
ion ; they also make good espaliers.
Worked on pear stocks, they grow to
a great size, and last for centuries ;
but the quince stock, unless reduced
down to the roots, is liable to attacks
from worms. It requires usually
more than seven years to obtain fruit
from a pear standard, but by grafting
or budding on the quince, and train;
ing distaff fashion, fruit may be ob-
tained in four years.

Diseases of the Pear-tree. — The most
formidable is the blight, which some-
times occurs in summer, the leaves
of the upper branches withering and
turning brown in a few hours. It is
the effect of insects, according to
Peck, of the Hcolytus pyri, and the

PEA

only and best remedy is to saw off
the blighted limbs at once and burn
lliem.

Harris also mentions the existence
of a borer of the same genus as that
of the peach {^Egeria pyri) ; it is,
however, scarcely known.

The buds are subject to a cur-
culio (C. pyn, Fig.), of the size of
the line, which de-
posites her egg in
the young flower-
bud, and retires to
— ^\ ^-^^^V^ the earth in the
' ' ^^^ fall ; it is, howcv-

t. er, so seldom mul-
Naturaisae. tiplicd to a great

extent, that its effects are more ben-
eficial than otherwise, by hindering
too much fruit from being formed,
and thus improving what remains.

Drying Fears. — The following ex-
cellent method is from Kenrick, and
is applicable to apples also : '■ When
dried in ovens the fruit will keep for
years. This mode of preserving is
common in France. Bosc has de-
scribed two modes of drying pears,
and adds, that, in some of the can-
tons of that country, the cultivators
annually preserve, by these means,
supplies of subsistence extremely
agreeable and wholesome during win-
ter and spring. He invites cultiva-
tors not to neglect this resource. In
this mode of drying, those varieties
of middle size, melting and sweet,
are preferred. After the bread is
drawn from the oven, they are placed
on the swept hearth, or on hurdles
or boards. This operation is repeat-
ed a second, a third, and even a Iburth
time, according to their size and the
degree of heat. The heat must not
be so great as to scorch, and the fruit
must not be dried to hardness. Last-
ly, they are placed in bags, and pre-
served in a dry place. The second
mode of preserving is practised chief-
ly on the Rousselets and finest fla-
voured varieties. Bosc states that
he has tried them after three years'
preservation, and found them still
good ; but they are better during tlie
fust year. They are gathered a lit-
tle before their maturity, and after

PEA

being half boiled in a small quantity
of water, they are peeled and drain-
ed. Tlipy are next carried on hur-
dles to the oven, after the bread is
drawn, or the oven is heated to a
suitable degree ; here they remain
twelve hours, after which they are,
steeped in the sirup, to which have
been added sugar, cinnamon, cloves,
and brandy. They are again return-
ed to the oven, which is now heated
to a less degree than at first. This
operation is thrice repeated, until
they are sufficiently dried, or of a
clear brown colour, and firm, trans-
parent flesh ; and. finally, they are
packed in boxes lined with paper."

PEARL ASHES. See Potashes.

PEAT. " This is a substance of
vegetable origin, found wherever the
soil has been long soaked with water
which has no outlet, and does not
completely evaporate by the heat of
the sun.

'• When dried peat is examined, it
is found to consist of roots and fibres
in every stage of decomposition, from
the natural wood to the complete-
ly black vegetable mould. I.arge
branches and trunks of trees are found
imbedded in peat, which have no
mark of decomposition, except what
may have taken place before the wood
was completely immersed in the peat.
Peat contains the elements of ma-
nure, and may by an easy process be
converted into humus : for this pur-
pose, the agency of alkalies is the
most effectual. When peat is newly
dug up, if caustic lime be added to it
before it is dry, the moisture of the
peat slacks the lime, which acts on
the peat and neutralizes it. If this
mixture be then excited to fermenta-
tion by the addition of animal matter,
such as urine or dung, oxygen is ab-
sorbed and carbonic acid evolved,
and the residue is converted into an
excellent manure, containing much
humus. The same may be effected
more slowly by mixing peat with clay
or marl, and allowing the mixture to
remain exposed to the atmosphere
for a considerable time, frequently
turning it ; but nothing accelerates
this process like the addition of pu-
567

PEAT.

trescent animal matter, which acts
as a ferment and greatly hastens the
decomposition.

" The soils for which peat forms
the best manure are the clialky and
clayey. Sand has too little tenacity ;
it lets the gases produced by the de-
composition escape, instead of at-
tracting them, as clay does, and pre-
venting their escape.

" The burning of peat destroys the
vegetable matter, and leaves the
earths and salts behind. They are
accordingly very strong stimulants to
vegetation, especially that of clovers
and herbaceous plants, of which the
leaves and stems are the most valu-
able parts. If the soil is well fur-
nished with vegetable matter, and
capable of bringmg an abundance of
seed to perfection, it may be very
useful to apply peat ashes to increase
the verdure ; but on poor soils des-
titute of humus, the mcrease of the
stems and leaves does not ensure a
like increase of seed. Hence it is
often remarked that soot, potash,
saltpetre, and similar substances pro-
duce a deceitful growth, giving a rank
green leaf, which is not succeeded by
a heavy ear ; but, on the contrary,
the produce in seed is rather dimin-
ished than increased by the use of
the manure. Whenever a stimula-
ting manure is used, the soil should
be naturally rich, or enrichmg ma-
nure should be applied at the same
time.

" The following particulars of the
conversion of peat into a rich com-
post were given by Lord .Meadow-
bank about forty years ago, and show
that the principles which we have
here laid down were known to him.

" He recommends taking the peat
out of the moss some time before it
is used, that it may lose a portion of
its moisture, and be lighter to carry
It is then to be carted to a dry spot,
where the compost heap is to be
formed. A bottom of peat is to be
laid six inches deep and fifteen feet
wide ; on this are to be put ten inch-
es of good yard dung, then six inches
more peat, and over this four inches
of dung, and so alternately to the
568

heigiit of four or five feet. The w hole
should then be enclosed all round
with a wall of peat, and covered with
the same material. The proportion
of fresh dung is about seven cart-
loads to twenty-one of peat, if the
weather is mild ; but more dung is
required if the weather is cold : over
this heap ashes or lime may now be
spread, in the proportion of a cart-
load to twenty-eight of the compost.
The dung should not have fermented
much before it is used, and if it is
watered with urine or the drainings
of a dunghill, the effect will be more
rapid. Animal matter, such as fish,
refuse of slaughter-houses, and every
substance which will readily undergo
the putrefactive fermentation, will ac-
celerate the process, and save dung
in the compost. Where pigeons' or
fowls' dung can be procured, a much
smaller quantity will produce the de-
sired effect. The heap should not be
pressed down, but left to settle by its
own weight. If the heat produced
by the fermentation is very great, the
whole heap may be turned over and
more peat added to it. This will
keep up the heat till the whole is re-
duced to a uniform mass of black
mould. It may then be put on the
land in the same quantity that farm-
yard dung would have been, and, con-
sequently, by a little labour, four times
the quantity of manure is produced
by the mixture of the peat with the
dung. It is found that lime is not
essential to the formation of this com-
post. The fermentation excited is
sufficient to decompose the tannin
and convert it into a soluble extract.
The fibres, partially decomposed, are
reduced into vegetable mould, and the
whole assumes a uniform and rich
appearance. A complete chemical
change has taken place, and the peat,
from being very inflammable, is now
scarcely capable of combustion, and
that only in a very great heat. There
is no better or more economical mode
of converting peat into a rich manure.
In summer the whole process may
be completed in eight or ten weeks ;
in winter it takes a longer time ; and
it may be useful to give the heap an

PEA

PEG

occasional lining of fresh dung, as is
<Jone with hot-beds in gardens, to re-
new the heat." The peat is carted
out during winter, while the ponds
are frozen ; it becomes much broken
during the season, and may be pre-
pared as recommended, or composted
with lime or ashes only, one bushel
to the single load of peat.

" Where a great extent of peat
land renders the improvement of it
desirable, there are various ways in
which it may be reclaimed. In some
places the i)eat has been removed,
and the loam which lay below it was
found of a very fertile nature. This
could only be done on the banks of
rivers, into which the peat was float-
ed by means of small canals dug
through it, and communicating with
the river. In ail other cases the
mode adopted has been that of drain-
ing and consolidating. In draining a
peat moss the water must not be let
oft' too rapidly, for in that case the
surface may become so loose and dry
that no vegetation can take place in
it. If the water is drained off so as
to leave two feet of peat dry above
its level, this is all that is required
for a beginning. The best improve-
ment, and the most rapid, is produced
by bringing sand or gravel in suffi- 1
cjent quantity to cover the surface '
with two or three inches of it. This I
will make a beginning of a soil, in
which potatoes may be planted. At
first the surface will not bear the
wheels of a cart nor the tread of a
horse ; but in a short time a solid
crust will be formed, which will in-
crease in strength and thickness as ■
cultivation advances. There are !
many fine pastures in Scotland which '
once were brown peat mosses, on i
which it would have been dangerous j
for a man to walk, but which now |
bear heavy oxen, and seem as solid
as any pasture on a clay subsoil. Ma- '
nuring and liming are the most ef- ;
fective operations in bringing about
this great improvement. Potatoes i
and oats are usually the first crops I
on reclaimed peat mosses. It is long '
before they become capable of bear- ]
ing wheat ; nor is this crop to be rec- 1

B B B 3

ommended at any time unless there
be a good depth of soil formed over
the peat. Laying down to grass as
soon as a certain degree of improve-
ment has been made, and depasturing
with sheep at first and cattle after-
ward, tend more than any other
means to consolidate the surface and
deepen the mould, which gradually
increases by the decomposition of the
tannin in the peat

I "A patent has been lately obtained
by Mr. Williams, managing director
of the Dublin Steam Navigation Com-
pany, for compressing peat into a
dense mass, so as to resemble coal.
It is said to be superior to coal in its
properties of producing heat by com-
bustion, forming an excellent char-
coal, or coke. It is asserted that this
charcoal is much more combustible
than that of wood, and very useful in
the manufacture of fireworks. Mr.
W'illiams has found that with 10 cwts.
of pit coal and 2^ cwts. of this facti-
tious coal, the same quantity of steam
can be generated as with 17i cwts.
of pit coal alone.

" The process is as follows : Im-
mediately after being dug it is tritu-
rated under revolving edge-wheels
faced with iron plates perforated all
over the surface, and is forced by the
pressure through these apertures, till
it becomes a species of pap, which is
freed from the greater part of its
moisture by a hydraulic press. It is
then dried, and converted into coke
in the same manner as is done with
l)it coal. The factitious coal of Mr.
Williams is made by incorporating
pitch or rosin melted in a caldron
with as much of the peat charcoal
ground to powder as will form a tough
doughy mass, which is then moulded
into bricks." — [W. L. Kham.)

The ashes of prat are often termed
Dutch ashes : they vary mucii in com-
position, as tiiey are taken from a
calcareous or clayey soil, but are
usually deficient in potash and soda,
except in salt marshes.

PECK. A dry measure of two
gallons ; a quarter of a bushel.
PECOll.A. The Rummanlm.
PECTIN, The jelly of fruits, roots,
5G9

PEN

PEP

and plants : it is soluble, transparent,
insipid, and nnicli like gum ; formula,
Ci- Hi7 On -{- H O. Pectic acid is
very similar, isomeric, and bibasic ;
the salts are called pectates.

PECTLXATE. Divided so as to
resemble the teeth of a comb.

PECTOR.\L{frompeclus, the chest).
Relating to tiie chest.

PEDATE. Resembling the foot of
a bird.

PEDICEL. The foot stalk of the
flower, and not of the bunch of flow-
ers, which is the peduncle.

PEDIMENT. The triangular or-
nament over a building, door, win-
dow, &,c. ; it is often sculptured, and
seldom exceeds in height two ninths
of its width.

PEDIPALPS. Spiders and other
arachnidans, with the feelers in the
shape of claws.

The water chestnut.
The main flower

A delicate covering,

PEE-TSEE

PEDUNCLE
stem.

PELLICLE,
film, or membrane

PELLITORY OF SPAIN. Ayithe-
mis pyrclhrum. A perennial herba-
ceous composite, the root of which is
very pungent, and is chewed for tooth-
ache. It is very similar to chamomile.

PELTA. Ashield ; the seed shield
of some lichens. A peltate leaf is
shield-shaped.

PELT ROT. Hujigcr rot.

PELTRY, PELTS. The dry, un-
prepared skins of animals.

PELVIS. The bony cavity situa-
ted at the lower part of the belly,
formed by the sacrum and innomina-
ta bones.

PENCIL OF LIGHT. A diver-
gent beam of small size.

PENDANT. "In Gothic archi-
tecture, an ornamented polygonal
piece of stone or timber hanging
down from the vault or roof of a
building. In ancient writers the
springers of arches, which rest on
shafts or corbels, are called pendants."

PENDENTIVE. " In architecture,
the portion of a vault
between the arches
I under a dome, call-
ed by the French
570

fuiirchc, or panache, lettered a in tlie
diagram, by wiiich it will be seen
that It falls at its superior part into
a circle inscribed in the square form-
ed on the plan of the four arches.
Hence it is obvious that a dome may
be formed by means of pendentives
over any regular polygon." — {Brande.)

PENDULOUS. Hanging, branch-
ing over.

PENDULUM. Any weight sus-
pended by an inflexible rod, and mo-
ving freely about a point. Its oscilla-
tions, whether wide or limited, are
always performed in the same period
of time ; but the period is directly as
the square root of the length of the
rod. The seconds pendulum in New-
York is 39- 10 12 inches from the point
of suspension to the weight, or bob.

PENNICILLATE. Furnished
with small bunches of hairs.

PENNYROYAL. Mentha pulegi-
um. A kind of mint cultivated for its
essential oil ; used in medicine. See
Mitit. The American plant is Hcdeo-
ma pulegioides ; its odour is similar
to that of the European plant ; many
insects, especially ticks, are remark-
ably annoyed by its presence.

PENNYWEIGHT. Twenty-
four grains, or ^'^ of an ounce troy.

PENTAMERANS. Coleopterous
insects, with five joints on the tarsus
of each leg.

PENTANDRIA, PENTAGYNIA.
See Botany.

PEN UM BRA. The partially dark
outer shadow.

PEPO. The form of fruit similar
to the melon and other cucurbitaceae.

PEPPER BRAND. See Burned
Ear.

PEPPER GRASS, PEPPER-
WORT. Garden cress {Lepidium sa-
tivum), cultivated for small salad : it
grows with great rapidity. See Cress.

PEPPERiDGE. The barberry:
sometimes the black gum.

PEPPERMINT. iMe?itha piperita.
See Mint. It is of great use as an
adjunct with cathartics, to hinder
griping.

PEPPERS. This term is usually
applied, in agriculture, to the species
of Capsicum. The most common is

1

PER

PER

the C. haccahun. The following va- |
rieties are cultivated : Bell, long red, '
cherry, tomato - shaped, and sweet :
Spanish. The latter is used as a I
salad, and the hell is perennial. Sow |
early in May in a warm bed and fine
soil ; transplant when two inches
high, and set at two feet apart. The \
soil should be dry and light, but rich,
and the plants hoed and weeded.
For pickles, they should be collected i
before ripening : for curing meat, I
when beginning to dry ; hang them
in the air until quite dry. The pow-
der rubbed upon hams and salt meats [
preserves them, in some measure,
from insects ; and the smoke, which
is peculiarly pungent, is very distress-
ing to them. Cayenne pepper is the
powder of the C. baccatum.

PEPPERS, INDIAN. Pij>er ni-
grum {Fig: a). An endogenous climb-
ing shrub of Sumatra, the fruit of
which appears on spikes at three
years, and forms the black pepper of

commerce. The same, hulled by rub-
bing, constitutes white pepper. The
celebrated betel, or intoxicating pep-
per, chewed by the natives of India
with lime {chuvam), is the fruit of the
P;;>fr hrtlc {Fig. h).

PEPSIN. Albuminous matter of
the stomach and gastric juice in a
state of change. It forms the active
agent of rennet, and, with a little mu-
riatic acid, has been made to produce
artificial digestion.

PER. A chemical prefi.x to those

compounds which contain the liighest
proportion of the element against
which it is placed ; as peroxide, per-
chloride, &c.

PERCH. The ,\jth of a rood, 30i
square yards ; in long measure, 5J.
yards.

PERCHERS. The Inressores,
birds which perch on trees, including
the Scansorcs and Passcres.

PERCHLORIC ACID. An acid
consisting of 1 eq. chlorine with 7 ox-
ygen, which forms a sparingly solu-
ble compound with potash, the per-
chloraie, and has hence been used as
a test for that alkali.

PERCOLATION. The slow ooz-
ing of water through rocks, earths, or
other slightly porous structures.

P E R E N N I A L S. Plants whose
roots live several years, but the tops
die annually.

PERFOLIATE. Leaves through
which the stem pass.

PERGAMENOUS. Parchment-
like.

PERL A common affix of de-
scriptive terms, meaning about, or
around.

PERIANTH, PERIANTHUM. A
flower which has no distinct calyx.

PERICARDIUM. The membrane
surrounding the heart : its inflamma-
tion is called pericarditis.

PERICARP. The outer portion
of the fruit surrounding the carpels.

PERICRANIU.M. The membrane
which is attached to the bones of the
skull.

PERIGYNIUM. The case formed
in Car tecs by the union of two bracts.
The disk.

PERIGYNOUS. Stamens which
are attached to the sides of the calyx.

PERIOSTEUM (from nefji, about,
and oareov, a bone). The fibrous
membrane attached to the surface of
all the bones.

PERIPHERY. The circumfer-
cncG.

PERIPNEUMONY. Pneumonia.

PERiSPERM. The testa or cov-
ering of a seed.

PERISTALTIC. A worm - like
motion of the intestines, produced by
a contraction and dilatation of their
571

pi:t

PHA

circular fibres, whereby their contents
are pushed forward into the colon and
ruotum.

PERISTOMIUM. The fringed
membrane surrounding the capsule
of mosses.

PERITONEUM (from nepireivu, I
extend around). The membrane which
envelops the organs of the abdomen ;
it is serous : its inflammation is call-
ed pcntonitis.

PERMEABLE. Permitting the
passage of fluids or gases.

PERRY. The cider of pears. See
Pear, for the best fruit, and Cider, for
the method of making it.

PERSIAN BERRIES. French
berries.

P E R S I M M 0 N. Plaqueminier.
Diospyros Virgimana. A small tree
growing in open places in the Middle
and Southern sections. The fruit,
when frosted, is sweet, and is o(\en
mashed and fermented into a beer.
The tree is dioecious, and of the same
genus as the ebony : the wood is
very hard. The green fruit is ex-
tremely astringent, and used in med-
icine.

PERSONATE FLOWERS. Ir-
regular, monopetalous flowers like the
snapdragon {Antirrhinum), with an
upper and lower lobe, but with the
faux or throat closed : in this respect
it diflTsrs from the labiate corolla.

PERSPIRATION. The function
of the skin whereby a saline fluid
with a little gaseous matter is thrown
out of the body. It is increased by
taking much fluid in summer ; and
the state of this excretion is closely
connected with health.

PERUVIAN BARK. The bark
of several varieties of Cinchona trees
of Central and South America : they
furnish the invaluable alkaloid qui-
nine.

PETALS. The divisions of the
flower : the leaves of the flower, usu-
ally of bright colours. Petaloid is a
derivative.

PETIOLE. The leaf stalk.

PETROLEUM. Barhadoes tar.
Natural bitumen.

PETROSILEX. Hornstone,
sometimes compact feldspar.
572

PLTUNTZE. Porcelain clay, de-
cayed feldspar.

PHAGEDENIC. Corrodingulcers.

PHALANGES. Tlie small, long
bones of the fingers and toes.

PHANEROGA.MIA, PHANERO-
GAMOUS. Plants hearing flowers.

PHAR.MACOP.EIA. An account
of the preparation of medicines.

The following formulae for veteri-
nary practice have been compiled by
Loudon from the works of the most
eminent veterinary writers of the
present day ; and he confidently rec-
ommends the selection to the notice
of agriculturists, and the owners of
horses in general. It would be pru-
dent for such as have loany horses,
and particularly for such as live at a
distance from the assistance of an able
veterinarian, to keep the more neces-
sary articles by them in case of emer-
gency : some venders of horse drugs
keep veterinary medicine chests; and
where the compositions can be de-
pended on, and the uncompounded
drugs are genuine and good, one of
these is a most convenient appendage
to every stable.

■' The veterinary pharmacopajia for
oxen, calves, and sheep has been in-
cluded in the arrangement. When
any speciality occurs, or where dis-
tinct recipes are requisite, they have
been carefully noticed ; it will, there-
fore, only be necessary to be kept in
mind, that with the exception of acrid
substances, as mineral acids, &e.,
which no cattle bear with equal im-
punity with the horse, the remedies
prescribed require about the follow-
ing proportions : A large ox will bear
the proportions of a moderate-sized
horse ; a moderate-sized cow some-
thing less ; a calf about a third of
the quantity ; and a sheep about a
quarter, or, at most, a third of the pro-
portions directed for the cow. It is
also to be remarked, that the degrees
in strength in the difTerent recipes
are usually regulated by their num-
bers, the mildest standing first.

Alteratives.
1.
Levigated antimony, 2 drachms.
Cream of tartar.
Flower of sulphur, each half an ounce.

miAK.MACUr.EIA.

2.

Cream of tartar,
Nitre, of each half an ounce.
3.

^thiops mineral.

Levigated antimonr.

Powdered resin, each 3 drachms.

" Give in a mash, or in corn and bran a little
wetted, every lughl, or make into a ball with
honey.

Tonic Alteratives.
1.

Gentian,

Aloes,

Blue vitriol, in powder, of each 1 drachm. |
Oak bark, in powder, 6 drachms. I

2.
Winter's bark, in powder, 3 drachms.
Green vitnol, do., one and a half drachms.
Gentian, do., 3 drachms.
'• .Make either of these into a ball with honey,
and give every morning.

3.
White vitriol, 1 drachm
Ginger or pimento, ^ound, 2 drachms.
Po\vdered quassia, half an ounce.
Ale, 8 ounces.— Mix, and give as a drink.

Astringent Mixtures for Diarrhaa, Lax, or
Scouring.
1.
Powdered opium, 20 grains.
Prepared chalk, 2 ounces.
Boiled starch, 1 pint.
2.
Suet, 4 ounces ; boiled in
Milk, 8 ounces.
Boiled starch, 6 ounces.
Powdered alum, 1 drachm.

3.
" The following has been very strongly rec-
ommended, in some cases, for the lax of horses
and cattle, when it arises from taking food that
disagrees ;

Glauber's salts, 2 ounces.
Epsom do., 1 ounce.
Green vitriol, 4 grains.
Gruel, half a pint.

4.
" When the lax or scouring at all approaches
to dvsentery or molten grease, the following
drink shoald be first given:
Castor oil, 4 ounces.
Glauber's salts (dissolved). 2 ounces.
Powdered rhubarb, half a drachm.
Powdered opium, 4 grains.
Gruel, 1 pint.
Astringent Balls for Diabetes, or Pissing Evil.
Catechu (Japan earth*, half an ounce.
Alum, powdered, half a drachm.
Sugar of lead, 10 grains.
Conserve of roses to make a ball.

Astnngent Paste for Thrush, Foot-rot, Foul in
the Foot, 4-c.
Prepared calamine.
Verdigris, of each half an ounce.
White vitriol,

Alum, of each Ualf a drachm.
Tar, 3 ounces ; mix.

Astringent Washes for Cracks in the HetU,
Wounds, Sprains, ifC.
1.
Sugar of lead, 2 drachms.
White vitriol, 1 drachm.
Strong infusion of oak or elm bark, 1 pint:
mix :

2.
Green vitriol, 1 drachm.
Infusion of galls, half a pint.
" Mix, and wash the parts three times a day.
Powder for Cracks, 4-c.
3.
Prepared calamine, 1 ounce.
Fullers earth, powdered.
Pipe clay, do., of each 2 ounces.
" .Mix, and put within gauze, and dab the
moist surfaces of the sores frequently.
Astringent Paste for Grease.

Prepared calamine.

Charcoal, powdered, of each 2 ounces.

Yeast enough to make a paste.

2.
" To the above, if more strength be required,
add of alum and verdigris each a drachm.
Astringent Wash for Grease.
3.
Corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms.
Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 ounce.
Soft water, 10 ounces.

"Rub the sublimate in a mortar with the
spirit till dissolved, then add the water. This
is a strong preparation, and has often proved
successful in very bad cases of grease, which
have resisted all the usual remedies.
Blisters.
1. A general one.
Cantharides, powdered, 2 ounces.
Venice turpentine, do.
Resin, do.

Palm oil or lard, 2 lbs.

" Melt the three latter articles together, and
when not too hot stir in the Spanish liics.

2.
A strong, cheap Blister, but not proper to he
used in Fevers or Inflammations, as of the
Lungs, Bowels, SfC.
Euphorbium, powdered, 1 ounce.
Oil of vitriol, 2 scruples.
Spanish flies, 6 ounces.
Palm oil or lurd.
Resin, of each 1 lb.
Oil of turpentine, 3 ounces.
" Melt the resin with the lard or palm oil.
Having previously mixed the oil of vitriol with
an ounce of water gradually, as gradually add
this mixture to the melted mass ; which again
set on a very slow tire for ten minutes more :
afterward remove the whole, and, when begin-
ning to cool, add the powders previously mixed
together.

3.
A mercurial Blister for Splints, Spavins and
Ringbones.
Of either of the above, 4 ounces.
Corrosive sublimate, finely powdered, half a
drachm.

4.
Strong Liquid Blister.
Spanish flies in gross powder, 1 ounce.
Oil of origanum, 2 drachm*.

573

PHARMACOPOEIA.

Oil of turpentine, 4 ounces.
Olivo oil, 2 ounces.

" Steep the flies in the turpentine three
weeks, strain off, und add the oil.

5.
Mild Liquid or Sweating Blister.
Of the above, 1 ounce.

Olive oil or goose grease, one ounce and a
half.

Clysters, a Laxative one.
J.
Thin gruel or broth, 5 qnart^s.
Cpsom or common salts, G ounces.
Clyster for Gripes.
2.
Ma«h two moderate-sized onions.
Pour over them oil of turpentine, 2 ounces.
Capsicum, or pepper, half an ounce.
Thin gruel, 4 quarts.

Nutritious Clystei.
3.
Thick gruel, 3 quarts.
Strong sound ale, 1 quart.

Or 4.
Strong broth, 2 quarts. ,

Thickened milk, 2 quarts.

Astringent Clyster.
5.
Tripe liquor, or suet bodied in milk, 3 pints.
Thick starch, 2 pints.
Laudanum, half an ounce.

Or 6.
Alum whey, 1 quart.
Boiled starch, 2 quarts.

Cordial Balls.
Gentian, powdered, 4 ounces.
Ginger, do., 2 ounces.
Coriander seeds, do., 4 ounces.
Caraway, do., 4 ounces.
Oil of anise seeil, a quarter of an ounce.
" Make into a mass with honev, treacle, or
lard, and give one ounce and a ha'lf for a dose.
Chronic Cough Balls.
1.
Calomel, 1 scruple
Gum ammoniacum,
Horseradish, of each 2 drachms.
Balsam of Tolu,
Squills, each 1 drachm.
" Beat all together, and make into a baU with
honey, and give every morning fasting.

Drink for the same.
2.

Tar water,

Limewater, of each half a pint.
Tincture of squills, half an ounce.
Powder for the same.
3.
Tartar emetic, 2 drachms.
Powdered foxglove, half a drachm.
Powdered squill, half a drachm.
Calomel, 1 scruple.
Nitre, 3 drachms.
" Give every night in a malt mash.

Diuretic Balls.
Resin, yellow, I lb.
Nitre, half a pound.
Horse turpentine, half a pound.
Vrllow soap, quarter of a pound.
574

" Melt the resiu, soap, and turpentine over a
blow fire ; when cooling, add the nitre. For a
strong dose, an ounce and a half; for a mild
one, an ounce. It should be kept in mind that
mild diuretics are always equal to what is re-
quired, and that strong diuretics are alwavs
hurtful. •'

Diuretic Powders.
Yellow resin, powdered, 4 ounces.
Nitre, do., 8 ounces.
Cream of tartar, do., 4 ounces.
"Dose, 6, 8, or 10 drachms nightly, which
some horses will readily eat in a mash.
Urine Drink.
Glauber's salts, 2 ounces.
Nitre, fi drachms.

" Dissolve in a pint of warm water.
Embrocations.— Cooling for Inflammations.

I.
Goulard's extract, half an ounce.
Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 ounce.
Soft water, 1 quart.

2.
Mindererus spirit, 4 ounces.
Water, 12 ounces.

For Strains.
Bay salt, bruised, half a pound.
Crude sal ammoniac, 2 ounces.
Sugar of lead, quarter of an ounce.
Vinegar, one pint and a half.
Water, 1 pint.

For the Eyes.
1.
Sugar of lead, 1 drachm.
White vitriol, 2 scruples.
Water, 1 pint.

2.
Brandy, 1 ounce.
Infusion of green tea, 4 ounces.
Tincture of opium, 2 drachms.
Infusion of red roses, 4 ounces.

3.
Rose water, 6 ounces.
Mindererus spirit, 3 ounces.

4.
Corrosive sublimate, 4 grains.
Alcohol, 1 ounce.
Lime water, 1 pint.

5.
Alum, powdered, I drachm.
Calomel, half a drachm.
" Mix, and insert a little at one corner of the
eye. The custom of blowing it in alarms the
horse.

Fever Powders.
1.
Tartar emetic, 1 drachm.
Nitre, 5 drachms.

2.
Antimonial powder, 1 drachm.
Cream of tartar.
Nitre, of each 4 drachms.

Fever Drink.
3.
Sweet spirit of nitre, 1 ounce.
Mindererus spirit, 6 ounces.
Water, 4 ounces.

Malignant Epidemic Fever.
4.
Simple oxymel,

PHA

Mindererus spirit,
Deer yeast, of each 4 ounces.
Sweet spirit of nitre, 1 ounce.
Fumigations for purifying infected Stables,

Sheds, <5-c.
Manganese, 2 ounces.
Common salt, ditto.
Oil of vitriol, 3 ounces.
Water, 1 ounce.

" Put the nii.\ed manganese and salt into a
basin ; then, having before mixed the vitriol and
water very gradually, pour them, by means of
tongs, or anything that will enable you to stand
at a sulTicient distance, on the articles in the
basin gradually, -^s soon a.s the fumes rise,
retire and shut up the door close.
Hoof Liquid.
Oil of turpentine, 4 ounces.
Tar, 4 ounces.
Whale oil, S ounces.

" This softens and toughens the hoofs ex-
tremely, when brushed over them night and
morning.

Purging Medicines.
Balls — very mild.
Aloes, powdered, 6 drachms.
Oil of turpentine, 1 drachm.

Mild.
Aloes, powdered, 8 drachms.
Oil of turpentine, 1 drachm.

Strong.
Aloes, powdered, 10 drachms.
Oil of tur|ientine, 1 drachm.
" The aloes may be beaten with treacle to a
mass, adding, during the beating, the oil of
turpentine. All spices, oil of tartar, cream of
tartar, jalap, &c., are useless, and often hurt-
ful additions.

Liquid Purge.
Epsom salts, dissolved, 8 ounces.
Castor oil, 4 ounces.
Watery tincture of aloes, 8 ounces.
" Mix.— The watery tincture of aloes is made
liy beating powdered aloes with the yolk of
egg, adding water by degrees ; by these means
half an ounce of aloes may be suspended in
eight ounces of water; and such a purge is
useful when a ball cannot be got down, as in
partial locked jaw.

Scalding Mixture for Pole Evil.
Corrosive sublimate, finely powdered, one

drachm.
Yellow basilicon, 4 ounces.

Foot Stoppings.
Horse and cow dung, each about 2 lbs.
Tar, half a pound.

Wash for coring out, destroying Fungus, or

proud Flesh, ^c, ifC.
Lunar caustic, 1 drachm.
Water, 2 ouuces.

Wash for Mange.
Corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms.
Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 ounce.
Decoction of tobacco.
Ditto of white helleliore, of esch 1 pint.
" Dissolve the mercury in the spirit, and then
add the decoctions.

I'llO

Ointments for Healing.
1.
White vitriol, powdered, half a drachm.
Lard, 8 ounces.

For Digesting.
\.
White vitriol, 1 drachm.
Yellow basilicon, 7 ounces.

For Mange.
Sulphur vivum, 8 ounces.
Arsenic, in powder, 2 drachms
Mercurial ointment, 2 ounces.
Turpentine, 2 ounces.
Lard, 8 ounces.
" Mix, and dress with every morning.

For Seal) or Shab in Sheep, Mallenders and
Sclttndrrs in Horses, and foul Blotches and
Eruptions m Cattle in general.

Camphor, 1 drachm.

Sugar of lead, half a drachm.

Mercurial ointment, 1 ounce."

PHARYNX (from <j>epeiv, to con-
vey, because the food is conveyed by
it into the oesophagus and stomach).
The back part of the mouth ; it is
somewhat funnel-shaped, attached to
the fauces behind the larynx, and
terminatmg in the gullet.

PHENECIN. The red hydrate of
indigo.

PHENOMENON, plural PHE-
NOMENA. A natural occurrence,
or object of a recondite nature.

P H L E A M. The knife used in
bleeding horses.

PHLEBOTOMY. An old term for
bleeding.

PHLORIDZIN. A silky, bitter,
and almost insoluble solid, obtained
from the root of the apple, pear, cher-
ry, and plum trees. It closely re-
sembles salicin ; formula, 0« H23 O18
-|- 6 H O. Phlorizcin, produced by
the action of ammonia and air on
moist phloridzin, is a red colouring
matter ; a bright blue is also produ-
ced by chemical means.

PHLOX. A genus of handsome
flowering plants.

PHOSPHATES. Salts of phos-
phoric acid.

PHOSPHITES. Salts of phospho-
rous acid.

PHOSPHORESCENCE. The
quality of shining at a temperature
below a red heat.

PHOSPHORITE. Native bone
earth, or phosphate of lime.

575

PHO

PHOSPHORUS (from tpur, Urrht,
and (pcpu, I carry). " So called from its
property of shining in the -lark : it is
extracted from bone earth. The
hones are calcined, so as to destroy
the animal matter, and, bcin<5 |)0\v-
dered, are mixed with water, to which
half their weight of sulphuric acid is
added. Tiie bone earth, consisting
chiefly of phosphate of lime, is thus
decomposed, sulphate of lime is form-
ed, and phosphoric acid is evolved ;
or, rather, superphosphate of lime,
which, being much more soluble than
the sulphate, remains in the liquid,
and may be obtained by its evapora-
tion. It is mixed with about half its
weight of charcoal, and put into a
well-luted earthen retort, the beak of
which dips into water. At a bright
red heat the phosphorus distils over
into the water. It is purified by care-
fully melting it under water, and
straining it through a piece of cha-
mois leather.

" Pure phosphorus is an element
almost colourless and semitranspa-
rent ; it may be cut with a knife, and
its surface has a waxy lustre. It fu-
ses at 108°, boils at 550 -, and is con-
verted into vapour, having, accord-
ing to Dumas, a density = 4-35. It
is sparingly soluble in fixed and vola-
tile oils, and in ether and alcohol ;
but insoluble in water. It shines in
the dark, and emits a luminous va-
pour, undergoing a slow combustion,
and exhaling a peculiar smell like
garlic. When rubbed, or heated to
a temperature of about 110^ it takes
fire and burns with great rapidity,
with a white flame, emitting abun-
dajice of acid fumes of phosphoric
acid.

" The product of the perfect com-
bustion of phosphorus is phosphoric
acid, a fusible substance, very solu-
ble in water, and intensely sour. It
appears to consist of 1 equivalent
of phosphorus = 31 44, and 5 of
oxygen = 41, its equivalent being
7144.

" There are two other acids of phos-
phorus, namely, the phosphorous acid,
consisting of 31-44 phosphorus -\- 24
oxygen, and the hypophosphorous
576

PHY

acid. When phosphorus is boiled in a
solution of caustic potash a gas is
evolved, which is remarkably distin-
guished by its spontaneous inflamma-
bility, each bubble, as it rises through
the water, taking fire upon the sur-
face and producing a beautiful ring of
smoke : this gas is commonly called
phosphuretted hydrogen. Phospho-
rus may be made to combine with the
greater number of the metals, form-
ing compounds called phosphurets."
Phosphorus is not found in the ele-
mentary state in nature, but in the
form of phosphoric acid it is combi-
ned with lime, magnesia, alumina,
and many metals, forming native
phosphates. Most of these are insol-
uble in pure water, but dissolve in
acids and in carbonic acid water. In
this solution they are carried to plants,
which have the property of decompo-
sing them, and assimilating the phos-
phorus. Fibrin, albumen, some oils,
I and other products of vegetation, con-
tain phosphorus. It is to all vegeta-
tion an essential body, especially for
the production of seeds. I3one earth,
' or phosphate of lime, is the principal
\ source for manure ; but urine, and
j the dung of all animals, contain phos-
: phates.

I It is frequent to see a distinction

I made between phosphoric, metaphos-

phoric,and pyrophosphoric acids; but

, these have all the same basis, the

phosphoric acid being tribasic, and

forming three sets of salts with some

bodies which are different in charac-

f ters.

! PHOTOMETER (from <puc, and
I f/erpov, a measure). An instrument
to measure the intensity of light.

PHRENITIS. Inflammation of the
brain.

PHRYGANID-E. Tricopterous in-
sects, case-worm flies.

PHYCOMETER. The gelatinous
matter in which the sporules of the
lowest plants germinate.

PHYLLODIA. Leaves in which
the petiole is very much expanded
and the lamina absent.

PHYSICS. Mechanical philoso-
phy. The study of the properties of
objects and their motions.

PIN

PIC

PHYSIOLOGY. The investiga-
tion of the properties and functions
of plants and animals.

PHYTOCillAriiY. Descriptive
botany.

PIA MATER. The delicate mem-
brane covering the brain.

PIAZZA. An arcade.

PICAMAR. A bitter substance
found in tar.

PICID.E, PICE. The family of
woodpeckers.

PICK. A pickaxe.

PICKLING. The preservation of
vegetables or meats in vinegar or
brine.

PICIIOMEL. Sugar of bile: bilin,
changed by the action of acetic acid,
&c.

PICROTOXIA. A poisonous al-
kaloid in Cocculus Indicus.

PIE. A mould, or rounded mass
of earth, compost, &c.^

PIER. In architecture, the solid
between the openings of a building,
or that from which an arch sprmgs.
An abutment pier, in a bridge, is that
next the shore.

PIG. See Hog.

PIGNUT. See Hickory.

PIGEON. Birds of the genus Co-
lurnba ; the young are tender, and
used as food, to some extent. The
dung is a choice manure, and collect-
ed with great care and expense in
the East for melons : it is the same
as poultry dung. The full-grown
birds are tough, but may be ren-
dered tender by cooping for 10 days or
more, and feeding with Indian meal.

PIGGERY. See Hog-sty.

PILASTER. A square pillar sit-
uated in a wall, usually projecting not
more than one fifth or one sixth of
its widtli. Pilasters are subject to
the same rules of proportion as col-
umns.

PILCHARD. A small kind of her-
ring.

PILE. The hair on furs.

PILES. Timbers driven into a
marshy soil to afford a better founda
tion. In surgery, enlargement of the
veins of the rectum.

PILEUS. The cap of a mush-room.

PILOSE. Hairy, set with hairs.
C c c

PIMENTO. Myrtus pimcnla. All-
spice. The aromatic berries of an
evergreen tree of Jamaica and the
tropics of America.

PIMPERNEL. Aiiagallis arvensis.
A pretty, indigenous annual.

P1ND.\RS. Arachis hypogcca. The
ground pea. The following, from
Mr. M'Caughan, of Mississippi, is
worthy of the attention of Southern
planters :

" I planted, the 18th of February
last, three acres in pindars, in rows
five feet apart, the peas about 12
inches apart, in a common small fur-
row made with a bull-tongue plough,
on level ground, having first broken
up and harrowed it well. The weath-
er afterward, in ^larch, was very cold,
wet, and unfavourable, and killed
many of the peas which had sprout-
ed, so that I had a very poor stand ;
they, however, grew finely, and in-
terlocked across the rows, and cov-
ered the ground pretty well. On the
27th of October I began digging (for
fear of frost) by loosening the ground
a little round the bunch with an iron
fork with three prongs, each above 13
inches long, and then pitched the fork
under the tap root and pressed it up ;
a hand follows and lifts up the bunch,
most of the [lease adhering to it, and
shakes the sand (dirt we have none)
all off', and lays it out straight to cure
like hay ; when sufficiently cured, tie
up in bundles the proper size for a cut-
ting-box, and stow away for winter
food for horses, cows, &c., than
which there can be nothing better or
more nutritious. The pindars that
are torn from the vine are partly left
on the top of the ground, and can ea-
sily be picked up after a rain ; I then
turn the hogs in, and they gather the
balance, and fatten as finely on them
as on corn. Our poorest land will
yield 50 to 80 bushels of the pease,
atid over a ton of hay per acre, and
altogether I regard it as one of the
finest crops the Southern farmer can
raise. If we could afford to give an
entire crop to the land, I am persua-
ded it would be quite as good as a
crop of your best red clover to fer-
tilize it. There has been a mistaken
677

PIN

policy pursued, almost universally, in
cuilivalinff tin- piiidar, by rcnering
over llie lop uitli earlli wlion they
hegin to bloom ; this is not only un-
necessary, but positively injurious ;
although the top, or vine, grows
straight up at first, yet when it is
time to seed, the small fibres on the
end of which the poa grows arise,
the vine inclines to the ground until
it finds a proper location, and then
extends its branches, two, three, or
lour feet in length in every direction,
touching the earth. The only culti-
vation requisite is to keep the ground
loose and clear of weeds and grass,
and as level as possible, so that the
fibres on which the pea grows can
penetrate the ground easily. I intend,
next year, to plant pmdars in hills,
or, rather, in checks, two feet apart
each way, which will cause them to
grow in upright bunches, yielding
more hay, and will be easier dug, and,
I think, will probably yield as many
peas."

The pindar is a legumen, like the
pea and bean, and it is, when raised
for seed, as exhausting. It differs
from them in containing a large
amount of oil, and is therefore much
more fattening, and equally nutri-
tious as respects the strength of ani-
mals. Lime and bone earth would
be found capital manures. Tlie green
stems, ploughed in, are equal to clo-
ver as a I'ertilizer.

PINEAL GLAND. A small gland
of the brain.

PINEAPPLE. Bromdia ananas.
A native of the American tropics,
with dry, spiny leaves. The supply
of this fruit is so great, and the price
so cheap, that no inducement is of-
fered for its cultivation, which is te-
dious, and requires a full supply of
heat. The woody fibres of the leaves
are readily separated by dew-rotting,
and are said to form a silky fiax,
which has been made use of to a lim-
ited extent in manufactures.

PINE BARREN. The extensive
districts of sandy lands in the South
on which the pine only grows. It
is supposed by naturalists that they
would become deserts if the trees
579

PIN

were once removed, for they are wa-
tered chiefly by the moisture attract-
ed bv tlie trees.

PINE-TREE. The genus Finus,
the trees of which afford the well-
known timber, as well as tar, turi)en-
tine, &c. The pines are distinguish-
ed from firs, larches, and spruces by
their needle-shaped leaves, grouped
in twos, threes, &c., and collected
into a sheath at the base. The F.
strolms, or white pine, also called
Weymouth pine, yields nearly all the
choice deals of the country : the
leaves are in fives. The P. palustris
yields tlie tar and resin of North
Carolina ; it is southern, but the P.
rigida, which is more extended, and
fills the barren, sandy lands of the
seaboard, is also rich in tar. The
/-•. Canadensis, or hemlock, furnishes
timber, and the bark is used in tan-
ning. The old field pine of the South
is the Pinus lada ; the young shoots,
or browse, are very healthy and nu-
tritious for sheep ; they answer well
to protect autumn and spring garden
crops from frost. The pines are
readily propagated by seeds, which
are found in the cones before they
have been exposed too long. They
may be budded, or, rather, grafted in
the growing, tender shoots, with a
little care, but not on the drier wood.
Several species of pines produce
seeds in their cones, which are suffi-
ciently large to be obtained for food.
In Italy, the P. pinca yields a large,
excellent nut, much esteemed ; some
of the Mexican pines also produce
edible fruit.

PINING. A disease of sheep,
languishing. " It is most fatal in a
season of drought, and June and Sep-
tember are the most deadly months.
If ever a farmer perceives a flock on
such a farm having a flushed appear-
ance of more than ordinarily rapid
thriving, he is gone. By that day
eight days, when he goes out to look
at them again, he wdl find them ly-
ing, hanging their ears, running at
the eyes, and looking at him like so
many condemned criminals. As the
disease proceeds the hair on the ani-
mal's face becomes dry, the wool as-

PIS

PLA

sumes a bluish cast, and if the shep-
herd have not the means of changing
the pasture, all those affected will fall
in the course of a month."

PINION. A small wheel playing
in the teeth of a larger one. It is
sometimes only a spindle or arbor.

PINK. The genus Dianlhus; per-
ennial flowering plants, propagated
readily by layering.

PINK ROOT. Spigelia Marilandi-
ca. Carolina pink, a handsome per-
ennial, growing about liie borders of
woods in the South ; the roots are
used in infusion as a powerful vermi-
fuge ; the dose for children of tbree
years is 10 grains of the powder : in
very large quantities it proves a dan-
gerous narcotic.

PINNACLE. A square or polyg-
onal pillar rising above a building, and
terminating in an ornamental pyra-
mid.

PINNATE. Leaves whh separate
leaflets arranged along the midrib, or
petiole : some are doubly pinnate.

PINNATIFID. Imperfectly pin-
nate. In this case the leaflets are
not distinct, but a portion of tiie lam-
ina runs along the central petiole.
Cut-leafed.

PINT. The eighth part of a gallon ;
half a quart.

PIP. A disease of poultry, attend-
ed with the formation of a tough
membrane at the tip of the tongue,
which hinders feeding ; it is cured by
pulling off the membrane and wash-
ing the part with salt : the cause is
said to be bad water and food, which
should be changed.

PIPE. A wine measure of rather
uncertain capacity — 105 imperial, or
126 wine gallons.

PIPE CLAY. White clay, disin-
tegrated feldspar found in primitive re-
gions, with which the white smoking
pipe and coarse pottery are made.

PIPERIN. A white, crystalline,
inactive alkaloid, obtained from black
pepper.

PISE. In building, a wall con-
structed of stiff earth or clay, carried
up in moulds, and rammed down as
the work is carried up. The ex-
pression, buildmg enpisc, is common.

PISOLITE. Native limestone,
moulded into grains like peas.

PISTACHIO, or PISTACHIA
NUTS. Pislachia vera. A turpen-
tine-tree, a native of Syria ; the nuts
are the size of small filberts, of a
sweet taste and pleasant flavour re-
sembling almonds.

PISTIL, PISTILLUM. The cen-
tral organ of flowers ; it is divided
into an ovarium, or lowest part, a
style, and stis^nm, which last is the
uppermost surface, and receives the
fertilizing pollen. It is called the
female organ, because flowers in
which it is absent are barren. Pis-
tils are made of one or more carpels,
the styles of which unite. Flowers
with pistils only are termed fistd-
late.

PISTON. A short cylinder of
wood or metal, which fits e.xactly the
cavity of a pump or barrel, and is
worked up and down in it alternate-
ly. Two sorts of pistons are used
in pumps : one hollow, with a valve,
used in the sucking pump ; and the
other solid, which is employed in the
forcing pump.

PITCH. The substance that re-
mains after boiling or distilling tar ;
it is used as a coarse paint when
warmed.

PITCH OF A ROOF. Its incli-
nation to a level plane.

PITHING. The operation of kill-
ing animals suddenly and without
loss of blood, by driving a knife into
the spinal marrow : this is done by
directing the knife to the space be-
tween the first and second vertebra,
or rack bones.

PITTACALL. A blue substance
obtained from oil of tar.

PITUITARY GLAND. The pi-
neal gland, situated in the base of
the brain.

PITUITARY M E.M BR ANE,
SCHNEIDERI AN M E M B R A N E.
The mucous membrane of the nos-
trils.

PITYRIASIS, DANDRUFF. A
scurfy disease olthe skin.

PIVOT. The extremity of an axle
which revolves in a socket or hole.

PLACENTA. The after-birth. A
579

PLA

PLA

large sponjry organ which rocrivps
the Wood of tho mother, and supplies,
by the umbihcal artery, tiie fcRtiis.

In botany, celhilar tissue dcvcloijod
within a carpel, to whicii the ovules
are attached sometimes by an umbil-
ical cord.

PLAITED, PLICATE. In bota-
ny, folded like a fan.

PLAGUE. A violent, contagious,
and typhoid disease.

PLANARIA. A genus of flat en-
tozoic animals, which do not, how-
ever, inhabit the bodies of other an-
imals.

PLANE. A flat surface.

PLANE TABLE. A square board,
furnished with a compass, and with
lines drawn on its upper side, used
in taking angles and in measuring
land.

PLANE-TREE. The button-
wood.

PLANER-TREE. Planera vlmi-
folia (aqiiatica). A tree of twenty-
three to thrity feet height, growing
in swampy places, in the South and
Southwest, and resembling the elm.
The wood is hard and strong, but
there is only a small amount of it.

PLANIPENNATES. Neuropte-
rous insects with flat wings, the low-
er pair of which equal the upper.

PLANKS. Boards of nine inches
or more in width, and one to two
inches thick ; they are sold by the
square foot.

PLANO-CONCAVE. A thin disk,
having one surface flat and the other
curved inward {^concave).

PLANT. A complex organiza-
tion, produced from seeds or sporules.
The most general characters are the
presence of cellular tissue, and the
power of decomposing carbonic acid
in light ; but the latter function does
not belong to fungi.

PLANT CASES, WARD'S. Tight
glazed boxes, at the bottom of which
a layer, six inches deep, of garden
mould, in a moist state, is placed ;
and in which plants being set, are
said to grow without farther trouble
if the case be well closed.

PLANTAIN. The genus PlanUi-
go ; for the most part perennial weeds
530

in meadows ; they are nutritious, but
grow too small for hay. The P. ma-
jor is called white man's footsteps ;
it is connnonly recommended as an
application to wounds, being mucila-
ginous.

PLANTATION, PLANTING.
" Planting is the operation of placing
in the soil the roots of a plant which
has been previously removed ; and
the preservation of the roots is the
first thing to be attended to. It
should be kept in mind that the spnji-
ffiulcs, or delicate extremities of the
fibres, are the parts by which the
chief supply of food froin the earth is
absorbed by the plant. Their tissue
being tender and almost naked, they
are very susceptible of injuries from
mechanical action ; and being adapt-
ed for performing their functions in
a humid medium, they readily suffer
from being kept for any length of
time exposed to free air and drought.
Ill taking up the jilants, therefore,
the roots should be loosened in such
a manner as to receive the least pos-
sible violence in the operation. Plants
in pots can be shifted from one place
to another without exhibiting symp-
toms of deranged functions ; and if it
were possible to preserve the spon-
gioles of a large tree as entire as
those of a plant in a pot, the same
successful result would follow ; but
as it is next to impossible to do this,
we can only attempt to preserve
them as far as circumstances will
permit. If the tree be large, a trench
should be opened beyond the extrem-
ities of the roots, of sufficient width
and depth to allow the process of un-
dermining to be freely carried on.
The roots should be gradually set at
liberty by a round-pronged fork, the
prongs tapering so as to be easily in-
serted, yet not by any means so sharp
as to prick the roots. As the fork is
being used, the soil from among the
roots will fall into the open trench ;
but as it accumulates there it must
be cleared away, and, at the same
time, the portion of roots set at liber-
ty will reijuire to be slightly tied to-
gether with pieces of matting, and,
if necessary, supported by temporary

PLANTATION, PLANTING.

stakes, or held to one side by an as

sislant, while the planter proceeds in |
liberating others. If there be, as is
frequently the ease, a tap root ex-
teiiiiiiig to a much greater depth than
the other roots, and if the latter have
been carefully preserved during the
operation, the tap root may be dis-
pensed with, for it could only be
raised in a mutilated state, owing
to the great solidity of the earth at
such a depth.

" Although it is verj' desirable to
preserve the greatest possible quan-
tity of sound roots, yet all that are
bruised or lacerated should be clean-
ly amputated up to the sound parts.
Cross roots are apt to gall the others
when they become large, and there-
fore the sooner they are removed the
better, \\hen the plants are young
and in the course of being occasion-
ally removed in a nursing state, all
irregularities in the roots should be
corrected, which can then be done
with comparatively little injury, as
the roots of young plants bear a great-
er proportion to the top than seems
to be the case at a more advanced
period of growth, and the loss of any
of them is consequently felt less. In
tlie early stage of rearing trees, while
the proportion of roots predominates,
it may be found advisable, in various
cases, to shorten, not only the tap
root, as above mentioned, but also,
judiciously, some of the other strong
roots, in order that subdivisions of a
more fibrous nature may be produced,
and a number of rootlets substituted
for large root branches. Even in the
case of large trees this principle has
been acted upon for centuries, and
latterly it has been strongly advoca-
ted and put in practice for the pur-
pose of producing immediate etTect in
park or landscape scenery. A trench
is cut out round the tree, and the
roots shortened wherever they hap-
pen to traverse this trench, so as to
leave it quite clear. This being done,
the trench is filled up, either with its
own excavated soil, or, in very par-
ticular cases, with fresh soil. The
tree has still a sufficient number of
undisturbed roots to keep it alive ;
C c c 2

and, in fact, it ought not to be mere-
ly kept alive, but as many roots should
be lelt as will ensure its continuing
in a healthy, though not a vigorous
state of growth. In the course of a
year or two after this operation has
been performed, a number of young
roots will have been protruded from
the various amputations into the
loosened soil of the trench ; and, part-
ly from the possibility of preserving
these roots, and partly from the top
becoming habituated to a more limit-
ed supply of food, the tree feels com-
paratively little the change conse-
quent on transplantation.

" Roots may be produced of a prop-
er description for planting by the
adoption of such means as the above,
and, if care be taken, they will suf-
fer little from the operation of re-
moval. Still, they may be seriously
injured from exposure to air, and
more especially to drying winds,
frost, and even to wet. To be cov-
ered in the soil is the natural condi-
tion of the roots of most vegetable
productions, and, therefore, endeav-
ours should be made to place them
in such a condition with the least
possible delay ; or, at all events, if
circumstances render delay unavoid-
able, such means should be adopted
as will preserve them in a state of
moisture similar to that which they
have in the soil. It is, however, ne-
cessary to observe, that when the
tops are closely packed up and evap-
oration from them prevented, the
roots should be kept rather dry than
otherwise, lor, under such circum-
stances, damp is found to be much
more frequently destructive than a
little dryness.

•• Though the preparatory steps to
planting, as regards roots and their
preservation, may be properly taken,
yet, if the operation be not perform-
ed at the proper season, success will
not be complete. It is true that in-
stances may be adduced of planting
being done at the very opposite sea-
son to that which is here recommend-
ed as the best ; but such cases are
only examples of what may be done
by extraordinary care in adopting ar-
581

PLANTATION, PLANTING.

tificial means, so as to imitate more
natural circumstances. It is a well-
known fact that plants are subject to
a process of evaporation from all the
parts which arc exposed to the atmo-
sphere, provided the latter is not in
a state of saturation. The source
from whence this evaporation is sup-
plied is the moisture of the soil, and
the roots are the media by which it
is <;olIected and transmitted to the
stem branches and leaves. If the
expenditure be greater than the sup-
ply of moisture, the plant will begin
to suffer ; if the disparity be great
and continued, a degree of desicca-
tion will be occasioned sufficient to
deprive the vegetable tissue of that
moisture which constitutes the me-
dium of intercommunication between
the different cells ; organization is
destroyed ; the chain which connected
it with vitality is broken, and incapa-
ble of being reunited by any mechan-
ical means.

"A much greater amount of evap-
oration takes place from a given sur-
face in some species than in others ;
but the amount as regards plants of
the same species, all other circum-
stances being the same, is in propor-
tion to the extent of surface which
the respective individuals possess.
The leaves of a lime-tree may have
a surface equal to thirty times that
of the stem, branches, and twigs
which produce them, and, conse-
quently, the demand on the roots for
the supply of evaporation will be
thirty times greater when in leaf
than when the branches are naked.
Instances might be adduced in which
this difference would even be exceed-
ed ; but if, on the contrary, it were
found considerably less, still there
would be sufficient evidence of the
impropriety of moving plants when
in leaf; and it may be here remark-
ed that young leaves admit of the
fluids being more rapidly evaporated
than old ones.

" The month of December is that
in which the condition of the air with
regard to moisture approaches near-
est to that of complete saturation ;
and next in this respect is January,
682

which is also the coldest. It might
therefore be concluded that those
months are the best for planting,
more especially as they are the most
opposite in character to June and
July, which, from their being the hot-
test and driest, are found to be the
worst. But November is also moi.st ;
and although the temperature of the
season has not then reached its min-
imum, yet the foliage, accustomed to
exercise its fimctions under a sum-
mer heat, can no longer perform them
under a reduction of temperature
which, though not the lowest, is
comparatively low as regards sum-
mer productions. The leaves, in
consequence, lose their connexion
with the roots ; the earth still re-
tains considerable warmth ; and al-
though the absence of leaves in de-
ciduous trees, and perhaps the in-
activity of those .of evergreens, may
prevent the formation of wood, ex-
cept in the most limited degree, yet
the buds, while they are themselves
increased in volume, maintain a cor-
responding action in the roots, suffi-
cient, in many instances, to form
fresh spongioles before winter .- a
process which is favoured by the soil
Ijeing warmer than the atmosphere.
Should circumstances occur to pre-
vent the actual protrusion of cellular
substance in the form of spongioles,
still an accumulation of it will be ta-
king place, ready to burst forth in
spring. On this account, therefore,
although December, January, and
February are sufficiently moist, yet
November, or as soon as the leaves
have fallen, is the preferable season
for planting. There may be some
exceptions, as in the case of very
wet soils, where the plants, if not
firmly rooted, are liable to be thrown
out during winter, owing to which,
spring planting would be more jirop-
er ; but, under ordinary circumstan-
ces, all deciduous trees will succeed
best at the period above indicated.
Such species as push forth their buds
early ought certainly to be planted
in autumn. Many of the coniferous
trilie will succeed well if planted soon
alter they have made their summer's

PLANTATION, PLANTING.

growth ; the earth is then warm, and
( he plants make roots very promi)tly.
Some species of this interesting or-
der of trees require to be planted ei-
ther before winter, so as to have suf-
ficient time to strike root, or imme-
diately before their buds begin to
t)urst in the spring. These species
of trees are injuriously affected by
exposure to dry, cold winds, even
when their roots are undisturbed by
removal ; but if planted at a season
when several months must elapse
before any perfect action can com-
mence, the tops are apt to become
dried up in the interval. It appears
that if their juices become inspissa-
ted to a certain extent, they never
again become licpiefied, probably ow-
ing to their resinous nature.

" The watering of newly-planted
trees ought to be attended to. The
supply, in the first instance, should
be copious, in order to wash the earth
into the cavities among the roots.
Some err in keeping the roots of
newly-planted trees constantly soak-
ed with water, as if they were those
of bog plants, for vviiich only such
treatment is proper. In watering,
consideration should always be had
to the nature of the plant ; to which,
if it delight in dry soils, no more wa-
ter should be artificially applied than
is necessary to moisten it as much
as the soil m which the species grows
naturally, and at a time when shoots
and leaves are abundantly produced.
When watering is performed, it
should be done thoroughly, so as to
reach the lowest portions of the root.
In the case of plants being much dri-
ed from long carriage or other caus-
es, the supply, on first planting, should
be very moderate. The tops, how-
ever, should be frequently syringed,
in order to moisten the bark, and pre-
vent its absorbing the organizable
matter which descends towards the
root by the inner bark. The flow
must be extremely weak under such
circumstances ; but if it can be pre-
served from the effects of drought
till it reach the extremities of the
roots, the formation of fresh spongi-
oles will immediately commence, and

the tree may then be pronounced out
of danger.

" The manner of performing the
operation of planting may be reduced
to one general principle, that of pla-
cing the roots in the soil so as to im-
itate as closely as possible the posi-
tion which they occupy when grow-
ing wild and uncontrolled. Plants,
inileed, may be instanced whose
roots have been observed, in one
situation, penetrating to the depth of
four or five feet ; or, in another,
creei)ing along the surface, among
stones, or into the crevices of rocks,
with scarcely soil to cover them, as,
for example, in the vine. But al-
though roots can usually accommo-
date theinselves to that position
which the nature of the situation
renders it alone possible for them to
occupy, yet there can be no doubt
that in all cases the extremities of
the roots should be lower than where
they diverge from the stem : a rule
which, however self-evident it may
be, is frequently violated in practice,
by making a basin-shaped hole, deep-
est in the middle, in which the roots
are either doubled, or have their ex-
tremities tending upward on the slo-
ping sides of the cavity.

" The excavation for the reception
of the roots of a plant should be con-
siderably larger than those roots will
traverse when extended at the time
of planting. It should be as wide at
bottom as at top. The bottom should
be more or less convex, and the depth
such as to admit of the roots being
covered to the extent observed in
undisturbed seedling plants of the
same species ; that is to say, the up-
per part of the root should only be
just covered. The lower roots should
be regularly disposed over the con-
vex bottom of the excavation, and
carefully strewed with some of the
finer portion of soil, over which the
other roots may be spread. More soil
stiould then be carefully rather than
forcibly introduced. There should
be no vacant spaces left, except those
of so minute a description that they
will be readily filled up by the finer
particles of earth washed down by a
583

PLANTATION, PLANTING.

plentiful watering. This watering
should be given when the soil is near-
ly all filled in, and, alter tiio water
has subsided, so as not to stand above
the surface, the latter should be cov-
ered with the remaining portion of
soil. Except in very loose or light
soils, tills method will supersede the
necessity of the hard beating and
treading in to which the roots of
trees are very generally subjected.
The latter practice is now, however,
being laid aside by many, from a con-
viction of its injurious effects. It is
also necessary to remark that a plant
should be placed, before the introduc-
tion of the soil, exactly as it is in-
tended it should stand ; and it should
not be pulled from side to side for the
purpose of shaking the earth among
the roots. If the tree be drawn to
one side, the fibres of the root will
also be drawn towards the same side ;
but they are, of course, too flexible
to force their way back when the
tree is drawn in a contrary direction,
and they must therefore become
more or less doubled. Nor should
the soil be thrown against, the fibres
w hile the roots are being covered ;
it should be made fine, and either
shaken from the spade so as to fall
perpendicularly among the roots, or
scattered by a force impelling it in
the direction of the fibres, which will
be, in general, from the stem towards
the extremities, or from the centre
to the circumference.

" The principles here stated are
applicable to the planting of large as
well as small trees, and, in fact, to
any terrestrial species of plant. There
are, however, many modifications in
practice, some of which may be no-
ticed as proper under certain cir-
cumstances, and others as only to be
condenmed under any circumstances
whatever.

" Small plants are very frequently
inserted by the dibble, a cylindrical
piece of wood, shod with iron, and
tapering to a point. This is thrust
into the soil, and in the hole formed
by this means the roots of the plant
are introduced, and a portion of
soil passed towards them by a sec-
584

end stroke of the dibble. It is ev-
ident, however, that by this proce-
dure the roots cannot be in the most
natural position ; they are, in fact,
the very reverse of being spread out
to the best advantage. In the case,
of very valuable species, the spade
or planting trowel is used in prefer-
ence to the dibble. The latter has
nothing to recommend it on the score
of good principles in planting ; the
expedition with which it can be em-
ployed is all that can be said in its
favour.

" Besides the spade and dibble, va-
rious other implements are used in
planting, such as the diamond dibble,
a pointed plate of steel, with a short
iron liandle ; a mattock, used in stony
soils ; and some others, adopted ac-
cording to circumstances. In all ca-
ses, however, where the spade can
be used, it is undoubtedly the best
instrument. If the soil be unfit for
allowing the use of the spade, it
should be rendered fit previously :
and if some time be lost and expense
incurred by using it instead of small-
er and more expeditious, but, at the
same time, more cramping imple-
ments as regards the roots, the dif-
ference will certainly be ultimately
in favour of a proper disposition of
the roots by means of the spade. -

" With regard to the preparation
of the soil for plantations, it is found
that trenching the ground is attended
with profit wliere it is practised for
the purpose of rearing wood for fuel
and small timber. This mode of prep-
aration ought likewise to be adopted
where trees are intended to be plant-
ed for ornament or for shelter. It
has not been generally attempted in
the case of extensive plantations of
heath or rugged mountain land. It
may, however, be affirmed, without
hesitation, that great advantages
would be derived from the operation
being more extensively performed.
Something more than merely burying
the roots of hard-wooded plants is
thought necessary, and, accordingly,
pits are made. It is scarcely neces-
sary to observe that, if these are not
of considerable size, the direct prog-

PLANTATION, PLANTING.

ress of the roots is soon obstructed.
Tlie time required to form these pits
as they ought to be would be suffi-
cient to regularly trench double their
area. The expense of trenching the
intermediate spaces will be compen-
sated by the greater return derived
from the nurse plants, such as larch,
when they come to be removed.

" Plantations are generally planted
thick in the first instance, and with
various species of trees. Larch,
Scotch fir or pine, mountain ash,
&c., are interspersed among the hard
wood for shelter, or as nurses. La-
burnum is also useful for preserving
the other sorts from the depredations
of hares, as they prefer the laburnum
to every other bark. Nurses arc gen-
erally left till they are fit for various
purposes for which small timber is
applicable. Tliey should be planted
closer to each otlier than to the prin-
cipal trees intended to constitute the
more permanent part of the planta-
tion.

"After all the care of the planter,
and the skill with which the opera-
tion of removing may have been ef-
fected, much of the success of a
plantation depends on the proper
adaptation of species to the soils and
situations most suitable to them.

" The following remarks upon
some of the timber-trees principally
cultivated may be useful :

"The oak (Qucrctis robur, and Q.
sessiliflora) prefers strong, or even
clayey loam ; any soil not wet or
chalky.

" Beech {Fagus si/lvatira), calcare-
ous soils, gravelly or sandy loam ;
dislike stiff clay.

"Elm {Ulmus campeslris, U. gla-
bra. U. mnnlaria) attains, near the
banks of rivers, a large size; thrives
in most soils.

" Ash {Fraxinus excelsiar) prefers a
dry subsoil ; dislikes stiff clay. !

" Plane {Plalanus Oricntulis), rich,
warm soil, tolerably moist, but not
retentive.

" Sycamore (.leer ■pseudo-platanus,
A. platanoidcs), best in moist, deep
soil, but will thrive in others not too
stiff; withstands the sea-breeze.

"Chestnut {Castanea vcsca), deep,
sandy l«ain.

" ^^'alnut {Juglans regia), deep
loam, with a pervious subsoil ; dis-
likes strong clays.

" Hickory {Vanja alha), similar soil
to that required by the walnut.

" Acacia, or locust-tree (Robinia
pscud-acacia), sandy loam ; a shel-
tered situation ; cannot bear storms.

"Birch {Bctula alba), forms best
timber on dry sandy or gravelly soil.

" Laburnum {Cytisus alpinus), any
soil not too wet.

" White bean {Pyrus Aria), any
good soil, with a pervious subsoil ;
dislikes wet clay.

" Lime {Tilia EuropcEa), soft, deep
loam, in low, rather moist situations.

" Horse-chestnut {JEsculus hippo-
castanum), deep loam ; not in expo-
sed situations.

" Poplar (Popubis alba, P. canes-
cens, P. nigra, P. trcmula, P. fastigi-
ata, P. GrcEca, P. monili/cra). These
thrive in almost any soil, but best in
that which is deep and rather moist.

"Mountain-ash {Pi/riis aucuparia),
any soil, wet clay excepted ; adapted
for high situations.

" Alder (Ahnis glutinosa), moist,
or even swainpy soil.

" Willow (Salix), of numerous spe-
cies. Some thrive in rather dry soil,
but all prefer moist.

" Pine {Pinus sylvcstris, P. Laricis,
P. Pinaster, P. Strobus). The first
two are adapted for thin, rocky, grav-
elly soils ; tliey grow at a great eleva-
tion on the warmest sides of mount-
ains, but better in mountain glens ;
they dislike stiff clay and deep, strong
loam, and, like all coniferous plants,
they do not thrive on chalk. P. Pi-
naster and P. Strobus require a less
exposed situation than the other two.

" Spruce (Abies excelsa, A. alba, A.
rubra, A. nigra), deep, moist soil, in
low situations ; dislikes thin, sandy
soil, and exposure.

" Larch (Abies Larix), adapted for
thin mountain land, or any soil of
which the subsoil is not retentive,
excepting, however, red sandstone
or chalk, as above mentioned.

" Cedar of Lebanon {Abies cedrus),
585

PLANTATION, PLaNTINO.

any tolerably good soil, ratlior dcopor
tlian for tlic laicli, Imt a pervious stib-
soil, free fVoiii sla^iiaiit water.

"Too close planting produces weak,
dra\vn-u|) timber, in consequence of
the tops only receivinjr a due share
of light. It is true that the most
magnificent trees arc found in tliose
ancient forests that have never been
sowed, planted, or thinned by the
hand of man ; but, at the same time,
it will not be denied that, wlierever
natural forests exist, the soil and sit-
uation must be exceedingly favoura-
ble for the species produced ; and
that, although tliousands sprung up
more than could possibly find room
to attain perfection, yet those only
that were the most favourably cir-
cumstanced and most vigorous would
continue ; and whcui once their tops
got completely above those of the
general mass, the latter must have
inevitably fallen into decay. There
is no reason, however, to suppose
that those which maintained their
ground, and, favoured by propitious
soil, became lofty specimens, would
not have been benefited by the assist-
ance of the axe, to relieve them soon-
er from their rivals.

" If, on the contrary, trees are
planted at too great a distance from
each other, they are inclined to ram-
ify into large limbs and spreading
tops, with a stem short, but mucli
thicker than where the space admits
of less expansion of foliage. If, there-
fore, very thick timber of no great
length be required, wide planting is
proper ; but if tall timber be the ob-
ject, the plantation must be moder-
ately thick.

" The care which plantations re-
quire from year to year consists in
making up deficiencies, thinning, and
pruning. Deficiencies seldom occur
if the planting be at first duly per-
formed ; and every endeavour should
be used to prevent the necessity of
making up. This is always done
with considerable disadvantage to
the plants thus introduced, unless the
spaces be trenched ; but in that case,
if the species of tree be properly
chosen, the plants may do well in
586

consequence of the shelter afforded
by tiie older surrounding individuals.

"Thinning should be commenced
in due time. No branch of the tem-
porary trees should, by any means,
overhang the top, or even branches of
those that are permanent. The shel-
ter on the most exposed sides of the
plantation should be formed of ro-
bust, vigorous-growing kinds, and it
should be allowed to remain unbro-
ken. Plantations that have been neg-
lected till they have formed a dense
thicket must be thinned gradually ;
for if thinned at once, those left would
be injured by tlie sudden exposure,
and would be blown over by winds.

" Pruniiiff is an important opera-
tion in the management of planta-
tions, but it is often improperly prac-
tised, for want of the knowledge of a
few physiological facts, which are es-
sentially necessary to be stated be-
fore any rules for pruning can be
properly given. If these facts be un-
derstood, few rules will be required,
but otherwise a volume of directions
are liable to be misapplied. It ought,
therefore, to be understood, that the
sap ascends from the stem chiefly
through the alburnum, or outer layers
of young wood. It then enters the
leaves, when it is exposed to the in-
fluence of light. Having, in conse-
quence, undergone an elaboration, it
descends on the outside of the albur-
num, that is to say, through the inner
bark ; the internal surface of the lat-
ter possessing a great degree of lu-
bricity, whereby the passage of a por-
tion of the juices, at least, is facilita-
ted to the roots, while part is detain-
ed and becomes organized, forming a
new layer of woody matter. The
thickness of the layer so formed is
very different in different species ;
but in the same species, all other cir-
cumstances being the same, it is in
proportion to the surface of leaves.
The aggregate horizontal growth, or,
in other words, the diametrical ex-
tension of the stem, branch, and even
roots, depends upon the quantity of
healthy foliage. The diametrical in-
crease of any particular part corre-
sponds with the greater or less pro-

PLANTATION, PLANTING.

portion of foliage above that part.
Again, it may be stated that if one
tree has a clear stem of 20 feet in
lengtii, and another has one of 40 feet,
tlie roots and toMage of both being
equal, the layer of new wood w-ill be
much thinner in the latter case than
in the former ; for the deposition of
woody matter will have to extend
over double the surface in the tall
tree. It may be also remarked that,
in general, if a tree be left entirely to
nature, it will ultimately produce a
greater bulk of wood, taking stems
and branches togetiier, than would be
the case if subjected to pruning. Ex-
cept, however, in the case of growing
for fuel, pruning is more or less neces-
sary. The value of a timber-tree de-
pends chiefly on the stem, the branch
timber being of less value. The ob-
ject to be kept in view in pruning for
timber is the production of a clean
stem with as small a proportion of
branches as possible. But it has been
explained that the growth of the stem
depends on the quantity of foliage,
and without branches a sufficient
quantity of foliage cannot be main-
tained. While, on the one hand, an
undue preponderance of branches is
prevented by pruning, yet, on the
other, as much foliage should be pre-
served as circumstances will permit.
" An excessive privation of foliage
should never be occasioned at any
one time. It is therefore advisable
to commence pruning early, in order,
as it were, to repress irregularities in
the bud. At all events, whenever an
irregularity can be clearly distinguish-
ed as such, it should be checked.
Thus, when a shoot, occupying the
position of a branch, ascends in com-
petition with the top, or leading shoot,
and is allowed to go on for years, the
stem will have a forked character ;
or if the competing portion be ampu-
tated after it has acquired a large
size, the timber will be rendered un-
sound. But if the shoot from w^hich
this aspiring liml) took its rise had
been stopped in the first or second
season of its growth in summer, the
tree might have been grown with a
clean, regularly tapering stem. It is

only great irregularities, however,
that should be meddled with during
the e;niy growth of the plant ; other-
wise the increase of roots is prevent-
ed, such increase being reciprocal
with that of the branches.

" Young shoots of the above de-
scription may be checked by being
shortened in summer ; but no large
branches should be cut off at that
season, nor after the sap begins to
flow briskly in spring. Towards au-
tumn, however, when the leaves have
nearly ceased to carry on their func-
tions, pruning may be very properly
performed ; and some species, for
example, the birch and maple, require
to be pruned at that time, otherwise
they are apt to bleed. The period at
which bleeding; that is, an extravasa-
tion of sap, takes place with greatest
force, is immediately before the burst-
ing of the buds in spring. If a branch
be cut off when it is in foliage, the
remaining portion draws the sap
and prevents effusion at the wound.
Some derangement will of course be
produced in the flow of sap ; and a
diminution of the process of lignifica-
tion and of the formation of roots will
be occasioned, owing to the abstrac-
tion of a certain extent of foliage.
But when the sap is in motion, and
the leaves at the same time not ex-
panded, the amputation of a branch
is followed by a flow of sap, which
appears to drain from every part of
the tree. The sap becomes stale on
exposure to the air ; it then aflects
the cambium and inner bark, often
to a considerable extent below the
wound, and if these are not in all
cases so far completely killed, yet
they are generally more or less in-
jured, and canker is apt to ensue.

" Suppose it were required to rear
a tree so as to have a stem of clean-
grown timber as tall and as thick
as could possibly be obtained in any
given time. The first consideration
is the root, the plant being supposed
to be young, with a top or upright
leading shoot, and several side branch-
es. All these should be left undis-
turbed in the first instance, unless
such of the latter as may require a
587

PLA

PLA

check if growing too strong for the
others or for tho U.^ader. Tiie later-
als should be left, for the sake of ilie
roots, till tiieir presence on the stem
becomes inconsistent with the object
of producing it as free as possible
from knots, taking also into consid-
eration that the diliiculty in healing
the wound increases as the branches
get older. A J'eiv of the largest
shoots should be those first removed.
They may be shortened in the first
instance after midsummer, and af-
terward cut off smoothly by the low-
est circular wrinkles which form
round their base, close to the stem,
but without slicing off a portion of
the bark : a slovenly practice, of
which only bad pruners are guilty,
and which can only have the effect
of diminishing the power of the bark
to close over the wound necessarily
made by the pruning-knife. Such
unnecessary wounds cause an extrav-
asation of sap, as may be seen espe-
cially in coniferous trees, where they
are generally covered with resinous
exudations. In the following sea-
son the next largest branches should
be in like manner displaced, care be-
ing still taken, on account of the im-
portance of tlie foliage, as already
explained, that the quantity removed
shall be no more than is absolutely
necessary.

" Small branches along the stem
should be left till they approach the
dimensions by which the removal of
the others is regulated. These prin-
ciples should be followed up till the
required height of stena is attained ;
after which the branches composing
the top shall be allowed full freedom,
in order to increase, by their organ-
izing power, the diameter of the
stem.

" Coniferous trees require little
pruning ; nor is it necessary to com-
mence so early with them as in the
case of other kinds. In dense for-
ests, they are found with straight
stems, approaching the height of 100
feet clear of side branches, the latter
gradually decaying below as they be-
come excluded from light and moist-
ure by those above them. When,
588

from this cause, the lower branches
of coniferous trees are observed to
lose, in a great measure, their vigour,
and when their foliage contributes lit-
tle to the enlargement of the stem,
they may then be very properly cut
off, without waiting for their actual
decay. It is a question whether the
branches of these trees should be cut
close to the stem at once, in pruning,
or whether they should first be snag-
ged, that is, cut at some distance from
the stem, and either allowed so to
remain or be afterward cut close.
That plan is best to adopt by which
the least exudation of resinous sub-
stance is occasioned, and the blemish
soonest overgrown. With the view
of preventing the former, the branch
may be shortened only to the first live
twigs, so as almost to nullify its con-
nexion with the stem, preparatory to
its final and close removal in the fol-
lowing season.

" By choosing the proper season,
and by previous shortening, large
limbs of any healthy tree may be
closely amputated so as to heal over
without aft"ei,;ling the tree generallj',
or even the portion of stem more im-
mediately connected with the limb to
any material extent ; yet the new
layer of wood will prove, on cutting
up the timber, to be only in close con-
tact with the surface of the wound,
which will remain dead, and with
which the living matter enclosing it
could not coalesce. A piece of un-
sound wood is thus imbodied. In
this case, it would be advisable to
shorten the limb to such of its later-
als as will just be sufficient to keep it
alive till the tree is felled. If, in the
interval, the branch should push vig-
orously, means must be adopted to
keep it always in a reduced state, by
merely allowing as much foliage to
grow as will keep the branch alive,
without affording any material ad-
dition to its diameter." — (Professor
Lindley.)

PLANTING. See Plantation.
The following table shows the num-
ber of plants required for one acre of
land, from one fool to twenty-one feet
distance from plant to plant.

PLA

PLO

Pistance.

Distance.

Ft. In.

Number.

Ft.

In.

Knmber.

1 0 .

. 43.560

8

6 .

. . 602

1 6 .

. 19.360

9

0 .

. . 538

2 0 .

. 10,890

9

6 .

. . 482

2 6 .

. 6,960

10

0 .

. . 436

3 0 .

. 4,840

11

0 .

. . 361

3 6 .

. 3,556

12

0 .

. . 302

4 0 .

. 2,722

13

0 .

. . 253

4 6 .

. 2,151

14

0 .

. . 223

5 0 .

. 1,712

15

0 .

. . 194

5 6 .

. ],-140

16

0 .

. . 171

6 0 .

. 1,210

17

0 .

. . 151

6 6 .

. 1,031

18

0 .

. . 135

7 0 .

6S9

19

0 .

. . 121

7 6 .

775

20

0 .

. . 109

8 0 .

680

21

0 .

. . 99

PLANT LICE.

See Aphis.

PLASIILXG.

' A mode o

f repair-

ing or making a hedge by bending
down a portion of the shoots, cutting
them iialf through near tiie .ground, to
•render them more pliable, and twist-
ing them among the upright stems,
so as to render the whole effective as
a fence, and, at the same time, pre-
serve all the branches alive. For
this purpose, the branches to l)e plash-
ed or bent down must not be cut
more than half through, in order that
a sufficient portion of sap may rise
up from the root to keep alive the
upper part of the branches. Where
hedges are properly formed and kept,
they can very seldom require to be
plashed ; but this mode of treating a
hedge is most valuable in the cases
of hedges abounding with hedge-row
trees, when from neglect, or from
any other cause, the hedge has be-
come of irregular growth.

PLASTER. A mixture of burned
plaster of Paris with water, which
sets with great rapidity, and is used
in moulding and the finer work of
plasterers.

PLASTER OF PARIS. Gypsum,
which see.

PLASTIC. Capable of being
moulded, adhesive.

PLATBAND. A square moulding,
projecting from the wall less than its
width.

PLATE. In building, a timber ly-
ing horizontally on a wall to receive
the ends of girders, joists, rafters, &c.

PLATFORM. A level structure
of any materials, to receive a super-
incumbent building.

PLATINUM, PLATINA. An ex-

D D D

pensive metal, of the appearance of
silver, but very infusible, and of spe-
cific gravity 21-5. It resists most
chemical reagents, and is used in
chemistry for crucibles, and in foil
and wire for numerous purposes.
The bichloride of platinum, dissolved
in alcohol, forms insohil)lc salts with
chloride of potash, or annnonia, but
not with soda, and is used to separate
the former alkalies from the latter.
PL.\TYPH YLLUM. The Katydid,

wllictl SG6.

PLATYSO.MES, PLATYSOMA.
A family of coleoptera with wide and
fiat bodies, living under the bark of
trees.

PLEASURE GROUNDS.
Grounds laid out in shrubberies,
groups of trees, winding walks, and
lawns.

PLESIO.MORPHISM (from K^.T^ai-
of, near, and /J.op(p7], form). A terra
used to denote a similarity between
different crystals in their angles, but
not an identity.

PLETHORA. A fulness of the
circulatory system, almost amount-
ing to disease, and calling for bleed-
ing.

PLEURA. The serous membrane
surrounding the cavity of the chest,
lungs, and heart ; it consists of two
parts, which are united along the
middle, and forms the mcdmslinum.
Its inflammation is called pleurilis, or
pleurisv.

PLICIPENNATES, PLICIPEN-
NES. Neuropterous insects, the in-
ferior wings of many of which are
larger than the upper pair, and are
folded lengthwise, as the caddis flies.

PLINTH. The lowest form or
member of the base of a column, of
a square figure and small height.

PLIOCENE. The uppermost por-
tion of the tertiary formation, con-
taining recent fossils, for the most
part.

PLOTTING. In surveying, laying
down on paper the angles and lines
measured to calculate the contents
of a given tract ; it is done with a
protractcr or plotting scale.

PLOTTING SCALE. "It con-
sists of two graduated ivory scales,
589

PLO

PLO

one of which is perforated nearly its
wliolc length by a dovctail-shapcd
groove, for tiic reception of a sliding
piece, to which tiic second scale is
attached, and with which it moves,
the edge of the second being always
at rijiht angles to the edge of the first.
By this means the rectangular co-or-
dinates of a point are measured at
once on the scales, or tlie position
of the point laid down on the plan."
— (Braude's Encyclopccdia.)

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHINCx.
" Before we enter into any details, it
may be as well that we describe the
difl'erent essential parts of a plough
by the names which are usually given
to them.

" The body of a plough is that part
to vvhi(,'h all the other parts are at-
tached. The bottom of it is called
the sole, or slade, to the fore part of
which is affixed the point, or share ;
the hind part of the sole is called the
heel. The beam, which advances for-
ward from the body, serves to keep
the plough in its proper direction, and
to the end of it are attached the oxen
or horses which are employed to
draw it. Fixed in the beam, in a
vertical position, before the point of
the share, with its point a little for-
ward, is the coidler, which serves to
cut a vertical section in the ground,
while the point of the share, expand-
ing into a fin, separates a slice by a
horizontal cut from the solid ground
under it. The mould-hoard, or turn-
furrow, is placed obliquely behind the
fin, to the right or left, in order to
push aside and turn over the slice of ^
earth which the coulter and share
have cut off: it thus leaves a regular
furrow wherever the plough has pass-
ed, which furrow is intended to be
filled up by the slice cut olTfrom the
land by the side of it when the plough
returns. The stilts or handles, of
E

Fig. 1
C

which there may be either one or two,
as is thought more convenient, direct
the plough by keeping it in the line
required, and at a regular depth in
the ground. The single stilt appears
to be the most ancient form.

" Wheels are a modern invention
in.com|)arison with the other parts.
They support the end of the beam,
and prevent it from going too deep
into the ground, or rising out of it
while the plough is going on. The
greatest improvements introduced
into modern ploughs are in the shape
of the mould-board or turn-furrow,
of which we shall take particular no-
tice, and the contrivances for regu-
lating the line of draught, so as to
make the plough go at an equal depth,
and cut off a regular slice of equal
breadth without any great force being
applied by the ploughman who holds
the stilts.

" The ploughs in use in different
countries in Europe have undergone
little change for many centuries ; it
is only lately that any attempt has
been made to vary the old forms.

"The Roman plough, such as is
described by Virgil in the ' Georgics'
(i., 169), is still used in many parts of
France, under the name of Araire
Komain. It consists of a beam {te-
mo), a body {buris), a share {vomer),
and a handle or stilt {stiva). The of-
fice of the turn- furrow is performed
by two pieces of wood, about six inch-
es long, projecting obliquely upward,
and very properly called teeth {denla-
lia), E F {Fig. 1). The sole of the
plough, A B, has two pieces of wood,
G G and D H, fi.xed to it on each
side, forming an acute angle with it,
in which the teeth are inserted. This
exactly answers the description of
Virgil, ' Duplici aptantur dentalia dor-
so' (the teeth are fitted to the double
back).

590

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

" These teeth help to push aside
the earth to the right and left, and
the instrument resembles what is
called a inouldin;? plough, which is
used in throwinj; the soil aside against
young plants growing in rows, as tur-
nips, potatoes, &.C. A chain or pole
connected with the end of the beam,
was hooked to the middle of the yoke
on the neck of the oxen, and thus the
plough went on making parallel fur-
rows, so near to each other that the
preceding furrow was partially filled
with the earth which the dentalia
pushed aside. The point was in the
shape of the head of a lance. This
plough might suffice in liL'ht, mellow
soils which had been long in cultiva-
tion, and had more the texture of
garden mould than of stubborn clay.

" The small, double mould-board
plough, common in other parts of
France, is evidently taken from this.
The teeth not being sufficiently
strong, a slanting board was sul)sti-
tnted on each side, and wheels were
added, to diminish the labour of the
ploughman. The stdt remained the
same at the place where it is attach-
ed to the plough, but higher up it was
divided into two, like a fork, for the
convenience of holding it with both
hands. This plough acts exactly like
the other, but it is stronger and better
adapted for heavier land. Neither of
them goes much deeper than four or
five inches, leaving shallow parallel
ridges, in which the seed falls, and is
buried by light wooden harrows,
which are drawn over the land after
sowing. This is an imperfect till-
age, the bottoms of the furrows being
only partially stirred. The broad, flat
share, and the single mould-board,

r:.,ugh.

which turns the earth completely
over, after lifting it up, is a far more
eflectual instrument, and has been
adopted wherever agriculture has
made any improvement. This plough
more nearly imitates the digging with
a spade, and the more perfect the imi-
tations, the better is the work.

" The mould-board of a modern
plough is either fixed on one side, or
made to be shifted from one side
to the other, or there are two mould-
boards, as in Barnaby and Mooer's
double mould-board plough, _/ig- 3. In
the first case, one half the furrow sli-
ces lie on one side, and half on the oth-
er, and there is of necessity a double
furrow where they join. When it is
desirable that the surface should be
quite flat, and the furrow-slices all in
one direction, the mould-board must
be shifted at every turn, and a plough
which admits of this is called a turn-
wrest plough, or there must be two
boards.

"The form of the turn- furrow is of
material importance, for on this de-
pends not only the perfection of the
work, but also the lightness of the
draught. When we follow a plough
working in a mellow soil which slight-
ly adheres to the plough, we often
perceive that, instead of being turned
aside, the earth is carried forward,
and only falls off when the accunui-
lation of it becomes heavy enough
to overcome the adhesion. It does
not slido ofT from the mould-board it-
self, but separates from the earth
which adheres to the latter: thus
showing that the shape is defective,
and giving good hints for its improve-
ment. But as the same plough will
sometimes turn over the same earth
591

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHLNG.

better when it is either drier or moist-
er, it is very ciifncult to determine,
by ex|>eriinent only, wimt may, on
the whole, be the i)est sliape. A lit-
tle relieclion, and the application of
scientilic jjrinciples may greatly as-
sist us here. It is not suflicient,
however, to find the curve which
will make the plough go tlirough the

ground with the least force. The
plough must also perform its work
perfectly, and if anything is to be
sacrificed, it is better to employ more
power than to plough the ground
badly. After liaving ascertained the
mechanical principles which bear on
the working of the plough, we must
observe its action carefully, follovvr
the plough day after day, in different
soils and diderent weatlier, and thus
we may be led to observe all the cir-
cumstances which attend its opera-
tion, and correct any mistakes which
an erroneous theory might have led to.
" Many attempts have been made
to ascertain the exact curve which
the turn-furrow should have to per-
form the work well, ^nd at the same
time to produce the least resistance.
The difficulty of the problem lies in
determining the data, or principles
on which the investigation is found-
ed ; and these are so various that it
is not surprising that no very satis-
factory conclusion has yet been ob-
tained. We will make an attempt at
a solution from a simple examination
of the motion to be produced in the
portion of earth to be turned, which
we call the furrow-slice. We shall
suppose this separated from the ad-
jacent soil by the vertical cut of the
coulter, and, at the same time, from
the subsoil by the horizontal cut of
the share : a section of the slice, by
a plane at right angles to the line of
the ploughing, will be a parallelo-
gram A B D C (Fig. 4), the depth,
Fig-. 4.

692

C D 6 6'

A C, being the thickness of the slice,
and A B its width. Confining our at-
tention to this section of the slice,
the object is to move it from its po-
sition, A B D C, as cut off by the
coulter and share, to that of b' d' c' a',
where it is inclined at an angle of
45^ to the horizontal line, the surface,
A B (i' a'), being laid on the slice

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

previously turned over, so as to bury
the grass or weeds winch might be
I rooted there, exposing the roots to
I the sun and air. The more uniform-
f' ly this motion is produced, and the
more regularly the successive sec-
tions follow each other, the less pow-
er will be required to turn over the
whole slice. The motion of C D
round the point D must therefore be
uniform. If the turn-furrow is hori-
zontal at the point where it joins the
share, and of the same width as tlio
furrow-slice, it will slide under the
slice ; and if the vertical sections of
its upper surface, at equal distances
from the share, are inclined at an-
gles regularly increasing with this
distance till it arrives at the perpen-
dicular, the turn-furrow will, as it
advances, turn the slice from a hori-
zontal to a perpendicular position ;
the section of it will then be Dc ab.
The inclination of the section of the
turn-furrow must now be to the oth-
er side, forming an obtuse angle with
the section of the sole, until it has
pushed the slice over at the required
inclination of 45°, which theory and
experience have shown to be the
best adapted to expose the greatest
surface to the action of the atmo-
sphere, and likewise to form the most
regular furrows for the reception of
the seed, which the harrow can then
most readily bury.

" Tlie surface of this turn-furrow
is curved in the form of the spiral

thread of a screw, such as would be
generated by a line moved uniformly
forward in a direction at right angles
to its length, while it revolved uni-
formly round one of its extremities.
This surface is easily constructed
mechanically thus : take a rectangu-
lar parallelogram, A B C D {Fig. 5),

Fi;,'. 5.
A B

of the width of nine inches, or as
wide as the intended furrow, and of
a length equal to four times the width.
Bisect B C in E, and D C in F ; at
F raise a perpendicular F G to the
plane of the rectangle, and make it
equal to C E. Join E G and produce
it to K, making F K equal to F E.
Join K D. Draw from every point
in C U lines at right angles to C D,
meeting the line E K in different
points ; these lines will form the re-
quired surface. The line K D will
be found inclined 45^ to the horizon,
at the angle K D H, which is the in-
clination at which the furrow-slice is
most advantageously laid. To those
who are not familiar with solid geom-
etry, these lines may be easily ex-
hibited, by means of a wire inserted
at E, and bent at a right angle at K,
B

<\\\\\ll//////.

F
/ U Fig. 6.

inserting the bent portion into the
board A B C D {Fig. 6) at D, so that
it shall be inclined 45- at D, lying in
the direction of E K, in Fis:^. 5 and
6. Care must be taken that G F be
equal to C E, and perpendicular to
the board.

" It is evident that, as the plough
moves on. a particle at E will slide
alon'.r the line E K. become at G per-
pendicular to the bottom of the turn-

D D D 2

furrow, which should be parallel to
the sole, and at K be at an angle of
45^ with that line. If the slice were
a solid substance, this line, E K,
would be all that is required to turn
it in its proper position ; but as the
soil is generally loose, and would
crumble to pieces, a support must be
given to it by a surface at least as
wide as the slice. This surface is
generated by drawing lines from dif-
593

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

fcrent parts of D C at rijj^ht angles to ] at 45° beyond it at D. The curve

this hnc. and meeting the line K E
(,Fiff. 7). These lines will be at dif-
Horizontal Plan of the Plough.

A B, the Sole. C, the Fin. D C, the bottom
of the Turn-furrow.

ferent angles to the horizon, nearly
horizontal at C, where the fin of the
point begins, perpendicular at F, and
Sections of the three different Turn-furrows, at different distances from the Heel

thus generated will be found to turn
over soils of a moderate tenacity
very perfectly. If it is very light,
the surface may be formed by arcs
of circles with a considerable diame-
ter, the concave part upward ; if it is
very tenacious, the convex part of
the arches may be upward. Thus the
surface may be varied without alter-
ing the ti\ed line E K. The annexed
figures (8, 9, and 10) will explain this.
The distance of the perpendicular F G
from the lin of the share may also be
varied, either lengthening or short-
ening the turn-furrow as experience
may show to be most advantageous.

Fig. 9.

" A plough has lately been con-
structed on this principle ; it prom-
ises to realize the expectations form-
ed of it. In soils of a loose, mellow
nature it answers completely, and
does the work more perfectly than
any other plough. It unites the par-
allelism of the sole and bottom of the
turn-furrow of the Flemish plough
with the improved shape of the turn-
furrow. By adopting the variations
in the shape of the turn-furrow which
we have suggested, this plough may
be adapted to any soil, and be used
with or without wheels.

" Ploughs were formerly made of
wood, having those parts covered
with iron where the greatest friction
takes place, the share and coulter
only being of iron ; but in conse-
quence of the greater facility of cast-
ing iron in modern times, most of the
parts are now made of this metal.
The beam and stilts are still usually
of wood, but even these are now
sometimes made of wrought iron and
cast iron. The advantages of iron

A D

and consequent greater friction of
the sole. Recent experiments have
proved this to be greater than was
generally suspected. A great im-
provement has been introduced by
making the points of the shares of
cast iron, which, by a mode of cast-
ing the lower surface on a plate of
metal, makes one surface much hard-
er than the other ; and as the softer
surface wears more rapidly, a sharp
edge is always preserved.

" The stilts of the plough are most-
ly of wood. Where the soil is light
and crumbling, without stones, a sin-
gle handle or stilt is sufficient ; but
where some force is occasionally re-
quired to prevent stones or other ob-
stacles from turning the plough out
of its course, two stilts are most con-
venient, placed at a more obtuse an-
gle with the sole of the plough.

"The force required to draw a
plough depends, not only on the na-
ture of the soil, but also on the shape
of the plough, and especially on the
position of its difTerent parts with re-

are its durability and the smaller fric- | spect to each other, so that they do
tion it occasions when once polished | not counteract each other,
by use. The inconveniences are the " If a plough w'ere drawn in the di-
additional weight of the instrument, J rectioa of the sole, the obliquity of
594

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

the turn-furrow would cause it to
turn towards one side, and it would
require a considerable force to keep
it straight. In order to prevent this,
the line of draii<ilit is placed at an
angle, which vaiics with that of the
turn-furrow and liie force recjuired
to push the furrow-slice over. To
adjust this angle, so as to cause the
plough to keep in the intended line,
there is a contrivance at the end of
the beam to cliange the position of
the ring by which the plough is drawn
to the right or lelt of the line of the
beam, and another by which it may
be raised or lowered. In most ploughs
the beam, having been originally set
at a small angle with the sole towards
the right, has an arch of wood or
iron at the end, as in the annexed
Fig. An iron, shaped as in Fig. 13,

Fig. 11

is made to embrace the beam, to
which it is attached by a pin {a), round

Fi^.l2. J

which it turns as a centre. Another
pin (i) passes through one of the
holes in the circular end, and keeps
the iron in any required position to
the right or left of the line of the
beam. The end of this iron, which
is called a bridle or clevis, has sev-
eral projecting hooks in the ol)long
curve which terminates it, on which
an iron ring is hung at different
heights. By these contrivances the
plough maybe drawn from a point on
either side of the beam, and higher
or lower, as may be required. When

the plough is found to take too much
land, as ploughmen say, that is, tends
to increase the width of the slice cut
off by the coulter, the bridle is shifted
to the left by moving the pin (4) into
another hole ; when it goes out of the
land, as it is called, that is, diminishes
the width of tlie furrow-slice, the pin
is moved a hole or two to the right,
until the [ilough has no tendency to
deviate to either side. If it inclines
to rise out of the ground, tlie ring is
shifted in the iron bridle, and placed
in a hook or notch higher up ; if, on
the contrary, it dips too deep, the
ring is hooked lower. Thus a plough
may be made to go straight and at a
regular depth, without any more force
being applied to the stilts than is re-
quired to counteract inequalities in
the land, or accidental obstacles, such
as stones or roots, which might throw
the plough out of the ground. When
the soil is of unequal texture, it is
useful to have a small wheel con-
nected with the fore part of the beam,
so as to prevent its dipping down-
ward, which would require a great
pressure on the stilts to keep the
point of the share up, and thus in-
crease the friction of the sole on the
ground, and, consequently, the labour
of the horses. In the Rutland plough,
two wheels are connected with the
beam, one of which runs in the fur-
row to the right, and the other on the
unploughed soil to the left. When
the plough has been well adjusted,
and the larger wheel runs in the angle
of the furrow, it acts as a gauge to
regulate the width of the slice, as
well as its depth ; in very uniform
soils without stones, the plough, when
set in the proper direction, will make
a very straight and even furrow, par-
allel to the one in which the wheel
runs, without any person holding the
stilts ; so that all that is required is
to turn the plough at the end of each
furrow, and set it into the proper line
to form the next. As this admits of
a very correct adjustment, no unne-
cessary force is required to draw the
plough, and hence this plough appears
to be the easiest for the horses ; and
if the wheels are not very heavy, and
595

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

the plough is of a good form, it certainly re-
quires less power to move it than many which
596

are without wlieels. There
are some very irregular and
stony soils, where a common
swing -plough can scarcely
be kept steady without the
help of wlieels, and where it
would not be so convenient
to have the beam fixed on
the wheels. In this case, a
separate carriage is neces-
sary, that the ploughman
may have a fulcrum on which
he can raise his plough, or
turn it to either side to avoid
any considerable stone or
other obstacle. As a gen-
eral rule, it may be safely
asserted that a slight but
strong swing-plough, in the
hands of a clever ploughman
— with one wheel in partic-
ular soils, but, in general,
without any wheel — will ef-
fect its purpose with the
greatest precision, and the
least exertion of the horses
drawing it. Theory and prac-
tice agree in this ; and if any
experiments appear to throw
a doubt upon it, we siiall
probably find some circum-
stances which have influen-
ced the result, when wlieel-
ploughs have appeared to re-
quire the least power of
draught. But wheels have
one advantage — they will en-
able an inferior ploughman
to make better work than lie
could possibly do without
them ; and that, too, with
less labour to the horses, be-
cause, from his want of skill,
the swing-plough would be
continually subject to sud-
den deviations, requiring him
to use his strengtli to coun-
teract them ; and each exer-
tion of the ploughman adds
to the labour of the horses."
The numbers in the fol-
lowing table show the com-
parative draught of the same
ploughs in different soils ;
they are from Mr. Pusey's
experiments :

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

. 17 J stom
. 4T| "
. 16* "
• 3I5 "
. 28$ "-
. 20 "

Trial 1. Sandy loam
" 2. Clay loam .
" 3. Loamy sand
" 4. Strong- loam
" 5. Clay loam .
" 6. Miwry soil .

" Without enterin<j into any com-
parison of ploughs differently con-
structed, it is evident that the shape
of the plough must vary with the na-
ture of the soil which it is to turn up.

A light soil must be shovelled up ;
a mellow one may be turned over
with any kind of mould-board ; a very
stiff, tenacious soil, which adheres to
any surface pressed ajiainst it, will
be more easily turned over by a few
points of contact which do not allow
of adhesion."' Where the soil is a
stiff, moist clay, the skeleton plough
of Finlayson {Fig. 14) is drawn with

half the force necessary for a com-
mon implement. This plough is used
to some extent in the upper prai-
rie lands, the beam being modified.
" Hence the point and turn-furrow
have been made of all imaginable
shapes, and while one man contends
for a very concave form, another will
admit of nothing which is not very
convex. That plough will, no doubt,
have the least draught which is best
suited to the soil which it has to
move. The lighter the plough is,
consistently with sufficient strength,
the less draught it requires, all other
circumstances remaining the same.
Lightness and strength combined are,
consequently, great advantages, and
if a very light plough does its work
as well as a heavier, there can be no
doubt that it is preferable. DurabiK
ity is nothing compared with the sa-
ving of one horse in three ; it is
cheaper to have a new plough every
year than to keep an additional horse
all the year. If a wooden plough is
found to be more easily moved than
an iron one, there can be no doubt
which should be preferred.

"The Flemish plough is made of
wood, and is very light ; the share
and coulter only are of iron, besides
a thin sheet of iron over the mould-
board, which is shaped as if it had
been rolled obliquely over a cylinder,
a shape well adapted to sandy soils.
In ploughing land which is more or
less mellow and crumbling, the great
object is to bring to the surface that
portion which has lain buried, and
has not served to nourish the pre-
ceding crop, and to bury that which
has produced vegetation, and in which
the roots of various weeds have estab-
lished themselves. When manure
is to be covered with a certain depth
of earth, a more complete subversion
is required, in order that no part of
it may remain uncovered. When the
land is in a compact state, from the
roots which pervade it, and it is only
ploughed once to prepare it for re-
ceiving the seed, much greater nicety
is required to lay the slices at a cer-
tain angle, so as to leave regular
lines or depressions in which the
seeds may fall and be regularly cov-
ered by the harrows which follow.
5D7

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING

In tliis case, the angle of 15° is found
to be tlie uiost convenient at which
the furrow-sUces may 1)0 laid against
one another. The licld will then
have the appearance of being laid in
small ridges, as in the annexed figure,

Fig. 15.

all towards the same side if ploughed
with a double mould-board plough, or
towards a middle line if a plough with
a fixed turn-furrow has been used.
To produce this regularity, the end
of the turn-furrow is made to press
on the slice turned over ; and some
ploughmen fi.x a piece of wood or iron
to the end of the turn-furrow, which
makes a groove in the furrow-slice
at the place where the next one will
be laid upon it. This prevents use-
less openings between the slices. It
adds, no doubt, to the draught, but it
makes better and neater work.

" When the seed is to be dibbled
on the sward, which is reversed by a
single ploughing, it is necessary that
the sod should be completely turned
over and laid flat. To do this, and
at the same time to bury all the grass,
requires the furrows to be very equal
and parallel ; so that when a roller
has gone over the land, it is perfectly
fiat, without any interstices between
the slices which ar6 turned over. It
requires a good ploughman to do this
perfectly.

" When clover ley or old grass is
ploughed up, it is difficult to bury all
the grass which grows on the edge of
tlie slice ; and if it remains exposed,
it will grow and increase, to the detri-
ment of the corn. To prevent this, a
wing is sometimes added to the side
of the coulter, a few inches from the
point. It cuts a small horizontal slice
(iff the surface before the sod is turn-
ed over, and this falls into the bot-
tom of the furrow, and is buried there.
l"he coulter with such a wing is called
a skim-coulter, because it, as it were,
skims the surface {Figs. 16 and 17).
This instrument may require an ad-
.538

ditional horse to be put to the plough
in tenacious soils, but this cannot be
avoided. There is no doubt that no
more horses should be put to a plough
than can do the work ; but whatever
be the number required, the work
must be done well. There is no sav-
ing in doing the work imperfectly.
The discussion about the number of
horses which should draw a plough
might easily be settled, if the nature
of the soil were sufficiently taken
into consideration. The shape of the
plough may make some difference,
but the tenacity of the soil makes a
much greater. It is, however, not a
little surprising that there should be
so little variety in the width of the
furrows. It would appear as if there
were a law prohibiting furrows less
than eight inches wide, or more than
ten : a furrow-slice five inches wide
and ten deep requires no more pow-
er than one ten inches wide and five
deep. It is true that a plough will
not do more than half an acre at most
in a day with narrow furrows ; but,
if two horses will do this, and two
ploughs instead of one be used, with
one man and two horses each, an
acre will be ploughed in a day with
four horses and two men, which is
the number usually employed when
the furrows are deep and nine or ten
inches wide ; but the land will be
much better stirred, and laid more
even. The Romans ploughed with
deep, narrow furrows, and varied the
width purposely, the better to pulver-
ize the soil. The plough need not be
narrower for this work ; for if the
first furrow be made wide enough,
the plough can deepen it by a second

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING,

turn in it, and a trench is formed in
which the next shce (alls, and is push-
ed aside by the tail of the turn-fur-
rows, so as to leave another trench
open ten inches wide.

" Suppose A B C D (Fig. 18) the
section of the first wide furrow, and a
slice, A E F B, is cut off the solid side
Fig. 18.
E A o D

I

I
I

J L_

F It b C

of the land half the width of the
trench ; the mould-board pushes this
earth, after it has been turned over,
into the space, D C a i, marked with
the dotted line, and in doing so beats
and crumbles it, leaving a fresh
trench, abF E, equal to the first, and
so the whole field may he ploughed
without difficulty. In nine cases out
often, where the soil is properly cul-
tivated, and ploughed in a proper
state, this mode of ploughing would
be found a great improvement, and
equal to a trench ploughing, or sub-
soil ploughing. Where the farms are
email, and few horses are kept, deep
ploughing is not practicable with the
usual width of furrow ; but, with a
narrow furrow, the land may be
moved to a very great deptii with a
couple of horses. The plough must
be made sharp and narrow, and the
turn-furrow not much curved, so as
rather to push the earth aside than to
lift It.

" Very little attention was former-
ly paid to the straightness of the fur-
rows. It was natural to follow the
thapc of the boundary of the field,
which was seldom straight ; and this
practice increased gradually tUl no
straig'.it furrow was to be seen ; but
no curves can be laid so perfectly

parallel as two straight lines. Every
deviation from parallelism causes a
defect in the contact of the slices,
and a loss of force by the oblicpiity of
the draught. A superficial observer
would not perceive this, but minute
examination proves it. Hence equal
and straight furrows are a sign of
good ploughing.

" When tiic land lies on a dry sub-
soil, and no more moisture remains
in it, after continued rains, than is
useful to promote vegetation, it may
bo ploughed quite fiat. This may be
done by a plough with a double mould-
board, or by ploughing in a continued
spiral from tlie centre to the circum-
ference, or tiie reverse. In this case
straight furrows cannot be made.
The best way is to draw a furrow
the whole length of the field in the
middle, and plough towards this from
both sides. If the field is wide, it is
most convenient to plough it into sev-
eral broad stitches, each a certain
number of perclies in breadth. A
perch (16^ feet) is a very common
width for a stitch, or land, and con-
venient to guide the sower or the
drdling machine.

" But on moist, impervious subsoils
it is necessary to lay the land in a
rounded form, in order to let the
superfluous water run off into fur-
rows, from which it is conducted by
proper channels into the ditches. In
this case, half a perch is a common
width for each stitch, or land. It re-
quires some practice to lay up a land
in a rounded form from a llat sur-
face. After cross-ploughing and har-
rowing, the first furrow is drawn
wide and shallow, and the earth is
thrown upon the surface to the right :
when the plough returns, it takes an-
other furrow^ about nine or ten inch-
es from the first, laying the earth or
furrow-slice somewhat obliquely over
the first. At the next turn another
slice is laid, meeting the last at an

Fig. 10.

599

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

Fig. 20.

angle, the first slice being quite cov-
ered by the last two. This now
forms the crown of the ridge, and
the succeeding slices are laid oblique-
ly, leaning to the right and left, till
the required width is obtained. An-
other land is now begun at the dis-
tance of a quarter of a perch from
the last furrow, and laid exactly in
the same manner. When the two
lands meet, the intervening furrow,
which had been purposely left shal-
lower, is deepened, and there is a
furrow between every two lands, the
bottom of which is considerably be-
low the bottom of the other furrows.
When this licld is ploughed again af-
ter harvest, the work is reversed ;
the furrow between the lands is filled
■\vith the first slice, and another is
placed over this, which now becomes
the crown of the land to be formed :
this is called ploughing crown and
furrow. When the lands are plough-
ed towards the crown, it is called
gathering. By gathering several
limes in succession, the soil is much
raised at the crown, at the expense
of the sides. This was the old prac-
tice, when lands were laid very wide
and very high ; in conmion fields the
land or stitch was often the whole
widtii of the possession, from which
came the name of land."

Every practical man will be pre-
pared to understand that the longer
his furrows are, the less loss is made
in turning ; but the amount of this
loss is much heavier than will be sup-
posed : according to Stephens, it is,

Len<'th

Breadth of

Time lost

Time de

Hours

or rutge.

slice.

inturnin!;.

plough-

ofwork.

Yards.

Incites.

h. m.

h.m.

/..

78

10

5 n

4 4

10

149

—

2 44

7 16

—

200

2 1

7 59

—

212

1 bU

8 3.V

—

274

—

1 26

8 32

—

" One of the most useful opera-
tions in ploughing land is to cross the
600

former furrows, by which means the
whole soil is much more completely
stirred ; and if any part has been left
solid without being moved by the
ploughshare, which is called a balk,
it is now necessarily moved. The
leaving of balks is a great fault,
and is owing to the sole of the
plough being narrower than the fur-
row-slice, and the wing of the point
too short, or to the ploughman not
holding his plough upright. The
share should cut the ground to the
whole width of the furrow, that no
roots of thistles, docks, or other large
weeds may escape and grow up again.
iMany ploughmen hold the plough in
an oblique position ; the bottom of the
furrow is consequently not level, and
the soil is not stirred equally. This
is a great fault, especially in wet
ground ; for the furrows thus become
channels, in which the water remains,
not being able to run over the in-
equalities of the bottom. It is of no
use to lay the surface convex if the
solid earth below lies in hollows or
gutters. The water naturally sinks
down into the newly-ploughed land,
till it meets the solid bottom which
the plough has gone over ; if it can
run over this into the deeper furrows
between the stitches, it evaporates or
runs off, and the land is left dry, and
so consolidated as to let the water
run along the surface without sink-
ing to any deptii ; but if the bottom
is uneven, it remains in the hollows,
and stagnates there, to the great in-
jury of the growing crops.

" There are various modes of
ploughing land when it is intended to
pulverize and expose it to the sun in
summer, or the frost in winter, to pu-
rify and fertilize it. To expose as
great a surface as possible, the whole
field is laid in high and narrow ridges,
bringing to the surface all the fertile
portion of the soil, and often, also, a
portion of the subsoil, so as to deep-

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

en the productive portion, and give
more room for the roots to spread in.
The simplest method of increasing
the surface exposed, when the land
is first broken up from pasture, or af-
ter liaving been some years in grass,
and is in a foul state, is called ribbing.
The plough turns up a slice, which it
lays over flat on the adjoining sur-
face. It does not cover this with the
next slice, as if it were beginning the
crown of a stitch, but it takes anotli-
er slice at some distance, and then
one parallel to the lirst, likewise laid
flat on the solid part. When the
whole field has been so ploughed, the
surface consists altogether of ridges
and furrows, but only half the sur-
face has been ploughed. No grass
appears ; if it has been well done, the
unploughed strips being covered by
the slices raised by the sides of them,
the two surfaces with grass on them
cover each other. It is left in this
state till the grass is rotten, and when
the sod is broken to pieces by heavy
drag harrows, the land can be cross-
ploughed and cleaned or fallowed in
dry weather.

" There is another mode ofridging,
when the land has had one or two
ploughings, in order to expose it to
t!ie frost in winter, and to mellow it.
The operation is somewhat similar
to ribbing, but after the first slice is
turned over, another is added, as
deep as the plough can be made to go
so as not to bring up the subsoil ; by
this means the whole surface is laid
in high ridges and deep furrows ; and
Fig. 21.

wlien this ploughing is reversed in
spring, the soil which has been ex-
posed to the frost and wind is mixed
with the rest, and lends greatly to
mellow it. This is an excellent prep-
aration for potatoes and roots, if the
land has been well cleaned. The
manure, being distributed in the deep
furrows, is covered by the plough
right and left, or at one operation by
a plough with a turn-furrow on each
side, which divides the ridge and lays
half of it ill each contiguous furrow.

E EE

: The plough is a double mould-board
plough, which is extremely useful ia
j many operations of husbandry.
! " In order to save hands and ex-
: pedite the tillage of the land, ploughs
I have been contrived which make two
j or more furrows at once. "When they
are well constructed, they are very
useful on light soils. If it is not re-
quired to go deep, and two horses
can draw a double plough, there is a
decided saving of power ; but if it re-
I quires four horses, nothing is gained.
The double ploughs are therefore
not much in use. But there are in-
I strunients which cultivate the earth,
' stirring and pulverizing it much more
speedily than the plough. Some of
these will stir the ground to the depth
of seven or eight inches, going over
a width of five or six feet at once.
Such an instrument is preferable to
the plough, after the ground has al-
ready had a certain degree of stirring,
and is become mellow and crumbling ;
but to break up pasture or clover ley
there is nothing so eflicacious as the
plough, which cuts regular slices, and
lays them over so that all the grass
shall rot, and the roots, being exposed
to the air, shall decay, and thus fur-
nish food for other crops.

" The instruments which have
been invented to save the time and
labour required by repeated plough-
ings are very numerous. Some of
the most useful have been noticed
before (see Arable Land.) A'ew ones
are daily invented, and some are sup-
ported by wheels, which render them
both lighter and more convenient.
They are easily raised out of the
ground, when not intended to work,
and the depth to which they are let
down is more easily regulated.

" Deep ploughing is generally ac-
knowledged to accord with the best
husbandry, where the subsoil is dry
naturally, or has been artificially
drained ; but some inconvenience
may arise from bringing a barren
subsoil to the surface, in trench-
ploughing, by two ploughs following
each other in the same furrow. It
has therefore been suggested to take
off the turn-furrow from the plough
601

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

which follows the first, so as to stir
the subsoil without bringing it to the
surface. Tliis idea has been im-
proved upon by constructing a sub-
soil plough of great strength, which
will go very deep into the ground, and
stir the subsoil a foot or more below
the bottom of the usual furrow. Mr.
Smith, of Deanstone, has invented

one made entirely of iron (Fig. 22).
This plough requires four horses in
the most favourable soils, and six in
tenacious clays, to keep up with the
common plough, which always should
precede it. Many improvements have
been made on Mr. Smith's original
implement ; that represented in Fig'
urc 23 is one of the best ; the three

points cut down the earth gradually,
and pulverize it thoroughly. Some-
times, however, the subsoil plough
may be used alone, where the surface
is already mellow and crumbling.

" Many different ploughs have been
invented for the purpose of saving la-
bour in draining land. See Draining
Plough. As they all cut out a slice
from the bottom of a furrow, and raise
it up to the surface of the ground,
they are of little use in crumbling
soils, and in the most tenacious re-
quire the assistance of much manual
labour to complete the work. They
act on the principle of the carpenter's
tool, by which a groove is formed in
tlie edge of planks or deals, when
they are intended to be joined close-
ly, as in a floor. This instrument is
also called a plough ; but the uniform
tenacity of the wood allows a narrow
chisel to cut an even, regular groove.
In the draining plough the two sides
of the drain arc to be cut obliquely
downward and the bottom scooped
out evenly. The plough requires to
602

be often adjusted, and the deep fur-
rows to be kept cleared from loose
earth by means of spades and scoops.
In this way drains may be made from
fifteen to eighteen inches deep, in
which loose stones or tiles may be
laid to form a channel for the water.
The expense is much less than when
the drains are made with the spade.
" ^^'hen grass land lies low and wet
on a very tenacious subsoil, a plough
is sometimes used which consists of
a cylinder of iron pointed at one end,
and connected with a strong beam by
a thick plate of iron, which is sharp
on the side nearest the point of the
cylinder, and acts as a coulter. This
instrument is forcibly drawn horizon-
tally through the stiff subsoil at a
depth of twelve to eighteen inches,
so as to leave a round channel like
a pipe where the cylinder has pass-
ed. This has been called a mole
plough, the passage made by it under
ground resembling the workings of a
mole. It takes six horses to draw
this plough when the cylinder is fif-

I

1

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

Lambert's Mole Plough.

teen inches under the surface, but is
the most easy and expeditious means
of temporarily draining land. It can
only be done when the soil is moist
and gives way without cracking, but
at that time the feet of the horses
greatly damage the surface. In con-
sequence of this, a windlass with a
long chain has been invented. The
drum, which is vertical, and round
which the chain is coiled, is turned
by a horse, who walks round and
round, while the whole apparatus is
kept in its place by means of au an-
chor fixed in the ground. It draws
the mole plough the length of the
chain, and is then moved forward on
small wheels while the chain uncoils.
As soon as the chain is all off the
drum, the anchor is refixed, and the
operation continues. This mode of
draining land has now been almost
entirely superseded by a more regu-
lar and permanent system of drain-
ing with stones or tiles. The chan-
nels made by the mole plough are
very apt to fill up in dry weather ;
and the mole takes advantage of a

ready-made passage to work in it,
stopping it purposely to retain water
and to form its nest. When this is
the case, the water rises to the sur-
face and does much harm. Nothing
but a fresh application of the mole
plough parallel to the old channels
can remedy this evil.

" Various ploughs have been con-
structed with the intention of dimin-
ishing the draught, or improving the
form of the turn-furrow ; but most of
them without much regard to scien-
tific principles, merely from a vague
notion founded on some real or sup-
posed defect in the ploughs in com-
mon use, or in order to adapt them
to particular soils and situations."

Of late, some have favoured the
idea that the introduction of a wheel
in the heel of the plough would di-
minish the draught by converting a
sliding into a rolling friction. The
figure, from Mr. ^^■ilkie's implement,
will explain the mechanism {Fig. 25).
In a public trial it was found to di-
minish the draught thirty per cent.

Burrell, of Geneva, New- York, and

other plough-wrights in the United
States, have patented friction-wheel
ploughs ; and in the case of Burrell's
shell -wheel plough, the draught by
the dynamometer, at the New-York
Agricultural Society's Fair, 1843, w^as

298 pounds, his own Geneva plough
drawing 100 pounds more.

Draught. — It is the custom at the
fairs of several agricultural associa-
tions, to have a trial of plouglis with
the dynamometer, whereby their com-
603

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

parative draught is in some measure
ascertained. We are not, however,
to regard these as absolute quanti-
ties ; they are true only for the tin)0.
The adhesiveness of the soil, its state
of moisture, the depth of the furrow,
its width, and the pace of the horses,
are all sources of disturbance. Thus
we find, by comparing the different
results with the same implement,
that tlie Bergen plough, at Sing Sing,
drew 472 pounds, and the next year,
at Patterson, 350 pounds. The same
difference is seen in other cases ; how-
little these experiments can be taken
as a guide, appears from the fact that
ploughs, which at one season were
lowest on the list, take the prize the
next year. From these experiments
we gather, however, two miportant
facts, viz., that a two-horse plough

ought not to weigh more than 170
pounds, nor require, in a medium
soil, more than 450 poimds draught,
these numbers being the average re-
sults of the better kind of implements.
The length and sharpness of a plough
have much to do with its draught ; but
it is properly urged by practical men,
that such plouglis become difficult to
manage in rough lands or new fields,
the leverage of the body being too
great. It is in this respect that Amer-
ican ploughs differ so strikingly frcjm
Scotch and English implements : they
have a mellow, clean soil to till, we
a rough, stumpy soil. The accom-
panying figure gives a good general
outline of our best class of ploughs.
It is not, however, a good represen-
tation of Ruggles, Nourse, and Ma-
son's implements.

It would be very invidious to state
that any particular machine was the
best ; nor is it true, for, as is justly
remarked by Mr. Rham, the figure of
the plough must difTer with the soil,
and that is a bad one in any soil
wiiich either drags too heavily on the
horses, or does not fully tax their pow-
er. In a list I procured from ^^'ash-
ington of ploughs, I find 164 patented
since 1831. Of these, there are mark-
ed by Mr. Ellsworth as being good,
in his knowledge and experience,
Beat's, Moore's, Prouty and Mear's.
AVoodcock's, John Mear's ; and of my
knowledge I can recommend Barna-
hy and Mooer"s, Delano's, Bergen's,
Ruggles and Go's, centre draught,
the Wisconsin, Codding"s American,
Howard's, Eastman's, of Baltimore,
the Caledonia, Livingston County,
the iron beam, Burrell's Geneva and
shell-wheel ploughs, the Montgome-
ry County plough, and the Scotch

wrought-iron plough. The editor of
Johnson's Encyclopsedia also men-
lions Beech's, Miles's, Peacock's, and
Wiley's ploughs, besides which there
are numerous excellent implements
in the West and elsewhere.

Wiard, of Avon, Thorp, and other
instrument makers, have placed three
or four small ploughs on a frame, so
as to run as many furrows ; in light
sand soils, and for an after ploughing,
these may answer ; but if we have
to hitch on additional horses, there
is little gain. The shares of Lang-
don's cultivators are in some meas-
ure of the figure of mould-boards.

The table on the following page
will be found useful in showing the dis-
tance travelled by a horse in plough-
ing or scarifying an acre of land ; as
well as the quantity of land work-
ed in a da^ at the rate of sixteen
and eighteen miles per day of nine
hours.

604

PLU

PLU

Urci.ltb of
F.irrowslice
or Scanlicr.

Spacetravel-
teil in pluu^li

Extent ploughed per Jay,
at llie rate of

Breadth of
Furrow-slice
or Scarifier.

Space travel-
led in plough
,ng au acre.

Extent ploughed per day,
at the rate of

luches.

Miles.

18 Miles. 1 Iti Miles.
Acres.

Inches.

Miles.

18 Miles. 1 16 Miles.
Acres.

7

»<V

1>4'

!.■«

46

2 16

»H

7 2-5

8

\f

IK

1^

47

2 I-IO

8

7 :!-5

9

1 Js

48

2 112

8%

7M

10

9 9-10

145

135

49

2

8 9 10

7 9-10

11

9

2

l?-i

50

2

9 9 10

8 MO

IvI

*}i

- ';*

19-10

61

1910

9 1-5

8>4'

i:i

7«

2 1-10

52

1 9-10

9M

825

14

21;

2,V

53

19 10

m

15

6H

1^1

2 2-5

64

14-5

94-6

8 9-10

16

(.1-6

2 9-10

2 3-5

55

145

10

8

17

5H
&H

3 MO

2iW

66

IV

10,^

9

18

Vi

2 9-10

57

13^

10 2-5

9 1-5

19

f>fA

3J2

3 1-10

68

1 7-10

10 3-5

9«

20

4 9' 10

33 5

3¥
3)5

69

1710

101^

9hi

21

4 710

345

60

13-5

10 9-10

9 7 10

2i

4l.<

4

SK

61

135

11 1-5

9 4-5

23

^"l

4 1-5

3 7-10

62

13-5

"«

10

24

4

■«s

3 9-10

63

135

11>.<

10 1-5

25

4

- 4,C;

4

64

IK

117"10

lOK

26

3 4-5

*^Z

415

66

i%

11 4-5

\o}4

27

335

4!)-10

*}i

66

\}S

12

10 3 5

28

3K

s>i

*M

67

i>i

ux

10 4-5

29

3^

64
«?4

43-5

68

1^

12 2-5

U

30

3)3

44-5

69

12-5 -

12 3-5

nn

31

3 1-5

5

5

70

12-5

■ 12Ji

nn:

32

3 1-10

5 4-5

i

71

12-5

1-2 910

UK

33

3

6

72

125 .

iS}i

11 3-5

34

2 910

6 1-5

5>^

73

1«

^Vi

114 5

35

24 5

6K

5 3-5

74

1«

13K

12

36

2M

6^

5 4-5

75

1«

13 3 5

12><

37

2=5

6ii

6

76

13 10

13 4-5

i-^ia

38

2 35

6 9-10

^H

77

1 3 10

14

12K

39

2M

7.V

7>a'

6M

78

Ik

i^X

12 is

40

2>.T

6^

79

11

14 2-5

IZJi

41

2 -2 5

75^' ■

6?3

80

14 3-5

12 9 10

43

7

81

11-5

U}i

13 110

4:i

•: 3-10

74-5

7

82

1 1-6

15 ■

13>4'

44

8

7 110

83

11-5

is,V

13 2-5

45

■2 1-5

8 1-6

7¥

84

1 1-6

15.M

13 3 5

PLOUGHING. See Plough.

PLUG. " In buildins, a piece of
wood driven horizontally into a wall,
its end being then sawn away flush
with the wall, to afford a hold for the
nailing up of dressings."

PLUM. Prunus domestica. The
improved fruit : the following excel-
lent observations are chiefly from
Mr. Thomas :

Varieties. — " White Primordian,
Early Yellow, or Jaime Hative, is one
of the very earliest of plums, ripen-
ing in the middle of July, and is chief-
ly valuable on this account. It is a
small yellow fruit, a good bearer, with
a sweet taste, thougli not first-rate.

" Wilmot's Early Orleans. — This is
a large, flne fruit, ripening early in
August.

" Greengage. — This is generally
admitted to be the finest of ail plums ;
the fruit is of medium size, and
round ; the skin is yellowish green,
When fully ripe nearly yellow, »no^?/f(Z
with russety red near the stem ;
flesh melting, and of exquisite fla-
E E F. 2

vour. There are many varieties cul-
tivated in this state under the name
of greengage, which appear to have
originated from stones of the genuine
variety, but are greatly inferior in fla-
vour.

" Prince's Imperial Gage was ob-
tained from the seed of the green-
gage ; the fruit is imuch larger than
that of the greengage, and the tree
is very productive. Manning says
that this is ' the most productive
and profitable of all plums.'

" Orleans. — Fruit nearly round,
middle-sized or rather large, skin red-
dish purple, flesh yellow, firm, and
good, separating freely from the stone.
An excellent fruit, ripening about the
time of the greengage.

" Gifford's La Fayette was obtained
from the seed of the Orleans, and is
an excellent fruit, remarkable for the
richness and sprightlincss of its fla-
vour.

" Ruling's Superh. — Fruit very
large, often two inches or more in
length, not inferior in richness, but
605

PLUM.

more acid than the grcenprage, of
very vigorous growth, and ot extraor-
dinary excellence.

" W(is/ii>ifrto?i. — Fruit oblong, very
large, orange yellow, with a fine blush
next the sun ; flesh yellow, firm,
sweet, and excellent. Though the
flavour of this is inferior to that of
some other varieties, it is highly es-
teemed as a first-rate plum. Ripens
about a week later than the Orleans.

" Impcratrice. — A good phim, ri-
pening in October. One of the best
late plums.

" Coe^s Golden Drop. — Fruit of large
size, skin golden yellow, spotted with
rich red next the sun, flesh yellow,
sweet, and delicious. Like the pre-
ceding, slightly necked next the stem,
a clingstone, and a great bearer. The
best late plum. The writer has
measured them more than 2i inches
long.

" The Egg Plum, or Yellow Mag-
num Bonum, is a very large plum, of
a sweet, agreeable flavour ; but, as
the texture is rather coarse, is chiefly
used for cooking and preserving. The
same remark applies to the Red Mag-
num Bonum, wliich is harsh and acid.
These two are admired as table-fruit
where finer varieties are unknown.

" The plum is propagated by bud-
ding or grafting. The former can
only be successfully practised on the
most thrifty stocks.

" The principal enemy to the plum
is the Curculio {likynchanus pruyii).
This is a small insect with an elon-
gated thorax and head, which resem-
bles a proboscis in appearance. The
whole insect is not more than a quar-
ter of an inch lung, of a dark brown
colour, the slieaths covering the
wings, slightly variegated with light-
er colours. It makes a small incis-
ion in the young fruit, and lays its
egg in the opening. Its presence
may now be perceived by examina-
tion, 36 these crescent-sliaped incis-
ions are very easily seen. The egg
soon hatches into a small white worm,
which penetrates deeper and feeds
upon the fruit, causing it to fall pre-
maturely to the ground, or if it ripens,
it is unsound. The worm, when the
606

[ fruit falls, makes its way into the
earth, where it remains through win-
I ter, as is supposed, in the pupa state,
to be transformed the succeeding
spring into a perfect insect, and thus
perpetuate its race. The easiest and
most effectual way to destroy them
is to confine a sufficient number of
swine with the trees, to eat all the
injured fruit which falls. When this
has been pursued perseveringly, it has
proved completely successful. To
render this operation easy and effect-
ual, all trees which are liable to at-
tacks of the curculio should be plant-
ed separately, so that they may be
enclosed apart for the confinement
of the swine.

" Another remedy is to spread
white sheets under the tree and jar
it briskly. The insects immediately
drop upon the sheet, and remain mo-
tionless a few seconds, during which
time they may be destroyed. The
operation should be repeated two or
three times a day so long as any re-
main. This remedy rarely fails if thor-
oughly and unremittingly pursued.

"Trees near path doors, paved
yards, and other frequented places,
are frequently observed to be full of
fruit, while others are all destroyed.
Hence favourite trees of the plum,
nectarine, or apricot may be often
planted to advantage near such fre-
quented places, and the fruit will es-
cape. The black excrescences on
the branches of the plum may be pre-
vented by a constant and vigorous
excision of tlie affected parts, and
burning them as fast as they ap-
pear.

"The plum is by some cultivators
regarded as only fitted for heavy or
clay soils, and some striking instan-
ces are given in proof; but the wri-
ter has seen trees in abundant bear-
ing year after year, and yielding fruit
of the finest quality, on light or sandy
soils. A porous earth may possibly
furnish a better retreat for the cur-
culio ; but to what extent this may be
true requires farther examination."

The plum is often brought into
bearing by root pruning, horizontal
training, and similar expedients. The

POD

POI

lime compost used by Mr. Pell is very f dine birds, in which the web of the

serviceable

PLL'.MBAGO. Native carburet of
iron ; black-lead.

PLU.MULA. The leaf-like portion
of the embrj'o.

PLUS. More : marked by the
S!gn +

foot is not perfect.

POIKILITIC. Variegated. In ge-
ology, the new red sandstone foriiia-
tion.

POINTS OF LIVE STOCK. "The
first point to be ascertained in exam-
ining an ox is the purity of its breed,

PLUTONIC ROCKS. Unstratified I whatever that breed may be. The
crystalline rocks, like granite, por- ascertainment of the purity of the
phyry, basalt. breed will give the degree of the di.s-

PLU VIA.METER. The rain position to" fatten in the individuals

gauge.

PNEUMATICS. The science
which treats of the mechanical char-
acters of gases and vapours.

PNEUMATIC TROUGH. A
chemical utensil used for the collec-
tion of gases over water or fluids.
It consists of a vessel of tin or wood
containing water, in which is placed
one or more ledges, within two inch-
es of the surface. On the ledges the
jars which are to receive the gases
rest, and they are at first filled with
the fluid of the trough, but the gas
passing up into them from conduct-
ors, the fluid is displaced.

PNEUMONIA. Inflammation of
the substance of the lungs.

PNEU.MO-THORAX. A collec-
tion of air in the cavity of the pleura.

POA. An extensive genus of val-
uable natural grasses, to which the

of that breed. The purity of the
breed may be ascertained from sev-
eral marks. The colour or colours
of the skin of a pure breed of cattle,
whatever those colours are, are al-
vvaj's definite. The colour of the
bald skin on the nose and around the
eyes in a pure breed is always defi-
nite and without spots. This last is
an essential point, ^^'hen horns ex-
ist, they should be smooth, small, ta-
pering, and sharp-pointed, long or
short, according to the breed, and of
a white colour throughout in some
breeds, and tipped with black in oth-
ers. The shape of the horn is a less
essential point than the colour.

" The second point to be ascertain-
ed in an ox is the form of its carcass.
It is found, the nearer the section of
the carcass of a fat ox, taken longi-
tudinally vertical, transversely verti-

meadow grass, blue grass, and many leal, and horizontally, approaches to
important species belong. The bo- [ the figure of a parallelogram, the
tanical characters of this genus are, greater quantity of flesh will it carry

panicle loose ; spikclcts three or more
flowered, or even two-flowered, with
the pedicels of a greater number of
florets ; florets articulated with the
rachis ; palca two, nearly equal, awn-
less ; scales oval, acute, gibbous at the
base. See Grasses.

POACHING. The treading of
cattle in wet meadows, in which they
leave their hoof marks.

POCKET. A large bag of hops.

POD. Those of the pea and bean
are called legumes ; those of the rad-
ish, mustard, and cruciferae are sil-
iqucs.

PODENTIA. The stalk which
supports the fructification of some
lichens, as the reindeer moss.

PODICEPS. A genus of palmipe-

within the same measurement.

" These constitute the points which
are essential to a fat ox, and which
it is the business of the judge to
know, and by which he must antici-
pate whether the lean one, when fed,
would realize. The remaining points
are more applicable in judging of a
lean than a fat ox.

" The first of the points in judging
of a lean ox is the nature of the bone.
A round, thick bone indicates both a
slow feeder and an inferior descrip-
tion of flesh. A flat bone, when seen
on a side view, and narrow when
viewed either from behind or before
the animal, indicates the opposite
properties of a round bone. The whole
bones in the carcass should bear a
607

roi

POL

small proportion in bulk and weight
to the flesh, the bone l)cing only re-
quired as a support to the fiesli.

"A full, clear, calm, and prominent
eye is another point to be considered,
because it is a nice indication of good
breeding. It is always attendant on
fine bone.

"The state of the skin is the next
j)oint to be ascertained. The skin
affords what is technically and em-
phatically called the touch, a criterion
second to none in judging of the feed-
ing properties of an ox. The touch
may be good or bad, fine or harsh,
or, as it is often termed, hard or mel-
low. A perfect touch will be found
with a thick, loose skin, floating, as
it were, on a layer of soft fat, yield-
ing to the least pressure, and spring-
ing back towards the fingers like a
piece of soft, thick chamois leather,
and covered with thick, glossy, soft
hair."

POINTS OF SUPPORT. The
foundations, walls, or pillars of a build-
ing, whereon the superstructure is
founded.

POINTS OF THE COMPASS.
See Compass.

POISON FANGS. The hollow
teeth in the upper jaws of vipers, rat-
tlesnakes, &c., through which their
poison is discharged into the wounds
they make. Only such snakes as
have poison fangs are venomous.

POISON OAK. Rhus radicans,
and R. toxicodcndroyi, the former be-
ing also called poison vine : it is a
climber, the stem throwing out an
abundance of black roots. The milky
juice is poisonous, and, to some per-
sons, the volatile particles thrown off
from the plant. They produce in-
flammation and swelling, resembling
erisypelas. Light diet, laxatives, and
a lotion of sugar of lead and water
to the part are best.

POISONS. Bodies which disturb
or destroy the natural functions of
the body. They are narcotic, acrid
or septic. Many are to be met by an-
tidotes ; but with animals the stom-
ach pump is to be looked to as the
chief means of relief

POITTEVIN'S MANURE. Night
6(tS

soil mixed with fine charcoal and
j dried to powder. 12 to 25 bushels
are applied, with the seed, by a drill,
to the acre.

POLARITY. The quality in the
particles of bodies of adjusting them-
selves in given directions, as north
and south, in the magnet.

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.
" Light which has undergone certain
reflections or refractions, or been
subjected to the action of material
bodies in any one of the great number
of ways, actjuires a certain modifica-
tion, in consequence of which it no
longer presents the same phenomena
of reflection and transmission as
light which has not been subjected
to such action. This modification is
termed the polarization of light, its
rays being supposed, according to
particular theoretical views, to have
acquired poles (like the magnet), or
sides with opposite properties." —
(B7-a7idc.)

POLDERS. The old salt marshes
of Holland and Flanders.
POLE. A rod. 16^ feet.
POLECAT. Sbmk? {Felis Pu-
torius, Lin.) " It may be caught and
destroyed by a deadfall, constructed
in tlie following manner : Take a
square piece of wood, weighing 40
or 50 pounds, bore a hole in the mid-
dle of the upper side, and set a crook-
ed hook fast in it ; then set four fork-
ed stakes fast in the ground, and lay
two sticks across, on which sticks
lay a long staff, to hold the deadfall
up to the crook ; and under this crook
put a short stick, and fasten a line to
it ; this line must reach down to the
bridge below ; and this bridge you
must make about five or six inches
broad ; on both sides of this deadfall
place boards or pales, or edge it with
close rods, and make it 10 or 12 inch-
es high ; let the entrance be no wider
than the breadth of the deadfall. A
pigeon-house surrounded with a wet
ditch will tend to preserve the pi-
geons, for beasts of prey naturally
avoid water."

POLE E^TL. See Ox, Diseases of.

POLES. The ends of the wires

proceeding from a galvanic battery ;

POM

POP

the extremities of a magnet. There
are two jjoles, north and south, or
positive and negative. They are also
called anode and cathode by Mr. Far-
ady.

POLLARD. Bran. Also, a tree
often cut or lopped for hoops, fire-
wood, &c.

POLLED. Hornless.

POLLEN. The yellow dust or fa-
rina of the stamens or male organs.
It fertilizes the pistils. The pollen
is thrown out by the bursting of the
anthers, and alighting on the moist
and acid surface of the stigma, begins
to throw out a lillle tube, or pollen
tube {boyau), which pierces the tissue
of the stigma, and reaches the ovule,
where it lays the foundation of the
eiul)ryo. Without pollen, seeds would
not be formed capable of germina-
tion ; and in wet seasons a large
amount is often destroyed.

POLY (from -o7.vq, many). A pre-
fix of many words, as polygon, poly-
peialous.

POLYGHROITE. The colouring
matter of saffron.

POLYGA\nA, POLYANDRIA.
See Botany.

POLYGASTRIC INFUSORL\LS.
The class of animalcules with many
stomachs inhabiting infusions.

POLYGONACE-E. Herbaceous,
apetalous exogens, with triangular,
scaly fruit, and an ochrea. The rhu-
barbs, sorrels, docks, and backwheat
belong to this family.

POLYPES, POLYPI (fromTToArf,
and 77ovf, a foot). The name of an
extensive group of radiated animals
in the system of Cuvier, associated
together by the common character
of a fleshy body, of a conical or cy-
lindrical form, commonly fixed by one
extremity, and with the mouth situ-
ated at the opposite end, and sur-
rounded by more or less numerous
arms or tentacles.

POLYPODY, POLYPODIUM.
Several species of handsome ferns.

POLYPUS. A fleshy tumour of
the nostrils or womb. It is to be re-
moved by the knife with care.

PO.MACE, PO.MAGE. Refuse ap-
ples, after pressing for cider. It is

excellent food for cows and hogs, es-
pecially if fresh.

POMACE.E. Rosaceous plants,
with an inferior ovary, as the apple,
pear.

POMEGRANATE. Pumca gra-
natum. A beautiful, hardy, decidu-
ous shrub, growing from 12 to 15
feet high. Its varieties produce their
splendid flowers and fruit very plen-
tifully from July to September, when
planted against a south wall. They
all grow well in a light, rich loam,
and strike root freely from cuttings
or layers ; the rarer varieties are
sometimes increased by grafting on
the common kinds. The pomegran-
ate requires shelter from frost. The
pulp of the fruit is of an agreeable
acid, and the rind is very astringent.

POMMEL. The front prominence
of the saddle.

POND. " An artificial excavation
in the soil, or a natural hollow, dam-
med up for the purpose of detaining
water, generally made in fields, in or-
der to supply drink to pasturing ani-
mals. The essential ditlerence be-
tween a pond and a lake is, that the
former is formed by art, the water
being often ponded, or impounded,
by a bank of earth thrown across a
natural hollow or bourne containing
a stream. The soil should be pud-
dled, to render it impervious, befi)re
water is let in. In places where the
soil does not abound in springs, the
formation of ponds in the fields is as
essential to the business of farming
as the building of farm offices. \
pond in a garden, when of a round
form, is termed a basin ; and when
of some length, with parallel sides, a
canal."

PONE, PONES OF BREAD.
Small loaves.

PONS VAROLII. An eminence
of the medulla oblongata, at the top
of the spinal marrow.

PONTI A. The genus of insects to
which the cabbage butterfly belongs.

POPLAR. The genus Populus of
amentaceous exogens. They prefer
a moist, deep, and good soil, and are
readily increased by cuttings. The
wood of the P. momltfera is very good
609

POR

POT

when thoroughly dried, and not ex-
posed to ni()i:stiire. The luli|)-trec is
improperly called a poplar.

P U P L IT ]•: A L. Relating to the
space behind the knee joint.

POPPY. The genus Papavcr, of
which the P. somnifcrum is cultivated
for opium and the bland oil furnished
by expression from its seeds. It is
cultivated on the best soil, well ma-
nured. The land sometimes receives
as many as five stirrings, and the
seed IS then dropped into shallow
drdls, about two feet apart. Durmg
the growth of the plants, the soil is
stirred, well watered, and sometimes
top-dressed. In two months from
the time of sowing, the capsules are
ready for incision, which process
goes on for two or three weeks ;
several horizontal cuts being made
in the capsule on one day, on the
next the milky juice which had oozed
out, being congealed, is scraped off.
This operation is generally repeated
three times on each capsule, and
then the capsules are collected for
their seed. The raw juice is knead-
ed with water, evaporated in the sun,
mixed with a little poppy oil, and,
lastly, formed into cakes, which are
covered with leaves of poppy, and
packed in chests with poppy husks
and leaves.

The F. Rhcas is also cultivated as
an oil plant in France, where little of
the opium is made. In Europe some
species are a great pest in corn-
fields.

P 0 P U L I N. A crystalline sub-
stance obtained from the bark of the
aspen.

PORCATE. In entomology, divi-
ded into ridges ; a surface on which
there are several elevated and paral-
lel grooves.

PORCELAIN CAPSULES. Evap-
orating basins of porcelain ; this ma-
terial resists a great heat, and is not
readily acted on except by potash or
soda.

PORCH. An arched or flat ceiled
vestibule to a door or building.

PORES. Small spaces existing
between the atoms of bodies ; also,
distinct apertures through leaves or
610

membranes, from which perspiration
and vapours pass.

POROSITY. The property of bod-
ies whereby they transmit fluids or
gasses, and which depends on their
pores.

PORK. See Bacon, Ham, Hog.

PORK, CLEAR. Side pork for
barrelling, free from lean, being aU fat ;
theBerkshires, if fully fat, cut as largo
a quantity as anv other breed.

P O R P H Y R Y. A hard red or
gray stone of the nature of granite,
of igneous origin, and consisting oj
feldspar, with quartz or hornblende
It occurs in the oldest dikes.

PORRECT. Extending. When a
part extends horizontally.

P O R R I G O. Scahi head, ring-
worm, tetter. Tar ointment, cleanli-
ness, and attention to the general
heerlth, are the best remedies.

PORTAL. The lesser of two
gates.

PORTAL CIRCULATION. Tho
circulation of venous blood from the
abdominal viscera through the liver
to the riglit auricle of the heart.

PORTER. A beer coloured with
dark malt or molasses.

PORTICO. A projection from a
building, supported by arches or pil-
lars.

POSITIVE ELECTRICITY. See
Elechiciiy. A surplus of electricity.

POST. A perpendicular piece of
timber ; a piece driven into the earth ;
the end should be charred. Locust,
catalpa, and oak posts are preferred,

POST ABDOMEN. The five pos-
terior segments of the abdomen of in-
sects, or the tails of some crusta-
ceans.

POTASH, POTASSA, KALI. Pro-
toxide of potassium, a well-known
caustic (vegetable caustic). See Po-
tassium.

POTASHES. The washed or
lixiviated ashes of trees, especially
of oaks, hickories, maples, sycamores,
the elm, willow, and beech. The ash,
mixed with lime, is leached in bar-
rels or vats, and the clear solution,
being drawn off, or allowed to drip
from holes made in the bottom of the
vats, is next evaporated in large iron

POT

POT

pots set in a furnace : these are kept
full several days. When the liuid
becomes black and of the consistence
of thick molasses, it is subjected to
the highest heat of a wood fire for
some hours ; by this means much of
the combustible matter is burned.
As soon as the fused matter becomes
quiet it is dipped out by iron ladles
into iron pots, where it congeals ;
this, broken into pieces and barrelled,
forms commercial potash. The lye
should be sufficiently strong to bear
an egg before being evaporated.
Pearlash is made by transferring the
black potash into a reverberatory fur-
nace, and stirring it while hot: this
is continued until it acquires a whi-
tish colour.

Composition. — American potash
consists of 85-7 parts caustic potas-
sa, 15 4 sulphate of potassa, 20 com-
mon salt, 11-9 carbonic acid and wa-
ter, and 0 2 insoluble matter in 115
parts. Pearlash contains 75-4 caus-
tic potash, 80 sulphate, 04 common
salt, 30 8 carbonic acid and water,
0 6 insoluble matter in 115 parts.

Amounl of pure potash in 1000 lbs.
of wood : in elm and maple, 3 9 lbs. ;
willow, 28 lbs. ; oak and beech, H
lbs. ; poplar, \ lb. : the spray and
young branches are richest in ashes.
The varieties of pine seldom furnish
half a pound to the 1000 of timber.

POTASSIUM. The metallic basis
of potash ; it is white and brilliant,
hut soft as wax, lighter than water,
sp. gr. "86, and spontaneously inflam-
mable on water ; symbol, K. ; propor-
tional, 39 3. Its compound with 1
equivalent oxygen, potash, is one of
the most important chemical agents:
a powerful base and an alkali.

Potash is very soluble in water,
neutralizes acids, discharges the col-
our of red litmus, converting it into
blue ; it is also soluble in alcohol.
It unites definitely with water, form-
ing the hydrate, or fused potash, con-
taining 47-3 potash, and 9 parts wa-
ter. Potash combines with nearly all
acids ; by the agency of heat it also
dissolves silica, being converted into \
silicate of potash. Its prominent
salts are the nitrate, carbonate, sul- :

phate, and muriate (chloride of po-
tassium).

In the mineral kingdom it exists
abundantly, forming 10 to 20 per cent,
of many minerals, as mica, feldspar,
lava, and green sand. In these it is
insoluble, and in the form of silicate;
but it becomes slowly dissolved by
water containing carbonic acid. In
plants it is also abundant, especially
in the grasses and cerealia ; the vine,
oak, willows, maples, cruciferous and
chenopodiaceous plants contain a con-
siderable proportion. It is found in
urine, and in other animal excretions.

POTATO {Solamim tuberosum,
Linnaeus). Varieties: "Of the better
kinds, we may enumerate the follow-
ing :

" 1. Kidneys, or Foxites, white
flesh, rather small, and seemingly de-
teriorating, as an old variety.

"2. Pink Eves, white flesh, rather
kidney- shaped, yield well, and are yet
in their prime.

" 3. St. Helen.4., very similar in
flesh, shape, colour, and quality to
the foregoing, without the pink eyes
or blotches : to us a new variety.

" 4. Early Kidneys, real kidney-
shaped, smooth, white, and of fair
size : the best early variety.

" 5. Mercer, well-known and de-
servedly liked.

" 6. S.A.ULT St. M.iRiE : the true
kind large, long, dark-coloured, and
good.

" 7. Liverpool Blues : coloured,
good size, and productive. Boil white,
and may be placed in the first class
for the table.

" The foregoing we esteem the best
kinds. There may be other kinds
equally good, and some that we have
enumerated may be known by other
names. The Forty-fold has been
highly commended for its productive-
ness and good qualities, with what
truth we will not venture to say.

"In this latitude the potato is bet-
ter, both as to product and flavour,
when grown on a moist and cool,
than when grown on a warm and dry
soil : better on a moderately loose
and friable than on a hard, compact
soil.

611

POTATO.

" They do belter on a grass ley
than on stubble ; and belter with long
or unfermentcd manure than with
short muck.

" The medium-sized whole tubers
give a better crop than sets or very
large tubers.

'• Drills or rows should be adapted
to Ihe growth of the tops, and the
condition of the soil — the small growl-
ing tops nearer, and those having
larger lops, farther apart, so that
the sun may not be excluded from
the intervals ; and where the soil is
slifT, or the sod tough, hills are con-
sidered preferable to drills.

" If the ground is well prepared,
and the seed well covered, they are
not benefited by heavy earthing ;
ploughing among them, or earthing
them, after they come in bloom, 2s
prejudicial.

"The kinds best for the table are
also best for farm stock, containing a
larger portion of nutriment than in-
ferior kinds."

" Those who are curious about ob-
taining new varieties can almost in-
definitely pursue their object ; for
the seed of a species, the red apple,
for example, will sport, and this, too,
without hybridizing (that is, without
the admixture of its pollen with that
of any other species, the produce of
Avhich would be hybrids), into num-
berless varieties of form and colour
— round, fiat, oblong, red, pink, black,
white, mixed, and purple, of every
shade and colour. These, wheth-
er hybrids or not, are reproduced
through successive seasons by the
tubers alone, irttiey possess those
qualities which render them desirable
for continued cultivation, on account
of peculiar adaptation to early or late
seasons, size, predominance of fari-
na, &c.

" This mode of propagation by tu-
bers either improves those qualities
or gradually develops objectionable
properties ; some varieties are there-
fore permanently established, while
the culture of others is either aban-
doned, or, if continued, it is known
that those varieties revert, in the
course of a few generations, to the
612

nature of their parent kind, and there-
fore cease to constitute a variety.

" In the vegetable kingdom, hybrid
plants have not the power of jjrojia-
gation by seed ; but they can be ren-
dered reproductive by budding and
grafting, or by means of cuttings,
slips, and tubers, and an original
stock, comparatively worthless, may
be highly improved by such modes of
multiplication. But when a farmer
possesses two or three kinds of de-
cided excellence, he will act wisely
by not encumbering his stores with
too many varieties, which always oc-
casion trouble and confusion in the
field management.

" In order to obtain seed, properly
so called, the potato-apple, when per-
fectly ripe, should be dried, and then
disengaged from its seed by rubbing
with the hand. The seed should be
preserved in a dry place, in paper or
cloth bags, until the middle of Alarch
or beginning of April, when it may be
sown in wooden boxes or earthen
pans, with a covering of less than
half an inch of well-pulverized earth ;
the vessels ought then to be placed
in hot-beds of inild heat, such as is
suited to the raising of half-liardy an-
nuals. The plants, when an inch
high, should be pricked out into oth-
er vessels, and placed in a tempera-
ture somewhat lower than betbre, to
inure them to the external air, to
which they should be exposed after
frosts have ceased. These plants
should be put out in drills 16 inches
apart, and with the interval of six
inches between the plants in the
rows ; they will produce tubers in the
first year, and these may be planted
in the following season in the ordi-
nary way.

" For very early crops, such as
those which the ash-leaved and wal-
nut-leaved kinds, in particular, yield,
the most successful treatment was
that practised by the late Mr. Knight,
president of the London Horticultu-
ral Society, from the course of whose
practice we give the following de-
tails of instruction : Drills may be
formed in a warm and sheltered sit-
uation (and in the direction of north

POTATO.

and south) iluring any of the winter
montlis, two lect apart, and seven or
ejfiht inches deep. tStable dung, iialf
decomposed, should be laid in the
drills, and combined with the earth
four inciies downward, and covered
with some of the mould which had
been thrown out in forming the drills,
by the rake, to within four inches of
the surface. The sets, uncut, are then
to be placed, with the crown eye up-
permost, in the centre of the furrow,
four inciies from each other, and to
be covered with only an inch of mould
at first, and afterward with an occa-
sional quantity of sifted coal ashes, un-
til the plants arc so vigorous and ad-
vanced as to require the usual earth-
ing, of which, however, very little is
necessary. Mr. Knight used leaves
as a lining at the sides of the drills
in the early periods, to preserve as
much warmth as possible, and bet-
ter to guard against the effects of
frost. The sets near the top end
{Fig., a) are found to come to matu-
rity a fortnight ear-
lier than those at
the root end (</) ;
and these, there-
fore, form two class-
es of sets for an
earlier and a later
crop. The sets from
the middle (b, c) are
put together for an
intermediate crop.

" This management alone will be
found successful, except, perhaps, in
very tenacious clay soil, in wliich the
rains of winter may lodge so near the
fibres of the plants as to destroy them
altogether; but destruction from this
cause may easilj' be avoided by in-
creasing the original depth of the fur-
rows and loosening the bed of clay
below with the spade to such a depth
as will allow the water to descend
from the surface, with a drain to
carry it off altogether ; or by laying
below some absorbent matter, such
as aslies, chalk, or calcareous gravel.
" The germination of the sets may
be accelerated by a little management
previously to their being planted, by
laying them on a floor, sprinkling

F F F

them with water until they bud, and
then covering them with finely-sifted
mould. If this be done early in Jan-
uary, the sets, with strong shoots,
may be taken up in April (with as
much earth as possible adhering to
thein), and carefully placed in the
drills prepared as directed, and cov-
ered with well-rotted leaves or earth
in the same way.

" To market gardeners it is a great
object to raise the earliest potatoes,
considering the high price which they
obtain for them, though in their waxy
state they are neither wholesome nor
palatable. Next in early maturity to
the ash-leaved and walnut-leaved are
the early manly and early champion,
and Fox's seedling.

"The best soil for potatoes gener-
ally is that which is altogether fresh
from the state of ley, or which has
not long been broken up : land which
has been in grass for only two or
three years is easily prepared for
the principal crop. It should be as
deeply ploughed as possible before
winter, and early in April harrowed,
and thoroughly cross-ploughed. Af-
ter lying in this state for two or
three weeks, it should again be well
harrowed and very deeply ploughed
twice, without bringing up any bad
substratum, and it will then be fit ibr
the reception of the crop.

" The most approved modes of
setting are as follows : Drills should
be formed in the well-pulverized field,
with double boutings of tlie plough,
in order to have the shoulders uni-
form, which is essential to the cor-
rectness of succeeding operations.
The dung is then to be carted out,
and divided by the carter with a drag
fork, as his horse and cart move for-
ward (the horse walking in the centre
of tlirce drills, while the wheels move
in the other two), in such quantities
as can be most conveniently shaken
out into the drills by tlu; labourers
employed to spread it. In dry weath-
er the carting does no injury, and
this method is universal in Scotland.
The other principal mode, more gen-
erally pursued in Ireland by some of
the best cultivators of the potato, i
613

POTATO.

to part out the manure before the
drills are formed, in rows seven or
eifillit yards apart, and to supply the
drills from the heaps as the plough
advances in its work, reserving just
as much as is supposed sufficient for
the concluding drills, which are to be
made in the sections of the field pre-
viously occupied by the rows of ma-
nure. By the latter treatment the
manure may be laid over the sets,
which cannot be done in the former
case, and this will preserve them from
being displaced or crushed by the
feet of the horses during the process
of covering the seed. But against
this advantage, which is not incon-
siderable, there is the inconvenience
of calculating with precision and lay-
ing aside, as the plough advances to
draw tlie last drills — where the rows
had stood — the precise complement
of manure, and the difficulty to the
ploughman of preserving the exact
breadth in those drills.

" Some avoid any perplexities in
those respects by ploughing in the
manure thoroughly before drilling,
and either dropping the set in every
third furrow, or rolling the whole
manured and ploughed surface, and
then making drills. Our own expe-
rience is greatly in favour of this lat-
ter mode, when the fertilizing matter
is abundant and of the short descrip-
tion, which freely combines with the
soil, and does not obstruct the plough
in the subsequent drilling. The lazy-
bed method is so generally condemn-
ed that any explanation of it here
would be superfluous, yet in undrain-
ed bog land, or under any circumstan-
ces in which a redundancy of wetness
is probable in the autumn, as on low,
marshy lands, or stiff clay soils which
have no sufficient inclination to carry
off the water, and are likely to be
saturated with moisture in winter,
from want of drainage, the lazy-bed
system is by far the safest. The
deep, wide furrows at each side car-
ry off the water, or, at least, remove
it from the potato. Thousands of
tons of potatoes, in the year 1839,
were utterly lost in Ireland, being
drilled in flat and tenacious lands,
614

which would have escaped destruc-
tion from the continued rains of that
season if drained by the furrow of
the lazy-bed. Besides, where circum-
stances preclude the practicability of
deep ploughing, the lazy-bed practice,
repeated for three years, will com-
pletely spade-trench the entire land,
and thus effect an important benefit,
not otherwise attainable by the hum-
ble tiller of the soil, who has no teauis
for ploughing it effectually. Thus
local or national modes, though aj)-
parently defective to the superficial
observer, are sometimes founded
upon sound principles ; and though we
feel disposed to exclude the minute
details of what is only defensible un-
der peculiar circumstances from an
essay on potato culture under our
modern system, we protest against
the unqualified condemnation of a
method which is still pursued through-
out nearly one half of Ireland.

" The sets (uncut, for reasons to be
yet assigned) are next to be laid down,
either under or over the manure, at
the average distance of sixteen inch-
es, by the setters, who move in a
retrograde direction, and are provi-
ded with aprons to contain the sets.
A sufficient number of men is in at-
tendance to divide the manure even-
ly in the drills ; the plough also is in
the field, in order that there may be
the least possible exposure of the
manure and sets to the sun or to
parching wind, but the plough should
cover the sets rather lightly in clay
soil.

" The roller is next used to lay an
even surface to the young plants, and
to facilitate the subsequent progress
of the paring plough, which is to be
set to work when the stems are six
or seven inches high, and sliould
move as close to the plants as is
practicable without injuring their ten-
der fibres. The weeders should then
hoe the plants carefully, and imme-
diately afterward (for the influence
of wind or hot air on the roots is per-
nicious) the scufller or drill-harrow
is to follow, in order to clean and lev-
el the intervals, liefore the earthing-
plough, with either double or single

I

POTATO.

mould-board, is introduced to apply I erage depth, unless there be a very
fresh earth to the sKMns. vride interval between the drills, and

•• Such is the method of earthing it is certain that much earthing in
universally pursued by the fanner in , dry and shallow soil is injurious ; for
Ireland and Scotland, but in England by withdrawing the earth from con

the hand hoe is principally used for
destroying weeds, loosening the earth,
and moulding the plants ; for the first
two of these operations the beau hoe

tiguity to the fibres which ramify and
penetrate far in loose soil, and laying
it on the head of the drill, and in the
high ridgclet form, it is applied where

(which cuts about six inches deep) is j it is useless for the nourishment of
used, and the turnip hoe for drawing , the tubers, and in a position that fa-
the earth to the stems. One man I vours the rapid escape of moisture,
will hoe out the weeds and loosen ; which, in such soil, it ought to he an
the soil of half an acre per day, and , object to retain. In deep land, more
the subsequent earthing of the' same ! particularly if it be of tenacious qual-
quantity is also executed by one ity, the furrows at each side of the
man. This is far cheaper than horse ; drill will be, in general seasons, most
work, and it does no injury to any | serviceable as drains, as well as for
of the stems, and makes no waste | furnishing earth to support the stems.

land at the head-riggs ; and where
the earth has been perfectly well pre-
pared at the commencement, this
manual husbandry is the best.

'■ .\s to the distance between the
drills, due regard must be had to the
natural quality of the soil, and the
quantity and description of manure
available, or, in other words, to the
probable luxuriance of foliage. Mr.
Knight, aware of the necessity of al
lowing room in proportion to tlie vig

while the moisture will be sufficiently
retained for the roots.

" Experiments have led to the in-
ference that, in soil of a loose, porous
quality, there is probably a greater
produce by not affording any (or a
very slight) moulding, but by digging,
instead, between the rows ; for deep
and perfect pulverization, next to an
adequate allowance of rich manure,
is the main cause of a large produce.
In proportion to the deficiency of

our and height of the plants, has laid ' manure will be the necessity for open-
down an exact rule, thus: 'Thejing the soil beneath, to allow the

height of the stems being three feet,
the rows ought to be four feet apart ;'
but for a general average thirty
inches is the best distance. As to
excess of foliage, we are certain that
it is not desirable, for the produce
of tubers is not always in propor-
tion to the degree of foliage ; under
hierh and rank stems there is often a

fibres, which maybe distinctly traced
to a depth incredible to those who
have not followed their ramifications,
to extract all the nourishment which
the subsoil may afford. If there be
an abundance of nutriment above,
neither the necessity nor, perhaps,
the inclination for penetrating deeply
can exist, and in such cases the op-

very scanty crop, and Mr. Knight is ; eration of earthing by the plough, as
justified by experience in his obser- : long as it can be introduced without
vation that ' the largest produce will , injury to the stems, may be useful in
be obtained from varieties of rather many ways, but unquestionably by
early habits and rather low stature, ! guarding them from the effects of
there being in very tall plants much storm in exposed, and from excessive
time lost in conveying the nutriment I wetness in low situations ; besides,
from the soil to the leaves," and con- in regulating this point, regard should
sequently strong and upright stems, I always be had to the quality of the
which do not fall down and shade the potato, for the tubers of some varie-
others, are those which are desirable, ties have a tendency to push to the
"Two more earthings are usually | surface, while others tend into the
given, but it is questionable whether earth, and therefore require a differ-
even one be necessary in soil of av- , ent treatment.

615

POTATO.

" But in all cases the earth should
be rendered as loose and friable as
possible, by sjiade, hoe,* or plough,
and where labour is easily eoaunand-
ed, the spade will be lound to be the
more etiieacious iin|)leuient in the
first course of treatment, after the
plants are well up.

" Some plant one or two sets in
the centre of every square yard, but
in such cases great and continued
earthing, until each square presents
the form of a pyramid, is contem-
plated ; and, if our preceding remarks
be correct, this treatment is only ap-
plicable to deep and retentive soils.
Great returns have, no doubt, been
thus obtained, but by this mode there
is the least possible incorporation of
the manure with the soil.

" In minute husbandry, such as
that exemplified in labourers' allot-
ments, which excludes the plough al-
together, the ordinary and best prac-
tice is to lay the sets in rows, after a
very deep winter digging, marked
■with a garden-hne. The workmen
digs precisely as in a garden plot for
cabbages : he clears a little drill, lays
the sets straight, puts a sufficiency
of manure over them, and then covers
from the next spit, which he digs
with a spade or a three-pronged fork
flattened at the ends, levelling and
pulverizing as he advances to the
distance at which he again puts down
his line and forms a new drill. Thus
the entire piece is thoroughly loosen-
ed, the manure perfectly covered,
and every facility given for the hand-
hoeing in due course.

" The ne.xt stage of the potato is
that in which it blossoms. It has
been recommended to pluck off the
flowers. Excessive blossoming is no
doubt injurious, but experience has
generally proved that the extra cost
is hardly defrayed by the additional
produce obtained. If the flowers are
plucked off, they should be nipped in
the early bud.

" When the crop is fully ripe,
which is indicated by the withering
of the stalks, and when the land is

* That kind called the bean hoe, shaped like
an adze.

616

free from stones, labourers, in the
proportion of about twenty to one
plough (half of these being usually
men, and the remainder women or
young persons), should be set to pull
up the stalks, and carefully collect
the tubers which may be attached to
them before the plough proceeds in
its operation. When it is prepared
for work, the men, with prongs flat-
tened at the extremity, are placed at
such distances from each other as
will give them proper time to fork
out the potatoes cleanly for the pick-
ers, who are also stationed at exact
distances with a basket between ev-
ery pair, into which they gather the
potatoes.

" The common swing plough may
be employed in three ways ; First, in
taking off a slice from each side of
every drill, and leaving it to the
workmen to open out the centre with
their prongs ; or, in its third move-
ment, it may turn up this centre,
under which the main body of the
tubers lie, which is more expeditious-
ly and easily done if the earth be in fit
condition. Second, a double mould-
board plough with a long sack, and
divested of its coulter, maybe drawn
by two strong horses through the
centre of the drills, and completely
under the level of the tubers, so as to
avoid injuring them, by which means
the work-people will be kept exceed-
ingly busy ; and if the land be in good
friable order, this is the most expe-
ditious mode ; and provided there is
a perfect harrowing afterward, the
crop will be taken out with sufficient
cleanliness. Third, the crop may be
taken up by prongs, or long, narrow
; spades, without the plough. In wet
! weather, this more tedious, but far
{ safer method is frequently adopted ;
i and if the drill be short and the head-
riggs under crop also, it is the most
desirable, effectual, and economical
1 mode. In removing the produce in
I this manner, it is obvious that the
number of gatherers should be much
less, in proportion to the men, than
under the other circumstances. The
! head-riggs should evidently be the
1 first parts of the field cleared, to make

POTATO.

a free space for the ploughs in the
boulinjrs and lor the carts.

" One liorse will answer for three
carts, if the distance of draii<j;lit to
the pits be short, by changing hnn al-
ternately from an empty to a full
one, but this only applies to the
Scotch and Irish system of draught
by single carts and iiorses. The
general mode of securing the crop in
pits in the field is the safest. In
making the pits — improperly so term-
ed, for the base is only sunk a few
inches, and the potatoes are raised
considerably in the heaps — the only
caution to be observed is, that fur-
rows should be cut on all sides to
prevent water from lodging or [)ene-
trating inward, and that the earth
thrown up and over them, to the
depth of four or five inches, should
be well beaten with spade or shovel
to exclude moisture and frost. The
potato stalks, however apparently
dry, should never be laid between
the potatoes and the earth in these
accumulations, for they soon ferment
and rot, and injure all the potatoes
in contact with them. Straw is at
least useless. The length of the pit
depends on circumstances, but the
breadth should not exceed four feet,
as large accumulations are most lia-
ble to fermentations."

The potato crop is commonly be-
low 200 bushels the acre, but by good
management 400 bushels may be ob-
tained.

"The only decided diseases of the
potato, besides the dry rot, is ' the
curl,' which is an imperfect forma-
tion ; and a rot of the new tubers,
which seems to be owing to a fungus,
and may be overcome by liming or
using salt to the land. One thing,
however, is clear, that from a crop
of which any part is intended for
seed, all the plants affected with curl
should be carefully separated before
the general removal commences.
The dry rot, or decay of the set, is
also still unexplained as to its real
cause, though the press has teemed
with essays and very plausible theo-
ries respecting it. The same malady
was remarked for many years, and,

F F F 2

we have reason to think, m seasons
similar to tliose which w-e have ex-
perienced in latter years. The set,
though ajjparentiy sound when plant-
ed, has either failed to germinate at
all, and rotted away, or has feebly
and partially thrown out its sickly
shoots. The most contradictory
causes have been assigned : over-
ripening in the preceding year ; un-
der-ripening ; fermentation in the
pits ; I'ermeiitation of the set in the
ground when placed in contact witli
hot dung (which is utterly absurd,
for when in the ground no injurious
fermentation can arise) ; very hot
weather, great drought, hot sun, cold,
parching wind, dry and healing ma-
nure, sea-ware, which is always
damp ; exhaustion of the kind from
a long course of culture, contradicted
by many instances, in which it ap-
pears that the produce of the same
variety — for instance, the apple — has
been successively cultivated during
sixty-five years without any lailure ;
or the loss of vitality from prema-
turely shooting.

" If potatoes have fermented in
their accumulated state, they would
bear obvious evidence of it, and
therefore be rejected. Fermentation
cannot be the true cause in every or
even the majority of cases, nor does
the failure, probably, proceed from in-
sects in the eyes, as has been sug-
gested ; for if so, it is difficult to ac-
count for the fact that sets from the
same heap planted at one part of the
day have totally failed, while others
put into the ground at another have
pushed forth healthy shoots. As to
decay in the land, from the contiguit)'-
of fermenting manure. How is it
to be proved that the gases evolved
by fermenting manure can injure the
sets] Fermenting manures would
rather stimulate by their warmth,
and excite their growth by the ali-
ment which their essential (juaiities,
carbon and ammonia,supply to plants.
Wliy do not the gaseous exhalations
from rank and fermenting hot-beds
destroy the tender plants which are
raised in them V

" The same causes which are sev-
G17

POT

POT

erally assigned for the total or par- ]
tial failure of the potato in number-
less instances, ami to a most distress-
ing extent in Ireland, have existed
since the culture of the potato com-
menced, but without the effects de-
plored, which have only prevailed
within a very recent space of time.
But from the frequent and searcliing
investigation of the subject by the
most competent and practical men, a
preventive against the failure has
been ascertained, namely, the plant-
ing of entire tubers. When cut sets
have failed, the entire tubers have
resisted premature decay ; whether
it arises from atmospheric influence
or debility of constitution, or from
any of the conjectured causes, the
entire tubers resist these noxious in-
fluences, and germinate healthily and
freely. All reports agree on this
point : there is no risk in this case,
if the tubers be sound when planted ;
and it may be added, that in all
stages of their growth, the uncut tu-
bers maintain a decided superiority
and yield a corresponding produce.

" The farina of the potato, properly
granulated and dried, is sold in our
shops as tapioca, to which it bears
the closest resemblance both in ap-
pearance and essential properties.
For confectionery, the flour is so del-
icately white, and it is so digestible
and nutritious, that it ought to be in
more general use. Few housewives

are ignorant of the method of obtain-
ing it by the use of a connnon hand-
grater and sieve ; but for yielding
larger supplies, some machinery is
necessary. The preceding figure rep-
resents an approved implement : b is
the hopper ; the potatoes are scraped
by the wires set in the revolving
wheel a."

Manures for the Potato. — Lime is
eminently serviceable in improving
the mealiness and flavour of the po-
tato ; salt, at the rate of five bush-
els the acre, is also an invaluable ma-
nure ; but all gross animal composts
are injurious, many of them render-
ing the tubers waxy and of bad fla-
vour. The fresh potato contains 75
per cent, water ; 1000 pounds in the
ordinary state yield 8-28 pounds ash-
es. The composition of the ash is, by
Sprengel,

1000 lbs. tubera.
Potash anJ soda . . . 636
Lime and magnesia . . 65
Phosphoric acid . . . "40
Suliihuric acid .... '54

Sihca -08

Chlorine '16

Iron, alumina, &c. . . '08

This analysis also explains why
plaster is sometimes useiul in com-
posts intended for the potato. A light
soil abounding in humus is most prof-
itable for this crop.

POTATO FLY. See Blistermg
Fly.

POTATO PIES, CAMPS, or
PITS. See Potato and Barrow.
Earthen mounds to store potatoes
and other roots.

POTATO STARCH. The farina.
See Potato.

POTATO SUGAR. The sugar
produced from potatoes by boiling po-
tato starch with sulphuric acid. It
is s^lucose. See Siisar.

POTATO WASHER. The figure
on the following page represents a
simple and effective implement. It
consists of a trough containing water,
on which is made to revolve a cylin-
drical cage (c) containing the pota-
toes. The cage opens to allow the
tubers to be introduced and with-
drawn.

1000 lbs. tops

8-29
14-67
1-97
0-42
494
050
006
"30^85

I

618

POT

POU

POTS FOR PLANTS. The com-
mon unglazed earthen pots are su-
perior to those that are glazed, be-
cause they allow excess of fluid to
drain ofT by their pores. The size
should be proportional to the plants.

POT-STONE. A tough soap-stone.

POTTER'S CLAY. Plastic clay
either of a white or red colour.

POTTLXG. The placing of young
plants in small pots for the following
purposes :

" The first and greatest end at-
tained by potting is the power of mo-
ving plants about from place to place
without injury ; green-house plants
from the open air to the house, and
the reverse ; hardy species, difficult
to transplant, to their final stations
in the open ground without disturb-
ing their roots ; annuals raised in
heat to the open borders, and so on :
and when this power of moving
plants is wanted, pots afford the only
means of doing so. It also cramps
the roots, diminishes the tendency to
form leaves, and increases the dispo-
sition to flower. Another object is
to effect a secure and constant drain-
age from roots of water ; a third is,
to expose the roots to the most fa-
vourable amount of bottom heat,
which cannot be readily accomplish-
ed when plants of large size are made
to grow in the ground, even of a hot-
house ; and, finally, it is a conveni-
ent process for the nourishment of
delicate seedlings. Unless some one
of these ends is to be answered, and
cannot be effected in a more natural
manner, potting is better dispensed
with." — {Lindicy.)

POUDRETTE. Dried night soil
mixed with charcoal powder, with
gypsum, with lime, with peat, or
merely dried in the air. The manu-
facturers usually reserve the process :
that with gypsum and charcoal is
best. From twenty to thirty bushels
the acre are used with great effect in
the drill, or sown over growing crops
in spring. It forwards the plant con-
siderably, but seldom lasts for more
than one season. See Nisrht Soil.

POULTICE. " An external appli-
cation employed for promoting the
suppuration of tumours, or abating
painful inflammation. The chief in-
tention of the poultice is to retain the
heat on the tumour for a sufficient
length of time ; consequently, corn
meal, linseed meal are the best fitted
for poultices. The fatty matter usu-
ally added is to give softness to the
poultice, which is otherwise apt to
harden as the moisture evaporates.
Few farmers are aware of the value
of these simple applications in abating
inflammation, relieving pain, cleans-
ing wounds, and disposing them to
heal. The poultice may be rendered
more soothing by opium, or increased
activity may be given by the addition
of common turpentine or chloride of
lime, and in cases of foul ulcers pow-
dered charcoal may be added. As
an emollient poultice for grease and
cracked heels, and especially if ac-
companied by much unpleasant smell,
there is nothing preferable to a poul-
tice of mashed carrots with charcoal.
It is always best to enclose poultices
in bags."

POULTRY (from the French pou-
C19

POULTRY.

Id). The term includes all the do-
mesticated birds reared for the table :
fowls, turkeys, geese, ducks, and
Cruinea fowls.

" Fuicls. — ' The strong feet of the
gallinaceous birds are adapted to the
region wlicre they chiefly resort for
their food and the purposes of incu-
bation ; their toes and nails peculiar-
ly formed for scratching up the grains
and seeds which constitute the main
part of their subsistence ; their short
wings and the weakness of their pec-
toral muscles, whi'ch cause the heavi-
ness of their flight, a deficiency which
is counterbalanced by the strength of
those muscles of the thighs and legs
that contribute to their powers of
running ; their gregarious, and, gen-
erally speaking, polygamous habits ;
the ease with which they are domes-
ticated ; their wholesome flesh, to-
gether with many striking peculiari-
ties in their anatomy, serve equally
to distinguish thera.'

" Some foreign varieties have not
even the rudiment of a tail, while
others are distinguished by it. The
gamecock, which is probably a native
of India, has an unusual length of
spur, his natural weapon of combat.
The flesh of this variety is delicate-
ly white and of the finest flavour, the
plumage brilliant, and the form sym-
metrical ; but from their pugnacious
temper, there is great difficulty in
rearing even those of the same brood ;
and for companionship with the gen-
eral inmates of the fowl-yard they are
very exceptionable for the same cause.

" The best breed of Dorking fowls
is the produce of the Dorking cock
and the common dunghill fowl. This
cross is larger and plumper, and more
hardy than the pure Dorking, without
losing delicacy of flavour or white-
ness of flesh.

"The characteristics of the pure
Dorking are, that it is white-feather-
ed, short-legged, and an excellent
layer. The peculiarity of this estab-
lished variety, which has frequently
five claws perfectly articulated (with
sometimes a sixth springing laterally
from the fifth, but always imperfect),
is well known. But though the true
600

Dorking, which is white, is much es-
teemed, that colour is rare, and prized
for the ornament of the poultry-yard .
speckled colours are most generally
seen.

" The Poland breed, which is black-
feathered, with white topknots, lays
well, and is highly desirable where
the production of eggs for the table
is the principal object ; but they sel-
dom sit.

'• The Chiltagong, or Malay, which
is a very large Indian variety, is gen-
erally long-legged, with yellow body
and coarse, yellow flesh. Fanciers
used to like them for their fine ap-
pearance and their large eggs ; but
as their long legs incapacitate them
from steady sitting, they are not gen-
eral favourites. One of our practical
acquaintances recommends the male
produce of the Poland and Chittagong M
as a good cross with the common ■
dunghill hen, as their progeny will sit. ~

" Parmentier thus describes the
cock ; ' He is considered to have ev-
ery requisite quality when he is of a
good middling size ; when he carries
his head high ; has a quick, animated
look, a strong and shrill voice, short
bill, a fine red comb, shining as if
varnished ; wattles of a large size,
and of the same colour as the comb ;
the breast broad ; the wings strong ;
the plumage black, or of an obscure
red ; the thighs very muscular ; the
legs thick, and furnished with strong
spurs ; the claws rather bent, and
sharply pointed. He ought also to be
free in his motions, to crow frequent-
ly, and to scratch the ground often in
search of worms, not so much for
himself as to treat his hens. He
ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited,
ardent, and ready in caressing the
hens ; quick in defending them, at-
tentive in soliciting them to eat, in
keeping them together, and in assem-
bling them at night.' "

'■ The Bantam is a beautiful little
bird, usually white in colour, with
short legs, feathered oftentimes to
the extremity of its toes. It is often
of variegated colours, inclined to red,
brown, and white, prettily mixed. Oc-
casionally a variety is met with that

POULTRY

are smooth-legged. They are very
domestic, often making tlieir nest in
the kitchen and cupboards of the
(IweUiiig, wiien ])crmilted. They are
(■\ceik'nt layers and good nurses,
but require a dry location, on account
of their short, featliered legs. The
males are wonderful crowers, exceed-
ingly pugnacious, and make three
times the luss about the poultry-yard
that anything, but a bantam, should
do. They arrive at maturity early,
and are well worthy of propagation.
"The Btirfcs County breed has re-
ceived some celebrity in the neigh-
bourhood of Philadelphia as a valua-
ble variety of fowl, principally on ac-
count of its enormous size. I have
seen many specimens of this fowl,
paid some attention to its habits, and
learned from those who have tried
them their principal merits. It is a
large bird, weighing, at maturity,
eight, and even ten pounds, rather
thinly feathered, of various colours
from gray to black, and frequently
speckled black and white. They are
coarse in their legs, tall and bony,
and have evidently a cross of the Ma-
lay in tlieir composition. They are
but moderate layers ; their eggs very
large and good. They are bad sit-
ters, frequently breakmg their eggs,
on account of their great weight and
size, by cru.shingthem ; are not hardy,
and, on the whole, will not compare
with the common dunghill fowl for
ordinary uses. They do not breed
equaJly in size and appearance, show-
ing t hem, evidently, to be a cross from
other breeds ; but from what they are
derived, other than the Malay, it is
difficult to say. A gentleman of my
acquaintance, who is very curious as
well as nice in the selection of his
fowls, tried them effectually for his
poultry-yard, and they disappointed
him. He then crossed them with the
game breed, and has succeeded fine-
ly, the cross being reduced in size,
fuller feathered, hardier, and better
layers, with an excellent carcass, and
finer flesh. As a fancy fowl, or to
make up a variety, they are very
well, but they can never become of
great uUliiy, except to cross with the

common or the game fowl, to the
farmer.

" The Java or Indian fowl is a
large, coarse bird, covered with a
coarse, long down or hair, of a dirty
white or yellow colour, and running
from that into all the shades of brown,
even to a smoky black. It appears
to difler little from the Malay fowl,
save in its crowing, and perhaps lay-
ing deeper-coloured eggs. Its gener-
al characteristics are the same. In the
Northern States it is hardly worth
propagation : as a fancy bird, it pos-
sesses neither beauty nor utility."

" Those who intend to rear fowls
or any kind of poultry on a large scale
should have a distinct yard, perfectly
sheltered, and with a warm aspect,
well fenced, secure from thieves and
vermin, and sufficiently inclined to be
always dry, and supplied with sand
or ashes for the cocks and hens to
roll in, an operation necessary to dis-
engage their feathers from vermin :
running water should be especially
provided ; for the want of water, of
which all poultry are fond, produces
constipation of the bowels and in-
flammatory diseases ; and for geese
and ducks bathing is an indispensa-
ble luxury. A contiguous field is also
necessary for free exercise, as well
as for the suijjtly of grubs and grass
to the geese. The fowl-house should
be dry, well roofed, and fronting the
east or south, and, if practicable, at
the back of a stove or stables, warmth
being conducive to health and laying,
though extreme heat has the contra-
ry efTect. It should be furnished with
two small lattice windows, that can
be opened or shut at pleasure, at op-
posite ends, for ventilation, which is
frequently necessary ; and the perch-
es should be so arranged that one row
of roosting fowls should not be di-
rectly above another.

" M. Parmentier has shown by

what arrangement a house twenty

feet long and twelve feet wide may

be made to accommodate 150 hens

at roost. The plan is simply this :

\ the first roosting-perch (rounded a

little at the upper angles only, for gal-

, linaceous fowls cannot keep a firm

6S1

POULTRY.

hold on perfectly cylindrical support-
ers) should be placed loiiptlnvisc, and
rest on trcsscls in each end wall, ssix
feet from the front wall, and at a con-
venient height, which must depend
on the elevation of the house from
the floor, which should be formed of
some well consolidated material that
can be easily swept. Another perch
should be fi.ved ladder-wise {en eche-
lon) above this, but ten inches nearer
to the back wall, and so on, until
there are four of these perches, like
the steps of a ladder \\ hen properly
inclined, but with a sufficient distance
between the wall and the upper one
to allow the poultry-maid to stand
conveniently upon when she has oc-
casion to examine the nests, which
it is her duty to do every day at least
once, and in the forenoon. The high-
est of these she can reach by stand-
ing on a stool or step-ladder. By this
contrivance the liens, when desirous
of reaching the nests, have no occa-
sion to fly, but merely to pass from
one stick to another. If the size and
form of the house permit, a similar
construction may be made on the op-
posite side, care being taken to leave
an open space in the middle of the
room, and a sufficiently wide passage
for the attendant to pass along the
walls. It is not at all required to
have as many nests as hens, because
they have not all occasion to occupy
them at the same time ; and besides,
they are so far from having a repug-
nance to lay in a common receptacle,
that the sight of an egg stimulates
them to lay. It is, however, true that
the most secluded and darkest nests
are those which the hens prefer.

" The nests, if built into the wall,
are in tiers from the bottom to the
top, the lowest being about three feet
from the ground, and a foot square.
If the laying chambers consist of
wooden boxes, they are usually fur-
nished with a ledge, which is very
convenient for the hens when rising.

" But the best receptacles for the
eggs are those of basket-work, as
they are cool in summer, and can ea-
sily be removed and washed. They
ought to be fastened, not directly to
022

the wall, as is generally the case, but
to boards fixed in it by hooks, well
clinched, and with a little roof to cov-
er the rows of baskets. They will
thus be isolated, to the great satis-
faction of the hen, which delights in
the absence of all disturbing influ-
ences when laying. All the ranges
of nests should be placed check-wise,
in order that the inmates, when com-
ing out, may not startle those imme-
diately under. Those designed for
hatching should be near the ground
(where instinct teaches the hen to
choose her seat), and so arranged
that the hens can easily enter them
without disturbing the eggs. The
house should be thoroughly fumigated
with tobacco and sulphur in spring,
to kill the disagreeable lice, the straw,
&c., all changed, and the dung care-
fully removed.

" Wheaten or rye straw is the most
approved material for the bedding,
being cooler than hay : the hens are
sometimes so tortured by lice as to
forsake their nests altogether, in an
agony of restlessness. A housewife
has assurred us that she once lost an
entire clutch, from iiaving, as she be-
lieves, given a bed of hay seeds to
her sitting hen. The chicks were all
glued to the shells, and thus destroy-
ed, owing, as she thinks, to the high
temperature occasioned by the fer
menting seeds.

" For all f)urposes two cocks in a
good run are considerd as sufficient
lor twelve or fourteen hens, but in
France they allow twenty mistresses
to each cock, which no doubt is on
account of the higher temperature
there. In a conhned yard, five hens
are sufficient for one cock, and a
double set will not answer in very
limited space. When there are two
or more cocks, care should be taken
not to have them of equal age or size,
for in this case they are always jeal-
ous and quarrelsome ; if one is deci-
dedly ascendant, the other will nev-
er presume to dispute with him. It
will be judicious, also, to avoid the in-
troduction or changing of cocks in
the breeding season, for the hens re-
quire constant intercourse with them,

POULTRY.

and several days frequently elapse
before tliey become familiarized with
a stranger. The best way is to bring
in the new cock in tiie summer, ei-
ther as a chick, or late in the year in
the moulting season, when he will
not take too much notice of tlie liens.
As a general rule, it would be well to
have one a yearling, and the other a
year older. In the third year, the
cock, who then becomes lazy and ex-
cessively jealous, should be killed.

'• In order to have the earliest chick-
ens, hens should be induced to sit in
October, which they may do if they
have moulted early. By attention
in this particular, chickens can be
brought to the market at Christmas ;
but the object should be, in general,
to set the eggs as soon as possible
after Christmas, in order to have
chickens with the forced asparagus
in March.

" In selecting eggs for hatching,
care should be taken that they are not,
at the utmost, more than a month old,
but their condition for hatching will
greatly depend upon the temperature
of the weather : vitahty continues
longest when the air is cool.

'• It has been asserted that the fu-
ture sex of tlie bird is indicated by
the shape of the egg, the round pro-
ducing the female, and the oblong the
male. But this is contradicted, and,
we believe, with sufHcient reason,
and it is impossible not only to foretell
the sex, but even to ascertain wheth-
er the egg be fecundated. This, how-
ever, is certain, that if the air-bag (at
the obtuse end), which has been mis-
taken for the germ, and the purpose
of which is to oxygenate the blood of
the chick, be perforated even in the
least conceivable degree, the genera-
ting power is lost altogether. Those
eggs only which have been fecunda-
ted by the male are possessed of the
vital principle. The number of eggs
for a hen should not exceed sixteen,
as she cannot unpart the necessary
warmth to more. It is by no means
uncommon with experienced breed-
ers to place two hens on the same
day on their respective eggs, and then
on the twenty-first day, when the

broods are out, to give the maternal
charge of both to one of the hens, re-
moving the other to another set of
eggs, which, if she be a steady settee,
she will hatch as in the first instance.
This, however, must be deemed a cru-
elty, though some hens would in-
stinctively continue to sit until death.
They woidd, however, become so at-
tenuated by continued sitting, as to
lose the i)ower of communicating to
the eggs the necessary degree of
warmth. The practice of the Surrey
breeders is to feed the hen on oats
while sitting, as less stimulating than
barley, which they give to the laying
hens on account of this very quality.

" Some fanciers use artificial moth-
ers, which effect the purpose of im-
parting the necessary heat to the
young chicks after birth, when there
is no natural mother nor a trained
capon to brood them. These artifi-
cial mothers — as used by Mr. Mou-
bray, and described by him — are box-
es lined throughout with wool. He
recommends that a curtain of flannel
should be suspended over the open-
ing of the box for the exclusion of
cold air.

"Mr. Young states that ' five broods
may at once be cherished under an
artificial mother. This mother may
be framed of a board ten inches broad
and fifteen inches long, resting on two
legs in front, two inches in height,
and on two props behind, two inches
also in height. The board must be
perforated with many small gimlet-
holes, for the escape of the heated
air. and lined with lamb's skin dressed
with the wool on, and the woolly side
is to come in contact with the chick-
ens. Over three of these mothers a
wicker basket is to be placed for the
protection of the chickens, four feet
long, two feet broad, and fourteen
inches high, with a lid open, a wooden
sliding bottom to draw out for clean-
ing, and a long narrow trough along
the front, resting on two very low
stools, for holding their food. Perches
are to be fi.xcd in the basket for the
more advanced to roost on. A flannel
curtain is to be placed in front, and at
both ends of the mothers, for the
623

POULTRY.

chickens to run under, from which
they soon learn to push outward and
inward. These mothers, with tlie
wicker baskets over them, are to be
placed against a hot wall, at the back
of the kitciien fire, or in any other
warm situation where tlie heat shall
not exceed 80 degrees of Fahrenheit.

" ' When the chickens are a w'eek
old, they are to be carried, with the
mother, to a jjfrass-plat, for feeding,
and kept warm by a tin tube filled
with hot water, which will continue
suflicientiy warm for about three
hours, when tlie hot water is to be
renewed. Towards the evening the
mothers are to be again placed
against the hot wall.'

"The artificial mother, however,
is only a iricchanical house for chicks
already hatched ; but the process of
bringing the embryo of organized life
in the egg through all the stages of
the vital principle, until it becomes
matured, by means of heated ovens,
has been long and successfully prac-
tised in Egypt.

" These ovens, which are con-
structed with bricks, are about nine
feet high, with galleries extending
through the whole length, and con-
taining chambers into which a man
can creep, through a very contracted
orifice, for the purpose of deposit-
ing the eggs, which are laid, to the
amount of several thousands, on
mats or beds of flax over the brick
floors. The heat is conveyed through
fire-places ; and the material of the
slow fires, which are most effective,
is the dung of cows or camels com-
bined with straw. The fires are kept
up for as many days (according to
the temperature of the weather) as
are sufficient to impart such a degree
of heat as will continue to the expi-
ration of the 21 days required for
the hatching of chickens, care being
taken to confine the warmth by clo-
sing up all the orifices communica-
ting with the external air. One hun-
dred millions of chickens are said to
be thus annually produced in Egypt.

" M. Reaumur made various ex-
periments in hatching with ferment-
ed dung in hot-beds, but unsuccess-
624

fully ; life was developed, but never
matured ; the chicks were in some
cases even feathered, but long be-
fore the full time they lost vitality.
He succeeded at length, ' after trials
enough to wear out the most endu-
ring patience,' with an oven free
from the influence of the vapour ex-
haled from the dung, which in the
previous experiinents had been de-
structive of the embryo. He after-
ward succeeded, to a great degree,
by using a box or shelves over an
oven, with due regard to uniformity
of temperature. Several of the eggs
in this latter case were hatched on
the twentieth day, by which the usu-
al course of nature was anticipated
by one day. But though artificial
hatching has long been practised
with success in Egypt, it has not
been found worth the expense and
trouble in France, from the variable-
ness of temperature there compared
with that in the Delta, where, in the
autumnal season, when the mammals
(hatching-ovens) are used, it is re-
markably steady and extremely
warm.

" Since the attempt to pursue the
Oriental system has failed in France,
there is no probability of its succeed
ing in the climate of Great Britain ;
but it by no means follows that suc-
cess may not attend such manage-
ment as will obviate the obstructions
which arise from irregularities of
temperature. The object was par-
tially attained some years ago by
means of steam, but uniformity of
heat was not preserved, and, conse-
quently, that experiment failed. It
would appear, however, that the ap-
plication of the Eccaleobion* ma-
chinery, exhibited in London by Mr.
Bucknell, the inventor and proprie-
tor, may be successful. Mr. Buck-
nell asserts that his eccaleobion pos-
sesses a perfect and absolute com-
mand over temperature from 300
degrees of Fahrenheit to that of cold
water ; so that any substance sub-
mitted to its influence shall uniform-
ly be acted upon over its whole sur-

* From iKKaXcoi, I call forth, and /?ioj,
life.

POULTRY.

face at any required intermediate de-
pree within the above range, and such
lii^at maintained unaltered, without
trouble or difficulty, lor any length
of time, and that ' by means of this
absolute and complete command over
the temperature obtained by this ma-
chine, the impregnated egg of any
bird, not stale, placed within its influ-
ence at the proper degree of warmth,
is, at the expiration of its natural
time, elicited into life, without the
possibility of failure, which is some-
times the case with eggs subjected to
the caprice of their natural parent.'

"That chickens are thus hatched
in considerable numbers is unques-
tionable, upward of thirty thousand
having' been already brought into ex-
istence by this single eccaleohion ma-
chine ; nor has any difficulty been
found in the subsequent rearing of
those chickens, when proper yards
and suitable temperature were pro-
vided, more than m the natural way ;
indeed, in some respects less so, as the
losses sustained in poultry by the sud-
den changes of the weather, and the
influence of dampness in particular,
and accidents from various causes,
are very considerable. Supposing Mr.
Bucknell's experiment to answer the
purpose in every respect, the increase
in the production of poultry might be
rendered incalculably great by the
adoption of his principle on a great
scale, wherever the essentials of a
dry soil, warmth, and proper build-
ings can at the same time be supplied.

" ' It must have struck even the
most superficial observer, that the
extraordinary fecundity of gallinace-
ous fowls is a wise and most benev-
olent dispensation of nature to pro-
vide the more abundantly food for
rnan, as, in those tribes of birds not
suited for his table, the female lays
no more eggs than she can incubate.
With respect, therefore, to domestic
poultry, the most nutritious of all hu-
man food, this rich provision of a
bounteous providence is, for the first
time, available to Europe.'

" The eccaleobion machine, capa-
ble of containing 2000 eggs, r'^sem-
bles an oblong box, nine feet in length,

G G 3

three feet in breadth, and the same
in height. It has no connexion with
the walls, against which it is placed
on the table on which it stands ; its
regulating power is within.

" The following striking passage,
from Mr. Bucknell's work ' On Arti-
ficial Incubation,' above alluded to,
will show the importance of this sub-
ject in its commercial and domestic
bearings.

"Mr. Bucknell observes (page 16),
' We call the Egyptians barbarous ;
the procuring, however, by art and
industry, an abundant supply of that
necessary of life, good animal food,
is no evidence of barbarism. If
the population of the United King-
dom, which, as respects Egypt, is as
twenty-four to two, were as well
supplied with this artificial produc-
tion as Egs'pt, it would require, not
92,000.000,''but 1,104,000,000 of poul-
try annually, for them to be as well
fed in this respect as the uncivilized
natives of Egypt. But how stands
the account in this matter ! Full one
third of our population subsist almost
entirely, or, rather, starve, upon po-
tatoes alone : another third have, in
addition to this edible, oaten or infe-
rior wheaten bread, with one or two
meals of fat pork, or the refuse of
the shambles, per week ; while a con-
siderable majority of the remaining
third seldom are able to procure an
ample daily supply of good butcher's
meat, or obtain the luxury of poultry
from year to year.

" ' On the Continent of Europe the
population is still in a worse condi-
tion ; fish, soups made from herbs,
a stuff called bread, made from every
variety of grain, black, brown, hard,
and sour, such as no Englishman
could eat ; olives, chestnuts, the pulpy
saccharine fruits, roots, stalks, and
leaves, and not unfreqiicntly the bark
of trees ; sawdust, blubber, train-oil,
with frogs and snails, make up and
constitute a good part of the food of
the greater portion of the inhabitants
of Europe. There is no other cause
for this than the excessive ignorance
of its population.'

" The contemplation of the pro-
625

POULTRY.

gressive stages throngli wliich life is
developed and nialurcil in the egg is
highly interesting. The contents of
the shells, of the species under im-
mediate consideration, taken out and
placed on a pUite or a saucer on Mr.
BuckncH's table, present the follow-
ing appearances, according to the re-
spective periods ;

" On the third day, the embryo or-
ganization of the skull, brain, heart,
and blood, is perceptible by the aid
of a magnifying glass.

" Fourth day. The pulsation of
the heart is distinguishable by the
naked eye.

" Sixth day. The chief vessels and
organs rudimentally formed ; the pul-
sation and circulation of blood appa-
rent.

" Ninth day. Intestines and veins
formed, and the deposition of flesh
and bony substance commenced ; the
beak for the lirst time open.

*' Twelfth day. The feathers have
protruded, the skull has become car-
tilaginous, and the fust voluntary
movement of the chick is made.

" Fifteenth day. Organs, vessels,
bones, feathers, closely approaching,
in appearance, to the natural state.

" Eighteenth day. Vital mecha-
nism nearly developed, and the first
sign of life heard from the piping
chick.

" Twenty-first day. The chick
breaks the shell, and in two or three
hours is quite active and lively.

"The exit of the chick from the
shell is assuredly one of the most
interesting processes of animated na-
ture ever investigated by naturalists.
It was supposed that the mother bird
broke the shell ; but M. Reaumur has
long since detailed the processeSj and
we ourselves have witnessed the ev-
olution of the chick in the eccaleo-
bion, by its own unassisted efforts,
The French naturalist to whom we
have just now referred thus explains
some interesting facts : ' I have seen
chicks continue at work for two days
together. Some, again, work inces-
santly ; others lake rest at intervals,
according to their physical strength.
I have observed some, in consequence
626

of their impatience to see the light,
begin to break the shell a great deal
too soon ; for they ought, before they
make their exit, to have within them
provision enough to serve for twenty-
four hours without taking food, and
for this purpose the unconsumed por-
tion of the yolk enters through the
navel. The chick, indeed, which
comes out of the shell before taking
up all the yolk, is certain to droop
and die a few days alter it is hatched.
The help which 1 have occasionally
tried to give to several of them to-
wards their deliverance has aflbrded
me an opportunity of observing those
which had begun to break their shells
before this was accomplished ; and I
have opened many eggs much frac-
tured, in each of which the chick had
as yet much of the yolk not absorbed.
Besides, some chicks have greater
obstacles to overcome than others,
since all shells are not of an equal
thickness nor of an equal consist-
ence ; and I think it probable that the
same inequality takes place in the li-
ning membrane. The shells of the
eggs of birds of various species are
of a thickness proportional to the
strength of the chick that is obliged
to break through them.'*

" If the chick should be glued to
the shell, as sometimes occurs, and
is indicated by the faintness of its
chip and the non-enlargement of the
fracture for some hours, it must be
assisted (but not until the necessity
is fully ascertained) in its liberation
' with a key, or some such instru-
ment, and by cutting the membrane
with the points of a pair of scissors.
The operation, though painful to the
chick, does not prove mortal ; for it
is no sooner freed than it exhibits as
much vigour as any other chick of its
age.'t But unless the chick, after a
full day's effort, is found unable to
chip the shell, from weakness or ad-
hesion to its envelope, it is better not
to assist it in its extrication ; for in
ninety-nine cases out of a hundred
aid proves ineffectual, through the
injury inflicted upon the delicate or-

* " Domestic Haliits of Birds," Library of
Entertaining Knowledge. t IbiJ.

POULTRY.

ganizatioii of the bird ; or, more prob- fects the most surprising change in
ably, the previous weakness or im- her disposition and temper. Before

perfection of the chick, which occa-
sioned the necessity for assistance,
also occasions its death at the mo-
ment of its birth, and would take place
even if its disengagement were ef-
fected without any injury.

she attained her matronly character,
she was greedy, and always scaich-
ing for food, fond of gadding about,
and timid in the extreme. iS'ow she
becomes generous, self-denying, and
intrepid ; she assumes the liery tem-

' There is a caution to be observed ! per of the cock, and becomes a vira-
in all cases regarding the eggs when go in defence of her helpless brood,
the chicks are on the verge of inatii- An anecdote is told by White, in his
rity : they should not i)e stirred when • Natural History of Sclborne.' of the
within two days of the evolvcment ■ punishment inliicted by some hens
of the chicks. U any circumstances j upon a hawk which had, at different
render it absolutely necessary to do , times, killed their chickens. By some
so, care should be taken to place ! means this hawk was caught, and the
them with the broad end inclining ! owner gave him up to the tender mer-
upward, as the beak of the chick is ; ciesof the bereaved mothers. In his
then in its proper position ; and if | own words, ' Resentment suggested
this be reversed, the chick becomes '■ the laws of retaliation. He clipped
unable to chip the shell, and must the hawk's wings, cut off his talons,
therefore die. and, fixing a cork on his bUl, threw

"Chickens should be fed the day I him down among the brood hens,
after their birth with crumbs of bread ; Imagination cannot paint the scene
soaked in milk, or with the yolk of ! that ensued ; the expressions of fear,
an egg boiled hard; and they will rage, and revenge inspired were new,
quickly learn to eat curds, grits, and or, at least, such as had been unno-
barley-meal and milk. If not design- ticed before. The exasperated ma-
ed for immediate use, they should trons upbraided, they execrated, they
soon get raw corn, and occasionally insulted, they triumphed. In a word,
alteratives of green food, such as they never desisted from buffeting
bruised leeks, nettles, lettuces, (Sec. their adversary tUl they had torn him
For the first week they should be con- in a hundred pieces.'
fined to the house altogether ; after , " The same writer calls attention
that time they may be let out for a to the language of the fowl, from a
short time in the sun, and gradually pleased twittering to a scream. A
habituated to the weather. To ren- laying pullet utters a complacent, soft
der the hen, which has already dis- \ note ; but when she has been deliv-
charged her duty, still more produc- ered of an egg, her cackle of delight
live to her owner, she is frequently ' and importance is loud enough to ex-
confined to a coop, called, in Surrey, cite the sympathetic voices of all her
a Tip, for some weeks after the chicks companions ; when her chickens are
have seen the light. Her offspring hatched, she has a different language,
during this time pass freely through which is intelligible to her little ones,
the prison bars, returning at her call, The crested cock has various notes ;
or on occasions of alarm, to the ma- his tone and language, for such it is
tcrnal wings, and then hopping out' in effect, as he calls his favourites to
again, to the inexpressible misery of partake of the food which he gallant-
their imprisoned mother, who is kept ly scrapes for them, is of a very pe-
in this state of confinement until she culiar kind, and very different from

becomes indifferent to the chickens
and disposed to lay again.

" The courage of the hen in de-
fence of her offspring has been a
common theme of admiration ; the

his ordinary voice, that is so familiar
to us.

" Poultry are the better for high
feeding from the very shell, and. on
this account, the heaviest corn is oft-

force of her maternal solicitude ef- 1 ea far cheaper for them in the eod

627

POULTRY.

than tailings, as regards tlir flesh, or
the size and substantial jioddncss of
the eggs. Chickens may be piii up
for feeding as soon as the hen lias
ceased to regard them, and before
they lose tlieir first good condition.
When chickens are wanted (or do-
mestic purposes, they are often left
at liberty in the farm-yard ; and if
they have plenty of good food, they
will be in the most healtlifnl state for
the table, and rich and juicy in fla-
vour. Mr. Moiibray ascertained that
pullets hatched in March, if constant-
ly high fed, laid eggs abundantly in
the autumn ; and it killed in the Feb-
ruary or March following, were so ex-
cessively fat from the run of the yard
as to open more like Michaelmas
geese than chickens. Experienced
poulterers will fatten fowls in two or
three weeks vvitii the aid of grease,
which gives a luscious, but, in our
judgment, a very disagreeable fla-
vour to the flesh, which, though not
actually diseased, is very inferior to
that of the fowl fed at large in the
common way at the barn-door.

"The practice of cramming poul-
try by the hand is quite common. A
machine for this purpose is used in
France, by which one man can cram
fifty birds in half an liour. It is some-
what on the principle of a forcing-
pump. The throats of the birds are
held open by the operator until they
are gorged tlirough a pipe, which
conveys the food from a reservoir be-
low, placed on a stool. In fifteen
days fowls are said to attain the high-
est state of fatness and flavour by
this feeding. In addition to the or-
dinary paste of barley-meal, or meal
made into little balls with milk, the
dried seeds and leaves of nettles have
been recommended by the continent-
al poulterers, some of whom give a
little henbane seed to induce sleep,
while others put out the eyes of the
prisoners, as the most efl~ectual way
of keeping them in a state of dark-
ness, which is considered essential
to their becoming rapidly fat ; and,
under the pretext of relieving them
from the irritation of vermin, they
pluck the feathers from their heads,
628

bellies, and wings. While fowls are
thus preparing for the knife, though
their bodies are closely confined, tlieir
hinder i)nrts are free for evacuatitm
and cleanliness, and their heads are at
liberty to take in fresh supplies of
nutriment.

"The practice of making capons
(emasculating the males) is practised
a little in some of the English coun-
ties, and very much in France, where
the females are also rendered inca-
pable of breeding, and termed in their
nnsexed condition poiilardes, in order
to give them the tendency to fatten.
An incision is made near the parts,
and through this the finger is intro-
duced to take hold of and bring away
the genitals, but so carefully as not
to injure the intestines : the wound is
then stitched up, and rubbed with oil
or grease ; and the comb (which ap-
pears to be an unnecessary and gratu-
itous pain and insult to the sufferer) is
oiien cut off. Tiie lemales are treated
nuK-li in the same way, when they do
not promise well for laying, or when
they have ceased to be fertile ; they
are deprived of the ovarium. The
subsequent treatment is similar to
that in the former case. Care is ta-
ken to give them good food for three
or four days, and during that time to
keep them in a place of moderate
temperature, to avoid the danger of
gangrene, which, considering the
time of the year — midsummer, when
the operation is usually performed —
is a very probable consequence. Pul-
lets of the largest breed are selected
for the purpose, as they yield the
greatest weight to the poulterer ; and,
if employed in hatching, cover the
greatest number of eggs.

" Cuvier states that the capon may
be taught to hatch eggs, and to act
the part of a good nurse, with a little
bell round his neck to supply the want
of a good voice. He asserts that the
natural courage and energy of this
bird are not abated by the alteration
of his condition, in which his audaci-
ty enables him to impose on the cocks
and hens, so that they allow him to
strut about with his former gait of
I consequential importance, and to ful-

I

POULTRY.

fil his duties without interference or
nuili'station. Tliis seems incredible,
as a bold and liauglity spirit under
siK-h circumstances is unnatural in
the extreme. Tlie pallidness of his
head and the diniinuliveness of his
comb and yills indicate the contrary
disposition, and he is so despised by
the other fowls that they will hardly
condescend to roost with him.

"Mr. Young, in his ' Report of the
County of Sussex,' says that much
art and attention are requisite to
make capons, and that the Sussex
breed are too long in the body for
success in the operation, by which
many are lust. A perfectly fat capon
will weigh from seven to ten pounds.

" As soon as fowls are rendered
sufficiently fat, they should be killed,
or they will loose tlesh and become
unhealthy. The most humane and
expeditious mode of putting them to
death is by a smart blow with a blunt-
edged stick, such as a child's bat, at
the back of the neck. Higglers break
the vertebraj of the neck by a sudden
twist, and never bleed fowls, as this
mode of despatching them dries up
the juices of the flesh. They bleed
turkeys and geese, however, after a
stunning blow on the neck, not by
cutting the tliroat, but by an incision
in the upper part of tiie mouth.

" Store fowls will feed well upon
the tailings of corn, potatoes, and in-
sects, and require little attention ex-
cept when laying, during which time
the food for the hens should be abun-
dant, and their roosting places dry
and warm.

" The diseases of all poultry prin-
cipally arise from cold and moisture.
Rheumatism decidedly arises from
this cause. During or after moult-
ing in a wet season, fowls frequently
become diseased, as is evident from
their drooping appearance, swelled
and watery eyes, and the dropsical
affections of the legs. Severe laying
also sometimes causes emaciation
and illness, which give way to a more
healthy condition after the moulting
season, if they have good food and
dry weather.

' Chickens are very subject, in wet

G G G 2

or variable weather, to a disease call-
ed the chip, which appears in about
a fortnight after their birth, when
they are changing their feathers.
Warmth and sunshine are the only
restoratives within our knowledge.

" The roup is properly a gathering
upon the rump, which is cured or re-
lieved by opening, squeezing, and
bathing with warm water. Mr. Mow-
bray, however, who is a good practi-
cal authority, states that the roup is a
general term for all diseases, though
it is chiefly applied to catarrh, which
is indicated by watery eyes and run-
ning at the nostrils. This last disease
resembles glanders in horses, and
is infectious, and generally fatal. As
all these diseases originate in moist-
ure, dryness and warmth are the
best counteracting influences. The
nostrils should be washed with soap
and water, and the eyes with milk
and water. Mr. Mowbray recom-
mends a pepper-corn in dough at first,
to impart warmth, and afterward
calomel three times a week, as a fin-
ish to the cure.

" We have had the trachea of a
chicken dying of the gapes (which is
the incipient stage of roup) cut and
opened, and have taken out narrow
worms, about half an inch in length,
wiiich lay imbedded in a serous fluid.
A medical friend has frequently cured
fowls of the same disease by putting
the upper part of a feather, stripped
for the purpose, down the trachea,
turning it round, and thus bringing
up the worm, which he thinks is the
sole cause of the disease. It may,
however, be the effect of the malady,
as is the opinion of many.

" The pip, which the same individ-
ual considers analogous to the thrush
in the human kind, he cures, not by
scraping roughly, but by an applica-
tion of powdered borax dissolved in
tincture of myrrh and water, and
rubbed on the tongue with a cainel's-
hair brush two or three times a day.
This, at the same time, assists the
bowels. The Jinx is not uncommon.
Solid corn is the most certain reme-
dy for this disease. Taken at the
commencement, it is rarely serious,
629

POULTRY.

but if once established in the consti-
tution, it becomes incurable, and, ac-
cording to some, contagious. For
constipatioji, bran, or pollard, with
milk, beet leaves, and lettuces, afford
a certain cure.

" Much of the foregoing matter ap-
plies to the rearing and management
of all poultry. The succeeding ob-
servations will be brief

" Turkeys. — The greatest weight
to which our domesticated poultry
can be made to attain is thirty pounds,
and a turkey of even half this weight
is a ' dainty dish.'

" The varied plumage of the bird
in the domesticated state is well
known to every one ; and in no spe-
cies is that sure mark of subjection
to man more strongly seen. The
bronze, or copper-coloured, is not
considered hardy, nor often reared,
and the varieties may be stated to be
only twofold, the dark-coloured and
the light.

The dark-coloured birds are most
prized for size and hardihood.

" Turkeys, though extremely deli-
cate in their infancy, become very
hardy, and, if permitted, will roost on
the highest trees, in the cold dry
nights of winter, without suffering
injury. The hen, which lays many
eggs early in spring, sits thirty days,
and covers from twelve to fifteen
eggs. It is unnecessary for the tur-
key-cock, as is the case with gallina-
ceous fowl, to be in constant inter-
course with the hen during her pe-
riod of laying. Two visits from him
in that season are sufficient to im-
pregnate all the eggi. She is a very
steady sitter, and must be removed
to her food and supplied with water,
for she would never leave her nest.
She wants the alertness, and courage,
and sagacity of the common hen, and
might be called a fool with much
more propriety than the goose, which
is an intelligent bird. The turkey
hen is incapable of teaching her young
ones how to pick up their food, on
which account a poultry maid should
always attend them until they are
reared.

" On account of the constitutional
630

delicacy of this bird, the hatching
should not be commenced too early
in the spring, and when the chicks
are hatched they should be guarded
from the extremes of heat and cold
for some weeks. Rain is almost
always fatal to them in their early
stage. Curd, boiled eggs, and barley
or oatmeal, kneaded with milk (or
water, in case milk should produce
looseness), potatoes, nettles, parsley,
Swedish turnips, with chopped beet
leaves, after a little time, are their
proper food. As they retain so much
of their original wild namre as to
stray a considerable distance, if per
mitted, the hen should be tied oi
cooped for at least six weeks, when
the chicks will be hardy enough to
follow her about, under the vigilant
eye, however, of the poultry maid,
who should beware of their being
caught by a shower.

" They are soon familiarized to the
society of fowls in the poultry or
farm yard. "Without the advantage
of the latter, it is an unprofitable
speculation to rear any description of
poultry on a large scale ; but where
a farmer's yard presents facilities, the
economy of having all those kinds to
which the soil and climate are suita-
ble is considerable. The only cau-
tion with regard to turkeys, where
gallinaceous birds are numerous, is
to have separate houses for them at
night. These should be very lofty
and well ventilated. They may be
altogether open to the air in front, the
doors being of trellis-work. Fowls
(which are equally unsocial with the
capons of their own kind) have a
strong disinclination to roost with
them.

" When well grown, turkeys sup-
ply themselves in their ramblings so
far as to require food only when leav-
ing their house in the morning and
returning at night. The chances of
rearing a second brood are not so
great as to render it expedient to
make the trial.

" After six months, turkeys may
be crammed like fowls, but they re-
quire a much longer period to render
them fully fat. Those great birds

POULTRY.

which are sent to the market about
Christmas, freiiuciitly weighing from
twenty to twenty-five pounds, are
usually cocks from the preceding
year.

•• Guinea Fowl. — This bird, which is
not much larger than the common
barn-door fowl, is of beautiful form
and plumage, and, though not a
source of profit to those who rear
poultry for immediate sale, is usually
kept where there is proper accommo-
dation, as much on account of the ex-
cellence and abundance of the eggs
(which, though small, are well-fla-
voured) as for the sake of the flesh,
which is prized. The number of hens
allowed to the male is about the same
as among the gallinaceous family.
The cock, little distinguished in ap-
pearance from the female, is an at-
tentive and affectionate mate, and
even obtrusively so to his favourites,
whom he will attend to the nest, and
remain with until they have laid their
eggs.

" Retaining some of their original
wildness, Guinea fowl dislike the con-
finement of a house. For the pur-
pose of laying, they prefer shrubber-
ies, clover meadows, or corn-fields,
in which they will deposite their
eggs, unless closely watched. The
Guinea hen is fruitful during the en-
tire summer, but not earlier than May.
On this account, and the difficulty of
rearing a late brood, it is more bene-
ficial to keep her entirely for laying,
and to put the earlier eggs under a
common hen, or capon, which will
cover from twenty to twenty-five,
than to encourage the incubation of
the natural parent, which is, more-
over, indisposed to it, especially if un-
der cover. If left to her instinct, this
bird would, at a late season, in the
open air, sit for the natural period,
which is twenty-eight or twenty-nine
days.

" The cock, having the same dis-
like to incubation which character-
izes the male of pea fowl, will de-
stroy the eggs if he can discover
them. Though the shell is remarka-
bly hard, the chicks break through it
at the proper moment, and are soon

after as vigorous and ready to eat
as the young of any other tribe of
poultry.

" The loud cry of these birds is not
agreeable, but. like the scream of the
pea fowl, it announces with certainty
an approaching change of weather.
The hen utters a cry when she de-
sires to roost, to call in her compan-
ions, to summon assistance, or to give
notice of any of those alarms which
her sensibilities cause her to express
with such energy of voice, and in all
which cases she is sure of receiving
a ready sympathy.

" The same food which is suited to
the young of gallinaceous fowls and
turkeys is good for the chicks of this
kmd ; but as they are not often des-
tined to the coops for fattening, a
good deal of garden or field green
food may be combined with their
grits, &c., after the first month. They
have a great relish for insects of ev-
eiy kind, and thrive upon them as
well as upon hemp seed. When de-
signed for the table, they ought to be
killed at an early age, at which time
the flesh is more juicy than that of
other poultry of the same age, and
very like that of the pheasant, though
when old it becomes exceedingly
tough.

" Ducks. — The white duck, being
the largest of the common domesti-
cated kmds, is perhaps the best for
the poulterer, though it is not deem-
ed so delicate in flavour as the dark-
coloured, such as that bred from in-
termixture with the Rhone duck,
which is also large. The Muscovy
variety is said to be a good breeder.
One drake is suflieient for five fe-
males. It is generally believed that
the duck lays no more eggs than she
can cover (from twelve to fifteen),
but Mr. Moubray states that, if well
fed, some ducks will lay a great num-
ber, and he gives an instance of one
laying an egg every day for eighty-
five days.

" For a fortnight after their birth,
ducklings should be kept from rush-
ing into the water, to which their in-
stinct soon leads them ; and with
this view the mother is frequentlv
631

POULTRY.

confined (where there is any pond
within her reacli) to the rip, already
described, w liicli s^hould be placed on
a field of short grass with a fiat dish
of water near it. The ducklings wad-
dle about in search of insects, and at
the maternal call return to the coop.
This restraint upon tlie liberty of the
poor mother should be avoided if cir-
cumstances permit, for to protract
her close confinement after more
than four weeks' sitting is a cruel re-
straint. It is very common to place
duck eggs under a hen, on account
of her excellent qualities as a nurse.

" Any kind of meal is good for
ducklings at first, and this may soon
be mixed with potatoes. The rel'use
of the kitchen will not only support,
but fatten them ; but to have them
quickly and highly fattened, they
should have oatmeal made into paste.
They will also devour any animal of-
fal, and have no fastidiousness what-
ever. If allowed to lollow a plough,
or attend on the gardener when his
spade is at work, their greediness
and activity in picking up worms are
extreme ; and for gobbling up snails
and slugs, and other such delicacies
in the field or garden, they are most
useful, while they are at the same
time putting themselves into high
condition. Having no fastidiousness
of appetite, they never require cram-
ming ; indeed, they act as if they
considered it their duty to get fat as
quickly as possible, and therefore re-
quire no artificial aid.

'•In a poultry-yard the ducks and
geese are frequently lodged on the
lower floor of ihe fowl-houses, but it
is better, if the locality will permit, to
give them distinct chambers, partic-
ularly where a good pond (free from
eels) is available ; on the margin of
this their huts may be placed, with
very trifling labour, and an invisible
palmg all round the water, construct-
ed at bottom on the principle of the
cage-trap, so as to prevent the in-
gress of rats or weasels, while it af-
fords them a ready outlet, renders
this department of the poultry estab-
lishment complete, though far too
expensive for common adoption.
632

^' Geese. — The proportion of fe-
males to the males is ihe same as in
the duck tribe, and the period of in-
cubation and the numl)er of eggs that
may be set correspond exactly. The
goose lays in a mild spring very ear-
ly, and on this account (but only with
high corn-feeding in the previous win-
ter, and stimulating food during the
entire breedmg season) two broods
may be had in the same year. Un-
like the peacock and the Guinea cock,
the gander is not only indisposed to
do any mischief to the nests, hut is
very attentive to the hatching birds,
whom he vigilantly protects as he
sits patiently by ; nor is his protec-
tion, as he accompanies the goslings
in due course, less creditable to his
paternal character. The goose is a
very steady sitter, but usually rises
often enough to drink and take sus-
tenance, without its being necessary
to remove her from her nest for the
purpose.

" The early treatment of the gos-
lings is similar to that of ducklings.
The mother should be penned up for
some days upon dry grass, but nei-
ther too early nor very late in the
day : beet leaves, or other green food,
may be mixed even with the early
diet, if immediate fattening be not
the object.

"Green geese are brought very
early to market ; they can be made
quite fat with oatmeal and pease,
and skimmed milk or buttermilk,
when from four to six months old :
many prefer oats alone.

'•The management of them is thus
detailed in a communication to ■\ir.
Moubray :

" ' Cleanliness, punctuality, and reg-
ularity prevail ; the business is con-
ducted, as it were, by machinery, ri-
vallinir the vibrations of the pendu-
lum in uniformity of movement. The
grand object of preparing, not geese
only, but poultry in general, for mar-
ket, in as short a time as possible, is
efTected solely by paying unremitting
attention to their wants ; in keeping
them thoroughly clean ; in supplying
them with proper food (dry, soli, and
green), water, exercise ground, &,c.

POU

On arriving at the feeders, they are ,
classed according to condition, &c. : j
they soon become reconciled to their '
new abode and to each other. They
are fed tlree times a day, and it is
truly astonishing how soon they ac- i
quire th;? knawledge of the precise ,
time ; marching from the exercise j
ground to the pens like soldiers in |
close column. Goslings, or young
geesn, come to hand generally about
the month of April, after which a
regular and constant supply arrives
weekly througliout the season. At
firat they are fed on soft meat, con- ■
sioting of prime barley or oat meal, [
afterward on dry corn. An idea pre-
vails with many that any sort of corn j
"^'iU do for poultry : this is a grand
iiistake. Those who feed largely
■tnow better, and invariably make it a
rule to buy the best. The Messrs.
Boyce, whose pens are capable of
lokiing the extraordinary number of
1000 geese, independent of ducks,
-urkeys, &c., consume SO bushels of
oats daily, exclusive of other food.'

'■ But. though green geese bring an
enormous price in the spring, if thor- I
oughly fat, farmers generally find it |
more profitable to feed goslings on
the stubbles, where they supply them-
selves with the best food without !
cost, and become sufficiently fat at
Michaelmas, when ancient custom
renders them a favourite dish.

" Though young geese are subject [
to a disease called the cramp, the
greater number of those which die in :
summer are destroyed by starvation,
and the change from corn, and other
nutritive food, to the miserable her-
bage which the fields and commons
yield ; and this constitutes their chief
diet until the harvest season. Cold j
and wet weather are often fatal to |
them in the earlier months, if tbey be
neglected. Much mortality also pre-
vaUs among grown geese, wherever
the horrible system of plucking them
alive is practised. It is generally
urged in excuse for this barbarity
that feathers are most elastic and
valuable before the period of moult-
ing, and that geese have been thus
treated ever since feather beds came

POU

into fashion. The offence carries
some punishment with it, for it ren-
ders the flesh very tough, and in
many respects deteriorates the value
of a bird, if it does not destroy it al-
together ; but the immediate gain
from the feathers counterbalances
this and every humane consideration.

" The cramming system is prac-
tised in France, when the object is
to render the liver unnaturally en-
larged by disease, with circumstan-
ces of great cruelty. We do not in-
tend to give any information upon
practices which we cannot recom-
mend, and which we strongly con-
demn.

" Eggs. — The most certain way of
preserving eggs fresh is by greasing
them with some unctuous matter, or
immersing them in milk of lime. In
packing, they should be laid on end ;
for otherwise the yolks, preserving
their centre of gravity, fall to the
lowest side, and, by adhesion to it,
become tainted sooner than if they
were suspended in the centre. Briny
salt, or sawdust, are good packing
materials.

" The only management, besides
v/arinth and high feeding, by which a
perpetual succession of eggs can be
obtained in winter, is by having pul-
lets and hens of different ages, which,
moulting at different periods, do not
all cease laving at the same time."

POULTRY DUXG. The urine of
birds is solid, and voided along with
the matters rejected from the bowels;
their dung is, therefore, nearly ap-
proaching to urate or the dried urine
of animals, and is richer the less ve-
getable food they take ; hence the ex-
crement of sea gulls forms guano,
the best manure known. The com-
position of poultry dung varies with
their food, the husks and green, indi-
gestible parts of vegetables being im-
purities which diminish the value of
the white solid uric acid. The com-
position of the urine or white part is
the same for all birds, and consists
chiefly of

Incacid . . 88-71 -
Aminiinia . . 8 5b
Hone earth . . 2T5 i

I luooo-J

6^3

POU

PRA

The uric acid by decay becomes l
converted into bicarbonate of ammo-
nia, so that tlic manure i.s nearly ap-
proacliing to commercial carbonate
of ammonia, with a litlie bone cartb.
Four or live busbels comiwjsted with
moist charcoal, gypsum, and peat,
and allowed to rot partially, forms a
very stimulating application to young
plants and seeds, being as good as
about one half the quantity of guano.
Johnstone makes the following re-
marks on the comparative value of the
difTerent kinds of dung, but it is to be
remembered that fowls fed on in-
Soluble matter in pigeons' dung ... 23

" The soluble matter consists of |
uric acid in small quantity, of urate, i
sulphate, and especially of carbonate
of ammonia, common salt, and sul-
phate of potash ; the insoluble chiefly
of phosphate of lime, with a little
phosphate of magnesia, and a varia-
ble admixture of sand and other
earthy matters. When exposed to
moisture, the pigeons' dung, especial-
ly if recent, undergoes fermentation,
loses a portion of its ammoniacal
salts, and thus becomes less valuable.
When it is intended to be kept, it
should be mixed with a dry vegetable
soil, or made into a compost with
earth and sawdust, with a portion
of pulverized or charred peat, or
■with such a disinfecting charcoal as
that which is employed in the man-
ufacture of animalized carbon.

" Fowl dung often accun)ulates,
decomposes, and runs to waste in
poultry-yards, when, with a little care,
it might be collected in considerable
quantities

" Goose dung is less rich than that
of hens or pigeons, because this bird
feeds less upon graifl, and derives a
considerable portion of its nourish-
ment from the grass which it crops
when allowed to go at liberty over
the fields. Its known injurious ef-
fects upon the grass on which it falls
arise from its being in too concen-
trated a state. In moist weather, or
where rain soon succeeds, it does no
injury, and even when in dry weath-
634

sects or animal matters will make
manure as rich as guano.

" Pigeons' dung is much prized as
a manure, wherever it can be obtain-
ed in any considerable (juantity. In
Belgium it is esteemed as a top-dress-
ing for the young tlax, and the yearly
produce of 100 pigeons is sold for
alxnit 20s. Its inunediate effect de-
pends upon the quantity of soluble
matter it contains, and this varies
much, according to its age and to
the circumstances under which it has
been preserved. Thus, Davy and
Sprengel obtained respectively of

Recent.
(Davy.)
per cent.

Six montlLS old.
(.Sl,rengel.)
lb per cent.

After fermentation.

(l'av.v.)

8 per cent.

er it kills the blades on which it
drops, it brings up the succeeding
siioots with increased luxuriance."

POl'ND, LB. The avoirdupois
contains 16 oz. and 7000 troy grs.
The troy pound 12 oz. and 5760 grs.
Also, an enclosure for cattle. In
England a penal enclosure for tres-
passing cattle.

POUP ART'S LIGAMENT. A
tendinous expansion, running from
the top, or crista, of the ilium to the os
pubis, under which hernias protrude.

POVERTY GRASS. Ansthla
dichotoma. A grass growing on steril
places.

POWER. In mechanics, denoting
a force which, being applied to a ma-
chine, tends to produce motion. A
mechanical poirer denotes one of the
six simple machines, viz., the lever,
the inclined plane, the scrcic, the wheel
and axle, the ired^e, and the pulley.

POZZUOLANA. Volcanic ashes,
used in making hydraulic cements.

PR-ECORDIA. The fore part of
the chest.

PR.EMORSE, BITTEN. Stumpy
roots which appear to have been
bitten.

PRAIRIE. This name is given to
the immense tracts of grass land oc-
curring throughout the West. They
are usually gently rolling or undula-
ting lands, the grass of which is
thickly matted, and from a few inches
to three or four feet high, being most
luxuriant in wet, swampy places.

PRAIRIE.

The prairie is often adorned with
beautilul lowers in spring, and, in-
deed, thruuifhout tiie year. Tiie
grass is of various kinds, some, as
that called hiiflalo grass, being of
great value ; the whoh; is, however,
nutritious, and sustains oxen, liorses,
and sheep remarkably well : there
are numerous species. The great
defect of the prairie is want of tim-
ber ; in some places this is provided
on the islets of the rivers, or on
bluffs, but it is often altogether absent
for great distances. There is a de-
scription of partially timbered land,
called barrens, in which the trees
stand apart, with a tender grass grow-
ing between them.

The method of breaking up the
prairie, and other interesting topics
to the emigrant, are contained in the
following remarks by Mr. Robinson,
of Indiana :

" Breaking vp the Prairie. — Fancy
upon a level, smooth piece of ground,
free from sticks, stumps, and stones,
a team of four, five, or even si.x yoke
of oxen, hitched to a pair of cart
wheels, and to them hitched a plough
with a beam fourteen feet long, and
the share, &c., of which weigh from
sixty to one hundred and twenty-five
pounds, of wrought iron and steel,
and which cuts a furrow from sixteen
to twenty-four inches wide, and you
will figure the appearance of a ' break-
ing team' in o|)eration.

" 1 do believe, though, that a smaller
plough and less team would be bet-
ter lor the land, though it is said it
would he more expensive ploughing.
It is true that the sod is more tough
than can be believed by those who
liave never ploughed it. It requires
the plough to be kept very sharp, and
lor tills purpose the ploughman is
always provided with a large file, with
which he keeps a keen edge as pos-
sible upon the share and coulter.

" Such a team ploughs iVom one to
two acres a day, usually about four
inches deej), which is not near down
to the bottom of the roots, so that
the sod turned up aflbriis but a scanty
covering for grain that is sowed upon
it at first, yet very fine crops of wheat

are raised in this way. It is also a
common practice to break up in the
spring and drop corn in every second
or third furrow, and from which
twenty or thirty bushels to the acre
are often gathered, nothing having
ever been done to it after planting.
It takes two or three years for these
sods to become thoroughly decom-
posed, and then the soil is of a light,
loose, black, vegetable mould, very
easily stirred by the plough, but of a
nature that it adheres to the plough
in a troublesome manner. In fact,
no plough has ever been found to
keep itself clear ; and the ploughman
is generally obliged to carry with him
a small wooden paddle, with which to
clear off the adhering mass of dirt
upon the mould-board. With this
exception, the prairie soil is gener-
ally one of the easiest in the world to
till, and of course remarkably fertile.

" By far the greatest portion is
based upon a subsoil of clay, though
in many places the subsoil is sand
or gravel, and there are large tracts
of which the surface is of this mate-
rial. The streams are often broad
and nearly covered with vegetable
growth, in some instances to that
degree that sheets of water, many
rods wide, actually burn over during
the autumnal fires.

" Notwithstanding the many ' in-
teresting accounts of burning prai-
ries,' the fire upon a dry prairie, in a
calm time, does not blaze as high as
it would in an old stubble field ; but
in the marshes, or wet prairies, it
sometimes rages with grandeur.

" Enclosing. — The settlements al-
ready made are upon the smaller
prairies, the centre of which are not
more than four or five miles from
timi)er, or along the border of ' the
Grand Prairie," taking care not to ex-
tend out beyond the reach of conve-
nient woodland. But there are many
places where the groves are barely
sufficient to furnish the land most
contiguous, and vast tracts of prairie
are to be found ten or fifteen miles
from timber. That these tracts will
forever remain uncultivated, cannot
for a moment be thought of That
635

PRE

PRE

timber can be planted and raised in
abundance is certain. It is eiiiially
certain that they can be fenced with
ditches, and, perhaps, wiiii iiedges,
though the experiments tiiat have
as yet been made in the United States
to enclose land with hedges have
generally proved failures.

"The most feasible plan, it seems
to me, would be to enclose large
tracts by ditcliing, and cultivate the
land without division fences, even
between many occupants. Such is
the mode in many parts of Europe.
Or this kind of land could be profit-
ably improved by grazing herds of
cattle and sheep, under the care of
shepherds. Houses of a most com-
fortable kind can be built of clay
without burning into brick, and the
expense of hauling lumber for roofs
and inside work would be trifling.
The only difficulty would be fuel.
In many parts of the West coal ex-
ists in abundance, and where that is
not to be had, the expense of hauling
wood over a smooth and nearly level
country would not be a serious ob-
stacle. It is also thought that peat
will be found abundant.

" At present, however, there is an
abundance of unoccupied land so con-
venient to tiinber as to be easily
fenced in the cominon way, with
Virginia or worm fence ; and the oak
timber of this region is very durable."

PRASE. Green quartz.

PRECIPITATE. A solid matter
thrown down in a clear fluid by chem-
ical action.

PREDIAL. Belonging to a farm

PREDISPOSING AFFINITY.
Chemical affinity arising in the pres-
ence of three bodies, whereby a union
is accomplished between two, which,
without coming in contact with a
third, would not readily unite.

PREGNANCY. The state of be-
ing with young, carrying young. The
signs and determination of pregnancy
are often important. The following,
from Mr. Youatt, is of great service
in coming to a conclusion on this
point.

" Among healthy animals, the im-
pregnation of the female rarely fails
636

to be the result of an intercourse be-
tween the sexes. The assurance,
however, of this having taken place
is occasionally an aflair of consider-
able interest, and of no little diflicul-
ty, and the value and tiie destiny of
the female may very much depend on
the decision of the question. A cer-
tain time having elapsed, the thing
will speak for itself; but are there
any symptoms or circumstances that
will warrant the veterinary surgeon
or the agriculturist in giving a deci-
ded opinion on the case in an early
period of supposed pregnancy 1

'•It occasionally happens that the
fifth or the sixth month arrives, and,
even to the practiced eye, there arc
few or no indications of conception
having taken place. There are, also,
but somewhat unfrequently, diseases
which very closely simulate this nat-
ural process. Can the veterinary
surgeon or the breeder decide 1 The
answer is in the affirmative, and
plainly and unequivocally. This is
one of the boons which the veterina-
ry art can now confer on the agricul-
turist. The altered character of the
female is regarded, and very proper-
ly, as a cn-cumstance of no little
weight. She is comparatively calm
and quiet ; her appetite returns, and
she regains her former condition and
her former habits. Five or six weeks
pa.ss, and there is no outbreak of any
kind. The owner concludes, and he
is not often wrong, that she is im-
pregnated. He, however, has had
little to do with mares or with cows
who has not witnessed the return of
the most furious oestrum, after a much
longer period of time has elapsed. I
have known more than three months
pass in this delusive quietude, and
tiien a salaciousness worse than at
first has indicated that no actual im-
pregnation had taken place. On the
other hand, the oestrum, but not with
all its former fury, has returned two,
and three, and four months after the
connexion, and yet, as the result
finally shows, impregnation had ta-
ken place at their first intercourse.

"Many circumstances may cause
the owner to be anxious to know the

PREGNANCY.

truth of tlie matter. He may wish
to soil her, or he may be unusually
desirous to breed froui lier. Let the
animal be I'xammed \u'r vaginain.
]jet the hand l)e slowly and cautious-
ly passed up the vagina until it reach-
es the OS uteri. Let there be no at-
tempt to penetrate farther. No in-
formation can be gained from intro-
ducing the fingers mto the uterus. It
is simply wished to ascertain the
character of the os uteri. In its nat-
ural and unimpregnaied state it will
be closed ; but it will not be tightly
or spasmodically so, and the contrac-
tion of the mouth of the womb will
form a kind of cup, with the base to-
wards that viscus. If she is impreg-
nated, the entrance to the uterus will
he more firmly closed, and the pro-
trusion will be towards the vagina.
This is the only exploration per vagi
nam which I would allow ; it is easi-
ly made, and it will be satisfactory.
If an exploration of this kind is at-
tempted when half or more than half
of the period of pregnancy has passed,
■it is not at all unlikely that so much
irritation of the parts will ensue as
to cause the expulsion of the fuBtus.

"I will suppose that two months
have passed since the supposed im-
pregnation. The fcEtus is still re-
maining in the pelvic cavity. The
heart has begun to beat, and the
blood to circulate through its little
veins. It will be situated innriedi-
ately below the rectum. I introduce
my hand into that intestine. I have
no occasion to pass it very far up.
I feel the little substance ; for it then
is small in proportion to its after
growth. I feel it under my hand. I
am certain that I am pressing upon
the uterus and its contents. I can-
not, perhaps, detect the pulsation of
the embryo ; but if I had delayed my
examination until the f oRtus was three
months old, I should have assurance
that it was there by its now increas-
ed bulk, wlule the pulsation of its
heart would tell me that it was liv-
ing.

" For two months from this period
in the cow, and for three in the mare,
I should have no other indication of
Huh

the presence of the foetus, noi of its
life and growth, except from the grad-
ual eiilargeinent of the abdomen of
the mother ; and by that time the; lit-
tle one would have in(-rcased in size
and strength, and would have begun
to take occasional exercise in its first
donucil, and then would become the
more evident, but not more satisfac-
tory proof of the life of the foetus ;
its motion strong enough to be seen
through the integument.

" I might, perhaps, wish to give
this assurance of the life of the foetus
to some curious spectator, or to some
intended purchaser. I would not gal-
lo]) the mare in order to effect this ;
1 would not so far disturb her or the
young ammal that she bore within
her : much less would I give her
cold water to drink, and which she
usually would drink until she annoy-
ed the fcRtus, and the unborn animal
told us how much we annoyed him
by endeavouring to shift his ([uarters
and get away Irom the action of the
cold. I would not run the hazard of
giving her the colic, and perhaps de-
stroying him or her by this unscien-
tific and somewhat cruel method of
exploration ; but I probably should
give a tap or two on the outer wall
ol his dwelling, just sufficient to rouse
him from his slumbers, and induce
him to express his anger at the an-
noyance by a tolerably distinct plunge
or kick.

" Most certainly, if it was a cow
that I was exhibiting, I would not
give, nor would I suffer any one else
to give, those terrible punches in the
right Hank, which, I have no doubt,
are the cause of much unsuspected
injury, and, occasionally at least,
connected with, or the origin of, a
difficult or a fatal parturition

" I may here observe that the foe-
tus of the mare, from the beginning,
occupies nearly the centre of the bel-
ly. In the early stage, Mr. Mogford
generally found it 'lying across the
pelvic cavity, the spine being imme-
diately under ; the head on the left
side, and the tail on the right side.'
In the latter portion of its fcetal state
its motions are pretty equally dis-
037

PRE

PRE

tribiitpd on either side, and the beat-
inji of the fo'tal hcnit is most phiiiily
hoard at the very liase of the alido-
ineii. The fa?tus of the cow is iiud-
dled up on the right side of the heily.
There its motions are most seen, and
the beatings of its heart best heard.
The enormous paunoh, lying princi-
pally on the left side, presses every
other viscus, and the uterus among
the rest, into the right flank. This
also explains a circumstance familiar
to every breeder. If the cow should
happen to carry twins, they are crowd-
ed together in the left flank, and one
seems absolutely to lie upon the oth-
er. Whenever the farmer notices the
kicking of the fcptus high up in the
flank, he at once calculates on twins.
"To return from this digression.
If half the period, or more, of utero-
gestation had passed, and I could get
the little stranger to move by my gen-
tle tapping, and it was a cow with
which we had to do, and a quiet one,
I would have her carefully held by
the cowherd, while I stooped and ap-
plied my ear flat upon the flank, and
then, slowly, and with gentle pressure
upward and downward, and forward
and backward, over the flank and the
lower part of it, until 1 heard — and
which I should do in a great majori-
ty of cases — the pulsations of the los-
tal heart. I should recognise it by
their quickness, tlie pulsations of the
foetus being doul)le, or more than
double, those of tlie mother.

" If it was a mare, I would have a
halter put on her, and an assistant
should hold up one of her legs, while
some person interested reached un-
der, or, perhaps, knelt under the belly
of the mare, and, passing one ear
along an imaginary Ime from be-
tween the teats to the chest, and de-
viating a little from one side to the
other, he would then also recognise
the quick pulsation of the foetal heart.
" These observations are address-
ed to practical men, and will be speed-
' ily put to the test by them. The ob-
ject of the author is to get rid of the
vulgar and inefiicient methods of de-
tecting pregnancy which are now in
general use, and to introduce others
638

that are founded on a surer and more

scieiitilic basis."

PKESITIVATION OF FOOD.
The process ol' salting, rubbing with
nitre, and smoking or drying, is that
j usually performed by tiie farmer, and
it is successful. The exclusion of air,
I mechanically or by chemical means,
j is another certain means of preserv-
ing food. Drying perfectly, so as to
separate the water necessary for pu-
trefaction, is also a perfect process,
and much used in keeping fruits, as
[ dried apples, jieaches, &c. Sugar,
alcohol, molasses, alum solution, are
' also serviceable in preserving some
kinds of food. They do this by remo-
ving their interior water. Coldness
and absence of air, or moisture procu-
red by mechanical means, are also
sufficient.

PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.
Careful drying and'preservation from
moisture is the commonest process ;
but, for a perfect preservation, it is
necessary to saturate the pores of the
wood with metallic salts. This sat-
uration has to be made in a press,
and is hence very expensive. The
fluids used are solutions of blue vit-
riol (sulphate of copper), pyroligniie
of iron, sulphate of iron, corrosive
sublimate. M. Boucherie, three years
since, recommended the immersion
of the trunks of newly-cut trees in
these solutions, which, under these
circumstances, rose through the stem
and branches to the leaves, and im-
pregnated them thoroughly. The in-
convenience of this process for large
trees has induced him to niodily it to
the following :

•' Tite ingenious process of impreg-
nating wood, by the way of vital as-
piration, is not without certain ob-
jections. In the first place, it can
only be performed at those periods of
the year when the sap is in motion
and the trees are covered with leaves.
This time is limited to a few months
of the year, and the usual practice
being to fell timber in the winter,
usage is opposed to cutting down
trees in the spring and autumn. To
meet these objections, M. Boucherie
engaged in new experiments, which

PRE

PRE

led him to a means of impregnating
timber at all seasons, in winter as
well as spring and autiinin. and in a
very short space of tmic ; this second
method is applicable to wood tliat has
already been squared as well as to
the round trunk, provided it has been
recently felled.

" To impregnate timber by this
process, the logs are placed upright,
and the upper extremities are fitted
with an impermeable sack for the re-
ception of the saline solution destined
to charge them ; the fluid enters from
above, and almost at the same mo-
ment the sap is seen to begin running
out below. There are some woods
which include a large quantity of air
in their tissues ; in this case tlie How
does not go on until this air has been
expelled : once begun, it goes on
without interruption. The operation
is terminated when the fluid, which
drips from the lower part, is of the
same nature as that which is enter-
ing above. In my opinion, this meth-
od must be preferable to that by as-
piration. In the second mode of pro-
ceeding, in fact, we accomplish our
object l)y a true displacement ; al-
most the whole of the sap is expell-
ed, and the saline solution introdu-
ced has only to subdue or neutralize
the very small quantity of soluble or-
ganic matter which may remain ad-
hering to the woody tissue. By ac-
complishing such a displacement by
means of simple water, we should un-
doubtedly obtain results favourable
to the preservation of timber, inas-
much as we should have freed it from
almost the whole of those matters
which are regarded as the most al-
terable themselves, and the first
cause of rotting in timber. The ra-
pidity with which the fluid introdu-
ced is substituted for the sap which
it displaces, and the quantity of this ex-
pelled sap, which may be readily col-
lected, exceeds anything that could
have been imagined before making
the experiment ; thus the trunk of a
beech-tree, about 52J feet in length,
by 334 inches in diameter, and con-
setjuently forming a cube of some-
what more than 29 feet and a half,

I gave, in the course of twenty-five
hours, upward of 330 gallons ot" sap,
which were replaced by about 350
gallons of pyroligneous acid. The
liquid which penetrates in this way
I acts so effectually in displacing the
I sap, that M. Boucherie says we can
j readily procure or extract by its
I means the saccharine, mucilaginous,
: resinous, and coloured juices con-
tained in trees. It would, perhaps,
be possible — and I beg to suggest this
idea to colonial planters — to apply
the method of displacement to the
extraction of the colouring matters of
live woods.''

■ PRESS FOR CIDER. The com-
mon press is represented in the fig-
I ure at the head of the following page ;
a rougher press, made by means of a
lever, is also much used.

PRESS FOR OILS. See Oils.
I PRESS, HYDRAULIC. " The fra-
. ming consists of two stout cast-iron
plates, d, d, which are strengthened
by projecting ribs, not seen in the
section, Fig. 1. The top, or crown
plate, b, and the base plate, d, d, are
bound most firmly together by four
I cylinders of the best wrought iron,
c, c, which pass up through holes
near the ends of said plates, and are
fast wedged in them. The flat pie-
ces, e, e, are screwed to the ends of
the crown and base plates, so as to
bind the columns laterally, f vs the
hollow cylinder of the press, which,
as well as the ram, g, is made of cast
iron. The upper part of the cavity
of the cylinder is cast narrow, hut is
truly and smoothly rounded at the
boring mill, so as to fit pretty closely
round a well-turned ram, or piston :
the under part of it is left somewhat
wider in the casting. A stout cup of
leather, perforated in the middle, is
put upon the ram, and serves as a
valve to render the neck of the cylin-
der water-tight, by filling up the space
between it and the ram ; and since the
mouth of the cup is turned downward,
the greater the pressure of water up-
ward, the more forcibly are the edges
of the leather valve pressed against
the inside of the cylinder, atnl the
tighter does the joint become.

639

PRESS, HYDRAULIC.

"Upontheiupoi the ram, the press- I the follower, because it followa the
plate or table, h, rests ; it is called | ram closely in its movements.

640

PR

"A:, k (Figs. 1 and 2) is the fra-
ming of a forcing pump, with a nar-
row barrel ; i is tlie well containing
water to supply the pump. F(g. 3 is
F'g- 3. Fig. 4.

a section of the pump and its valves.
The pump, m, is of bronze ; the suc-
tion pipe, 71, has a conical valve with
a long tail ; the solid piston, or plun-
ger, ;;, is smaller than the barrel in
which it plaj-s, and passes at its top
through a stuffing-box, q ; r is the
pressure-valve, s is the safety-valve, I
which, in Fig. 2, is seen to be loaded j
with a weighted lever ; t is the dis-
charge-valve, for letting the water es- i
cape, from the cylinder beneath the 1
ram, hack into the well. See the
winding passage in Fig. 4. u is the
tube which conveys the water from
the pump into the press-cylinder. In '
Fig. 2 two centres of motion for the
pump lever are shown. By shifting
the bolt into the centre nearest the '
pump rod, the mechanical advantage
of the workman may be doubled.
Two pumps are generally mounted i
in one frame for one hydraulic press : ;
the larger to give a rapid motion to
the ram at the beginnmg, when the '
resistance is small ; the smaller to
give a slower but more powerful im-
pulsion when the resistance is much
increased. A pressure of 500 tons
may be obtained from a well-made
hydraulic press with a ten inch ram,
and a two and a one inch set ofj
pumps'" — (Ure.) |

PRICKLN'G. The same as nick-
ing, which see. .

H H H 2

PRO

PRICKING OUT. Thinning
plants in drills, &c.

PKICKLi;. A sharp thorn, pro-
duced by a lliickening of the bark or
skin of the plant.

P K I M A-: V I .E. The passage
through the bowels.

PRIMARY ROCKS. Theunstrati-
fied, crystalline rocks, as granites.
Sometimes the transition slates and
stratified rocks are included in this
term.

PRI.MIXE. The outermost cov-
ering of the ovule ; afterward it be-
comes the skin, or testa, of the seed.

PRIMROSE. Pretty flowering
perennials of the genus Primula.

P R i S M. " A solid contained by
planes, of which two that are op-
posite are equal, similar, and paral-
lel, and all the rest parallelograms.
Prisms take particular names from
the figures of their ends, or opposite,
equal, and parallel sides. When tlie
ends are triangles, they are called
triangular prisms ; when the ends are
square, square prisms ; when the
ends are pentagonal, pentagonal
prisms ; and so on. A right prism
has its sides perpendicular to its
ends ; an oblique prism is that of
which the sides are oblique to the
ends. The solid conumt of a prism
is found by multiplying the area of
the base into the perpendicular alti-
tude ; hence all prisms are to one
another in the ratio compounded of
their bases and altitudes." The opti-
cal prism is of three similar sides.

PRIS.MATIC COL(JURS. Light
passing through a prism is divided
into seven colours, called the prix-
matic spectrum ; tiiese colours are, in
their order, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet. They have each
peculiar cliemical properties.

PRH'ET. Ligustrum vulgare. A
small shrub with pretty white flow-
ers and black berries, used as an or-
namental hedging in gardens. They
are readily propagated by seeds, lay-
ers, or cuttings.

P R O B .V .\ G. CEsophagus tube.

See Ox. The tubes (see Fig.) are of

leather, covering a spring; they are

sometimes hollow, and contain a sti-

G41

PRO

PRO

F<7 1

lette. J, Fig., represents the mouth-
piece to keep the jaws open ; it is
fixed between the teeth, and kept in
its place by the strap. The probang
is introduced through the hole in the
wooden centre-piece, or gag. In c
the stilette has a corkscrew end,
which can be made fast in substan-
ces which obstruct the gullet, and
will enable the farmer to pull them
upward.

PROBE. A wire of silver, with a
blunt or sharp point, used to ascer-
tain the depth of wounds, sinuses, &;c.

PROBOSCIS. A trunk, or nasal
projection.

PROCESS. In descriptions, a tu-
mour or eminence on a bone or part.
A proiection.

PROCUMBENT. Laying on the
ground.

PROGNOSIS. A conclusion re-
specting the termination of a disease.

PR0L.\PST;S. a failing out or
protrusion of any part of the body ;
as of the intestines, womb.

PROLEGS. The imperfect legs
of caterpillars.

PROMUSCIS. The suctional or-
gan of the hemiptera.

PROPAGATION. Seeds are the
most general means of propagation,
but they do not perpetuate many im-
proved varieties, especially of fruits ;
buds do, however. Buds are propa-
gated by hidding, grafting, setting
slips, cuttings, layers, offshoots, suck-
ers, and in some plants, as the straw-
berry, by natural runners. The bulb
is a peculiar bud, which also propa-
gates varieties by offsets. Tubers,
or rhizomes, are underground stems,
642

as in the potato, dahlia, flag, and they
propagate the varieties also. " Cut-
tings are portions of shoots, either of
ligneous or herbaceous plants ; and
they are made of the young shoots
with the leaves on, or of the ripened
wood either with or without its
leaves ; and after they have, either
in an herbaceous state with the
leaves on, or with the wood mature,
and with or without the leaves, been
properly prepared and planted, they
form roots at their lower extremity,
each cutting becoming a perfect plant.
In general, cuttings should be taken
from those shoots of a plant which are
nearest the soil ; because, from the
moisture and shade there, such shoots
are more predisposed to emit roots
than those on the upper part of the
plant. The young, or last-formed
shoots, are to be taken in preference
to such as are older, as containing
more perfect buds in an undeveloped
state, and a bark more easily perme-
able by roots ; and the cutting is to be
prepared by cutting its lower extrem-
ity across at a joint, the lenticells, or
root-buds, being there most abundant.
When the cutting is planted, the prin-
cipal part of the art consists in ma-
king it quite firm at the lower extrem-
ity, so as completely to exclude the air
from the wounded section. Cuttings
emit roots at this section, either in
consequence of the action of the ac-
cumulated sap in the cutting, as in
the case of the ripened wood in de-
ciduous trees and shrubs ; or in con-
sequence of the joint action of the
accumulated sap and of the leaves,
as in the case of cuttings of soft wood

PRO

PRO

with the leaves on, and in a living
state. A few plants are propagated
by cuttings of the leaves, the petiole
of the leaf being slipped off from the
parent plant, and ])r()l)ab!y containing
the latent emliryos of buds. (Jraft-
ing and budding are processes which
have been already explained. In-
arching may be described as a spe-
cies of grafting, in which the scion is
not separated from the [)arent plant till
it has become united with tiie stock."

PROPEns. The same as prolegs.

PROPHYLACTIC. Prevcntmg
disease.

PROPORTIONS, CHEMICAL.
See Equivalents and Atom.

PROSENCH YMA. Elongated cel-
lular tissue, as that of woody struc-
tiues.

PROTEIN. The pure basis of the
animal principles : it is separated
from albumen, or fibrin, by dissolving
them in caustic potash, and precipita-
ting by acetic acid. It is gelatinous,
gray ; when dry, semitransparent,
and insoluble. Its composition is C
55-7 . H 6-8 . N IGI . O 21 2 ; formu-
la (Mulder) C40 H:u N3 O^ (Liebig
construes the composition into C+s
N(5 H36 Oh) ; symbol Pr. It is a body
of great interest, since in its combi-
nations with sulphur, phosphorus,
ammonia, &c., most animal tissues
are formed. Thus 10 Pr. -^sulphur,
i phosphorus, is albumen. 10 Pr.,2
sulphur, ^ phosphorus, is another form
of albumen.

PROTOTHORAX. The first seg-
ment of the thorax in insects.

PROTO-SALTS. Oxides ; com-
pounds, the bases of which are com-
bined with but one equivalent of ox-
ygen.

PROTOZOA. The lowest animal-
cules.

PROTRACTOR. " A mathemat-
ical instrument for laying down an-
gles on paper, used in surveying,
plotting, &c.

" In its simplest form, the protract-
or consists merely of a semicircular
limb of metal divided mto 180% and
subtended by a diameter, in the mid-
dle of which is a notch to mark the
position of the centre. On placing

this notch over tlie angular point, and
laying the diameter along a given
straight line, an angle of any number
of degrees may be made by marking
the point on the paper which coin-
cides with the given degree on the
limb, and joining this point witli the
centre when the instrument is re-
moved. The protractor is rendered
more commodious by transferring the
divisions to the edge of a parallel ruler.
" When a survey is to be plotted
on a large scale, and it becomes ne-
cessary, in consequence, to lay down
the angles with considerable precis-
ion, a more complex apparatus is re-
quired. The most approved form of
the protractor may be described as
follows : It consists of an entire cir-
cle, connected with its centre by four
radial bars. The centre of the metal
is removed, and a circular disk of
glass fixed in its place, on which are
drawn two lines crossing each other
at right angles, the point of intersec-
tion denoting the centre of the pro-
tractor. Round the centre, and con-
centric with the circle, is fitted a col-
lar carrying two arms, one of which
has a vernier at its extremity adapt-
ed to the divided circle ; and the oth-
er a milled head, which turns a pin-
ion working in a toothed rack round
the exterior edge of the instrument.
The rack and pinion give motion to
the arms, which can thus be turned
quite round the circle, and set the
vernier to any angle that may be re-
quired. Each of the two arms is pro-
longed beyond the edge of the pro-
tractor, and carries a fine steel prick-
er, which is pressed down when the
instrument is placed in its required
position, and makes a small puncture
in the paper. It is essential that the
points of the two prickers and the
centre of the instrument be accu-
rately in the same straight line." —
{Simms on Mathematical Instruments.)
PROTUSILE. Capable of being
protruded and withdrawn.

PROVENDER. Dry food. See
! Fodders.

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. The
I separation of a compound organic
I body into its several complex parts,
643

PRU

PRU

as the flour of wheat into starch, '
sugar, gum, fibrin, gluten, alljumen.
These are also called proxnnair prin-
ciples. Tliis kind of analysis is made
by means of solvents, as alcohol, |
ether, water, potash, and acids : it is j
coarse and unsatisfactory. j

PRr.NLXG. "The art of cutting
off parts of plants, and more espe-
cially of trees and shrubs, with a
view to strengthening those which
remain, or of l)ringing the tree or
plant into particular forms, calcula-
ted to increase particular products.
Pruning, therefore, varies according
to the kind of plant or tree to be
pruned, and according to the object
in view. In the case of forest-
trees, the general object of pruning
is to increase the quantity of tim-
ber in the trunk by diminishing the
side branches, commencing at the
lower part of the tree when it is
quite young, and gradually advancing
upward as the tree increases in
growth. In the case of hedges, the
object is to produce a dense mass
from the ground upward, which is ef-
fected by shortening the side branch-
es. In the case of pruning trees
which are cultivated for the sake of
their fruit or blossoins, the object is
to thin out the branches so as to ad-
mit the light and air more freely to
their leaves and blossoms, and to
concentrate and increase the nour-
ishment to the branches which re-
main. In the case of trees or shrubs
cultivated for the beauty of their
shapes, whether natural or artificial,
the object of pruning is to deprive the
trees or shrubs of all those branches
which deviate from or interfere with
the natural shape, or witii tlie form
which is intended to be produced by
art. In pruning with a view to pro-
duce fruit, it is necessary to know on
what description of branches and
buds the fruit is produced. In some
trees, as in the peach, it is generally
produced on the wood of the prece-
ding year ; in others, as in the apple
and pear, it is generally produced on
wood of two years' growth ; and in
the vine it is produced on shoots of
the current year. The general effect
644

of pruning on plants is to increase
their longevity ; since the tendem^y
of all vegetables is to exbaust them-
selves, and, consequently, to shorten
their duration, by the production of
seeds. In the operation of pruning,
the shoots are cut off close to the
buds, or at a distance from them not
greater than the diameter of the
branch to be cut off; because, with-
out the near proximity of a bud, the
wounds will not heal over. In shoots
which produce their buds alternately,
the cut is made at the back of the bud,
sloping from it, so as that it may be
readily covered by bark in the same
or in the followmg year. This is
readily done with a pruning knife, by
a slanting cut, made at an angle of
45" with the direction of the branch ;
but in the case of branches where
the buds are produced opposite each
other, either one bud must be sacri-
ficed, or the branch must be cut off at
right angles to its line of direction,
and is more conveniently done by the
pruning shears. The operation of
pruning may, in many cases, he su-
perseded by rubbing off, or pinching
out the leaf-buds, so as to prevent
superfluous shoots from being pro-
duced."'— {Lindlcy.)

Where bleeding occurs in summer
pruning, the stem should be first
pinched by the thumb and finger, to
destroy the tissues, and removed
when dead : in this way vines and
figs may be pruned at any time. The
best time for pruning trees is in June
and July, when the wounds heal
readilv

PRUNING KNIFE. " A knife the
blade of which has a straight edge,
formed of well-tempered steel, and
of no great breadth, with a narrow
point, in order that it may be more
readily introduced among crowded
branches. Formerly, pruning-knives
were hooked at the point ; but the
cuts made by such knives had a ten-
dency to crush the shoot, and leave
a rough section, more readily injured
by the air and water, and less likely
to be speedily healed over. Such
knives, when of a large size, were
called pruning hooks.

PUL

PUM

PRUNING SHEARS. Shears in i insects, enabling thcin to walk on the

ceiling of rooms against gravity.

PUMICE. Porous lava. It consists
of silica, 775 ; alumina, 175 ; potash
and soda, 30 ; oxide of iron, 1-75.

PUMICED FOOT. In farriery, a
wide-spread hoof, the sole of which is
flat with the ground.

PUMP. This machine is of great
use on the farm fur many purpo-
ses. The various forms may often

which one of the blades moves on a
pivot, which works in an oblong open-
ing instead of a circular one, by
which means a draw cut is produced
smiilar to that effected by a knife,
instead of the crushing cut produced
by common shears, which fractures
the section left on the branch, and
renders it liable to become diseased,
or to decay, instead of being covered
over with fresh bark. Pruning shears ! be employed for collecting or distrib-
are particularly adapted for cutting \ uting fluids. " Though the forms un-
spiny or prickly shrubs, such as the der which this useful engine is con-
different species of thorns, gooseber- structed, and the mode in which the
nes, or roses. power is applied, may be modified in

PRUSSIC ACID. Hydrocyanic an infinite number of ways, there are
acid. See Cyanogen. It is distilled
from many flowers and seeds, which
owe their odour to it, as peaches,
cherries, apple seeds, &.c.

P S E U D O. A common prefix,
meaning false.

PTYALISM. Increased sali-
vation.

PUBESCENT, PUBESCENCE.
Covered with soft hairs.

P U C COO N. American alkanet.
Balschia. canescens. A perennial-root-
ed plant of the borage tribe, the root
of wliich yields a red pigment, with
wiuch the Indians colour themselves.

PUDDINGSTONE. A conglom-
erate.

PUDDLING. Ramming clay with
sand and water until it is converted
into an impervious mortar.

PUERPERAL. Relating to partu-
rition.

PUFF-BALL. The genus Lycoper-
don yields numerous pufT-balls. The
dust was at one time used to stop
bleeding from wounds, as a stvptic.

PUGGING. The stuff laid be-
tween floors to deaden sound.

PUGIL. A pinch of any stuff.
PULMONARIES. A kind of spi-
der.

PULMONARY,
lungs.

only three which can be considered
as differing from each other in prin-
ciple. These are the sucking pump,
the forcing pump, and the lifting pump,
so called from the manner in which
they act.

" The sucking pump, or common
household pump, is an apparatus of
which the principle and construction
will be evident fiom the annexed fig-
ure. A A is a pipe of any convenient
length, the lower end of Fig. l

which reaches below the
surface of the water in the
well or reservoir ; B is a bar-
rel, generally of greater di-
ameter than the pipe ; C a
valve opening upward ; D a
piston moved by the rod E :
in this piston there is also a
valve opening upward. When
the piston is raised, the air
in the barrel between the valves is
expanded, and its tension, conse-
quently, diminished ; the pressure of
the air in the pipe, therefore, opens
the valve C, and the whole air in the
pipe and barrel becomes less dense.
In this state the atmospheric press-
ure on the surface of the water caus-
es it to rise in the pipe, until the ten- '
Relating to the I sion of the confined air becomes equal
1 to the pressure of the atmosphere.
PULQUE. The fermented juice i On again depressing the piston, the
of the Mexican aloe {Agave Amer- \ valve in it opens, and the air passes
jcana). through it from the barrel as it de-

PULSE. Leguminous crops. scends ; but the valve, C, is closed

PLLVILLI. The hairs, or a mem- by the downward pressure, and the
braue, which covers the feet of some , volume of water which has entered

645

PUMP.

the pipe remains. On again raising
the piston, llie same effect is repeal-
ed, and an additional ijiiantity of wa-
ter enters the pipe, 'i'liii.s, l)v tiie al-
ternating motion of the piston, a col-
umn of water is raised in the pipe
until it reaches the piston when at
the bottom of the barrel, and the
whole of the air below it has been
excluded. On raising the piston
when the water has reached it, the
fluid will be compelled to follow by
the pressure of the atmosphere on its
surface in the well. When the pis-
ton is again depressed, Uie water
flows through the valve in it, and as-
cends into the barrel, and by the suc-
ceeding strokes of the piston is lifted
up until it reaches and flows out of
the spout, F.

" Although in theory the limit of
the height to which water may be
raised by the sucking pump, from the
surface of the fluid in the well to the
highest position of the moveable pis-
ton, is about thirty-four feet (the
height of a colunm of water which
balances the pressure of the atmo-
sphere), it is not found practicable,
with pumpo of the ordinary construc-
tion, to raise it more than about twen-
ty-eight feet. The difference arises
from the difficulty of making the ap-
paratus absolutely air-tight.

''The forci7i<r pump is represented
in Fig. -i. The piston-rod, E D, is
attached to a solid
plunger, D, adjusted to
the cavity of the bar-
rel. A pipe, G H, fur-
nished with a valve,
F, opening outward,
communicates with
the barrel at G. On el-
evating the plunge r,D,
the water will ascend
through the valve, C,
in the same manner as
in the sucking pump,
till the barrel is filled to D. Now when
the plunger is depressed, the valve,
C, will shut, and the water between
D and C be forced through the valve
F into the pipe G H. When the
plunger is raised, the valve at F shuts,
the pressure on its under side being
646

removed, so that the water which
was forced into the pipe liy the pre-
vious stroke cannot return into the
barrel. At the next stroke of the
piston more water is again forced
into the pipe, and so on till it is rais-
ed to the height required.

" In this pump the pipe, A A, may
be dispensed with, and the barrel, B,
immersed in the reservoir ; in which
case the action of the pump is inde-
pendent of the atmospheric pressure,
and could be maintained equally well
in a vacuum.

" In order to produce a continued
stream through the pipe, G H, an air

Vxg. 3.

vessel, m n, may be
attached to tlie lateral
branch above the valve
F, Fig. 3. The pipe,
G H, reaches to near
the bottom of the air-
vessel ; and when the
water has been forced
into the vessel by the
action of the pump, un-
til it reaches above the
lower end of the pipe at G, it is evi-
dent that, as all communication is
then cut off with the external atmo-
sphere, every additional quantity of
water thrown into the vessel will tend
more and more to compress the air
within it, which, acting by its press-
ure on the surface of the water, for-
ces it through the pipe, G H, in a con-
tinued stream.

" The lifting pump is represented
by Fig. 4. The barrel of the pump
is immersed in the water
and fixed to an immovea-
ble frame. The piston,
with its bucket and valve,
C, opening upward, is at-
tached at E to another
frame, G H I K L, consist-
ingof twostrongiron rods,
H I and LK, which move
through holes in frame-
work to which the pump
is fixed. An inclined
branch, M N, either fixed to the top
of the barrel, or moveable by means
of a ball and socket, is fitted exactly
to the barrel, and furnished with a
valve at M. Suppose the barrel im-

Fia. i.

PUP

inersed in the water to a certain depth :
if the piistou frame be now thrust down
by the handle at Cr, the piston will
descend, and the water be forced by
its upward pressure tiirougli tlie valve
C, so as to maintain the same level
in the pump as in the well. But when
the piston frame is elevated, the valve
C will shut (as shown in the figure),
and the water above C be lificd up
with the piston, and forced througli
the valve M into the branch, M N, from
which its return will be prevented by
the shutting of the valve M when the
piston descends.

" In each of these different kinds
of pumps which have been described,
the total effort required to work the
machine, independently of friction, is
equal to the weight of a column of
water, the base of which is equal to
the area of a section of the working
barrel, and the altitude equal to the
distance between the surface of the
water in the reservoir and the point
to which it is raised. In the suck-
ing pump the whole of this effort is
expended in raising the piston ; in
the forcing pump one part is expend-
ed in raising and the other in de-
pressing the piston, and it is advan-
tageous to dispose the machinery so
that these two parts shall be nearly
equal. In small pumps for domestic
purposes, the strength of man is usu-
ally employed as the moving power ;
but in raising water from great depths,
as the bottom of mines, the steam-
engine is applied to this purpose." —
{Brandc's E/icyclopirdia.)

PUMPKIN. Citcurbila pcpo. The
best varieties are the family, mam- '
moth, Connecticut field, white bell,
Valparaiso. They are cultivated like
melons, but may be planted in corn-
fields. They are kept during the
winter by placing them on shelves in
a cellar where the temperature is
uniform and not below the freezing ''
point. They form admirable food for
stock, and are extensively employed
in the West to fatten hogs.

PLNCHEOxN. A measure of 84
gallons ; a short post.

PUNCTATE. Dotted. !

PUPA. A nymph, grub, or chrysalis, i

PUT

PUPIPARES, PUPIPAR.A. Those

insects are said to be pupiparoua
which produce their young in tiie con-
dition of a pupa or nymph, as the for-
est tly {Hippobosca equina).

PUPIVOllES, PUPIVORA. The
name of a tribe of hymeuopterous in-
sects, comprehending those of which
the larvaj live parasitically in the in-
terior of the larvaj and pupaj of oth-
er insects.

PURGATIVES. Medicines which
produce purging. See Pliannacopaia.
PURGING. Often used for diar-
rhoea or over-purging. See the ani-
mals respectively.

PURIFORM. Like pus.
I PURLINE. In building, a piece
, of timber lymg on the principal raft-
ers to support them in the middle.

PURPURIC ACID. A red com-
pound produced by the action of nitric
acid on uric acid.

PURSIVENESS, PURSINESS.
Shortness of breath.

PURSLANE. Portulacca olera-
cea. An annual with succulent leaves,
partially cultivated as a salad and
pot-herb.

PUS, MATTER. A yellow, cream-
like fiuid formed in abscesses and
from w^ounds. It contains globules,
and is blood modified by inflammato-
ry action.

PUT AMEN. The shell of a fruit.
The endocarp.
PUT LOGS,
in scaffolding.

PUTREFACTION. The foetid de-
composition of animal and vegetable
substances containing much nitrogen.
The bad odours are due to the for-
mation of compounds of sulphur and
ammonia with sulphuretted hydro-
gen. Putrefaction can only take place
when oxygen is present with moist-
ure, and a temperature above 32°
Fahrenheit. Everything which hin-
ders the accomplishment of these
conditions hinders putrefaction, as
drying, salting, coldness, placing in
air-tight vessels. Saline substances
hinder putrefaction by either coagu-
lating and changing the nitrogen com-
pound, or withdrawing the water by
their greater affinity.

647

Short timbers used

QUA

PUTTY. In building, a fine ce-
ment of lime only. In glazing, a com
pound of drying oil, linseed oil, and
whiting.

PYLORUS. The passage or valve
of the stomach into the intestines.

PYUrj'KS. Native sulphurets of
iron or copper.

PYKO (from nvp, fire). A com-
mon chemical prefix, indicating com-
pounds modified by the action of heat,
as pvrophosphoric, pvrotartaric acids.

PYROACETIC SPIRIT. A vol-
atile, inflammable, and limpid fluid,
formed by the distillation of acetate
of lead. It is also called acetone.

PYROLIGXEOUS ACID. The
vinegar (acetic acid) procured by dis-
tilling wood. It contains creasote
and other tarry compounds, but is
extensively used to form solution of
iron or red liquor for dyers. Its com-
pounds are called pvrolignites.

PYROLIGNEOUS SPIRIT,
PYROXYLIC SPIRIT. Hydrate of
mythylene, wood naphtha, a very
vwlatile, inflammable fluid, from dis-
tilled wood, sometimes used for
lamps. It is one of the most pow-
erful antiseptics, but of an unpleas-
ant odour.

PYROMETER. An instrument
for measuring degrees of heat above
600"^ Fahr. They are all very im-
perfect except Daniel's, and seldom
used.

PYROSIS. Acidity of the stom-
ach, with a discharge of hot fluid into
the throat and mouth.
PYROXENE. Augite.
PYROXYLIU SPIRIT. Pyrolig-
neous spirit

PYXIDIUM (from Tnfif, a small
box). A fruit which splits into an
upper and lower half, as that of the
pimpernel.

QUADRICORXES. A family of
wingless insects, with four antennae.

QUADRIFID. Four-cleft.

QUADRILATERAL. Four-sided.

QUADRIPENXATES. A tribe of
insects with four membranous wings.

QUAGGA. A quadruped allied to
the zebra.
648

QUI

QUAGMIRE. A muddy, soft bog
or marsh.

Q U A I L. The genus Coturnix.
Birds like the partridge, but of pas-
sage.

QUAKING GRASS. The genus
Briza.

QUART. The fourth of a gallon.

QUARTAN. An intermittent fe-
ver, appearing everv fourth day.

QUARTER. Eight bushels, a
fourth {)art.

QIJ.ARTZ. Silica, silicic acid crys-
tallized, rock crystal.

QUARRY'. A pit or excavation,
from whence stones are taken, by
blasting or otherwise.

QU.\SSIA. A bitter wood, from
the Q. cxcclsa of South America. A
strong decoction, sweetened with su-
gar, is a certain and safe poison for
flies.

QUEEN POST. In building, an
upright post in a roof for suspending
the beam when the principal rafters
do not meet in the ridge.

QUERCITRON BARK. The in-
ner bark of the black oak. See Oak.

QUICKLIME. Caustic, fresh-
burned lime.

QUICKSILVER. Mercury.

QUICKS. The young white thorns.

QUICKSET HEDGE. A hedge
of white thorn.

QUINATE. Five-parted.

QUINCE. Cydonia vulgaris. A
well-known fruit, readily cultivated
from seed, cuttings, and suckers.
The stocks are much used for working
pears and apples, which they bring
forward, but render short-lived. The
Portuguese, eatable, orange, and
musk kinds are most esteemed ; the
Chinese is very long.

The quince prefers a moist, loose
soil ; it requires little pruning, ex-
cept the removal of suckers. The
fruit is chieflv used for preserves.

QUINCUNX. In the following

order °o°, with one at each corner.

o o '

and a fifth in the centre of the s(]uare
QUININE. The active principle

of Peruvian bark, a white, crystalline

alkaloid.

QUINOA or PERUVIAN RICE.

I

RAC

RAG

Ckenopoiihim quinoa. A plant of the
Andes, similar to the gousefoots, the
leaves of which are used as spinach.
The seeds are very nutritious, and
are eaten hoiled in soups.

QUINSEY. " Indammation of the
tonsils. This is common intianima-
tory sore tiiroat : it is not infectious.
It hegfins with pain on one side of the
throat, and swelling of the tonsil, at-
tended by febrile symptoms, which
sometimes run high, especially as the
tumefaction advances ; there is great
restlessness and anxiety, and often
the utmost difficulty of swallowing
even liquids, and of breathing. Tlie
disease has proved fatal by producing
sutfocation, but it generally termi-
nates in resolution or suppuration :
in the latter case the abscess breaks,
and a good deal of pus is discharged,

one of the chief causes of the blind-
ness of horses.

RACKING FUTIDS. Decanting;
separating the clear portions from
the dregs. The barrel into which
the fluid is racked should be perfectly
clean and fumigated with sulphur.

RADIANT. A luminous spot or
bodv.

RADIATION. The emission of
rays of heat or light through air or
space, whereby little is lost.

RADICAL. A base in chemistry.
Compound radical is a compound base
in organic bodies.

RADICLE. The miniature root
of the embryo. Also, small roots.

R.VDISH. Raphanus sativus. An
annual cruciferous plant, cultivated
for its roots. Varieties : Long scar-
let, scarlet turnip, white turnip-root-

and the patient is at once relieved of ed. long w"hite Naples, purple turnip,

all his urgent symptoms ; hut it oc-
casionally happens that the other side
of tiie throat becomes affected, and
goes through the same stages."

QUITCH GRASS. Couch grass.

QUOIN. The corner of a building.

R.

A moulding.
Lepus cuniculus.

RABBET.

RABBIT
well-known rodent. They breed at
si.x months, and have seven to eight
young in a litter. They devour the
young, green vegetation of the farm-
er, but are readily kept, and yield
an abundant supply of food. The
dung IS of the same character as that
of sheep.

RACEME. A form of inflores-
cence, consisting of a main stem with
stalked flowers arranged along it.

RACE.VIIC ACID. An old name
for a form of tartaric acid ; the para-
tartaric acid.

R.\CHIS. An upright axis of in-
florescence.

RACK. A railed space above the
manger, in which grass is placed.
Below should be a box to collect the
grass seeds. The rack should not be
placed above the animal's head ; for
the dust of the hay, falling into his
eyes, may produce irritation, and, ul-
timately, blindness.
I I I

white Spanish, black Spanish. The
early crops must be forwarded in
frames and hot-beds. Warm bor-
ders are also selected for crops in
May. The seed is sowed broad-cast
or in drills nine inches apart. The
soil should be light, drained, and mod-
erately fertile. A\hen the crop is
large, 10 to 14 lbs. of seed the acre
are employed. The leaves are in-
fested by skipping beetles, and should
be sprinkled with air-slacked lime,
snuff, &LC. The roots are also sub-
ject to a maggot. The green pods
are sometimes pickled, and the young
plants used as salad.

RADISH, WILD. The charlock,
a weed.

RADIUS. The length of a straight
line drawn from the centre to the cir-
cumference of a circle.

RADIUS BONE. Oneof the bones
of the forearm.

RAFTER. A timber of the roof

RAFTERING LAND. Ploughing
only half the land, and turning the
grass side of each furrow'-slice upon
an unploughed bed.

R.VG. Woollen rags are very use-
ful as a manure. They are chopped
line, and used at the rate of half a
ton to the acre. They last four or
five years, and advance vegetation,

This is, indeed, 1 especially the bop.

The rags, by de-
649

RAI

RAP

cay, become pon verted into carbonate ;
of aininonia, in tlie sanu; way as hair
and horns, with wliich manures they
are identical. I

R A G WEE D. GROUNDSEL.
Composite-flowered weeds.

R A I L. Tlie horizontal parts of
framing. Pieces of timber of 12 feet,
used lor fencing. I

R A I N. 'J"hc water of Clouds,
which see. 'J'he average amount
that falls in tliis state is 35 inches,
the largest amount following south-
west and northwest winds. Rain is !
a true manure, containing carbonic '
acid, a little ammonia, and saline ,
matters. It is preferable to preserve !
it in tanks, for watering gardens,
than to use well water.

RAINBOW. A display of the pris-
matic colours in the air, produced by
the action of particles of water on the
sun's rays.

RAIN GAUGE. An instrument
to measure the amount of rain fallen.
A convenient form of the instrument
is represented in the annex-
ed figure, where the rain
which enters the funnel is
collected in a cylindrical
vessel of copper, connected ',
with which, at the lower
part, is a glass tube with an
attached scale. The water
stands at the same height in the cyl-
inder and glass tube, and being visi-
ble in the latter, the height is read
immediately on the scale ; and the
cylinder and tube being constructed
so that the sum of the areas of their
sections is a given part, for instance,
a tenth, of the area of the funnel at
its orifice, each inch of water in the
tube is equivalent to the tenth of an
inch of water entering the mouth of
the funnel. A stop-cock is added,
by which the water is drawn offwhen
the observation is made. It should
be placed in an open space.

R.\I.SINS. Grapes allowed to dry
on the vine. As soon as they are
ripe, the leaves are pruned off", and
none hut sound fruit left. The stalk
is also half cut through. When dry,
they are plucked, dipped in a solution !
of lye, and dried ou frames. 1

650

RAISING PLATE. The timber
to which the upper ends of the raf-
ters are nailed.

RAKE. An implement consisting
of one or more rows of long teeth,
to tear the ground or collect hay,
&c. The revolving hay rake is fig-
ured under Hay-makiyi<:. The horse-
rake is only a large rake drawn by a
horse, and furnished with handles to
be held by a labourer.

RAM. The male of the sheep.
Sec Sheep.

RA.MENTA. Thin, brown scales
seen on ferns and voung shoots.

RAMOSE. Branched.

RAMPKJNS. Campamtla rapurf
cultis. Tiiis is cultivated, to a limit-
ed extent, for its roots, which are
said to be better than radishes. They
are cultivated like radishes, and are
fit for use in September and the fall.
The soil should be rather moist. The
roots are eaten raw, in salads, sliced
with the leaves, or they may be boiled,
and treated as asparagus. Seed is
obtained by setting out a few of the
last year's roots in spring.

PvANID.E. The reptiles resem-
bling the frog (rana).

RANUNCULUS. Plants resem-
bling the buttercup and crowsfoot.
They are vile weeds in meadows,
inany of thein being acrid and poi-
sonous. They have been much im-
proved for the flower garden.

RAPE. Brassica napus. " This
plant, which is of the cabbage tribe,
is cultivated, like cole, or colza, for
the sake of its seeds, from which oil
is extracted by grinding and i)ressure.
It is also extensively cultivated in
England for the succulent food which
its thick and fleshy stern and leaves
supply to sheep when other fodder is
scarce.

" The mode of cultivation of the col-
za and rape forseed is nearly the same.
The colza takes a longer time to come
to maturity, and produces more seed.
The rape grows on less fertile soils,
and may be sowed in spring as well
as in autumn. Both are hardy, and
resist the winter's frost.

" The seed-bed. where tlie cultiva-
tion is on a small scale, is usually

\

RAPE.

prepared by digo:ing or trenching with
the spade in a good loamy soil, nei-
ther too sandy nor too wet. A large
pro|)ortion of rotten dung is spread
evenly over it, and dug in six inches
deep, and the surface is raked fine.
The seed is sowed broad-cast or in
drill ; the latter is the best method :
it is then slightly covered with the
rake ; and if the ground will allow
of It, without risk of its being bound
too hard in case of dry weatiier, it is
well rolled or trodden with the feet.
The seed must not be sowed too
thick ; and the plants, as soon as
they have six leaves, must be thin-
ned to a distance of four or live inch-
es in the rows, which wdl make them
stronger and better furnished with
roots. One acre of seed-bed will fur-
nish plants for ten acres or more.
The seed is sowed in July or August,
that the plants may not run to seed
the same year, which they are apt to
do if sowed early ; and they are trans-
planted in September or October, on
land which has already borne a prof-
itable crop. As this crop is a substi-
tute for a fallow on rich, heavy land,
too much pains cannot be taken to j
keep it free from weeds. Winter
barley and rye, which are reaped,
early in July, are very proper crops
to be succeeded by rape or colza. |
The stubble should be ploughed two i
or three times, to pulverize and clean '
it. A goodcoat of rotten dung should 1
be put on, and the land ploughed in '
ridges, as for turnips. The plants
should be put in on the ridges ten
inches apart. It requires great care,
in taking them up, not to break the
fibres of the roots ; they should be
raised with a fork, and placed gently,
with the fine earth adhering to them,
in flat baskets, and in a slanting posi-
tion, so that the tops may be upward.
In planting, the holes should be made
with a large, thick dibble, that the
plants may be introduced without
doubling up the principal roots or
breaking tlie fibres. The earth should
be pressed to the root by a short dib-
ble, inserted to the right or left of the
h(jle made by the first dibble ; or,
which IS better iii sliS soils, a hole

should be made with a narrow hoe
of sulTicient depth to allow the plant
to be placed in it, and another hoe
should follow to draw the earth to
llie ()lant. Thus, two men with hoes,
and one woman, will plant a row more
rapidly than could be done in any oth-
er way. The man who fills up the
holes places his foot by the side of
each plant as he goes on, to press
trie earth to the roots.
' '• An expeditious mode of planting
I rape is used in Flanders. A spade
I ten inches wide is pushed vertically
I into the ground, and, by drawing the
I handle towards his body, the labour-
[ er makes a wedge-like opening; a
woman inserts a plant in each side
of this opening, and when the man
j removes the spade the earth falls
back against the plants. The wom-
I an puts her foot between the two
plants, and they are then fixed in
their places. In this operation the
man moves backward ; and the wom-
an, who puts in the plants, forward.
Instead of the spade, an instrument
is also used called a plan/oir. It con-
sists of two sharp-pointed stakes, a
foot or more apart, connected by a
cross-handle at top, and a bar at about
eight or ten inches from the points.
This instrument is pressed into the
ground by the handles, assisted by
the foot placed on the lower bar, and
makes two holes, a foot apart, into
which the plants are placed, and
earthed round as before. This is
done when the land has not been laid
up into high ridges.

'• When a large field is to be plant-
ed, a more expeditious mode is adopt-
ed ; and this is the most usual prac-
tice in Holland and Germany. The
land having been prepared, and the
manure well incorpora.ted, a deep fur-
row is drawn with the plough ; wom-
en follow with baskets of plants,
which they set, a foot apart, slanting
against the furrow slice. When the
plough returns, the earth is thrown
against these plants, and a man or
woman follows, who, with the foot,
presses the earth down upon the
roots. Sometimes plants are put
into each furrow, which is then teo
651

RAPE.

inches or more wide ; but the best
cultivators put them only in every al-
ternate furrow. In this case, also,
there are no ridges. The season of
the year affords sufficient moisture,
in the north of Europe, to ensure the
growth of tlie |)lanls ; and if they
have escaped the fly in the seed-bed.
they are now tolerably safe ; no far-
ther attention is requisite till spring' ;
the weeds are then carefully extirpa-
ted by hand and hoe, and where the
distance of the plants admits of it,
the light plough stirs the ground be-
tween the rows, throwing the earth
towards the sterns, yet so as to leave
each i)lant in a little basin, to catch
the water and conduct it to the roots.
When the jilants are invigorated with
rich liijuid manure, such as niuht soil
mixed with water, or the drainings
from dunghills, they i)ecome extreme-
ly luxuriant, and every trouble or
expense bestowed upon thein is am-
ply repaid. The difference between
a crop partially neglected and anoth-
er carefully cultivated often exceeds
fifty per cent.

"A moderate return of seed for
colza is thirty bushels per acre ; but
it frequently exceeds tifiy The value
on the Coiitment is nearly the same
as that of wheat. In England it is
somewhat less, owing to the quanti-
ty imported. It is usually sold by
the last of ten quarters.

"There is not much difference
between the value of colza and rape
seed (called 7iavet/e in French), but
the latter produces less. When the
rape is transplanted before winter it
is much more productive than when
sowed in spring In the latter case
it produces seed the same year.- It
is sowed in drills, and thinned out by
the hoe ; and in favourable seasons
a tolerable crop is obtained. It is
generally sowed on land which could
mit be brought into a proper tilth af- '
ter harvest, and which would reqnire
the frost of winter to mellow it.

" Great crops of cole seed and rape
have been produced by merely paring
and burning the surface and plough-
ing in the ashes ; and these crops,
alternating with oats, have iii many [
652

instances so exhausted the soil as to
cause a great prejudice against them
in the minds of the landlords. .Many
leases have a clause prohibiting its
cultivation, except to be eaten green
by sheep. The principal cause, how-
ever, of the diminution of this crop
in England is the inferior price ob-
tained for the seed when compared
with wheat, which can be raised on
the same laud, and is a more certain
crop.

"The rape and colza ripen their
seed very unequally. The lower pods
are ready to burst before those at the
top are full. If the season is wet at
harvest, much of the seed is lost ;
and, without great attention, some
loss is sustained in the most favour-
able seasons. It should be cut when
the dew is on it, and moved as little
as possible. If the weather permits,
it is thrashed out on a cloth in the
field ; and as many thrashers are em-
ployed as can be conveniently col-
lected, that no time may be lost when
the weather is fair. The seed is
spread out on the floor of a grana-
ry, that it may not heat, and is turn-
ed over frequently. It is then sold
to the crushers, who express the oil.
The pods and small branches which
are broken off in thrashing are much
relished by cattle.

" This crop returns little to the
land, and is of itself very exhausting.
Not so, however, is the rape when
sown as food for sheep ; it is, on the
contrary, a valuable substitute for
turnips, upon land which is too wet
and heavy for this root. The Bras-
sica clcracr.a is more succulent than
the Brassica napus. Its stem is not
so hard, and the soft pith which it
contains is much relished by every
kind of live stock. To have it in per-
fection, the land should be prepared
and manured as for turnips. The
rape should be sown in drills, ten
inches apart, about the beginning or
middle of August, which gives ample
time for preparing the land without
interfering with the turnip crop. It
wdl be sufficiently forward before
winter, and it should then be hoed
over once. If the crop is very for-

RAP

ward, it may be slightly fed off; but,
in gtMieral, it is best lu let it iciuaiii
iiiiiuucliud till spring. In the end of
.March and the begnmnig of April it
Will be a great help to the ewes and
lainbs. It will produce e.\.cellent Ibod
till It begins to be in llower, when it
should uninediately be ploughed up.
'ihe ground will be found greatly re-
cruited by this erop, which iias taken
nothing from it, and has added much
by the dung and urine ot tlie sheep.
Whatever be the succeeding crop, it
cannot tail to be productive ; and if
tlie land is not clean, tin.' larnier must
have neglected tlie double opportuni-
ty of destroying weeds in the prece-
ding summer and in the early part of
spring, if the rape is fed olf m lime,
it may be succeeded by barley or
oats, with clover or grass seeds, or
potatoes, if the soil lo not too wet.
'I'hus no crop will be lost, and the
rape will have been a clear addition
to the produce of the land. Any crop
which IS taken olf the land in a green
stale, especially if it be fed off with
sheep, may be repeated, without risk
of failure, provided the land be prop-
erly tilled ; but where cole or rape
have produced seed, they cannot be
profitably sown in less than hve or
SIX years after on the same land.

•• When the oil has been pressed
out from the seed, the residue and
the husk of the seed form a hard cake
known tiy the name of rape-cake.
This IS used on the Continent to feed
cows and pigs with, as we use the
linseed cakes ; but it is also used as
a rich manure. When rape-cake is
ground to a powder and drilled with
the seed on poor, light lands, it sup-
plies nourishment to the young plants,
and greatly accelerates tlieir growth ;
but 11 It be added in a large propor-
tion m immediate contact with the
seed, on heavy, impervious soils, it
often undergoes the putrid fermenta-
tion, which It communicates to the
seed sown, and, instead of nourish-
ing, destroys it. in this case, it is
useful to mix it with some dry, po-
rous earth, or with ashes, which will
prevent the too rapid decomposition ;
sixteen bushels are used to the acre.
I I I 2

RAS

Dissolved in water, and mixed witn
urine, it forms one of the most etli-
cacious of artificial lujuid manures
Hence it is probable tliat the most
advantageous mode of using it on the
land, after it has been dissolved in
the urine tank, is to apply it by means
of a water cart to the rows where tlie
seed has been already drilled, or some
time before it is put in. Where Uax
is to be sosvn, this mixture, applied a
few days belbre the seed is sown, so
as to allow it to sink into the soil, is
considered, in f'landers, as ne.vt in
value to the emptyings of privies,
which with them hold the first rank for
producing fine crops of tlax. When a
crop appears sickly, and not growing
as It should do, owing to poverty in
the soil, a top dressing of rape-cake
dissolved in water, if no urine is at
hand, will generally excite the pow-
ers of vegetation ; and it is highly
probable that it may greatly assist
the effects of saltpetre or of nitrate
of soda, where these salts are applied.
The cultivation of rape or cole for
spring food cannot be too strongly
recommended to the farmers of heavy
clay soils.'' — ( VV. L- Rham.)

RAPE-SEED CAKE. See Rape.

RAPHE. A suture. Parts which
appear as tliougli they had been uni-
ted. In botany, the thread passing
Iroiii the ovule to the placenta.

RAPlllDES. Crystals of oxalate
of potash and other salts lound in the
juice of rhubarbs, docks, and other
plants.

RAPTORES, ACCIPITRES.
Birds of prey, as the hawk, owl, eagle.

RAREFACTION. The act of di-
minishing the density of air or other
bodies : n is done by the air-pump in
the case of air.

RASORES. Scratchers ; gallina-
ceous birds, such as the fowl, turkey,
pheasant, &c.

RASPBERRY. Ruhus idaus.
This shrub, in its wild state, is found
growing in our mountainous woods
and thickets : it flowers in .May and
June. The root is creeping. The
stems are biennial, erect, three or
four feet high, branched, round, pale,
or purplish, more or less besprinkled
653

RAT

RAT

with small, straight, slendor prickles,
'"rcqiiently rather resemhling bristles
than prickles, and sometimes alto-
gether absent. Leaves pinnate, of
five or three ovate, rather angular,
lateral leaflets, serrated or cut, and
angular, green, and nearly smooth
above, ^ery downy beneath, and a
larger terminal leaflet. The foot-
Btalks are furrowed, downy, and
prickly, with narrow lateral stipules.
'I'hv, flowers are small, white, or pink-
ish-white, pendulous, in drooping ter-
minal clusters. Fruit crimson, of
numerous juicy grains, beset with the
permanent styles, and highly fra-
grant, with a very deliciously-per-
fumed, sweet, and acid flavour, more
exquisite in the wild state, in general,
than Vv'hen cultivated.

"The wood of the raspberry bush
produces fruit but one year, there-
fore that should be carefully cut down
below the surface of the earth, and
the young shoots should be shorten-
ed to about two feet high ; and not
more than three or four shoots should
be left to each root, as these will [iro-
duce a greater number of berries, and
larger Iruit, than would be obtained
if twice that number of suckers were
left. The middle or end of October
is the proper time for this pruning.
The fruit is produced from young
branches out of the last year's shoots
or suckers. l"he plants raised by
layers are much preferred to those
taken from suckers ; they should also
have plenty of room, for when there
is not space for the air and light to
pass between the rows, the fruit will
be small, and will not ripen well.
They require a fresh, strong loam,
deeply trenched and well manured in
the lirst instance, for in warm, light
ground they |)ro(luce but little fruit.

" The following selection is recom-
mended fur a small garden : Barnet,
Cornish, double-bearing red Antwerp,
Williams's preserving yellow Ant-
werp.' ' — (Joh nson.)

RAT. Mas raftus. "Few animals
are more destructive of every kind of
grain than rats. When a barn is in-
fested with them, it is scarcely pos-
sible to get rid of them. They will
654

leave it for a time, and the farmer
imagines that they are all destroyed ;
but no sooner is the corn brought in
than they resume their depredations.
There are means, however, of de-
stroying them, and some of these
means are equally eflectual and inge-
nious. The most obvious way of de-
stroying rats is to poison them, which
appears an easy matter ; but it is not
so without an accurate knowledge of
the habits of these creatures. Their
sense of smelling is more acute than
we can well conceive, and their cau-
tion is not easily deceived. It is dif-
ficult to entice them with food when
they have plenty of grain to satisfy
their hunger. Patience and perse-
verance alone can lull their caution
to rest.

" The principle on which all rat-
catchers proceed is to entice the rats
to some particular spot convenient
for their future operations. There
are some strong scents which these
animals seem to delight in, and by
means of these their natural sagacity
is deceived. Oil of rhodium, of cara-
way, or anise seed, and musk, are
great favourites with rats. Rags im-
pregnated with these, and which have
not been in contact with any part of
the body of a man, being laid, as if
by accident, will induce them to come
out of their hiding-places in the night,
and frequent the spot where the smell
attracts them. Gradually they will
become familiarized \vith the place ;
and pieces of tallow, or cheese, or
malt-dust may be placed near with-
out exciting their suspicion. After
they have been fed for a time, they
will readily eat anything thai may be
thrown down, provided it has not
been touched by the hand without the
covering of a glove properly scented.
It will take some time to accom-
plish this ; and when they are to be
poisoned, a quantity of poisoned food,
similar to what they have been ac-
customed to feed on, must be pre-
pared, sufficient to poison all those
which are supposed to frequent the
place. The poisons commonly used
are arsenic, nux vomica, powdered
Spanish flies, and cocculus indicus,

RAT

REA

which intoxicates them, so that they ]
may be taken l)y the hand. A small
chamber, or a large chest or box, is
convenient to collect the rats ; and
in order to induce them to go in,
pieces of toasted cheese, or red her-
ring, are trailed along the ground
from the rat holes to the place where
it is wished that they should assem-
ble. As soon as they have been ac-
customed to find food which they Hke,
they will all come to it in the night;
and they can be poisoned, or caught
by some contrivance by which the
only entrance to the place or box can
be suddenly closed. ^Vhen traps are
set, they should be left open for a
time, and the rats allowed to go in
and out without hinderance, till they
crowd together in them, and can be
taken in great numbers. When rats
have been caught in a trap, and have
soiled it with their excrements, it
should not be washed nor much han-
dled : it should be left in the same
spot as h)ng as any rats are caught.
Any change of position excites their
caution. An ingenious trap is made
by stretching a piece of parchment
over the open end of a cask, and en-
ticing the rats to eat the food laid
upon the parchment. When they
have evidently been there to feed,
cross cuts, a few inches long, are
made in the parchment with a pen-
knife ; and in the bottom of the tub,
which has four inches of water in it,
a brick is set on its edge, so as to
rise just out of the water. The rats
coming for food, as usual, some one
soon slips through the parchment,
and, falling into the water, seeks ref-
uge on the brick ; as more fall in,
they fight for the possession of the
brick, and their noise attracts all the
rats within hearing. Thus it is said
that a great number may be caught
in one night."

RATCHET. A small lever which
plays into the teeth of a ratchet-
wheel, and allows it to turn freely
onlv in one direction.

RATTLESNAKE. Snakes of the
genus Crotalus. Their bite is ex-
tremely venomous. The wound
should be cut out and scarified, and

the patient sustained by brandy and
ammonia.

RATTLESNAKE ROOT. Sen-
ega root.

RAT'S T.-ML. A disease in hor-
ses, in which the hair of the tail is
permanently lost.

REAPING. " The common reap-
ing-hook, or sickle, with which grain
is cut, is one of the oldest instruments
of husbandry. In reaping with it, a
portion of the stems is collected with
the left hand and held fast, while the
sickle in the right hand is inserted
below the left, taking the stems in
its semicircular blade, and cutting
them through by drawing the sickle
so as to act as a saw, for which pur-
pose the edge is finely serrated in a
direction from the point to the han-
dle. The heads of the grain, with the
upper part of the straw, are then laid
on the ground in quantities, which
may readily be collected into a sheaf.
Practice soon gives dexterity to the
reaper, and he finds it more expedi-
tious to cut small quantities in suc-
cession, until he has filled his hand,
than to attempt to cut through a large
handful at once. Severe wounds are
often inflicted on the fingers of the
left hand by beginners, even to the
loss of a finger ; but this soon makes
them cautious and expert. The di-
vision of labour is introduced with
advantage among a band of reapers.
A certain number cut the grain, while
others follow to gather the sheaves ;
some only preparing the bands, and
others tying them and setting up the
sheaves into stooks, or shocks, wiiich
usually consist of ten or twelve
sheaves. The smaller the sheaves
are, the less injury the grain sustains
in a wet harvest, as the moisture in
a thick sheaf does not so readily evap-
orate. Hence it is the interest of
the farmer to see that the reapers do
not make the sheaves too large. la
many places there is a regular meas-
ure ior the circumference of a sheaf,
which should never exceed thirty inch-
es. The bands are made by taking
two small handfuls of the cut grain
and crossing them just below the ears
into a knot. The sheaf is then press-
655

REAPING.

ed with the knee, and tlie band drawn
tightly around it. The ends are
twisted together lilte a rope, and in-
serted under tiie band, wiiicli cfTect-
ually fastens it. This operation is
soon learned, and is done very rapid-
ly. The sheaves should be so tied
tliat there may be no danger of their
falling loose when pitehed into the
cart or slacked, without being so
tight as to prevent the moisture in
the straw from evaporating. They
should not be tied too near the ears,
but rather nearer to the butt. The
sheaves, when tied, are placed two
and two on the butt ends, with the
ears leaning against each other :
sometimes they are placed in a circle,
all the ears being together, and the
butts slanting outward: a sheaf is
then opened by inserting the hand
into the middle of the ears, and re-
versed over the tops of the preceding,
forming a cone, and covering all the
other ears, while it hangs down
around them. In this position they
will bear much rain without injury.
It is a good practice to place the
shocks across the furrows between
the stitches or lands, so as to allow
the air to circulate more freely around
them. In this case four or five sheaves
are placed in a row, leaning against
as many in a parallel row, and two
sheaves, being opened, are reversed
over them to protect the ears. "What-
ever be the mode adopted in reaping
the corn, the same kind of sheaves
are formed, and set up in shocks.

" Wherever the sickle is used for
reaping, the straw is cut at a certain
height from the ground, and the re-
mainder forms a long stubble, which
may be mown at leisure after har-
vest, and carried into the yard for
litter ; but in the neighbourhood of
large towns, where straw is sold at
a good price, or exchanged for sta-
ble dung, it is important that as much
as possible of it should be cut with
the grain. This has introduced the
practice called fagging. The instru-
ment used for this purpose partakes
of the nature of a scythe, as well as
of a reaping-hook. It is shaped like a
sickle, but is much larger and broad-
656

I er, and, instead of being indented like
a saw, it has a sharp edge like a
; scythe, which is renewed when^blunt
by means of a stone or bat. The fag-
, ging-hook cuts the straw close to the
ground by a stroke of the hand ; and
j its curved form is only useful in col-
I lecting stray stems, and holding a
certain quantity of them between it
and the left hand of the reaper when
I he makes up a sheaf A certain
j quantity is cut towards the standing
j grain, the left hand pressing it down
I at the same time. When as much
! is thus cut as would make half a
[ small sheaf, the reaper comes back-
! ward, cutting in a direction at right
angles to the first, and rijlling togeth-
er the two parts, which he carries in
! the bend of his hook and places on
the band which had been prepared
I for him. A full-sized sheaf is usu-
ally composed of two cuttings. Two
men will fully employ a third to make
bands for them, tie up the sheaves,
and set them up. This method of
reaping is laborious, on account of
the stooping required to cut near the
ground. The Hainhault scythe does
the work better, and with less f;itigue ;
it is, in fact, a fagging-hook, not quite
so curved, of which the handle is
longer, and placed at an angle with
the plane of the blade. It requires
some practice to give the proper
swing to it by a peculiar motion of
the wrist ; but when this is once ac-
quired, a considerable saving of la-
bour and time is efiected. A better
instrument, however, on extensive
farms, is the cradle-scythe, which, in
the hands of an expert mower, will
do more work, and more effectually
secure all the straw, than any other
instrument.

" The objection to the great barn
room required for so much straw is
obviated by the practice of stacking
the grain in the open air on proper
stands, to keep it dry and out of the
reach of vermin. The additional
trouble in thrashing is not so great
as that of mowing or raking the stub-
ble, which is generally deferred till
half of it is lost by decomposition by
the air and moisture. When the sa-

REA

REA

ving of time is considered, as well as
the saving' of expense, there seems
to be no doubt that on an extensive
farm the scythe is far preferable to
the sickle for cutting every kind of
grain. Barley and oats are usually
mown and carried without tying them
into sheaves ; but tliis is a slovenly
and wasteful practice : by means of
the cradle-scythe they may be mown
so regularly as to be readily tied into
sheaves ; and the additional expense
will be fully compensated by the sa-
ving of all the grain which, being on
the outside of the stack, is lost by
the depredations of small birds.

" Beans are usually reaped by the
sickle, the stems being too strong
and too wide apart to admit of the
scythe. Where it can be done con-
veniently, without the soil adhering
too niucii to the roots, it is better to
pull them up and tie them in bun-
dles with straw bands, or twine, which
will be found both a convenient and
economical method.

" Pease are generally reaped by
means of two large hooks similar to
the fagging hooks, one of which is
held iu each hand ; and the stems,
which are generally much interwo-
ven, are partly cut and partly torn
from the roots, and so rolled up into
a small bundle laid loose, in order that

it may dry. Tares are reaped in the
same way.

" There have been many attempts
to introduce machinery for reaping.
Some of the inventions were inge-
nious and promised well, but none,
when put to the test, answered the
expectations formed, 'i'he various
inchnalions of the straws prevent any
regular mode of cutting. The prin-
ciple of most reaping machines is that
of a revolving edge to cut the straw,
and a drum to lay the cut grain down
regularly. Whenever tiie grain is
laid or lodged, it is evident that no
machine can collect straws lying in
every imaginable direction and inter-
woven with each other. Till some
better invention appears, the scythe
will probably be found the cheapest
and most expeditious instrument for
reaping." — ( W. L. Rham.)

REAPING HOOK. See Reaping.

REAPING MACHINE. Several
patents have been taken for machines
to cut grass and grain crops. One of
these, which promised much, is the
invention of ^Ir. Smith, of Deanston,
and has been modified and patented
by Mr. Wilson in the United States.
The original machine is figured be-
low. They have given satisfaction
on smooth meadow lands.

Mr. Hussey's reaping machine is

an admirable and durable implement. I from several committees, and is used
Ithasmet with considerable applause I in Delaware, Virginia, and other

657

REC

RED

states. The grain is cut by an ar-
rangement of knives, acting in a way
nearly resomliling scissors. Tiie pri-
ces are SlOO and SITjO. It cuts irom
fifteen to twenty acres per day. See
Fig. 2.
Mr. M'Cormick's reaping machine

has been ii.sed with success on the flat
hinds of the James River. It costs
SlOO.

Mr. Carpenter, of Caledonia, New-
York, is also the inventor of a ma-
chine for reaping and thrashing grain :
it is said to finish fifteen acres a day

•with the help of one man to drive,
and one man to tend the machine.
Cost, .$600.

Mr. Esterly, of Heart Prairie, Wis-
consin, has recently patented a har-
vesting machine for reaping the heads
of wheat, barley, rye, and timothy: it
is warratited to cut twenty-five acres
a day of wheat, and requires two men,
a boy, and three horses. It is highly
recommended by those who have
seen it in action, and the State Agri-
cultural Society, at their fair in 18-14,
awarded the inventor an extra pre-
mium for it. AVe believe this to be
a machine of great promise.

REBATE. The groove sunk on
the edge of any building material.

RECEPTACLE. In botany, has
four different significations: 1. That
part of a flower upon which the car-
pella are situated ; or, in other words,
the extremity of the fruit stalk. 2.
The axis of the theca of Trichomancs
and Hymcnophylliim, among ferns. 3.
That part of tiie ovarium from which
the ovula ari.se, and which is com-
monly called the placenta. And, 4.
658

That part of the axis of a plant which
bears the flowers when it is depress-
ed in its development ; so that, in-
stead of being elongated into a stem,
it forms a flattened area, upon which
the flowers are arranged, as in com-
positfe.

RECTIFICATION. A second
distillation.

RECTRICES. The tail feathers
of a bird.

RECTUM. The lowest intestine,
ending in the anus.

RECUMBENT. Leaning down.

REDB.\Y. An indigenous South-
ern laurel, the Laurus Camlinciisis :
it is an evergreen of 10 to 25 feet.

REDDLE, or RUDDLE. A red
aluminous marking stone.

RED GUM. A kind of blight which
affects grain.

RED LIQUOR. Crude pyrolignate
of alumina, used in dyeing as a mor-
dant.

RED-LEAD. A mixture of the
protoxide and peroxide of lead, used
as a paint.

RED ROOT. A name given lo

RES

some dozen (lifTerent plants with red-
dish-coloured roots.

RED SPIDER, PLANT MITE.
Acarius tflarius. A sinall red insect
which spins a uel, and lives on the
juices of many phmts and trees, at-
lachinjr itself to the lower side of the
leaf. It is especially injurious to hot-
houses. They are destroyed by fre-
quent syringing with cold water, by
fumigations and washes of whale-oil
soap and water.

RED TOP. A name sometimes
given to herd's grass, and also to a dry
perennial grass of the Middle States
{Tricuspis) of little or no value.

RED WATER. A disease of cat-
tle. See Ox.

RED WORM. An old name for
the wire-worm.

REED. The gem--^ Arando, tall,
aquatic, and bogsj grasses. They
may be destrov^u by draining the
soil, bv limin? ind ashes. The soil
is usually xnj fertile.

REED -ltR.VSS. Canary grass.
REF-^ECTIOX. The throwing
back jf the rays of heat or light by a
po'.shed surface or mirror.

REFLEXED. Bent back, turned
back.

REFRACTION. The action ex-
erted by water, glass, and all trans-
parent bodies of changing the direc-
tion of rays of light, so as to make
them appear bent.

RE.MIGES. The quill feathers of
birds.

REMIPES. An order of coleop-
terous insects wliich are capable of
swimming.

REMITTENT FEVERS. Fevers
■which are subject to periodical par-
oxysms, as the ague, bilious fever, &c.
ilENAL. Relating to the kidneys.
RENIFORM. Kidney-shaped, of
the shape of a kidney bean.
RENNET. See Cheese.
REPENT. Running . on the
gr(umd.

REPTILIA. Cold-blooded verte-
brate animals, as snakes, tortoises,
IroL's, lizards, &c.

RKSlN. An inflammable product
of the vegetable kingdom, rich in car-
bon and hydrogen, soluble m alcohol,

RET

but insoluble in water. There are a
great number of species, some of
which are evidently oxidyzed oils.
They are used in varnishes.

RESERVOIR. A tank or artificial
excavation to hold water.

RESOLUTION. In farriery, the
discussion or dispersion of inflamma-
tory gatherings or abscesses, by ap-
plying leeches and other means.

K E S P I R A T I O N . The act of
breathing. It is accomplished by the
movements of the diaphragm and
muscles of the chest. Atmospheric
air passing into the lungs is changed,
oxygen being separated from it and
absorbed into the blood, and four per
cent, of carbonic acid thrown out.
Water also passes ofT from the lungs.
By these changes heat is produced.
The etTect of respiration is to alter
the colour of the blood from black to
bright red ; it is at the commence-
ment of life, and any interruption of
the function is rapidly fatal.

REST HARROW. Ononis, a
pricklv shrub.

RETE .MUCOSUM. The part of
the skin immediately below the scarf-
skin (epidermis).

RETIARIES. Spiders which spin
w"ebs.

RETICULATE. Like a net.
RETICULU.M. The honey-comb
bag of ruminants. See Ox.

RETINA. The nervous layer at
the back of the eye which receives
the images of things.

RETORT. A chemical vessel em-
ployed in a variety of distillations.
It is generally made of glass or earth-
en-ware, and sometimes is provided
with a stopper so placed above the bulb
as to enable substances to be intro-
duced into it without soiling the neck.;
in this case it is called a tubulated
retort. A receiver is usually annexed
to it for the purpose of collecting the
products of distillation. Fig. 1 rep-

(J— 0

659

RHU

resents a plain retort and receiver ; in
Fiff. 2, both are tiihulatcil. — (Bninilc.)
KEVEllBEilATUUV FL" KNACK
A funiace witii an arclu.d roof over
the fire, so that tiie llaiue and heat
may be reflected and a hijjh temper-
ature obtained.

REVOLIITE. Rolled backward.

RHAPON'TICIN and 11 H E I N.
Substances obtained from the roots
of rhubarb.

RHEL'MATISM. A nervous dis-
ease, sometimes attended wiih in-
flammation of the fibrous membranes
and swelUns of the joints.

RHIPIPTERANS. An order of
insects, the Slrepsiptcra.

RHIZANTHS, RHIZANTH.E. A
small order of plants resembUng fun-
gi, but having sexes.

RHIZOMA. A root stock like that
of the flasT.

RHODIUM. A rare metal, of great
hardness, found in some of the platina
ores.

RHODODENDRON. A genus of
handsome flowering shrubs ; they are
hardy, and prefer a peat soil.

RHUBARB. Plants of the genus
Rheum, hardy, perennial, and large
herbs of the same family as the Docks.
The leaf stalks of several species,
which grow two feet and more in
length, are much used as a substitute
for gooseberries ; preserves are also
made of them, and even a wine of
F(>. 1.

RHU

their juice, which is said to resemble
the best gooseberry wine.

The edit)le kinds are Buck's new
scarlet, of a deep red ; the Tobolsk,
whicli is the earliest ; the Goliath and
Admiral, of great size ; Elfort, giant,
\A'ilmofs early red ; jMyatfs Victoria,
of the largest size ; and the Austra-
lian, which is of the flavour of apples
and yields stems nearly the wliolo
summer. These are varieties of the
Rkcum rhapo7ilicum, u/ululntum, and
Einodi {Auslrak) (F(>. 1). They also
yield medicinal rhubarb when the
roots are allowed to remain from four
lu bcn-en years. But the species
whi«h produces the best European
rhubai'i is the R. palmalum {Fig. 2).
Fxg. 2.

The source of the Chinese drug is
unknown.

Cultivation. — " The soil best suit-
ed to these plants is one that is light,
rich, deep, and moderately moist. A
poor, heavy, or shallow soil never
produces them in pertection.

" It may be propagated by cuttings,
but the mode almost universally prac-
tised is by seed. This should he
sown soon after it is ripe, in Septem-
ber or October, for if kept out of the
ground until the spring, it will often
continue dormant for twelve months ;
if the danger of this, however, is
risked, it must be inserted early in
February or March. The seeds are
best inserted in drills three feet apart,
and an inch deep, the plants to re-
main where raised ; lor although
thev will boar removing, yet it al-

660

RHU

RIC

Tvays checks and somewhat lessens
theirgiowth. When they make their
appearance in the spring, and have
been tlioroiighly cleared of weeds,
they may be thinned to six or eight
inches asunder, and the surtace ol"
the ground about tlieni loosened witii
the iioe. Towards the conclusion ol'
summer, when it can be determined
which are the strongest plants, they
must be finally thinned to three or
four feet, or the hybrid to six. They
nmst be continually kept clear of
weeds. In autumn, when the leaves
decay, they are ren^oved, and the bed
being gently turned ovf;r, a little well-
putrefied stable dimgadded,and some
of the earth applied over the stools.
In the spring, the bed may be again
(lug, previous to the plants making
their appearance ; and as the stalks,
when blanched, are much less harsh
in taste, require less sugar to be ren-
dered palatable, and are greatly im-
proved in appearance, at this period
a trench may be dug between the
rows, and tlie carih from it laid about
a foot, thick over the stool. This
covering must be removed when the
cutting ceases, and the plants allow-
ed to grow at liberty. As the earth
in wet seasons is apt to induce de-
cay, the covering may be advanta-
geously formed of coal ashes or drift
sand, which are much less retentive
of moisture. Those plants produce
the seed in greatest perfection that
are not gathered from, but on no ac-
count must they be subjected to the
process of blanching."

The stems may be forced very
readily by covering them with barrels
or hand frames, and surrounding the
outside by fermenting horse dung.

When the roots are wanted, the
stalks should not be removed to any
great extent ; the soil is to be thor-
oughly loosened about the plants,
once a year at least, by spading or
trenching. They are taken up at six
years, in the autumn, cleaned, scra-
ped, and hung on strings to dry in the
sun ; a hole is often bored through
the centre of the large roots for this
purpose ; the young roots are reject-
ed. They are also dried, in part, by
Kk K

exposure to heat upon slabs of stone,
and the large roots cut into slices.
The process must be perfectly ac-
complished, and often requires sev-
eral months ; the loss by drying is
four fifths of the weight.

RHL'S. A genus of shrubs, some
of which are ot economical value, as
the R. conaria, which yields much
tannin, and i,s used for dyeing and
making leather ; the R. glabra, which
is a very common indigenous plant,
is also useful in tanning ; the poison
oak [R. loxicodcnilrou), poison sumach
{R. vcrnix), poison vine {R. rudicans
and R. pumila), are all remarkable
for their poisonous juice and exhala-
tions. See Poixon Oak.

RIBAND GRASS. Canary grass,
and the striped leafed Phalaris ; sown
as an ornament in gardens.

RIB GRASS. A name for the
plantain {Flantago major).

RIBS. The curved hones attach-
ed to the vertebraj behind ; those
which meet at the chest and are ar-
ticulated to the sternum are called
true ribs ; those whose extremities
are only furnished with cartilage are
the false ribs. In building, curved
timbers ibr roofing

RICE. Plants of the genus Ory-
za, especially the O.
satiL-a {Fig.), or wa-
ter rice, cultivated
in South Carolina
and other Southern
and Southwestern
States. In India
and Africa several
mountain or dry spe-
cies are cultivated,
as the 0. mutica, but
they are much small-
er and yield less than
the aquatic kinds.
The cultivation in
South Carolina is
very successful on
rich river bottoms,
the yield being forty
bushels or more the
acre, and one hand
managing five acres.
The process is well
described by a successful planter.
661

RIC

RIC

*' Begin to plant about the SSth of
March, trencli sliallow and wide, and
scatter the seed in tiie row ; make
72 or 75 rows in a tasit, and sow two
bushels to an acre.

" Hoe altdut tlie end of April or be-
ginning of May, wiien the rice is in
llie fourth leaf; then flood, and clear
the field of trash. If the planting be
Lite, and yon are likely to be in grass,
flood helore hoeing ; but hoeing first
is preferable. The best depth to flood
is three or four inches. It is a good
mark to see the tops of the rice just
out of the water ; the deep places are
not to be regarded : the rice will grow
through in three or four days. Ob-
serve to make a notch on the frame
of the trunk when the water is at a
proper depth ; if the rains raise the
water above the notch, or it leaks
out, add or let off accordingly. This
is done by putting a small stick in the
door of the trunk, al)out an inch in
diameter: if scum or froth appear in
eight or ten days, freshen the water,
take off the trunk doors, run off
th© water with one ebb, and take in
the next flood ; then regulate as be-
fore. Keep the water on al)Out fif-
teen or seventeen days, according to
the state oi' the weather ; that is, if
a hot sun, lifteen days, if cool and
cloudy, seventeen days, counting from
the day the field is flooded ; then leak

I ofC with a small stick for two days ;
, then run off the whole, and keep the
, field dry. In four or five days after,
hoe the second time, stir the ground,
whether clean or not, and comb up
the fallen rice wiih the fingers. Keep
dry and hoe through the field. Hoe
the third time and pick clean. Tliis
will be about the beginning of July.
Then flood as you hoe. Let the wa-
ter be tbe same depth as before. If
any grass has escaped, it must be
picked in the water after it shoots
out. This is called the fourth hoe-
ing, but the hoe is never used except
for some high places, or to clean the
dams. If the rice is flaggy and like-
ly to lodge, flood deep to support it,
and keep it on until fit to harvest."

Most of the rice exported is in the
form of -paddy, or cleaned ; the hull-
ing is readily accomplished by grain
cleaners.

The Chemical Compositinn. — The
grain of rice has been examined by
Braconnot and others. It consists of
85 0 starch, 3 6 gluten, and 013 fat
per cent. From this composilion we
are at no loss to account for its infe-
riority as an article of food ; indeed,
the parts removed by cleaning the
chit or germ are much the richest
portion. The ashes of the grain,
chaff, and straw have been determin-
ed i)y Professor Shephard per cent. :

P!iiis|>hate ol liiiu! ....
Phospliate of ptjtasli (nearly) .

Silica (nearly)

Sulphate of |iotash ....
Chloride of potassium and loss
Carbonate of lime ....
Carbonate of magnesia . . .
Potash from tbe silicate . .

lie clean grail
)-^ per ceuL

Cl.alC,

13'7 per cent.

ash.

7(i 20
5-flO

ao-oo

traces.

, 1-024
trace.
97-55
trace.
1-13
029

200
trace.

84-75

2-56
200

RICE WEEVIL. Callandra ury-
za.. An insect very similar to the
grain weevil, and which produces
much destruction in crops of rice and
wheat at the South : it is destroyed
by kiln-drying the grain.

RICE, WILD, or WATER. Zi-
zanea aqnaiica, imlwcca, and fluitans.
Indian rice. It grow's in the margins
of lakes and rivers The aqualica is
large and abundant in the Middle
Western States, and was much used
G62

by the Indians and early French set-
tlers, and called by them Folic avome.
The Indians collected the grain by-
first tying the fruit stems in bundles,
and when they became dry, they pass-
ed through the plants in canoes, and,
bending over the heads, beat the
seeds from them into a blanket pla-
ced in their canoes.

RICINIC ACID. An oily acid,
produc;ed by distilling castor oil at a
high temperature.

RIS

ROA

RICK. A stack.

RIDDLE. A coarse sieve to sep-
arate grain tVom dust, &c.

RIDGE, "riie upper timber in a
roof, against which the rafters pitch.

RIDGING. Laying up the soil in
narrow ridges.

RIDGLLXG. A male animal half
castrated. They are troublesome,
iseless creatures.

RIGGIL. An imperfect sheep.

RIME. Frost.

RI.VIOSE. Resembling the broken
ippearance of the bark of old trees.

RING BONE. In farriery, a Cal-
ais growing in the hollow circle of
-belittle pastern of a horse, just above
the coronet.

RINGING. An operation in hor-
ticulture : cutting out a ring of bark
down to the new wood, but not into
it, for the purpose of making a luxu-
riant branch fruitful. It arrests the
descent of the elaborated sap, and
swells out the flower buds. It is
done in spring. When the wound is
•nade into or through the new wood,
the tree is killed, and this plan is pur-
sued in forests to kill them prepara-
tory to burnmg. Roots are also cut
into or ringed for the purpose of
throwing out new, healthy shoots.
The width of the wound when fruit
is wanted should not be great, and it
i,s well to leave a part of the bark un-
cut, by which the place heals over
more rapidly. Fruit has been doubled
in size and much improved in flavour
by this process.

RINGENT. Grinning. A name
given to the personate corolla, as in
the genus Anlirrhinum,

RINGS, FAIRY. Rings of green
grass, enclosing a less fertile spot :
they are produced by the growth and
decay of fungi, the green grass ap-
pearing where the fungi have just
died.

RIPPLE GRASS. The smaller
plantain.

RIPPLING FLAX. Separating
the seeds by beating the plants against
a board, or other contrivance.

RISTLE PLOUGH. A paring
plough for cutting turfs and the roots
of heath or other shrubs.

RIVOSE. A surface marked with
irregular furrows.

ROADS. In the construction of
good, durable roads, the following
points are to be attended to :

''■Drainage. — All exertion to con-
struct or repair roads is considered
unavailing until the bed of the road is
freed from water, and secured against
its return. Of what service can stone
be when the road is immersed in wa-
ter ! To correct and prevent a re-
currence of the evil, sub.stantial ditch-
es should be opened, so as to give a
slope of one inch in twenty-four be-
tween the crowns of the road and
bottoms. If open drains cannot be
made on both sides, owing to the de-
clivity of the surface, under drains
should be constructed, with outlets,
through the bed of the road to the
lower side ; and if springs exist in
the site of the road, their water must
be concentrated and conducted off
by under drains. "When a particular
piece of road is observed to be con-
tinually heavy, and in a bad state, it
is either caused by spring water, or
is situated in a Hat, from which the
water cannot escape. These sug-
gestion should not be lost to us. A.
principal defect in our roads is the
want of efficient drainage. Wherever
water is permitted to remain, either
upon the surtace or substratum, in
wet seasons there will be a slough,
and the bed of the road will be en-
tirely broken up.

" Tke substance or thickness of Ma-
terials.— Without a sufficient depth
of consolidated materials, there will
not be a resistance equal to the weight
which a highway is subject to. There
must be weight to resist weight. If
the weight of metal forming the sub-
stance be of an imperfect quality,
more will be required than when
sound and clean. In proportion to
the quantity of deleterious matter
contained in the body (as earth, small
gravel, soft stone, &c.) must the thick-
ness be increased. Any matter that
is not of a sound nature has no pow-
er in road making, and therefore
the hard materials alone contained
iu the roads can be calculated upon
663

ROA

ROC

as possessinp the quality to resist
ivoijjhts. Exporicnce lias tiiimht that
there can he no real security a<^ainst
a road giviu;^ way, takiiijr the year
throii^'h, unless l~ inches at least of
good consolidated materials form the
body of a road, and this upon a found-
ation rendered sound and diy by ef-
fectual drainaije.

" Sort of Materials. — Not the hard-
est, but the tounlti:st stones, are the
best : the first will break, the latter
bend. The trappean and basaltic
rocks are therefore preferred ; then
whinstone, dark-coloured granite, and
limestones.

" Preparation and, size of Materials.
— The stone to he employed is first
freed from dirt, and then broken so
small as to pass through the inch
meshes of a wire sieve. Some al-
low the stones to retain the size of
two inches, but none larger. The
tougher the nature of the material,
the smaller the size should be.

" Quantity of Materials to be laid on
at a Tunc. — \\'hen a thick coat is laid
on, the destruction of the material is
very great before it becomes settled
or incorporated with the road. The
stones will not allow each other to
lie quiet, hut are continually elbowing
one another, and driving their neigh-
bours to the left and right, above and
below. This wears off their angular
points, produces mud and dirt, and
reduces the stones to an angular
form, and prevents their uniting and
becoming lirm. If there be substance
enough already on the road, it will
never be right to put on more than a
stone's thickness at a time. A cubic
yard, nicely prepared and broken, to
a rod superficial, will be quite enough
for a coat, and will be found to last
as long as double the quantity put on
unprepared and in thick layers. There
is no grinding to pieces when thus
applied ; the angles are preserved,
and the materials are out of sight
and incorporated in a very little time.
Each stone becomes fixed directly,
and keeps its place, thereby escaping
the wear and fretting which occur
when they are applied in a thick stra-
tum. On new roads, the covering
664

' should be applied in tliin coats. As
soon as one is imbedded, apply anoth-
er, until the desired power isobiained.
j "To say nothing of the saving in
a course of years by the durability
of a road formed under the new sys-
tem, and which has been found in
some cases, even where the traffic is
considerable, by the side of a large
town, to last for seven years without
an additional stone being applied ; to
say nothing of the saving to the public
in wear and tear of horses, carts, and
tackle ; to say nothing of the comfort
of travelling a smooth road, and also to
say nothing of employment found for
the poor, yet a road can be maintain-
ed good and perfect for half the sum un-
der the new system, which under the
old is expended without improvement.

" Spreading. — Cause the load to be
shot down a short distance from the
place upon which you wish the ma-
terials to be finally spread, and direct
the spreader to cast every shovelful
from him equally all over the sur-
face, and in such a manner as he
would do if he were sowing wheat
broad cast. The road will then he
not thicker in one place than anoth-
er, and a section will be produced per-
fect and true.

" Scraping. — If it is desirable to
keep a road dry at the foundation, it
must be equally so at the surface,"

ROARING. A disease in horses
called broken wind. It is the result
of injury to the cells of the lungs,
brought on by too violent exercise,
especially after meals.

ROCHAMBOLE. Allium scorodo-
prasum. ".Spanish garlic. It has bulbs
or cloves growing in a cluster, form-
ing a kind of compound root. The
stem bears many bulbs at its sum-
mit, which, as well as those of the
root, are often preferred in cooking
to garlic, being of much milder fla-
vour. It is best propagated by the
root bulbs, those of the stem being
slower in production. The planta-
tion may be made either in March or
the early part of April, as well as
throughout the autunm. They may
be inserted either in drills or by the
dibble, in rows six inches apart each

ROD

way, and usually two inches within
the ground, but thrive better if grown
on the surface. A very small bed is
sutficient for the supply of the largest
fainilv"

ROCHELLE SALT. Tartrate of
soda and potassa ; used as a gentle
purgative.

ROCK CRYSTAL. Transparent
quartz.

ROCK SAI>T. The coarse native
salt, found in immense masses in
some parts of the globe. It consists
of salt chiefly, but adulterated with
chloride ofcaloium,gvpsum, and marl.

ROD. The same as a pole, 16^ feet.
Four of these make Cunter's chain.

RODENTS, RODEXTIA. Gnaw-
ing quadrupeds, with two long chisel

ROL

[ teeth in the front of either jaw. Rats,
' rabbits, and squirrels are of this
! class.

ROE STONE. Oolite, rocks the
structure of which is made of small
rounded particles.

ROLLERS. Rounded logs, or cyl-
inders of iron or stone turning on an
axis, and capable of being drawn by
hand or horses. They are of great
service in levelling the surface of
fields and breaking lumps. On loose
soils they compress the earth and
render it more fertile, and are much
used to imbed small seeds and run
over grass. The common roller is
no more than a heavy log, but nu-
merous varieties have l)een proposed.
The improved kinds (see Ftg. 1) are

constructed of iron, in two or more
pieces, so as to run over two lands,
the horse walking in the ditch, or
central furrow. They also carry a

i6

wooden frame for rocks, so as to be

weighted according to circumstances.

Instead of the frame for weights,

or in addition to it, a box (a) is some-

K K K 2

666

KOO

times attached, for the purpose of
waterintif or sprinkling fluid inannros
over liie young plat)ls. As tht-y arc
roiled, the man who leads the horse
manages the watering by a string at-
tached to the end of the lever (b),

ROO

■which, being raised, lets the fluid out
througli the small holes (c). The
cylinder, or roller, is also set with
scarifiers and other contrivances for
cutting or crushing the sod, as in the
clod crusher {Fig. 3) In some imple-

ments the roller is of a conical form,
or of the figure of two cones, united
at their bases for the purpose of run-
ning between furrows or ridges ; they
are also made of a series of separate
rings or wheels which run between
drills {drill rollers), and may be used
in marking the ground before sowing
seeds

ROMAN VITRIOL. Blue vitriol,
sulphate of copper.

ROOD. A square measure, equal to
40 perches or square poles. The
fourth part of an acre.

ROOF. The covering of a build-
ing. The pitch, or inclination, should
be much greater in northern posi-
tions than at the south, since snow
and rains tend to rot the timbers
more rapidly. Those which are cov-
ered with shingles must also be
more pitched than those of slate or
metal.

" A roof, as respects its construc-
tion, involves some knowledge of
mathematics Of the general princi-
ples on which its proper construction
666

depends, we shall here subjoin some
account. The obvious mode of cov-
ering a building, where a greater or
lesser inclination of the sicies of the
roof is required by the climate, is to
place two sloping rafters, C C, upon
the walls, B B, as in
the subjoined diagram
{Fig-. 1), meeting at
the apex, A , where we
will suppose them so
connected with a
hinge as to be insep-
arable, but capable of f)^
descending by their \,
gravity, as shown in \ i

No. 2. The walls are \|

considered as solid '•''

masses, moveable on points. P. If
the walls be not of sufficient \veight,
the thrust that will be thus exerted
on them by the tendency of the raf-
ters to spread at their feet will throw
the walls out of an upright, as in No.
2, and the whole assemblage will be
destroyed. By the laws of mechan-
ics, it is known that the horizontal

ROO

ROO

thrust thus acting on the walls is
proportional to tho length of a line,
d, e, drawn at right angles to the raf-
ter, intersecting a vertical line drawn
from the apex, which it is manifest
must increase as the roof becomes
flatter. To counteract the thrust above
mentioned, notlimg more is necessa-
ry than to tie together the feet of the
rafters, as in the following diagram
{Fig. 2), in which A B is the tie in
Fiff.2. question, and tlience

is called a tic-bcam. If
B the extent be not very
great, the rafters may
be kept from spreading by a minor
tie, as at a b, called a collar. Beyond
certain lengths or spans, however, it
will occur to the reader that a tie-
beam will itself have a tendency to
bend, or sag, as the workmen call it,
in the middle ; and from this circum-
stance a fresh contrivance becomes
necessary, which will be seen in the
annexed diagram {Fig. 3), marked c
Fig. 3. d : this is called a king-
^^i^^fi^^ ;)os^ or, more properly,
f^^^u^^^ king-piece, inasmuch as
II it does not perform the
office of a post, but rather of a tie,
for it ties up the beam to prevent its
bending. If the rafters be so long as
to be liable to bend, two pieces, a, a,
called seru/s, are introduced, which,
havmg their footing against the sides
of the king-post, act as posts to sup-
port or siiui tip the rafters at their
weakest point The piece of framing
thus contrived is altogether called a
truss. It is obvious that by means of
the upper joints of the struts we ob-
tain more points of support (Fig. 4),
Fig. 4. or, rather, suspen-

^^isi|p:^5^^_^ sion ; and that but
^^s^^y^^^^^^ for the compres-
3 ii sibility of the tim-

beV, there would be no limit to the
space which a roof might be made
to cover. This compressibility takes
place at those points where the fibres
of the wood are pressed at right an-
gles, or nearly so, with their direc-
tion ; and many ways are adopted for
avoiding this inconvenience. There
is a species of roof, dependant in con-
struction on the principles we have

just described, which we jshall here
briefly notice, and whereof the fol-
lowing is a diagram {/"/(T. 5). This
roof has three Fig. 5.

points of support.
A,B, A; the posts
A A, A A are call-
ed queen-posts ; the collar, A B A, is
here a slrainutg piece, instead of a
tic, as it was in the example of ties
first noticed, its operation being ex-
actly the reverse of a tie. The curb
or mansard roof is one in which a
story is obtained, as may be seen in
the annexed diagram {Fig. 6). Its
principles a~re the same
as those already men-
tioned, and do not here
require farther notice.
In the execution of '
roofs the expense of trussing every
pair of rafters would be unneces-
sary, and the practice would also load
the walls with a far greater weight
than would be expedient ; it is there-
fore the custom to place these prin-
cipal parts of a roof at certain inter-
vals, which, however, should never
exceed ten feet. The rafters which
are actually trussed are called princi-
pal rafters ; and by the intervention
of the purline. A, in the diagvam{Fig.
7), are made to Fi^.~.

bear the smaller
or common raf-
ters, which are
notched down on
it. These common rafters are re-
ceived by, or pitch upon a plate, B,
called a pole-plate ; and the principal
rafters, which fall on the tie-beam, are
ultimately borne by the wall-plate, C.
When beams in either roofs or floors
are so long that they cannot be pro-
cured in one piece, two p^^ g
pieces, to form the requi- . — r^ — i
red length, are sfar/c(/ to- ' J}^ z^
gether by indenting them ' i ^ -^
at their joints, and bolting them to-
gether, of which practice two modes
are here subjoined {Fig. 8)."

ROOK. Corvus frugilegus. The
gregarious crow, almost domesticated
in England in rookeries. They live,
for the most part, on insects. The
young are sometimes eaten.

667

ROS

ROT

ROOT. " That part of the central
axis of a plant uhifh is formed l)y
the dt'sccniJing (il)ros, and whose
function is to attract liquid food from
the soil in which it is mingled. It
differs from the stem in not having
leaves or buds upon its surface, and
in its tendency to burrow under
ground, retreating from light ; nev-
ertheless, some kinds of roots are ex-
clusively formed in air and light, as
in the ivy, and other such plants."

Roots are of various figures, as
fibrous ; spindle, as in the radisli ;
knotted, &c. The rhizome of the
flag and the tuber of the potato are
not roots, but subterranean stems.
The cormus of palms and aroidaj is a
mere expansion of tissue, which is
neither a root nor stem.

ROOT CROPS. Crops of beets,
turnips, carrots, &c.

ROOT STOCK. The rhizome of
the flag, ginger, arrow-root.

ROSACE-E. "A large and im-
portant natural order of plants, the
species of which are, for the most
part, inhabitants of the cooler parts
of the world. They are in some ca-
ses trees, in others shrubs, and in a
great number of instances herba-
ceous perennial plants : scarcely any
are annuals. No natural orders con-
tain more species of general interest,
in the beauty of their flowers or their
perfume : there is the rose itself, and
various species of the genera liulus,
Spiraa, Volentilla, Gcum, and Pi/rus.
The apple, pear, plum, cherry, peach,
nectarine, apricot, raspberry, straw-
berry, and similar valuable fruits, are
the produce of others. As medicinal
plants, some are of considerable im-
portance. Prussic acid is obtained
from the leaves and seeds of the bit-
ter almond, peach, plum, and other
species. This important assemblage
of plants is distinguished by havmg
several petals ; separate carpels ; dis-
tinct, perigynous, nunnerous stamens ;
alternate leaves, and an exogenous
mode of growth.''

ROSE. The genus Kosa, which,

by cultivation, has been extended to

upward of a thousand varieties. They

require a good loamy soil, and are

663

much improved by judicious pruning.
Many diseases inlect the rose shrubs ;
of these, the aphm is the most com-
mon. They are also attacked with
blight, and by the rose-bug, a coleop-
terous insect, of the family of the
cockchaffers. But by proper clean-
ing, and syringing with water, or
with toliacco water, the plants are
easily preserved in health. Several
varieties are worthy of cultivation for
the perfume (attar) distilled from their
petals. The French rose is used by
druggists.

ROSEBAY. The handsome Rho
dodcnilion maximum.

ROSE BUG. Insects of the same
family as the cockchaffer, infesting
the rose, vine, and fruit-trees during
June and July. The perfect insect
issues from the earth in June, to
which the female retires at the end
of July atid lays her eggs. They
cannot be destroyed except by direct
violence, fumigations and washes be-
ing of little service. The most usual
means is to catch them by the hand,
or by shaking the plants they infest,
and burning or cruslung them. The
insects pass througii all their trans-
formations in one year in the soil,
and emerge only in the beetle form.

ROSEMARY. Rosmarinus offici-
nalis. A handsome evergreen shrub,
cultivated for its odoriferous leaves,
from which an essential oil is distill-
ed. It requires a dry soil, and lasts
many years.

ROSIN. The resin remaining
after distilling the spirit from turpen-
tine. Colophony.

ROSTELLUM. The name given
to the retractile sucking tube of ap-
terous insects.

ROT. A fatal disease of stock,
especially Sheep, which see.

ROT "in wood. See Dnj Rot
and Preservation of Timber.

ROTATION OF CROPS. "As
crops of the cultivated plants succeed
to each other upon the same ground,
a question to be determined is the
order in which the different kinds
should follow each otl>€r.

"All plants which are cultivated,
and which are carried from the ground

ROTATION OF CROPS.

where they are produced, tend to ren- this healing property, and may be
rier the soil loss productive, or, in the [ more full of weeds, and no richer
language of farmers, to exhaust it. ] when plouglicd up again after a time
""But plants which are suffered to i than when laid down. Under good
decay, or which are consumed by an- ' management, however, the laying
imals on the ground on wliicb they down of cultivated land to grass and
grow, do not e.vhaust the soil. On other herbage ph\nlsto be consumed
the contrary, the decay of the stems upon the ground, is a means of rest-
and leaves of such plants, either nat- 1 ingthe soil and renovating its powers
urallv or by the consuming of them ' of production ; and this mode of re-
by animals, tends to add those dc- cruiting an exhausted soil being al-
composing organic matters to ilie ways at the conmiand of the farmer,
sod which forin one of the elements its application is important in prac-
of its fertility. Tiiis process may be tice. It is to be observed, also, that

imperceptible and slow, but it is that
which Nature herself employs to form
the soil, as distinguished from what
has been termed the subsoil.

" Sometimes this process of decay
is counteracted by the singular nat-
ural provision of a conversion of the
decomposing vegetables into a sub-
stance which itself resists decompo-
sition, peat. But with this exception,
the tendency of the decay of vegeta-

the poorer soils require this species
of rest and renovation more tlian
those which are naturally productive.
" The experience of husbandmen,
from the earliest times, has shown
that the same kinds of plants cannot
be advantageously cultivated in con-
tinued succession. The same or sim-
ilar species tend to grow feebly, or
degenerate, or become more subject
to diseases, when cultivated success-

bles upon the surface is to add to the I ively upon the same ground, and
fertile matters of the soil. ' hence the rule which forms the basis

'•This is well understood in the of a system of regular alternation of
practice of agriculturists. When the j crops is, that plants of the same or
productive powers of a soil have been similar species shall not be cultivated
exhausted by cultivation and the car- in immediate succession ; and tar-
rying away of its produce from the I ther, the same rule has been thus far
surface, it "is laid down to herbage, in j extended, that the same species shall
whi(-h state the future vegetation ! recur at as distant intervals of the

which it produces tends, by its de-
composition upon the surface, to ren-
ovate the productive powers of the
soil. Land in this state is said to
rest.

course as circumstances will allow.

"All herbaceous plants, whose pro-
duce is carried off the ground which
produces them, may be said to ex-
haust the soil upon which they grow.

When land, however, has been i But all such plants do not exhaust

impoverished by successive crops,
and has become full of weeds, the
laying it down to rest in that state
is attended with less beneficial con-
sequences than when the soil has
been previously cleaned of injurious
weeds, and fertilized by good cuUure.
In the former case, the process of
renovation is slow, if perceptible at

the soil in the same degree ; for after
some species the soil is seen to be
more impoverished than after others.
" And not only do ditferenl species
of plants exhaust the soil in a greater
or less degree than others, but the
same species does so according to
the different period of its growth at
which the plant is removed from the

all ; the useless plants increase, and ground,
not those which arc beneficial, and " When an herbaceous plant is suf-
afford food to pasturing animals, fered to mature its seeds, it exhausts
Land, when properly laid down to the soil more than when it is removed
grass, therefore, lends to recover its ! before its seeds are matured. All
wasted powers of production. Land j herbaceous plants, therefore, when
not properly laid down has less of 1 cut in their green state, that is, be-

669

ROTATION OF CROPS.

fore thoy have matured their seeds,
exhaust the soil less than when they
remain until they have ripened their
seeds. Thus the turnip, when used
m its green slate, is one of the least
exhnusting in the agricultural class
of j)lants t() which it helong.s ; hut the
turnip, when allowed to remain upon
the ground until it has ripened its
seeds, is one of the most exhausting
plants that is cultivated among us ;
and so it is with the rape and others.
" Farther, certain plants, by the
larger or smaller quantity of manure
which the consumption of them afford,
are more or less useful in maintaining
the fertility of the farm.

" When an herbaceous plant is suf-
fered to mature its seeds, and when
any part of these seeds is carried ofT
the farm, the plant affords, when con-
sumed by animals, a smaller return
of manure to the farm than if the
same plant had been cut down before
it had matured its seeds, and been
in that state consumed by animals.
Thus it is with the turnip plant re-
ferred to. This plant is, with us,
sown before midsummer. In the first
seasim it forms a napiform root, and
puts forth a large system of leaves.
Early in the following season it puts
forth a long stem, which bears flow-
ers, and the seeds are generally ma-
tured about midsummer. If this
plant is removed in the first stage of
its growth, that is, after it has put
forth its large leaves and formed its
bulb, and is then consumed by ani-
mals, it returns a great quantity of
manure ; but if it remains until the
second state of its growth, then the
consumption of its stems and leaves
return scarce any manure. The
juices of the root have apparently
been exhausted in affording nutrition
to the flower stem, the flowers, and
seeds.

" It is beyond a question, that, in
order to bring a plant to its entire
maturity by the perfecting of its seeds,
a larger quantity of the nutritive mat-
ter of the soil is sucked up by it than
when it is brought only to its less
advanced stages. AVhen crops of
plants, therefore, are suflered to ar-
670

rive at maturity, they are greatly
more exhausters of the soil on which
they grow than when they are cut
down while they arc green ; and if
those seeds are in whole or in part
carried off the farm, the crops are ex-
hausters of the farm, as well as of
the ground which had produced them.
Were the ripened seeds to be wholly
returned to the soil, it may be be-
lieved that they might give back to it
all the nutritive matter which had
been derived from it. But, in prac-
tice, seeds are employed for many
purposes, and are generally carried
off the farm which produces them.
When this is done in whole or in part,
the plants produced are in an eminent
degree exhausters of the farm, as well
as of the soil on which they have
grown.

" Farther, certain plants, from their
mode of growth and cultivation, are
more favourable to the growth of
weeds than other plants. The cereal
grasses, from growing closely togeth-
er, and not admitting, or admitting
partially, the eradication of weeds,
are more favourable to the growth
and multiplication of weeds than such
plants as the turnip and the potato,
which are grown at a considerable
distance from each other and admit
of tillage during their growth, and
whose broad system of leaves tend
to repress the growth of stranger
plants.

" Having these principles in view,

certain rules may be deduced from

' them for the order in which the crops

of plants in cultivation in a country

I shall succeed to each other on the

same ground.

I " 1st. Crops consisting of plants of

I the same or similar species shall not

I follow in succession, but shall return

at as distant intervals as the case

will allow.

" 2d. Crops consisting of plants
whose mode of growth or cultivation
tends to the production of weeds,
shall not follow in succession.

"'3d. Crops whose culture admits
of the destruction of weeds shall be
cultivated when we cultivate plants
which favour the production of weeds.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

And farther, crops whose consump-
tion returns to the soil a suffioienl
quantity of manure, shall be cultivated
at intervals suflicicnt to mainlam or
increase the fertility of the farm.

" And, ilh, when land is to be laid
down to grass, this shall be done when
the soil is fertile and clean.

■ These rules may be applied to the

their effect upon the soil, is that, from
their growth and the manner of cul-
tivating them, they arc greatly less
favourable to the production of weeds
than cereal grasses. By their broad-
er system of leaves, they tend to stifle
the growth of weeds more than the
cereal grasses ; and, farther, they ad-
mit of tillage during a great part of

plants which form the' subject of | their growth. This is especially the
common cultivation in the lields. In | case with the bean [and maize],
this country, the plants chiefly culti- ' which is therefore regarded as a use-
vated on the large scale are, the ful cleaning crop, and so is cultivated
cereal grasses, chiefly for the farina] in rotation with the cereal grasses,
of their seed.s ; certain leguminous as a means of preserving the land
plants, as the bean and the pea ; plants | clean.

cultivated for their libres, as the flax : '• M. Hemp and flax, which are
and hemp ; for their leaves, roots, I cultivated for their libres. The ex-
and tubers, as the turnip, the cab- j haustion of hemp and flax is not great
bage, and the potato ; and certain j when they produce no seeds. All
leguminous and other plants for for- j plants cultivated for their oils are ex-
age or herbage. The plants of these i hausters of the soil. They are suf-
different clas°ses are yet to be descri- ; fered to form and ripen their seeds,
bed ; and they are now only referred and their stems afford no return of
to with relation to the order in which | manure to the farm,
they may succeed to each other in "The next class of plants, from the
cultivation. The \st class of these large return of manures which the

plants consist of the cereal grasses.
These are chiefly wheat, Indian corn,
barley, oats, and, partially, rye. All
these plants are, in an eminent de-

consumption of them affords, may be
regarded as enriching or restorative
crops, in contradistinction to the
others, which may be termed ex-

grce, exhausters of the farm. They hausting crops :

are all suffered to mature their seeds, j "1. The turnip, the rape, and other

and are wholly or partially carried i plants of the cabbage genus, cultiva-

away from the farm. Farther, from ted for their roots and leaves, and

the manner of their growth and mode j consumed upon the farm.

of cultivation, they all tend to favour 1 "2. The potato, the carrot, the

the production of weeds. For these i parsnip, the beet, and other plants

reasons, and on the general principle 1 cultivated for their tubers and roots,

that plants of the same or similar ' and consumed upon the farm.

kinds should not follow in succession, I "3. The leguminous plants, the

the cereal grasses should not succeed , clover, the tare, the lucern, and olh-

each other, but should be preceded ers, when cut green for forage, and

or followed by some crop which either consumed upon the farm.

exhausts the soil less, or admits of a I " The plants of the latter class,

more perfect eradication of weeds, j namely, tiie leguminous, when mixed

•'2d. The leguminous plants culti- 1 with gramineous plants, as the rye

vated lor their"seeds, as the bean and grass, are commonly termed the arti-

the pea, are all exhausters of the soil. : licial grasses, but would be more cor-

They ripen their seeds, and the seeds rectly termed the cultivated herbage

are for the most part carried off the or forage plants. They are often suf-

farm. Some physiologists suppose , fered partially to ripen their seeds,

that they are less exhausters of the ; and are made into hay ; and in this

soil than the cereal grasses. But the case they follow the general law, ex-

essential difference between them, ! hausting the soil more than when

when considered with relatioa to , used green. Aud when the hay crop

671

ROTATION OF CROPS.

is carried away from the farm, they
are to be refjarded as cxliausting
rather than restorative crops.

"Ill speaking of tiiese ditTerent
classes of plants, the following terms
may be employed :

"1. The cereal grasses may be
termed corn crops.

'• 2. The leguminous plants culti-
vated for their seeds, pulse crops.

'■3. The turnip, and other plants
of the same kind, cultivated for their
roots and leaves, may, with reference
to their mode of consuming them, be
termed green crops ; or, with refer-
ence to the manner of preparing the
ground for them, fallow crops.

"4. The potato^ and plants of oth-
er families cultivated for their roots
and tubers, may. in like manner, be
termed green or fallow crops.

" 5. The leguminous plants culti-
vated for green food, as the lucern
and tare, may be termed green for-
age crops.

" And, lastly, the mixture of gra-
mineous and leguminous plants culti-
vated for herbage or green feed may,
in compliance with common Ian- j
guage, be still termed the sowed or |
artificial grasses.

"Farther, distinguishing these dif- {
ferent classes of crops according to
their effects upon the fertility of the
farm, they might be divided thus : [

"I. Corn crops — exhausting crops,
and favourers of weeds.

"2. Pulse crops — exhausting or
cleaning crops, or capable of being
rendered so.

" 3. Green or fallow crops — resto-
rative and cleaning crops.

"4. Green forage crops — restora-
tive, and sometimes cleaning crops.

" 5. The sowed grasses — restora-
tive.crops.

" Knowing these the general char-
acters of the cultivated plants, we
have, in devising a rotation, to cause
the restorative and cleaning crops so
to alternate with the exhausting crops
as that the land may be preserved
fertile and clean. Farther, when we
find that land cannot be sufficient-
ly cleaned by means of cleaning crops,
we must make use of the summer
fallow ; and again, when we find that
land requires rest, we may lay it
down to grass for a longer or shorter
time, taking care, when this is done,
that the land shall be in as fertile a.
state as circumstances will allow,
and free from weeds." — {Lou-.)

There are not many established
rotations in the United Slates. The
following is one which is found suc-
cessful in Pennsylvania. It is, how-
ever, adapted only to strong, new
soils. The manure should be added
to the Indian corn :

FieW Nn. 1.

Field No. -2.

field No. X

Field No. 4.

Field No. S.

Field No. 6.

Field No. 7.

Field No. 8.

let Year . .

Wheat

Kye

Wheat

Clover

Com

Wheat

Clover

Oats

2d '• . .

live

Clover

Corn

Wheat

Oats

Clover

Wheat

Wheat

3d •' . .

Clover

Wheat

Oats

Rye

Wheat

Wlieat

Corn

Clover

Ith " . .

Wheat

Corn

Wheat

Clover

Clover

Rye

Oats

Wheat

6tli •' . .

Cnrn

Oats

Clover

Wheat

Wheat

Clover

Whe.at

Rye

6tli " . .

Oats

Wheat

Wheat

Corn

Rye

Wheat

Clover

Clover

7th " . .

Wheat

Clover

Rve

Oats

Clover

Corn

Wheat

Wheat

8th " . .

Clover

Wheat

Clover

Wheat

Wheat

Oats

Rve

Corn

It is very defective, as there are
neither roots nor pulse crops ; pota-
toes or roots might be introduced in
part, after the leys, which may be of
grass ; and beans or pease can come
after wheat, with the manure, or
succeed the Indian corn.

Where a particular staple is culti-
vated, as tobacco, hemp, sugar, or
cotton, it is to he introduced in its
place according as it is a grain or
green crop. Thus, in the above ta-
ble, cottoa or hemp, cultivated for

67a

seeds, may come in the place of

wheat, and tobacco after manure.

Near cities, where there is a de-
mand for everything raised, the rota-
tion becomes much more managea-
ble, and may be made to approach the
very complicated formulas given in
Europe, of which the one on the next
page is a good specimen.

The cliemical principles of rota-
tions are under discussion, and can-
not, therefore, be entered upon in a
practical work. It may, however, be

ROTATION OF CROPS.

MR. THOMAS BLACKIG S SCHEME OF RO-
TATION UPON A FARM OF ONE HUN-
j DRED ACRES, AS PROPOSED TO THE

I FRENCH GOVERNMENT.

I |i| s ? 1 -^ ills ^ i

o a H6aoi.>a ^ o

_o H d = a

OS O K

o a ^ p.>n

? t- U P3 u J

.w--u->-ss

briefly stated that leguminous crops I
are regarded as lime crops ; the corn ^
crops as potash and bone-eartli crops, ;
and most roots and green crops as
potash crops ; and that these should
severally succeed each other in a
well-tilled and prepared soil. j

" To lie ploughed op ader seven years, sad Tonowed

by wheat. J

L L L

Boussingault, who has taken an-
other view of rotations, and main-
tains that they should be so directed
as to economize the nitrogen or am-
monia ot" manures, has entered into
an extensive series of researches to
determine the best rotations. He
analyzed his crops and manures, and
calculated the amount of each com-
ponent they carried from the field.
As the rotations are good, we have
no hesitation in presenting them,
with his results.

" The measure of dung in use at
Bechelbronn is the wagon drawn by
four horses. After repeated weigh-
ings, it was found that this measure
contains nearly 1 ton. 15 cwt., 2 qrs.,
23 lbs. of moist material, or 7 cwt.,

1 qr., 15 lbs., if that be computed dry.
The first course of the rotation re-
ceives 27 loads of this manure, weigh-
ing about 48 tons, 14 qrs., 5 lbs.,
equivalent to 9 tons, 19 cwt., 0 qr.,

2 lbs. of dry manure per hectare, or
20 tons per acre.

" The preceding analyses show
that this charge of manure, which is
to fertilize the soil during the course
of the rotation (five years), contains,

Carbon 8,027 lbs.

Hydrogen 925

Oxygen 5,767

Azote 447

Salts and earth . . -. . . .7,188
22,355

" Such are the principles which,
together, form the organic matter
that is to be consumed, and, in a ma-
jor part, assimilated by the crops
grown. I say partly, because I do
not believe that the whole organic
matter necessarily enters into the
constitution of the plants which
spring up during the rotation ; no
doubt a considerable portion of the
manure is lost through spontaneous
decomposition, or is carried away by
the rain ; and another portion may
remain a long time dormant in the
soil, to act as a fertilizer at a more
or less distant period ; just as, in the
present rotation, the manure former-
ly introduced co-operates with that
recently added. One thing is cer-
tain, viz , that the proportion of ma-
nure indicated is essential for aver-
673

IIOTATJOX OF CROPS.

age crops ; bydiminisliin<; it, the prod-
uce is necessarily lesseinHl. Lastly,
it is proved that after the rotation the
crops have coiisuMiuil the uiamnc.and
the earth will not yield its increase
unless a fresh quantity he added.

" I now proceed to consider the re-
lation subsisting between the quanli-
ty of organic matter buried in the soil
as manure and what is recovered in
the crops. In this way the respect-
ive proportions of elementary matter
which various crops derived from tlie
air and the soil may be determined
approximately, and a knowledge ob-
tained of those rotations which least
exhaust the land, or, in other words,
which obtain from the atmosphere
the largest amount of organic matter.

"The rotations set down in tables
Nos. 1 and 2 are those adopted at Be-
chelbronn and throughout the great-
er part of Alsace. Tliese two rota-
tions, which differ only in the hoed
crop introduced, potatoes in one,
beet root in the other, are almost
identical, nearly the same quantity of
dry matter being produced per acre,
and nearly the same quantity of or-
ganic material withdrawn from the
atmosphere.

"The rotation No. 3 was introdu-
ced by Schwertz, at Hohenheim ;
theoretically, it is one of the most
advantageous ; it was tried at Be-
chelbronn, but abandoned, because
pease and vetches fail frequently.

" Table Xo. 4 shows the triennial
rotation with manured fallow ; this
is disadvantageous in point of theory.
The organic constituents of the crop
exceed but little those of the manure.
Supposing that even the whole of the
straw were converted into manure,
the farmer would still be com [jelled
to procure manure from abroad, in
compensation for the outgoing of
wheat. It is thus obvious why tri-
ennial rotation always requires a
great deal of meadow land.

" In table No. 5 the result of the

continuous cultivation of Jerusalem

artichokes is given. At Bechelbronn

these are dressed every two years

674

with about ten loads of dung per acre.
Upon an average, 20 tons of tui)ers
and about two tons of woody stems
are gathered in the course of two
years. It will be perceived, from
perusal of this table, that the culture
of Jerusalem artichokes presents,
theoretically, considerable advanta-
ges. I'he organic matter of the crop
greatly exceeds that of the manure.
.Moreover, in Alsace, where it is very
common, it is held to be most pro-
ductive. Still, the organic matter of
the stems must be taken into account,
which, practically speaking, are near-
ly worthless.

" Table No. 6 comprises the data
relative to a quadrennial rotation
adopted by M. Crud, and in which are
grown successively, 1st. Potatoes or
beet root. 2d. Wheat. 3d. Red clo-
ver. 4th. "Wheat. The first sowing
is dressed with about 18 tons of half-
wasted farm-yard dung. The gain in
organic matter obtained by this rota-
tion surpasses that of the preceding ;
but as the clover crops are not very
sure when repeated every four years,
M. Crud, for reasons which may be
called in question, follows this rota-
tion with one of lucern, which gets a
fresh supply of manure. It cannot
be denied that lucern furnishes a
great mass of fodder, and in this re-
spect the fertility of the land ought
to be vastly enhanced, were this con-
sumed on the spot ; but I can discov-
er no objection to the renewal of clo-
ver, if the lucern succeeds so well as
M. Crud says it does. From too fre-
quent repetition, farmers have gone
into the opposite extreme of culti-
vating clover only every five or six
years. This subject oflers an impor-
tant field for research. It is not im-
possible that the ill success depends
often on premature mowing of the
clover during the first year, and be-
fore its roots have acquired sufficient
vigour. This practice has been aban-
doned with us for some years, and
there is now everything to assure us
that the second year"s crop is there-
by secured.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

ROTATION, COURSE NO. 1.

Years.

Substanies. per acre.

Crnpa
dry.

Carbon.

Hydro-
gen.

Ojygen.

Azote.

Salts

and

earths.

Ilw.

Ib.i.

lbs.

U.S.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

Ut

117.33

2H2!?

1214

164

12154

42

113

2d

Wheat .

1«1

1052

4«5

61

4.57

24

25

Wheat straw

2798

2070

1002

110

805

8

145

3d

4675

■Jim

1750

185

1396

78

284

4th

Wheat .

1631

1300

599

75

564

30

31

Wheat straw

34.56

2557

1237

135

995

10

179

Tucaip» (2d crop)

8754

(i5(i

2832

30

278

11

f.0

etb

Oat.s

l-2;!2

SI 75

494

62

358

21

39

Oat straw .

i»;50

1170

.59.'}

63

458

r.

60

T.rtal .

371)50

Ui:i()7

102.10

«91

6575

229

926

.Manure emplojed
Dillerence .

9114

342(i

391

2403

185

2999

Ij'.r.t)

tiHlO

.500

4172

44

2073

ROTATION, COURSE NO. 2.

Years.

Substances.

Crops
per acre.

Crops
dry.

Carbon.

Hydro-
gen.

Oxygen.

Azote.

Salts

and

earths.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lat

2.3*3

2907

1244

157

1262

49

182

2d

Whe.1t .

1086

928

428

63

403

21

22

Wheat straw

2468

1827

8«3

98

710

7

128

Sd

11675

3693

1749

185

1396

77

28-1

4th

Wheat .

1520

1.300

699

75

664

30

31

Wheat straw

3456

2557

1237

.1.35

995

10

179

Turnips
Oats

8754

fi.55

-281

36

277

11

50

6tb

1232

975

495

62

358

21

.39

Oat straw
Total .

16.50

1176

5.'<9

63

468

5

60

27224

1G018

7505

864

6423

231

975

Manure employed
Difference .

9314

3426

.391

2403

185

2999

6704

4079

473

4020

46

2024

ROTATION, COURSE NO.

Years.

Substances 1 ^'°^^
bubsLances. per acre.

C rops
dry.

Carbon.

Hydro-
gen.

Oxygen.

Azote.

Salts

and

earths.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lb.».

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

1st

11733

2828

1244

164

1264

42

113

2d

Wheat .

1231

1054

485

61

457

24

25

Wheat straw

2798

2070

1002

110

805

8

145

3d

4675

3693

17.50

185

1396

78

284

4th

Wheat .

1515

1300

599

75

564

30

31

3456

2.558

1238

1.35

995

10

179

Turnips

Pease i' dunged) .

8754

6.56

2S2

36

278

11

60

Dth

1001

915

425

66

366

38

28

2558

2-356

1033

112

803

62

255

6th

Kve .

1539

1278

5P0

71

665

22

30

Rye straw .
Total .

3420

27,80

13.87

1,55

1129

8

100

148280

21388

10035

1160

8622

323

1240

Manure employed
Dillerence .

11176

4000
6035

470

2883

223

3599

.10212

690

5739

100

2359

ROTATION, COURSE NO. 4.

Years.

Substances.

Crops
per acre.

Crops
dry.

Carbon.

Hydro-
gen.

Oxygen.

1 Salts
Azote. 1 and
1 earths.

1st
2d Si. 3d

Dun-cd fallow

Wheat

Straw

Total

.Manure employed ....

DifTerence

lbs.

3041

6875

lbs.

2600
6080

lbs.

951
2462

lbs.

150

270

lbs.

11-28
1979

lbs.

60

20

lbs.

62
356

9916 76,80
3795

3413

1358

420
159

3107
979

80 418

76 1222

3885

2055

. 261

2128

4 , 804

NO. 5, CONTINUOUS

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE CROPS.

Years.

Substances.

Crops
per acre.

Crops
dry.

Carbon.

Hydro
gen.

Oxygen.

Azote.

Salts

and

earths.

l8t &. 2d

Artichokes . ....
Sulks . . ...

Total

Manure employed ....

D.lTHr.-n,-e

lbs.
48473
2.5&50

lbs.
100S3
2-2497

lbs.
4366
10289

lbs.

fiS5
1215

lbs.
4366
10289

lbs.
161

lbs.
605
&30

74323

32580
86-24

14li5;5

3087

1800
362

146.55 1 251
2-2-25 1 172

1236

2777

23951'; U.'.r.K 1 1133

12130 ' 79

1,542

675

ROT

RUB

NO. 6, QUATRENNIAL ROTATION ADOPTED BY M.

CRUD.

Crops grown.

Crops
per acre.

Crops
dry.

Elcineiitiir.v

ngredien

s ol the

■rop.

Years.

Carbon.

Hydro-
gen.

Oxygen.

Aiote.

SalU

and

earths.

l8t

3d

Half acre of potatoes ....
Ditto of heel roots ....
V\lient, 15.i bushels ....

Wheal straw

Clover, tliree cuttings ....

Total

Manure consumed ....

nilVereMce

lbs.
Hlfi7

:W3l
7M3
7333

lbs.
2:0.)
2.;:!7
2847
6:43
67tf3

lbs.
972
957
1312
2.037
2-4fi

lbs.
128
130
l«.i
278
290

lbs.
987
970
1235
2040
2190

lbs.
33
38
65

21
121

Ib8

88
141

68
347
416

■lbW7

8349

29S9

991
350

- 74:2
2154

478
167

1110

2688

9980

Cinlia

ti41

.52liS

HI

1.078

Dry manure

Dry produce

Gain in organic

Kola lions.

expended upon

Azote contained
m the manure.

obtained in one
year upon one

Azote contained
in the produce.

matter in one

year upon one

acre.

upon one acre.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

No. 1 .

1862

37

3261

46

1399

9

No. 2 .

1P62

37

3204

46

1342

9

No. 3 .

1862

37

3564

54

1702

17

No. 4 .

l2a->

2r

2561

26

1295

1

Nn. 5 .

4312

£6

16290

125

11975

39

No. 6 .

20a7

43

45S2

70

2495

23

" From all that precedes, it is ob-
vious that rotations which include
trefoils, red clover, lucern, and sain-
foin are those that aflbrd considera-
bly the largest proportion of orfraiiic
matter; a fact, indeed, which, if not
legitimately estal)lislied, has still been
long acted on in that system of crop-
ping which embraces forage plants
as an element. Lucerns, too, when
they have taken kindly, yield an ex-
traordinary quantity of forage, as ev-
ery one may see by turning to the
produce of the piece under that crop
which, in the system of M. Crud, suc-
ceeds the quatrennial rotation. At
the end of his rotation, M. Crud al-
ways lays on manure in the ratio of
18 tons per acre, which lasts for six
years, and may be said to suffice for
the succession of crops in the ap-

pended table :

Produ

re

Contents

Crops.

per ac

e.

in azote.

Lucern

dry

1st year

a080 lbs.

72 1I)S.

"

2d year

9240

215

"

3d year

IH58

269

«

4th year

9240

213

"

5th year

7333

172

Wheat,

Gthyear

1448

28

3645

11

980

Dung e

mployed . .

40233

2(15

Tutalg

lin ir

azote . .

. 775

Gam in azote per annum and per acre 130

" In glancing at these tables, it is
obvious that the azote of the crop al-
ways exceeds the azote of the ma-
nure. Generally speaking, I admit
676

that this excess of azote is derived
from the atmosphere ; but I do not
pretend to say in what precise man-
ner the assimilation takes place. I
shall only quote the conclusion of a
paper which I published on the sub-
ject in the year 1837. Azote may
enter immediately into the constitu-
tion of vegetables, provided their
green parts have the power of fixing
it ; azote may also enter vegetables
dissolved in the water which bathes
their roots, and which always con-
tains it in a certain proportion. Last-
ly, it is possible that the air may con-
tain an infinitely minute quantity of
ammoniacal vapour, as some natural
philosophers have maintained, and
that this, assimilated, decomposed,
and recomposed anew by the plant,
is the source of its azotized constit-
uents."

ROTTEN STONE. A soft alu-
minous mineral used in polishing met-
als.

ROUP. A disease of Poultry,
which see.

ROWAN-TREE. The mountain
ash {Pyrus auciiparia).

ROWEL. A seton ; also the sharp
wheel of a spur.

ROW^EN. A name for after-math
hay.

RUBEFACIENTS. Substances
which produce redness on the skin
without blistering.

RUT

RYE

RUBBLE -STONES. Fragments
of brickbats, loose stones.

RL:BBL\G-P0ST. a useful ap-
pcndaije to the cattle-yard.

R(:i3IG0. Rust in plants. See
Urcdo.

RUDDLE. An ochreous clay, red-
dle.

RUE. Ruta gravcolcns. A foetid
shrub ; the leaves are rei)Uted of use
as an antispasmodic. It grows readi-
ly in a clay soil without manure, and
is propagated by slips.

R U M E X. The paunch, or first
stomach, of ruminating (juadrupeds.

RU.Ml.XAXTS. Animals, as the
ox, sheep, and deer, which have four
stomachs and cloven hoof, and chew
the cud.

RUMINATION. The act of Chew-
ins the Cud, which see.

RUNCIXATE. In botany, hooked
back, or curved in a direction from
the apex to the base, as the lobes of
the leaf of the dandelion.

RUNNER. The stolon, or run-
ning stem, as in the strawberry :
it IS a convenient means of propa-
gation.

R U N T. A variety of common
pigeon ; small black cattle of Wales
and Scotland ; decrepid pigs.

RUPTURE. A hernia or sinking
of the bowels through, so as to form
a large, soft tumour.

RURAL ECONO.MY. The man-
agement of all things pertaining to
the farm.

RUSHES. The family of sedges,
called by botanists Juncus and Scir-
pus, growing in rich wet lands : they
are destroyed by draining, tillage,
and liming. Rushes make excellent
mats, coarse basket-work, and bot-
toms of chairs.

R U S T. Peroxide of iron, with
some amount of carbonate. A family
of parasitic fungi infesting grain and
plants, sometimes called liubtgo. See
Uredo.

RUSTIC-WORK. In building, a
term applied to work jagged out into
an irregular surface. Work, also,
which is left rough.

RUT. To cut a line on the soil
with a spade. The copulation of deer
L L I. 2

in the rutting season ; the track of a
cart-wheel.

RUTA BAGA. See Turnip.

R Y E. Sccale cereale, of the fam-
ily GraminccR. " It bears naked seeds
on a flat ear furnished with awns like
barley. The straw is solid, the in-
ternal part being filled with a pith,
which, if it causes it to be inferior as
fodder, makes it more valuable for
litter, and still more so for tliatching.
The value of the straw is often near-
ly equal to that of the grain. Rye
grows on poor, light soils which are
altogether unfit for wheat, and hence
tracts of light sands are often de-
nominated rye land. On these soils
this grain is far more profitable than
wheat, which can only be raised there
at a great expense of marling and
manuring. From experiments made
to ascertain the quantities of nutri-
tious matter in rye and wheat, Thaer
states their real comparative value
to be as 64 to 71. If the soil is capa-
ble of bearing a moderate crop of
wheat, it would be much more advan-
tageous to sow one portion of a field
with rye and another with wheat;
and if meslin bread is desired, the
two grains may be mixed in any re-
quired proportion. Excellent bread
is made of two parts of wheat and
one of rye, ground together. Rye is
at present raised in very sinaU quan-
tities in the United States.

" Rye is extensively cultivated in
Europe, especially in the Nether-
lands, where it is the chief grain from
which the spirit called Hollands is
distilled ; and it is also the source of
whiskey. When malted, it makes
excellent beer, one bushel of rye malt
being equal to at least one and a quar-
ter of barley malt. The cultivation
of rye is very simple ; it is usually
sown after wheat, where the soil is
light and rich, or after turnips and
potatoes, in those soils which are
not strong enough for wheat.

" It is mostly sown as a green
crop, and when fed off early in spring
Willi sheep, the land is invigorated,
and will bear excellent potatoes or
other roots the same year. This
practice cannot be sufficiently rec-
677

RYE.

ommended ; and if the rye is sown
very oarly in autuiiin, it may be fed
off in October and November, when
sheep feed is beginnin^f lo fail, with-
out any detriment to the succeeding
spring |)n)diice.

" Winter barley and winter oats
have been substituted for rye as
spring fodders by some farmers ; but
on land of moderate quality rye is
generally preferred. It bears the se-
verest winters, which is not the case
with barley or oats. The rye which
has been fed off very early may be
allowed to remain for seed, which it
will produce more or less abundantly,
according as it has been fed off ear-
lier or later.

" The preparation of the land for
rye is the same as for wheat, except
that in very light soils no more
ploughings are required than will
clear the ground of weeds. If rye is
sown after harvest, one ploughing
only is usually given. It will thrive
upon rich wheat soils, as well as
upon lighter, and, as it throws out
numerous stems in rich land, it is the
more profitable as fodder, although
the crop of grain might not be so
abundant when the plants are too
much crowded. To have as much
green food as possible, the rye is al-
ways sown broad-cast, three bushels
at least to an acre ; some sow a sack,
and with advantage.

" There is a variety of rye men-
tioned by continental authors by the
name of Seiglc de la St. Jean, or St.
John's-day rye, because it grows so
rapidly that, if sown about St. John's
day (24th of June), it will be tit to
mow green by the middle of Septem-
ber, and in favourable seasons may
be fed off again in November, with-
out preventing its giving ample feed
in spring, and a good crop of grain
at the next harvest. It might be ad-
vantageous to introduce this variety.
There is no doubt that there are va-
rieties of the same kind of plants
which have a much more vigorous
vegetation than those connnonly cul-
tivated, and the introduction of them
where they are not known is an im-
portant benetii to agriculture. The
678

celebrated agriculturist Du Hamel du
Monceau mentions an individual who
had obtained, from one sowing, five
abundant cuts of green rye for cattle
in two years. If any green plant is
cut down before the fructification is
completed, it will, in general, throw
out fresh stems ; and in very rich
soils its blossoming may thus be con-
tinually retarded until the roots be-
come too weak to force successive
stems.

" Although the value of rye as a
green crop is fully admitted, very lit-
tle is grown for food ; yet on some
poor soils, where wheat and barley
are now often sown with a very poor
return, and at a great expense of
manure, rye and buckwheat would
give a much greater clear profit, and
would require much less manuring :
and where there are not ready means
of improving the soil by claying or
marling, the cultivation of rye would
be found most advantageous ; and,
by means of sheep, very poor sandy
soils might thus be made profitable.
The grains of rye from the distilleries
are excellent food for milch cows and
hogs, which fatten readily on them.

" Rye is subject to most of the dis-
eases which attack the plants of the
family of the Grajmnect, such as rust,
mildew, burned ear, and sinut-ball.
But there is one remarkable disease,
which, although it is sometimes found
in wheat, is much more commonly
observed in rye. It is called the
ergot, the French name of a cock's
spur, which the diseased grain re-
sembles in shape. By some perver-
sion of the Vital functions of the
plant, the embryo, or germen, instead
of growing into a regular seed filled
with farina, shoots out a long black
fungus-like substance, several times
the length of a common seed, which
rises above the chaff, and has the
appearance of a slender pyramid,
slightly bent on one side. This sub-
stance is soft and easily broken or
cut, and is uniform in its internal tex-
ture, without any husk or skin over
it. If it were merely the loss of the
grain of which the ergot takes the
place, the mischief occasioned by

SAC

SAI

this disease would be comparatively
trilling ; but this fungus, when taken
internally, mixed with the rye flour
conv^erled into bread, has a most
powerful and deleterious effect on
the animal frame. When taken in
any considerable quantitj-, it produ-
ces the most dreadful diseases. This
was first observed in France, where
a great scarcity from the failure of
the crops, accompanied with a more
than usual production of the ergot in
rye, obliged the poorer inhabitants
of certain districts to make bread
from diseased rye. The consequen-
ces were horrid to behold ; their
limbs rotted and separated from the
trunk before death relieved them from
their misery. The ignorant ascri-
bed it to witchcraft, but experiments
made on animals by feeding them on
ergotted rye soon showed the real
cause.

" The extraordinary effects of the
ergot of rye have made it the subject
of experiments in medicine, and it
has been found extremely useful in
certain cases of protracted labour.
It is consequently become an article
of commerce as a drug."

RYE GRASS. See Grasses.

SACCHARIC ACID. Anuncrys-
tallizable acid, produced by the action
of nitric acid on sugar. Its salts are
called saccharates.

SACCHAROMETER. An imple-
ment for taking the specific gravity
of sirups and worts. Baume's hy-
drometer is chietly used.

SACCHAROULMIN and ULMIC
ACID. A brown, brilliant substance
obtained by digesting sugar for a long
time in dilute nitric or sulphuric acid.

SACCHOLACTIC ACID. Mucic
acid, obtained by treating sugar of
milk with nitric acid.

SACK. A coarse, large bag ; a
measure of three bushels.

SAC OF THE EMBRYO. In bot-
any, the small enclosed body in which
the embryo is placed during its
growth.

SACRUM. The lowest portion of
the spine.

SAFFLOWER. Tlie Carthamus
tinctorius, bastard saffron. An an-
nual of the family Composkcc, the
flowers of which yield a rich red col-
our when treated with solution of
carbonate of soda. Rouge is made
from them. There is no difficulty in
their cultivation.

SAFFRON. Crocus sativus. A
bulbous plant with purple flowers, the
stamens of which yield a bright yel-
low colour to hot water. They are
used in medicine, but are of no im-
portance. The cultivation presents
no difficulties. The stamens, or in-
ternal, thread-like parts of the flow-
er, are to be collected when of the
brightest colour, and dried loosely
without compression. The bulbs are
placed in a fair soil six inches apart,
in June, and the flowers gathered in
September, the stigmas being pluck-
ed out and dried in a warm room.
The first year the yield does not ex-
ceed three pounds, but in the second
and third twenty-four are obtained.
The bulbs are taken up and divided
the third year.

SAFFRON, MEADOW. Colchi-
cum.

SAGAPENUM. A fcetid gum res-
in from a species of ferula.

SAGE. Salvia officinalis. A well-
known aromatic perennial. The soil
should be dry, and tolerably rich. It
is propagated by splitting the roots,
or by root shoots.

SAGITTATE. Shaped like an ar-
row head.

SAGO. A starchy farina from the
pith of several palm-trees, as the Sa-
gus farinifera, Rhumphii, &c. It is a
good, wholesome food, and much es-
teemed for puddings and gruel. In
England a gruel of sago is often giv-
en to horses after a hard run. The
Florida arrow-root is a kind of sago
obtained from the pith of the Zamia
integrifolia and pumila, indigenous
plants.

SAINFOIN. Hcdi/sarum onohri-
chis{Fig.), esparcette. A long-rooted,
perennial, leguminous plant with red
flowers. It is native in calcareous
soils.

" There are few plants which have
679

SAINFOIN.

more rapidly improved the value of
poor, thin, calcareous soils tliaii sain-

foin ; and in the richer kinds of loam,
which contain a considerable propor-
tion of calcareous matter, its value
surpasses even that of broad clover,
giving fully as great a return, with a
much smaller expenditure of manure.
The plant has a strong, woody, and
fibrous root, which insinuates itself
into the fissures of calcareous rocks,
and finds moisture in the dryest sea-
sons, while its spreading fibres keep
the earth from being washed down
the steep slopes of the hills. In fa-
vourable situations, it may be made
into hay twice in the year, or cut oft-
ener as green food. In the most arid
and exposed situations it gives at
least one good crop of hay. The
plant grows about two feet high, and
the stem branches out into many
compound leaves. After it has been
mown, it shoots out rapidly again,
and may be advantageously depas-
tured by every kind of cattle or sheep.
There are varieties of the plant which
differ in the rapidity of their growth;
the best is called, in France, esparcetle,
or sainfoin a deux coupes. From
France it has been introduced into
England. The duration of sainfoin
depends on the nature of the soil, and
the state it was in v\ith respect to
weeds when it was sown. A cold,
wet subsoil soon destroys the roots,
whereas a free and dry one, whether
680

rocky or gravelly, gives them vigour.
Grass and weeds, which choke the
crown of the plant, soon cause it to
decay, as is the case with lucern.
With every advantage, it may last in
vigour ten years, especially if it is oc-
casionally invigorated with a top-
dressing of manure or ashes, or, which
is best of all, with diluted urine, or
the drainings from dunghills. Du-
ring that time it may be cut twice for
hay every year, taking care to cut it
before the liower is faded or the seed
formed ; and if sheep are folded on
it after the second cutting, the next
crop will well repay the trouble. It
is usually sown in spring in a crop of
barley or oats, which should be sown
thin in order that the sainfoin may
not be smothered. The land should
have been prepared by a cleansing
crop. From three to four bushels of
seed may be sown, harrowed in, and
rolled. It is not often drilled, al-
though this method, by allowing the
use of the hoe between the rows,
would much strengthen the young
plants, and protect them against
coarse grasses, which are their great-
est enemies. In the first year the
sainfoin should not be fed off by
sheep ; and if it is mown, it should
not be mown too close to the ground.
The crown of the root in the young
plant rises a little above the ground,
and if this be bit off, or cut with the
scythe, the plant dies. It is useful to
harrow the ground lightly, to draw
the earth round the roots, and to de-
stroy seed weeds soon after the bar-
ley or oats are reaped. The sainfoin
does not produce a large crop the
first year, for some of the seeds will
lie a twelvemonth in the ground be-
fore they spring up. It is in perfec-
tion after the second year, when a
' portion may be reserved for seed.
j Sainfoin hay is extremely nourishing
j for every kind of cattle, especially if
' it has been made without rain. Al-
I though it is not apt to heat in the
stack, it must be put up in a very dry
: state ; and if it has suffered from rain,
too much care cannot be taken thor-
oughly to dry it ; for the water insin-
; uates itself by capillary attraction

SAINFOIN.

into the hollow stems, and is long in
evaporating, so that when it feels
quite dry it may yet eoiitain nuicli
water. The mode of diseovei/ng this
is to twist it strongly in tlic liands
into a rope, when the moist iiro. if
t^iere is any, will ooze out. It is bet-
ter to let it dry thoroughly, than, by
carrying it in a hurry, to run the risk
of its becoming mouldy within. In
very precarious seasons it may be
carried in a green state, provided
there be no moisture in it from dews
or showers, and stacked in alternate
layers with good straw. It will im-
part some of its fragrance to the
straw, and lose none of its nutritive
qualities. The same may be done
with lucern or clover. The most ad-
vantageous use of sainfoin, however,
is to cut it green and give it immedi-
ately to the cattle. There is no dan-
ger of their being hoven by it, for it
ferments very slowly, owing to the
fibrous nature of the stem. If the
situation of the field admits of occa-
sional irrigation, without danger of
the water stagnating, the produce of
the sainfoin will be greatly increased ;
and it may then be cut four or even
five times in a season without fear
of exhausting its strength. When it
begins to appear thin on the ground,
and other plants seem to get the bet-
ter of the sainfoin, it is time to break
it up. The land will be found much
improved in fertility by the sainfoin.
A poor chalk or gravel, which before
would scarcely repay the seed sown
in it, will now, by the gradual decay
of the roots and fibres of the sain-
foin, produce several good crops with-
out any other manure. The prudent
farmer, however, will not entirely de-
stroy, by repeated crops of grain, that
cohesion of the soil which is produ-
ced by the roots of the sainfoin ; but
by a judicious course and proper ap-
plication of the mannre, wiiich the
sainfom enabled him to make, he will
keep up the newly-acquired fertility
until, in the course of ten or twelve
years, he can again sow sainfoin seed
in it with the prospect of a crop more
abundant than the first. Many a poor,
barren tract of calcareous rock and

gravel has been fertilized and raised
in value by the sole effect of the sain-
foin, without which it must have re-
mained in its unproductive state.

".Mthough a chalky soil is best
adapted to tiie growth of sainfoin, it
may be sown with advantage in all
light loams, provided the substratum
be sound and dry. On very rich, deep
moulds lucern is a more profitable
crop ; but sainfoin will tiirive where
lucern would fail ; and it is particu-
larly adajjtcd for poor, dry soils.

"There is nothing peculiar in the
manner in which sainfoin is made
into hay. It should not be shaken
about too much, for fear of injuring
the dower and breaking ofTthe leaves.
The swarth should be merely turned
over, when dry on one side, and then,
as soon as it is dry through, it should
be put into small cocks, occasionally
spread out in tlie sun, when the dew
is off the ground, and carried to the
stack as soon as it is sufficiently made.
It should take a good heat in order to
make it compact, but without acqui-
ring too dari< a colour. Experience
alone can teach the exact time when
it should be stacked. When it is left
for seed, it should be examined care-
fully after the blossom fades. The
lower pods will be filled with ripe
seed before the blossoms at the top
of the spike of flowers are withered
or the seed formed in them. If the
sainfoin were left standing till these
seeds were ripe, the lowest would be
shed ; but by cutting it at a proper
time these may be preserved, while
most of the latter will ripen in the
straw sufficiently to vegetate when
sown. Rainy weather is very inju-
rious to the seed crop ; a fine time
should therefore be selected, if pos-
sible, even at the risk of a smaller
crop. The seed is only gathered for
sowing ; but in case there should be
more than is required for that pur-
pose, and no ready sale, it is excel-
lent food for horses. The produce
varies from three to five or even six
sacks per acre. It is easily thrashed
out, and this operation is often done
on a cloth in the field, when the weath-
er permits. It is readily done by a
CSl

SAL

SAL

thrashing machino, and winnowed
hl\e corn. On the whole, tlieie are
few plants the ciihivatioii ol' wliich is
so advantageous as tiiai of sainiuin
on tlie soils on which it thrives best."

SAINT JOHN'S WORT. John's
wort.

SALAL BERRY. A fruit from
the Columhia, of a dark colour, sweet
taste, and the size of a grape.

SAL AiNLMOMAC. Muriate of
ammonia. A common salt of am-
monia much used in the arts. It is
very soluble in water, and has been
used as a steep by .Mr. Campbell ; one
pound, being added to one gallon and
a half of water, is sufficient for one
bushel of seed. A small amount of
it exists in putrescent fluids. The
expense of this preparation will prob-
ably hinder an extensive use.

SALEP. The farinaceous product
of the roots of the Orchis niascvla.

SALICIN. A neutral crystalline
body existing in willow bark.

SALICYL. An hypothetical com-
pound radical, C14 H5 ©4, existing in
salicylous acid, (Sec., bodies derived
from salicin.

SALIFEROUS. Containing salt ;
a name given to the new red sand-
stone formation.

SALIFIABLE BASE. A sub-
stance which combines with acids to
form salts.

SALIVA. The spittle : it is pre-
pared by the parotid and other glands,
and mixed with the food during mas-
tication : its office is important. Ac-
cording to Liebig, it is a means of
introducing oxygen into the stomach
to accomplish the lirst step in diges-
tion. Its loss is always injurious to
animals.

SALIVATION. An excessive dis-
charge of saliva, slobbering ; change
of food, with salt, are preventives in
cattle.

SALLOWS. Willows which grow
in marshy lands, and produce tough,
strong branches, are so called.

SALLOW THORN. Hippophai
rhamnoides. An ornamental shrub
five feet in height. !

SALSIFY. Tragopogonporrifolms.
Vegetable oyster. A biennial com- '
6S3

posite plant, the root of which grows
to ilu^ si'/.e of a small carrot, is white,
and an excellent vegetable ; the
young spring shoots of the second
year are also eaten as asparagus.
Sow the seed in April or May, in
drills, twelve inches apart, thin to six
inches, and work when wanted ; the
roots are taken up l)efore late frosts,
and kept in a moist cellar. For seeds,
set out some thrilty plants in spring,
or some may be leit in the ground.

SALSILLA. An herbaceous i)lant
of Peru, of the genus Alslrcemciia,
cultivated for its edible roots.

SALT, CO.MMON. Chloride of
sodium. It requires three times its
weight of water lor solution, and is
composed of one equivalent sodium
(23 31) and one chlorine (3.') 47).

It is a substance of great impor-
tance in agriculture : in thepurestale,
as a means of preserving butter and
meats, or supplying cattle with a
wholesome and necessary food, and,
in the impure state, as a manure and
steep for seeds.

As a Sleep. — A strong solution, or
ordinary brine, is an admirable prep-
arative for wheat, oats, and grains ;
it destroys the seeds of smut and
other parasites, as well as the eggs
of insects, and also enables us to sep-
arate the plump, heavy kernels from
the light and motheaten. It has
proved a certain remedy, even when
the grain was known to be smutted.

In doses of fifteen to thirty bushels
to the acre, it is used in Cheshire on
a clean fallow to destroy insects in
the ground, couch grass, and other
noxious weeds ; the land is left un-
sown for three to six months after;
as a manuring, in quantities of three
to five bushels, on wheat, oats, rye,
potatoes, turnips, and other crops, it
has often produced the best results.
It is not indicated on those soils
which are within reach of the sea air,
as they receive a sufficiency.

Plants absorb weak solutions of
salt, but are injured by a strong dose ;
they also possess the power of de-
composing it, and appropriating its
soda. There are failures when salt
is used indiscriminately ; but all the

I

SAL

plants which require much soda, or
alkali, and grow distant from the sea,
are undoulitedly benefited thereby.

Salt is of great use in composts
with lime, vegetable matter, and
earth. If these be kept moist, but
sheltered, there is gradually formed
the carbonate of soda and chloride of
calcium, both of which are excellent
manures. The heap should l)c stir-
red often, and contain as much lime
as salt, with a sufficient quantity of
vegetable matter and earth to keep
the whole moist. Or the heap, in-
stead of containing salt, may be wa-
tered with salt water, or made up
with sea-weeds or salt muck.

Salt, in small quantities, is also a
desirable addition to the farm-yard
manure, and all vegetable composts.

SALTING MACHINF. " The in-
strument resembles a common syr-
inge of more than ordinary dimen-
sions, and, although not quite so sim-
ple in its con.strucaon, it is intended
to be userf in the same way as the
syringe, provided the point or tube
be rot exposed to the air. The ad-
vantages to be derived from the use
of the instrument arc explained by
the fact that a joint of meat may, in
the simplest manner, l)e properly
salted in less than ten minutes. The
brine is made of the usual ingredients,
and after the salt and other substan-
ces are completely dissolved, the li-
quid is poured into the machine, and
the nipple, or tube (the circumfer-
ence of which is perforated with
three small holes), is inserted into the
most solid part of a joint of meat,
and the contents are, by a very strong
pressure, forced through the fibres
until the brine is seen to escape on
the surface. For this purpose, a
smaller quantity of pickle is used
than is employed in the ordinary
method of curing meat, and the bone
(if there be any) in the centre be-
comes thoroughly impregnated with
the fluid. By the present mode of
salting meat, it is a matter of some
difficulty to inject the brine into
the iimermost part of a large joint,
whereas by the process which is
adopted in the use of the instrument,

SAP

the size or substance of the meat
presents no additional trouble to the
o])crator."

SALT MARSHES. Marshes
washed by sea water .- the herbage
is coarse, but often very nutritious,
and preferred by cattle.

SALT OF LEMONS. Binoxalate
of potash, used in removing iron
mould from linen.

S A LTPETi; E. See Nitre.

SALT, SPIRIT OF. Muriatic
acid.

SALTS. Chemical compounds,
wiiich are usually (oxysalts) formed
of a base and acid, and possess nei-
ther acidity nor alkaline action. Ha-
loid salts are those which are binary,
containing a metal in combination
with an electro-negative element

SALTWORT. The genus Sali-
cornia, which grows on salt marshes :
the ashes yield barilla.

SALVE. An ointment.

SALVER- SHAPED. Hypocra-
teriform. A monopetalous corolla,
with a long tube and spreading limb
at the top.

SALVING SHEEP. Anointing
them with a mixture of tar and but-
ter or lard. See Skccp.

SAL VOL.\TILE. Sesquicarbon-
ate of ammonia, or smelling salts.

SA.MARA. An indehiscent, few-
celled seed, with an expansion of tis-
sue resembling wings, as the pods of
the ash and alanthus.

SAND. Divided silicious matter:
it is extremely permeable to water,
retains heat well, but is infertile.
Sand is much used to improve the
texture of stifT clays, but vegetable
matter does this better, while it en-
riches the soil.

SANDAL WOOD. Pterocarpus
santalhius. Red saunders, a dye
wood, but giving fugitive reds.

SAND BATH. A quantity of sand
heated by a flue, and used in the lab-
oratory.

SAND CRACKS. Fissures in the
hoofs of horses, from which matter
exudes ; it is customary to fire the
edges of the wound, dress with hot
pitch, and bandage. They produce
much lameness.

683

SAU

SANDSTONE. A rock made of
sand cemented together, or merely
compressed together.

SANDWORT. Plants of the ge-
nus Areiiaria : thcy are succulent and
harmless.

SANICLE, SANICULA. A genus
of umbelliferous weeds.

SANIES. A thin, foetid discharge
from sores.

SAP. The fluid of vegetables and
trees. That absorbed from the soil
is called the asccndmg sap ; it passes
to the leaves along the cellular tissue
of herbs, and along the new wood
{alburnum) of trees. In the leaf, by
the action of light, it is converted
into a mucilaginous fluid, the elabo-
rated sap, which, moving from the
leaf, is diffused to all parts of the
plant along the space between the
bark and new wood ; out of this sap,
new roots, buds, flowers, seeds, and
partially the fruit is formed.

SAPAN WOOD. A dye wood re-
sembling Brazil wood.

SAP WOOD. The alburnum, or
new wood.

S A P S A G O. A Swiss cheese,
flavoured with mellilot.

SAPHENA. The large vein of
the thigh.

SAPROPHAGANS. A tribe of
coleopterans, many of which feed on
decaying matters.

SARCOCELE. A tumefaction of
the testes.

SARCOCARP. The fleshy sub-
stance of fruits.

SARCOCOLLA. A kind of gum.

SARMENTUM. A runner, such
as that of the strawberry.

SARSAPARILLA. The roots of
several species of Smilax growing in
tropical America ; the decoction is
much used as an alterative.

SASH. In building, a piece of
framing for holding the squares of
glass in a window. It is of two sorts,
viz., that called the French sash,
which is hung like a door to the sash-
frame ; and that in which it moves
vertically, from being balanced by a
weight on each side, to which it is
attached by lines running over pul-
leys at the top of the sash-frame.
684

SCA

When, in a window, both the upper
and lower sashes are moveable, the
sashes arc said to be double hung,
and single hung when only one of
them moves.

SASSAFRAS. Laurus sassafras.
A well-known tree, the wood and
roots of which arc highly aromatic ;
in poor, worn lands it is little more
than a shrub, but on the borders of
Southern swamps sometimes attains
fifty to seventy feet. The wood is
tough and very durable, resisting
worms : it is but little known. A
beer is made of the bark of the young
shoots, boiled with sugar or molasses,
and fermented.

SATURATION. A chemical ex-
pression, signifying either that no
more of a given substance, or salt,
can be disiolved ; or that, in a com-
pound, the combination of its parts
IS complete or saturated.

SAUER KRAUT. See Callage.

SAURIANS. The Rubdivision of
the animal kingdom, including the
crocodiles, lizards, <Scc. ; they have
four legs, and are covered with a sca-
ly epidermis.

SAVANNAHS. Extensive allu-
vial flats ; the prairies.

S A V I N. Juiiiperus salina, the
leaves of which are a powerful drug.
In the United States, tlie red cedar is
often called savin.

SAWDUST. When rotted in the
compost heap, or with lime and earth,
it forms a good manure for improving
the texture of soils.

SAW FLIES. An extensive fam-
ily of hymenopterous insects, of the
genera Cimbcx, Tcnthredo, Sclandria,
&.C. The perfect insects, resembling
bees and wasps, are seen in summer
hovering over the plants they feed
on. The female lays her eggs in a
slit made in the young stem, or in
leaves ; the larvae, which are called
false caterpillars, feed on leaves and
buds, and are extremely voracious.
In some eight weeks, they descend
to the ground and form a web either
among the dead leaves, in the bark,
or under ground : the grub remains
eight months before changing to the
fly. They are very destructive: whale-

SCA

SCO

oil soap water, tobacco water, and
lime are used to destroy them.

SAW, PRUNING. This is a small
saw, set in a long handle, and used
to prune trees.

SAVORY. The summer savory
{Satumja hortevsis) is an annual, and
propagated by seed ; the wmlcr (S.
vwntaiia) is perennial, and manaj^ed
in the same way as sage, wiiifii it
greatly resembles. They are labiate
plants.

SAXIFRAGE. Flowering plants
of the genus Saxifras^a.

SAXON BLUE. A solution of in-
digo in sulphuric acid, used as a dye.

SCAB. A disease of sheep.

SCABIOUS. Weeds of the genus
Scakiosa, at one time celebrated for
curing the itch.

SCABROUS. Rough, from minute
inequalities.

SCAFFOLDING. The temporary
frame-work put up in building.

SCALDED CREAM. Clotted
cream ; cream raised from milk by
heating.

S CALL I ON. Akindof 0/iiOH,
which see.

SCALPEL. A small knife, con-
venient for dissections or surgical op-
erations.

S(]AM.MONY. The gum resin of
the CoiiEoli-idus scaminonca, an East-
ern plant. It closely resembles jalap.

SCANDENT, SCANDENS.
Climbing branches.

SCANSORIALS, SCANSORES.
Climbmg birds, as the woodpeckers :
they have two toes before and two
behind on each foot.

SC.\NTLING. " In building, the
measures of breadth and thickness
of a piece of timber or other mate-
rial. It is also the name of a piece
of timber when under five inches
square."

SCAPE. A flower stem or pedun-
cle rising from the ground, as in the
hyacinth, flag.

SCAPULA. The shoulder-blade.

SCAPULARS. The shoulder
feathers which cover the sides of the
back in birds.

SCAPUS. The stem of a feather.
In architecture, a shaft.

M M M

SCARAB.EIDANS. A family of
lamellicorn beetles.

SCA RC EM I'^NT. A rebate or set
back in a wall, or bank of eartii.

SCARFING. The union of two
timbers, to answer as one : they are
made fast by bolts.

SCARFSKIN. The epidermis, a
delicate covering of the true skin.

SCARIFICATOR. A cupping in-
strument.

S(;ARIFIER. An implement be-
tween the harrow and cultivator for
pulverizing the soil. See Cultivator.

SCARLET DYE. Prcparatton.—
For each pound of cloth take 14
drachms of cream of tartar ; when
the water boils and tiie tartar is all
dissolved, pour in 14 drachms of so-
lution of tin, and let the whole boil
a few minutes : introduce tiie cloth,
boil two hours, let it drain and cool.

For the Colour Bath. — For each
pound of cloth take two drachms of
cream of tartar ; when the bath be-
gins to boil, add one ounce of fine
cochineal powder, stir well with a
willow switch, and let it boil for a few
minutes ; pour in gradually one ounce
of solution of tin, stirring continual-
ly. Introduce the prepared clotli and
dye as quickly as possible : it will be
a beautiful scarlet. In the colour
bath, two ounces of solution of tin
may be taken, and no cream of tartar.

SCELIDES. The posterior or low-
er extremities.

SCHAPHOID. Shaped like a lit-
tle i)oat.

SCHEELES GREEN. Mineral
green, arsemte of copper.

SCHIST. A coarse slate.

SCIATIC. Relating to the hip
joint, as the sciatic nerve.

SCIRRUS. An indurated gland ;
it becomes a cancer when suppura-
tion occurs.

SCIURINES. The squirrel family.

SCLEROTICA. The white mem-
brane of the eve.

SCOLOPENDR.E. The genus of
centi[)edes.

SCOPIPEDS. A tribe of mellif-
erous insects, some of which have
the posterior feet furnished willi a
scopa, or little tuft of hair.

6S5

SCY

SCY

SCORE. 20 pieces, or 20 pounds.

SCORL'E. Cinders, especially of
the forge.

SCORZONERA. ScoizoJicra His-
panica. " This plant has long been
raised in British gardens for culinary
purposes, and especially as an ingre-
dient in soups, on account of its pal-
atable and nourishing roots. Some
boil and cat them l:ke carrots, &c.,
in which case they should be depri-
ved of their rind, and immersed in
cold water for half an hour, or they
will be bitter. They are raised pre-
cisely in the same manner as salsify.
If the seeds be sown in April, in a
good deep soil, the roots will attain
perfection in autumn, and continue
good all the winter. They last from
three to four years, according to the
quality of the earth and the care be-
stowed upon them ; but it is better
to raise a few from seed every year."
— ( Bridsrcman. )

SCOURING. Excessive purging.
See Ox, Sheep, &c.

SCRAPER. An implement to
scrape roads, like the mouldcbeart.

SCREEDS. Wooden rules for
running mouldings.

SCREENING. Sifting by pass-
ing through a screen such as masons
use.

SCROFULA. A disease of the
glands about the neck, followed by
debility and skin diseases.

SCRUPLE. Twenty grains ; the
third of a drachm.

SCUFFLER. A light scarifier, or
horse hoe.

SCUTATE. Protected by large
scales.

SCUTELLIFORM. Of the figure
of a shield ; leaves having the foot-
stalk terminating in the centre of the
lamina.

SCURVY GRASS. Cochleana of-
ficinalis. A plant belonging to the
same genus as the horseradish, and
sometimes cultivated for its leaves.
It is propagated by seed, and prefers
a moist soil.

SCUTCHING. Breaking flax or
hemp. See Flax.

Sc;YTHE. " The common scythe
is an instrument too well known to
6S6

require a minute description, but as
nmch of its utility in agriculture de-
pends on a correct adjustment of its
parts, wo shall briefly advcMt to them.
The blade of tin; scythe, whicli is al-
ways curved, with the cutting edge
on the concave side, is fixed to the
handle at an angle both to the plane
of the blade, and to the tangent to
the curve. It is on the nice adjust-
ment of these angles that the perfec-
tion of the instrument depends. A
scythe must cut the corn or grass,
especially the latter, as near to the
ground as possible, and where the
land lies flat and the stones have been
removed from the surface, a good
scythe, in the hands of a skilful mow-
er, will cut the grass so near to the
ground that little or no .stubble is lelt.
Every farmer knows well that an inch
of the grass near the ground adds
more to the weight of the hay than
several inches higher up, and that a
skilful mower, with a good scythe,
can easily add much more to the value
of the crop than his earnings amount
to, however liberally he may be paid,
and that it is of the greatest impor-
tance that none but the best mowers
be intrusted with the work, and that
attention be paid to the form of their
scythes, and to their being frequently
whetted.

" In some countries the handle of
the scythe is nearly straight, and the
end of it passes over the upper part
of the left arm. The position of the
mower is then nearly erect, and his
body turns as on a pivot, carrying the
blade of the scythe parallel to the
ground, and cutting a portion of a
considerable circle. The |;osition of
the handle in this case must be such
that when the scythe is in tiie middle
of its swing, and the blade parallel to
the ground, it rests naturally on the
left arm above the elbow, while the
mower is nearly in an erect position.
By turning his body to the right, and
stooping towards that side, he begins
his cut, and by raising himself up, the
muscles of his back greatly assist in
swinging the scythe round.

" The blades of the scythes on the
Continent are mostly made of soft

SCY

SEA

steel, and they are so soft that the in Belgium, where it was first no-
edge can be hammered to sharpen it ticed. It is commonly used in dif-
and keep it thin. In England the ferent parts of the Continent. The
scythes are forged thin and well tem- Hainault scythe is swung by the pow-
pered, and to prevent their bending er of the wrist principally. It does
they have a rim of iron along Die not cut the straw by so oblique a
baclv to witiiin a few inches of the stroke as the common scythe, but
point. Tills saves much time in rather as a bill-hook or axe would do,
sharpening, and they very seldom re- meeting the straw nearly at right
quire the grindstone. ! angles. The hook collects a small

"Most scythes iiavetwo projecting bundle, which is severed at a stroke,
handles fixed to tSe principal handle, and the left foot assists in holding
by which they are held, and these are what is cut and rolled together with
variously put on, according to the the hook, in the hollow of the blade,
fashion of the district. The real line It is thus laid aside, and fit to be tied
of the handle is that which passes up. This instrument is a great im-
through both the hands and ends at provement on the English fagging-
the head of the blade. This may be hook, which is used in the same man-
a straight line or a crooked one, gen- ner, the left arm of the reaper acting
erally tlie latter, and by moving these the part of the hook ; but as the ban-
handles up or down the main handle, die is inserted in the plane of the
each mower can place them so as blade, it causes the reaper to stoop
best suits the natural size and posi- ^ low, which is fatiguing to the loins,
tion of his body. Hence it is that one | especially of elderly people, who can
man can seldom mow well with an- [ more readily reap with the Hainault
other man's scythe. scythe.

" In mowing grain when ripe, which I "The scythe is an instrument
is the best mode of reaping, the scythe which should be more generally in-
need not have so great a sweep, nor ! troduced in harvest, and experience
is it necessary to cut the straw so I has proved that it has many advauta-
near to the ground. The great diffi- 1 ges over the sickle or reaping-hook."
o.ully here is to lay the cut grain even- See Harvest.
ly, so that the binders can readily j SEA-KALE. See Kale, Sea.
collect it and tie it into sheaves. 1 SEA.M. In geology, a thin layer
When the grain is only slightly bent ofa given rock between large masses.

down, a scythe with an addition ofa
cradle collects the slanting straw
more easily. The cradle is a species
of comb, with three or four long teeth
parallel to the back of the blade, and
fixed in the handle. This inserts it- j

Also, a measure of eight bushels, or
a horse-load of wood.

SEA MUD. The muck, or mire, of
salt marsiies.

SEA WARE. See Weeds.

SEA WATER. This has been

self behind the straw to be cut, raises used as a manure near the shore, oc-
it up, and, by a peculiar twist of the casionally with good effect. It is
scythe after the stroke, it is left so useful to apply it over compost heaps
as to be easily collected. Those who ' containing lime, as the whole is much
are accustomed to use the cradle- improved in fertilizing power,
scythe do the work rapidly and well. ! SEA- WEEDS. They are used as
"•• W hen the grain is much laid and manure in the fresh state, being turn-
entangled, it is impossible to use the ed into the soil as soon as spread. As
common scythe, even with a cradle, they contain nearly ninety per cent.
This has probably suggested a scythe water, the quantity to be applied is
to be used with one hand, while a very great. Some farmers waste
hook in the other gathers the strag- them by allowing the weeds to dry.
gling grain. The most perfect of l It is more common and better to
these scythes is called the Hainault put them into composts and farm-yard
scythe, from a province of that name i manure ; the pig-pen is a favourite

687

SEC

SEE

place to cast sea-wccd into. They i
decompose rapidly, and will even act i
as a ferment to peat, and are fertili-
zing from ilie large amount of salt
and nitrogen they contain.

SEBACEOUS GLANDS. The
minute glands of the skin, which ex-
crete a fatty matter.

SEBACIC ACID. An acid produ-
ced during the destructive distillation
of fats.

SECALE. Ergot. See Rye.
SECHIUM. A new vegetable
fruit, resembling a small squash in '
size, but different in flavour and struc-
ture, said to be from the Scchium edu- [
Us, a South American plant.

SECONDARY ROCKS. The for- {
mations lying above the coal and be- i
tween it and the tertiary series. \
They are fossiliferous and stratified, i

SECRETION. The separation
from the blood or sap of certain prod-
ucts, by a glandular or other appara-
tus ; the perspiration, urine, bile, sal-
iva, &c., are secretions. They per-
form important offices in the econo-
my, and cannot be arrested without
the occurrence of disease.

SECUNDINE. The second en-
velope of the ovule in plants. The
word sccundincs also means the mem-
branes which cover the animal foetus.
SECURIFERS, SECURIFERI
(from securis, a htUchet, and fcro, I
bear). The name of a tribe of Tcrc-
biantia, or boring hymenopterous in-
sects, comprising those in which the
females have a saw-shaped or hatch-
et-shaped terrebra or appendage to
the posterior part of the abdomen,
for the purpose of preparing a place

to receive the eggs, and of depositing
them therein.

SECIJRIPALPS, SECURIPALPI
(from securis, a huUhcl). 'i'lie name
of a family of coleopterous insects,
comprehending those in which the
maxillary palps terminate in a joint
which is elongated and hatchet-sha-
ped.

SEDATIVES. Medicines which
produce sleep and diminish pain, as
henbane, camphor, morphia.

SEDGES. Plants of the genus
Carex, perennial, coarse false grass-
es, inhabiting marshes and wet pla-
ces for the most part.

SEED. The reproductive part of
the plant. It is usually enclosed
within a carpel or ovarium, except in
pines, which are gymnospermous, or
have the seeds placed in an open
carpel. Seeds consist of an external
coat or testa, an embryo, and one or
two seed lobes (coii/kdons). They
reproduce the species, and not the
variety of the plant, and in this re-
spect differ from buds and bulbs.
The finest plants should be selected
for seed, and only the principal grain
stems allowed to remain, tlie small
side branches being pruned off".

The seed is a reservoir of the most
nutritious parts of the vegetable, con-
taining often ten times more nourish-
ment than any other part. In sowing,
sound, plump, and well-matured seeds
only should be selected, and this is
done by screening and then steeping
in a brine sufficiently strong to float
an egg, rejecting the grains that float.
The vegetative power of seeds kept in
the usual way is often much impaired

Broad-casl.

Wheat

Oals

Barley

Rye

Beans

Pease

Buckwheat . . . .
Clover, Red . . . .
_— White ^^ij^^,l

Red Clover J

Rye Grass

Turnips

Mangel-wurzel . . .
Potatoes

September to November

March and April

March to May

September

March and April

March and April

April

March and April

May to Aujjust
April and .May
March to June

2jt to 34 bush.
4 to 6 "
3 to 4 "
2Jto3J "
3 to 4 "
34 to 4i "

2 to 2.^ "
12 to 16 lbs.

3 to 4 "
2 "
2 **

1 peck

2 to 3 lbs.

Drill.

2 to 3 bush.
H to 4J "
2.^ to 3J "

2 to 3 "
2.\ to 3i "

3 to 4 "
2 "
10 to 14 lbs.

1 1 4 to 2 bush.
2|to3 "

2 to 3
3

li to2 lbs.
20 t 1 2.) bush

688

SEN

in two or three years, but if kept ab-
solutely dry, or out of the contact
of air, some retain their vitality for
ages.

Manuring the seed by steeps, and
rolling them in mixtures of blood and
lime, <&c., has of late been practised
with great success ; at all events, it
seems to destroy rust and many in-
sects.

The preceding table shows the
quantities of seed usually sown in
England per acre. They exceed our
applications, but their harvests are
verv superior.

SEED LIP, A sowing basket.

SEED LOBES. The fleshy sub-
stance of the seed, the cotyledons :
there are two in dkotijlcdonous or
exogenous plants, but one in endo-
gens, such as grasses, cerealia, palms.

SEEL. A season.

SEGMENT. A slice, a portion
cut from a solid by a line or plane.

S E L E N I T E. Crystallized sul-
phate of lime.

SELENIUM. An elementary body
closely resembling sulphur. Selenic
acid is isomorphous with sulphuric
acid : it is very rare.

SELLENDERS. A skin disease
of the bend of the hock in horses,
produced by want of cleanliness : the
part is to be kept clean.

SEMEIOTIC. Relating to the
signs or symptoms of diseases.

SENEGA ROOT, SENECA
S N A K E R 0 O T. Polygala senega.
A perennial-rooted, common plant,
especially in the South, the roots of
which are used as an expectorant :
it is not to be trusted as a remedy
for snake bites.

SENNA. Cassia {acufifolia, oho-
vata, &c.,) senna. A small legumin-
ous shrub of Africa and Arabia, the
leaves of which are much employed
in decoction as a purge. The Mary-
land senna (C. Marylandka) is of the
same genus, but a perennial herb ; it
grows irom four to six feet high : the
leaves should be collected in August
and carcfullv dried.

SENSIBLE FROG. The part of
a horse's hoof immediately above the
bony covering ; the fleshy sole.

M M M 2

SER

SENSITIVE PLANTS. Plants
or slirubs of the genus Mimosa, wliose
leaves fold when touched, or shaded
from the sun.

SEPALS. The leaflets of the calyx.

SEPTUM, SEPTA. A partition,
especially in a seed vessel.

SEPTARIA. Large nodules or
masses of a marly clay found in some
geological formations ; when burned,
they form Roman cement, which has
the property of hardening under
water.

SEPTEMBER. This is the month
for sowing wheat ; corn is gathered,
and preparations are made to fatten
off the stock for sale ; pre[)are for ma-
king cider, and let the root crops be
hoed and kept in good ordei', for they
grow much this month : potatoes are
to be taken up as soon as the vines
die.

In the garden, fall crops are to be
attended to ; budding can also be
practised on some trees. In the
South, tobacco is ripenmg, cotton is
to be picked, and preparations for the
sugar harvest are to be made at the
end of the month. Wheat, rye, and
winter barley are to be sowed.

SEPTIC. Substances or causes
hastening putrefaction.

SERICEUS. Silky, covered with
short, soft hairs.

SERICIC or MYRISTIC ACID.
An oily acid obtained from the butter
of nutmegs.

SERON. A buffalo's hide used
for packing drugs.

SEROSITY, SEROUS FLUID.
See Serum.

SERPENTINE. An injected
rock of a greenish colour, consisting
of a silicate of magnesia (43 percent.),
with various proportions of iron and
alumina.

SERRATE. Having an edge cut
into sharp teeth, like a saw^

SERRICORNS. A coleopterous
family, many of which have serrated
antenna:>.

SERL'.M. The fluid portion of the
blood ; it consists of a solution of al-
bumen in soda, with salts, and con-
tains 7 per cent, solid matter : in the
form of a secretion from membranes,
6S9

SUA

SHE

it is called scrosity, or serous fluid,
'i'ho whey of milk.

S1']RV1CE. I'ljrus lorminalis. A
small tree of the apple gemi.s, tiie fruit
of which, when half decayed, is eaten,
and closely resembles the medlar :
they are small. The P. domeslica
yields a better fruit of the same kind.

SESAMfJlD (from aijaauij, a seed).
Small bones not larger than a pea,
found at the joints of the toes and
fingers.

SESASUM. See Bene.

SESQUI. One and a half. . Sesgm-
oxide. An oxide containing three
equivalents of oxygen, and two of
metal.

SESSILE. ^Vithout stalk, sitting
on the stem.

SETA. A term used by botanists
in various senses. It is the stalk
that supports the theca, capsule, or
sporangium of mosses ; the awn or
beard of grasses, when it proceeds
from the extreme point of a palea or
glume ; sometimes the glandular acu-
leus of roses, and also the abortive
stamens or rudimentary perianth of
cyperaceous plants.

SETACEOUS. Bristle-like, ^c-
tose, bristlv.

S E T 6 N. An artificial ulcer,
made by passing a skein of silk or a
piece of riband under a portion of the
skin by means of an instrument call-
ed a seton needle, which is a flat
blade with a needle eye ; the thread
is occasionally anointed with irrita-
ting substances, in order to keep up
a discharge from the sore.

SETS. The pieces of potato used
in planting : when the whole is plant-
ed, it is called a whole set.

SETTING. In building, the act
of solidifying, as in mortar.

SETT OFF. The projecting part
of a wall that is built thinner above
than below.

SEXES. In plants, the stamens
and pistils ; the former being called
the male, and the latter the female
organs, from a fanciful analogy.

SHAB. The scab of sheep.

SHADDOCK. An inferior but
very large orange ; the fruit of the
Citrus decumaria.
690

SHAFT. The trunk of a column ;
the entrance or downward excava-
tion of a mine ; a handle.

SHAKES IN TREES. Fissures,
clefts, rents, or black and rough pla-
ces in trees or timber.

S H A L E. A loose, rotten, or
crumbling slate.

SILVLLOT. Alium esealonicum.
It is stronger than the onion, but has
a better flavour. The offsets for
propagation are set in rows, 12 inches
apart, 5 inches in the row, in August
and September, and taken up in May.

SHANK BONE. The femur.

SHARE OF A PLOUGH. The
point.

SHEARING. " When the sheep
are to be shorn, they are driven to a
pen or other enclosed space, and
lirought one by one to the shearers.
Tlie sheep to be shorn is first placed
upon his rump, and the shearer, with
the shears, beginning at the neck,
clips in a circular direction down the
belly towards the back. The animal
is then laid on his side, and kept
down by the leg of the shearer, who
clips the fleece all round to the back.
Turning the animal on the other side,
he clips, in like manner, round to the
back ; then raising the sheep, he clips
the part of the fleece not yet cut
away, and so lets the animal go, ta-
king care that it shall not entangle
itself with the fleece. The fleece, as
soon as it is shorn, is taken away by
an attendant, spread out, neatly roll-
ed up with the inner surface outmost,
and then deposited in some dry place
until it is packed in the wool sheets."

SHEARING RIVERS. "The
mowing of weeds in rivers and ponds
is done in the usual way from a boat,
in which the operator stands, and is
rowed forward by another as requi-
red. Sometimes scythe-blades are
tied or riveted together, and worked
by means of ropes like a saw from
one shore to the other, called shear-
ing ; but the first mode is generally
reckoned the best, and is imquestion-
ably so in agriculture.''

SHEARLING. A sheep once
shorn.

SHEARS. A large kind of scis-

SHEEP.

sors used in clippinff hedges and pru-
ninij yoiHiR l)raiiclu>s ; tliey are oCtcn
worked hy a rope at the end of a
long handle. Slieep-shears are well
known : they have been unimproved
in ages.

SHEEP. Ovisaries. The follow-
ing is principally from Mr. Youatt
and Mr. Spooner, the two best wri-
ters on sheep ;

" The sheep belongs to the class
mammalia, to the order ruminantia,
with four stomachs, and the organs
of digestion disposed for chewing the
cud ; to the tribe capridm, with horns
persistent, and placed on an osseous
nucleus ; and to the g(?nus ovis, with
or without horns, but these, when
present, uniformly taking, to a greater
or less degree, a lateral and spiral
direction. The forehead of the sheep
is arched, and protruded before the
base of the horns ; there are no lach-
rymal ducts ; the nostrils are length-
ened and oblique, and terminate with-
out a muzzle ; there is no beard prop-
erly so called ; the ears are small, and
the legs slender. The hair is of two
kinds, one hard and close, and the
other woolly, the wool prepondera-
ting in proportion as the animal is
domesticated.

" There is a breed of sheep now
extending over the north and south
of Asia, and Palestine, and Russia,
and of which the flocks of the Cal-
nuicks and Tartars of the present
day are almost entirely composed.
They are distinguished by two mass-
es of fat commencing at the loins,
gradually swelling into a considera-
ble mass towards the rump, and pre-
senting behind two enlargements of
a more or less globular form. The
owners of the modern improved
breeds would find great fault with
some points about them ; but many
of their defects have doubtless been
the result of neglect.

" Some naturalists have traced the
origin of the sheep to the Argali or
the Mouflon. The Argali is a spe-
cies of mountain-sheep, found in small
flocks on the high grounds of A.sia,
extending from the precipices of
Khamtschatka in the north, to those

j of Mongolia in the centre, and of

I Caucasus in W(\stern Asia. The

I Mouflon is an inhabitant of Southern

I Europe, Corsica, (Jrete, and the isl-

j ands of the Grecian Archipelago.

They congregate in large groups, and

possess all the wildness of the Argah.

Neither of these, however, has the

slightest claim to being the original

I parent of the sheep. They are de-

I scendants of those who liave escaped

[ from the dominion of man, and are

retreating from desert to desert, in

proportion as the pojjulatiou of the

country increases.

" It will be most satisfactory to the
reader to commence with the history
of the British sheep, and then com-
pare with them the breeds and man-
agement in other countries.

" Different names are given to the
sheep, according to its sex and age.
The male is called a ram or tup.
After weaning, he is said to be a hog,
a hotfgct, or hoggcrd, a lamb hng, or
tup hog, or teg; and if castrated, a
wether hog. After shearing, and when
he is probably a year or a year and a
half old, he is called a shear hog,
shearling, dinmont, or tup ; and when
castrated, a shearing wether. After
the second shearing, he is a tu-o-shcar
ram, tup, tcethcr. At the expiration
of another year, he is a three-shear
ram.

" The female is a ewe or gimmer
lamb until weaned, and thena gim-
mer or ewe hog, or teg. After being
shorn, she is a shearing ewe, gimmer,
theavc, or double-toothed ewe ; and
after that, a two, or three, or four, or
shear ewe, or theave. The age of the
sheep is reckoned, not from the pe-
riod of their being dropped, but from
the first shearing.

'• The teeth give certain indications
as to the age. The sheep has no
incisor teeth in the upper jaw ; but
there is a dense elastic cushion or
pad, and the herbage, firmly held be-
tween the front teeth in the lower
ja\V and this cu.shion, is partly bitten
and partly torn a.-^uiulcr. The sheep
has the whole of the iucisor teeth by
the time that he is a month old, and
he retains them until the fourteenth
691

SHEEP.

or sixteenth month. They then be-
gin to (liniiiiisli in size, and are dis-
phiced. The two central ones are
first shed, and the permanent ones
supply their place, and attain their
full growth when the animal is two
years old. Between two and three,
the next pair are chaiifjed ; the third
at three years old ; and at four, the
mouth is complete. After this there
is no certain rule, until, two years
more having passed, the teeth one by
one become loosened and are lost.
At six or seven years of age the
mouths of the ewes should l)e occa-
sionally examined, and the loose teeth
removed, and then, by good pasture
and good nursing in the winter, they
may produce lambs until they have
reached the ninth or tenth year, when
they begin rapidly to decline. Some
favourites have lingered on to the
fifteenth or sixteenth year ; but the
usual and the most profitable method
is to fatten and dispose of the ewes
when they are five or six years old,
and to supply their places by some
of the best shearing ewes.

" The rings at the base of the horns
afford very imperfect indications of
the age of the sheep.

" The history of the sheep will be
most naturally divided according to
the quantity and quality of the wool
of the different breeds, the uses of
the skin, and the quantity and quali-
ty of the flesh. Tlie covering of tlie
original sheep consisted of a mixture
of liair and wool, the wool being
short and fine, and forming an inner
coat, and the hair of greater length,
projecting through the wool, and
constituting an external covering.
"When the sheep are neglected, or
exposed to a considerable degree of
cold, this degeneracy is easily tra
ced On the Devonshire moors, the
mountains of Wales, and the high-
lands of Scotland, the wool is deteri-
orated by a considerable admi.Kture
of hair. Even among the South
Downs, the Leicesters, and the Rye-
lands, too many kanps occasionally
lessen the value of the fleece. It is
only by diligent cultivation that the

diminished, and that of wool increas-
ed in our best breeds.

" Wool. — The filaments of wool ta-
ken from a healthy sheep present a
beautifully polished and even glitter-
ing appearance. That of the neglect-
ed or half-starved animal exhibits a
paler hue. This is one valuable in-
dication by which the wool-stapler is
enabled to form an accurate opinion
of the value of the fleece. The mi.x-
ture of hair in the wool can often be
detected, by close examination, with
the naked eye, but most readily by
the assistance of a microscope.

"Among the qualities which influ-
ence the value of the wool ?kxe fine-
ness, and the uniformity of that fine-
ness in the single fibre and in the col-
lected fleece. This fineness, howev-
er, differs materially in different parts
of the fleece. It prevails on the neck,
the shoulders, the ribs, and the back.
It IS less on the legs, thighs, and
haunch, and still coarser on the neck,
the breast, the belly, and the lower
part of the legs. The fineness of the
wool is considerably influenced by the
temjjerature.

'• The fineness of the fleece is also
much influenced by the kind of food.
An abundance of nutriment will in-
crease both the length and the bulk
of the wool. This is an important
consideration with the sheep-breed-
er. Let the cold of winter come —
let it continue for a considerable pe-
riod, yet if the sheep is well kept, al-
though the fleece may lose a little
weight, this will be more than com-
pensated by its fineness and increase
of value. If the sheep, however, be
half starved while exposed to unu-
sual cold, the fibres of the wool, al-
though perhaps somewhat finer, will
be deficient in weight, and strength,
and usefulness.

"That which is called trucness of
staple, or the fibres being of an equal
size, is of much importance in the
manufacture of wool ; for whenever
the wool assuines an irregular and
shagged, or hrcachy appearance, there
is a weakness in the fibre, and will
be an irregularity in the manufacture,

quantity of hair has been generally I especially if the fleece is submitted to
692

SHEEP.

the operation of the comb. Connect-
ed with this, and a most important
quality, is the elasticity of the woolly
fibre — the disposition to yield, or sub-
mit to some eloiisjation of substance,
some alteration of form, when it is
distended or pressed upon, and the
energy by means of which the origi-
nal form is resumed as soon as the
external force is removed.

" Referrible to this elasticity or
yielding character of the wool is its
pliu/iiliti/ and softness, and without
which no manufacture of it can be
carried to any degree of perfection.
The last quality which it is necessary
to mention is its fcliinsr property —
that quality by which it may be beat-
en or pressed together and worked
into a sol't and pliable substance of
almost any size and form. It would
seem that the process of felting is of
far older date than that of weaving ;
and it is still continued, not only by
the nomadic tribes of Southeastern
Europe and of Asia, but it is made
occasionally to vie with the finest
productions of the loom.

" Some late microscopic observa-
tions have unravelled the whole mys-
tery of felting, and of the employ-
ment of wool in almost every form.
The fibre, examined under a power-
ful microscope, appears like a con-
tinuous vegetable growth, from which
there are sprouting, and all tending
one way, from the root to the other
extremity, numerous leaves, assu-
ming the appearance of calices or
cups, and each terminating in a sharp
point. It is easy to conceive how
readily one of tliese fibres will move
in a direction from the root to the
point, while its retraction must be
exceedingly difficult, if not impossi-
ble. It was a fibre of Merino wool
that was first submitted to microscop-
ic observation, and the number of
these serrations or projections count-
ed. There were 2400 in the space
of an inch. A fibre of Saxon wool,
finer than that of the Merino, and of
acknowledged superior felting quali-
ty, was substituted. There were
2720 serrations. A fibre of South
Down wool, ia its felting power well

known to be inferior to that of the
Saxony and the Merino, was i)laced
in the fiidd of vision. There were
only 2080 serrations in the space of
an inch, or 640 less than the Saxony
exhibited. The Leicester wool is
acknowledged to ])ossess a less filt-
ing property than the South Down.
There were only I860 in the space
of an inch.

" There can be no doubt as to the
structure of the woolly fibre. It con-
sists of a central stem or stalk, from
which ttiere spring, at different dis-
tances, circles of leaf-shaped projec-
tions, possessing a certain degree of
resistance or of entanglement with
other fibres, in proportion as these
circlets arc multiplied and tliey pro-
ject from the stalk. They are sharp-
er and more numerous in the felting
wools, and in proportion as the felt-
ing property exists. They are con-
nected with, or, it may be confidently
asserted, they give to the wool the
power of felting, and regulate the
degree in which that power is pos-
sessed.

" Skins. — The skin of the sheep is
often partially tanned, and then used
in the common sorts of book-binding;
or it is manufactured into parchment,
and becomes exceedingly valuable on
account of its durability. Immense
numbers of lamb skins are dressed in
a peculiar way, and converted into
gloves with the wool remaining on
them, or used, in some countries, for
the linings of valuable garments. It
is scarcely credible to what degree
vanity and cruelty are sometimes car-
ried. The ewe is slaughtered a little
before the time when her pregnancy
would have expired, and the lamb is
taken from the womb and immediate-
ly destroyed. It is supposed that the
fur nearest to the skin is more beau-
tiful than could have been obtained
from the same animal after birth.

" Varieties. — It will now be proper
to take a rapid survey of the diflerent
breeds of sheep, commencing with
the South Downs. The South Downs
and the Hampshire and ^Vlltshlre
breeds were formerly, according to
Mr. EUman, of 'a very small size,
693

SHEEP.

and far from possessing a good shape,
beirig long and lliiii in the neck, high
on tiie shoulders, low beliind, low on
the loins and on the rumps, the tail
set very low, perpendicular from tlie
hip-bones, sharp on the hack, the ribs
flat, but good m the leg, although
having big bones.'

" It is pleasing to compare this with
the account given by the same breed-
er of the 8outh Downs {F^s- 1) of the
present day, the change being effect-
ed by him and a few spirited individ-
uals : ' The head small and hornless ;

Fifr. 1.

the face speckled or gray, and nei-
ther too long nor too short ; the lips
thin, and the spaces between the
nose and tiie eyes narrow ; the un-
der jaw fine and thin ; the ears tol-
erably wide, and well covered with
wool ; the forehead also, and the
whole space between the ears, well
protected by it, as a defence against
the fly.

" ' The eyes full and bright, but
not prominent ; the portion of the
frontal bone arching the eye not too
prominent, that it may not form a fa-
tal obstacle in lambing.

" ' The neck of a medium length,
thin towards the head, but enlarging
towards the shoulders, where it
should be broad and high, and straight
in its whole course above and below;
the chest wide, deep, and projecting
between the fore legs, indicating a
good constitution and a disposition
to thrive ; the shoulders on a level
with the back, and not too wide above,
but bowing outward from the top to
the breast, leaving room for the
springing rib behind.

" ' The ribs coming out horizontal-
ly from the spine, extending far back-
694

I ward, and the last rib projecting more
1 than the others. The back flat from
I the :5lioulders to the setting on of the
1 tail ; the lom broad and flat ; the
rump long and broad, and the tail set
on high, and nearly on a level with
the spine ; the hips wide ; the space
between them and the last rib on ei-
ther side as narrow as possible, and
the ribs presenting a circular form,
like a barrel

" ' The belly as straight as the back.

" ' The legs neither too long nor
too short ; the fore legs straight from
the breast to the foot, not bending in-
ward at the knee, and standing far
apart both before and behind ; the
hocks having a direction outward,
and the meeting of the thighs being
particularly full ; the bones fine, but
having no appearance of weakness ;
and the legs ofaspeckled, dark colour.

" ' The belly well defended with
wool, and the wool coming down, be-
fore and behind, to the knee and to
the hock ; the wool short, close, curl-
ed, and free from spiry, projecting
hairs.

" 'The South Down is adapted to
almost any situation in the northern
and middle parts of the United States.
It has a patience of occasional short
keep and an endurance of hard stock-
ing equal to any other sheep ; an ear-
ly maturity scarcely inferior to the
Leicesters, and the flesh finely grain-
ed and of good flavour.'

" According to Mr. Ellman, the ar-
tificial food resorted to at the begin-
ning of spring, and soon alter lamb-
ing, is green rye ; but it must be very
cautiously given, on account of its
occasionally producing diarrhoea or
dysentery. This bad effect, howev-
er, may be prevented by removing
the ewes, once in the day, to old pas-
ture ground.

" The rye being fed off or running
to seed, the ground is ploughed in
May for turnips or rape. Rye grass
succeeds to the rye until the latter
end of June, when clover, lucern, or
sainfoin will come in. One crop
should follow another in proportion
as it is wanted.

" Tares, clover, or rape next take

SHEEP.

their turn ; the tares, perhaps, are
somcwliat inferior to the others. As
a winter food, the nita baga or beets
come ill until lambing tmie, but not
after that, lest it should produce pur-
ging id the hunbs.

"About the middle of October the
rams are admitted to the ewes, and
a plentiful allowance of nutritious and
stimulating food will have considera-
ble influence in increasing tlu; num-
ber of lambs. Much to the credit of
the breeder, great care is taken of
the sheep during the lambing time.
The ewes are either driven home, or
there are sheltered places construct-
ed in the fields.

" The average dead weight of the
South Down wether varies from eight
to eleven stones ; but at the Christ-
mas show there are usually some
pens in which the weight is double
that. The average weight of the
fleece used to be two pounds ; but,
from the altered system of manage-
ment, it is now at least three pounds
in the hill sheep, and nearly four
pounds in the lowland sheep. This
wool has likewise changed its char-
acter. It has become a combing in-
stead of a carding wool. Formerly
devoted to the manufacture of ser-
vants' clothing, or being sparingly
mixed witli other wool, it is now used
for flannels, and baizes, and worsted
goods of ahnost every description ;
tlius becoming of considerably in-
creased value. The hogget wool is
particularly improved ; it is finer than
the other long wools, and is applica-
ble to many new and valuable pur-
poses.

" The South Down sheep have suc-
ceeded admirably in all the southern
districts of the kingdom ; but the
northern hills have occasionally been
too cold for them. Crosses between
the South Down and almost every
breed of middle-wool sheep have an-
swered well ; while in counties where
it could have been least expected, the
old breed is, in a great measure, su-
perseded by the Soulli Downs.

'• In Kent many South Downs are
kept, and much prized ; but on the
marshes and their neighbourhood

they have given way to the Romney
Marsh sheep.

" The South Down dill'er material-
ly in the different districts of Surrey.
In some of the lofty and barren heaths
a small and jfrolitable sheep, distin-
guished by tlie name of the Bagshot,
still prevails. The old Wilishire
sheep are occasionally seen here,
while the Dorsets have possessed
themselves of many extensive dis-
tricts, and are employed in supplying
the London iiuuk(;t with early lambs.
Still, however, the South Downs are
numerous, and vie with any of the
others in excellence and profit.

" The old Wiltshire breed of sheep,
the largest and the heaviest of the fine-
woolled sheep, has gradually pass-
ed away. They were crossed by the
South Downs until every trace of the
old breed had vanished, and a useful
variety remained, which would have
been called true Sussex sheep, only
they were of a somewhat larger size
and lighter colour, and a lighter, finer
fleece. Tliis breed is now rapidly
yielding to the true South Downs.
In the lower land pastures of Wilts
a breed is found evidently derived
from the South Downs, but larger in
size, and with a heavier fleece.

" In Dorsetshire we find a very dif-
ferent and valuable breed of sheep ;
they are white, the face long and
broad, with a tuft of wool on the
forehead ; the shoulders low but
broad ; the chest deep ; the loins
broad, and the bone small : a hardy
and useful sheep. Their chief pecu-
liarity IS the forwardness of the ewes,
which supply the market with lamb
when it produces the highest price.
If tliey have plenty of nutritious food,
the ewes will be in lamb as early as
April, so that the young one will drop
in September, and be ready for the
market at Christmas.

" The Ryelands. — They are small,
polled, with white faces, the wool
growing close to and almost covering
the eyes, the carcass round and com-
pact, the animal quickly fattening,
and the superabundant fat accumu-
lating within ; they are hardy, and
peculiarly free from disease ; they
695

SHEEP.

are particularly distinguished by the
lituMU'ss of their wool. 'I'iie miiTil)er
and tlie nature of tlie serration.s place
it precisely where the maiuilaclure
had long done. It is decidedly supe-
rior in lineness and in fulness to the
South Down, but yields in both of
these qualities to the jMerino wool.
It was attempted to cross the Rye-
land sheej) with the Merino, in order
to increase the value of the wool.
To a certain extent this was accom-
plished, but It was at the expense of
the carcass. The Merinos were then
crossed by the Ryelands, with a view
to the improvement of form, and
greater tendency to fatten, but this
also failed. W'liiie these experiments
were proceeding, arrived the period
when the lleece of the sliort-woolled
sheep, both the South Down and the
Ryeland, was materially changed by
the altered system of sheep-husband-
ry that was introduced, and the wool
of both was rejected by the manu-
facturer for the purposes to which it
had hitherto been applied.

" The Delamere sheep is the only
short-wooUed breed deserving of no-
tice in Cheshire. The wool is short
and fine, and still used by some man-
ufacturers, but it is no longer used
for any of the fine cloths.

" The different districts of South
Wales afford a small and valuable
breed of sheep, principally used for
the supply of the London market,
where tlie Welsh mutton is in con-
sideral}le request. These sheep seem
scarcely to have changed their char-
acter for many centuries, but some
crosses of t he South Downs have been
lately introduced, and even some
flocks of this sheep have begun, and
with much prospect of advantage, to
spread over the lower part of the
country.

" In North Wales, and particularly
in Anglesea, the old South Down re-
appears, or a sheep wlujse likeness
to the unimproved South Down is
too striking to escape observation.
The purest and best blood that the
mountains of Wales are now suppo-
sed to be capalde of producing is
found at the loot or on the declivi-

ties of Cader Idris. All the hills of
North Wales are covered with sheep,
which are sent in the spring from all
parts of the low country. The strong-
est wethers remain on the mountains
during the winter, and without tlie
slightest artificial provision for their
sujiport ; the others are brought down
to the low ground about Michaelmas,
to be returned in the spring.

" The Chcviois extend from West-
moreland far into Scotland ; their
birthplace, or where they were origi-
nally observed, and are still found in
their greatest purity, is the Cheviot
Hills in Nortiiumberland. They dif-
fer essentially from both the black
and the dun-faced breeds by which
they are surrounded ; but neither
history nor tradition has given the
slightest clew to their origin. The
following is a descrii)tion of the pure
breed, thirty years ago, before they
began to be crossed by the Leices-
ters : ' The head polled, bare and
clean, with jaw bone ofa good length ;
ears not too short, and countenance
of not too dark a colour ; neck full,
round, and not too long, well covered
with wool, but without any coarse
wool depending tieneath ; shoulders
deep, full, and wide ; chest full and
open ; chine long, but not too much
so ; straight, broad, and wide across
the fillets ; horns round and full ; the
body in general round and full, and
not too deep or fiat either in the ribs
or fianks ; the lleece fine, close, short,
and thickset, of a medium length of
pile, without hairs at the bottom, and
not curled on the shoulders, and with
very little coarse wool on the hips,
tail, or belly.'

" Sir John Sinclair adds the fol-
lowing account of them : ' Perhaps
there is no part of the whole island
where, at first sight, a line-woolled
breed of sheep is less to be expected
than among the Cheviot Hills. Many
parts of the sheep walks consist of
nothing but peat bogs and deep mo-
rasses. During winter the hills are
covered with snow during two, three,
or even four months, and they have
an ample proportion of bad weather
. during the other seasons of the year,

SHEEP.

and yet a sheep is to be found that
will thrive even in the wildest part
of it. Their shape is excellent, and
their fore quarters, in particular, are
di.-itiniiuished by such justness of pro-
portion, as to 1)0 equal in height to
ilie hinder ones, which enables iheni
to i)ass over bogs and snows through
which a shorter-legged animal could
not penetrate. They have a closer
fleece than the Tweeddale and Lei-
cester breeds, which keeps them
warmer in cold weather, and pre-
vents cither rain or snow from in-
conmioding theiii. They are excel-
lent siiow-travcllers, and are accus-
tomed to procure their food by scra-
ping the snow off the ground with
their feet. They have never any
oilier food but the grass and natural
hay of their own fields, except when
it is proposed to fatten them. They
weigh from 12 to 18 pounds per quar-
ter, and their meat is fully equal to
any that the Highlands can produce.'

" The wool is inferior to that of
the South Downs. It is not so fine
as before the attempted improvement
of the carcass ; and the use of it is
abandoned in the manufacture of fine
cloth.

" There are many flocks of pure
Cheviots, but in the majority of the
flocks there is a cross of Leicester
blood.

" The other breed of short-woolled
sheep which contend with the Che-
viots in number and value is the black-
faccd Scots ; they extend from Lan-
cashire to the very north of Scotland.
The males are mostly horned, the
horns of a spiral form, but the fe-
males are frequently without horns.
The faces and legs are always black
or mottled ; they are covered with
wool about the forehead and lower
jaw ; the fleece is long and some-
what coarse. The carcass is pecu-
liarly compact ; so much so, that on
account of the shortness, roundness,
firmness, and handsomeness of the
carcass, it is called the short sheep,
in opposition to the Cheviots, or long
sheep. The weight of the carcass
does not differ materially from that of
the Cheviot, and the fleece weighs

N N -N

about three pounds after it is washed.
These sheep have been improved by
selection, but have derived little ad-
vantage from any of the crosses that
have been tried.

"As these are the prevailing breeds
in the northern parts of the kingdom,
if not to the exclusion of the short
horns and the Leicesters, yet, being
far more numerous than they, it may
not be uninteresting to institute a
brief comparison of their respective
merits. The three important points
with respect to sheep in such locali-
ties are the weight and value of the
wool, the carcass, and the degree of
hardihood.

" As to the wool there can be no
question. The weight of the indi-
vidual fleece may be somewhat, but
not a great deal, in favour of the
black-faced breed ; but in point of
value and the price which the wool
will obtain, the advantage is most
decidedly in favour of the Cheviots.
As to the carcass, the Cheviot is
ready for market a full twelvemonth
before the other. If so many sheep
cannot be kept on the same quantity
of ground, the quantity of meat that
can be produced is greater, and con-
sequently the profit of the farmer is
greater ; and as to hardihood, they
are both of them excellent breeds,
and it might be difficult to decide
which wool would most successfully
endure the hardships of a Highland
winter. The adjudication, on the
whole, is most decidedly in favour of
the Cheviot breed, with this excep-
tion, perhaps, that on the wildest of
the Grampian, or other similar hills,
the black-faced mountain sheep may
have the best chance of doing well ;
and the acknowledged fact is, that in
almost every northern district the
Cheviots are rapidly superseding the
native black-faced sheep.

" Long-u-oolled Sheep. — There is
much more similarity between the
varieties of the long-woolled sheep
than those of shorter fibre. The de-
ficiency of horns, the form of the
head, the expression of the counte-
nance, and the white faces and legs,
show tiiat they had one common
G97

SlIEKP

origin ; while the colour and wciKhi,
and uses of the wool, speak their com-
mon origin.

"The following description of the
new Leicester {Ftg. 2), by Mr. CuUey,
Fig. 2.

will, to a very considerable degree,
serve for all the varieties of the long-
woolled sheep. The head should be
hornless, long, small, tapering to-
wards the muzzle, and projecting hor-
izontally forward. The eyes promi-
nent, but with a quiet expression.
The ears thin, rather long, and di-
rected backward ; the neck full and
broad at its base, but gradually taper-
ing towards the head, and particular-
ly tine at the junction of the head and
neck. The neck seeming to project
straight from the chest, so that there
is, with the slightest possible devia-
tion, one continued horizontal line
from the rump to the poll. The
breast broad and full ; shoulders also
broad and round, and no uneven or
angular formation where the shoul-
ders join either the neck or the back,
particularly no rising of the withers,
or hollow behind the situation of
those bones. The arm fleshy through
its whole extent, and even down to
the knee. The bones of the legs
small, standing wide apart, no loose-
ness of the skin about them, and com-
paratively bare of wool. The chest
and barrel are at once deep and round
in the ribs, forming a considerable
arch from the spine, so as in some
cases, and especially when the ani-
mal is in good condition, to make the
apparent width of the chest even
greater than the depth. Tiie barrel
ribbed well home. No irregularities
of line on the back or the belly ; but
on the sides the carcass very gradu-
698

ally diminisiiing in width towards the
rump. The quarters long and full,
and as wide as the fore legs. The
muscles extending do\\n to the back,
the thighs also wide and full. The
legs of a moderate length ; the pelt
also moderately thin, but soft and
elastic, and covered with a good quan-
tity of white wool, not so long as in
some breeds, but considerably finer.
" Such is the l.eicester sheep as
Bakevvell made him. He found him as
different an animal as it was possible
to conceive — fiat-sided, large-boned,
coarse-woolk'd, slow to fatten, and his
flesli of liille value. Were there room
for its insertion, a detailed history of
the different steps of the changes
would be most interesting to the read-
er. The means were simple, and the
effect was almost magical. The prin-
ciple was, that ' like produces like ;'
and therefore he selected a few sheep
with aptitude to fatten, with a dispo-
sition to produce an unusual quantity
of valuable meat, with little bone and
offal, and with quietness of temper ;
and from these he exclusively bred.
He cared not about near or distant
affinities ; but his object was to in-
crease every good point, and gradu-
ally to get rid of every bad one. They
were not different sorts of sheep that
he selected, but the best of the breed
to which he had been accustomed.

" Such was the origin and the
eventual triumph of the new Lei-
cester breed of sheep. They have
spread themselves to every part of
the kingdom. There are ffew other
varieties of long-woolled sheep which
do not owe much of their excellence
to the new Leicesters, and even some
of the short-woolled flocks are deep-
ly indebted to the breed introduced
by Bakevvell. There is no other spe-
cies of sheep that possesses so deci-
ded a propensity to fatten, or that is
prepared for the butcher at so early
an age. It will not, however, thrive
on a poor soil, nor if it is compelled
to travel far in order to procure its
food ; but on soils of a moderate
quality there is no other sheep so
profitable. Other breeds, as the
Teeswater and the Lincoln, may be

SHEEP.

superior in size, but it is at an ex-
pense of time and of food, and, event-
ually, a palpable deterioration of flesh
and di(ninution of profit. The new
Lciresters, on fair keep, will yield a
greater (piantity of meat, for the same
quantity of food, than any other breed
of sheep. The meat is of a peculiar
character. It is disliked by some on
account of a supposed insipidness.
The fatty matter is too much intro-
duced between the muscular fibres,
and there may be the appearance and
the taste of a mass of fat. This, how-
ever, is the fault of the breeder, and
not of the animal : it marks the point
to which the fatteninij process should
he carried, and where it should stop.
It is the fault of th(? grazier if he con-
verts that which is an excellence into
a fault.

" There are accounts of the Lei-
cester sheep attaining a very great
weight. Two prime wethers exhib-
ited by Mr. Painter at the Smithfield
cattle show, in 1835, weighed 165
and 155 pounds. It should, howev-
er, be remarked that the new Leices-
ter sheep has a smaller quantity of
bone, in proportion to its weight, than
any other sheep.

" The deficiency of the fleece was
formerly objected to in the new Lei-
cester sheep. The truth of the mat-
ter was, that with the early breeders
the fleece was a perfectly secondary
consideration, and comparatively dis-
regarded. There is now little cause
for complaint on this head. The wool
has considerably increased in length,
and it has improved both in lineness
and strength of fibre. It averages
from six to seven pounds the fleece,
and the fibre varies from five to more
than twelve inches in length. Like
all other British wools, it is applied
to a purpose different from that to
which it was formerly devoted, and
is mostly used in the manufacture of
serges and carpets.

" The chief value of the new Lei-
cester breed consists in the improve-
ment which it has eflfected in almost
every variety of sheep with which it
has been crossed. Most of the breed-
ers of the South Downs were at first

averse to admit a cross with the Lei-
cesters ; but when tiie wool of the
South Downs bei;an to be applied to
purposes very different from those to
which it had been formerly devoted,
a cross with the Leicesters was reluc-
tantly attempted. A sheep was pro-
duced, probably not so hardy, but
coming earlier to the market, yicUl-
ing a longer and a finer fleece, of
nearly double the weight, and with a
combing wool adapted for many val-
uable purposes.

" A short account must be given
of the other breeds of long-woolled
sheep, although some of them are
rapidly passing away. The Teeswa-
tcr, inhabiting the southern districts
of Durham and the north of York-
shire, was once in considerable re-
quest on account of the weight of its
carcass, the goodness of its flesh,
and the remarkable degree in which
the ewes were prolific. Its greatest
fault was that it was too heavy for
the lowlands in which it was placed,
and th€ pasture was trodden down
and destroyed. Some of the Leices-
ters found their way to the banks of
the Tees, and the old breed was
crossed by them. The carcass be-
came somewhat smaller, but it was
more compact and profitable. More
mutton was produced on the same
quantity of land ; and, after a consid-
erable time, for the improvement was
always slower with regard to the wool
than the flesh, the fleece became finer
and closer. The old breed gradually
diminished and almost disappeared.
j "The largest and most ungainly
I breed of sheep was the Lincolns,
\ ' hornless, with long, thin, and weak
carcasses, large bones, weighing from
I twenty to thirty pounds a quarter ;
the wool averaging from eight to
I twelve pounds the fleece ; the sheep
[ a slow feeder, and the flesh coarse-
I grained.' This is the account given
I of them by a good but a prejudiced
j observer, Mr. (JuUey. In fact, while
I Bakewell and his admirers were al-
1 most neglecting the fleece, the Lin-
I colnshire farmer was quite as inat-
tentive with regard to the carcass.
j Both parties were wrong. The old
699

SHEEP.

Lincolnshire sheep yielded a wool
which in qu.intiiy and in quahty was
unrivalled, wiiilc the Lcicesters could
boast of a disposition to fatten which
the other could never equal. At length
the attempt was honestly made to
amalgamate the valuable qualities of
the two breeds. In consequence of
the cross, the wether attained its
maturity a full year sooner than it
was accustomed to do, and the fleece
became finer and improved in colour,
but it was shorter and more brittle,
and not fitted for some of its former
purposes. On the whole, a great im-
provement has been effected botli in
the carcass and the fleece ; and so
satisfactory did this prove, that it is
now difficult to find any sheep in Lin-
colnshire that have not been crossed
with the Leicesters. This cross is
deeper on the wolds than in the marsh
lands, which may serve to account
for the difference of the fleece in the
two. The breed of these sheep gen-
erally has been greatly increased
since the introduction of the turnip
system.

" Among the long-wooUed sheep
that have been improved by the ad-
mixture of the old and new long-
woolled breeds and the altered sys-
tem of husbandry, the Romncy Marsh
must not be forgotten. From time
immemorial the produce in wool and
thethickness in stockingwere scarce-
ly equalled in any other breed or sit-
uation. The Kentish men obstinate-
ly resisted every encroachment on
their favourite breed, and predicted
disappointment and loss in every pos-
sible form. For a while it seemed
as if tliey had reason on their side,
for the size of the sheep was consid-
erably lessened, and the wool was
not so valuable, nor yielded in its for-
mer quantity. By degrees, however,
it began to be found that these small-
er, deeper, closer, and more compact
sheep weighed heavier than the old
long-legged and long-bodied ones ;
that they did not consume so much
food, that the hard stocking of former
days might be increased, that they
were ready a full year sooner for the
market, and therefore became far
700

more profitable. That the fat form-
rd more on the exterior of the an-
imal, where it was advantageously
placed for the farmer and the consu-
mer, and did not accumulate within
for the profit of the butcher alone :
and that, by careful selection, al-
though the wool was somewhat short-
er and lighter, it was improved in
firmness and colour and felling prop-
erty.

" Some valuable breeds of long-
woolled sheep are found in the South
Hams in Devonshire, extending from
Axminster to Dartmoor, and lYom
the north of Devon to the vale of
Taunton, under the name of the
Bampton sheep, and also, but small-
er in number and size, in the neigh-
bourhood of Exmoor.

" The Cotswold sheep {Fig. 3), so
Fig. 3.

called from the cots or sheds in which
they were housed, formerly inhabited
the counties of Gloucester, Hereford,
and Worcester. They were a long-
woolled breed, yielding, formerly, a
description of wool much valued on
account of the fabrics in the con-
struction of which it was employed.
Even they, like the rest, have amal-
gamated themselves with and been,
in a manner, lost among the Leices-
ters. They were taller than the pres-
ent sheep, flat-sided, deficient in the
fore quarter, but full in the hind quar-
ter, not fattening so early, but yield-
ing a long and heavy fleece. Many
of these good qualities have been pre-
served, and to them have been added
that which is of so much importance
to the farmer, the capability of rear-
ing and fattening so many more sheep
on the same quantity of land, and of

SHEEP.

hringring' them so much earlier to the
rnarkct.

" Spanish Sheep.— The English wool
bcin<j, from the increased coarseness
of the fibre, rejected hy the manufac-
turer in the eonstrution of fine cloths,
recourse was had to foreign wools,
and to those chiefly that were de-
rived from the Merino sheep {Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

As early as the commencement of the
Christian era, the wool of the Spanish
sheep was in great request for the
production of the most costly dresses.
In less than half a century afterward
we find Columella busily employed
Ih improving the Spanish sheep, and
the effect of his labours remained
during the long dark ages that suc-
ceeded. The Merino flocks with-
stood the baneful influence of almost
total neglect, and continued, to a
greater or less degree, to furnish the
finest and the choicest wool.

" By degrees the Merino sheep
found its way to almost every part
of the European continent, and by
careful management its fleece rapidly
increased in fineness and in useful-
ness. In 1834, the prime wool pro-
duced in Spain readdy found a sale at
from 3*. 6(1. to 45. per lb. In Saxony
it reached to 5s. 3d. per lb., and in some
parts of Hungary to 5s. Qd. In Aus-
tralia the cultivation of the Merino
sheep and its fleece has proceeded
most rapidly and prosperously.

" The Merino sheep are small in
size, with flat sides, narrow chests,
and long legs. The wool is usually
white, but darker on the legs, and
face, and ears, and a tuft of coarse
wool is found on the forehead ; the
Nn n3

skin is of a reddish colour, and there
is a looseness of the skin under the
throat, wiiich is considered favoura-
ble, as indicative of good fleece. The
males have large spiral horns, but the
females are without any. \\'iih these
peculiarities, it must be evident that,
as regards the carcass, the Merino is
by no means a profitable animal, and
to this nmst be added, that they are
bad nurses, so that one hundred ewes
will not bring up more than fifty
lambs ; they are also by no means
hardy, and the flesh is inferior. To
atone for these bad qualities, the wool
is superior to every other kind, and
forms, indeed, the principal source
of profit ; the fleece is close, short,
and abounding in yolk, weighing
hi^avy, and is superior to all others
m its felling properties.

" It is computed that not less than
ten millions, or a moiety of the whole
number of sheep kept in Spain, are
migratory, and occupy no less than a
quarter of the year in going and re-
turning to their summer and winter
pastures. These Transhumantes, as
they are termed, leave their winter
quarters in the south about the mid-
dle of April, and proceed slowly on
their six weeks' journey. One divis-
ion travels towards the east, and the
other in a more westerly direction.
During their journey they are shorn
in large buildings, built expressly for
the purpose, which are divided into
two large compartments, with a small-
er one adjoining. Those sheep which
are to be sheared first are driven into
the small hut as closely as possible,
and there remain throughout the
night, so as to occasion a consider-
able sweat, which softens the unctu-
ous matter, and renders the shearing
easier. No previous washing is em-
ployed, but in this manner a thousand
are shorn in a day, there being a suf-
ficient number of shearers in attend-
ance for the purpose. This singular
custom, which has existed for cen-
turies, is protected by certain laws,
which give to these sheep the right
of pasturage on the common lands on
their passage, and regulate other
matters relating to it. The wool is
701

SHEEP.

divided into three different parcels, as
it is taken from tiie back, riiinp, and
tliijilis, and shoulders, or liead, belly,
and hocks, and these are respectively
valued as supertine. tine, and waste.
The wool is washed first in water at
120^ Fahrenheit, and afterward in
running brooks. It is stated that
there are no less than fifty thousand
shepherds employed in tending these
sheep, which are generally divided
into flocks of a thousand each. These
shepherds are a singular race of men,
sleeping on the ground while on their
journey, and living in huts during the
rest of the year, and existing on a
spare diet, varied occasionally with
some mutton from their flocks, which
accident or disease may have afford-
ed them.

" The sheep remain in their sum-
mer quarters till September, when
they set out for their return. The
rams are put to the ewes in July, so
that tlie lambs are dropped soon after
the fiock arrives at their winter
quarters.

" In these long and tiresome jour-
neys, it cannot be otherwise than ex-
pected that great loss should be ex-
perienced from casualties and dis-
ease. A great mortality takes place,
and no less than half the lambs are
destroyed, in order that the others
should have the advantage of a double
number of nurses. Tlie migratory
system is more ancient than advan-
tageous. It would, indeed, be far
more profitable if the sheep were
stationary, and the breed varied so
as each to be bred on the most suit-
able pastures.

" The stationary sheep are termed
Estantes, and consist partly of large
sheep, and partly of .^Terinos, besides
the mixed breeds ; and it is found that
the stationary Merinos do better than
the migratory ones in every respect.

" For many centuries the Merino
sheep were confined to Spain, and
preserved with jealous care. Sweden
appears to have been the first country
which succeeded in procuring them ;
and in 1723 a small flock was im-
ported from Spain, and there are now
about seven hundred thousand in
702

Sweden, but they are somewhat in-
ferior to the original breed. In
I'Vance many attempts have be(>n
made to cultivate them during the
last century, but altogether with but
little success. In Germany, how-
ever, the experiment has been emi-
nently successful. The Elector of
Saxony introduced the first flock in
17G5, and about ten years afterward
another small flock was brought to
Austria; and in 1786 and 1802 they
were introduced to the imperial do-
mains of Holditch in Hungary, and
Maunersdorf in Austria. Such is the
origin of the German Merino, which
has now spread so extensively over
these vast countries. There appear
to be now two distinct breeds, differ-
ing from each other both in appear-
ance and the quality of the wool.
First, the Infantado, or Negretti, hav-^
ing shorter legs and a stouter body
than the others, and the head and
neck comparatively short and broad ;
the nose short and somewhat turned
up, and the body round. The wool,
observes Mr. Carr, is often matted
upon the neck, back, and thighs, and
grows upon the head to the eyes, and
upon the legs to the very feet. The
grease in its fleece is almost pitchy,
so as to render the washing ditlicult.
This breed is descended from the
sheep imported directly from Spain
into Austria, while the other breed,
called Escurial, are those which were
first imported into Saxony. They
have longer legs, with a long, spare
neck and head, with very little wool
on the latter ; and a finer, shorter,
and softer character in its fleece, but
less in quantity than the other breed
The fleece, in the Escurial, averages
from one and a half to two pounds in
ewes, and two to three pounds in
rams and wethers ; while in the In-
fantados it is from two and a quarter
to three and a quarter in ewes, and
from four to six pounds in rams and
wethers.

" Many attempts have been made
to amalgamate these breeds, but
without success ; the advantages ol
each can only be retained by pre-
serving them pure.

SHEEP.

" ' These sheep,' observes Mr.
Carr, a large owner in Germany,
• cannot thrive in a damp climate,
and it is qnite necessar}' that they
should have a wide range of dry and
hilly pasture of short and not over
nutritious herbage. If allowed to
feed on swampy or marshy ground,
even once or twice, in autumn, thcij
arc sure to die of liver complaint in the
folloicing spring. If they are per-
mitted to eat wet grass, or exposed
frequently to rain, they disappear by
hundreds with consumption. In these
countries it is found that the higher
bred the sheep is, especially the Es-
curial, the more tender. They are
always housed at night, even in sum-
mer, except in the very finest weath-
er, when they are sometimes folded
in the distant fallows, but never taken
to pasture tilt the dew is off the grass.
In the winter they are kept within
doors altogether, and are fed with a
small quantity of sound hay, and ev-
ery variety of straw, which has not
suffered from wet, and which is vari-
ed at each feed ; they pick it over
carefully, eating the finer parts, and
any grain that may have been left by
the thrashers. Abundance of good
uater to drink, and rock-salt in their
cribs, are indispensables.' By these
means the Saxon sheep has been
formed, which is more valuable in
the fleece than the Merinos.

" Our notice of the sheep in other
countries must be exceedingly brief
Alsng the western coast of France
the traveller continually meets with
the semblance of those noble ani-
mals which Edward IV. permitted
to be annually sent to improve the
breed of foreign sheep on the other
side of the Channel. The wool is
now about the same in value as that
ot' our inferior Lincoln or Keptish.
In Normandy is a larger and a coars-
er variety of the same breed. In the
old province of Maine succeeds the
old, unimproved, long, and thin-car-
cassed native French breed. In Bre-
tagne and Gascony will be recognised
the native short-wools, some of them
exceedingly valuable ; in Navarre, a
mountain breed, with its kempy fleece ;

in the Lower and the Higher Pyre-
nees, the two essentially different
breeds which countries so ditlcrent,
yet so near to each other, produce.
On entering Rousillon some migrato-
ry breeds scarcely inferior to the
Merinos are found, and also in Lan-
guedoc and Aries. The whole num-
ber of sheep in France is calculated
at about 30,000,000. The royal Me-
rinos are called Rambouillcts.

" Notwithstanding the accounts
given by some authors of the Italian
sheep, and of the care bestowed on
them, there are \'e\v deserving of no-
tice except some Merinos. With the
exception of a few of the valleys,
the same may be said of the Swiss,
and also of the Savoy sheep, but in
Piedmont there has been from time
immemorial a breed of sheep inferi-
or only to the Merinos. In most of
the German States, the Merino, the
Saxon breed, is almost the only sheep
that is cultivated. It is the same in
Prussia, except that the sheep are
somewhat diminished in size, while
the wool retains all its value. The
chief wealth of Hungary is derived
from the cultivation of the Merino
sheep. Of the two Hanoverian breeds,
the larger one has almost disap-
peared ; the smaller has been cross-
ed with the Merinos, and yields a
wool of some value for ordinary pur-
poses. The Dutch and Flemish breeds
are of English origin, although some
of them have considerable resem-
blance to the Irish long-woolled breed.
Their wool is used for the production
of the coarser kinds of goods."

The following answers to queries
are by Judge Buel, and peculiarly
adapted to this season :

" What sheep are the most profit-
able ! The Saxon and Spanish Me-
rino for fleece ; the South Down
and new Leicester for mutton. The
fleece would probably be the most de-
sirable object in Tennessee and the
West.

" What is the best time to move
them'! In September.

" What pasture bests suits them,
andhowmanycanbe kept on an acrel •
Sheep want a dry pasture, and if hilly
703

SHEEP.

and stony, the better. Although they
will thrive best upon good herbage,
such as other farm slock like, they
will live where other animals will
starve. They bite close. An acre of
good pasture will summer six sheep.

" How many should be kept togeth-
er ] what shelter do they require, and
what food, in winter 1 The number
in small enclosures, or in a yard, or
in a shed, should not exceed 100 :
when in large pastures, it may ex-
ceed 100 ; sheds are only neces-
sary to protect them from storms,
and to keep them dry in winter.
They want air and exercise. Sheep
are kept upon hay and straw in win-
ter ; some add oats, or corn, or roots,
either of which is serviceable in
keeping them in good plight. One
quart of grain may be given to a doz-
en sheep per day, beginning to feed
with a less quantity. In Tennessee
sheep will get much from the pas-
tures in winter, where they should be
permitted to range in dry weather.

" How is wool managed for expor-
tation, the time of shearing, &c.1
The wool is carefully rolled up, each
fleece separate, and tied, and sent to
market in bales like those used for
cotton. Shearing is generally per-
formed here in June, after the cold
rains have subsided. It is consider-
ed bad policy to shear lambs the first
season, as they want their fleece to
protect them during our cold winters,
and it is found that nothing is gained
by early shearing. It is advisable
to tag ewes in spring and autumn.
Sheep enrich the land on which they
run. A good shepherd and his dog
can take care of 1000 to 1500 sheep,
or more, and feed them in winter."

" This will be the proper place to
speak of the shearing of the sheep, or
the separation of the fleece from the
animal. The time for this operation
will vary much with the state of the
animal, and of the season. After a
cold winter, and the animal having
been neglected, the sheep will be
ready at an early period, for the old
coat will be loosened and easily re-
moved. The operation should never
be commenced until the old wool has
704

separated from the skin, and a new
coat of wool is sprouting up. The
coldness or warmth of the spring will
also make a great difference. The
usual time for shearing is about the
middle of May, and the sheep-master
will in a moment perceive when the
fitting time is come. It is a bad prac-
tice to delay the shearing, for the old
fleece will probably have separated,
and the fly will have longer time to
do mischief, and the growth of the
new fleece will have been stinted, or
a portion of it will be cut away by
the shears.

" Cu stom has very properly required
that the old fleece shall be cleansed
before its removal, by washing the
animal in some running stream. Two
or three days are then allowed for
the drying of the wool previous to its
being shorn, the sheep being turned
into a clean rick-yard, or field, or dry
pasture, and remaining there until
the fleece is dried, and that the new
yolk, which is rapidly secreted, may
penetrate through it, giving it a little
additional weight and a peculiar soft-
ness. As soon as the sheep is shorn,
the mark of the owner is placed upon
it, consisting of lamp-black and tal-
low, with a small portion of tar, melt-
ed together. This will not be wash-
ed away by any rain, but may be re-
moved by the application of soap and
water.

" On the score of humanity, one
custom must be decidedly protested
against — the shearing of a flock of
sheep before they are driven to the
market in an early part of the spring.
The farmer thinks that he shall get
nearly or quite the same price for the
sheep whether the wool is off or on.
But does he find this to be the case 1
When the poor animals are shivering
under the influence of the cold air, do
they look so attractive! Do they
handle well 1 Is there not an ap-
pearance of disease about them 1
Does not the rheum that hangs about
the nostrils indicate the actual com-
mencement of diseased

" Few rules can be laid down with
regard to the rearing and feeding of
sheep that will admit of anything like

SHEEP.

general application. A great deal
depends on the kind of sheep, and
the nature of the pasture and the
food.

"Suppose the larger kind of sheep,
and on arable ground. The ewes are
generally ready to receive the ram
at the beginning of October, and the
duration of pregnancy is from about
twenty-one to twenty-three weeks,
bringing the period of parturition to
nearly the beginning of .March, at
which time most of the lambs will be
dropped. It is best to postpone the
tu[)ping till November, so that the
lambs may be dropped in April, when
there is grass. The ewes should be
fed rather better than usual a short
time previous to the male being in-
troduced. Rams are fit to propagate
their species in October and Novem-
ber of the second year, and that is
also the proper period for the im-
pregnation of the ewes. Tiie ewe is,
after impregnation, suffered to graze
on the usual pasture, being supplied, |
as occasion may require, with extra
food, and especially in cases of snow,
until within five or six weeks of
lambing, when turnips or roots are
given to her, and continued from that
time until the spring of grass renders
them no longer necessary. The tur-
nips are laid out for the ewes in the
grass fields in certain quantities each
day, but by no means so many as
they would consume if permitted to
feed without restriction, as it is con-
sidered to be most important that
they should not be too fat when the
lambing season approaches. The
hogs and the fattening sheep of the
previous year, now one year and a
half old, are put upon the turnips
wlienever the pastures cease to im-
prove their condition. The turnips
required for the cattle, or the ewe
flock, are then drawn off in alternate
rows, in the proportion of one half,
one third, or one fourth, as the con-
venience of the situation, the good-
ness of the crop, or the quality of the
land may dictate. The remainder are
consumed on the ground by the oth-
er sheep.

"As the period of parturition ap-

proaches, the attention of the shep-
herd should increase. There should
be no dogirin^r then, but the ewes
j should be driven to some sheltered
enclosure, and there left as much as
possible undisturbed. Siiould abor-
tion take place with regard to any of
them, although it does not spread
through the flock as in cattle, yet the
ewe should be immediately removed
to another enclosure, and small doses
of Epsom salts, with gentian and gin-
ger, administered to her, no great
(}uantity of nutritive food being al-
lowed.

" The ewes should now be moved
as near home as convenience will
permit, in order that they may be un-
der the immediate observation of the
lamber. The operation of clalting
(tagging), or the removal of the hair
from under the tail and around the
udder, should be effected on every
long-woolled ewe, otherwise the lamb
may be prevented from sucking by
means of the dirt which often accu-
mulates there, and the lamber may
not be able at all times to ascertain
what ewes have actually lambed. The
clattmg before the approach of win-
ter is a useless, cruel, and danger-
ous operation.

" The period of lambing having ac-
tually commenced, the shepherd must
be on the alert, yet not unnecessari-
ly worrying or disturbing the ewes.
The process of nature should be per-
mitted quietly to take its course, un-
less the sufferings of the mother are
unusually great, or the progress of
the labour has been arrested during
several hours, or eighteen or twenty
hours or more have passed since the
labour commenced."

" The following very useful obser-
vations, from an essay by Mr. Cleeve,
in the first volume of the ' Journal ot
the Royal Agricultural Society of
England,' are worthy of much con-
sideration : ' The shepherd must not
be led, by the appearance of uneasi
ness and pain, to interfere premature
ly ; he must watch the ewe closely,
and so long as she rises at his ap-
proach, he may be assured that, what
ever uneasiness she may exhibit, aH
705

SHEEP.

is well. Much uneasiness is poner-
ally apparent ; she will r('|)oato(ily lie
down, and rise ai,'ain with seeining
distress. ICthisoeetirs wi)en driving
her to fold, he must he very cautious
and gentle in urging her. These
symptoms ought to be continued for
two or three hours, or even more, he-
fore he feels imperatively called on
to interfere, except the lainh is in
such a position as to warrant fears
of losing it. In cold weather partic-
ularly, the labour is likely to be pro-
tracted. Sliould the ewe ajipear ex-
hausted, and gradually sinking under
iier labour, it will be right to give
her some oatmeal gruel, with a little
linseed, in the proportion of a spoon-
ful of the latter to two of tiie former.
When the ewe feels tliat she is una-
ble of herself to expel the lamb, she
will quietly submit to the shepherd's
assistance. In giving her this assist-
ance, his first duty is to ascertain
whether the presentation is natural.
The natural presentation is with the
muzzle foremost, and a foot on each
side of it. Should all be right in this
respect, he must proceed to disen-
gage the lamb, first very gently draw-
ing down the legs, and with all pos-
sible tenderness sinoothing and facil-
itating the passing of tiie head with
his fingers, rather than forcibly ex-
tricating it, the particular attention
of the shepherd being given to these
points. This may be effected by pass-
ing the finger up the rectum, until
he feels the back of the lamb's head,
and then urging it forward at the
same time that he gently pulls the
legs. Sometimes the head is suf-
ficieritly advanced, but the legs are
too backward. In this case the head
must be gently pushed back, and the
hand being well oiled, must be intro-
duced into the vagina, and applied to
the legs so as to place them in their
natural position, equal with the head.
Should the fore feet, on the other
hand, protrude, they must in like
manner be returned, and the same
assistance given to advance the head.
If the hinder quarters present them-
selves first, the hand must be ap-
plied to get hold of both the hind legs
706

together, and draw them gently hut
firmly : the laml) may often be easily
removed in this po.sition. It is no
unconunon occurrence to find the
head of the lamb protruding, and much
swollen ; but still, by patience and
gentle irianipulalion. it may often be
gradually brought forward ; or even
nature, not unduly interfered with,
will complete her work if the pelvis
is not very much deformed. Sliould,
however, the strength of the mother
be rapidly wasting, the head may be
taken away ; and then, the operator
pushing back the lamb, may intro-
duce his hand, and laying hold of the
fore legs, effect the delivery. It also
often happens that the legs are thrust
out to the shoulder, and from the
throes of the ewe, it is not possible
to replace them so as to get up the
head of the lamb. By partially skin-
ning the legs, you may disunite them
t>om the shoulder-joint; there will
then be room for the introduction of
the hand, and by laying hold of the
head you can deliver the ewe. A
single season of practice will do more
than voluiTies of writing to prepare
the farmer for the precedmg and some
other cases of difficult labour. Bu';
let hiiTi bear in mind that, as a gen-
eral rule, the foetus should, if possible,
he placed in its natural position pre-
viously to any attempt to extricate
it by force. When force must be
used, it should be as gentle as is con-
sistent with the object of delivery.
I need scarcely observe that the ewe
must be the object of careful nursing
and care, until she is completely re-
stored.'

" Abortion. — Though not so com-
mon as in cows, this disease, as it
may be termed, sometimes occurs
very extensively, and becomes of se-
rious consequence to the sheep-own-
er, disarranging all his plans, as well
as occasioning a severe pecuniary
loss. It may occur at all periods of
pregnancy, but is most frequent when
the ewe is about half gone. The
causes of abortion are various: sud-
den fright, jumping over hedges or
ditches, being worried with dogs, and
the too free use of salt, have all been

SHEEP.

known to produce it ; but that which [turnips ; they should have instead
causes it more than anything else is | some dry pasture, and be well sup-
the unlimited use ot" turnips and sue- plied with hay. If feed is short, the
culent food. .Many farmers may have, turnips may be drawn and given them
doubtless, been in the habit of per- | on the ground in moderate (piantities,
niitting this with impunity, and would ! or, wliicli is better, cut up and mi.\ed
therefore be disposed to doubt the with chaff, or bruised corn in troughs.

evil consequences of the practice ;
but it is not in every season that it is
attended with the danger ; but when
vegetation has been abundant in the
autumn, and the winter has been
unusually wet, there is considerable
probability of the ewes casting their
iambs. Such was the case during
the past spring in numerous instan-
ces in this locality, and several of
which came under my own particu-
lar attention. One farmer had near-
ly a hundred aborted, and lost a good
many of the ewes. They had been
turned on a fine field of turnips, and
subsisted entirely on them and wa-
ter-meadow hay for some time pre-
vious to the commencement of the
mischief, which began soon after
Christmas, and continued for several
weeks. Though the greater number
of ewes recovered, yet they suffered
much, and some died from inflamma-
tion of the womb, and others became
paralyzed

It is better that the condition of tlie
ewes be in some degree impaired,
than that so great a danger as abor-
tion should be incurred. If this pre-
caution has not been observed, and
abortion should appear, what then is
to be done ! The flock should be re-
moved from the turnips to a dry pas-
ture, and supplied with the best hay
on the farm ; the aborted parts should
be carefully buried, and the ewe re-
moved from the rest ; and, if possi-
ble, the same man that attends the
flock should not touch or go near the
abortion, for there is very consider-
able danger from infection. The ewe
should be placed in a sheltered situa-
tion, but allowed plenty of fresh air,
and the following medicine may ba
given with some nourishing gruel •

Epsom salts 4 ounce.

Tincture of opium . . . 1 drachm.
Powdered camphor . ■ i "

" The two latter medicines maybe
repeated the following day, but not

The symptoms first manifested | the salts, unless the bowels are con-
are dulness and refusal to feed ; the fined

ewe will be seen moping at a corner
of the fold, and will be heard to bleat
more than usual. To these succeed
restlessness, and often trembling, with

The immediate cause of death in
fatal cases is inflammation of the
uterus or womb."

If any of the newly-dropped lambs

slight labour pains, and in the course ■ are weak, or scarcely able to stand,
of twelve hours abortion will have he must give them a little of the milk,
taken place. Sometimes the parts which at these times he should al-
will be so relaxed, that the uterus or \ ways carry about him. or he must
vat^ina will become inverted, and the p.'ace them m some sheltered, warm
expulsion of the placenta will precede ,' place ; in the course of a little while,
that of the foetus. In the flock be- ! the young one wdl probably be able
fore alluded to the lamb was almost ' to join its dam. The lambmg field
universally dead, and often exceed- often presents at this period a strange
iniilv offensive, and the abdomen was spectacle. 'Some of the younger
distended with a bloody, watery fluid, j ewes, in the pain, and confusion, and
pointin'T out pretty clearly the nature i fright of their first parturition, aban-
and source of the disease. I don their lambs. Many of them, when

" The treatment to be adopted is of the udder begins to fill, will search
two kinds,"prcventive and curative : ! out their offspring with unerring pre-
the former, however, is the most im- ; cision ; others will search in vain for
portant. In the first place, it is iin- • it in every part of the field with in-
prudent to turn ewes in lamb into \ cessant and piteous bleating ; others,
I I I 2 707

SHEEP.

afrain, will hano; over their dead ofT-
spriiiR, from which nolhinfT oan sep-
arate them, while a few, strangely
forgetting tliat they are mothers, will
graze unconcernedly with the rest of
the flock.'

" The shepherd will often have not
a little to do in order to reconcile
some of the mothers to their twin
offspring. The ewe will occasionally
refuse to acknowledge one of the
lambs. The shepherd will have to
reconcile the little one to its unnatu-
ral parent, or to find a better mother
for it. If the mothers obstinately
refuse to do their duty, they must be
folded by themselves until they are
better disposed ; and, on the other
hand, if the little one is weak and
perverse, he must be repeatedly for-
ced to swallow a portion of her milk
until he acknowledges the food which
nature designed for him."

It is said that placifig salt on the
back of the lamb, and inducing the
ewe to lick it, is a certain method
of causing them to recognise their
young.

Castration. — The following method
is by Mr. Spooner :

" The earlier this operation is per-
formed, the less likely is it to be fol-
lowed by injurious effects. A fa-
vourable day should be selected, dry,
but neither hot nor cold ; and if the
flock is considerable, it will be better
to operate upon the lambs at differ-
ent periods, by which they can all be
operated on at pretty nearly the same
age, than to wait and perform tlie
whole at the same time : a fortnight
is a very good age. It will also save
trouble, and be quite as well, to doek
them at the same time. There are
different methods of performing the
operation, but the following, which
we have generally practised, is as
expeditious, convenient, little painful,
and satisfactory as any :

"The operator sits astride on a
long stool, with one of the lamb's
hind legs under each thigh, the fore
legs and head being held by an as-
sistant. With the finger and thumb
of the left hand, he draws up the low-
er part of the scrotum or bag, and
708

cuts off a portion of the skin A'ith a
sharpscalpcl or knife, lie then grasps
tiie U[)[)cr part of the scrotum, which
forces the testicles forward, and with
one incision separates the part which
divides the testicles, sufliciently to
cause them both to escape from the
bag. He then places the iron clams
on the cords above the testicles, and
with a hot iron divides the cords, and
the operation is completed. By re-
moving a portion of the skin, though
the wound is rather longer healing,
there is less likelihood of matter col-
lecting within the bag. A little lard
may be smeared on the parts after-
ward, to keep off the fleas, &c. Before
the operation is performed the bag
should be examined, in order to find
whether any rupture exists, in which
case some of the intestines will have
escaped into the scrotum. In such
case, the operation must be perfornr-
ed in a more careful and difficult man-
ner. Four small slips of wood, about
four inches in length, must first be
provided. Two sticks of elder cut in
half will be most suitable ; and it
will be better if the pith is removed
and the vacancy filled with some
caustic. One end of each pair must
be fastened together with waxed
thread. The intestines should be
gently forced up into the abdomen, at
any rate as high as possible. An in-
cision should then be carefully made
over each testicle, and through the
skin alone : the testicle, with its cov-
erings, should then be pressed through
the opening in the skin, which, being
held back, the elder-sticks should be
placed on the cord above the testicle ;
and one end having been previously
united, the other should be brought
together, and firmly tied by an assist-
ant with waxed thread. The other
testicle may then be operated on in a
similar manner. Care must be taken
that neither the skin nor any portion
of the intestine be included m the
wooden clams, and they must be
pressed together as closely as pos-
sible.

" In the course of three or four
days the lamb should be examined ;
and if the testicle has fallen off, or

SHEEP.

can be removed by the hand, the
thread may be cut and the clams re-
moved.

" In castrating full-grown lambs, it
is bettor to take out each testicle
separately, through an incision made
into each compartment of the scro-
tum, and the same method may be
adopted as is practised with the horse.

" Dockintf. — Tliis simple ojjeration
is performed on most lambs at an
early age, generally, and very prop-
erly, at tlie period of castration. In
the Dorset and Somei"set horned
sheep, and a few others, it is, how-
ever, customary to leave the tails ;
but if diarrhcea should attack the
lamb, a.s it is likely to do in some de-
gree, the long tails harbour tilth, and
sometimes cause sores, on which the
fly will deposite its eggs.

" The best method of performing
the operation is to place the tail on a
block of wood, and excise it with a
sharp iron red hot, about four inches
from tlie root. It may, however, be
cut off without any bad efTect."

" Unless the pasture on which the
ewes are placed is very good, it will
be advisable to continue the use of
the turnips or roots. A moderate
quantity may be given twice in the
day, care being taken that the whole
of one quantity shall be eaten before
any more is placed before them.
This is a better practice than hurdling
off certain portions of the tield for
the sheep, unless the land is perfect-
ly dry.

" A little hay will always be ser-
viceable while the flock is fed on tur-
nips. It corrects the occasional wa-
tery quality of the turnips, and the
sheep usually thrive better than if
they are fed either on hay or turnips
alone. Bran and oats, with oil-cake,
have been recommended for the ewes
before weaning time ; but this is an
expensive measure, and its cost can
hardly be repaid either by the ewe or
the lamb.

" By the end of March or the be-
ginning of April the turnips are gen-
erally nearly consumed, and the farm-
er is occasionally a little puzzled to
lind sufficient food lor his Hock. He
0 o 0

should have had some plots of rye to
support them for a while. Rye grass
and clover are very serviceable. Swe-
dish turnips that have been carefully
stacked on dry straw will be most
useful, for the .Swedes, properly pre-
pared and housed, will retain their
nutritive quality until the flock can
be conveniently supplied with other
food. Ruta baga are always useful
for spring food. The after-grass like-
wise furnishes plentiful and whole-
some food for the lambs.

" At length comes the time for
weaning. In a poor country it takes
place before the lambs are much more
than three months old. In a more
plentiful one the lambs may be left
until the fourth month is nearly or
quite expired. If the pasture is good,
and it is intended to sell the lambs in
store condition, the weaning may be
delayed until six months. Which-
ever time is selected, it is of essential
consequeuce that the mothers and
the dams should be placed so far
apart that they cannot hear the bleat-
ings of each other. The ewes should
be somewhat carefully looked after,
and if any of them refuse to eat, they
should be caught, the state of the ud-
der ascertained, and proper measures
adopted.

" The lambs should not be put on
too stimulating food. The pasture
should be fresh and sweet, but not
luxuriant. It should be sufficient to
maintain and somewhat increase their
condition, but not to produce any dan-
gerous determination of blood to any
part. In the Northern and Eastern
States it will be advisable to house
sheep in large barns during winter.

" The Diseases of Sheep. — The rap-
id progress which the veterinary art
has lately made has thrown great
light on the maladies to which the
sheep is liable, and the mode of pre-
venting or removing them.

" Commencing with the muzzle
and head, there is a disease, or rath-
er annoyance, to which sheep are ex-
posed by the persecution of a fly, the
Oistrus ovis, or <sadjhj of ti:e sheep.
.\t a period between May and July
this fly is perseveringly endeavouring
709

SHEEP.

to lay its eggs on the inner margin of
the nostril of tlie sheep, whence,
hatched by tlie warmth ami moisture
of the situation, and assiiminL; its lar-
va form, it crawls into the nostril in
order to reach the frontal sitms, or
cavities in the skull bone. Instinct-
ively alarmed by the buzzing of the
fly, or the motions of the larva;, the
sheep congregate with their heads in
the centre, pawing continually with
their feet, and expressing their dislike
and fear in every possible way. It re-
mains in the sinus a certain period,
until it has attained its full growth,
when it endeavours to escape, in or-
der to undergo another transforma-
tion. It escapes from the nostril,
burrows in the earth for a while, as-
sumes its pupa state, undergoes its
final change, and assimies the form
ofafly, and then becoming impregna-
ted, seeks again the nostril of the
sheep. All that can be done with re-
gard to this nuisance is to destroy the
flies, which are generally to be seen
on the walls or pales in the neigh-
bourhood of the flock, and which the
shepherd, or shepherd's boy, should
be taught to recognise.

"Another parasite is a species of
hydatid, the Ccennrus, or Hydatis
folyccphahts ccrchrulis. It has the ap-
pearance of a bladder, sometimes
filled with pellucid water, or, occa-
sionally, with myriads of minute
worms, or smaller hydatids. Its res-
idence is the brain, either beneath
the inner membrane of the brain, or
in the fissure between its two hemi-
spheres. The origin of it is not clear,
except that it is connected with bad
management, being scarcely known in
upland pastures, or in grounds that
have been well drained. As the par-
asite grows, it presses upon the
neighbouring substance of the brain,
and interferes with the discharge of
its functions. There is an aberration
of intellect ; the sheep is frightened
at any trifling or imaginary object ; he
separates himself from his compan-
ions ; he commences a strange rotato-
ry motion even while he grazes, with
the head always turned towards the
same side. This is the characteris-
710

tic symptom, and as soon as it is per-
ceived the animal should be destroy-
ed, for there is no certain cure, and
many of the operations that some
persons have flescribed are cruel and
ineflicient. The duty of the farmer
is to destroy the slurdicd sheep as soon
as the disease is ascertained, howev-
er poor it may be in condition."

It may be well to remark, that
when the hydatid is situated near the
bone, and especially in the forehead,
between and above the eyes, the skull
becomes soft at the place, and this
being discovered, a cure has some-
times been effected by cutting down-
ward through the soft bone, so as to
reach the hydatid ; if this is cut
through, it frequently dries ; and
should there be no more, a cure oc-
curs. The puncture should not reach
to the brain ; half an inch is enough.

" A somewhat similar disease, but
with which the hydatid has nothing
to do, is Hi/drorcphalus, or v:atcr in the
head, generally indicated by a little
enlargement of the. skull, a disincli-
nation to move, a slight staggering
in the walk, a stupidity of look, and
a rapid loss of condition. This dis-
ease seldom admits of cure or pallia-
tion. If any amendment can be ef-
fected, it will be by the administration
of good food, tonic medicine, and gen-
tle aperients. When water in the
head is an occasional visitant in a
flock of sheep, there is something
wrong in the land, or its management,
or in the nature of the food, or the
character of the sheep.

"Another species of pressure on
the brain is of too frequent occur-
rence— Apoplexy. A flock of sheep
shall be in apparently as good and
fine condition as the farmer can de-
sire. They have for a considerable
period grazed on the most luxuriant
pasture, and are apparently in the
highest state of health. By and by,
one or more of them is, without any
previously observed change, sudden-
ly taken ill. He staggers, is uncon-
scious, falls, and dies, and perhaps
within a quarter of an hour from the
first attack. With regard to how
many over-fattened sheep is this the

SHEEP.

case? The owners, taking them to
some cattle-sliow, say that they died
of inflammation. Inflammation had
nothing to do with it. The sheep had
heen brought to the liighest and most
dangerous state ofoondition. Every
vessel was overloaded with blood,
and then some trifling exertion being
required, or the animal being a little
disturbed, the nervous functions were
suspended, and the vital current sud-
denly arrested. Very few persons
have gone into a cattle-show without
being painfully struck with the evi-
dent distress exhibited by some of
the over-gorged animals.

" If there is time for resorting to
curative means, the jugular vein
should be opened, and aperient medi-
cine administered.

" Inflammalion of the Brain is a fre-
quent consequence of this strange
over-feeding. It is ushered in by
dulness and disinclination to move ;
but presently the eye brightens, and
the animal attacks everything with-
in his reach. If it can be managed,
the same treatment must be adopted
— bleeding, phasic, and low feeding.

" Locked Jaw is not an unfrequent
disease among sheep. It commences
with an involuntary spasiriodic mo-
tion of the head, accoinpanied by
grinding of the teeth ; but the latter
symptom is presently succeeded by
fixedness of the jaws. The disease
often runs its course in a little more
than twelve hours. The principal
cause is cold and wet. After an un-
usually cold night, it is not uncom-
mon to find many ewes that have
lately lambed, and many lambs re-
cently dropped, dead and stiffened.
It sotnetimes occurs after castration,
and at weaning time. Bleeding, ape-
rient medicine, an opiate given an
hour after the physic, and also a warm
bath, are among the most likely means
of cure.

" Epilepsy is a not unfrequent dis-
ease among young sheej) which are
exposed too much to cold, or dismiss-
ed from the fold too soon in the morn-
ing. Care and nursing will some-
times recover them, or a little exer-
cise forced upon the patient.

" Palsy. — The appearance of this
disease is mostly confined to the ewe
and lamb at weaning time, or when
they are left at night in a bleak and
exposed situation. The vital heat is
abstracted by the cold bed on which
they lie, and the cold air around them,
and there follows a compound of
rheumatism and palsy, the latter pre-
dominant and most obstinate. In the
majority of cases they will never re-
gain tiieir former condition or value,
but continue a disgraceful exhibition
of the carelessness and inhumanity
of the owner. It is dreadful to think
how many animals in some districts
are thus destroyed. No little art and
kind treatment are in some cases re-
quisite in order to recover these neg-
lected and abused creatures. Warm
gruel or milk, and a moderate degree
of warmth, are the chief restoratives
that can at first with safety be appli-
ed. A little ginger and spirit of ni-
trous ffilher may be added to the gruel
when the patient begins to recover.

" Rabies. — The rabid dog seems to
have an irresistible propensity to
worry sheep, and the poison is as fa-
tal in this as in any other animal.
There are cases on record in which
from twenty to thirty have been bit-
ten by the same dog, and all have
died. If it can be proved that the
flock has been attacked by a mad dog,
every sheep should be most carefully
examined, and if the slightest wound
is found upon him, he should be de-
stroyed. When the disease has bro-
ken out in the flock, no sheep that
has exhibited the slightest trace of it
should be used for human food.

"There is no cure for rabies, and
he will incur fruitless expense who
has recourse to any pretended nos-
trum for this purpose.

" Ophthalmia is a very frequent dis-
ease among sheep. The old people
used to say that the animal had dis-
turbed a lark's nest, and that the lark
had spurred him blind. If any in-
flammation of the eye is detected,
that organ should be frequently bath-
ed with a weak solution of Gouland's
lotion, to which a few drops of lauda-
num have been added. It is some-
711

SHEEP.

times difficult to get rid of this affec-
tion, and cataract and permanent
l)lindness will ensue. 'I'lie Ettrick
shepherd says that ' a iViend will |L;en-
erally attach itself to the sufferer,
waiting on it with the most tender
assiduity, and by its bleating calling
it from danger and from going astray.'

" Huovc is a morbid distention of
the paunch with food, and the extri-
cation of gas from that food. An ac-
ccunt has been given of this disorder
in tlie article Ox, so that every pur-
pose will be answered by referring
to it. The same may be said of all '
the diseases of the digestive organs.
Their structure is the same in cattle
and in sheep ; and the causes and ap-
pearances and treatment of the dis-
eases are the same.

" There is, however, a disease of
the liver — the Rut — far more frequent-
ly occurring in sheep than in cattle,
and bearing a peculiar and more de-
structive character.

" In the very earliest stage alone
does it admit of cure. The decisive
symptom, at that time, is a yellow
colour of the eye, that surrounds the
pupil and the small veins of it, and
particularly the corner of the eye,
which is fdled with a yellow serous
fluid, and not with blood. There is
no other apparent nrorbid appearance
until it is too late to struggle with
the malady ; on the contrary, the
sheep, although perhaps a little duller
than usual, has an evident propensity
to fatten.

" The rot is a disease of the liver,
attended by inflammation of that or-
gan, and the vessels of it contain
fasciolaj {flukes). The flukes are
probably more the efiect than the
cause of the disease. They aggra-
vate the disease by perpetuating a
state of irritability and disorganiza-
tion. The rot is evidently connected
with the state of the pasture. It is
precisely the same as marsh fever in
men, originating from the poisonous
vapours of marshes. It is conlined
either to wet seasons or to the feed-
ing on ground that is moist and
marshy. In the same farm there are
fields on which no sheep can be turn-
Tig

ed without getting the rot, and there
are others that never give the rot.
After long-continued rains it is almost
sure to appear. The disease may be
conmnunicatcd with extraordinary ra-
pidity. A flock of sheep was halted
by the side of a pond for the purpose
of drinking ; the time which they re-
mained there was not more than a
quarter of an hour, yet two hundred
of them eventually died rotten. In
the treatment of the rot little that is
satisfactory can be done. Some sheep
have recovered, but the decided ma-
jority perish in despite of every ef-
fort. The patients, however, may,
as giving them a little chance, be
moved to the driest and soundest
pastures ; tliey may undergo a regu-
lar course of aperient medicine. Mer-
curial friction may also be used, but,
above all, plenty of salt should be
placed within the animals' reach, and
given to them in the way of medicine.
Doses of calomel may be given in the
early stages.

" In the way of prevention, the
farmer may do much : he may drain
the most suspicious parts of his farm.
No money would be more profitably
expended than in accomplishing this.
Som.e of the little swampy spots
which disgrace the appearance of his
farm, possibly he at the root of the
evil.

" Red-water, or the effusion of a
bloody serous fluid in the cavity of
the abdomen, is a frequent and very
fatal disease among sheep. The
cause of it is a sudden change from
one pasture to another of almost op-
posite quality, or the moving of the
flock from a dry and warm to a damp
and cold situation. It is most de-
structive to lambs if exposed to a
hard frost, or suffered to lie on a damp
and cold soil. The sheep will separ-
ate himself from the rest of the flock ;
he will evince a great deal of pain, by
rolling about and frequently lying
down, and immediately getting up
again ; and sometimes he dies in less
than twenty-four hours from the first
attack. The belly will be found swell-
ed and filled with the red water, or
serous fluid tinged with blood, from

SHEEP.

which the disease derives its name. ' extended and labouring for breath.
The treatment should consist of mild If his general health does not seem
aperients, with gentian and ginger, to be atTccted, this nasal glut will all
and a liberal allowance of hay and pass away as the spring approaches,
corn. Inflammation of the coals of If, however, any of the flock should
the intestines (enteritis) would not now appear to be losing flesh and
always be readily distinguished from strength, it is too probable that cun-
the last disease, except that there is { 4-!tmp<(07i is at hand. The only chance
more stamping on the ground and i of saving or doing them any good will
striking the belly with the hind legs, | be to place them in some comfortable
and occasional lying on the back. | pasture, letting them have salt within
The principal causes of enteritis are their reach, and giving them the hy-
improper food, or an excess of that ^ driodate of potash, in doses gradual-
which is healthful, or exposure to ly increasing from three grains to
cold and wet. Here, also, bleeding ' twelve, morning and night,
is imperatively required, but the pur- i " Lambs, when too early and too
gative should not consist of anything I much exposed, are subject to diseas-
strongerthan sulphur. Dtarrhma is a i es of the upper air passages {laryngi-
very prevalent disease among lambs, | tis and hronchUis), the one attended
and especially after a change of diet by a ringing cough, and the other by

or of situation. When it is not vio
lent, and does not seem to be at-
tended by colic, a little absorbent
and astringent medicine, with a few
grains of opium, may be administered.
The diarrhoja of sheep may be simi-
larly treated ; but when the disease is
assuming the character of dysentery,
when the discharge is more frequent
and copious, and mingled with mucus,
a larger quantity of this medicine
should be given, and some blood ab-
stracted if there is any degree of fe-
ver."

Costiveness, or stretches, is attend-
ed with loss of appetite. The animal
also frequently lies down and stretch-
es itself: two tqi)le-spoonfuls of cas-
tor oil or one ounce of salts will rem-
edy it. The disease is said to arise
from want of green food. Braxy ap-
pears to be an inflammation of the
stomach ; the sheep refuses food, is
costive, drinks often, mouth parched,
eyes red, belly swollen and tender.
Bleed, and give febrifuge medicines ;
place in the house, and, after a few
days, give aperient medicines.

" The diseases of the respiratory
organs are often of a serious charac-
ter. During the greater part of the
winter the nostrils will sometimes

one of a more wheezing sound.
Bleeding will always be necessary
for the first, with aperient medicine.
A mild purgative will usually suffice
for the second, or, possibly, an ounce
or an ounce and a half of common
salt may be given dissolved in six
ounces of lime-water.

" Inflammation of the lungs, recog-
nised by difficulty of breathing, heav-
ing at the flanks, and distressing
cough, is a disease of frequent occur-
rence in sheep. It speedily runs its
course, and the lungs are found to be
one disorganized mass. Bleeding and
purging are indispensable ; but as
soon as the violent symptoms .seem
to remit, tonics, composed of gentian
and spirit of nitrous aether, must fol-
low.

" Epidemics. — Sheep are not so lia-
ble to the attack of these diseases as
horses and cattle. Sometimes, how-
ever, sheep suffer from epidemic dis-
eases very seriously. They have
cough, and discharge from the nose
and eyes. Tiie appetite ceases.
Those that are affected by the dis-
ease separate themselves from the
rest of the flock ; they continually lie
down, and many of them die. They
exhibit, after death, inflammation

be tilled with mucus, and the sheep through all the contents of the chest
is compelled to stop for a moment at and abdomen, with effusion into the
every second or third bite, and snort cavities of both. The disease is most
violently, and stand with his muzzle i rapid in its course. The shepherd
O o 0 3 713

SHEEP.

may leave his flock in tlie morning,
free, apparently, from any imiiicdiaie
danger, and when he reiurns in tlie
afternoon he will find two or throe of
them dead. Epsom salts with nitre
may be given. Blood should be ab-
stracted if the case seems to require
it; and the medicine should be re-
peated sufficiently often to keep the
bowels gently open. If the purging
becomes considerable, a little starch,
with chalk and cinnamon, may be ser-
viceable. Those that will eat should
be foddered with good hay, and the
others forced with gruel, being kept
dry and comfortable, with plenty of
clean straw under them. The de-
tached horn should be pared from the
feet where there was any separation,
and the parts washed with a solution
of blue vitriol, and then smeared over
with melted tar. The mouth and
tongue, on which there are generally
some ulcers, should be dressed with
a strong solution of alum in water.
Under this treatment most of the pa-
tients will probably recover.

" Garget. — Inflammation of the ud-
der is more frequent in the ewe than
in the cow. 'Ihe udder should be
well fomented with warm w ater, and
then, if there are no large knots or
kernels, she should be returned to
her lamb, whose knocking about of
the udder will generally be produc-
tive of good rather than harm. If,
liowever, she refuses the lamb, a
drachm of camphor and mercurial
ointment may be well incorporated
with an ounce of elder ointment, and a
little of it well rubbed into the udder
every morning and night. If the ud-
der should still continue to enlarge,
a free incision must be made into
that part where the swellings are
largest. A weak solution of chloride
of lime should then be applied, and
when the putrid smell is gone, the
friar's balsam should be used. In a
few days the wound will generally be
healed, and the lamb may be return-
ed to its mother.

" Diseases of the Feet. — There is a

small opening at the bifurcation of

the pasterns, which leads to a canal

running down the inner face of each

714

to the commencement of the hoot.

The function of this canal is a matter
of doubt ; but dirt or gravel, or other
foreign bodies, sometimes get into
these canals, and produce considera-
ble pain, inflammation, and ulcera-
tion. The treatment consists in the
extraction of any of those e.vtraneous
substances that can be got at, and the
fomenting and poulticing, or scarify-
ing the parts, or efTecling incisions
into the canal, and applying a caustic
or a balsam, as the case may re-
quire."

Foot-rot arises from wet pastures.
It first produces lameness, origina-
ting in the softening of the crust
of the foot ; ulcerations appear, and,
finally, the animal is unable to move,
and dies.

" The treatment of foot-rot essen-
tially consists in paring away all loose
and detached horn. This is the cor-
ner-stone of skilful and successful
practice. All fungous granulations
must either be cut away, or de-
stroyed by the muriate of antimo-
ny, and the foot well washed with
a solution of chloride of lime. The
muriate of antimony must then be
lightly applied over the whole of the
denuded surface This must be re-
peated daily, until the whole of the
foot is covered with new horn. The
diseased sheep must not be permitted
to join his companions until the cure
is complete; for it is a sadly infec-
tious disease, and may easily spread
through the whole flock."

Fouls is an irritation and suppura-
tion of the gland in the cleft of the
hoof. It is easily remedied by apply-
ing warm tar. It is not contagious.

" The Scab is a very troublesome
disease, common in the spring and
summer. The sheep is continually
scratching himself with his feet, tear-
ing offthe wool, and violently rubbing
himself against every protruding sub-
stance. The disease first appears in
the form of minute pustules ; but sev-
eral of these unite, and form a scan.
The health of the sheep becomes rap-
idly affected under this disease, and
some of them p'ne away and die. It
is a very infectious disease ; for ev-

SHE

SHE

ery place against which the sheep can
rub hiiiiself becomes tainted with the
poison. The sheep must he housed,
and shorn as closely as possible, and
tlien well washed with warm water.
An ointment composed of one part of
mercurial ointment and seven of lard,
or sulphur and lard, mu.st then be pro-
cured, and such a quantity of it as the
diseased parts seem to require rubbed
in on every second day. Every place
in the field and in the fold against
which he can possibly have rubbed
himself must be well cleaned and
painted before he is permitted to re-
turn. The cause of scab consists in
the presence of a minute insect or
tick (Acarus), which may be convey-
ed from one sheep to another when
an infected sheep comes in contact
with a sound one ; or it may be left
on the rubbing-post, and entangled
in the wool of the next animal that
comes in contact with it ; or it may
be the product, and is too often so,
of disease of the part. It is of spon-
taneous origin, as well as the product
of contagion, and is called into exist-
ence by the derangements which our
neglect, or accident, or disease has
made in the skin. This is a view of
the case that should never be forgot-
ten by the sheep-owner.

" Lice and Ticks will be best got
rid of by the application of the mer-
curial ointment just recommended,
or dipping the sheep in a decoction
of tobacco.

" The Fly. — Several species of fly
frequently deposite their ova on the
wool of the sheep. If there are any
sore places, they are selected for the
habitation of the larvae. The head,
as the most exposed part, is the one
oftenest attacked, and the sheep are
sadly tormented by the fly and the
larvae. The best preservative or cure
is the application of a plaster compo-
sed of a pound of pitch and a quarter
of an ounce of bees' wax, spread on
soft leather or linen. The attack
may, however, be generally prevent-
ed by the application of a small
quantity of spirit of tar to the head,
or any bare or sore part. Two or
three applications of this will be suf-

ficient for the whole of the summer,
and not a fly will approach a siiecp
thus guarded."

For medicines and their doses, see
Pharmacopaeia.

SHEEP-FOLD. A yard for sheep
to be gathered into in cold weather
or during nigiit. It should be well
littered, and in a dry situation. Sheds
of slabs may be placed around, or
facing the south, so as to atlbrd
them shelter from cold. Shelter and
warmth during winter effect a great
saving, even as much as one half of
the food.

SPIEEP-PENS. Enclosures made
by hurdles. They should be situated
on dry places. They are convenient
for sorting and examining the ani-
mals, separating the sickly and lamb-
ing, &c.

SHEEP, PERUVIAN. The al-
paca, or llama. See Alpaca.

SHEEP'S SORREL. Rumex acc-
tosclla. A small acid weed, growing
in thin, poor soils.

SHELLER, CORN. A machine
for removing the grain from the cob.
There are innumerable patents for
corn shellers. The machines are of
two classes, either for slielling one
or two ears, or acting on a large quan-
tity. The form.er usually consists of
a wheel of cast iron, roughened over
the whole surface by knobs, which is
rotated against the ear placed in a
spring case ; by this means, theknobs,
grating against the ear, tear off the
seeds, and the cob is gradually push-
ed out of the case below : the case is
connected with a hopper. For larger
purposes, a cylinder is roughened and
made to rasp against the ears. F. N.
Smith's corn sheller seems to be the
most eflective of the latter" kind ; it
is made by Hanna and Peaslee, Va-
latie, New-York : they will shell and
separate the cobs of upward of 100
bushels in the hour. Price $40.

SHELL LIME. Lime procured
from burning shells. If well made,
it is excellent for agricultural purpo-
ses, as it contains nearly two per
cent, of bone earth, and is free from
caustic magnesia. The term lime
shells is used by many writers, from
715

SHI

SIA

tlie lumps of fresh-burned lime before
slacking.

SHELL MARL. This is very rich
in the remains of shells : it is the
best kind, and may often be profitably
burned for lime.

SHELL S. When burned, they
form the best lime. In the ponnded
state they resemble the best marls,
but the shells of crabs, lobsters, and
animals of that kind {Crustaceans)
are rich in animal matter and hone
earth, containing I'rom 30 to 40 per
cent, of the former, and 12 to 14 of
the hitter, the remainder being car-
bonate of lime ; it would be a great
loss to burn them : but oyster, and
other similar shells, contain very lit-
tle animal matter.

SHELL SAND. The shelly sand
of the seashore, or ancient sea beach-
es, is extensively employed in France
and Ireland as a manure, or, rather,
amendment : fifty or more loads are
put to the acre of stiffish soil. It is
identical with sandy marl in its ef-
fects, but somewhat superior, inas-
mnch as it often contains a small
amount of animal and saline matters.
Its value is, like that of all marls,
measured by the proportion of shells
it contains.

SHEPHERD. The man who tends
sheep ; he should be of a kind dispo-
sition, as sheep are wayward and ob-
stinate ; he should be well acquamt-
ed with their diseases, and take an
interest in his charge. Many diseas-
es of sheep are so sudden and fatal,
that unless they are constantly under
the eye of a well-informed and kind
person, numbers will die annually.

SHERDS. Fragments of garden
pots, used to under-drain the soil of
boxes, pots, &c.

SHIELDS. " In botany, little col-
oured cups or lines witli a hard disk,
surrounded by a rim, and containing
the sporules, or seeds of lichens."

SHIFT OF CROPS. Rotations.

SHIM. " A tool of the tillage kind,
used in breaking down and reducing
the more stiff and heavy sorts of
land, as well as cutting up and clear-
ing tiicm from weeds. They are made
of different forms and constructions,
716

to suit different purposes." — {John'
son.)

SHINGLE. A coarse, sea-shore
gravel.

SHINGLES. " In architecture,
small slabs of wood, or quartered
boards, used instead of slates or tiles
for covering roofs. They are sawn
to a certain scantling, or, ratiier,
cleft to about an inch thick at one
end, and shaped like wedges by ma-
chines or the drawing-knife, four or
five inches broad and eight or nin<;
inches long." The cedar yields the
finest shingles. Shingle roofs should
always have a very considerable pitch
to let off water.

SHOCKS. Stocks, or hattocks,
horse-heads ; assemblages of sheaves,
from six to twelve, independently of
the two or four hood, or roof sheaves.
Also, an accumulation of hay of 100
to 300 pounds.

SHORE. A piece of timber which
props up a wall.

SHORT HORNS. The breed of
cattle with short horns, considerably
improved, and now much celebrated
in the United States under the nauio
of Durhams.

SHOVEL. The wide curved spade
for casting earth, and not digging.

SHREW. SoricidcB. A family of
small, insectivorous, rodent quadru-
peds : they resemble the moles, and,
on the other hand, mice, and live, for
the most part, in excavations made
in the soil.

SHRUB. "A small, low, dwarf-
ish tree, v.hich, instead of one single
stem, puts forth from the same root
several sets or stems." A collection
of these, tastefully arranged, is a
shrubbery.

SHUCK. The husk, or collection
of involucra about the corn ear.
Shucks are much esteemed for fod-
der, being very superior to straw and
corn fodder. When cut into shreds,
they make a good material for mat-
trasses. This word is also used for
shuck.

SHY. Starting aside, in horses :
the result of fear, produced by strange
objects.

SIALAGOGES. Drugs which pro-

SIL

(luce salivation, or an increased flow
of saliva.

SICKLE. The reaping hook. See
Ha rvest.

S r E N I T E, SYENITE. A gray
granite ; Boston granite : it contains
honiblcnd in the place of mica.

SI LEX. SILICIC ACID. Pare
sand, rock crystal. This familiar body
is an acid, and consists of I equiva-
lent of silicium (22-22), a body resem-
bling in appearance charcoal, and 3
equivalents of oxygen, 4G 22. In the
cold it is inactive, but at a white heat
it forms an exceedingly active acid,
combining with bases, and displacing
most other acids, except the phos-
phoric a!i<l i)()racic. The silicates are
nearly all insoluble in pure water ;
glass and conmion earthen-ware are
specimens of silicates, but they grad-
ually decay in the presence of acids,
and of carbonic acid and water. But
the compounds of silicic acid, with
two or three times its weight of car-
bonate of potash or soda, are soluble
silicates, and have been recommend-
ed as manures for the cerealia, which
always contain a large amount of si-
licic acid in their stems, leaves, and
husks. Most of the minerals and
rocks of the earth are silicates, this
acid forming from one quarter to one
third of its entire solid mass.

Soluble and other silicates are
formed by fusing together sand and
the desired chemical body, usually in
the state of carbonate, in a black-lead
crucible, at a full red heat.

The stores of potash, soda, lime,
and magnesia in the soil which sup-
ply plants with saline matters, are

SIL

often in the form of silicates ; these
are slowly decomposed under the in-
fluence of the carbonic acid of the
air, or from decaying vegetable mat-
ter, which converts them into soluble
carbonates, whereby they gain ac-
cess to the plant.

SILICATES. Salts containing si-
licic acid ; they are usually flinty and
insoluble : slate, feldspar, and granite
are specimens.

SILICULA. " A fruit exactly sim-
ilar to that called a siliqua, except
that it is shorter, and contains fewer
seeds. It is never more than four
times as long as broad, and usually
much shorter."

SILIQUA, SILIQUE. " A one or
two celled, many-seeded, linear fruit,
dehiscent by two valves separating
from a septum ; the seeds are at-
tached to two placentce adhering to
the septum, and opposite to the lobes
of the stigma. The fruit of the mus-
tard is an example."

SILIQUOSE PL.-VNTS. Improper-
ly applied to leguminous plants, but
properly to the cruciferous family.

SILK. On this subject much has
been written and said of late ; there
i-s no question that by judicious man-
agement a good profit can be made
by raising the worms.

The silk worm is the larva or cat-
erpillar of the Phalana hombyx {Bom-
hjx mori, Lin.) ; a represents the male,
and b the female moths ; c, the grub,
or chrysalis. The eggs are hatch-
ed in April or May, but may be kept
back until the end of May by placing
them in a cool, dry place. The eggs
should be hatched in parcels, and not

SILK.

altogcllier, as by tins means the la-
bour is increased, and casualties, as
frost, may deprive the grower of his
whole crop. The natural food is the
mulberry leaf, which should be fed
so as to suit the age of the worm,
the youngest worms receiving the
young leaves, and the full leaves
being fed to the large worms. In the
beginning, if mulberry leaves are
scarce, lettuces will answer ; but tliese
do not answer for the whole season,
but only at first. Mulberry leaves of
the previous year, carefully dried of
a green colour, and moistened for
use, will also answer for the early
crop of worms. The worms grow
about six weeks, but this depends on
the variety and state of the weather:
they moult, or change their skin, four
times in the season. Having com-
pleted their growth {Fig., d), they be-
come restless, and retire to crannies,
branches, or the corners of their
apartments to spin a cocoon ; here
the worm is changed into a grub, or
chrysalis ; this, in some 15 days, be-
comes changed to a moth, which eats
its way through the cocoon. The per-
fect insects live but two or three
days, the eggs being laid in this time :
the eggs are received on paper or
cloth, and dried before being put
away.

The silk grower proceeds to obtain
the silk libi^e from the cocoon before
these changes are completed, and de-
stroys the grub by alcohol, or boiling
water. The cocoons are plunged m
hot water, and examined to find the
end of the silk fibre ; twelve or more
of these are now brought together,
and made fast to the reeling arrange-
ment. The best reel is called the
Piedmont reel, but this is to be tended
by experienced persons, and is best
set up at proper filatures, of which
there are many, especially at the
manufactories. Mr. Vati Epps has
established one in New- York, and is-
sued the following judicious sugges-
tions to silk growers :

" The nursery for worms should be

furnished with a stove for raising the

temperature in damp, cold weather.

Artificial heat may frequently be ena-

718

ployed to advantage (particularly in
New-England), previously to the third
moulting, while the worms require
but little space and air.

" We would here caution growers
against noise ; every preparation re-
quiring pounding or jarring should
be attended to before the worms aro
hatched, Uiat everything in and around
the building may be pefeetly quiet
throughout the whole feeding.

" The feeding frames which we
use, and prefer to any other fixtures
we have seen, are very simple, com-
bining all the advantages of ' Gill's
ventilating cradle,' with none of its
disadvantages, saving much time and
some expense in their construction,
besides being a sure defence against
mice, rats, ants, and other enemies
of the silk-worm. Should any of our
readers be disposed to adopt our
plans, the following description will
be sufficient :

" In the first place, attach the pie-
ces of timber designed for suspend-
ing the frames to the rafters, allow-
ing them to come down to within two
leet of the ground. These should be
about seven or eight feet apart at
the top, and four or five at the bot-
tom, which will cause the frame to
enlarge in nearly the same proportion
with the worms, and thus prevent
their becoming too much crowded :
this is the chief excellence (we think)
of Gill's cradle. Cross pieces should
be fastened at the lower ends of the
upright timbers, on which to lay
boards to receive the worms from
the nursery. About two inches above
these boards should be placed sticks,
one inch square, resting on pieces
running lengthwise at the sides ;
these, at first, should be six inches
apart (after a few days' feeding, one
half can be drawn out), and in feed-
ing, the branches sliould be laid be-
tween them, until they are filled up
to the top, when they should be laid
across. After two or three days'
feeding, the boards and dry branches
should be removed from under the
worms, and they left to feed on the
branches above. If care is taken to
feed no more than is needed, the

SILK.

brush will remain very open, allow- [
ing all the pieces of leaves and the
excrements from tiie worms to fall
directly through to the ground, from
whicii they should he often swept
out, furnisliing a free circulation of
air from beneath. At the sides and
ends of these frames it is necessary
to have something to keep the branch-
es in order, and prevent the worms
from faUing ofT; these may be made
of narrow boards or lath ; between ■
these and the brush most of the co- j
coons will be placed, as it secures
the worms from the light, and fur-
nishes them with places for fasten-
ing their floss whenever they have
finished eating and are ready to spin.
Tliese directions, of course, are ap-
plicable only where branch feeding is
practised. Cocoons should not be
gathered until dried, that is, in six or
seven days from the time the worms
began to spin. Those designed for
eggs should be selected first, taking
such as have been spun by the most
healthy worms. These should be
closely flossed, and spread out thin
on the shelves in the nursery.

" We now come to the destruction
of the chrysalis, and the curing of
the cocoons, upon which the value of
tlve silk must depend. "We cannot
dwell upon this point with too much
care. We have received at our fila-
ture cocoons that had been almost
ruined by the means used for stifling
the chrysalis. Our standing offer is
from $2 50 to S3 .50 per bushel ; yet
we have had cocoons sent us which
would not pay the expenses of reel-
ing and transportation. Among the
many means resorted to for this pur-
pose, alcohol is doubtless the best, as
it not only destroys the chrysalis, but
leaves the fibre of the cocoon in fine
order for reeling, and is supposed by
some actually to add to its original
beauty. Not more than half a pint
(some use only a gill, others a pint)
is needed for a bushel of cocoons.
They should be placed for this pur-
pose in a tiglit box ; first a laj'er of
cocoons (very thin), then a slight
sprinkling with alcohol, and so on till
the box IS filled, which should then

be nailed up tight. After remaining
in the box ai)out 24 hours, tliey should
be removed and spread out for dry-
ing, which will take several days,
even in very warm weather. If tiie
chrysales arc not entirely dry, they
undergo a putrefaction, which fre-
quently injures the silk, and renders
them very offensive to the reeler.
Persons designing to send their co-
coons to our filature are re(iuested to
adopt the above method, and as soon
as dried the cocoons should be for-
warded, as it is exceedingly hazard-
ous purchasing when they have been
lying for some months and become
very dry."

The following important facts are
gleaned from the correspondence of
various silk conventions :

1st. That of the varieties of mul-
berry, the Canton is the most val-
uable, then the multicaulis ; the broo-
sa is as early, and larger leaved than
the white. The worms are fed with
small branches.

2d. It is best to feed in open sheds,
which may be of tarred canvass, and
temporary. The cradles of Mr. Gill,
or those just described by Mr. Van
Epps, are the best places to feed
them on : shelves should not be set
up. The greatest attention should
be had to cleanliness.

3d. There should be no attempt to
raise two crops the same year. Early
hatching is altogether to be preferred
to late.

4th. The best varieties are the pea-
nuts ; they are hardiest, mature ear-
ly, and produce a cocoon that reels
well : the sulphur and white are also
esteemed kinds. The eggs are hatch-
ed from the papers on which they
were laid in seven to ten days after
being brought out, and at a tempera-
ture of 70^ Fahrenheit: the rooms
should be kept at that heat.

5th. It is best to sell the cocoons
at .S3 or §^3 50 the bushel than to at-
tempt reeling without experience.

6th. On an average, 3500 worms
will yield a bushel of cocoons, which
reels into from one pound to 20 oun-
ces, and sells at upward of §5 the
pound. The cost of raising is §2.
719

SILK.

Acconlini^ to Dr. Smith, each worm
coiLsunics an ouncn of leaf; 1~0 re-
males yield an ounce of eggs, con-
taining 39,000 eggs.

7th. Tlic nature and quality of the
staple obtained are thus described by
an able weaver and judge of silk from
Spitalfields :

" I am qualified to affirm, from va-
rious ex[)erimcnts I have tried, that
the silk is superior to any I have seen
from Italy, China, France, Piedmont,
or V^alencia, where the worms are
fed upon niulticaulis, or Italian ; its
brilliancy, strength, and scent are su-
perior. I am aware that an exposure
to the saline air, in the passage across
the ocean, may be the cau-se of the
loss of fragrance to imported silk ;
but the bnllianry is peculiar to Amer-
ican silk, if reeled in a proper man-
ner, with cleanliness.

" I am confident that the mammoth
sulphur worm is the pure Fossam
brown. To try this, I had about
three pounds of silk reeled, and en-
closed it in an air-tight box for three
weeks. \Mien I took it out it had
the fragrance of the Fossam brown
stronger tlian any that I eversmelled
in England, which convinced me that
the mammoth sulphur is the identical
silk which is always from five to eight
shilhngs per pound higher than ordi-
nary silk. The mainnioth white and
the pea-nut white are Novi, and su-
perior to any I have seen in England.
The yellow, or orange, I cannot, sat-
isfactorily to my own mind, yet de-
fine, but am trying experiments in
order to ascertain. I am strongly
persuaded it is a Bergam ; should
tliis be the case, it will prove a great
acquisition to manufacturers of silk
velvet. Some have supposed the
pea-nut while is the Piedmont, but
they are mistaken ; the Piedmont
cocoon is lily-white, very diminutive,
with a sharp point."

Mr. Young, a dyer of Detroit, also
remarks, concerning the cleansing of
silk: "Most people clean the silk
with soft soap, destroying the native
gloss in freeing it of its gum, owing
to the vegetable alkali the soap con-
tains, the silk being animal substance ;
720

it will completely dissolve wool, if
ajiplied strongenough, forming a soap
of itself Many dyers use nothing
but the best white soap ; being made
from mineral alkali, soda acts gently
on animal substances ; nor does it
give that yellow tinge the vegeta-
ble alkali produces. It is even ne-
cessary to bleach silk for certain
shades, to give them a clear bloom.
About 25 pounds good white soap,
dissolved in sufficient clean, soft wa-
ter, for 100 pounds silk ; put the silk
loosely in their bags ; boil gently,
say 2^ hours; cool and wash well in
a running stream : beat occasionally,
to free it from all impurity. This I
know by practice."

We shall conclude by offering sev-
eral letters from the ablest raisers of
silk, addressed to the convention held
at the American Institute in 1843 :

Mr. GilVs Letter.

" Mt. Pleasant, Jefferson Co., Ohio.

" 1. I have fed worms for five years
past : results various, owing to the va-
rious fixtures used, and experiments
tried, attention or neglect of the feed-
er. I never had a lot of icorms diseas-
ed, or die, if from a healthy stock of
well-kept eggs, icitkout being able to
trace the cause, which was always local,
and easily remedied.

"2. I have used both one and two
story buildings, built of brick and of
wood ; have used stoves, and also
fireplaces with chimneys: prefer fire-
places on account of their drawing
ofT impure air. I think artificial heat
beneficial in cold, damp weather, es-
pecially when worms are spinning.
My cocooneries are ventilated by
openings, with shutters near the floor,
with ventilators from each story
through the roof

" 3. I have fed in open sheds and
tents with complete snccess. I fed this
year four several successive lots,
and gathered the cocoons from the
same cradles. The first was fed in
June, the last in September, both per-
fectly healthy : they made superior
cocoons.

"4. The salmon pea-nut is the best ;
white pea-nut next ; gold pea-nut 3d ;

SILK.

Piedmont 4th. Mammoth varieties
are also good. I have no faith in any
two-crop varieties whatever, after
five years' experimenting with all
kinds recommended ; but would ob-
serve, that those who wish eggs to
hatch, must select the pure white co-
coons from the first lot fed, to get
millers to lay eggs for the second lot.

"5. White mulberry and multicau-
lis are best. I cultivate them as I do
corn, and replant the multicaulis ev-
ery three years.

" 6. In previous years, my first lot
of worms were fed early in the sea-
son : they have always been the best.

" The Causes of Disease. — 1st cause
is, eggs saved from unhealthy stock ;
2d. Eggs being improperly preserved ;
3d. Irregular feeding and unwhole-
some food ; 4th. Changing the worms
while moulting ; 5th, and most fre-
quent cause, want of pure air, and
neglect to remove the excrements
immediately from the worms ; 6th.
Letting the mice eat them during
their last age, and while they are
winding their cocoons.

" I have been successful beyond
my most sanguine expectations in
feeding in the shed and ventilating
cradles. Have gathered four lots
from each, averaging seven bushels
per cradle, or near two bushels at
each gathering per cradle.

" I think our cocoons will average
twenty ounces of silk per bushel. The
cost to me this year for producing
them will not exceed two dollars per
bushel.

" I am completely satisfied that my
system of shed, or tent and cradle,
and branch feeding, is a system for
general adoption, and will produce
more cocoons than any other method
yet introduced, at half the usual ex-
pense, during three to four months
each feeding season Cold weather,
in early and late feeding, may retard
the worms in eating, and lengthen
their time a little in spinning, caus-
ing, however, no other injury ; and
for warm, sultry weather nothing can
supersede them. Many others have
used them, and advised me of their
complete success."
P p p

I " Dr. Daniel Stebbins, JS'orthamjh-
ton, Massachusetts. — I give the fol-
lowing answers to your several ques-
tions :

, " I have fed worms for seven or
eight years, with the sole view of

I showing that it could be done. This
year I made twenty-five to thirty

I pounds of silk.

" This season T erected a new co-
coonery in the midst of a mulberry

, patch, forty-two by twenty, posts

i eight feet out of ground. Roof cov-
ered with boards and battened, the
sides and ends covered with slats
three inches wide, and half an inch
apart, extending from the eaves to
the ground. Floor of earth.

" Adjoining the above is a tent

\ wholly covered with bass matting,
through which the rains had a free

' passage. The success of the tent

I was superior even to the cocoonery.

I •' I have fed for several years in
an open shed, in the barn-yard, but

; nothing to exclude birds and fowls ;
in other respects the experiment was

i successful.

j " For making silk, the pea-nut va-

' riety has the preference, being less en-
cumbered with floss, less gurn, more
length, lustre, and strength of fibre
than other varieties, as testified by a
skilful silk-dyer.

" Having the black, white. Canton,
Asiatic, Broosn, muliicaulis, and some
other varieties. I have not found any
to excel the Canton for its foliage,
and the Asiatic for its abundant
branches. The foliage of the Canton
continues to the latest season in
greater perfection than any other.

" An early crop of worms is pref-
erable to a late crop. Tlie foliage
becomes abundant the latter part of
the season, but is very unfit for the
worms, being too hard, or deprived
of its richness by drenching or long-
continued rains.

" It was my expectation and in-
tention to test the use of the mulber-
ry foliage, both in its green and dry
state, for making paper, and for that
purpose had sent a quantity to the
paper-mill, hut cannot have the ex-
periment fully tried at present."
721

SILK.

" Mr. H. p. Byr.am, Brandcnhiir;:,
Ky. — \\\i\\ pleasTire I rosiiond to ll)c
questions contained in tiio ' Silk Cir-
cular' of the Aniorican In.stitule.

'* I have fed silk- worms to a greater
or less extent in the State of Ken-
tucky, every season except one, since
the year 1837 inclusive, and generally
with good success, loss by disease in
no lot exceeding fifteen percent., and
often not over three per cent.

" I have fed in enclosed buildings,
ventilated by doors, windows, and
openings under the latter, and heat-
ed by a stove when necessary.

" The present season I fed in an
ojicn shed with decidedly good suc-
cess : worms healthy : they wound
large, fair cocoons.

" 1 have fed every variety of worms
that I could procure, and give the
preference to those called the Chinese
Imperial, and a variety represented
to me as the pea-nut.

" I feed from the multicaulis in the
first stages, and in the last stage use
all the white and Canton that I can
procure.

" The multicaulis should be cut off
near the ground every three years,
one third of the field each year. The
other varieties I head dou-n every
year. I feed branches in the last
stages.

" I have hatched and fed worms in
every month from April to August,
the earliest fed always producing the
heaviest cocoons. The latter equally
healthy when the eggs have been
properly kept and managed. But few
persons have succeeded in late feed-
ing, from the want of proper care of
the eggs.

" The causes of bad success that
have come to my knowledge have
been owing either to bad eggSj bad
management, or the want of free cir-
culation of air in the apartment.

"The hatching of eggs can be per-
fectly retarded by being placed in a
tin box, enclosed in a wooden one, and
suspended in the body of the ice jiear
the bottom of the ice-house. This is
done by introducing a long box, cut
in three lengths and placed on end,
soon after the first portions of ice arc
722

thrown into the house. The top joints
can be removed as the ice settles :
the eggs at no time to be above the
body ol the ice. They should be pla-
ced in the ice in February or early io
March."

"Mr. B.\ubour, Oxford, Mass. — It
is fifteen years since J began to ex-
amine the silk business.

" The results of my own labours
are decidedly in favour of early feed-
ing. Out of all the crops that I have
carried through by the middle of
August, I have never lost by disease
five per cent, in any case. Not so
with later crops generally, although
this year my later crops were healthy,
and made first-rate cocoons.

" As to buildings, I have fed in a
large, open garret, in a corn-house
and a carpenter's shop. In 1840 I
built a regular cocooner}% thirty by
twenty feet, two stories high, with ten
windows in each story, and warmed
by a hot-air chamber in the cellar.
In 1842, fed a lot also in an open shed,
and this year in a lent, with cradles,
on Mr. Gill's plan. The result of the
whole is, in my judgment, the more
air the better, only guarding against
sudden gusts of wind, that will dis-
turb your leaves or bushes.

" As to ordinary turns of cold weath-
er, in our summer months, their ef-
fect is to render the worms torpid.
Of course they will not, in this state,
eat and grow, and there is a loss of
time in getting them through ; and
this is the only loss to be apprehend-
ed. Upon returning warmth they re-
vive, and go on with their labours,
apparently uninjured.

''Trees. — My first movement (1837)
was wrong. I bought a lot of mul-
berry seed as ' genuine Chinese Mul-
berry Seed,' which proved to be an in-
ferior variety of the white : lost two
seasons in getting started, and some
patience withal. In 1839. planted
one hundred dollars worth Alpine cut-
tings. According to the ' books,' I
was not to lose one in fifty : in the
result, did not get one in fifty. I
should almost as soon recommend
the propagation of oak bushes by cut-

SIL

SIL

tings as the Alpine or other hardy
varictirs of the mulberry. Same
year, planted Canton and nuilticaulis.
They vegetated very \V(>11, but made
a small growth. 1 had been taught
to believe that the mulberry -tree
would flourish where nothing cl.se
would grow — quite a mistake. I took
my trees up too early, and lost many
the ensuing winter.

" Thus far I had been operating
upon rented lands. In 1840, began on
the farm wiiere I now live— lands all
sadly exhausted ; not an acre on the
farm that would give lialf a ton of
)iay. I planted two acres, chiefly
with multicauiis and Cantons, by lay-
ing the trees whole length in the fur-
row, manuring them with a cheap
compost, made principally of peat
mud properly prepared. They did
well, and made an average growth
of three feet. Let them stand as
they grew, and they all wintered safe-
ly. In 1841, planted three acres more
in like manner ; season dry, average
growth two feet : left all out as be-
fore.

" But the winter of 1841-42 was
very open : no snow, frequent and
heavy rains, with constant freezing
and thawing. My ground is a plain,
very level, and the water stood and
froze in many places : trees not ridged
up with the plough in summer culti-
vation, as they should have been on
such land, to guard against this dan-
ger. The result w'as, that I lost the
whole of the three-acre lot, and at
least three fourths of the other.

" To me this was a sad disappoint-
ment, and for a few days in March.
1842, for the first and the last time, I
had feelings of unconquerable discour-
agement. In this state, my first move-
ment was to despatch some twenty-
five to thirty letters of inquiry to silk-
growers in New-England. The mails
in due time brought me this return,
that the injuries of the winter, severe
as it was, had been confined to trees
planted, as mine were, whole and hori-
zontalhj, on flat ground, without being
ridged up, and those of small growth.
I was greatly relieved to learn that, in
all cases where they had been set

deep, one root in a place, on dry, slo-
ping land (or ridged, if flat), rich
enough to make good extended roots
the first season, they had gone through
the winter safely, pre-eminently bad
as it had been.

" Feeling, therefore, that I then
knew the loorst of the case, I went di-
rectly to work, with augmented confi-
dence, to repair my loss. I ploughed
up all my lands, saving every live
tree, sent thirty-five to forty miles
and bought others, so as to plant
seven to eight acres, and thus bcfran
the silk business anew, in 1842, and be-
gan right.

" As to trees, I prefer the multi-
cauiis, the large-leaf Canton, and the
Asiatic. Managed as indicated in the
above details, they are essentially safe
from the perils of winter anywhere be-
tween Canada and the Gulf of Mex-
ico. If not thus managed, they are
in danger anywhere and everywhere,
where it is cold enough for ice to form
and the ground to freeze. It is not the
degree of cold that does the injury in
this and similar cases, but freezing
and thawing. Everybody knows that
a peach-tree is more safe on the north
than on the south side of the wall, and
for the reasons here stated. I would
not, therefore, give a dollar for a full
ensurance on all my trees if the ther-
mometer, in December, will drop
down to twenty degrees below zero,
and slay there until the last of March.

" As to the feasibility of the silk
business in this country, I have no
doubt. I must unlearn all that I have
learned upon the subject for fifteen
years, undo all that I have done, and
unsay all that I have said — unhinge
and upset all the abiding and fixed
impressions upon my own mind be-
fore I can begin to doubt."

SILK- WEED. The A.^clepias seri-
aca, the seed vessels of which con-
tain a long, silky down, sometimes
wrought into fabrics by private per-
sons.

SILL. The horizontal and lower
piece of a window or other framing :
also, the shafts of a cart.

SILT. The loose sandy matters
that accumulate in rivers.

723

SKI.

SLO

SILURIAN ROCKS or SYSTEM.
The iii)|)cr portion of tlic transition
rocks lound below the old red sand-
stone.

SILVER. A well-known metal :
it is soluble in nitric acid, the salt
{7iitratc of silver) being used as a caus-
tic in farriery, and in the laboratory
as a test for chlorine, with which it
produces a while, curdy compound
{chloride of silver) that is soluble in
ammonia, and blackens by exposure
to light. Equivalent 108-3, svmb. Ag.

SILVER GRAIN, IN WOODS
The bright markings ; the medullary
ravs.

SILVER-WEED. Potcntilla an-
serina. A perennial running weed
with yellow (lowers, and five-parted,
silvery leaves, growing on poor soils.

SINAPISM. A mustard poultice
or other preparation.

SINCIPUT. The forehead.

SINUS. A cavity : the veins of
the brain are so called.

SINUOUS. Full of cavities, tor-
tuous.

SIT-FAST. "In farriery, an ul-
cerated sore in which a part of the
skin has turned horny ; if it cannot
be dissolved and softened by rubbing
with mercurial ointment, it must have
a mild blister applied, which will
cause it to separate. It generally
proceeds from a warble or little tu-
mour resulting from the pressure of
the saddle."

SIZE. A thin glue made from
skins.

SKEGS. The Avcna stipiformis.
A kind of oat cultivated in Notting-
hamshire, England.

SKELETOxNf. The bony frame on
which the muscles and soft parts are
placed.

SKID. A drag chain.

SKIM COULTER. See Plough.

SKIN. The external coat of ani-
mals. It consists of a scarfskin, or
epidermis, a rcte mucosum, which is
thin and coloured, and the culis vera,
which forms the substance, and from
which hairs, &c., proceed.

SKIRTING. In building, the nar-
row, horizontal board running along
the walls of a room at the floor.
724

SKIRRET. Sium sisaricm. Cher-
vis. "This plant is first cultivated
by seed, and afterward by offsets
taken from the old roots, and planted
very early in the spring, before they
begin to shoot ; but it is best to raise
a small bed from seed every year, as
the roots grow longer than those
raised from slips, and are less liable
to be sticky. The seed may be sown
in drills the latter part of March, or
early in April, and managed the same
as salsify, parsnip, &c. In autumn,
when the leaves begin to decay, the
roots are fit to use, and continue so
till they begin to shoot in the spring.

" Skirrets should be planted in a
light, moist soil, for in dry land the
roots are generally small, unless the
season proves wet.

" The root of the skirret is compo-
sed of several fleshy tubers as large
as a man's finger, and joined together
at the top. They are eaten boiled,
and stewed with butter, pepper, and
salt, or rolled in flour and fried, or
else cold, with oil and vinegar, being
first boiled. They have much of the
taste and flavour of a parsnip, and
are by some considered a great deal
more palatable." — {Bndgcman).

SKUNK CABBAGE. Spnphcar-
pusfatida. Marsh cabbage. A large-
leaved plant of the family Aroida,
growing in wet places at the north ;
it has a vile odour, and is reputed an-
tispasmodic.

SL.VTE. Any rock which has a
close texture and is readily split into
slabs. The term is more particularly
applied to the fine aluminous slates
used in roofing and for writing upon.

SLEEPER. Timbers on which
are laid the ground joists of a build-
ing or railway.

SLEET. A cold rain mixed with
snow.

SLIPS. Twigs or small branches
torn from a tree or bush for the pur-
pose of propagation. Spring or au-
tumn is the time to do this. They
should be set in a rich spot and kej)t
moist. Flower slips are commonly set
in pots in the green-house : charcoal
forms a good soil to strike them in.

SLOE. In Europe, this name is

SMU

SNE

given to a small wild plum, the Pru-
vus spinosa, which is used as a dwarf
stock for grafting phinis. In the
United States it is given to tlic Pru-
nus pi/gmcEu, and also the Viburnum
frunifolmm.

SLOUGH. A name given to
decayed matters separating from a
wound : proud flesh ; a muddy hole.
It may he remedied in a road hy sin]<-
ing pebbles and small stones into it.

SLUGS. Naked moluscous ani-
mals. See Insects. Tliis name is
also given to the larvae of some saw-
flies which infest pear, ciierry, and
other trees. They are all destroyed
by salt, lime, or whale-oil soap solu-
tion.

SLUICE. A frame of timber,
stone, or other solid substance, serv-
ing to retain and raise the water of a
river or canal, and, when necessary,
to give it vent. See Irrigation.

S M U T. For an account of the
various diseases known under this
name, see Burned Ear and Urcdo.
The best preventives known are to
keep the lands occasionally limed or
salted, never using too much rank
stable manure without some saline
matters ; and, secondly, steeping the
seeds before sowing in solution of
sulphate of copper (blue vitriol). One
ounce and a (juarter of the salt is used
to a bushel of wheat : it is dissolv-
ed in just enough water to wet the
grain, which is steeped for three
quarters of an hour, and dried by be-
ing spread out. A strong brine and
milk of lime are also used witii good
success ; but the copper solution is
very superior.

SMUT MACHINES, or GRAIN
CLEANERS. These are of service
to the miller chiefly. They consist
of interior brushes revolving in a
roughened cylinder, usually set in an
inclined direction. The brushes rub
the grain against the rough surface,
and by this means rub off the smut,
or break open the injured kernels.
A fan is added for the purpose of
driving a current of air through the
cylinder, which carries off the smut
balls and other light rubbish out
above, and allows the perfect grains
r p p 2

to reach the bottom of the cylinder

and pass out. There arc a great
number of patents : tho.sc of .Messrs.
Young, Henry A. Buck. George D.
Waldo, and Wm. C. Grimes are in
great esteem. The figure represents
Messrs. Bird and Weld's machine ;
it possesses decided advantages, hav-
ing separate pulleys, d and c, to drive

the fan and beating cylinder at dif-
ferent velocities, by which arrange-
ment buckwheat and other tender
grains may be cleansed without
breaking, by reducing the speed of
the beating cylinder, while a full cur-
rent of wind may be kept up with the
fan, running at any required speed
for that purpose. When in use, a
pipe is added to a, to increase the
draught, and a sieve at b, to separ-
ate the grain : c is tlie hopper.

SNAILS. HclicidiE. See Insects.

SNAKEROOT, THE VIRGIN-
IAN. Aristolochia scrpcntaria. A
perennial-rooted plant, growing wild
in woodlands, the root of which is
collected for the druggists, and used
as a bitter and tonic.

SNE AD, or SNATHE. The han-
dle of the scythe : it should be of ash,
light, but not flexible,

725

SOA

SOA

SNOW. Congealed moisture : it
is produced whenever a cold wind
below 32° Fahrenheit acts upon the
moisture of wanner clouds. It is an
excellent covering for winter crops,
protecting them from the winds and
sudden changes of winter ; it also
protects roots and the bark of trees
from mice.

SOAP. "This useful compound
is obtained by the action of alkaline
upon oily substances. There arc,
accordingly, a great variety of soaps ;
but tliose commonly employed may
be considered under the heads of, 1.
Fine white soaps, scented soap, &c. ;
2. Coarse household soaps ; 3. Soft
soaps. The materials used in the
manufacture of white soaps are gen-
erally olive oil and carbonate of soda :
the latter is rendered caustic by the
operation of quicklime, and the solu-
tion thus obtained is called soap lye.
The oil and a weak lye are first boil-
ed together, and portions of stronger
lye are gradually added till the soap,
produced by the mutual action of the
oil and alkali, begins to become tena-
cious and to separate from the water ;
some common salt is then generally
added to promote the granulation and
perfect separation of the soap : the
fire is then drawn, and the contents
of the boiler allowed to remain for
some hours at rest, so that the soap
may more completely collect. When
it is perfect it is put into wooden
frames or moulds ; and when stiff
enough to be handled, it is cut into
oblong slices and dried in an airy
room. Perfumes are occasionally
added, or various colouring matters
stirred in while the soap is semiflu-
id, to give it a mottled appearance.
The Spanish soap is marbled by stir-
ring into it a solution of sulphate of
iron, which is decomposed by the
soap, and black oxide of iron separ-
ated in streaks and patches through
the mass. The action of the air con-
verts the exterior into red oxide,
while the interior long retains its
black colour ; hence a slice of this
soap presents a black mottled centre,
surrounded by a reddened external
layer.
726

" Common household soaps are
made chiefly of soda ash and tal-
low ; or if potash is used, a large ad-
dition of common salt is made to
harden the soap, which it probably
effects by the transference of soda.
Yellow soap has a portion of rosin
added to it. Soft soaps are generally
made with potash, instead of soda,
and fish oil. The common soft soap
is a compound of this kind ; it has a
tenacious consistence, and appears
granulated. Soap is soluble in pure
water and in alcohol ; the latter so-
lution jellies when concentrated, and
is medicinally known under the name
of opodeldoc. When carefully evap-
orated the soap remains in a gelati-
nous state, which forms, when dry,
the article sold under the name of
tratisparent soap.

" The earths and common metallic
oxides form insoluble soaps ; and, ac-
cordingly, these are precipitated when
earthy and metallic salts are added
to solution of soap. It is the sul-
phate of lime and carbonate of lime
in common spring water which thus
render it unfit for washing, and give
it what is termed hardness ; and, upon
this principle, a spirituous solution
of soap is a simple and valuable test
of the fitness of any river or spring
water for the purposes of the laundry.
If it merely renders tl-.e water slight-
ly opalescent, as is the case with
rain and other soft waters, it may be
used for washing ; but if it become
milky, it is usually too hard to be
conveniently employed ; and when
we wash or shave with hard water,
the separation of the insoluble cal-
careous soap is extremely disagree-
able ; it adheres to the skin, and soils
instead of cleansing it.

" The chemical nature of soap has
been laboriously examined by Chev-
reul, who has shown that the alkali
in the process of saponification con-
verts the oil into peculiar acids, as he
terms them ; the elain of the oil form-
ing oleic acid, and the stearin margar-
ic acid : so that soluble soaps are ule-
ates and margarates of soda and pot-
ash. He has enumerated several
other fatty acids similarly produced.

SOD

SOI

" All new soaps contain a consid-
erable portion of adhering water, a
ijieat part of which they lose when
kcjjt in a dry place ; hence the econ-
omy and excellence of old soap ; and
lience the dealers in soap generally
keep it in a damp cellar, that it may
not lose weight by evaporation ; or,
as it is said, sometimes immerse it in
brine, which does not dissolve it, but
keeps it ia its utmost state of hu-
midity."

SOAPER'S WASTE. The refuse
of the soap-works has been much
used as a manure. The nature of
the manure depends on the use of
ashes or soda ash in the manufac-
ture : in the tirst case, it is a very
vahiable amendment ; in the latter,
considerably less so. The first con-
tains a large quantity of ash, tlie
chloride of potassium ; the second
contains but little soda salts, and
when barilla is employed, the ash is
merely calcareous matter : of the lat-
ter ashes, in the fresh state, from 60
to 200 bushels have been used on
grass lands with great effect. If
ashes and common salt have been
used, 10 to 20 bushels of refuse will
be enough. The gelatinous substance
remaining after the separation of the
soap is called glycerine, and does not
contain nitrogen ; it is not, therefore,
of much moment alone.

SOAPSTO.NE, STEATITE. A
gray, soft mineral, consisting of sili-
cate of magnesia, coloured by two
and a half per cent, of iron.

SOBOLE. An underground creep-
ing stem.

SOD. A turf of grass.
SODA, PROTOXIDE OF SODI-
UM. An alkali very analagous and
isomorphous with potash. Equiva-
lent, 31 31, or 2331 sodium and 8
oxygen ; symbol, Na O. It is con-
stantly found, in the ashes of plants
performing the same function as pot-
ash ; but m the vine and some other
plants it is not equally serviceable.
In the mineral kingdom it is abun-
dant as a silicate, but especially in
the form oi chloride of sodium, or sea
salt (see Sail) ; the nitrate, which
is an important manure, is also

abundant in certain places (see Ni-
trates).

Kelp, barilla, and soda ash all owe
their value to the carbonate of soda,
which is used in making hard soaps.
The carbonate of soda resembles
pearlash very closely in its properties,
but is less active.

SOIL. "The nature and compo-
sition of soil, and, consequently, its
greater or less aptitude to the growth
and maturity of vegetable produc-
tions, depend chiedy on the propor-
tion and mechanical structure of the
various substances of which it con-
sists. When the soil is favourable
to the chemical action by which the
elements are combined to form ve-
getable substances, and admits that
quantity of air and moisture without
which this chemical action cannot
take place in any given climate or
temperature, vegetation goes on rap-
idly, and all the plants which are suit-
ed to the climate grow in the great-
est perfection and bear abundant
fruits.

" It is not, however, very frequent-
ly the case that a soil possesses all
those qualities on which great fertil-
ity depends. So many circumstan-
ces must concur to make a soil high-
ly fertde, that the great majority of
soils can only be made to produce
abundantly by being improved by art
both in their texture and composi-
tion. Hence the practice and sci-
ence of agriculture, which is founded
on experience, but to which every
progress in science also affords great
assistance, by the additional light
which every new discovery throws
on the true theory of vegetation.

" There are various modes of dis-
tinguishing soils, without here enter-
ing into a minute analysis (see Aiml-
y«;*) of their component parts. The
simplest and most natural is to com-
pare their texture, the size and form
of the visible particles of which they
are composed, and to trace the ])rob-
able source of their original formation
from the minerals which are found
around or below them, or the rocks
from which they may have been slow-
ly separated by the action of the el-
727

SOIL.

ements. The science of geology,
which teaches the relative position
and nature of tiie minerals of which
the outer crust of the earth is formed,
is consequently of the greatest util-
ity in aiding us to compare different
soils, and ascertaining their compo-
sition.

" The knowledge which geology
imparts is, however, not sufficient
for the minuter classification of soils ;
for it is found by experience that the
soils which lie over or near the dif-
ferent strata, as they appear near the
surface, vary greatly, although they
retain some general character which
distinguishes them from others. The
streams which descend from the hills,
and flow towards the valleys, and
through them to the sea, carry to a
great distance the minuter portions
of the minerals which they flow over
in their course, while the larger and
heavier are deposited much sooner.
Hence the heterogeneous mixture of
various earths and stones, and their
stratification in thin layers, as is oft-
en found when a soil is examined
which has never been disturbed by
cultivation. A sudden flood, rising
rapidly, carries stones and fragments
of rocks in its course, while a gentler
stream deposites fine sand or clay
over these, and forms every variety
of sandy, gravelly, or clayey soil.
If chalky hills are near, carbonate of
lime abounds in almost every propor-
tion, with its usual concomitant, ir-
regular flints. If the waters have
accumulated in a basin, and formed
a temporary lake, the soil will con-
sist of all the finest portions of the
minerals, which, from their minute
size, have remained long suspended
in the still waters, and slowly depos-
ited in the form of mud. In propor-
tion to the shallowness of the lake,
vegetable matter will have been pro-
duced, and intimately mixed with the
minerals ; and, where vegetation has
gone on rapidly, peat and soft bogs
are formed.

" It is not sufficient to class soils
according to the substance which pre-
dominates, as has been usually done,
such as sandy, gravelly, chalky, or
728

clay soils ; for this gives very imper-
fect information respecting their na-
ture or fertility ; neither is it alto-
gether sufficient to class them ac-
cording to any particular geological
formation. It is important to enter
into a more minute examination of
their component parts. But as the
geological investigation of the differ-
ent strata is a great help in the ex-
amination of soils, we will in the first
place give a short description of those
which have the most distinct charac-
ters, from their connexion with dif-
ferent geological formations.

" The soils which are immediately
derived from those rocks in which no
traces of organic remains are to be
found consist either of visible frag-
ments of quartz and other hard min-
erals, which are not affected by ex-
posure to air or water, and are only
ground and commmuted by being rub-
bed against each other in floods and
torrents, or of minuter particles of
the same, of which the shape is not
readily distinguished by the naked
eye. When they are altogether com-
posed of visible particles and stones,
the water readily passes through
them ; and unless they are kept con-
tinually moist by a regular irrigation,
without any stagnation of the water,
they are absolutely incapable of sus-
taining vegetation, or of bringing
fruits to maturity. It is seldom,
however, that any gravel or sand
does not contain some portion of
earth or other matter, of which the
particles become invisible when dif-
fused through water, and to which,
for the sake of perspicuity, and to
prevent confusion, we will here give
the general name of impalpable sub-
stance. A certain portion of this finer
part of the soil, and its due admix-
ture with the coarser, especially
where there is some regular grada-
tion in size, and no stones of too large
dimensions to obstruct the instru-
ments of tillage, may be considered
as essential to fertility. The chem-
ical composition of the impalpable
substance, no doubt, greatly affects
the degree of fertility ; but the gen-
eral texture must be considered as

SOIL.

by far the most important circum-
stance. To improve this texture
permanently is the great object of
all the labours of the husbandman.
For this purpose, he carries various
earths from one spot to another ;
clays one field, and limes or chalks
another ; brings peat upon sands and
clays, and carries gravel and lime on
his peat bogs. Without an adequate
knowledge of the composition and
texture of a soil, it is impossible to
make permanent improvements with
any certainty, or without incurring
the risk of failure or of useless outlay.

" The soils which have been form-
ed from the disintegration and de-
composition of the primitive rocks,
such as granite, basalt, schist, or
limestone, and especially those which
contain all these minerals, minutely
divided and intimately mixed, are al-
ways naturally fertile, and soon en-
riched by cultivation. The hard par-
ticles of quartz maintain a certain
porosity in the soil, which allows air
and moisture to circulate, while the
alumina prevents its too rapid evap-
oration or filtration. The silicate of
potash also seems highly favourable
to the vegetation and growth of those
plants which contain silica in their
stems, such as the graminea?, espe-
cially wheat, of all plants the most
important to the husbandman in our
northern climates. If organic mat-
ter be an essential ingredient in a
fertile soil, it is soon produced by
cultivation, or added by judicious
manuring.

""Where there is a deficiency of
impalpable matter, and the fragments
of the rocks of which the soil is com-
posed are large, and lie loosely, it is
in vam to expect vegetation, except
along gently flowing streams, which
supply the roots with moisture, and
thus form a bed of vegetable matter ;
but in a climate suited to the vine,
and in a good exposure, these loose
soils often produce excellent wine,
as maybe seen along the steep banks
of the Rhine and other rivers. The
roots of the vine run deep into the fis-
sures of the rocks below, and there find
nourishment suited to their nature

"The primitive limestone, which

is very hard, is yet gradually decom-
posed by the action of air and water,
being, in a very small degree, soluble
in the latter. The water which flows
through these rocks is soon satura-
ted ; but when it springs out and
comes to the light, the carbonate of
lime is deposited by the evaporation
of the water ; and if this meets with
the clay which results from the de-
composition of the slate, it forms a
marl, which, naturally or artificially
added to silicious sand, forms the ba-
sis of a very good soil, particularly
well adapted to pasture.

"The soils which have been evi-
dently formed from the rocks which
are supposed to be of secondary for-
mation are fertile according to the
proportion of the earths of these rocks
which they contain. It is of these
chiefly that those loose, sandy soils
are formed of which the particles ap-
pear as distinct crystals, easily dis-
tinguishable with the aid of a lens, or
even by the naked eye. Air and wa-
ter have been the chief agents in the
decomposition of those secondary
rocks called sandstones, and agita-
tion in water has washed from them
the finer portions, which have remain-
ed suspended. The immense sandy
plains which are either barren, or
have been fertilized with great trou-
ble and expense, have probably once
been the sliores of the sea, from which
the waves have washed all that por-
tion which was impalpable and easily
suspended in water, depositing this
in the depths, which, by some con-
vulsion of nature, may some time or
other be raised above the level of the
waters, and form hills or plains of
clay, such as are often found in ex-
tensive basins of great depth.

" Argillaceous earth exists in some
proportion in almost every rock.
Some of the hardest gems are chief-
ly composed of alumina. It has the
property, when mixed with other sub-
stances, as silica or lime, of fusing
into a stone of great hardness and
insolubility. In this state its effect
on the soil is not to be distinguished
from that of silica ; and by burning
729

SOIL.

common clay, or clay mixed wiih car-
bonate of lime, a sandy substance is
produced rescnil)ling l)urncd bnck,
which tends greatly to iniiirove the
texture of those clays wliich contain
little or no sand in their composition.
It nnist be renienil)crcd that tlie stifl-
est clays contain a large portion of
Bilica in an inii)alpable state ; but
this, instead of correcting their im-
permcal)le and |)lastic nature, rather
adds to it. It is only palpal)le sand
which, vvitii clay, forms what is C(jm-
monly called loam, and which, when
the sand is in due proportion with a
mixture of organic matter, forms the
richest and most easily cultivated
Boils. Some of the rocks of second-
ary formation contain a considerable
portion of alumina and lime ; and
when these earths meet with crys-
tallized saud, a compound, or, rather,
a mixture is formed, which has all the
requisite qualities, as to texture, to
produce the most fertile loams. The
only deficiency is that of organic mat-
ter ; but this is so readily accumula-
ted wherever vegetation is establish-
ed, or can be so easily added artifi-
cially, that these loams may always
be looked upon as the most favoura-
ble soils for the usual agricultural op-
erations : and if a considerable depth
of loam is found which neither re-
tains water too long nor allows it to
percolate too rapidly, it may be look-
ed upon as a soil eminently capable
of the highest degree of cultivation,
and on which no judicious outlay of
labour will ever cause loss or disap-
pointment to the farmer.

" The alluvial soils formed by the
deposite of a variety of earths in a
state of great division, and mixed
with a considerable portion of organ-
ic matter, form by far the most pro-
ductive lands. They will bear crop
after crop with little or no additional
manure, and with a very slight culti-
vation. These soils are found along
the course of rivers which traverse
extensive plains, and which have
such a current as to keep very fine
earth suspended by a gentle but con-
stant agitation, but not sufficiently
rapid to carry along with it coarse
730

gravel or sand. Wherever there is
an obstruction to the current and an
eddy is formed, there tlie soil is de-
posited in tii(> form of nmd, and grad-
ually accunnilaliiig, forms those allu-
vial soils whieh are so remarkable for
their fertility when carefully protect-
ed from the inroads of the water.-
In these soils the impalpable matte
greatly predominates; but the inti-
mate mixture of the earths witli or-
ganic matter, in that state in wliich
it has been called humus, prevents
their consolidating into a slid" clay;
and the gases which are continually
evolved from the organic matter keep
the pores open, and give scope to the
growth as well as the nourishment of
the roots. It is in the alluvial soils
princijjally that an accurate analysis
is useful ; because the proportion of
their constituent parts varies in in-
numerable degrees. It may be laid
down as a general rule, that the most
fertile of these sods are those in
which the primitive earths are nearly
in equal proportions, silica being the
most ai)undant, with about ten per
ccnt. of organic matter ; a greater
proportion of this last would form too
loose and spongy a soil to bear good
crops of corn, especially of wheat.
But four per cent, of hunms, with a
good mixture of earths, and some
phosphate of lime from the decompo-
sition of bones and marine shells,
produces a very good wheat soil.
The rich warp-lands along the Hum-
ber are artificial alluvial soils, and
although they contain but a small
proportion of humus, are highly fer-
tile after their first deposition, but it
is observed that they gradually be-
come more tenacious and difficult of
cultivation as this humus is carried
off by the crops, and that it is soon
necessary to add animal and vegeta-
ble manures to supply its deficiency.
" Organic matter is no doubt essen-
tial to great fertility in a soil, but
some soils require more of it than
others. Humus, which is the form
which organic matter naturally comes
to by slow decomposition in the
earth, gives out certain elements
which the roots can take up in their

SOIL.

nascent state, and from wliich tliey
obtain the carbon which is so abun-
dant in all vegetable productions.
But organic matter, in every stage of
its spontaneous decomposition, keeps
the pores of the soil open, and ad-
mits, if it does not even attract, air
and moisture to the fibres of the
roots. In all rich soils which have
been long cultivated, especially in
gardens, there are particles of a dark
colour and fibrous texture, which, in
the microscope, appear like minute
logs of charred wood. Ihese keep
the soil open, and supply carbonic
acid, when the air reaches them, or
they are slowly transformed into hu-
mus, which remains inert as long as
it cannot imbibe oxygen and form
carbonic acid by a species of slow
combustion. Humus is no doubt one
of the chief causes of fertility, but
its presence does not appear to be
so indispensable as has been ima-
gined. A proper texture seems a
much more indispensable condition.
Humus can undoubtedly be formed
from the elements of water and of
the atmosphere. Whether it be di-
rectly, or by the slow process of ve-
getation and subsequent decomposi-
tion, does not so readily appear, but
it is certain that there are soils which
are higiily fertile in which scarcely a
trace of humus can be discovered,
and which, from their igneous forma-
tion, cannot well contain organic
matter; such are the soils which are
produced by the decomposition of
the lava which has run in a hquid
state from the craters of volcanoes.
This is composed of different miner-
als, which have been fused by the ac-
tion of heat, but in which the mixture
of the earths and salts has not been
in such proportions as to form a per-
fect glass. When exposed for a time
to the influence of the atmosphere, the
lava crumbles into an earth, which is
neither so loose as silicious sand, nor
so plastic as clay, and which has such
a porosity as suits the growth of the
roots of vegetables. By tlie effect
of a warm climate and frequent rains,
vegetation goes on rapidly, and by
cultivation humus is soon formed and

accumulated, so that it is only in the
more recently cultivated kivas that it
can he said tliat vegetation goes on
without any supply of organic matter ;
and tiie addition of humus greatly in-
creases the fertility of these soils.
It is much easier to sup[)ly the defi-
ciency of humus, which at best forms
but a very small portion of the soil,
than of silica or alumina, which should
enter into its composition in the pro-
portion of one half or a third of the
whole. It is practicable to carry lime
or chalk upon soils which do not con-
tain calcareous matter ; clay may also
be carried upon loose, sandy soils,
where it can be found below the sur-
face, or at a moderate distance ; but
if a soil is very deficient in silica, it
requires so large a proportion of tliis
earth to give porosity to stiff clay,
that it very seldom can repay the
trouble and expense. Hence the dif-
ficulty of bringing poor, wet, clay
soils into a fertile state, except where
an abundance of chalk and vegetable
manures can be easily procured. In
this case, the perfect draining of the
land, and exposure of the ploughed
surface to the frosts of winter, with
the addition of chalk and manure,
produces such an alteration in the
texture of the clay, that, by contin-
uing the improving process, it is en-
tirely changed into a mellow and fer-
tile loam. The burning of a portion
of the retentive subsoil into a brick-
like earth gives it a porosity which
renders it mechanically similar to si-
licious sand, and converting the iron
which all these clays contain into a
peroxide, the soil is thereby greatly
improved in fertility ; for it seems
that iron, in a state of slight oxida-
tion, or combined with any acid, is
hurtful to vegetation, whereas the red
peroxide ks not only innocuous, but
seems to have fertilizing properties.
" The comparison of the different
fertile soils leads, therefore, to the
conclusion that the texture or porosity
arising from the admixture of parti-
cles of various dimensions is the most
important object of examination ; and
subordinate to this is the chemical
constitution of the earths and other
731

SOIL.

substances of uhich it is composed.
In the examination and analysis of
soils for the pur|)0se of ascertaining
their power of production, we must,
therefore, first examine them mechan-
ically, and afterward chemically, and
on this principle has been proposed
the mode of analyting soils, in a pa-
per which obtained one of the first
prizes given by the Royal English
Agricultural Society, and published
in the first number of its journal.
M'e will here insert a short account
of the process, with such alterations
and additions as more extensive prac-
tice has suggested.

" There are two easy methods of
ascertaining the size of the particles of
a soil. The first and simplest is by
drying the portion under examination,
gently triturating it with a wooden
pestle in a mortar, so as not to pro-
duce a grinding of the more solid
portions, and then separating the
coarser from the finer parts by means
of several metallic sieves of different
fineness. A simple ins-trument is rec-
ommended for this pur-
pose, which is very porta-
ble, and consists of three
or four sieves fitting into
each other ; the coarsest
sieve being uppermost and
covered with a lid ; the fi-
nest fitting into a recipient,
and the whole forming a
cylinder three or four inch-
es in diameter, and from
six to eight in height. The
coarsest sieve has threads
at the distance of -jV of an inch, the
second has 80 in an inch, the third
120, and the lourth is the finest me-
tallic tissue which can be made.
What remains in the first two is ea-
sily examined by the eye, or with the
help of a lens. The third and fourth
require a microscope to see whether
any crystallized particles remain in
the impalpable dust which has gone
through all the sieves. By carefully
weighing these different earths their
proportion is known, and by taking
the specific gravity of each their na-
ture can be guessed at with tolerable
accuracy.
732

"As this analysis is not intended
for experienced chemists, the sim-
plest methods are preferred to the
more accurate. There is a mode of
taking the specific gravities of sub-
stances which are in the form of pow-
der insoluble in water, so easy and
so little liable to error, that any per-
son, however unaccustomed to exper-
iments, can soon become sufficiently
expert to have full confidence in the
result. It is as follows : a small,
pear-shaped vial is blown of thin
glass, and the neck cut and ground

smooth. The size is such as to con-
tain 300 grains of water, more or
less ; the exact quantity is not essen-
tiah It is now filled with pure water
at 60° of Fahrenheit's scale, and ac-
curately poised in a delicate balance :
100 grains weight are then placed in
the same scale with this vial, and,
by means of a very fine tube, water
is gradually sucked out of the vial
till the equilibrium is restored ; that
is, exactly one hundred grains of wa-
ter have been taken out. A counter-
poise is now made of lead or brass,
when the 100 grains weight has been
removed, and this serves for all fu-
ture experiments. "When the specif-
ic gravity of any substance is requi-
red, the vial, partly filled with wa-
ter, is placed in one scale, and the
counterpoise, made as above descri-
bed, is placed in the other ; water is
added or taken from the vial till an
equilibrium is obtained. The sub-
stance to be tried is slowly and care-
fully poured into the vial, until the
water rises to the ground surface of
the neck and stands quite level, which
is easily seen by observing the reflec-
tion of the light from the surface. It
is then carefully replaced in the scale,
and grain weights are added to the
other scale to restore the equilibrium.

SOIL.

The number of these grains at once
indicates the specific gravity of the
substance ; for tlie space above the
water was that of 100 grains of water,
and this space is now tilled up by the
earth examined. Its weight, there-
fore, denotes its specific gravity com-
pared to water as 100 ; and as a del-
icate balance readily turns with a
decimal of a grain, the decimals give
the specific gravity to the third fig-
ure. Thus, if the grains are 256
and the decimals 4, the specific grav-
ity is accurately 3564, water being
1000.

" By taking the specific gravity of
the pure earths, it is found that sili-
ca is the heaviest, the next is car-
bonate of lime, and the lightest is
alumina, while organic matter is much
lighter than any earth. Thus, a tol-
erable guess can be made of the com-
position of that impalpable portion of
the soil which generally contains all
the salts and organic matter. To
separate these chemically requires
more experience and a more exten-
sive apparatus ; but the quantity of
carbonate of lime in any soil which
effervesces with acids, when its pres-
ence is thus ascertained, can be cal-
culated by a simple process, almost
as easily as the specific gravity ; for
this purpose, it is necessary to have
a balance with a somewhat larger
scale, in which can be conveniently
placed a small glass cup and a vial.
The cup is placed in the scale with
100 grains weight in it ; and the vial,
also containing 200 or 300 grains,
more or less, of very dilute muriatic
acid. The whole is accurately poised
Fine dry sand is the most convenient
counterpoise when the exact weight
is not required. The 100 grains are
now taken out and replaced by the
dried soil to be examined. When
the equilibrium is restored, the dilu-
ted muriatic acid is poured carefully
and gently on the earth in the cup
as long as it continues to effervesce ;
it is then left for a while, and a little
more of the acid added. If no bub-
bles appear, then all the carbonic acid
has been expelled, and the opposite
scale preponderates. The grains and

Q Q Q

decimals of grains required to restore
the equilibrium give the weight of the
carbonic acid expelled, which will
sometimes be considerable. Since
100 grains of carbonate of lime con-
tain 44 grains of carbonic acid, we
have only to take the proportion as
follows : let a denote the grains of
carbonic acid indicated in the experi-

lOOrt ,
ment ; then, 44 : 100 : : a : — — =the

44

quantity of carbonate of lime in the
soil ; that is, multiply the grains add-
ed to the scale by 100, and divide by
44. This experiment, repeated with
a very accurate balance, will surprise
by its correctness ; and no chemical
analysis could give it with equal cer-
tainty, especially in the hands of an
inexperienced person. When the
weights are ascertained by substitu-
tion, the accuracy of the balance is of
less consequence ; all that is required
is that it be sensitive, or turn read-
ily by the addition of very minute
weights. Thus, by two simple and
easy experiments, some of the most
important qualities of the impalpable
portions of a soil may be accurately
ascertained, viz., its specific gravity,
and the quantity of carbonate of lime
which it contains.

" It is more difficult to separate the
fine silica from the alumina, and this
is of less importance than might be
supposed ; for silica, when extremely
divided, so as to remain long sus-
pended in water, and mixed with alu-
mina, becomes as impervious to wa-
ter as alumina itself, and therefore its
mechanical effect on the soil is the
same. For farther information, see
art. Analysis.

" The coarser portions of the soil,
which have been separated in the
sifting, are easily examined by the
eye. If repeated washing carries off
nothing from them, they may be con-
sidered as so many crystals, which
have no other effect in the soil than
to keep it open. If some of these
are of a calcareous nature, they will
dissolve with effervescence in mu-
riatic acid, and their proportion can
be ascertained by the process abovt
described ; if not, they may be ?
733

SOIL

considered as mere silicious sand or
gravel

" A good soil is composed of one
third coarse sand, one tliinl very fine
sand, and one liiird niipalpaljle mat-
ter, in which there is sihca in the
greatest quantity, alumina and lime
in a smaller, and from four to ten per
cent, of organic matter, without any
appearance of tannin, which is readi-
ly discovered by pouring into tlie wa-
ter which has liltered through it a
weak solution of sulphate of iron ; if
a blackness appears, the gallic acid
is present, and in proportion to its
quantity the soil is less fertile. In
this case quicklime is the best correc-
tive.

"In ascertaining the value of a
soil for the purposes of agriculture,
two circumstances should be care-
fully noticed : the first is the permea-
bility of the soil to water ; and the
second is its power of absorbing moist-
ure from the atmosphere. To ascer-
tain the first, it is only required to
place an equal weight of different
soils in glass tubes of equal diameter,
pressing them so that they shall oc-
cupy equal spaces, but not filling the
tubes ; then pour an equal quantity
of water over each soil, and place
them upright with cups under them.
Examine which has the surface first
dry, and how much water runs through
each in a given time. That which
presents a dry surface, while it holds
most water in its pores, is probably
the t)est. To ascertain the compara-
tive absorption of moisture, the soils
are dried in pairs on a plate of metal
heated by steam, or at a heat of 212°,
to expel the water ; they are then
placed in equal quantities in similar
flat cups or dishes, and placed in op-
posite scales of a balance, and poised.
The apparatus is exposed to a moist
atmosphere out of doors, or in a cel-
lar, and occasionally examined. That
which is heaviest is, in general, the
most fertile, and contains most hu-
mus. If there are more than two
soils, they are compared with each
other, and with a third as a stand-
ard.

" By these simple means any per-
734

son, however ignorant of chemistry,
or unaccustomed to make accurate
experiiiienls, may soon satisfy him-
self as to the comparative value of
diflerent soils which have never yet
been cultivated ; how they may be
improved, and what crops are bust
suited to them : tilings of the great-
est importance to tliose who go to
distant colonies in the hopes of ob-
taining good land at a moderate price,
and cultivating it to advantage.

" But we have intimated that there
were other means of ascertaining the
mechanical texture of soils than by
sifting them ; tliis is by washing with
pure water. For this purpose, no-
thing is required but a few flat plates
and large cups. Some of the soil is
formed into a very thin mud by stir-
ring it in a cup nearly full of water.
The finer particles are successively
poured off from the sand or grit,
which at last remains pure, so that
the water added to it is no longer
discoloured : this being dried and
weighed, gives the coarse sand. The
water and earth poured off are al-
lowed to settle : a common soup-
plate is found a very convenient ves-
sel for this purpose. On the surface
of the deposited earth will be found
all the undecomposed vegetable mat-
ter, which, with a little care, is easily
taken off, dried, and weighed. The
finer portions of the earth can be
poured off successively by shaking
the whole moderately till nothing but
very fine sand remains. The alumi-
na and impalpable silica will remain
long suspended in the water, and al-
low any sand yet remaining to be de-
posited. They may be rapidly sep-
arated from the water by filtration
through stout blotting paper ; but it
is preferable to pour them into a glass
tube about one inch in internal di-
ameter, with a cork fitted into the
lower end. In this tube the earths
slowly fall to the bottom, and any
variety in the size of the particles
causes a line more or less distinct,
which can be observed through the
glass ; and thus a very good idea
may be obtained of the proportion of
the different earths as far as regards

SOI

SOI

the size of their particles. For their
chemical diflerenc-es, the preceding
process must be adopted.

•' It is often useful to ascertain
nearly the composition of a soil with-
out having time or opportunity to
make accurate experiments. A grad-
uated glass tube which can be carried
in the pocket, and a small vial with a
ground stopper, containing diluted
muriatic acid, and secured in a wood-
en case for fear of accident, are all the
apparatus required. A little of the
soil is taken and moistened with wa-
ter ; a few drops of the acid are pour-
ed on ; and by the greater or less dis-
engagement of bubbles the proportion
of calcareous matter is guessed at,
and Its presence proved. The soil,
mixed with water, is poured into the
glass tube and well shaken. In a few
minutes the coarse sand is deposited,
shortly after the finer sand, and, last-
ly, the clay and impalpable matter, of
which the lightest remains longest
suspended. Distinct rings can-be ob-
served in the deposites, and the grad-
uated tube shows their proportion.
A person accustomed to this method I
will guess with great precision the
general qualities of the soil ; and
when the geological structure of the
neighbourhood and the nature of the i
subsoil are taken into consideration, I
the value of the land for pasture or
cultivation is guessed with little dan-
ger of making very glaring mistakes.
To surveyors and valuers this meth-
od is of very great help, when other
means are not at hand.

" In practice, soils are usually di-
vided into light, mellow, and stiff;
but this gives very little information,
there being every imaginable variety
in each of these. In the article Ara-
ble Land, we have given a more par-
ticular classification from Thaer, but
this is found chiefly applicable to al-
luvial soils. There are still minute
circumstances which produce great
fertility or the reverse, and which it
is difficult to investigate. An accu-
rate chemical analysis, joined to a
careful mechanical examination, and
very correct accounts of the average
produce under different systems of

cultivation, can alone give us a scale
according to which the natural fertility
of different soils can be classed ; and
this must be the work of time and in-
dustry joined to science and practical
knowledge. We shall therefore con-
clude this article by recommending to
every lover of agriculture to observe
and note the peculiarities of the soils
with which he is best acquainted ; to
analyze them frequently and under
various circumstances, and thus en-
deavour to find to what peculiar sub-
stance or condition is to be ascribed
a greater or less degree of fertility ;
so as to lead to the simplest and ea-
siest mode of rendering indifferent
soils fertile, and increasing the pro-
ductive power even of the best." —
{Rham.) '.

SOILING. " This is the name giv-
en in agriculture to the mode of feed-
ing horses and cattle in the stable or
yards with food brought to them as
it is cut in the meadows or fields.
The great advantage of soiling cattle
is the increase of manure of the best
quality which is thereby produced ;
and this circumstance alone can coun-
terbalance the great trouble and ex-
pense incurred in cutting and carry-
ing all the green food from a distance
to the farm-yard.

" The system of soiling is not very
generally adopted, it being so much
easier to allow the cattle to crop their
food in the pastures ; but in those
countries where property in land is
greatly subdivided, and where farms
are small and good pastures scarce,
as in Flanders, France, and Switzer-
land, especially where the vineyards
render manure scarce and dear by
taking a considerable portion of it
and returning none, there the soiling
of cattle is almost a matter of neces-
sity. A cow or ox requires from two
to three acres of pasture or meadow
to feed it all the year round, allowing
a portion for hay; but by raising clo-
ver, lucern, sainfoin, tares, and otlier
green crops, three cows or more can
be fed with the produce of one acre,
especially if a portion is in turnips or
other succulent roots. Thus the
straw of the white crops is converted^
735

SOILING.

into excellent manure, and the land
kept in a state of fertility.

" In proportion as a farm is larger
in extent, so the expense of soilmg
increast^s, both from the distance of
the fields where the green crops
grow, and from the same distance
to wliicii the dung is to be carted.
There is a limit, therefore, to the
soiling system, unless there be many
yards or stables in different parts of
a farm, so as to subdivide it, and
make each yard the centre of a dis-
tinct system of soiling, with fields
near at hand for the green crops. In
almost every experiment on a large
scale, it has been found that soiling
was only a certain mode of purchasing
dung, and that it often was more ex-
pensive to procure it in this way than
to send to a considerable distance to
purchase it in towns. Where it can-
not be purchased at all, there are no
other means, in many situations, of
producing a sufficient quantity ; and
the trouble and expense of soiling
must be submitted to. In almost ev-
ery case where sheep can be folded
to feed ofT the crops, the soiling of
cattle is a loss, because the sheep pay
something for their food -, the cattle
in the stall seldom do.

" But there are animals which
must be fed for the work of the farm,
such as horses or oxen ; and these
are much more profitably and eco-
nomically fed by soiling than by any
other means. A horse or ox, if he
works eight or ten hours, has no time
for rest if he has to crop his food
from a short pasture, however sweet ;
whereas an abundant supply of clo-
ver, lucern, or tares enables him to
take a hearty meal and lie down to
rest. He wants no corn with this
food, and does his work without los-
ing flesh or activity.

" There is nothing easier in a mild
climate, and especially a moist one
like Britain or Ireland, than to have
a succession of green food from the
beginning of spring to the end of au-
tumn. Rye and winter barley, sown
early in autumn, will be ready to cut
as soon as the mild weather of spring
commences ; some sown later with
739

winter tares, and the young clover,
which has not been cropped in au-
tumn, will succeed. After this come
artificial grasses, as Italian rye grass
and the grass of water meadows
mown early ; although this last is not
so hearty food for working cattle ;
but when joined to a mixture of oats
and cut straw, their watery nature is
corrected. Clover and spring tares
(when these can be raised at proper
intervals), lucern and sainfoin (if the
soil is suited to them), will afford a
C(mstant and abundant supply to the
scythe which cuts the daily allowance.
It is prudent to provide against fail-
ure, and have more land in these crops
than is absolutely necessary, because
the surplus can always be made into
hay, or reserved to ripen its seed ;
and these green crops, valuable as
they are, far from, deteriorating the
soil, clear it of weeds, and render it
more fit to bear corn afterward. In
this case, soiling is profitable and
economical.

" It is generally thought in those
countries where the soiling system is
most universally adopted, that it is
best to allow the green food to re-
main twelve or twenty-four hours af-
ter it is cut before it is given to cat-
tle. This may be prudent with cows
and oxen, wiio are apt to eat vora-
ciously, and are subject to be hoven
from the fermentations of the green
food in the paunch or rumen ; but for
horses there is little danger ; and if
the food is not wet with dew or rain,
the fresher it is eaten the better it
will nourish the animal, and the more
he will relish it.

" If any one is desirous of calcula-
ting the expense of soiling any num-
ber of beasts, he has only to reckon
what time of men and horses it will
take to cut the food and carry it to
the cattle, from the average distance
of the fields in \\hich it can be raised
in succession. .Much of their time is
lost in the morning and evening in
going backward and forward from the
field to the yard ; for there can scarce-
ly be an establishment so large as to
keep them employed a whole day ;
and if there was, the fields must be

soo

so large and so distant as to greatly |
increase the expense of carriage. ;
Not to enter into muuite calculations,
it is fully proved that, to a certain ex- j
tent, soiling is protitablc and econom-
ical, when it can be done before and
after the usual hours of labour ; but
that, when undertaken on a large
scale in anv one locality, it is usually
attended with loss, the manure pro-
duced being purchased at too great a
price."

SOLANACE.E. a natural order
of herbaceous or shrubby exogcns,
inhabiting all parts of tlie world ex-
cepting the arctic regions. This or-
der contains nightshade, henbane,
mandrake, tobacco, stramonium, the
potato, and the tomato, the leaves of
all which arc narcotic and excitnig, but
in different degrees, from Atropa bel-
ladonna, which causes vertigo, convul-
sions, and vomiting ; tobacco, which
will frequently produce the first and
last of these symptoms ; henbane and
stramonium, down to some of the so-
lanum tribes, the leaves of which are
so inert as to be used as kitchen herbs.
Even in the potato plant, the narcotic
acrid principle is I'ound in the stem
and leaves, and even in the rind of
the tuber. But the principal part of
the latter consists of starcli ; and the
small quantity of deleterious matter
being volatile and near the surface,
is readdy drivea off by the heat used
in cookmg.

SOLIDUNGULATES. Ani-
mals with an undivided hoof, as the
horse.

SOLUTION. The diffusion in wa-
ter or other menstrua of the particles
of a solid or other body. The amount
dissolved is definite at the same tem-
perature, and is usually increased by
heat. A Uuid already holding in so-
lution a given substance will not dis-
solve so inuch of a tliird as if pure,
and sometimes none at all.

SOOT. " Soot is a complicated and
variable mixture of substances pro-
duced during the combustion of coal.
Its composition, and consequently its
effects as a manure, vary with the
quality of the coal, with the way in
which the coal is burned, and with

Q Q Q 2

SOO

the height of the chimney in which
it is collected.

" Soot has not been analyzed since
the year 183G, when a variety exam-
ined'by Braconnot was found by him
to consist, in a thousand parts, of

Ulniic acid? (a substance resemblin[,0

that portion of the vegetable matter I 305.0
of the soil which is soluble 111 caustic |
]>otash) . . • • • --^

A ledilish brown soluble substance, con- 1
taiuin? nitrogen, and yielding ammo- >
nia when heated . . • • '

Asboline

Carbonaleof lime, with a trace of mag-
nesia (probably derived in part from
the sides of the chimney) .

Acetate of lime

Sulphate of lime (gypsum) .

Acetate of maonesia . . . •

Phosphate of lime, with a trace of iron

Chloride of potassium . . . ■

Acetate of potash ....

Acetate of ammonia ....

Silica (sand)

Charcoal powder •"''^

Water 125-0

2000

50

146 6

56-5
5e-0

5-3
150

3fi
410

20

9-.

lUOO-0

" The earthy substances which the
soot contains are chiefly derived from
the walls of the chimney, and from
the ash of the coal, part of which is
carried up the chimney by the draught.
These, therefore, must be variable,
being largest in quantity where the
draught is strongest, and where the
earthy matter or ash in the coal is the
greatest. The quantity of gypsum
present depends upon the sulphur
contained in the coal : that which is
freest from sulphur will give a soot
containing the least gypsum. The
ammonia and the soluble substance
containing nitrogen will vary with
the quantity of nitrogen contained in
the coal and with certain other caus-
es, so that the composition of differ-
ent samples of soot may be very un-
like, and their influence upon vegeta-
tion therefore very unequal. The
consecjuence of this must be, that the
results obtained in one spot, or upon
one crop, are not to be depended
upon as indicative of the precise effect
whicli another specimen of soot will
produce in another locality, and upon
another crop even of the same kind ;
and thus it happens that the use of
soot is more general, and is attended
with more bcnelieial effects in some
districts than in others.

737

soo

SOR

" In general, it may be assumed
that where ammonia or its salts will
benefit the crop, soot also will be of
use, and hence its successful appli-
cation to grass lands. From its con-
taining gypsum, it should also espe-
cially benefit the clover crops ; yet
Dr. Anderson says, ' I have used soot
as a top-dressing for clover and rye
grass in all proportions, from one
hundred bushels per acre to six hun-
dred, and I cannot say that I ever
could perceive the clover in the least
degree more luxuriant than in the
places where no soot had been ap-
plied ; but upon rye grass its efTects
are amazing, and increase in propor-
tion to the quantity, so far as my tri-
als have gone ;' and his general con-
clusion is, that soot does not effect the
growth of clover in any icay, while it
wonderfully promotes that of rye grass.

" The presence of ammonia in soot
causes it, when laid in heaps, to de-
stroy all the plants upon the spot.

" This ammonia also causes soot
to injure and diminish the crop in
very dry seasons. Thus the produce
of a crop of beans, after oats, in 1842,
upon an

Unmiiiiured part of the field was . . 29i bush.
Dressed with fourbushels uf soot . . 28 "

" It also diminished, in a small de-
gree, the potato.

With manure alone, the pro-
duce was . . . .11 tons 17 cwt.

With thirty bushels of soot
sprinkled over the dung . 11 " 4 "

" Like rape-dust and saline sub-
stances, therefore, soot seems to re-
quire moist weather, or a naturally
moist soil, to bring out all its virtues.

" Yet even in the dry season of
1842, its effect upon wheat and oats
in the same locality (Erskine) was
very beneficial. Thus the compara-
tive produce of these crops, when un-
dressed and when top-dressed with
ten bushels of soot per acre, was as
follows : j

Unmanured . . . Wheat 44 Oats 49
Top-dressed with soot . " 54 " 55

" But the dressed wheat was infe-
rior in quality to the undressed, the
former weighing only 58, the latter
62 pounds a bushel. In the oats there
was no difference. Are we to infer
738

' from these results that, even in dry
seasons, soot may be safely applied
to crops of corn, while to pulse and
roots it is sure to do no good ! Far-
ther precise observations, no doubt,
! are still necessary, and the more es-
pecially, as the experiments upon oats
and wheat made in a drier locality
gave a decrease in the produce of
grain, while in Mr. Fleming's exper-
iments upon turnips, 50 bushels of
soot, applied alone, gave an increase
of four tons in the crop.

"Another experiment enables us
to judge of ti»e efficacy of soot in a
dry season, compared with that of ni-
trate of soda and of guano, upon the
produce of hay. Thus the crop of hay
per acre from the

Cost
. tons. cwts. £. 8. d.

Undressed portion, weighed ..18

Dressed with 40 bush, of soot . 1 15 0 118
" " leOlbs. nitr. ofsoda 1 19 1 15 9

" " 160 lbs. of guano .2 2 1 15 9

" In this experiment the soot pro-
ved a more profitable application than
either of the other manures.

" In regard to this substance, I
shall only advert to one other obser-
vation— but it is an important one —
made by Mr. Morton, when describing
the management of a well-conducted
farm. 'The quantity of soot used
upon this farm amounts to 3000 bush-
els a year, one half of which is ap-
plied to the potato, the other half to
the wheat crop.' All the straw grown
iifon this farm is sold for thatch, and
for the last thirty years the only ma-
nure that has been purchased to re-
place this straw is soot." — (Johnston.)

The amount applied is from twen-
ty-five to fortv bushels the acre.

SOPORIFICS. Drugs which pro-
duce sleep.

SOREDIA. Masses of powdery
bodies lying on the thallus of lichens.

SORI. The small heaps of repro-
ductive granules found growing upon
the fronds of polvpodiaceous ferns.

SOROSIS. a' fruit resembling the
mulberry, being a succulent spike.

SORREL. Rumex acctosella. A
small perennial weed of the dock
family, with a sour taste, arising from
the binoxalate of potash. It grows

sow

sow

on poor lands, and marks sterility. '
A good liming and tilth are wanting to
improve such soils, not because they
are sour, or the sorrel should be kill-
ed, but because they are poor lands.
The wood {oxaiis) sorrel grows only
in rich places.

SORREL-TREE. Andromeda ar-
borca. A handsome shrubbery tree
in the North, with beautiful white
racemes of riowers. In the South it
becomes a large tree.

SOUTHERNWOOD. Wormwood.

SOWENS. A dish made from oat-
meal.

SOWING, AND SOWING MA-
CHINES. " The sowing of the seed
has always been looked upon as one
of the most important operations of
husbandry. Much of the success of
the future crops depends on the time
and the mode in wliich the seed is
committed to the earth. After the
land has been well prepared by ju-
dicious tillage and manuring, many
accidents and circumstances may dis-
appoint the hope of the farmer, and
the crop may be scanty or fail alto-
gether. The weather and the sea-
sons are not under his control ; but
much also depends on his own judg-
ment and skill. If he selects the best
seeds, chooses the proper season for
sowing them, and has them carefully
distributed and properly covered with
earth, as their nature requires for the
most perfect germination, and thus
also protects them from the voracity
of birds or insects, he will have a
much greater prospect of success,
under all circumstances, than if he
were careless or negligent.

" The most common mode of sow-
ing the seed is by scattering it as
evenly as possible over the ploughed
surface, as it lies in ridges from the
plough. The harrows follow, and
crumbling down the ridges, cover the
seed which has fallen in the hollows
between them. It requires an ex-
perienced sower to scatter the exact
quantity o%-er a given surface, with-
out crowding the seed in one spot,
and allowing too great intervals in
another. Hence the farmer wiio
does not himself sow the seed, inva-

riably chooses the most experienced
and skilful labourer to perform this
work. Notwithstanding every care
and attention on the part of the farm-
er, the labourer will ol'ten relax and
become careless, and the result ap-
pears only when it is too late to rem-
edy it. This has given rise to the
various attempts which have been
made to invent machines for sowing
the seed, such as should ensure per-
fect regularity. Of some of these
we will now give a short account.

"One of the simplest of these ma-
chines consisted in a hollow cylin-
der, with one or more rows of holes
in a line parallel to the axis. These
holes can be stopped in part, if re-
quired. The seed is put into the cyl-
inder, the length of which is equal to
the width of the land, or stitch, which
It is desired to sow at a time. By
shaking this when held horizontally
and at right angles to the path of the
sower, the seed is scattered with con-
siderable regularity. One inconve-
nience of this instrument is, that it
requires to be filled frequently, and
that much still depends on the atten-
tion of the operator. Accordingly, it
was very soon laid by. The idea,
however, was followed up and im-
proved upon in the sowing harrow,
an instrument still extensively used
for sowing grass seeds. It consists
of a wooden trough placed on the
frame of a light wheelbarrow. An
iron spindle, furnished with circular
brushes at regular intervals, runs the
whole length of the trough, and is
turned by means of simple machin-
ery connected with the wheel. Op-
posite each brush is a brass plate,
with holes of different sizes, which
can be partly closed by means of a
circular slide. According to the size
of the seed to be sown and the quan-
tity to be scattered, the holes are
opened or shut. The seed is put
into the trough, which has a cover or
lid ; and by merely wheeling the bar-
row in a straight line, a breadth is
sown equal to the length of the trough,
usually 12 or 15 feet. But this ma-
chine cannot conveniently be used in
windy weather, which disperses the
739

SOWING, AND SOWING MACHINES.

seeds irregularly ; and it is very little
superior to sowing by tlie hand, ex-
cept ill tlie case of small seeds, which
cannot so well be spread evenly by
the hand.

" The drill husbandry has suggest-
ed other more couipiicated machines,
of which some account will be found
in the article Drill. The principle
of these is to deliver the seed by
means of funnels, each corresponding
to a small furrow made by a coulter
placed iuunediately before tlie fun-
nel ; and some of these machines
perform the work very regularly and
satisfactorily. As the inequalities of
the ground require that the coulters
should move up or down, to allow
for these inequalities, the seed can-
not be accurately deposited at a given
depth ; and some improvement in the
mode of drilling is yet desirable, and
has, in some measure, been effected.
The patent lever drill in common
use is very imperfect in its work, and
the remedy lies in the greater atten-
tion to the preparation of the surface.
When this is effected, the levers may
be set aside, and a much simpler drill,
such as was used at first, may re-
place it. The object is to make fur-
rows of equal depth in which to de-
posite the seed, and to cover this uni-
formly. The land must consequently
be more carefuUy prepared by repeat-
ed harrowing and rolling, till the sur-
face resembles the seed-beds in a
garden. A simple drill, which makes
equidistant furrows at a given depth,
in which the seed drops regularly,
will then do better work than a more
complicated machine ; but if still
greater accuracy and perfection are
desired, the dibble must be had re-
course to. No one will deny tliat
seed deposited by means of a dibble
is distributed more equally and cov-
ered with a more equal depth of soil
than by any other means, and that
there is a great economy of seed in
this mode of sowing ; but the slow-
ness of the operation, and the num-
ber of hands it would require to dib-
ble all the seed on a large farm, have
prevented its being very generally
adopted. See Arabic Land. Many at-
740

tempts have been made to invent ma-
chines to imitate the work done by
band in dibbling, and hitherto with
no marked success, owing chiefly to
the difficulty of clearing the dibbles
from the adhering soil, and making a
clean hole, and also of letting the
seed fall exactly in the dibble holes.
Several patents have lately been ta-
ken out for dibbling machines, of
which we shall only notice three.
The first machine consists of large
hollow disks, armed at the circum-
ference with blunt projections or
knobs, which make a depression in
the surface as the disk revolves :
these knobs are hollow, and open by
one half sliding upward as the knob
leaves the depression it has made.
The seed which has been deposited
in the hollow knob falls into the hole.
This machine is said to do its work
well.

" The next is Bradshaw's patent,
which is not so generally known,
having only been tried by the invent-
or and his friends. Here the dibbles
are moved up and down by means of
a crank, or eccentric circle, and are
twisted in the ground by means of a
projection from the shank of the dib-
ble, which is connected with the frame
of the machine; andw'hen the dibble is
moved by the crank, the rod is twist-
ed by the difference in the motion of
the crank and the machine. The
seed is delivered by means of a cyl-
inder with cavities in its surface,
which revolves very near the ground,
the seed being kept in these cavities
liy a leather belt, which only lets
them out at the lowest part.

" The last is somewhat on the
same principle, and was invented by
the late Rev. W. L. Rham. This ma-
chine, which was exhibited at the
meeting of the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety of England at Liverpool, in 1841,
is thus noticed by the judges of the
implements appointed by that So-
ciety :

'"The Rev. W. L. Rham exhibited
an implement, the principal object of
which is to extend and improve the
system of drilling and dibbling wheat,
beans, «Scc. It is chiefly in its latter

SOWING, AND SOWING MACHINES.

capacity, as a dibbler of seed and '
manure, that we shall attempt to give
a slight description of it. The op-
erative part of the machine is sus-
pended upon an iron carriage having ■
four wheels, the two hinder ones
being fast upon their axle and turn-
ing with it. On this axle is a spur-
wheel, giving motion to a pinion on
an intermediary axle, which carries
a wheel geared into a second pinion
fixed on its axis, having six cranks
arranged spirally. The velocity given
to the axis is such that the cranks
make one revolution for every six
inches of the circumference of the
hind wheels, or whatever is the dis-
tance desired between dibble holes.
The radius of each crank is such
that this distance shall be equal to
the circumference described by one
revolution. Thus the space described
by every crank coincides with that
passed over in the same time by the
hind wheels ; and as the cranks turn,
during the half of a revolution, in an
opposite direction to that of the
wheels, the result of this compound
motion is a pause or rest of short du-
ration, at the point where the crank
in its rotation commences to retro-
grade from the line of progress of the
machine, t. c, at the lowest point,
and when the dibbles are in the
ground. The crank raises the dib-
bles up and down by means of con-
necting rods and levers, which double
the vertical without increasing the
horizontal motion ; and in order that
the point when in the ground may
be perfectly stationary, it is made the
centre of motion while the machine
progresses ; and to enable it to re-
tain that position for a sufficient
length of time, for the purpose of
leaving a hole truly vertical, the dib-
bles move between checks in the rod
which connects it with the crank,
and which has a spring to restore it
quickly to its proper place as it rises
out of the ground During, therefore,
the entire time occupied in its pier-
cing the hole and being withdrawn
from the soil, the dibble retams its
perpendicularity.
'• ' By an ingenious and simple

contrivance, a slow rotatory motion
about its own axis is given to the
dibble, by which means its point may
be said to bore into the ground, thus
assisting in the formation of the hole ;
and by the same action the dibble is
cleared of any adhering soil, and the
hole left firm and clear.

" ' The seed-valve consists of a
cylinder, with a cavity in it of dimen-
sions sufficient to hold one or more
seeds. This cylinder is tumbled over,
and the seed discharged into a recip-
ient of the shape of a quadrant, from
which it is pushed out, when the cyl-
inder returns to its first position and
takes in a fresh supply. As this mo-
tion is sudden, the seed is surely de-
livered, even when rather damp :
when the cylinder is delivering, the
quadrant is receiving, and vice versa.
The delivery of manure is effected by
a similar apparatus, only of a larger
size, the valves being furnished with
brushes, or other means, to remove
the superfluity.

" ' The valves are connected with
the dibbles in such a manner as to
deposite the manure and seed in the
hole last formed, while the dibbles
are stationary in the advancing one.
The dibbles bore their holes in shal-
low drills made by the pressure and
sliding action of an iron shoe shaped
like a boat, and forming a smooth
furrow.

'• ' The whole of the machinery is
supported by an iron frame, one end of
which rests on trunnions attached to
aprojecting part of the back of the car-
riage. It is suspended at the other end
by a cross shaft, carrying two pinions,
working in arcs of circles fixed on the
frame, so that it can be raised or de-
pressed at pleasure, or elevated clear
of the ground by one turn of a winch.
At the same time, the pinion con-
necting the machinery with the hind
wheels is put out of gear, and the
whole can be moved about on the
carriage.

" ' The object of the reverend gen-
tleman in contriving this original and
singularly ingenious implement, has
been to imitate the more minute and
1 certain manipulations of the garden-

SOWING, AND SOWINt! MACHINES.

er, and so to adapt his machinery to
the (lrillin<; and dihbiin^r of seed upon
land previously laid flat and well
prepared, that (!very field, however
extensive, should present the neat-
ness and regularity of a highly fin-
ished garden.

" ' The distinguishing peculiarities
of this remarkable piece of mecha-
nism are the arrangements for the
dibbles to horc holes, causing them to
be perpendicular and truly cylindri-
cal, and the apparatus forgiving cer-
tainty to the valves in receiving and
delivering the manure.'

" In order to render the above high-
ly commendatory report of the judges
more intelligible to those who have
not seen this implement, we will add
a slight diagram, to explain the most
essential parts :

" A C 13 is a lever, whose fulcrum
is at A ; B G, the rod of the dibble
M, which turns on it by means of a

! socket ; C D E is the rod which com-
i mutiicates the motion to the lever
A C B, by means of the crank L E,
moved by the machinery. A D is a
rod connecting the crank with the
rod of the dibble, and having a slit or
cheeks in which this rod moves. F
is the spring which keeps the rod in
its place when the dibble is out of the
ground, a i is an iron plate with a
slit or cheeks to keep the dibble from
swerving from the line of the furrow
made by the shoe, c is a thin pi«
projecting upward from this plate,
and bent at its upper end. This pin
meets one of four arms projecting
horizontally from the shank of the
dibble whenever it descends into the
ground ; and as it proceeds with the
carriage while the dibble is at rest,
it gives this a motion round its rod
to the extent of a quarter of a circle.
When the rod rises, it clears the
arms from the pin, which, at the next

descent, meets with another arm ;
and thus a complete revolution is ef-
fected in four descents of the dibble.
" H is the vessel which contains
the seed. The valve consists of a
cylinder, d, with a cavity sufficient
to receive the required number of
seeds to be deposited in each hole,
a brush to remove any superfluous
seeds, and a recipient, V, in the form
of a quadrant, in which they drop
when the cylinder is suddenly turned
half round on its axis. This is ef-
fected by a small crank fixed to the
axis, and connected by a rod r with
742

the quadrant V. The quadrant it-
self moves a quarter round its centre
X by means of a rod q, which con-
nects it with the dibble, or with the
crank when the dibble is not used ;
and the seed is dropped into the dib-
ble hole or the furrow when the
quadrant is pushed back in its place.
A rake and roller are attached to the
implement to complete the operation.
" This may give some idea of this
new machine, and if it answer the
expectations of the inventor, it will
cause a great saving in the seed and
labour of sowing, while it will de-

SPE

posite the seed much more regularly,
and at an equal depth."

SOW THISTLES. Composite
plants of the genus Sonchiis. They
are smooth perennials, with a milky
juice.

SPADE. A well-known garden
implement. The spading of land pro-
duces the best results from the thor-
ough loosening and great depth to
which the soil is stirred. Astonish-
ing crops have been obtained on small
lots by using the spade for wheat and
root culture ; but the expense is the
great drawback.

SPADIX. A form of inflorescence,
m which the flowers are arranged
around a fleshy raehis, and enclosed
within a kind of bract called a spathe,
as in palms and araceous plants. The
Indian turnip is an instance.

SPANISH NEEDLES. Annual
weeds of the genus Bidetis, the seeds
of which adhere to the skm of ani-
mals and clothes.

SPAN WORMS. The caterpillars
called geometers, loopers, or canker-
worms. See Canker-worm. The fe-
male of the prefect insects are inca-
pable of flight, and crawl up trees to
lay their eggs ; various contrivances
have, therefore, been adopted to hin-
der them passing, such as a rope of
straw bound round the trunk, a layer
of tar spread on paper and fastened
round, or lead and tin troughs con-
taining od, water, or other prepara-
tions, have been affixed to the trunk
with sreat advantage.

SPASM. A cramp. Rubbing the
skin with turpentine, when it is of
the external muscles, often alleviates
the pain.

SPATHE. See Spadix.

SPAVIN. See Horse, Diseases of.

SPAYING. The operation of ex-
tracting the ovaries of the females of
different kinds of animals, as sows,
heifers, mares, &c., in order to pre-
vent any future conception, and pro-
mote fattening.

SPEAR GRASS. A name given
to the Poa pratensis.

SPEAR.MINT. Common green
mint : also the weed Mentha tenuis.

SPECIES. In natural history, an

SPI

individual separated from others of a
genus by certain slight but permanent
characters.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. See Grav-
ity.

SPECTRUM. An image, usually
applied to the image of the sun seen
throuifh a prism, and which consists
of seven colours.

SPECULU.M. A reflector or mir-
ror of metal.

SPEEDWELL. The genus Fero«-
ica, perennial plants, ot'ten with beau-
tiful spikes of blue flowers.

SPELT. Spelter wheat. See
Wheat.

SPERMATIC ANIMALCULES.
Minute, thread-like animalcules found
in the secretion of the testes.

SPERMATIC CORD. The col-
lection of blood-vessels passing from
the abdomen to the testes.

S P E R M I D I U M. The same as
akenium, a small seed vessel resem-
bling a seed.

SPHACELUS. Mortification, gan-
grene.

SPHAGNU.M. A genus of mosses
growing in bogs, and forming a great
deal of the peat.

SPHENOID BONE. A bone in
the base of the skull.

SPHINCTER (from acfir/xu, I
close). The name of muscles which
close the natural openings of the
bodv.

SPICE WOOD, or BUSH. Lau-
rus benzoin. Benjamin bush, fever
bush. An indigenous shrub, four to
ten feet high, the wood of which yields
an aromatic smell. It grows on damp
places.

SPIGEL. Fennel.

SPIKE. An inflorescence, in which
the flowers are sessile upon an up-
right stem.

SPINACH. Spinaciaoleracca. An
annual of the family Chenopodiacem.
Varieties : Large round-leaved, broad-
leaved Savoy, Holland. The New
Zealand, which is a superior vegeta-
ble, is very large and running : it is
the Tetragnna expansa. The seeds
are planted in hills six feet apart,
three to the hill, in May ; twenty hills
supply a family.

748

SPI

" The soil requires to be rich to pro- ;
(luce larjfc, tine leaves, though spin-
ach will grow even in the poorest
soil, if well manured. The time of
sowing for a winter crop, to come in
from iMurch till May, is from the mid-
dle of August to tlic 8th of Septem-
ber ; but if frost occurs soon after the
latter sowing, it will seldom survive
the winter. For a summer crop, to
come in after the winter crop has run
to seed, tlie end of April is the prop-
er time ; though, if an August sowing
have been neglected, seed may be
sown in the end of February or even
in January, ^^'hen sown in June and
July, it will run rapidly to seed.

" The sorts are the prickly-seeded,
or, what is better, the Holland, for the
August sowing, and the round-leaved
for spring.

" For a bed five feet wide and
twelve feet long, an ounce of seed
will be enough, or half an ounce for
the same space drilled.

" Sow thinly broad-cast in a finely-
dug bed, or, rather, in very shallow
drills six or eight inches apart ; or,
as some prefer, double that distance,
with rows of radishes or lettuce be-
tween, treading it well before raking.
The earth over the seed should not
exceed the third of an inch, for if
much thicker, the seed will be lost.

" Sparrows and other birds, if not
prevented, will endeavour to purloin
the whole sowing, as has frequently
occurred within our knowledge ; and
when the young plants come up, pi-
geons, if they get at them, will devour
the whole. Careful weeding and hoe-
ing up the earth, so as not to choke
the hearts of the plants, are indispen-
sable. Thinning also must be duly
attended to, and the plants should be
left three or four inches apart. If a
few plants of the winter or spring
crops are allowed to remain, they will
produce an abundance of seed, which
should be protected from birds. For
summer crops, it is a good plan to
sow the seed in drills, between the
rows of pease, as the latter will af-
ford it shelter and shade, and assist
much in preventing it from running
to seed ; besides which, the ground
744

SPI

will thus be better and more profita-
bly occupied.

"While licet of the curled sort, and
several wild plants and weeds, such
as Good King Henry, goosefoot, or
niylcs, yield leaves little inferior to
spinach."

SPINDLE. The axis of a wheel
or roller.

SPINDLE-SHAPED, FUSI-
FORM. Roots are so called which
taper at both ends, as the radish.

SPINDLE-TREE. Euomjmus Eu-
ropaus. A small tree or shrub, the
wood of which is extremely hard, and
used for spindles. It is improperly
called strawberry-tree by some nur-
sery men.

SPINDLE WORM. The caterpil-
lar which destroys the young ear of
corn, Gorlyna Zecc of Harris : they
make known their presence by leav-
ing a small hole on the shuck, and
should be destroyed when found, as
they hinder the formation of the ear.
See Corn, Diseases of. The moth is
thus described by Dr. Harris :

" The fore wings are rust-red ; they
are mottled with gray, almost in
bands, uniting with the ordinary spots,
which are also gray and indistinct ;
there is an irregular tawny spot near
the tip, and on the veins there are a
few black dots. The hind wings are
yellowish-gray, with a central dusky
spot, behind which are two faint,
dusky bands. The head and thorax
are rust-red, with an elevated tawny
tuft on each. The abdomen is pale-
brown, with a row of tawny tufts on
the back. The wings expand nearly
one inch and a half"

SPINE. The vertebrated column
of quadrupeds. It is composed of
forty or more pieces, or vertebra', ar-
ticulated by cartilage ; through these
runs the spinal marrow, or pith,
which sends ofl"at every bone a pair
of spinal nerves, which distribute the
sensation of touch and the power of
movement to the skin and muscles,
over which they are distributed.

SPINES. In botany, imperfect
branches. ■•

SPIRACLES, The breathing open-
ings or pores of insects.

SPR

SPU

SPIRAL VESSELS. In plants,
elongated cellules, which contain a
delicato internal thread, spirally
wound, and capable of being drawn
out.

SPIRIT. A distilled alcoholic
product.

SPIT OF EARTH. A spadeful,
as dug from the soil.

SPLANCHNOLOGY (from aT?.ay-
vov, an enlrail). An account of the
viscera.

SPLAYED. In building, an angle
cut off obliquely.

SPLEEN. "A spongy viscus, of
an oval form, the use of which is un-
known ; placed in the human subject
in the left hypochondrium, between
the eleventh and twelfth false ribs."

S P L I N T. •• In farriery, a hard
excrescence growing on the shank
bnnes of horses. It appears first in
the form of a callous tumour, and
afterward ossifies. If the splint in-
terfere with the action of some ten-
don or ligament, the hair should be
removed, a little strong mercurial
ointment be rubbed in for two days,
and then an active blister applied.''
Also, a thin board of a suitable fig-
ure, or pasteboard, to sustain a bro-
ken limb.

SPONGIOLE. The small spongy
extremity of the rootlets.

SPORADIC. Springing up singly,
or in small numbers. Diseases are
sporadic which are not epidemic or
endemic.

SPORANGIUM. The case or re-
ceptacle containing the spores.

SPORIDIA. The covering of the
spores, the spore-like bodies of algae.

SPORULES, or SPORES. The
minute, simple, reproductive grains
of cryptogamic plants.

SPRINGS. Natural fountains of
water, formed whereverthe rain, fall-
ing on a pervious bed, is interrupted
b/an impervious stratum of clay or
rock. See Drainage.

SPRAY. The young branches or
twigs of trees.

SPRUCE PINE. Pinus Canaden-
sis. Hemlock pine, a handsome ever-
green tree, with excellent wood. It
is common in New-York and the

R R R

Eastern States. The bark is used for
tanning.

SPUD. " An implement used ad-
vantageously in cutting up weeds.
It consists of a chisel-formed tool,
about two inches wide on the cutting
edge, inserted into a handle of some
four or six feet in length. It is often
made use of by the farmer as a use-
ful substitute for the walking-cane,
affording an opportunity of destroy-
ing weeds with the utmost facility
while walking over his grounds."

SPUR. The short, fruit-bearing
branches of apples and pears. The
hind toe of gallinaceous birds. A
well-known implement used by horse-
men. In botany, an elongated ap-
pendage of the corolla.

SPURRED RYE. Ergotted rye.
See Ersot.

SPURGE. The genus Euphorbia^
the juice of which is usually acrid.
Many species are highly ornamental.
The unripe fruit of the E. lathyris is
used as a pickle.

SPURGE LAUREL. Daphne lau-
rcola. A shrub of the same genus as
the Mczereoa.

SPUR OF RYE. Ergot. See Rye.

SPURRY. Spcrgula arveusis {fig.).
Corn spurrv, an indigenous annual,

growing in sandy wheat and grain
fields. It may be cultivated on the
poorest soils, and is so quick of
growth and short of duration, that it
is often made to take an intermediate
place between the harvest and the
spring sowing, without any strict ad-
herence to the regularity of sucres-
i sion. It is sown sometimes in the
746

SQU

sprinj:, but in general in the autumn,
iuuncdiatcly alter liarvcstiiiy the corn
crops. One light ploiigliing is sutli-
cient, and as the grain is very small,
it is but very lightly covered. About
twenty-four pounds of seed to the
acre is the usual quantity. Its growth
is so rapid that m tive or six weeks
it acquires its full height, w^hich sel-
dom exceeds twelve or fourteen inch-
es. The crop is of course a light
one, hut is considered of great value,
both as supplying a certam quantum
of j)rovender at very little cost, and
as being the best food for milch cows
to improve the quality of the butter.
It lasts till the frost sets in, and is
usually fed off by milch cows tether-
ed on it, but is sometnnes cut and
carried to the stalls.

Where spurry is sown in spring,
the crop is occasionally made into
hay ; but from the watery nature of
the plant, it shrinks very much in
bulk, and, upon the whole, is much
more advantageously consumed in
the other manner. It is indigenous
in Flanders ; and, except when culti-
vated, is looked on as a weed, as in
this country.

Von Thaer considers it the most
nutritious herb of any, but the crop
is too small. Crome makes the fresh
plants to consist of water, 710;
starch, sugar, and gum, 75 ; albu-
men, 2 3 ; woody fibre, 120 percent.

SQUAMA. A scale : rudimentary
scale, like leaves or other parts of
a plant. Squamous is scaly, or scale-
like.

SQUARROUS. Ragged in appear-
ance.

SQUASH. Cucurbita melopepa is
the simbling or round squash ; C.
verrucosa, wharty squash ; the vege-
table marrow, C. succado. Varieties :
Early orange, early bush scollop,
green-striped bush, early crookneck,
large cushaw, vegetable or autumn
marrow, Canada or winter crook-
neck, Lima cocoanut, acorn or Cal-
ifornia, and Valparaiso. Of these,
the early orange and autumn marrow
are best for the table ; the Valparai-
so, which sometimes becomes up-
ward of 100 lbs. weight, is also ex-
746

STA

cellent for the table and a crop. The
Canada or winter crookneck keeps
well through winter, and is good for
a crop for cattle. The culture is the
same as for the cucumber and melon,
the hills being from six to ten feet,
according to the variety. They should
be well aired and dry before being
put away for winter, and should be
placed on straw or shelves, and not
allowed to press on each other.

SQUASH BUG. Coreus trislis.
See Cucumber.

SQUEAKERS. Pigeons under six
months old.

SQUILL. The genus Scilla. Bul-
bous plants with handsome flowers
like the hyacinth. The root of S.
i7taritima, a native of the sandy shores
of the Mediterranean, is an excellent
medicine in diseases of the throat
and chest ; it is also diuretic.

STABLE. The building in which
horses are lodged. It should be well
ventilated and often cleaned, the
urine and dung being collected into a
suitable tank, or charcoal and gyp-
sum should be spread on the floor to
catch the urine and improve the air.
The following account of stable man-
agement is from the " British Hus-
bandry ;"

" Notwithstanding that the cost of
horses forms a prominent item in the
farmer's outlay, there is frequently
no part of his live-stock, nor any
branch of his business, either so ill
understood or so much neglected as
stable management. Let any one look
into the low-roofed, narrow, dark, and
unstalled building in which teams are
often huddled together in some of the
old homesteads, and the fumes arising
from stagnant urine lying upon the
uneven pavement, as well as from
accumulated heaps of fermenting lit-
ter, and he must be convinced that it
is a place as noxious to health as the
cobwebbed rafters, the unwhitewash-
ed walls, and the confusion of the
harness and utensils, show it to be
devoid of neatness and order. Let
him examine the horses, and he will
find that, although perhaps sleek from
good feedmg, their coats are foul and
their heels greasy. Instead of e.\-

STABLE.

hibitingthe sprightly appearance indi- I
cuted by animals that have been com- j
fortably bedded, their heavy eyes and \
sluggish appearance distinctly mark
the state ol the stable tbey have quit-
ted. But tliuugh this description is
strictly applii"al)le to many stables, it
must yet be admitted that those on
most farms of magnitude wear a very
different appearance.

" A stable for farm horses need not
be rigged out like one for hunters ; but
it should be roomy, clean, and well
ventilated, and everything belonging
to it should be kept in its proper place.
Neither is it necessary that it should
he completely stalled : team cattle are
generally quiet ; if vicious, they should
be got rid of A pair of horses,
worked together, will stand and feed
together quite as conveniently as in
sejjarate stalls, if allowed sufficient
room, and two in one stall are more
convenient to the carter. Horses
gather their feet under them ; and 5
feet, or 4^ feet if the cattle be not
large, are sufficient width for the fore
quarter. A division between each
pair is, however, desirable ; but a
strong post and rail will be sufficient,
without close boarding, provided a
partition be made about four feet
long, and extending from thence up-
ward at least the full depth of the
manger, so as to enclose both that
and the rack. Horses, however,
sometimes acquire a habit of not ly-
ing down at all in the stable, if they
be not very conveniently lodged;
and as this cannot but prove highly
prej udicial to their health, they should,
in such cases, be accommodated with
roomy single stalls, or else turned
out under a loose shed. Double
stables, in which horses stand heel
to heel, are objectionable ; and hay
is better when cut fresh daily from
the stack, as well as more economi-
cally used, than when kept in lofts.
Corner racks are preferable to those
which extend along the front ; and
if bars be nailed across the manger,
at about a foot distance from each
other, they will prevent the horses
from throwing out their food, which
tbey are apt to do, in search of the

corn, when it is mixed with chafT, as
well as when they have filled them-
selves. Every kind of food should,
also, be administered in small (juanti-
ties at a time ; when manger meal is

' given, and even when racked up for
the night, the provender should be
served out s[)aringly. A cart horse,
fed on dry food, will require from two

I to three hours to consume his morning
feed ; the men should therefore be
early in the stable, and all food should
be punctually given at stated hours.
Regularity should also be observed in
the hours of their work. A farm
horse can well support ten hours' la-

I hour in the day, provided he be not
hurried, and the time be divided into

' two equal periods, with a rest of at
least two or three hours between. In
the short days of winter, when that
cannot be allowed, the time may be
prolonged to six or even seven hours,
but ought never to extend beyond

I eight, with a short bait.

" Care is also requisite in watering
horses in the stable ; and it should

'; never be given either immediately be-
fore or after their corn, unless they
first eat some hay. On the road
they may be watered moderately, and
then put gently into motion, instead
of allowing them to stand at an ale-
house door while the carter refreshes
himself Some persons imagine that
hard spring water is the most whole-
some for cattle, but horses invariably
prefer it soft.

" Farm stables are merely intended
to protect the cattle from the weather,
for, being much exposed to changes
of the temperature, they should nev-
er be kept hot ; and as fresh air is
an essential element of health, the
windows should be merely latticed,
like those in granaries ; and two or
three wooden funnels, according to
the size of the stable, should be in-
serted from the ceiling through the
roof, thus forming so many chimneys
for the escape of foul vapours. The
floors of all stables should be paved
with either clinkers or table-stones,
laid close and even, and well bedded
under the foundation, as otherwise a
portion of the urine will be absorbed
74T

STABLE.

by the soil, and will emit a nauseous '
and unwholesome exiialation. The
floor should be slightly raised at the
front of the stalls, but the slope should ;
not exceed three inches, and that
should be provided for by raising the ;
litter behind them, or they wdl stand i
in an uneasy position. The doors
would be more conveniently placed !
at one end of the stable than in the
side, as the dung will be more easily ;
removed, and a free passage mi-iy be :
allowed to the urine by a gentle slant
in the gutter of the pavement at their
feet, which may then be convenient-
ly carried ofl' by a drain.

" Some very intelligent farmers
keep their teams entirely in open ,
yards, or hammels, surrounded with
well littered sheds for them to run ,
under at pleasure ; and experience ;
has proved that, in this manner, their
health may be maintained as well, if
not better than in stables. Such a
yard does for the whole year — for
summer soiling and wmter feeding — '
but it is attended with the inconve-
nience of exposing them to accidents
when many are thus together ; nei-
ther can their food be so equally di-
vided, nor can they be kept equally
clean. i

" Carters think it no harm to pilfer
corn to pamper their teams ; they
have no idea of any better mode of
feeding than to cram them to the ut-
most, and, if allowed the free use of
hay, they will not only waste it, but,
out of mistaken kindness, do the ani-
mals serious injury by overloading
their stomachs. On every consid-
eration, therefore, of health and econ-
omy, they should be allowanced. '
The chatr, as well as the corn, should
be weighed or measured, and if hay
be given in the racks, it should be !
bound, and given out in trusses : the
expense of binding will be more than
repaid by the saving in consumption.
Marshall has justly observed, in his
Minutes of Agriculture, that, by stint-
ing the quantity, the men become
more careful ; they look upon it as '
something, and know that if they lav- j
ish to-day they will want to-morrow-;
thus the servant learns frugality, |
748

while his cattle have their food reg-
ularly ; he will give them a little at
a time, and see that they eat it up
clean. There is a sympathy between
the human and the brute creation,
arising from acquaintance, which is
more easily observed than communi-
cated. There are carters who would
sooner starve themselves than their
horses, and among stock-feeders in
general it is obvious to common ob-
servation ; though this kindness does
not extend equally to the bestowal
of their labour, and, from habit, as
well as idleness, they are very gen-
erally neglectful of the essential du-
ties of cleanliness. Much of this
must, however, be attributed to their
masters, who too commonly treat
them as men not to be trusted, and
suspicion naturally begets deceit.
There is, consequently, but little sym-
pathy existing between them ; but
when servants are used with kind-
ness, they often return it with inter-
est, and devote themselves with sin-
cerity to the service of their em-
ployer.

" Condition is a word of large
meaning in the stable of a gentleman ;
in that of a farmer, whose horses
should be kept more for work than
for show, it should be understood to
mean a sufficiency of wholesome
food, evidenced by a healthy, mellow,
clean-skinned hide, without much
fat, a lively eye, and a general ap-
pearance of health. Common work-
ing horses require but little groom-
ing ; yet their coats should be kept
clear of scurf, and their feet should
be well attended to. The rough hair
which encumbers their fetlocks is
useful in some countries as a protec-
tion against flints, but a much less
quantity would serve that purpose,
and when allowed to remain clog-
ged with dirt, it engenders grease.
Through a very unwise economy of
some masters, the shoes, too, are
seldom removed until they are either
completely worn or broken, by which
much injury is done to the hoof;
their shoulders are galled by want of
timely attention to the state of the
collars, and tinae is contmually lost

STABLE.

by the breaking and patching of the
harness. In all these cases, preven-
tion is better than cure ; and, besides
the established regulation of remo-
ving the dung and ' setting the stable
fair' every morning, as well as see-
ing that each horse be thoroughly dry
and clean, his feet washed, and occa-
sionally oiled and stopped, before
' making up for the night,' it would be
a good rule to have a regular inspec-
tion of the cattle, harness, and imple-
ments, once every week, even were
a portion of the Saturday evening's
usual work devoted to that ])urposc.
'• Shucing. — Although tlie better
class of veterinary surgeons are men
of education, it is yet to be regretted
that the common run of farriers are
of a very different description, who,
though usually employed in common
cases, yet should never be intrusted
in one that incurs danger. They,
however, are generally handy work-
men, and possessed of knowledge

and observation sufficient to shoe a
horse with propriety, though it is oft-
en an operation which requires con-
siderable delicacy, and, in the com-
monest case, should never be confi-
ded to a man who is not perfectly
master of his business. Though usu-
ally executed through the general do-
cility of the animals, without any ex-
traordinary difficulty, yet there is no
one who has not witnessed repeated
instances of accidents to both men
and horses, through the violence or
the imperfect performance of the op-
eration, through the unsteadiness of
the latter ; and it even sometimes
becomes necessary to cast them, in
order to avoid danger, from the want
of a proper machine for the purpose
of security.

" This difficulty may, however, be
avoided by the adoption of the Flem-
ish forge, which is in general use
throughout the Low Countries, and
consists of strong posts and rails, by

R R R S

749

STACK.

which the horses are confined in a
very simple apparatus, whinh may be
easily erected, and which we partly
copy from one of the plates in the
work of Count Lasteyrie on agricul-
tural implements."

STACK. A regular structure of
hay, oats, wheat, or other produce,
for their storage and preservation.

" Stands are requisite fi.xtures of the
stack-yard : they are basements of
timber, or masonry, or sometimes of
iron, on which to build the stack, and
their object is to keep the lower part
of the stack dry and exclude ver-
min. The usual mode of constructing
stands is to place a stout frame of
timber on upright stones, two feet
high, and having projecting caps of
flat stones. They are also construct-
ed wholly of stone, with circular or
polygonal walls {Fig. 1, a, b), built to
Fig. 1.

the same height as in the former case,
in a rather slanting manner outward,
and covered on the tops with copings
of oak planking, or flat stones, which
project over the edges several inches,
and in that way prevent the ascent
of rats and mice to the stacks. In
both these modes, pieces of timber
are placed as a frame in the middle
to support the grain upon, and gener-
ally a cone of spars in the centre, to
form a column of air in the heart of
the corn. Some suppose the first of
these sorts of corn stands to be the
best for general purposes, as being
more easily as well as more cheaply
constructed, and, at the same time,
permitting the air to enter and circu-
late with more freedom underneath,
in the bottom of the stand, which is
of much advantage. It is obvious
that the form of these stands or base-
ments must vary according to that in
which the stacks are to be made,
which is different in different dis-
750

tricts. But wherever the thrashing
machine is introduced, the circular
base, as producing a stack of a mod-
erate size, with other advantages, is
generally preferred. But cast-iron
stands {Fig. 2), with or without fun-
Fig. 2.

nels, are found preferable, and admit
of stacking the corn somewhat ear-
lier. The pillars of these stands are
three feet high, and weigh half a hun-
dred each. A stack requires s€ven
pillars, besides the framing, which
may either be made of poles or young
trees. In the wet climate of Clack-
mannanshire, wheat has been stack-
ed in five days, beans in eight, and
barley and oats in ten days, and some-
times earlier. No vermin can find
their way into these stacks to con-
sume the grain, and the straw is bet-
ter preserved. The cone or triangle
keeps up a circulation of air, and pre-
vents heating or other damage.

" The stack-yard, or enclosure,
within which corn, hay, &c., are
stacked, is placed exterior to that side
of the building which contains the
barn. Stack-yards should always be
sufficiently spacious and airy, having
a firm, dry bottom ; and some advise
them to be ridged up to prevent the
accumulation of surface water ; as
by raising the ridges pretty well in
the middle, and covering the places
where the stacks are to be built, ei-
ther with rough stones, with a mix-
ture of gravel, or with pavement in
the same manner as streets, much
advantage would be gained at little

STACK.

expense ; but a much bettor method
is to have them raised considerably
above tbe surface, and placed upon
pillars of wood or stone, with a cov-
ering of wood round the circumfe-
rence, and beams laid across. The
enclosing of stack-yards should be
well performed, either by means of
walls or palings, or, better, with a sunk
fence ; as in this way the stacks will
have the full benefit of the air from
top to bottom, a circumstance of no
small moment, since il is ollen found,
especially in wet seasons, where the
fence of the stack-yards is only a low
wall, that the whole of the stacks are
damaged or spoiled as high up as the
wall reaches, while the upper part is
perfectly safe. Should any addition
be required to the sunk fence, a rail-
ing upon the top may be quite suffi-
cient. This fully sliows the vast ad-
vantage of having stack-yards suffi-
ciently airy. The proper arrange-
ment of the stands, for their being
removed to the thrashing-mill, is also
a matter of much consequence in the
economy of the work that is to be
performed in them.

" The proper size of the hay stack
should probably be different in some
degree, according to the state and na-
ture of the hay ; but a middling size
is perhaps the best, say from twenty
to thirty loads of about one ton each,
as there are inconveniences in both
small and large stacks, the former
having too much outside, while the
latter are liable to take on too much
heat, and, at the same time, permit
less moisture to be preserved in the
hay. In small stacks, the bellying
forms, with very narrow bottoms,
have often much advantage, and are,
in some districts, termed sheep
stacks, probably from the slovenly
practice of sheep having been per-
mitted to feed at them.

" In building every description of
stack, the stem, or body, should be so
formed as to swell gradually out-
ward, quite up to the part termed the
eaves ; as by this method it is more
perfectly secured against the en-
trance of moisture, and, at the same
time, requires a less space of stand

to rest upon ; and, when the building
of them is well performed, they have
equal solidity, and stand in as firm a
manner.

" The stem should contain about
two thirds, and the roof one third, of
the wiiole stack. If it be built on a
frame, the stem should contain less
and the roof more ; if on a bottom,
the reverse. The corners of the
stem should not be built too sharp,
but should be carried up rather round-
ish, by which the sides will look full-
er, and the swell given by the press-
ure will be more perceptible.

" The ends of the roof should have
a gentle projection, answerable to
the stem ; and the sides should be
carried up rather convex than flat or
concave. Perhaps a roof gently con-
vex shoots otr the rains better than
any other.

" Where grain is stacked that has
not been sheaved, and in building
hay stacks, it is the usual practice to
have a number of persons upon the
stack, the corn or hay being forked
up and deposited on the different
sides all round in a similar method ;
after this, other parcels are laid all
round on the inside of these, so as to
bind them in a secure manner from
slipping outward, the operator pro-
ceeding in the same manner till the
whole of the middle space is perfect-
ly filled up, when he begins another
course in the same method, and goes
on in this mode, with course after
course, till he has raised the whole
of the stem, when he begins to take
in for the roof, in a very gradual man-
ner, in every succeeding course, un-
til the whole is brought to a ridge or
point, according to the manner in
which the stack is formed. But for
the purpose that the roofs may throw
off the water in a more perfect and
effectual manner, they should be
made so as to have a slight degree
of fulness or swell about the middle
of them, and not be made flat, as is
too frequently the practice with in-
different builders of stacks.

" In stacking, where the grain is
bound into sheaves, there is seldom
more than one person employed in
751

STACK.

managing the work of building the
staclt, except in cases where the di-
mensions are very consideral)le, m
which case it is found necessary to
have a boy to receive the sheaves
from the pitcher and hand them to
the man wlio builds the stack. In
executing the work, it is of the ut-
most importance that the centre of
the stack be constantly kept in a
somewhat raised state above the
sides, as the sheaves have thus a
sloping direction outwards by which
the entrance of moisture is more ef-
fectually guarded against and pre-
vented. To accomplish this in the
most perfect manner, the workman
begins in the middle of the stand or
staddle, setting the sheaves together
so that they may incline a little
against each other, placing the rest
in successive rows against them till
0 he comes to the outside, when he car-
ries a course of sheaves quite round,
in a more sloping manner than in the
preceding courses. The bottom of
the stack being formed in this way,
it is afterward usual to begin at the
outside, and advance with different
courses round the whole, placing
each course a little within the other,
so as to bind them in an exact and
careful manner, till the stacker comes
to the middle. All the different cours-
es are to be laid on in a similar manner
until the whole of the stem is raised
and completed, when the last outside
row of sheaves is, in most cases,
placed a very little more out than the
others, in order to form a sort of pro-
jection for the eaves, that the water
may be thrown ofi' more effectually.
But in cases where the stems of the
stacks are formed so as to project
outward in the manner already no-
ticed, this may be omitted without
any bad consequences, as the water
will be thrown off easily without
touching the waste of the stack. The
roof is to be formed by placing the
sheaves gradually a little more in and
in, in every course, until it comes to
a ridge, or point, according to the
form of the stack, as has been al-
ready observed. But in forming and
constructing this part of the stack,
752

great care should constantly be taken
to give the ear ends of the sheaves a
sufficiently sloping direction upward,
in order that they may be the better
secured from wetness ; and to the
outside should be given a rounded
form, in the manner that has been
already noticed.

" A funnel or chimney is frequent-
ly formed or left in circular stacks,
especially in wet districts, in order
to prevent their taking on too much
heat : where these funnels are not
formed with the basement of timber,
iron, or masonry, they are produced
by tying a sheaf up in a very tight
manner, and placing it in the middle,
on the foundation of the stack, pull-
ing it up occasionally as the building
of the stack proceeds all round it. In
setting up ricks in bad harvests, it is
a practice in some places, particular-
ly with barley crops, to have three or
four pretty large poles tied together,
by winding straw ropes round them,
set up in the middle, round which the
stacks are then built. But except
the stacks are large, or the grain,
when put into them, is in an imperfect
condition, such openings are quite
unnecessary.

" The stacking of hay requires
much care and attention in the per-
son employed for the purpose, though
less than that of building grain stacks.
There should constantly be a proper
stand or foundation, somewhat raised
by wood or other materials, prepared
for placing the stacks upon ; but no-
thing of the coping kind is here ne-
cessary. In the business of stacking
hay, the work should be constantly
performed, as much as possible, while
the sun is upon the hay, as considera-
ble advantage is thus gained in its
quality : and it is necessary to have
a stacker that has been accustomed
to the business, and a proper number
of persons to help upon the stack, in
order that it may be well spread out
and trodden down.

" The building of hay stacks should
be conducted much in the same way
as the building of stacks of loose
grain ; the middle of the stack being
always well kept up a little higher

STACK.

than the sides, and the sides and ends
well bound in by the proper applica-
tion of the successive portions of hay
as the work advances, and during
which it is a good way, where there
are plenty of hands, to have the sides
and ends properly pulled into form,
as by this means much after labour is
prevented. It is likewise of advan-
tage that the hay should be well sha-
ken and broken from the lumps du-
ring the operation of stacking. The
form in which the stacks are built is
not of much consequence ; but if
large, and made in the square form,
it is belter not to have them too broad,
or of too great width, as by this
means they are less apt to heat.
With the intention of preventing too
much heat, sometimes in building hay
stacks, as well as those of the grain
kind, holes, pipes, and chimneys are
left in the middle, that the excessive
heat may be disciiarged ; but there is
often injury sustained by them, from
their attracting too much moisture.

" The hay stacks of Middlesex,
England, are more neatly formed and
better secured than anywhere else.
.\t every vacant time, while the stack
is carrying up, the men are employed
in pulling it with their hands into a
proper shape ; and about a week
after it is finished the whole roof is
properly thatched, and then secured
from receiving any damage from the
wind, by means of a straw rope ex-
tending along the eaves, up the ends,
and near the ridge. The ends of the
thatch are afterward cut evenly be-
low the eaves of the stack, just of
sufficient length for the rain water to
drip quite clear off the hay. When
the stack happens to be placed in a
situation which may be suspected of
being too damp in the winter, a trench
of about six or eight inches deep is
dug round, and nearly close to it,
which serves to convey all the water
from the spot, and renders it perfect-
ly dry and secure.

" The stack guard {Fig. 3), or cov-

ering of canvass, is emploved in some
districts to protect the stack while
building in a wet season. The worn
sails of ships are sometimes made
use of for this purpose, though, in
most parts, a covering of loose straw
or hay is found sufficient in ordinary
cases ; but where, from a continued
rain, the stack is penetrated some
way down, a part is removed on re-
commencing, and dried before being
replaced, it is observed by Marshal,
that a sail cloth, thrown over and im-

mediately upon the hay of a stack in
full heat, is liable to do more injury
by increasing the heat, and, at the
same time, checking the ascent of the
steam, than service in shooting off
rain water. The improved method
of spreading the cloth he describes as
follows : two tall poles (a, a) are in-
serted firmly in two cart wheels (i, b),
which are laid flat upon the ground at
each end of the stack, and loaded
with stones to increase their stability.
Another pole of the same kind, and
753

STA

STA

somewhat longer than the stack, is ; hrasts come as regularly to market

furnished at each end with an iron
ring or hoop, large enough to admit
the upright poles and to pass (reely
upon them. Near the head of each
of the standards is a pulley (c, r), over
which a rope is passed from the ring
or end of the horizontal pole, by
which it is easily raised or lowered
to suit the given height of the stack

in winter as in summer. Stall feed-
ing is now the principal means hy
which oxen and cows are rendered
fit for the market.

" It has been observed in the arti-
cle Soilnio-, that one object of that
system was to save the waste of foo-*
which is occasioned by the treading
of cattle in pastures, and by their

A cloth being now thrown over the choosing the sweetest grasses to the
horizontal pole, and its lower mar- neglect of the coarser. The princi-
gins loaded with weights, a complete pal object, however, is to save the
roof is formed and neatly fitted to i manure, which in the pastures goes
the stack, whether it l)e high or low, to waste, but in the yards or stall is
wide or narrow ; tlie eaves being al- | all preserved. In stall feeding an-
ways adjusted to the wall plate, or I other object is looked to, that of in-
upper part of the stem of the stack ; I creasing the substance of the animal,
thus effectually shooting off rain wa- 1 especially the fat ; and to do this'ju-
ter, while the internal moisture, or I diciously and with profit requires
steam, escapes freely at either end as \ much experience and attention. It
the wind may happen to blow. This j has been proved that animals require
contrivance is readily put up or ta- a certain portion of meat and drink
ken away ; the poles being light, are i to keep them alive, and that this quan-
easily moved from stack to stack, or |tity, in the same species, is, in gen-
laid up for another season, and the eral, in proportion to the weight of
wheels are readily removed or re- the animal. If an animal has his ex-

turned to their axles." — (Loudon.)

STADDLES. The contents of
haycocks spread out in circles of five
or six yards to dry.

act ration of food, he will continue in
health, but he will not increase in
weight : in this case, therefore, it
only produces a certain portion of

STAKE AND RICE. A fence manure, which is not equivalent to

made of stakes driven into the ground
with branches intertwined.

STAG. Sometimes used for a
young horse.

STAGGERS. Apoplexy. See
Horse, Diseases of.

STALL FEEDING. The feeding
of cattle in stalls for the purpose of
fattening them more readily than by
simple grazing, and at a time when
they cannot get fat on pastures, as a
regular part of the process of hus-
bandry, is comparatively modern. In
former times cattle were slaughtered
in October and November, which lat-
ter, in most languages derived from
the Teutonic, is called Slaughter
month ; there being no possibility of
buying fresh meat of any degree of
fatness during winter, and salt meat
was the food of all classes in that
season. But now the process of fat-
tening cattle goes on without inter-
ruption during the whole year, and fat
754

the food consumed. If a larger quan-
tity be given, the animal, if in health,
will increase in weight, and the more
food he has, within a certain limit,
the faster will be this increase : but
there is a point where increase stops ;
and if by any means the animal is in-
duced to take more, his stomach will
be deranged, and he will become dis-
eased, and occasion loss by over-
feeding. It is consequently of great
importance to the stall feeder to as-
certain what is the exact quantity
of food which it will be most prof-
itable to give to a stall-fed animal.
Experience alone can teach this ;
but some rules may be given which
will enable any one who wishes to
stall feed cattle not greatly to err
in his mode of feeding, and soon to
find out what is the most profitable
course to pursue. For this purpose,
it is essential that, after having as-
certained by experiment the quantity

STALL FEEDING.

of food which will give the greatest
increase of (iesli per week on a cer-
tain weifilit of beasts when put up to
fatten, all the food given to the cat-
tle be carefully weighed, and no more
given in any day tiian is needful.
The quality of the food should also
he attended to ; for a truss of line,
well-made clover, lucern, or sainfoin
hay, may contain double the nourish-
ment of another truss of coarse marsh
hay. The best kind of food should al-
w'ays be reserved for fattening cattle.
Roots are e.vcellent helps ; hut roots
alone are too watery, and must be
corrected by dry food, such as straw
cut into chafl", or good hay, and es-
pecially farinaceous food, wliether it
be corn ground or bruised, or oil-cake
after the oil has been expressed. By
a judicious mixture of food, a much
greater mcrease of flesh may be pro-
duced than by an irregular mode of
feeding, however good the quality or
abundant the quantity given may be.
To over feed is as unprolitable as to
starve a beast, and produces similar
effects. It is of great importance
that the cattle should be fed with
great punctuality at certain hours du-
ring the day, and that the troughs
should be cleared of all the remains
of food which they do not eat at each
time of feeding. Rest and sleep are
great aids to digestion, and a little
gentle exercise after sleep prepares
the stomach for a fresh supply of
food : air, also, is highly conducive to
health ; and hence those beasts which
are allowed to move about in a loose
stall or a small yard, protected from
the rain and wind, thrive belter in
general than those which are tied up.
It is the practice of many good feed-
ers to put oxen in pairs in small
stalls, partly open, so that they may
be in the air, or under shelter, as they
prefer ; and the finest oxen, if not the
fattest, are prepared for the market
in this way. E.xperience shows that
all domestic animals like company,
and that they are more contented and
quiet when they have a companion
than when they are alone. This is
the reason why they are put up in
pairs. Whatever promotes the health

and comfort of the animal will be
most profitable to the feeder. When
a beast has actpiired a certain degree
of fatness, it is a nice point to decide
whether it would be best to send hiin
to market or continue to fe(;d him.
This is often decided by mere caprice
or fancy ; but if the food has been
weighed, and the weekly increase of
the beast is noted, which is best
done by weighing, but may nearly be
guessed by measuring, it becomes a
mere question in arithmetic to deter-
mine whether his increase pays for
his food and attendance ; if it does
not, there is a loss in keeping him ;
and if a lean animal put in his stead
would increase faster on the same
food, every day he is kept there is a
loss of the difference between the in-
crease of the two. The pride of pro-
ducing a wonderful animal at a fair
or show may be dearly paid for, and
must be put down to the account of
luxuries, such as keeping hunters or
race-horses.

" The most profitable food for fat-
tening cattle is, in general, the prod-
uce of the farm ; the expense of all
purchased food is increased by the
profit of the dealer and the carriage
of it ; and the only compensation for
this additional cost may be in in-
creasing the manure, where the straw
and roots of the farm are deficient.
In that case, oil-cake, or even corn,
may be purchased with advantage;
since by means of the manure, crops
may be raised which without it must
fail. The stalling of cattle, as well
as the fattening of pigs, is in many sit-
uations the best means of carrying
the produce of the farm to market.
An ox can be driven many miles,
while the food he has consumed
would not repay the carriage, and
all the manure would be lost, and
must be purchased at a great expense,
if it can be had at all. If a farmer
can feed cattle so as to pay him a
fair market price for the food con-
sumed, and something for the risk of
accidental loss, he may be well con-
tented to have the manure for his
trouble : few stall feeders get more
than this in the long run." — {Kham.)
753

STA

STAMENS. The male apparatus
of a flower. They are situated iin-
niedialely within the petals, and con-
sist each of a filament, the anther,
and the pollen ; of which the two lat-
ter are essential, and tlio fornior not.
They are a niodiried form of the pe-
tal, and are placed next it on the in-
side, towards the centre of the flower.
Independently of their physiological
importance, they are much used as
good marks of discrimination in sys-
tematical hotany.

STAMINATE. Having stamens
only.

STANDARD TREES. Such trees
as are not trained, but grow erect and
without support.

STARCH. Amylaceous matter,
fecula, composed oi' carbon 12 ; hy-
drogen 10 ; oxygen 10. " Starch is
one ofthe commonest proximate prin-
ciples of vegetables. It is character-
ized by its insipidit}', and by insolu-
bility in cold water, in alcohol, and in
ether. It dissolves in, or at least
forms a gelatinous compound with
water, heated to 175° ; and this solu-
tion, even when much diluted, is ren-
dered blue by iodine. This admira-
ble test of the presence of starch is
not effective in hot solutions ; and by
boiling, the blue colour disappears,
but returns in strong solutions as
they cool. The term starch is com-
mercially applied to that obtained from
wheat, which, for this manufacture,
is ground and diffused through vats
of water, where it undergoes a slight
fermentation, and acquires a peculiar
sour smell. A part of the gluten and al-
bumenof ihegrain is thus separated in
the form of a viscid scum ; the starch
being in the form of a finely-divided
white powder, is gradually farther
separated by washing in large quan-
tities of water, from which it is ulti-
mately allowed to settle, and put into
boxes lined with linen to drain ; it is
then cut into squares, which are dried
first in airy chambers upon porous
bricks, and afterward rolled up in pa-
pers and s/ovc dried ; it is in this lat-
ter operation that the starch acquires
that peculiar columnar texture and
fracture which is well exhibited on
756

STE

opening a paper parcel as it comes
from the stove. A little smalt is gen-
erally added to the starch, by which
it acquires a very pale blue tint, and
is better adapted to conceal or cover
the yellow tint acquired by worn lin-
en. Starch may be obtained from
many other grains, and from potatoes
and several other esculent vegetables.
Arrow-root is the starch ofthe Maran-
ta arundinacea ; sago, of the Sagus
farimfcra, an East India palm-tree ;
and tapioca and cassava of the Jalro-
pha manihot. In the process of ger-
mination, and by various chemical
agents, starch may be converted into
a species of gum, dextrin, and su-
gar."

STAR- WORTS. Composite plants
of the genus Aster.

STAVES. Staves for spirit pun-
cheons are of white oak, for sugar
hogsheads of red oak ; but ash and
white oak are also used. They are
cut of several lengths to make into
hogsheads, puncheons, and tierces.
The largest size is 72 inches long, 7
wide, and 3 inches thick ; for punch-
eons, tierces, brewer's casks, pipes,
&c., staves are 33, 42, 4.5, 54 inches
long, and from ^, 1^, U, 2h, to 3
inches thick. The most usuafdimen-
sions are 72, 42, and 33 inches, with
3, Ik, and one inch thickness; these
measures are exclusive of sapwood.
The British duly on staves has been
reduced to 2Ss. the 50 cubic feet, and
hence they will be largelv exported.

STEAMING FOOD. By this means
many roots, especially potatoes, are
reduced almost to a powder. Corn
and other meal, when boiled, is more
perfectly digested, and in this way, by
answering for imperfect grinding, the
steaming of food, or boiling, serves
to assist a more perfect assimilation.
There is no increase in nutritiousness,
and in many cases the economy is
very questionable. See Food

STEARIN. The solid part of
fats. It is a stearate of glycerine.

STEARIC ACID. The acid ob-
tained by saponizing stearin, and de-
composing the soap by a dilute acid.
It is a brilliant white, soft body, in-
soluble in water.

STI

STO

STEATITE. Soapstonc.

STEATOMA. A Tatty tumour.

STEEPING SEEDS. See Uredo,
Manuring Seeds, Smiif.

STELLATE. Star-shaped, resem-
bling a star.

STEM. In botany, the upward
prolongation of the axis of a plant.
It is distinguished from all other parts
by bearing buds.

STENELYTRAXS. A fttmily of
coleopterous insects, many of which
have the elytra narrow at the poste-
rior part.

STEPPE. An extensive plain.

STERCORARY. A place where
dung and manure is kept.

STEREO.METER. An instrument
for taking specific gravities.

STERNUM. The breast bone, to
which the ril)s are attached.

STETHESCOPE. A wooden tube,
twelve inches long, used to assist the
ear in determining the character of the
sounds of respiration and other func-
tions occurring within the body, to
form an opinion of the diseases, &c.

STHENIC DISEASES. Those of
increased action or inflammation.

STIGMA. The upper extremity
of the style, or female organ of plants ;
it has almost uniformly a humid sur-
face. It is the part upon which the
pollen falls, and where it is stinmlated

into the production of the pollen tubes,
which are indispensable to the act of
impregnation.

STILE. In building, an upright
piece in framing. In rural adairs, a
rough ladder, or set of steps, to al-
low the passage of men, but not of
animals.

S T I M IJ L A N T S. Substances
which produce increased circulation
or heat, as alcohol.

STIPULE. A small leaf or scale
situated at the base of the leaf-stalk
(pedole) of some plants.

STOCK. The live stock, or ani-
mals of the farm.

STOLON, STOLE. A running
stem which throws off young plants
at certain points, as the strawberry.
Stolomferons is a derivative.

STd.MACH. The cavity or pouch
in which food is digested. In most
animals there is one stomach only,
but in the sheep and ruminants there
are four. See Oz. In the stomach,
properly so called, a fluid termed the
gastric juice is secreted at meal times,
which serves to digest the food.

STOMACH PUMP. An instru-
ment of great value to the farmer to
remove poisonous matters or bad food
from the paunch of anmials. It is
also serviceable for administering
glysters, and one pump, with a num-

757

STO

STO

ber of tubes of different sizes, will
answer fur oxen, horses, or sheep
The instninieiit consists of a syringe,
«, liaving a side openini;, b, and an
ordinary opening at the bottom, d. It
is used both for throwing fluid into
the stomach, &c., and removing it
from the l)ody. FtLT- 1 shows the fix-
ture for injections. Tiie extremity,
d, is placed into the pail of water, (kc,
and a long probang screwed on to the
side opening, b; by pumping, the flu-
id is driven along the probang or in-
jection tube. When used to remove
matters from the stomach, the pro-
bang is screwed on to the lower end,
d, and introduced : the fluid from the
stomach passes out at b (Fig. 2).

Where matters are to be removed
from the stomach, tepid water is first
injected ; the syringe is then un-
screwed from the probang at b, and
screwed on at d. It is now a stom-
ach pump, and will draw any thin flu-
ids out of the stomach.

The introduction of the pump is ef-
fected by the help of an assistant, who
holds tlie animal by a horn and the
dividing cartilage of the nose ; the
operator now takes the tongue in the
left hand, and introduces the tube
with the right, the assistant holdmg
the head and neck in a straight line,
so as to assist the passage. The
jaws are kept open by a regular bit
of perforated wood, or by any piece of
stick introduced between the teeth.

STOMATA. Minute openings on
the under side of most leaves. They
are surrounded by small cellules,
which have the power of shutting
them up.

STONE. A weight of 14 pounds.

STONE CROP. Small, succulent
plants of the genus Scdum, growing
on old walls and roofs.

STOOK and STOOKING. The
same as shock and shocking.

STOOL. " The root of a tree or
plant, similar to the oak, beech, elm,
&c., which throws up shoots. Cop-
pice wood consists chiefly of the
shoots sent up by the roots or stools
of trees or shrubs which have been
cut over by the surface. In general,
all dicotyledonous trees are endowed
758

by nature with the property of send-
ing up shoots from the stump or
stools ; but this is not the case with
most of the gymnosperms or conif-
erous trees. A wood of pines or flrs,
therefore, when once cut down, can
never be renewed except bv seeds."

STORK'S BILL. The genera
F,rodium and Geramum, which fur-
nish many beautiful flowers ; they are
propagated chiefly by slips.

STORY POST. An upright post
or timber to support a flooring, &c.

STOVE. " In horticulture, a struc-
ture in which plants are cultivated
that require a considerably higher
temperature than the open air. There
are two or three kinds of stoves, but
the principal are the dry stove and
the damp stove. The dry stove is a
structure, the atmosphere of which
is heated to the temperature of from
55° to 60° during winter, in which
are chiefly cultivated succulents, such
as the different species of Ceretus,
Cereus, Slapheiia, Euphorbia, Mesem-
bryanlhemiim, and other succulents
having similar habits. During win-
ter these plants require very little wa-
ter, and during summer they require
intense heat, and abundance of air
and water during fine weather. The
damp stove, sometimes also called
the bark stove, requires a tempera-
ture of between 60° and 70- during
winter, with a proportionate increase
during summer, accompanied, in both
seasons, with a high degree of at-
mospherical moisture. This moist-
ure is produced partly by evaporation
from the bark bed in which the plants
are plunged, but chiefly by watering
the floor of the house, and by syr-
inging the plants. During summer
the plants in the bark stove require
all the light which the atmosphere in
this country is capable of i)roducing,
together with abundance of air, as in
the dry stove. Both stoves are heat-
ed by smoke flues, or by hot water or
steam, circulated in metallic or other
tubes. The plants cultivated in the
moist stove are exclusively those of
the tropics ; and those which require
the highest degree of heat are chiefly
monocotyledonous plants, such as the

STR

STR

■' Scitamincct, which inchide the ginger,
plantain, banana, sugar cane, pahus,
Orc/iidacca; ; and such dicotyledonous
plants as the bread fruit, the yam,
niangosteen, and other East Indian
plants. The bark bed is chiefly em-
ployed for producing a uniform de-
gree of moisture and heat to the
roots, and also as a reservoir of heat
for the atmosphere of the house in
case of any diminution from the flues,
water or steam pipes, or the sun.
Stoves of every description require a
constant degree of attention frimi the
gardener throughout the year, more
especially such as are devoted to the
palms, the banana, the pineapple, and
the OrcIudaccoL." — {LuuUcy.)

STOVER. Refuse hulls, coarse
fodder.

STRAINING PIECE. A timber
intended to keep two posts or other
pieces at a certain distance.

STR.4 INS, SPRAINS. Injuries
produced by over-stretching the lig-
aments of muscles ; they are often
very severe, and require cupping and
leeching. Occasionally fomentations
are suthcient, with rest, and banda-
ging the part tightly.

STRAMONIUM. Jamestown
weed. See Datura.

STRANGLES. A disease of young
horses. See Horse, Diseases of.

S T R A N G U R Y, or SUPPRES-
SION OF URINE, INCONTI-
NENCE OF URINE, BLOODY
URINE. " Strangury may arise from
an injury done to the kidneys, or to
the bladder, by strains, or by the ab-
sorption of irritating matters. In
these cases, bleed if there be fever ;
if not, merely give the horse absolute
rest ; mash him, give gruel, and warm
the water given him for drink. Bloody
urine should be treated in the same
way. Some horses have such a nat-
ural or acquired weakness of kid-
neys, as to stale blood with their
urine on every occasion of over-ex-
ertion. The means frequently used
fur relief are such as aggravate the
complaint, and, indeed, are often the
occasion of it, which are diuretics.
Strong diuretics injure horses more
than strong physic, and benefit them

less than any other of the popular
means made use of In retentions of
urine, but particularly in the ease of
bloody urine, they are absolutely im-
proper."

STRATH. A small valley.

STRATUM. A bed of rock, or
other deposite.

STRAW. The culm or stalk of
the cerealia. It is used both as litter
and fodder. For the latter purpose,
the different kinds are of unequal
value. See Food.

STRAW CUTTER. A machine
to cut straw into chafT: a chaff en-
gine. The simplest kind is no more
than two, three, or more curved
knives working between iron bars ;
but the better sorts consist either of
knives set on a fly wheel, or on roll-
ers which press on the straw as it is
pushed along the feeding-trough, or
hopper. In the best, the straw is
pulled forward by the machine, so
that the labourer has only to turn the
handle and feed the hopper. The
number of patents is very great.
The machines of Willis, Boynton,
Green, ^^'orley, Hovey.SafTord, Sand-
ford, and Botts are well known. The
cost IS from 815 to §50, and they cut
from live to thirty bushels per hour.
An English machine, by W. Lester, is
a very simple and admirable contri-
vance. Sandford's machine is of a
durable construction, and the knives
are readily sharpened. Price, §15.

STRAWBERRY. This admirable
fruit is yielded by several species of
the genus Fragaria. The European
wood is F. vcsca ; the scarlets are
froraF. Virgimana; the Alpines from
F. collma ; and the F. Carolutcnsis,
elalior, Cluliensis, also furnish some
of the best kinds.

" The best soil is a strong, rich
loam, and one that is tolerably adhe-
sive and retentive of moisture ; for,
as strawberries are generally injured
in this country by excessive drought,
it is best to provide against this ca-
' lamity by planting them in a rather
I wet soil. A rich soil, however, is
not indispensable, as almost any
mould that is not loo dry will pro-
duce a greater or 'ess quantity of fruit.
759

STR

STR

" Trenching the ground a foot and
a half deep, and mixing plenty of
Well-rolled dung willi the soil that is
brought to the surface, is the best
preparation.

"The lime of planting is the first
week in August for the offsets of the
first spring runtn^rs, always choosing
those thai are large, and rejecting
small ones. During the first year,
cut off all ruimers as they appear.
Any time from October to May will
do for planting out old stools which
have borne fruit once. Those which
liave borne twice are good for no-
thing, and should be thrown away.

"The offsets may be planted in a
single row along the borders of the
walks, at ten or fifteen inches apart :
if another row be made, it ought to
be fifteen inches from the other ;
they may also be planted in clumps
of three or more together, si.x inches
or less apart, and three feet between
the clumps. Beds with four rows
each, and two feet between the beds
for cabbages, answer well. But the
best situation for planting strawber-
ries is where a row of dwarf apple,
pear, or other trees is grown on ei-
ther or both sides of a walk, to have
a bed of strawberries, four or five feet
wide, beneath them ; for in this situa-
tion they will be afforded that degree
of shade which is necessary for them
in dry weather, without injuring the
trees or being injured by them. In
these beds they should first be plant-
ed in four rows, two on each side of
the trees, and the offsets from these
should be allowed to spread so as to
extend themselves over the whole of
the bed, only cutting off annually
those that are disposed to wander
from the prescribed bounds of the
bed. A strawberry bed of this de-
scription would produce a far great-
er crop than if planted out in single
rows, and will continue bearing for
a greater number of years, as well as
be less liable to injury from drought.

" It is important to fix the roots
well in the ground, otherwise they
may be drawn out by earth worms,
or pushed out of the ground on a
thaw succeeding a hard frost.
760

" The best sorts are Keen's seed-
ling, llovey's seedling. Myall's Brit-
ish Queen, Swainstone"s seedling,
old pine, red w-ood, the roseberry, and
the hautbois. The scarlet is the ear-
liest, and the small red Alpine, which
some say is best when rai.sed from
seed, others say best from runners,
planted in August or September, at
SIX inches distance, will produce fruit
from the end of May till the frost sets
in. For a late crop, all the tiovver
steins should be cut off as they show,
up to the end of June.

" Strawberries are much injured by
hot, dry weather, and ther(;fore they
must be abundantly supplied with wa-
ter when this occurs, particularly just
as the blossom falls ; but the blossom
must not be wetted. Weeds must
be cleared off, but in stirring the
earth with a fork, not with a spade,
care must be taken not to go too near
the roots, as recommended by some.
Birds must be guarded against, as
well as snails and slugs, which would
eat the blooms and spoil the fruit.
Pieces of slate, tiles, tin, boards, or,
what is preferable, hay, straw, or dry
moss, should be laid three or lour
inches thick under the fruit as it be-
comes ripe, to keep it clean from
sand: but this precaution is seldom
necessary. The superfluous runners
and dead leaves should be removed
in September. What are termed male
or barren plants should always be
grubbed up."

STREAK. In mineralogy, the
mark left by a mineral when drawn
along the surface of paper.

STREET MANURE. The sweep,
ings of streets, consisting of the dung
of animals, vegetable garbage, earthy
matters, rubbish from buildings, soot,
&c. It is necessarily of very differ-
ent values. It is chiefly useful to
lighten stiff soils, and may be used
at the rate of 20 to 30 loads the
acre.

STRENGTH. "In mechanics,
this term is used in the same sense
as force or power. Thus, strength
of animals is the muscular force or
energy which animals are capable of
e.xerting ; strength of materials is the

STR

STR

resistance which bodies oppose to a
force acting upon them. It is obvi-
ously a matter of much importance
to be able to estimate with tolerable
accuracy the efforts which an animal
of the average strength employed in
labour is capable of exerting, and, ac-
cordingly, very numerous observa-
tions have been made on the subject ;
but this species of force is subject to
variation from so great a number of
circumstances, both physical and me-
chanical, that the results given by
different authors present very little
agreement with each other, though
they are of great value as affording
data for determining the modes in
which animal labour is most advan-
tageously employed.

" Of all animals employed as first
movers, the horse is, beyond ques-
tion, the most useful, and that whose
labour is susceptible of the most nu-
merous and varied applications. For
the purpose of determining his mus-
cular power, the dynamometer may
be conveniently used ; but as the ac-
tion of the-animal is very quickly re-
duced by continued exertion, it is
more usual to estimate it according
to the amount of daily labour perform-
ed. Desaguliers and Smeaton esti-
mate the strength of a horse as equiv-
alent to that of five men ; the French
authors have commonly stated it as
equal to seven men ; and Schulze
makes it equal to that of fourteen
men, in drawing horizontally. Ac-
cording to Desaguliers, a horse's pow-
er is equal to 44-000 lbs. raised one
foot high in one minute. Smeaton
makes this number 22 916, Hachett
28000, and Watt 33 000. The last
estimate is commonly understood by
the term horse pmccr as applied to
steam-engines. The quantity of ac-
tion which a horse can exert dimin-
ishes as the duration of the labour is
prolonged. The following table, by

Time of
Man:li in
Hours.

Gre.itesl
Velocity
per Hour
in Miles.

Time of
March in
Hours.

Greatest 1
Veloiity
per Hour
in Miles.

1
2
3
4
5

14-7
10-4
8-5
7-3
6-6

6

7
8
9
10

60
5-5
5-2
49
46

Tredgold, shows the average maxi-
mum velocity with which a horse un-
loaded can travel, according to the
number of hours per day.

" The useful effect a horse is capa-
ble of producing depends much upon
the manner in which his strength is
applied.

"Strength of Materials. — There are
four different ways in which the
strength of a solid body may be ex-
erted ; first, in resisting a longitudin-
al tension, or force lending to tear it
asunder ; secondly, in resisting a
force tending to break the body by a
transverse strain ; thirdly, in resist-
ing compression, or a force tending
to crush the bo(iy ; and, fourthly, in
resisting a force tending to rend it
asunder by torsion. .Mr. Hodgkinson
gives the following results of his ex-
periments on the resistance of a
crushing force on short pillars of some
of the most common descriptions of
wood, the force being applied in the
direction of the fibres :

Description of Wood.

.Strength
Inch

per square
in lbs.

Alder

6831

0 0960

Ash

8f.!S3

9363

Bay

7518

7518

Beech

7733

9363

Birch

39-27

6402

Cedar

5fi74

5S63

Red deal

5748

66t-fi

White deal ....

6781

7292

Elder

7451

9973

Elm

10331

Fir (spruce) ....

6499

6819

MahoEjany ....

8198

8198

Oak (Quebec) . . .

4331

5962

Oak (Enghsh) . . .

64 84

10058

Pine (pitch) ....

6790

6790

Pine (red) ....

5395

7518

Poplar

3107

5124

Plum (dry) ....

8241

10493

Teak

12101

Walnut

6063

7227

Willow

2898

0128"

S s s 2

— {Brande's Diet, of Science ; Barlow^s
Treatise on the Strength of Timber.)

STREPSIPTERANS. An order
of insects possessing rudimentary
elytra in the form of scales.

S T R I A T E. Grooved, coloured
with narrow lines or streaks.

STRIGID.-E. The raptorial birds
of the owl kind.

STROBILE. The conical fruit of
the pines, firs, hop, &,c.

761

STU

SUB

STRONGYLUS. A genus of par-
asitical intestinal worms.

STRONTIA. An alkaline earth,
very similar to lime.

STRUMA. A swelling.

STRYCHNIA. An extremely
poisonous vegetable alkali, obtained
from the nux vomica and other
strychnous plants. It produces vio-
lent convulsions.

STUBBLE. The roots and stems
of grain plants left in the soil after
harvest. If they are long, it will be
best to burn them, but on light soils
they may be turned in.

STUD. A post or upright in a
building : an establishment of hor-

STUMP MACHINE OR EX-
TRACTOR. A contrivance for the
extraction of stumps from new lands.
They are usually on the principle of
a windlass. The machines of Pratt
and Witney have been often recom-
mended. One of these will raise from
100 to 200 stumps a day ; they cost
from 8200 to $400. The Western
Farmer and Gardener gives the fol-
lowing method of removing stumps :

" Procure a dry, red-elm lever,
about twenty feet long, and about six
to eight inclies in diameter; a good,
stout log chain, with two yokes of
oxen ; this is all the machinery that
is necessary. The mode of operation
is thus : wrap the log chain round the
stump, a little above the ground, and
make what is called a log hitch ; lay
the lever horizontally on the ground,
the large end next to the chain and
against the stump ; make the other
end of the chain fast to this end of
the lever, drawing the lever tiglit
against the stump ; the cattle are
hitched to the small end of the lever,
and driven round the stump in a cir-
cle of which the lever is the radius.
One revolution of the oxen round the
stump will generally twist out the
largest of them ; but should not the
power thus applied be sufficient to
move the stump, the side roots may
be uncovered and cut partly off; after
this is done, the stump will be easily
removed. You will tind this plan
much preferable to any ' patent stump
762

extractor' that you may have seen
puffed in the papers."

STY. See Hog-sty.

STYLE. The stem which sup-
ports the stigma ; it is the upper por-
tion of the carpels.

STYLOBATE. An uninterrupted
base common to many columns.

STYPTICS. Substances which,
when applied to small wounds, re-
strain the flow of blood, as alum.
The word scarcely differs from as-
tringents.

SUBCLAVIAN. Any part under
the clavicle or collar bone.

SUB ERIN. The substance of
cork. By digesting it with nitric
acid, it is converted into suberic acid.

SUBLIMATION. A process by
which solids are by the aid of heat
converted into vapour, which is again
condensed, and often in the crystal-
line form. This operation is frequent-
ly resorted to for the purpose of pu-
rifying various chemical products,
and separating them from substances
which are less volatile.

SUBLINGUAL. The parts lying
under the tongue.

SUBSOIL. The earth immediate-
ly below that which is tilled. The
value of land depends almost as much
on the subsoil as the tilth : if it be
wet and full of stagnant water, it
must be under-drained ; if it be hard
and rocky, the surface soil dries too
readily to a dust ; if it be deep and
too light, water and fluid manures
may drain away wastefully.

S'UBSOILING. Loosening the sub-
soil by a plough without any mould-
board to turn it, has been strenuously
recommended of late, as a great im-
provement in tillage. A heavy plough
is first run along the field some six or
eight inches deep, and a subsoil
plough (see Plough) follows in the
bottom of the furrow, deepening it to
fourteen or sixteen inches in all.
This differs from trench ploughing, in
which the subsoil is cast up and
mixed with the surface, by which the
soil is either benefited or injured, ac-
cording to the nature of the subsoil.

The principal effect of subsoil
ploughing is, that the earth is deep-

SUF

ened to a considerable depth, and
root culture is much improved ; the
soil is also considerably drained, and,
if moor pans exist in it, may be re-
claimed from sterility. It is there-
fore an admirable process in stiff soils
imperfectly drained, but in loose
gravelly or sandy soils subsoil plough-
ing is often very injurious. 15y the
tillage of years, the treading of cat-
tle, and the pressure of the sole of
the plough and rolling, the surface
soil be(!omes compact, and holds wa-
ter and manure sufficiently for the
crops ; but by suhsoiling these ad-
vantages are thrown away, and a
thirstv, loose soil again established.

SUBSTANTIVE COLOURS.
Colouring matters which stain the
texture or yarn permanently, without
the necessity for a mordant ; the lat-
ter being called adjective colours.

SUBSTITUTION. In chemistry,
the doctrine advanced by Dumas, that,
in many organic and complex com-
pounds, one element can take the
place of another without changing the
relations of the others.

SUBSTRATUM. The stratum of
a different geological kind immedi-
ately below the surface.

SUBULATE. Awl-shaped, round,
and tapering to the end.

SUBULICORNS. A family of neu-
roptera, with awl-shaped antennae.

SUBULIPALPS. A section of
caraboid beetles, some of which have
the exterior palpi awl-shaped.

SUCCORY. See Chicory.

SUCCULENT. Fleshy, full of
water.

SUCKERS. The shoots from the
roots of trees or plants near the stem.
They are often serviceable for prop-
agation.

SUCTION PUMP. See Piimp.

SUDORIFICS. Medicines which
produce increased perspiration.

SUET. Fat which contains a large
proportion of stearin, and is hard.
It is best from the loins or kidneys of
the sheep, and next from the ox. It
is used f(jr the best tallow candles.

SUFFRUTEX. An under shrub,
a small shrub, a portion of whose an-
nual stems die away. Suffruticose is
like an under shrub.

SUG

SUGAR. One of the indifferent
and ordinary products of plants. It
is recognised by its flavour. Chem-
ists distinguish a variety of species
of sugar, of which the crystallizable,
or cane sugar, and uncrystallizable, or
difficultly crystaUizahlc, or grape su-
gar (glucose), arc the representatives ;
these differ in composition, cane su-
gar being Ci... Hn On, and grape su-
gar, Ci.2 Hi4 Oi., ; but their chief dis-
tinction rests in the circumstance that
grape sugar is capable of undergoing
fermentation, whereas cane sugar
must lirst be converted into glucose
to ferment. CJrape sugar is identical
with that from fruits, green stalks,
and with dial)ctic and starch sugar.
Sugar for commercial purposes is ob-
tained chiefly from the cane, but the
beet is also extensively manufactur-
ed (see Beet), and the maple (see Ma-
ple) yields a large quantity. Some
sugar or molasses is also made from
starch of potatoes by boiling it in sil-
ver or lead boilers with dilute sulphu-
ric acid : for this purpose, 200 parts of
starch, 4 of strong acid, and 800 of
water are used, and the boiling con-
tinued thirty hours : by steaming at a
high pressure, six hours will answer.

SUGAR CANE. Arundo saccha-
rifera. It is very readily destroyed by
light frosts, and cannot be grown
north of 32^ N. In Louisiana the
frost sometimes destroys the crop,
and to save it, the cut stems are piled
up, or mattressed on the field in mass-
es three or four feet high. The press-
ing is done between rollers worked
usually by animals, but sometimes by
wind, water, or steam power. The
process of making the sugar is de-
tailed under the article Beet. The
following short rules may, however,
be of service :

"1. To cut the cane as ripe as pos-
sible, but before any acetic acid is
formed : litmus paper, touched to the
fresh-cut cane, will turn red if acid.

"2. Express the juice without loss
of time, as every moment after cut-
ting will deteriorate its quality.

" .3. A small (jiiantity of clear lime-
water, say one quart to a hundred gal-
lons of juice, should be added the mg-
7G3

'*r

SUGAR CANE.

ment it is expressed, unless the juice
shows acidity witli litmus paper; in
tliat case, no lime sliould be used, but
a solution of sal-soda, or soda ash,
should be added until it is precisely
neutral.

" 4. When the juice is neutral, free
from excess of acid or alkali, it should
be evaporated in sucii an apparatus as
would finish its charge in thirty min-
utes : if the boiling power is too small,
good crystallization cannot possibly be
obtained.

" The whole time occupied, from
the cutting of the cane to finishing its
boiling, should not exceed one hour.
"5. To know when the boiling is
finished, place a thermometer in the
kettle, and continue to evaporate un-
til it stands at 239° Fahrenheit. If,
when placed to run off after cooling,
it should be found too freely boiled,
the next time boil to 240^, or, if too
light to run off, to 238^, and so on.

"6. The kettle or boiler should be
so arranged, that the moment it is
done its charge should be thrown into
a cooler capable of holding a number
of charges. The first charge should
be left in the cooler, without stirring,
until the second charge is thrown in ;
then with an oar scrape the crystals
found on the side and bottom of the
cooler loose, and gently stir the whole
mass together : the less stirred the
better ; so continue at the letting in
of each charge, to stir gently ; and
when all is in the cooler, let the
whole stand until it cools down to
175° ; then fill out into sugar moulds
of a capacity not less than 14 gallons.
When cooled in the mould sufficient-
ly, say fourteen hours, pull the plug
out of the bottom of the mould, and
insert a sharp point, nearly as large
as the hole, some six inches ; with-
draw the point, and stand the mould
on a pot to drip.

" 7. If the sugar is intended to be
brown, leaving it standing on the pot
for a sufficient length of time, in a
temperature of 80°, will run off its
molasses, and leave it in a merchant-
able shape : it will probably require
twenty days. It can then be thrown

use. When moulds cannot be ob-
tained, conical vessels of wood or
metal, with a hole at the apex, will
answer equally well."

The stools of the cane throw up
stems or ratoons for two or three
years, unless destroyed by frost, to
guard against which they are hilled
up in the fall, and opened in part in
spring : the same treatment is pur-
sued in regard to the cuttings for
propagation. The blue riband cane
is that most used in Louisiana. The
following from Boussingault gives an
account of the cultivation in the West
Indies and Central America :

" Three principal varieties of su-
gar cane are cultivated — the Creole,
the Batavian, and the Otaheitan. The
Creole cane has the leaf of a deep
green, the stem slender, the knots
very close together. This species, a
native of India, reached the New
World after having passed through
Sicily, the Canaries, and the West
India Islands. The Batavian cane is
indigenous in the Island of Java; its
foliage is very broad, and has a pur-
ple tint : the sap of this variety is
much employed in making rum. The
Otaheite cane is that which is most ex-
tensively grown at the present time.
It was introduced into the West In-
dia Islands and neighbouring conti-
nent by Bougainville, Cook, and Bligh,
in their several voyages, and is cei*-
tainly one of the most important ac-
quisitions which the agriculture of
tropical countries owes to the voy-
ages of naturalists. This variety of
cane grows with extraordinary vig-
our : its stem is taller, thicker, and
richer in juice than that of the other
species. I observed it along the
whole coast of Venezuela, of New
Grenada, and of Peru ; far from hav-
ing degenerated by its transplantation
to the American continent, it appears
to have preserved all its original qual-
ities without alteration.

" The sugar cane is propagated by
cuttings. Pieces of the stem about
18 or 20 inches long, and having sev-
eral buds or eyes, are placed two or
three together in holes a few inches

out of the moulds, and will be fit for j in depth, and are covered with loose
764

SUGAR CANE.

moist earth. From a fortnight to three
weeks are required for the shoots to
show themselves above ground. The
space to be left between each clump
of plants depends much on the fertil-
ity of the soil ; in the most fertile
soils the distance may be about a
yard, or a little more ; and along the
rows the spaces may he about eigh-
teen inches. Where land is of no
great value it is found more advanta-
geous to give greater space, and so
to favour the access of the air and
the light. It is not uncommon to see
plantations where the canes are spa-
ced at distances of between four and
live feet. The time at which the set-
ting of the slips takes place cannot be
definitively Indicated ; it depends en-
tirely upon the epoch at which the
periodical rains are anticipated. But
in places where irrigation is possible,
the setting goes on through all the
months of the year The holes for
the reception of the slips are usually
dug with a hoe, and a negro will make
from sixty to eighty holes in the
course of a day. When the ground
has been previously ploughed, as it is
in some of the West India islands, he
will mal^e twice as many. Loose,
rich soils, when they have a certain
moisture, are the best adapted to the
sugar cane : it does not thrive in an
argillaceous soil, which drains with
difficulty. In these moist soils the
slips are not laid horizontally and cov-
ered, but with one end projecting a
little way out of the ground. When
the young shoots are covered with
narrow and opposed leaves, watering
is particularly advantageous, and the
plants are repeatedly hoed until they
liave acquired sufficient vigour to
choke noxious weeds. About the
ninth month after the plantation of
the slips, the shaft of the sugar cane
begins to lose its leaves, the most in-
ferior falling first, the others in suc-
cession, so that when arrived at ma-
turity it only presents a tuft of ter-
minal leaves. The flowering gener-
ally takes place with the conclusion
of the year ; and the cane is held suf-
ficiently ripe in from two to three
months after this epoch, when the

stem has acquired a yellow or straw
colour. The planters, however, are
by no means agreed as to the proper
period of the sugar cane harvest ;
some even insist upon cutting before
the flowering, believing that the quan-
tity of sugar diminishes on the appear-
ance of the flower. It is unquestion-
able, however, that the period that
elapses between the planting and the
harvest must vary with the nature of
the soil, and especially with that of
the climate ; while in some places the
cane may be cut when it is a year
old, doubtless there are others where
it requires to stand from fifteen to
sixteen months. In Venezuela, where
the Otaheile cane is grown at the lev-
el of the sea, and where the mean
temperature of the year is between
81° and 82° Fahrenheit, the cane ri-
pens, according to Colonel Codazzi,
in eleven months. In districts at
greater elevations under the same
parallels of latitude, where the cli-
mate is of course not so hot, the cane
requires a longer time to come to
maturity ; where the mean tempera-
ture is about 78° Fahrenheit, twelve
months are required ; where it is
about 74° Fahr., fourteen months be-
come necessary ; and where it is no
more than about 67= Fahrenheit, six-
teen months are requisite. The Ota-
heite cane grows to very different
heights : in very favourable circum-
stances it will reach a height of 16
feet and upward, but its general
height may be stated at from 9^ to
10^ feet. Great cane plantations are
divided into squares of from 100 to
120 yards on the side, each of which
coming to maturity in succession, the
labour is easily performed, both in re-
gard to field-work and the manufac-
ture of the sugar.

" The cane is cut close to the root,
and before being carried to the mill
the terminal tuft of leaves is struck
off These heads in the green state
afTord excellent food for horses and
cattle ; when dry they are used for
thatching houses. After the first cut-
ting, fresh sprouts arise, which re-
quire no other attention than hoeing.
In good soils one planting will yield
7165

SUGAR CANE.

five or six harvests by successive I
shoots ; but I have heard phinters af-
firm tliat the produce in sugar duiiin-
ishes from year to year. In Venezu-
ela, cane pieces are replanted every I
five or six years. I

" The cane with its top struck off j
is carried to the mill, where the juice
is expressed, and the stems, which
aresiioken ofunderthe name of trash,
are dried and used as fuel. I

" The expressed juice contains j
crystallizable sugar, an azotized sub-
stance analogous to albumen, and |
some saline matters dissolved in a
large quantity of water, which is dis-
sipated by boiling, and the sugar final-
ly won by crystallization. The man-
ufacturing process is conducted with |
very dilTerent degrees of perfection
in different places. In some the prod- '
uce is obtained almost without ad-
mixture of molasses, in others the
quantity of this article which drains
away from the sugar is very large.
It is now generally agreed that mo-
lasses proceeds in great part from im-
perfections in the manufacturing pro-
cesses employed, especially to chan-
ges which the sugar undergoes in the
course of its concentration by boiling
at a high temperature. By the em-
ployment of what are called vacuum
pans of various construction — pans
from which the pressure of the at-
mosphere is removed either by the
air-pump, or the condensation of the
vapour as fast as it is formed, rapid
evaporation is effected at a tempera-
ture much below that of boiling wa-
ter, by which it is found that the rel-
ative quantity of sugar to that of mo-
lasses is greatly increased. It was
long believed, indeed, and that on the
authority of the first chemists, that
there were two kinds of sugar con-
tained in the sugar cane, one crys-
tallizable, the other uncrystallizable,
and constituting the molasses or trea-
cle. The researches of M. Peligot
have shown definitively that this con-
clusion is erroneous ; that the cane
contains no sugar that is not crystal-
lizable, and that the pre-existence of
uncrystallizable sugar or molasses is
entirely chimerical. M. Plague had
766

indeed come to the same conclusion
some considerable time ago — as far
back as 1826 ; but his labours were
not made known by publication till
1840. M. Casaseca, professor of
chemistry at Havana, has very late-
ly confirmed these conclusions, so
important for the sugar husbandry of
the world. The composition of the
juice of the sugar cane is therefore
less complex than it was once believ-
ed to be ; making abstraction of very
minute quantities of an albuminous
azotized substance, of several salts
and a little silica, substances which
altogether do not amount to more
than two or three hundredths, cane
juice may be said to consist of water
and of crystallizable sugar in the pro-
portion of from 17 to 20 per cent. The
Otaheite cane, analyzed by M. Peligot,
actually yielded

Water 721

Woodj' matter 99

Soluble matter (sugar) . . . 18 0
1000

" This conclusion was verified by
M. Dupuy at Guadaloupe in 1841,
who, operating on the spot, found the
composition to be as follows :

Water 720

Woody matter 9'8

Soluble matter (sugfar) . . . 17-8

Salts 0-4

1000

" The analyses of the Creole cane,
made by M. Casaseca at Havana, ap-
pear to indicate a larger quantity of
woody fibre :

Water 65-9

Wood 16-14

Sugar 177

1000

" The quantity of sugar yielded by
the cane differs considerably. M.
Codazzi assigns 6 and 15 per cent,
as the extremes, and 7J per cent, as
the mean. M. Dupuy gives 7-1 per
cent, as the average. The quantity
is, of course, first and most intimate-
ly connected with the quantity of
juice obtained. But the produce of
juice is extremely variable. In Gua-
daloupe, the juice varies between 56
and 62 per cent, of the cane subjected
to pressure. The generality of mills
do not, in fact, enable us to obtain
more than about 56 per cent. At

SUGAR CANE.

New-Orleans the usual quantity ob-
tained i-3 said to be 50, and in Cay-
enne only 36 per cent. At Havana,
according to .M. (^'a.saseca, the riband
cane yields 45, the crystalline 35, and
the Otaheitan 5(5 per cent, of juice.

"The Otaheite cane was examin-
ed by M. Peligt)t, under a variety of
circumstances of age, growth, part
of plant, &c. The following table
contains the condensed results of his
experiments :

First shoots

Second do. from original sprouts .
Third do. from second do.
Fourth do. from third do.

Inferior part of cane

Middle part of do

Siipenorpart of do

Knots

Cane of eifht months ....
Cane of ten months

Water.

Soluble mat-
ters (suRnr).

Woody fibre.

7.S-4
71-7
71.6
730
73-7
72-6
72-8
70-8
73-9
72-3

17-2
17.8
164
168
155
16-5
155
120
18-2
18-5

8-9
10-5
12-0
10.2
10-8
10-9
11-7
17-2
7-9
9-2

" It would therefore appear, ma-
king exception always of the knots
which occur in the course of a cane,
that the composition of the plant, in
its various states and conditions, is
almost identical. M. Peligot's im-
portant paper, while it informs us of
the average composition of the Ota-
heite cane, satisfies us that the gum-
my and mucilaginous substances and
the uncrystallizable sugar, the exist-
ence of which was held as demon-
strated, are, in fact, nowise constitu-
ents of the sugar cane. Whence we
may conclude, with M. Peligot, that
every drop of molasses which drains
from the sugar is the produce of the
manufacture ; aii opinion to which I
assent the more readily from having
myself seen, oftener than once, the
juice of the cane yield nothing but
crystaliizable sugar. These analyses
farther demonstrate, more powerful-
ly than could any discussion, the im-
perfection of the processes usually
followed in manufacturing sugar.
They prove, in fact, that in the mill
rather more than a third of the whole
juice contained in the cane is left in
the trash. This loss might be con-
siderably diminished were more per-
fect pressure employed in extracting
the juice. But it appears that the
planters are indisposed to crush the
trash too much, as by this it is ren-
dered less fit for fuel, a considerable
quantity of which, by the present
mode of manufacture, is indispensa-
ble. M. Dupree, however, says that by

insisting on obtaining from 65 to 66
per cent, of juice in all cases, the trash
is still left with all its value as a com-
bustible. The trash, on coming from
the mill, appears quite dry. I have
seen some which, after having been
pressed twice consecutively, looked
as if it were impossible, by any far-
ther amount of pressure, to express
more liquid. Nevertheless, it was
enough to taste this pressed cane, to
be satisfied that it still contained a
considerable quantity of sugar. To
procure this without using more pow-
erful machinery, M. Peligot proposed
to steep the trash in water, and to
press it a second time. By this
means a weak juice is obtained,
which, added to the first pressings,
raises the produce of sugar from sev-
en to ten per cent, upon the whole
amount of cane employed. By fol-
lowing this process, suggested by the-
ory, upon the great scale, M. Dupree
has succeeded in obtaining one fifth
more than the usual quantity of su-
gar without makmg any change in his
apparatus, and without finding the
trash too much shaken to be burned
under his coppers. In some circum-
stances the increase in the quantity
of juice which this procedure implies
might be found an objection on ac-
count of the larger quantity of fuel
required for its evaporation ; but
wherever a supjjjy of wood is to be
had, M. Peligot's method ought un-
doubtedly to be applied.
" The very dissimilar quantities of
767

SUG

crystallizable sugar obtained from
canes, wliicli, as we have seen, all
contain very nearly the same quan-
tity of this substance, prove that the
processes of concentration and puri-
fication of the sap also contribute to
the loss which has been indicated.
M. Peligot has pointed out several
causes which concur to deteriorate
sugar: among i he number : 1. A vis-
cous fermentation, which renders the
sap thick and stringy, like mucilage,
by which the boiling becomes difficult
and the crystallization of the sugar
which has escaped change is render-
ed imperfect. 2. An acidity, which
takes place when the juice is not run
at once into the coppers and boiled,
an acidity which ro(juires the addi-
tion of lime to destroy or to prevent
it. The alkaline earth, as I have had
occasion to say, is by no means indis-
pensable ; its utility, under ordinary
circumstances, is probably confined
to assisting the defecation by form-
ing an insoluble precipitate with some
of the organic substances which are
always met with in small quantities
in cane juice ; perhaps, also, to ma-
king an earthy soap with the fatty
matters which adhere to the cane
and are expressed in the crushing.
When lime is added to correct acid-
ity, it forms an acetate or a lactate,
salts which are peculiarly soluble,
uncrystallizablc, and which necessa-
rily retain a quantity of sugar in the
sirupy state. 3. The presence of
certain mineral salts in the cane.
Conmion salt, for instance, in com-
bining with sugar forms a deliques-
cent compound, in which one part of
salt is united with six parts of sugar ;
such a compound as this of course
renders a large quantity of sirup in-
disposed to crystallize. It is therefore
impossible to be too cautious, accord-
ing to M. Peligot, in the choice of
manure for a cane field ; that which
contains any common salt must
needs be injurious in one way, how-
ever advantageous it may be in an-
other. The entire absence of this
salt in the soil of plantations which
are very remote from the seashore
is perhaps one of the causes which
768

SUL

increases the quantity of sugar ob^
tained from the crop, and makes it
more easily manufactured in such
districts.

" M. Codazzi reckons the quantity
of white sugar produced by a iicctare
of land (2 473 acres), planted with
the Otaheite cane in the province of
Caraccas, at 1875 kilogrammes, or
36 cwt. 3 qrs. 9 lbs. avoir., which
is at the rate of 15 cwt. 1 qr. 10 lbs.
per acre. Taking 71 per cent, as the
average quantity of sugar obtained,
the weight of cane brought to the
mill must obviously have amounted
to 19,134 kilog., or 18 tons, 15 cwt. 3
qrs. 10 lbs. ; or 7 tons, 11 cwt. 3 qrs.
25 lbs. per acre. Assuming the av-
erage composition of the plant to be,

Wood (dry) HO

Sugar (minimum) 155

Water "-^'S

1000

one acre of land will consequently
yield a crop of

Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs.

Wood (dry) . . 0 16 2 24

Sugar .... 1 3 2 6

Water • • • ■ ^ H 2 12

7 11 3 25

" The trash of the sugar cane un-
dergoes rapid fermentation ; it soon
exhales a distinct smell of vinegar,
and almost the whole of the sugar
which is left in it is destroyed."

SUGAR OF LEAD. Acetate of
lead, so called from its sweet taste.
It is much used in lotions; and in
solution with a little vinegar forms
Goulard's lotion. It must not be
used incautiously, as it is poison-
ous.

SULCATE. Marked with furrows,
or parallel deep lines.

SULPHATES. Salts of sulphuric
acid. The principal in agriculture
are the sulphate of lime (see Gyp-
sum), the sulphate of soda {Glauber's
salt), and sulphate of potash. The
latter is, however, too expensive ; it
is found in the ashes of some plants.
Glauber's salt may be obtained for
Si to $1 50 the 100 pounds, and is
serviceable as a steep, or as a manure
in gardens for the cruciferous plants.
The chief value of the sulphates as
manures arises from the necessity for

SUL

SUL

sulphur in plants, especially the cru-
ciferous and lef^uminous families. It
would appear that plants possess the
property of decomposing the sul-
phates, for they chiefly require the
sulphur, which is an ingredient of
fibrin, casein, and albumen, as well
as some oils. The sulphate of cop-
per is of great value as a steep, and
a solution of sul()hate of iron, or green
vitriol, is much used in Switzerland
to fix the ammonia of putrescent ma-
nures.

SULPHITES. Salts of sulphurous
acid.

SULPHOCYANATE OF POTAS-
SIUM. A solution of this body is
used to detect iron, with which it
forms a brownish-red colour.

SULPHOSLXAPISIN. A pungent
body obtained from mustard, contain-
ing both salphur and nitrogen.

SULPHUR Bnmsloiic. A solid,
lusible. insoluble, yellow element-
ary b )dy ; equivalent, 161 : symbol
S : specific gravity, 19. It is a non-
conductor of electricity, and power-
fully electro -positive in its com-
pounds. It is very inflammable, uni-
ting with oxysren, and forming the
white, suffocatmg vapours of sul-
phurous acid. With three equiva-
lents of oxygen it forms sulphuric
acid, or oil of vitriol ; a dense, oily
acid, of great causticity, and well
known in the arts : equivalent, 401.
Sulphur unites directly with metals
at a heat below redness, forming sul-
phurets. The gaseous compound of
1 equivalent of sulphur with 1 of hy-
drogen, or sulphuretled hydrogen, is
remarkable for its great foetor ; it is
given off by decaying organic mat-
ters containmg sulphur, and, with the
sulphurct of anmionium, constitutes
the principal cause of the stench of
putrefying animal matters.

Sulphur is abundant in tlie mineral
kingdom al)out volcanoes. It is pres-
ent in all vegetables, existing in al-
bumen, casein, and analogous bodies.
It has been used to destroy insects,
and when made into an ointment
with lard and applied to the parts,
is often elTective. When burned, the
pungent, sulphurous acid destroys
T r T

life, but is also injurious to vegeta-
tion. It has the property of bleach-
ing many colours, and especially that
of straw. A solution, formed by boil-
ing equal parts of quicklime and sul-
phur in twenty or thirty times their
weight of water, is extremely foetid
and poisonous to insects : it is called
the fn/ilrostilphnret of lime.

SULPHURETS. Compounds of
sulphur with metals.

SULPHURETTED. Containing
sulphur chemically united. A solu-
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen gas in
water is much used as a test for
metals in solution.

SULPHURIC ACID, OIL OF VIT-
RIOL. It is procured in commerce
by burning sulphur and nitre togeth-
er in chambers made of lead. The
vapours are condensed in water,
which is afterward boiled down in
platina boilers until the solution be-
comes of the appearance of oil, and
specific gravity 18. It should be col-
ourless, but is often brown ; is dread-
fully caustic, destroying the skin in-
stantly. When water is added, the
mixture becomes quite hot, and will
often break glass vessels. It com-
bines with all oxides, forming sul-
phates. Sulphuric acid, mixed with
500 parts of water, has been applied
to clover and grass with advantage,
but is not better than gypsum, and
much more expensive and difficult to
manage. It is now used to dissolve
bones, but is inferior to muriatic acid.
100 pounds of the best acid dissolve,
after much time and with repeated
stirrings, about 200 pounds of fine
bone dust, converting it in part into
a sulphate of lime (gypsum), and mto
a superphosphate of lime, which is
soluble : the solution is enough for an
acre, and should be diluted with 200
parts of water, and applied as a top-
dressing. The solution must be made
in an earthen-ware vessel with great
care, lest the acid be spilled.

SULPHURIC .^THER. Common

SULPHUROUS ACID. It is com-
posed of sulphur 16 1, oxygen 16. It
is a gas readily condensed, soluble in
water, and very sour, with the odour
709

SUN

SUR

of sulphur; in contact with oxygen
and moisture, it readily becomes
changed into sulphuric acid. See
Sulphur.

SULPHUR SALTS. A class of
salts in which the acid and ba.sc both
contain sulphur in the place of oxy-
gen, or as their electro-positive ele-
ment.

SUMACH. (SeeRhiis.) "The
powder of the loaves, flower stems,
and young branches of the R/ius eo-
riaria and Rhus culiiius, shrubs which
grow in Hungary and the Illyrian
Provinces. Both kinds contain tan-
nin, with a little yellow colouring
matter, and are a good deal employed
for tanning ligiit-coloured leathers :
but the first is the best. With mor-
dants, it dyes nearly the same colours
as galls. In calico printing, sumach
affords, with a mordant of tin, a yel-
low colour ; with acetate of iron,
weak or strong, a gray or black ; and
with sulphate of zinc, a brownish yel-
low. A decoction of sumach red-
dens litmus paper strongly ; gives
white flocks with the proto-muriate
of tin ; pale yellow flocks with alum ;
dark blue flocks with red sulphate of
iron, with an abundant precipitate.
In the south of France, the twigs and
leaves of the Coriaria myrtifolia are
used for dyeing, under the name of
redoul or rodoii."

The common sumach (R. glahrnm)
of the L'nited States is extensively
used by dyers and leather dressers ;
it is more valuable from the South
than North, but is inferior to the R.
coriaria, or Italian sumach of Sicily
and the south of Europe. This plant
is propagated by layers, as it does not
mature fruit.

SUMMER FALLOW. A fallow
made during the warm months to kill
weeds — a green fallow.

SUNFLOWER. HcUanthus an-
rtuvs. A well-known, large compos-
ite plant, yielding an abundance of
seeds, which are excellent for feed-
ing poultry. It requires a good soil
of a clayey basis, but will grow on
most tdled lands. It is raised in
France for oil, and should be sown
broad-cast and thinly, or in rows 18
770

inches apart. It soon grows suffi-
ciently to cover weeds. An acre will
carry 2.5,000 plants 12 inches apart,
and yield 50 bushels of seeds, and
upward of 50 gallons of good oil, val-
uable for the table, lamps, or soap
making. The cake is one of the
most nutritious fodders knowu : 1500
pounds will be obtained from the
above crop. Tlie leaves are also
eaten by cattle, and the young plants
removed in thinning form good prov-
ender. The stalks are rich in pot-
ash, yielding from eight to ten per
cent, of it in their ash, but should be
returned to the land as manure. It
also contains a large proportion of
nitrate of potash (nitre). The young
plants form as good a crop to plough
in as the Jerusalem artichoke, which
is indeed of the same genus as the
sunflower.

SUPPOSITORY. A solid medi-
cine introduced into the rectum to
produce purgation.

SUPPURATION. The common
healthy termination of inflammations
of the cellular tissues, in which pus
is formed. It should be thoroughly
evacuated as soon as formed.

SUPRACRETACEOUS. The
formations above the chalk, now call-
ed tertiary.

SURFEIT. See Horse, Diseases of.

SURVEYING. In agriculture, tlie
determination of the contents of any
piece of ground or estate ; it is usual-
ly done in a rough way by a compass
with sights, or a plane table and
chain of 100 links, or 22 yards. The
external boundaries of the lield are
measured by the chain along straight
lines determined by setting up the
compass, level, and a staff. The dis-
tance between these is ascertained in
chains and links ; every turn or angle
of large size is determined by its
bearing with the compass and staff,
and a measurement of the length of
the straight line, made as often as
there are sides or angles. In this
way a plan is obtained, giving the
angles, bearings, and lengths of the
sides bounding the field. This is
plotted, and a calculation made of the
contents by the ordinary rules of

SWA

SWE

.mensuration. For this purpose, the
contents arc divided into triangles,
the side of any of wliich can be meas-
ured on the ground, to assist or cor-
rect the reckoning. The chain con-
tains 100 links of 7 92 inches. A
.square chain forms tlic tenth of an
acre ; the calculation is therefore
made in links, which are a decimal
portion of the acre ; and the resulting
area being reduced by three ligures,
gives the number of acres in a field.

But in better examinations the the-
odolite is used, and the distances de-
termined i)y trigonometrical observa-
tions, and not by measurements with
a chain. The inclinations of hills, &c..
Ere also reduced to a plane surface.

SUTURE. The serrated junction
of two bones, especially of the skull.
In insects, the line along which the
w]ng cases meet. In botany, the nat-
ural division or opening in a fruit.

SWAMP. A low lake or morass
in which trees grow. The emana-
tions from swamps in the spring and
fall are extremely injurious, and fatal
to men and animals. They should be
drained, if possible. The mud from
thein consists, in a great measure, of
vegetable matter, and when compost-
ed with lime or putrescent matters,
forms a good coarse manure for
amending the character of lands.
Twenty to forty loads are used to the
acre.

SWAN. Cygnvs olor. The most
graceful and majestic of the famdy
of birds. They are much used in Eu-
rope to adorn rivers and small lakes,
are not destructive to fishes, but feed
c-n vegetables and grains. The fe-
male breeds in the summer, lays five
4o eight eggs, sits a month, and pre-
fers a retired islet. The cygnets are
driven off the next spring, and are
?iot in full plumage till three years.
These birds are disposed to migrate
n the fall, and should have the feath-
ors of one wing clipped. They are
also very quarrelsome, and seldom
live in peace when more than one
pair are placed on a small water. The
black and all other kinds of swan are
inferior to the large white {Ct/i^mus
olor), the base of u hose upper bill is

furnished with a black prominence.
They require to be ffMl in the winter,
and the ice broken for tbeir accom-
modation until the weather is very
severe, when they should be allowed
to retire to a shc^ltcred yard.

SWARU. The green surface of a
meadow.

SWARD GRASSES. A name giv-
en to the genus Poa, which forms the
best natural meadows.

SWATH. The bands of hay or
grass cut in mowing.

SWAYS. Long bramble or other
flexible rods, used in thatching with
coarse straws or reeds.

SWEATING HAY. The slightfer-
mentation which occurs when fresh
grass, clover, &c., are placed in heaps.
It is attended w-ith considerable heat
if the quantity is great, and should,
therefore, be looked after. Fruits
and grain also undergo a sweating
process, if heaped soon after collec-
tion. It is the best method to pre-
pare the different kinds of hay. See
Hny-makwg.

SWE.\L. To singe the hair from
hogs or other slaughtered animals
with lighted wisps of straw.

SWEET flag. Acorus calamus,
the root of which is pleasantly aro-
matic.

SWEET GRASS. The genus
Glyccna, for the most part water
grasses. The seeds of G. fluitans, or
Marona grass, are cultivated in Ger-
many for gruel. The G. aquatica, or
water fescue, is a large, permanent
grass, growing in rich marshes and
the edges of rivers, and affording an
abundance of good provender.

SWEET POTATO. Convolvulus
hattatus. A convolvulus, the root of
which attains a large size, and con-
tains much sugar mixed with an
agreeable farina. They require a
rich, light soil. The potatoes are set
out in a warm place early in April.
In the Northern and Eastern States
a warm bed is necessary. They spront
in two or three weeks, and throw out
a number of runners ; these are ta-
ken off when throe inches above the
soil, and trans()lanled to beds [)roper-
ly prepared in hills four to five feet
771

SYC

SYN

apart each way. The old tubers con-
tinue to throw out runntTs during
April <Tnd May. iSomeliincs tlu'y are
set out in liilis, and nut mi a l)ed, and
allowed to grow witli litile intcrruj)-
tion : in this way the jioialocs are
sooner fit for use. The hills must be
carefully weeded and worked. 'J'hey
may he taken when large enough for
use, but the winter crop should not
be removed until the vines are dead.
To keep them during winter, they
should be dried in the sun till the
moisture is driven ofi", sweated in
heaps, and when dry, packed in dry
sand in a cellar not subject to wet or
frost. There are many varieties of
sweet potato, but they are not classi-
fied. The kind cultivated in Florida
is very large, and altogether superior
to those wliich are known to us. The
Nansemond potatoes are also large,
and in high repute. The yams are of
a different genus ; the varieties are
derived from the Dioscorca sa/ira and
alata ; the roots are often palmated,
and often weigh thirty pounds.

SWEET-SCEA'TED SHRUB. Ca-
lycantlius Floridus. Allspice, a pleas-
ant, fragrant shrub with dark flowers.

SWINE. See Hog.

SWINESTONE. A bituminous
limestone, which becomes foetid when
rubbed.

SWING PLOUGH. The plough
without a fore wheel under the beam.
It is difficult for a novice to manage,
from the point sometimes running
unequally, and sinking or rising sud-
denly, and in very rolling land is in-
ferior to the wiieel ploughs ; but in
the hands of an experienced plough-
man is often preferred.

SWINGING-TREE, SWINGLE-
TREE, WHIPPLE-TREE. The bar
of wood or iron to which the traces
of each horse are fastened, and which
are hitched on to the cart, plough, or
other implement to be drawn.

SWITCHING HEDGES. Cutting
off the year's shoots. This is done
with a sharp hooked blade called a
iwitching-hook, or with large hedge
shears.

SYCAMORE. The buttonwood.

SYCON,SYCONUS. Afiuitcon-
772

sisting of a fleshy disk or hollow re-
ceptacle, as in the fig.

SYENITE. A granite with black
spots of hornblend. Haddam or Bos-
ton granite.

SYMBOL. In chemistry, the abbre-
viation used to distinguish an ele-
ment or chemical body. It usually
consists of the initial letter, some-
times of the first and second.

SY.MPATIIY. A veterinary and
medical term used to express the ex-
istence of certain symptoms in a dis-
ease which are remote from the part
injured.

SYMPATHETIC NERVE. A
grand connexion of nerves from one
end of the body to the other, furnish-
ed with nervous centres or ganglia,
by which some physiologists suppose
a uniformity in the operations of the
different viscera is maintained. It is
also called the trisplanchnic nerve.

SY.MPIESOMETER. A kind of
barometer.

SYN (from aw, together). A com-
mon prefix in descriptive words,
meaninff united.

SYNAPTASE. The white matter
of almonds freed from oil, albumen,
and other matters. It is probably the
same as emulsin.

SYNCARPOUS FRUITS (from
CTw, and KapjTOf, a fruit). Such as con-
tain several carpels united, as the ap-
ple, pear, &,c.

SYNCHONDROSIS (from ow, and
xovdpvr, a cartilage). Tlie junction of
bones by a cartilage.

SYNCOPE. Fainting ; whenever
the circulation and respiration be-
come very feeble for a lime.

SYNGENESIA (from aw, and ye-
veoig, reproduction). The composite
family of plants. A class of Linnaeus,
m which the anthers are united into
a tube, the filaments being usually
separate and distinct.

SYNOCHA. Continued inflamma-
tory fevers.

SYNOVIA. The albuminous or
serous fluid secreted in the joints, to
diminish the friction of the extremi-
ties of the bones ; it is poured out
from little pouches, called synovial
bags.

TAG

TAN

SYNTHESIS. In chemistry, the
production of a compound body by a
union of its elements or parts.

SYRINGE. A macliine consisting
of a small cylinder with an air-tii^ht
piston or sucker, which is moved up
and down in it by means of a handle.
The lower end of the cylinder ter-
minates in a small tube, throu£jh
which a fluid is forced into the body
of the cylinder by the atiriospheric
pressure when the handh^ is drawn
up, and then expelled in a small jet,
by pushing the handle in the opposite
direction. The syrinj^e acts on the
principle of the sucking pump. Tlie
syringe is also used as a pneumatic
machine for condensing or exhaust-
ing the air in a close vessel, but for
this purpose it must be furnished
with two valves. In the condensing
syringe the valves open downward
and close upward ; in the exhausting
syringe they are closed downward
and opened upward. The garden syr-
inse, so useful for watering plants,
and removing caterpillars, red spi-
ders, and other insects, is no more
than a large squirt, of a pint or (piart
size, which discharges fluid from a
rose or perforated end instead of a
point.

SYRUP. A thick solution of sugar.

SYSTOLE (from nvireiyM, I cnn-
trar.t). The contraction of the heart,
the diastole being its dilatation.
These two alternate movements pro-
duce the beating.

SYTHE. See Scythe.

T.

TACAMAHACA. The Populus
balsamica of Canada, which yields a
resinous, balsamic exudation in the
spring, which is sometimes called Ta-
camhac.

TAG. A sheep of the first year.
Tai^s are the masses of dirt that ac-
cumulate on the wool of the tail ;
the process of removing them is call-
ed tagging, and sometimes, when
they cause the tail to be fastened to
the body, that state is called tagbelt
or pinning.

TAGLI.\. A combination of pul-
leys, a tackle.

T T T 2

TAGLIACOTIAN or TALIACO
TIAN OPERATION. Any opera
tion in which the skin is nearly cut
from one part and made to cover an-
other.

TAIL DRAIN. The main drain,
which receives the water of the less
er drains.

TALC. A mineral closely resem
bling mica, but not elastic.

TALLOW. The melted or ren
dered fat of the ox or sheep. The
greater part of the bodies of sheep
and oxen are thrown into inmiense
caldrons, and rendered by steam at
a high pressure, in the West and in
New Holland. The fat of bones,
which amounts to eight or ten per
cent., is obtained in the same way,
and forms a coarse tallow. Its com-
position is similar to that of oils, but
the stearin is in excess.

TALLOW-TREE. Croton sebife-
runi. A large, lauraceous tree of
China, the seeds of which, when
pressed, yield a fatty body very simi-
lar to tallow. Some specimens of
this tree are found growing in the
sltrul)beries of the Southern States.

TALKS. A heap of rubliish accu-
mulated at the foot of a clitlor steep
rock.

TAMARIND. Tamarindus Lidica.
A large tree of the leguminous fam-
ily, native of the tropical East and
West Indies. The prepared pods,
preserved in sugar, form a refreshing
sweetmeat. They contain much cit-
ric acid.

TAMARIX. The genus Tamarix,
small, ornamental shrubs.

TAMPING. In blasting, filling the
hole with sand and pieces of rock
after a cartridge has been introduced.

TANK. "A reservoir for water
or other fluids. The name is some-
times applied to large open recepta-
cles, or ponds, formed by excavating
the ground and disposing the removed
earth in the form of banks to retain
the water; but the tanks which will
here be especially treated of, are the
smaller covered reservoirs used to
collect and retain water and liquid
manure for domestic and agricultural
purposes.

773

TANK.

" The importance of collecting rain
water for domestic purposes, espe-
cially in districts where springs are
deficient or lie at a great depth, has
been much overlooked. Waistell ur-
ges the importance of placing spouts
round all the buildings of a farm to
collect tiie rain water which falls
upon them into a tank or tanks, ob-
serving that, besides the value of the
supply of water thus obtained, the
buildings will be benefited by the
walls and foundations being kept
drier than when the water from the
roof is suffered to fall upon them.
He states that the quantity of water
that falls annually upon every hun-
dred superficial feet, or square of
building, is about 1400 imperial gal-
lons. If, therefore, the external sur-
faces of roofs were adapted to the
collection of the rain water which
falls upon them, and means were
provided for conveying it to covered
tanks, in which it might be preserved
from evaporation, and kept free from
any admixture of impurities, almost
every house might be readily and
cheaply supplied with a quantity of
wholesome water sufficient for the
ordinary wants of its inhabitants.
The extensive roofs of churches and
other public buildings might be em-
ployed in like way to collect water
for the supply of ponds or tanks for
public use. In some cases, even the
drainage of lands might also be made
avadable, as the water may be sub-
mitted to any required process of
filtration before it is allowed to enter
the tank.

" Tanks or cisterns to hold water
for domestic purposes maybe conve-
niently situated beneath the surface
of the ground, so that, being paved
over, they occupy no valuable space.
They are formed of stone slabs
grooved into each other and set in ce-
ment ; of slate ; of large paving tiles
bedded in cement ; of brick-work ;
of plates of cast iron ; or of thick
wooden planks, i)rotected by charring
and pitching, or lined with sheet lead.
The brick tanks described by ^^■aist-
ell are circular, the sides being built
like a well, with bottoms of an in- 1
774

verted dome-shape, of very slight
convexity. The top is also dome-
shaped, and has an opening in the
centre, large enough to receive a
man, in order that the tank may be
thoroughly cleaned out when neces-
sary. This opening, which may be
upon the surface of the ground, or a
little above it, should be covered with
an oak flap pierced with a number of
holes, or with an iron grating. The
depth and width of the tank should,
it is stated, be nearly equal. If ne-
cessary, a smaller brick chamber may
be constructed alongside of the tank,
in which the water may be filtered
through gravel, sand, charcoal, &c.,
before entering it. It is recommend-
ed to make the opening by which
water enters the tank near the top.
Brick tanks of this description may
be rendered water-tight by laying the
inner course of bricks in cement, and
plastering the v^'hole of the inside
with the same to the thickness of
about three quarters of an inch. To
enable them without injury to bear
the great weight of water when near-
ly full, the earth should be rammed
closely round the brick work, and it
should be allowed to settle thoroughly
before any great quantity of water is
admitted. Loudon describes anoth-
er kind of brick tank, contrived to
save expense in construction, by
adopting a figure of maximum capa-
city and minimum surface. When
the tank is large, it is proposed to
adopt the spherical form ; and when
of less than five or six feet in diam-
eter, that of a short vertical cylinder,
with hemispherical ends. By pud-
dling with clay round about the tank,
the necessity for the use of Roman
cement is avoided.

" In addition to tanks for water,
every farm-yard should have one to
collect the liquid portion of the ma-
nure, which is washed by the rain
through the refuse litter, and also the
urine of the stalled cattle. Though
not yet generally adopted, in France,
Germany, and especially in Belgium,
such tanks are considered as neces-
sary to a farm as any of its most com-
mon buildings. They are usually

TANK.

constriictpd of an ohlong shape, of
Idie-k well cemented, with one or
more divisions, and capable of con-
taining at least ten times as many
hogslieads as liiere are heads of cattle
on the farm. They are vaulted over,
having a small aperture, in which a
pump is placed, suliicient to allow a
man occasionally to clear out the sed-
iment when the li<iuid has been pump-
ed up. The best shape to contain a
large quantity in the smallest space
would be like those before described ;
but they cannot conveniently be made
sufficiently large, and a cubical form,
or, rather, that of several cubes in
succession, is preferred. A tank for
a farm of 200 acres of arable land
should be 15 feet wide, 15 deep, and
45 long, giving three cubes of 15 feet,
or a cavity capable of containing up-
ward of 10,000 cubic feet of liquid.
In this tank the urine is diluted with
water to prevent too rapid decompo-
sition, and also to retain the ammo-
nia which is formed ; for which pur-
pose gypsum and sulphate of copper
are sometimes put into the tanks.

" If the soil be not sandy, clay will
answer, instead of mortar, to con-
nect the brick-work, and a plastering
of lime or cement will be sufficient to
keep out the worms ; hut in very
porous soils the bottom and sides
must be puddled, to keep in the liquid ;
and it may be advantageous to build
the walls in cement altogether. The
liquid from the yards and stables is
carried into the tank by a main drain
constructed of brick or stone, and
which receives a number of smaller
drains from every part of the yards
and cattle sheds. Thus the litter in
the yard is always dry, and none of
the richness of the manure is lost by
evaporation.

" Sometimes the tank is vaulted
like a cellar under the cow-house and
stables, which are washed out twice
every day, and all the dung and wa-
ter are swept into a cess-pool com-
municating with the tank. Thus a
very diluted but rich liquid soon fills
the first division of the tank : a sluice
is then shut, and the ne.xt washings
run into a second division, and when

that is full, into a third. In the mean
time the contents of the first tank
have undergone a certain fermenta-
tion, by which the caustic ammonia
first evolvcnl has become mild and
impregnates the water. It is then
in a fit state to be carried on the land
in tubs or water-carts. When prop-
erly diluted, it accelerates vegetation
in a surprising degree ; but if ])ut on
fresh, it burns the grass or any ve-
getable it touches, because the am-
monia is in a caustic state. If a cow
drop her urine in a field in a hot
sununer's day, all the grass it has
touched becomes yellow and is burn-
ed up ; but if the same happen in
rainy weather, the spot soon becomes
very green, and the grass luxuriant ;
because, in this case, the urine is
amply diluted and its caustic nature
corrected. Those who live near gas
works may collect the ammoniacal
gas water in a tank, and, by the ad-
dition of sulphuric acid in very small
quantities, they may produce a very
fertilizing liquid, which will stimulate
vegetation, and be a very good ma-
nure.

" The necessary concomitant of a
tank, whether for water or manure,
is a water-cart, that is, a large cask
put upon wheels to bring water from
some distance. When there are no
means of bringing water in pipes, a
water-cart is quite indispensable. It
is simply a cask placed on the frame
of a cart, with a plug-hole in the end
or lower part, from which the water
may be let out by a cock, or drop on
a flat board or into a bucket with
holes, so as to spread it about. The
plug-hole is shut by a valve inside,
which can be opened by means of a
string, the pressure of the liquid
keeping it close to the plug-hole.

" Many of the artificial manures,
of which a number have been lately
proposed, would make excellent li-
quids by merely mixing them with
water in a tank, and allowing a cer-
tain degree of fermentation to take
place. Thus nothing is lost, and all
volatile substances are taken up by
the water. The soluble portions are
dissolved and the earthy matters dif-
775

TAN

fused, so as to be more equally spread
over the land. If it be true tliat the
ammonia found in some plants is
chiefly derived from tlie very small
portion discovered in rain water, it
follows that a scarcely perceptible
impregnation with this salt may have
most powerful effects on vegetation.

"When a farm-yard is situated on
a hill, and there are fields or pastures
on a lower level, at no great distance
from it, the liquid from tiie tank may
be conducted by channels lined with
clay, having small sluices to direct
the streams to any particular field.
It may ihus be made to irrigate tem-
porarily a considerable surface, which
it will greatly enrich. It may be led
into the common furrows between
the lands, or stitches, in j)loughed
land, and allowed to soak in them, and
then it can be spread with the earth
of the furrow, by means of broad
shovels, over the growing crops, and
wUl greatly invigorate them. This
species of irrigation is common in
Lombardy, where much ingenuity is
shown in the manner in which water
is made to flow in small rivulets be-
tween the rows of growing vegeta-
bles. The water here is supplied by
streams, but the same method would
distribute the tank liquor with great
effect. A very small quantity of this
liquor, allowed to flow into the main
feeder of a water meadow, will soon
prove how great effects are produced
by impregnations which are scarcely
perceptible by chemical analysis.

"Small as the experience has hith-
erto been in this country of the ad-
vantages of liquid manure tanks, it
has sufficiently proved their use to
induce every man who constructs a
farm-yard and erects buildings to take
in tlie tank as an essential part of his
plan ; and even if it only collected the
refuse fluids which are allowed to run
off in common sewers from most
houses, it would soon repay tlie cost
of its construction, while it rendered
the ditches in the neighbourhood less
subject to noxious emanations from
the corrupted matter which now flows
into them."

TANNER'S BARK. The bark of
776

TAN

' oak, &c., used for tanning ; when ex-
hausted it is serviceable to the farm-
er and gardener, and may be used
in stoves (see Store), or composted
with lime and earth, or putrescent
j manures, into a good coarse manure.
Where the quantity is large and the
I land in good tilth, it may be burned,
i and the ashes applied at the rate of
i ten to fifteen bushels the acre, espe-
j cially to clovers and grass.
I TANNER-S WASTE. The mix-
ture of lime and hair, scrapings and
trimmings of skins, as well as the
fluid of the lime and steeping vats,
are all serviceable in composts ; the
solids being mixed with earth, char-
coal, spent bark, or sawdust, and the
fluids being used to moisten the com-
post heaps.

TANNIN. The astringent princi-
ple of galls, sumach, catechu, and
numerous barks. It is very soluble
in water, and possesses the property
of uniting with albuminous matters,
and forming lanno-gelatinc, or leather.
When separated from the other sub-
stances in bark, it is found to be a
white, astringent powder, with acid
reaction, and known as tannic acid;
by the action of moisture and air it
absorbs oxygen, and becomes con-
verted into the insoluble gallic acid.
The formula of tannic acid is C]8
H.5 Og-f-S HO : it is tribasic, and its
salts are called tammtes.

The value of any specimen of bark
for tanning and certain dyes is as-
certained by the amount of tanni-3
acid they contain. The amount in
the following table is from Davy. In
480 parts,

at.

Oak bark contains .... 29

Spanish chestnut .... 21

Leicester willow (large) . . 33

Elm 13

Common willow (large) . , 11

Ash .16

Beech 10

Horse-chestnut 9

Sycamore ]1

Lomliardy poplar .... 15

Birch 8

Hazel 14

Blackthorn 16

Cojjpice oak 32

Inner rinii of oak bark. . . 72,

Oak cut in autumn .... 21

Larch cut iu autumn ... 8

TAN

TAN

To this may be added the

Sicilian sumach 78 lbs.

Nut galls 127

Catechu 261

TANNING ON THE PLANTA-
TION. The advantajjcs of liaving a
means of preparin':r hides on the plan-
tation, in the South and Southwest,
need not be enlarged upon ; the fol-
lowing simple process is by Mr. Af-
fleck, and from the American Agri-
culturist :

" Tanning leather for the use of
the plantation is an item of good
management that should not be over-
looked by any planter ; nor would it
be as nuich overlooked as it is, if the
simplicity of the process was gener-
ally known — that process, I mean,
that will suffice for making leather
for home use. The tanner by profes-
sion, in order to prepare an article
that will command a good price in
market, and have a merchantable ap-
pearance, puts the hides and skins
through a greater number of manip-
ulations ; and, that he may work to
better advantage, has his arrange-
ments on a more extensive scale.

" The vats, tools, and implements
really needed are few and simple.
Four vats will generally be found all-
sufficient : one for a pool of fresh wa-
ter, and for baiting ; one for limincr ;
another for colouring; and a fourth
for tanning. The best size, in the
clear, is seven feet long, four and a
half feet wide, and five feet deep.
They should be placed so as to be
easily and conveniently filled with
water from a spring, running stream,
or cistern. Dig the holes nine feet
by six and a half and six ; if the found-
ation is clay, the depth need not be
over five feet. Form a stifT bed of
clay mortar in the bottom, on which
to lay the floor, and on it erect the
sides and ends of the vat, of plank of
almost any kind, sufficiently thick to
resist tiie pressure from without :
two inches will be thick enough.
When this is done, and the wiiole
nailed fast, fdl in the vacant space all
round with ur.ll tempered cVay mortnr,
ramming it efTectually ; it is on this,
and not the planks, that dependance

is placed for rendering the vat per-
fect. When well made, a vat will
be good for a long lifetime, the ooze
preventing the decay of any but the
top round of plank. Such a vat will
hold fifteen large beef hides (thirty
sides), besides a number of small
skins.

"The material used for tanning is
the bark of the red or black oak,
stripped when the sap flows in the
spring, stacked and dried, of which
about four pounds are supposed to be
necessary to produce one pound of
leather. There is an article occa-
sionally used, called ' catechu,' which
is an extract made from the wood of
a mimosa-tree, a native of India, half
a pound of which answers the same
purpose. Galls, willow bark, the bark
of the Spanish chestnut, and common
elm, as also sumach, are all used by
the tanner. It has been recently
found that the root of the palmetto
answers an equally good purpose with
the best oak bark.

" Bark has to be ground as wanted ;
or if the quantity needed is small, and
it is not thought advisable to incur
the expense of a bark null (from ten
to eighteen dollars), it may be pound-
ed in a large mortar, or beat up on a
block. It will require one third more
of pounded than of ground bark to af-
ford equally strong ooze, which is the
infusion of bark.

" Tlie principal tools requisite are
afcshing-knifc, currier's knife, a brush
like a stiff" horse-brush, and ajleshing-
bcnm. The fleshing-beam is made by
splitting in two a hard- wood stick of
about a foot in diameter, inserting
two stout legs, some thirty inches
long, in one end, on the split side, so
that the other end rests on the ground,
with the round side up, the elevated
end being high enough to reach the
workman's waist. A fleshing-knife
may be made by bending an old draw
knife to suit the round of the fleshing-
beam.

" The skins of bulls, oxen, cows,
and horses, are called hides ; those
of calves, deer, sheep, &c., are known
as skins.

" Fresh and dried hides receive the
777

TANNING ON THE PLANTATION.

same treatment, except in the wash-
ing process. Those that are salted
and dry (and no hide should be dried
■with less than from two to lour quarts
of salt being rubbed on tlie flesh side :
dried without salt, it is extremely
difficult to soften theui) require to
be steeped, beaten, and rubbed sev-
eral times alternately to bring them
to a condition sufficiently soft for
tanning.

" Green or fresh hides must be
soaked in pure water from twelve to
twenty-four hours, to extract all the
blood, &.C.., and soften the extrane-
ous fleshy matter, which must then
be removed by throwing one hide at
a time on the fleshing-beam, i^r«!« o;-
hair side dinvn, and scraping or sha-
ving it off with the fleshing-knife,
which must be somewhat dull, or the
skin is apt to be cut. They are then
put in the Umuii^ rat, winch is su|)-
plied with 'strong lime-water, by fill-
ing the vat a little over half full of
water, and adding thereto four bush-
els of unslacked (or of air-slacked)
lime, or at the rate of two thirds of
a bushel of lime to the barrel of wa-
ter. This will suffice for fifteen
hides ; each time that they are re-
moved and a fresh lot of hides put
in, add another bushel of lime, which
will keep up the strength for a twelve-
month. Before using, stir the lime
well up, and while it is thus mixed
with the water put in the hides even-
ly, so lliat the hme will settle on ev-
ery part of them. They are to re-
main here from ten to fifteen days,
or for three or four days after the
hair will rub off with the finger com-
pletely and v^nth ease. While in the
liming vat, they must be moved up
and down every other morning, to
expose them to the air, and to the
equal action of the lime. Being now
ready for unhairing, cut each hide in
two, by slitting them along the cen-
tre of tlie back w^th a knife, forming
them into sides. Tlirow ten or twelve
of these sides on the fleshing-beam,
and strip the hair off with the knife ;
and as they are unhaired, throw
each one into the vat of freah water
lo bait or soak. When the sides
778

and skins in hand have been all «n-
haired and thoroughly washed, Ihiow
tlu'iii again, and at once, on the flesli-
iiig-beam, with the grain or hair side
up, and u-ork thr.m ofcr(rub and press
them) with the knife until all the
mucus or mucilaginous matter is
worked out. This should be repeat-
ed two or tiiree limes during ten or
twelve days, being each time baited
anew in fresh water. And this irork-
ing over must only be done when the
sides feel soft and smooth to tlie
touch ; as they will, at times, from
some unexplained cause, feel rough,
at which time they must not be u-ork-
cd over. While they are thus baitinrr,
they must not be neglected, or they
will soon spoil. Tanners are in the
practice of adding a 1000th part of
sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) to the
last bait, which has the effect of
swelling the pores and distending the
fibres, and thus rendering the skins
more susceptible to the action of the
ooze : forty-eight hours generally suf-
fice for this last bailing.

" In the mean time, some good
strong ooze should be prepared for the
first tanning process, called colouring.
Fill a vat a little more than half full
of water, and add bark, in the pro-
portion of one bushel and a half of
ground, or two bushels of pounded
bark, to the barrel of water, which
will bring the vat up to about two
thirds full. A\'hen the bark hassoaked
from four to five days, the sides are put
in, and allowed to remain filteen days ;
during which they must be orice well
and CdrefuUy fleshed and worked over,
and must be drawn up and down ev-
ery morning, for the first week at
least, and the bark well ;>/!<no-c(i or stir-
red up, to have them colour evenly.

" .\fter this, the vat being now two
thirds full of this same ooze, after
drawing out the hides, lay a good
coating of fresh bark, of say an inch
thick, on top of the water, on which
it will float ; lay on this a side, spread
out evenly ; and if it has to be lapped
over in any part, lay on more bark
until it is all well coated, taking care
to place those hides at the bottom of
the vat now that were at the top last

i

TANNING ON THE PLANTATION.

time. On this side lay an inch coat-
ing of bark, and on that anotlier side,
and so on, with alternate layers of
bark, until the vat is full, or the sides
all laid away.

" In this, which is called the first
bark, the sides must lie four weeks ;
they are then drawn out, and the
spent bark taken out with a skimmer
or drainer. The sides are then re-
placed as before, with alternate lay-
ers of fresh bark in the same ooze,
which has acquired some additional
strength, notwithstandingthe amount
of tannin and extractive matter, con-
tained in the bark, that has become
intimately combined with the animal
fibre of the hide. In this second bark
they remain six weeks undisturbed,
when they receive a third bark in the
same way, in which they are left an-
other six or eight weeks. Three barks
will suffice to tan deer, hog, calf, and
other small skins ; four barks will
make good sole leather, but five are
preferable.

" The tanning process being com-
pleted, sole leather is taken out of
the vat, rinsed efTectually, and dried
in the shade, hanging the sides up by
two of their corners to joists, where
they may remain until wanted. Those
sides inteniled for upper and harness
leather (which are tliose of cows,
&c., the largest and thickest bullock
hides being used for sole leather), as
also deer, hog, and other small skins,
being thoroughly rinsed, are spread
out on a strong table, with the grain
or hair side up, and scoured with a
stiff brush, like a very stiff horse-
brush, occasionally throwing on pure
water, until all the ooze is scoured
out. Tanners use the edge of a stone,
made smooth, to assist in rubl)ing out
the ooze, and all the water that can
possibly be rubbed out. They also
use what they call a slicker, being a
dull edge of copper of about six or
seven inches long, set in a piece of
wood to serve as a handle.

" After they are all served thus,
and rubbed as dry as pos.sible, the ta-
ble is cleaned off, and the skins thrown
back upon it, grain side up, and are
rubbed with lanner"s oil (codfish oil)

as long as the leather will receive it.
Harness leather must be completely
saturat(!d. As they are oiled, fold
them up and lay them aside. When
they are all gone over, lay one on the
table at a time, Jlesh side up, and with
a rag rub on all the dubbmg that the
leather will absorb. Thin hides re-
quire but a small quantity. Harness
leather must have a heavy coating.

''Dubbing, which consists of equal
parts of tar and tallow, melted to-
gether, and well mixed, must be made
the day previous to being used. Lard
may he used in place of tallow, but
will require a less proportion of it.
Each side of leather is then hung up
by two corners to joists, there to re-
main until dry, or until wanted.

" a iron or steel touches a hide du-
ring the process of tanning, when in
the least wet, or even moist, it will
discolour it, forming an indelible black
mark.

" To blacken harness or other leath-
er, take the skin when completely
dried, and if any greasy spots ap-
pear, showing that more oil or dub-
bing has been applied than the leath-
er could absorb, wet the spots with a
little strong ooze, and scrub them
out with the brush ; then apply a good
coat of copperas (sulphate of iron),
dissolved in ooze, until the leather
has a good colour all over. After
this, when dry, put on another good
coat of oil. The leather may then
be smoothed off with a rounding edge
of polished steel, or glass, or stone."

A discovery has recently been
made which seems likely to revolu-
tionize the tanning trade. By means
of a tanning machine, or pair of hori-
zontal rollers, fixed over a tan-pit,
between which is fixed a band or belt
of hides attached by ligatures to each
other, to the number of 50 to 100,
and by which the rollers are con-
stantly fed or sujjplied, the hides are
lifted out of the pit on one side of the
machine. As they pass between the
rollers, the exhausted ooze or tan-
ning liquid is [)ressed out of them,
and they are deposited in folds in the
pit on the other side of the machine,
wJiere they absorb another supply of
779

TAP

TAR

fresh tannin. The first hide having
been inserted between the rollers,
the other?; follow in succession, and
n|)on arrivintr at the end ol'tiic l)ai)d
the motion of the roller is reversed,
and the belt is returned through the
machine to receive another squeeze.
This alternating motion is constantly
repeated, the i)il being replenished
from time to time with fresh solu-
tions of tan till the operati(jn is com-
pleted. The effects produced by this
simple plan are, 1. The shortening of
the time of tanning to one fourth of
that generally requireil. 2. The pro-
duction of a consideralile increase of
weight. 3. The leather tanned by this
method resists water longer than that
tanned by the old process. 4. The
new method is cheaper than the old.
5. It is applicable to the existing tan-
yards, at a comparatively trifling ex-
pense, with a capability of working
in rounds or series, and of expending
tan or liquor. 6. That it is available
for all sorts of leather.

TANSY. The plants of the genus
Ta7iacctum : they are composite, her-
baceous, and tonic.

TAN FSTOMES. A family of dip-
tera, most of which have a project-
ing proboscis.

TAPETUM. A coat of the eye
under the black pigment, and peculiar
to quadrupeds.

TAPE WORMS. Flat worms
(TcBnia) of great length, and consist-
ing of a number of pieces, which in-
fest the intestines. They are de-
stroyed by large doses of turpentine.

TAPIOCA. A starchy farina from

I the root of the Janipha {Jalropa) man'
' hiot ( /'Vi'.) There are two varieties :
one with a bitter, jjoisonous root ; the
other witii a sweet root. Tlie former
is [)repared with heat.

TAP ROOT. The main root which
descends vertically from trees.

T.\R. " .\ dark-brown, viscid li-
quor,obtained by charring the wood of
the fir-tree. It consists of resin, em-
pyreumatic matters, and acetic acid.
When inspissated by boiling, it is con-
verted into pitch. The manufacture
is simple ; a conical hole, usually in
the side of a bank, being made, roots
and billets of pine are let into the cav-
ity, and the whole is covered with
turf, which is beat firmly down above
the wood. The wood being kindled,
a slow combustion takes place. A
cast-iron pan at tlie bottom of the
cavity receives the fluid, and has a
spout which projects through the
bank and carries the tar into barrels.
As quickly as the barrels are filled
they are closed with bungs, when the
material is ready for exportation.
This manner of preparing tar has
been derived from the earliest ages.
Tar is a very compound substance ;
it contains modified resin, and oil of
turpentine, acetic acid, charcoal, wa-
ter, &c. Tar is used in medicine as
well as in the arts. It is an excel-
lent topical stimulant, when made into
an ointment with lard, in dry skin
diseases. These two substances, tar
and pitch, are of extensive use in the
arts.

"Tar may be found useful as an
application for cuts in sheep by clip-
ping, and also to the parts atfected
by the fly. It is also of great use in
some cases for applying as a paint to
boarding, &c. ; but in this use, a lit-
tle tallow, or other coarse fat, should
be melted with it, as by this means it
resists the weather more effectually."

TARE. In the great interest at
present taken in sheep husbandry,
full information is desirable on this
crop ; for, although tares have not
succeeded well in some imperfect ex-
periments hitherto made, there is no
reason why, on poorish soils, they
should fail if properly managed.

780

TARES.

" They are a most important green
crop ill the improved systems ot agri-
culture, especially on heavy soils,
■where they thrive best. When sown
in autumn, with a small sprinklinsr of
■wlieat or rye, they cover the ground
in spring, and supply abundance of
fodder in summer. A good crop of
tares is fully equal in value, if not su-
perior, to one of red clover : it comes
off the ground in sufficient time to
give the land a hasty summer tillage,
which is so useful in destroying
weeds, and to allow turnips to be
sown in the same season. They
smother annual weeds if the crop is
plentiful, which should always be se-
cured by an abundant manuring ; thus
they are a good substitute for a sum-
mer fallow m heavy soils, and amply
repay the labour and manure bestowed
upon them.

" There are many species and va-
rieties of tares ; hut that which is
found the best adapted for agricultu-
ral purposes is the common tare (Fi-
cm sattva, Fig.), of which there are

cK

-if/'

two principal varieties, very slightly
differing in appearance, one of which
is hardy, and will stand the severest
winters ; the other is more tender,
and is therefore only sown in spring ;
but it has the advantage of vegeta-
ting more rapidly, so that spring tares
sown in March will be fit to cut with-
in a fortnight or three weeks after
those which were sown in autumn.
U u u

By sowing them at regular intervals
from September to May, a succession
of green tares in perfection, that is,
in bloom, or wlien tlie pods are form-
ed, may be cut for several months,
from May to October. A prudent
farmer arranges his crops so that he
shall have artificial green food for
his horses and cattle at least six
months in the year, by having tares
fit to cut between the first and sec-
ond cut of clover. When there are
more tares than is absolutely requi-
red for this purpose, and the weather
permits, they make excellent hay ;
or, if the weather is not favourable,
they are cut and given to sheep,
which are folded on the portion al-
ready cut. It is an advantage to have
portable racks for this purpose, that
the fodder may not be trodden under
foot and wasted ; or the tares may
be placed between hurdles, tied two
and two, which form extemporaneous
racks. It is prudent to raise suffi-
cient seed for another year ; but a
crop of seed tares raised for sale is
seldom profitable, as they greatly ex-
haust the soil ; and tlie price varies
so much in different seasons, that it
becomes too much of a speculation
for a farmer. The difficulty in dis-
tinguishing the seed of the winter
tare from the spring variety is so
great, that it should either be raised
at home, or only purchased from
neighbours or from the most respect-
able seedsmen. It is a common prac-
tice with dealers to mix the seeds of
the winter tares, after the time of
sowing is past, with spring tares,
which are in request at a later period.
The inconvenience of this is, that
they do not vegetate equally, and con-
sequently the winter tare is not in
bloom when the spring tare is fit for
the scythe. Foreign tares, which are
imported in large quantities, are often
the growth of southern climates, and
will not stand the winter ; or they
have been raised from seed sown in
spring, so as to be really spring tares.
The difference is probably more ow-
ing to habit than to any real botani-
cal distinction between them. When
spring tares are sown m autumn
781

TARES.

instead of winter tares, they may oc-
casionally stand the frost, if not very
severe ; hut, in {jeneral, tliey rot
on the ground and never recover ;
whereas, the real hardy winter tares,
whose vegetation is slower, seem in-
sensible to the severest frosts.

" In the early part of summer, green
rye and tares, mixed, are sold at a
great priee in large towns, for horses
which have worked hard and been
highly fed in winter. They act as a
gentle laxative, and cool the blood :
near London, where every produce
is forced with an abundance of ma-
nure, tares are often tit to cut early
in May, and the land is immediately
ploughed and planted with potatoes,
or sown with mangel-wurzel or ruta
haga, which come off in September or
October, in time for wheat sowing.
Thus two very profitable cnips are
raised during the time that the land,
according to the old system, would
have been fallow ; and, at the same
time, it is left as clean, by careful
hoeing, as the best fallow would have
made it.

" There are a great many species
of tares or vetches, for the terms are
synonymous, many of which have
been proposed to be introduced into
general cultivation ; but none seem,
on the whole, to be so well adapted
to our climate as the common tare :
some have biennial and some peren-
nial roots. The Vlcia bicmiis has a
strong stem and large leaves, and
grows four or five feet high ; but it is
not so succulent as the common sort.
It might, perhaps, by cultivation and
early cutting, become a useful early
fodder, and it may be worth while
to make some experiments with it.
There are several species of tares
which grow wild in bushesand hedges,
but they have never been cultivated
in the fields, perhaps from the difH-
culty in collecting the seeds, which
shed as they are ripe. Of these, the I
Vicia craca appears most deserving of
attention. It bears its blue flower on
stems or spikes longer than the leaves,
which are downy It is very com-
ni'/n in France among wheat; and,
although a decided weed there, it is
782

I not much dreaded by the peasants, as
it improves the fodder greatly. It
has the appearance of great luxuri-
ance in its growth, wliere it meets
with a proper support. If it weie
mixed with some plants with a strong
stem, such as the Bokhara clover
{Mclilotus arborca altissima), which it-
self affords much fodder, it might
probably he cultivated to great ad-
vantage.

"In the south of France there is a
white perennial vetch or tare, called
Vicia pisifnnnis, which is cultivated
for its white seeds, of which soups
are made, as with the pea and lentil.
It grows in very light, soils ; and, al-
though indigenous to a southern cli-
mate, it is said not to be impatient of
frost. It has been called by some the
Canadian lentil, or the white tare.

"We shall only notice one more
of the wild tares, which is an annual :
it is called the yellow tare (Vicia lii-
tra). It grows in stony soils and
among bushes, is very branching, and
rises from one to two feet high. From
some experiments made by the Ag-
ricultural Society of Versailles sev-
eral years ago, it would appear that
this tare might be cultivated with
great advantage, and is even superi-
or to the common sort, because it
can be cut two or three times during
the summer, and aflbrds a very good
pasture in winter, which does not
stop its vegetation ; it will even bloom
in a mild winter. Although short, it
is so thick upon the ground, that its
first cut is as heavy as that of the
common tare, which is seldom worth
cutting a second time.

" Tares should be sown on land
which is well pulverized. If after
wheat, the stubble should be plough-
ed in with a deep furrow after a pow-
erful scarifier has gone over the land
several times to loosen it ; five or six
cart-loads of good farm-yard dung
should be ploughed in. The tares
should be drilled or dibbled, and the
surface well harrowed. The inter-
vals should be hoed early in spring :
this will accelerate the growth, and
ensure a complete covering of the
ground. As soon as the tares show

TAR

TEA

the flower, they may be cut daily till
tiie pods are fully formed ; after this,
any which remain uncut should be
made into hay or given to sheep ; for
if the seeds arc allowed to swell, the
ground will he mucii exhausted. An-
other piece should be ready to cut by
this time, and thus there may be a
succession of tares and broad clover
from May to November. Tares may
be sown as late as August, on a bar-
ley or rye stubble, for sheep feed ear-
ly in wuiter, or to be ploughed in to
rot in the ground where beans and
pease are intended to be sown early
in spring : this is perhaps the cheap-
est mode of manuring the land, the
only expense being the seed, for the
tillage is necessary at all events. In
light soils, tares and huckwheat,sown
together mimediately after barley or
rye harvest, will produce a consider-
able crop of vegetable matter, which
may be ploughed in in November. In
favourable seasons, wheat may be ]
sown immediately after, without fear- 1
ing the effect of two white crops fol-
lowing each other ; for the tares and
buckwheat coming between, by their
shade, and the two ploughings of the
ground, one when they are sown, and
the second when they are ploughed
in, will entirely destroy all weeds,
and give to the soil that improvement
which will enable it to bear as good a
crop of wheat as it would have done
had it been sown the year after on a
clover lay. Clover, which could not
be sown with the barley, from the foul
state of the lattd, imay be sown among
the wheat in the next spring, when it
is hoed for the second time. This is
held out as a hint to show how an
accidental interruption in a rotation
may be remedied without any loss of
crop or great deviation. As no rule
is without exception, so no rotation
can always be strictly adhered to ;
antl those crops which admit of being
sown at different times of the year
are of the greatest use as substitutes
for others which could not be con-
veniently sown without materially al-
tering the succession of crops. In
the common course of cultivation of
heavy soils, where occasional fallows

are necessary to clean the land, one
half of the land wliich retjuires fallow-
ing iTiay lie sown with tares ; and thus
the clean unjiroductive summer fal-
low will only return at every second
rotation. If the tares have been ma-
nured, or if they are fed off with sheep
fokled upon the land, the wheat or
other crop which is sown after them
will be as good as on a clean fallow,
or after a good crop of clover. This
alone would make tares a valuable
crop ; and they may be compared in
their effect on heavy lands to turnips
on lighter soils.

" The seeds of the tare are occa-
sionally ground into meal and made
into bread. It is a very poor food ;
and when there is more seed than
can be profitably disposed of, it may
be given to pigs ; but poultry, espe-
cially pigeons, are very fond of it.
When given to horses, the seeds of
tares are found very heating ; and al-
though they produce a fine glossy
coat, they are not to be recommended
for this purpose." — (Kliam.)

TARO. A cultivated Arum of the
Columbia River.

TARRAGON. Artcmesia dracun-
cidus. A bitter pot-herb, of the same
genus as the tansy.

TARSUS, TARSE. The bones
articulated to the tibia, and forming
the upper part of the foot.

TARTAR. The sediment of wine
casks.

TARTAR, CREAM OF. Siiper-
tartrate of potash, obtained by purify-
ing tartar.

TARTAR EMETIC. Tartrate

of potash and antimony, a powerful

J emetic, sedative, and expectorant. •

TARTARIC ACID. The acid of
grapes or of tartar. See Acids.
I TAXICORNS. A family of cole-
opterans, in many of which the an-
tenna; enlarge to wards the upper ends.

TAXIS. The replacement of parts
by the hand.

TEA. The tea plant has been par-
tially introduced into North Carolina
with a view to cultivating that impor-
tant staple ; we tiierefore present the
reader with an abstract of the Chi-
nese plan from Louduo :

.783

TEA.

" Tlie tea districts of China extend
from the 27th to the 31st deffree of
latitude. Accordinij to the missiona-
ries, it thrives in the more northern
provinces ; and from Kiempfer it ap-
pears to he cultivated in Japan as far
north as lat. 45 \ It seems, accord-
ing to Dr. Abel's observation, to suc-
ceed best on the sides of mountains,
where there can be but little accumu-
lation of vegetable mould. The soils
from which he collected the best spe-
cimens consisted chiefly of sandstone,
schistus, or granite. It grows well
in St. Helena and Rio Janeiro, and
will grow an>"where in a meager soil
and moderate temperature.

" The culture of the tea plant in Chi-
na has been given by various authors.
It is raised from seeds sown where
the plants are to remain. Three or
more are dropped into a hole four or
five inches deep ; these come up with-
out farther trouble, and require little
culture, except that of removing
weeds, till the plants are three years
old. The more careful stir the soil,
and some manure it ; but the latter
practice is seldom adopted. The third
year the leaves are gathered, at three
successive gatherings, in February,
April, and June, and so on till the
bushes become stinted or tardy in
their growth, which generally hap-
pens in from six to ten years. They
are then cut m to encourage the pro-
duction of fresh shoots.

""The gathering of the leaves is
performed with care and selection.
Tlie leaves are plucked off one by
one : at the first gathering only the
unexpanded and tender are taken ; at
llie second, those that are full grown ;
and at the third, the coarsest. The
first forms what is called in Europe
imperial tea ; but of this and other
names by which tea is designated,
tlie Chinese know nothing ; and the
compounds and names are supposed
to be made and given by the mer-
chants at Canton, w'ho, from the great
number of varieties brought to them,
have an ample opportunity of doing
so. These varieties, though numer-
ous, and some of them very different,
are yet not more so than the difler-
7S4

cnt varieties of the grape ; they are
now generally considered as belong-
ing to one species, the Thea Bohea,
now Camellia Bohca {Fig. a), of bot-

anists. Formerly it was thought that
green tea was gathered exclusively
from Camellia viridis ; but that is now
doubtful, though it is certain there is
what is called the green tea district
and the black tea district ; and the
varieties grown in the one district
differ from those grown in the other.
Dr. Abel could not satisfy himself as
to there being two species or one, but
thinks there are two species. He was
told by competent persons that either
of the two plants will atford the black
or green tea of the shops, but that the
broad, thin-leaved plant (C vin{lii) is
preferred for making the green tea.

•'Tlie tea leaves being gathered,
are cured in houses which contain
from five to ten or twenty small fur-
naces, about three feet high, each
having at the lop a large, flat iron
pan. There is also a long, low table
covered with mats, on which the
leaves are laid, and rolled by work-
men, who sit round it : the iron pan
being heated to a certain degree by
a little fire made in the furnace un-
derneath, a few pounds of the fresh-
gathered leaves are put upon the pan :
the fresh and juicy leaves crack when
they touch the pan, and it is the bu-
siness of the operator to shift them
as quickly as possible with his bare
hands, till they become too hot to be

TEA

TEA

easily endured. At this instant he
takes off the leaves with a kind of
shovel reseinbling a fan, and pours
them on the mats before the rollers,
who, taking small quantities at a time,
roll them in the palms of their hands
in one direction, while others are fan-
ning them, that they may cool the
more speedily, and retain their curl
the longer. This process is repeated
two or three times or oftencr, before
the tea is put into the stores, in or-
der that all the moisture of the leaves
may be thoroughly dissipated, and
their curl more completely preserved.
On every repetition the pan is less
heated, and the operation performed
more slowly and cautiously. The tea
is then separated into the different
kinds, and deposited in the store for
domestic use or exportation.

" The different sorts of black and
green are not merely from soil, situa-
tion, and age of the leaf ; but, after
winnowing the tea, the leaves are ta-
ken up in succession as they fall ;
those nearest the machine, being the
heaviest, form the gunpowder tea;
the light dust, the worst, being chief-
ly used by the lower classes. That
which is brought down to Canton un-
dergoes there a second roasting, win-
nowing, packing, &c , and many hun-
dred women are employed for these
purposes.

" For more select sorts of tea, the
blossoms of the Camellia sasanqua
{Fig. b) appear to he collected, since
they are brought over land to Russia,
and sold by Chinese and Armenians
in .Moscow at a great price. The
buds also appear to be gathered in
some cases. By far the strongest tea
which Dr. Abel tasted in China was
that called Yu-tien, used on occasions
of ceremony. It scarcely coloured
the water, and on examination was
found to consist of the half-expanded
leaves of the plant.

" As substitutes for tea, used by
the Chmese, may be mentioned a spe-
cies of moss common to the mount-
ains of Shan-tung ; an infusion of
ferns of different sorts, and Dr. Abel
thinks the leaves of the common
camellia and oil camellia may be add-
U u u 2

ed. Du Halde observes that all the
plants called tea by the Chmese are
not to be consid<5red as the true lea
plant ; and Kiempfer asserts that in
Japan a species of Camelha, as well
as the Oleafragrans, is used to give
it a high flavour."

TEAK. Tcctona grandis. A splen-
did tree of the elevated lands of In-
dia, the wood of which appears to be
superior even to oak. It is strong,
light, oily, and free from dry rot.

TEAM. " Nothing is of greater
importance in the management of a
farm than the cattle winch perform
the necessary work in ploughing and
other operations on the soil, in draw-
ing manure to the land, and carrying
the produce to market. It is evident
that the smaller the expense of the
team which does the requisite work
in proper lime, the greater the profit
of the farmer, and every saving in
this part of the expense of cultivation
is so much added to the clear gain.
Wherever the land is only partially
cultivated, and a portitm of it riMnains
in coarse pasture, which costs little or
nothing to the occupier, or where ex-
tensive open commons alford cheap
food for oxen, these last arc naturally
employed in farm labour. If four oxen
do only the work of two horses, they
are maintained at a much smaller ex-
pense, and, alter working for two or
three years, their value is improved
for the purpose of fattening for the
butcher. The necessary gear is much
less expensive, especially where the
old yoke is still in use, whether across
the neck or the horns. In fact, for a
poor man who has only a few acres
, of land, and who is situated near a
, waste or coinmon, oxen are by far
; the most economical team. Many
; writers on agriculture, who in gcner-
i al have more theoretical than practi-
; cal knowledge of husbandr)', have
I maintained the general superiority of
', an ox-tearn over that composed of
j horses, and have given calculations
which appear clearly to establish that
j point. But, on the other side, it may
be observed, that wherever arable
; land is the chief object of the farmer's
attention, and the tillage of the soil

TEAM.

is brought to any degree of perfec-
tion, there oxen arc never seen at
work, but have been invariably su-
perseded by active horses.

" In Switzerland, which is tolera-
bly advanced in its agriculture, oxen
are very generally used for the work
of the farm ; but there the system of
stall-feeding is universal, and having
a considerable portion of grass land,
whicii can be irrigated by the streams
from tlie mountains, they cut the
coarse, long grass produced there for
their cows and oxen ; and this food
is more congenial to their nature than
to horses, which do not thrive on
coarse watery grass, and require hay
and corn nearly all the year round.
But where there is less grass land
and more artificial grass, such as lu-
cern, sainfoin, and clover, which is
the case in all extensive farms, there
horses are chiefly used, this food being
suited to their constitution. Not to
enter farther into the comparative ad-
vantage of oxen and horses, we shall
turn our attention to the most profit-
able management of the latter, which
now almost universally compose the
farmer's team.

" The choice of the horses for a
farm is of great importance. It may
be very satisfactory to a rich fanner
to see fine, large, well-fed horses in
his wagon, moving along as if they
followed a procession, with bright har-
ness ornamented with shining brass.
This is a luxury like that of the rich
man's coach-horses, and as such is
very natural and innocent. It is the
pride of many a wealthy farmer, and
we would not curtail his pleasure or
despise his taste ; but as a matter of
profit or loss, the case is very differ-
ent : a fat horse does little work, no
more than a fat coachman. Horses
to be in working condition should be
muscular and active. The great,
heavy cart-horse may, for a moment,
be capable of greater exertion at a
dead pull, his weight assisting him ;
but in a long day the thin, active horse
will do witli ease what would sicken,
if not kill, his heavy companion. Hor-
ses about fifteen hands high, with
short legs and broad chests, such as
786

the Canadian horse, which walk as
fast as an ordinary man, are the most
economical for farm work. A pair of
such horses will draw a load in a cart
sixteen miles and return, or plough
one acre and a quarter in ten working
hours, having a rest of two hours ;
while the heavy, slow cart-horses
could not walk the distance in the time
without being overdriven. This is
more than the average work ; but in
the busy lime of the year it is a great
advantage to have horses which can,
with good feeding, work longer and
faster without suffering in their health.
The carriers on the roads, who hve
entirely by the work of their horses,
know how to choose them and how
to feed them to the greatest advan-
tage, and, without overworking them,
to make them do as much as is con-
sistent with their health. If hard
w'ork is the cause of some diseases in
horses, comparative indolence causes
many more. Where horses are slug-
gish, the men soon become so like-
wise. To see a wagon with four
strong horses returning empty, at the
rate of two miles in the hour, with
two men, or at least a man and a boy,
lying lazily in it, is a sure sign that
the work on the farm to which they
belong is done at the same rate. A
single horse-cart, or a light spring
wagon with two horses, driven by a
man or boy with reins and a whip,
and trotting at the rate of five miles
an hour, is a perfect contrast to tliis,
and no doubt the owner has his work
done much more expeditiously, and
consequently at a cheaper rate. The
stage-coach proprietors have gener-
ally very light, four-wheeled carriages
to carry their corn from their chief
stations to places where they keep
horses, and they often carry as heavy
loads as a farmer's wagon does when
carrying corn to market ; yet the two
horses in the light carriage trot with
their load, and the three or four heavy
horses of the farmer move at the rate
of two miles and a half in the hour at
most, both going and returning. It
is evident that there is a waste of
time and power here, which is so
much lost. Horses half-bred between

TEAM.

a cart mare and a blood horse are ;
reared by some spirited farmers, and
if they are more dehcate and suscep-
tible of cold than the coannon cart-
horses, they have many advantages : i
sometimes they inherit so much cour- '•
age and vigour from their sire, that
they become valuable as carriage hor-
ses or hunters, and well repay tlie ex-
pense incurred in rearing them ; and, '
at all events, they are superior to any
others for the work of the farm, and
are in general docile and tractable.
The only inconvenience arises from
their spirit. When any sudden ob-
struction arises in ploughing, such as
a considerable root of a tree or a large
stone, they make violent exertions,
and sometimes break the ploughs or
other implements. In this respect
oxen are more phlegmatic, and stop
when the collar presses on them ; so
that in breaking up rough commons
or newly-cleared woods oxen may be
preferred. This is almost the only
case where spirit and courage ai'e not
an advantage.

" With respect to the food of farm-
horses, as we observed before, a great
saving may be effected by a judicious
use of many vegetables and roots
which are easily raised on arable
land. Various modes of preparing
the food have been recominended,
such as steeping corn till it sprouts,
baking it into bread, or mixing it with
boiled roots. All these may have their
advantage where economy is the ob-
ject ; but, with the exception of baked
bread made of rye, barley, and oats,
and slightly leavened, which is per-
haps the best food which can be giv-
en to slow-wo king horses, there is
nothing so congenial to the healthy
stomach of a horse as good hay and
dry oats, or beans bruised in a mill
and mixed with cut chaff. They re-
quire no cooking to be fully digested,
and the digestive power ot the horse
will extract all the nourishment which
they contain. But there are cheaper
fodders than hay and corn, especially
in summer, when they can be given
fresh and green. Tares, clover, lu-
cern, and sainfoin, cut as they are
wanted, will keep a horse in health

and working condition with little or
no corn, and at a comparatively tri-
fling expense : carrots are peculiarly
relished by horses, and are very whole-
some ; and Swedish turnips, or ruta
baga, given raw in moderate quanti-
ties, make their skins shine, and thus
prove that they tend to keep them
in condition. Every prudent farmer
takes care to have a sufficient supply
of these clieaper substitutes for hay
and corn, keeping these last as a re-
serve and auxiliary to the former. In
a prize essay of the Highland and
Agricultural Society, on the compar-
ative advantages of raw and boiled
grain as food for farm horses, the
author adduces some experiments,
which lead to the conclusion that
there is no advantage in boiling grain,
but rather the contrary. The cost of
keep of a horse per day on different
food has been given as follows :

10 lbs. of straw cut into chaff . . . Id.
10 lbs. of oats, at 3s. per bushel . . 9
16 lbs. of turnips, at li)s. per ton . . 1

E.xpense of culling • Ij

1*. OU.

16 lbs. of hay, at 3s. 6d. per cwt.
5 lbs. of oats, at 3s. per busliel .
16 lbs. of turnips, at lOs. per ton .

6(i.
4i
J_

or,

2S lbs. of steamed turnips .... 3W.
7 lbs. of coals, at Is. per bushel . . 1

Expense of steaming 5

16 lbs. of straw, at H. per ton . . . Ij
Ud

"This last appears the most eco-
nomical food, but steamed turnips
and straw only would probably not
keep a horse in good working condi-
tion, and it is not said how long the ex-
periment was continued, nor whether
the horses thus fed lost weight. The
food is also valued at a low rate.

" It is evident that if farm horses
can be kept in condition for Ghd. a
day, which is not 4s. a week, while
on hay and oats, in the common mode
of feeding, they will cost more than
double that sum, the saving in a year
would amount to nearly X 10 on each
horse ; and as every twenty-hve
acres of a farm of moderately light
land will require one horse fbr its
7!37

TEAM.

cultivation, tliere will be a saving of
fijilil .sliillini,'s per acre, probal)!)' iialf
tlie rent, and more than liaK" tiie prof-
it. However this may he, there is no
doubt that it is of ^^roat importance
to ascertain what is, on the whole,
the best and cheapest mode of feed-
ing farm horses ; and without enter-
ing into miiuito calculations, it will
be found that various artilicial grass-
es may be made to succeed each
other l)y successive sowings so reg-
ularly that the horses shail be kept
for six months of the year entirely
on succulent green food, which will
enable them to do all the necessary
work, and keep them in good health
and condition. Tims, with the help
of carrots, potatoes, and rula baga,
a great saving of hay and oats may
be effected in winter, and these crops
will take up much less land for their
production than hay and oats, and
exhaust the soil less, if we except
potatoes, which are more profitably
used as human food, or to fatten pigs.
"The example of tradesmen and
manufacturers who keep horses, and
cut all the hay which they use into
chaff, mixing it with oats, may be
good for a farmer to follow where
hay is scarce and beans a good price,
but otherwise it is fully as economi-
cal to give the hay in racks, provided
no more be given at once than a horse
will eat up entirely, and a certain ra-
tion be allowed for each horse, which
experience has shown to be sufficient.
In the cavalry, where great atten-
tion is paid to economy, the horses
have their rations of hay, oats, and
straw, according to the exercise they
take, or the fatigue they are exposed
to ; so likewise it should be with a
farmer's team. In the old mode of
feeding horses with as much hay as
they would eat, and two bushels of
oats for each horse per week, during
at least nine months in the year, and
giving them tares or artificial grasses
between spring sowing and harvest,
when there was less to be done, the
expense of a horse was much greater
than most farmers could now afford,
and more land was devoted to the
keep of the team than was necessary.
788

i " It is of great importance to a per
son about to manage a farm lo know
exactly what number of horses will
be required for its proper cultivation ;
and this depends ui)on many circum-
stances, which mu.siall be taken into
: consideration, and which will make
I a very materia! difference, often as
much as half the rent of the; land.
j He is lo consider the situation of the
i farm buildings, especially the stalls
! and cattle-yards, where the manure
is to be made, with respect to their
distance from the fields ; the stale ol
the roads and the access to the fields ,
the distance of a good market-town,
and whether the fields lie in a ring,
fence or are scattered. A farm o)
good light loam will require one
horse for every twenty-five acres for
Its cultivation, with an additional one
for every two hundred acres; that
is, nine horses for two hundred acres.
The additional horse should be light-
er and more active than the rest, for
the farmer to ride on and to drive in
a light cart ; yet it should be capable
of supplying the place of any of the
others in case of illness or accident,
or when extra work is required, as
in harvest or seed time. The larger
the farm, or rather the fields, the
fewer horses are required in propor-
tion to its size, because much time is
lost in turning the plough where the
furrow is short; and ploughing is al-
ways the principal work ot the team.
If more than two horses are requi-
red to plough the ground, the soil
must be very compact and heavy ;
and if this is not compensated by
greater fertility, the expense of the
horses will much reduce the profit of
the farmer. It is the custom in
some farms for each ploughman to
have the charge of his own horses ;
but it is far better to make the feed-
ing and cleaning of horses the busi-
ness of regular servants, who should
sleep in or near the stables, and rise
very early, so that the horses maybe
fed and ready to go to work as soon
as the ploughman comes. \\'lien a
man has been eight or ten hours
holding a plough, he is not so capable
of cleaning and rubbing the horses as

TEA

one who has onlj' had light work in 1
the day. The horse kcep'TS oan |
prepare manure, make coinijosts. cut I
iiay and straw into chad' lor llie lior- }
ses, mow tares or oilier i!;ieeii food, |
or hoe the crops in tJK! season while j
the horses are at work, and the hist |
thing before lliey He down at night i
shonld be to give the horses tlieir [
proper ration of hay, and hcc thai j
their beds are comfortal)le and every- 1
thing in proper order in tlie stables :
good grooming is of as great use to
a horse as good feeding, and without
it they will never be in perfect work-
ing condition. The harness should
always be cleaned and oiled, and
hung up in a separate place, not, as
is too commonly done, hung up be
hind the horses in the stables. There
should be no unnecessary ornaments,
but strength and simplicity should be
studied. The weight and size of the
collars are in many places absurd :
they cannot be too light, provided
they are of sufficient strength. The
work in the field, when the days are
long, should be divided so as to give
the horses at least two hours' rest,
during which they should be fed with
oats or corn. When the fields are
near the stables, the horses may be
brought home, but a portable manger
is easily carried into the field, such
as is used at the inns on the roads
where carriers stop to bait. In win-
ter it may be as well to finish the
days' work with only an interval of
half an hour. The time in summer
should be from five in the morning
till ten, and from two till seven if the
weather is very warm, resting four
hours; or from si.x till eleven, and
from one till six, resting two hours.
In winter the time is from seven till
three, resting half an hour or an hour
between eleven and twelve. With
good feeding and grooming this is by
no means too hard work when the
work requires to be carried on brisk-
ly. The heavier and lighter kind of
work should be so arranged that
\vhen horses have worked hard for a
day or two, they may have one or two
days of lighter work."
TEATHING Feeding or stack-

TEA

ing hay for use on the field : bating
turnips, &,c., on fields, or young wheat
in spring.

TEASEL, or FULLER'S TEAS-
EL. Dipsaats fullonum. It is an
herbaceous biennial, of the composite
fitmily, growing four to six feet high,
and cultivated for the rough, jjrickly
flower head, which is used in the
manufacture of cloth, flannel, &c.
The soil best suited is a clayey loam,
not over rich ; the seed is sown in
April or May, either broad-cast or in
drills eighteen inches to two feet
apart. Sometimes caraways are
sown with them. One to two pecks
of seed are sown to the acre. The
plants are weeded, thinned, and deep-
ly worked as they grow, to six inches
in the row, or one foot each way, in
the broad-cast field. They are fit for
cutting the second year about July,
or as soon as the blossoms begin to
fall from the heads, and are now to
be cut immediately above the upper
leaves (see Fig.) with a sharp knife

or hook, and received into a basket ;
the cutter should have his hands well
provided with stout gloves. Three
cuttings are made at intervals of eight
to ten days, the ripe heads only being
taken. They are to be sunned for a
day, and then conveyed into dry
rooms or sheds ; no water should
touch them. They are sorted for
sale : the finest and firmest are call-
ed kings ; the second, middhngs ; and
789

TER

TET

the inferior, unripe, and brittle kinds
scrubs. The sorts are put into open
bales of sticks for sale. 9000 heads
of the first form a pack, and 20,000
of the second. An acre will yield ten
to fifteen packs in all. The haulm is
burned on tiie ground. The crop is
not exhausting, but sometimes fails.

TEGTRICES. The small feathers
which cover the quill feathers.

TEDDING HAY. Spreading it out.

T E E T II. To leara the age of
horses by, see Horse.

TEGMENTA. The scales of win-
ter buds.

TEGUMENT, or TEGMEN. Tn
anatomy, the general covering of the
body. In entomology the term is ap-
plied to the coverings of the wings
of the order Orthoptera, or straight-
winged insects.

TEMPORAL BONES. The tem-
ple bones.

TENACITY. Cohesion. The
power of resisting a pulling force.

TENACULUM. A simple small
hook, used to seize bleeding vessels
in operations.

TENDRIL. A clasping stem, as
that of the vine.

TENESMUS. A straining and in-
effectual effort to relieve the bcnvels ;
it is a symptom of irritations and in-
flannnalions of the bowels.

TENON. The end of a rail intro-
duced into a mortice.

TENSOR MUSCLES. Those
which tighten a part.

TENT. A plug of lint or sponge
introduced into wounds to dilate
them, or to stop hemorrhages.

TENTACULA, or TENTACLES.
Prehensile, thread-like organs in the
lower animals, usually arranged
around their mouths.

T E N U I R O S T E R S. Incesso-
rial birds, with a slender bill.

TEREBRANTIA. A section of
hymenopterous insects, the females
of which are furnished with a icrchra,
or borer, with which she bores into
the bark of trees, or the bodies of an-
imals, to deposiie her eggs. The ich-
neumons, wheat insect, <Scc., are of
this class. See Insects.

TERETE (from teres, round). A
790

I term applied to round stems, anten-
nse, &.C.

TERGUM. In insects, the upper
part of the abdomen or back.

TERMITES. A genus of insects
inhabilmg tropical Africa and Amer-
ica, and allied to the ants.

TERRACE. A raised bank, for a
promenade and ornamental oi)jects.

TERTIARY F O RM A T 1 0 N.
Strata situated above the chalk and
green sand, disposed in basins, and
for the most part sednnentary, but
containing some hard rocks. It is di-
vided into three portions, the eocine,
miocine, and pliocine, which see.

TESSELATED. Marked into
squares, or trapezoids ; a pavement
laid with square stones of different
colours.

TEST. In chemistry, anything by
which we distinguish the chemical
nature of substances from each oth-
er ; thus, infusion of galls is a test of
the presence of iron, which it ren-
ders evident by the production of a
black colour in water and other li-
quids containing that metal ; in the
same way, sulphuretted hydrogen is a
test of the presence of lead, and ni-
trate of baryta, of sulphuric acid. In
metallurgy and assaymg, the porous
crucible which absorbs the liquid vit-
rifiable oxide of lead and other met-
als combined with it is sometimes
called the lest.

TESTA. The shell or integument
of a seed.

TESTACEANS. Animals provi-
ded with a shell.

TESTES. The glands which pro-
duce the reproductive secretion of
male animals.

TESTUDINATA. A tribe of an-
imals like the tortoise, furnished with
a carapace or horny covering.

TETANUS. Locked jaw.

TETHERING. Fastening cattle
or horses by a rope, or chain, to a
post, or tree, to give them a limited
pasturage.

TETRADYNAMIA. Having four
long and two short stamens, as the
cruciferous plants.

TETRAGONA. The New Zea-
land spinach. See Spinach.

THA

TIIA

TETRAGYXIA. Having four pis-
tils.

TETRANDRIA. With four sta-
mens.

TETTIGONIANS. Tiie Cicadi-
ans, or tree locusts.

THALAMUS. In anatomy, the
part of the brain from which the op-
tic nerves have part of their origin.
In botany, the part on which the
ovary is seated. The succulent red
centre of a strawberry, the core ia
the fruit of a raspberry, are the thai-
ami of these plants. Some botanists
call it the receptacle of the fruit.

T H A L L 1 : S. The leaf-like ex-
pansion of lichens, sea-weeds, &.c.
Hence these plants are sometimes
called Thallogens, or Thallophjtes.

THATCH. "This is a covering of
straw, rushes, or reeds, as a substi-
tute for tiles, or slates, for houses,
barns, and principally for sheds for
cattle. The increase of agricultural
produce on a farm makes the stacking
of corn out of doors a matter of neces-
sity as well as convenience. The
temporary thatching of these stacks,
as well as of hayricks, has made it
necessary that some of the regular
servants of the farm should be capa-
ble of thatching in a neat and sub-
stantial manner, that there may be
no delay fr.om want of a regular
thatcher. We will first describe the
mode of thatching hayricks and corn
stacks, as the simplest.

" The rick, or stack, having heen
formed into a proper shape, either
with a roof slanting from a ridge, or
conical, and ending in a central point,
the straw is prepared by moistening
it, that it may more easily bend with-
out breaking. It is then forked up
in a loose heap, the straws lying in
every direction, and somewhat mat-
ted. Portions are now drawn out
from this heap in handfuls, which
lays the straws again in a more paral-
lel order : these are placed in a fork-
ed stick, which will hold several of
these bundles or handfuls, and are
thus carried to the thatcher on the
top of the rick, or stack. He seizes a
handful, and bending one end into a
kind of noose, he inserts this into the

hay or straw near the bottom of the
roof, at one end if it be a square roof,
or at any convenient part if it be a
round one. He presses down the
straw which he has thus inserted to
about half its length, in order to form
the eaves, which extend a little be-
yond the lower part of the roof.
When he has thus laid several hand-
fuls side by side, so as to cover about
a yard in width, that is, as far as he
can conveniently reach without mo-
ving his ladder, he begins another
row a little above the place where
he began, so that the lower end of
the straw now inserted may cover
the upper part of the first row, as tiles
do each other. Thus he proceeds
upward till he comes to the upper
ridge of the roof, or to the point of
the cone in a round stack. In the
latter case the covering diminishes
to a point, so as to form a triangle.
The ladder is now shifted a yard to
one side, and the same operation is
performed, care being taken that each
j fresh handful put on shall be inter-
■ woven with that which lies beside it,
so that no water can possibly pass
i between them. Thus the work pro-
ceeds till the roof is completed, and
it only remains to secure the upper
ridge in a square stack, or the point
of the cone in a round one. In the
first case, the highest layer of straw
is made to extend beyond the ridge
I on both sides, and the ends are brought
together and stand up like the bristles
on a hog. A rope of straw has been
prepared, and many small rods, about
two feet long, and cut sharp at the
point: these are inserted just below
; the ridge, in a line with it, and about
a foot apart ; one end of the straw
: rope is inserted into the stack, and
twisted firmly round the projecting
end of the first rod ; it is then wound
once round the next rod, and so on
the whole length of the ridge : this is
done on both sides. The straws which
form the ridge are now cut with shears
horizontally, to give it a neat finish,
and at each end a kind of ornament
is usually made by winding a straw
rope round a handful of the project-
ing straw, lorming a kind of knot or
791

THE

THE

bow, accordinn; to the taste of the
tliatchcr. Rods with straw ropos
twisleii round them arc inserted near
the edge of the slanting side and all
along the eaves, whieh prevent the
wind from blowing off the thatch.

"The only ditferenoe in the thatch
of a round ricic is, that it is brought
to one point, wliere^ it is lied with
straw rope wound round it, and form-
ed into a kind of bow ; the rods are
inserted a little below in a circle, and
a straw rope twisted round them,
and likewise around the circular
eaves. Barley is generally put into
square stacks, and wheat in round
ones. When the outside is neatly
trimmed and cut smooth, so that no
birds can lodge in it, wheat may be
kept for years, without danger of in-
jury or loss, much better than in a
barn, or even in a granary.

" In thatching sheds and buildings
which are to last many years, the
straw is prepared in the same man-
ner, but the ends of the handfuls, as
they are put on a lathed roof, are
kept down by means of long rods,
which are tied to the laths of the roof
by means of strong tar twine. A
much thicker coat of straw is put on ;
and rye straw, which has a solid
stem, is preferred as more lasting,
and less liable to be filled with water
than hollow straw. Instead of straw
ropes, split willow is used, and the
rods which are inserted are much
nearer each other and more carefully
secured. As this kind of thatching
is a peculiar trade, it requires a reg-
ular apprenticeship to be master of
it. The thatching of temporary ricks
may be done from mere description,
and a very little practice will enable
any one to protect his stacks suffi-
ciently by a thatched covering."

THECA. A case, usually the urn
of mosses, in which their spores are
situated.

THECOSTOMES. Those insects
which have their suckers surrounded
bv a sheath or case.

THEODOLITE. A surveying in-
strument for measuring both vertical
and horizontal angles, and necessary
ia accurate surveys.
792

THEORY. The expression of a
general law based on numerous as-
certained facts. An hypothesis is
merely a guess, without any basis on
fact.

THERAPEUTICS. The science
which treats of the action of medi-
cines.

THERMO-ELECTRICITY. The
study of the conditions for the produc-
tion of an electrical current i)y heat.

" When one part of a metallic bar
is heated and another cooled, an elec-
tric current is generated in its sub-
stance, which may be rendered evi-
dent, and its direction ascertained by
the galvanometer. When two rnetals
of ditTerent temperatures are brought
into contact, similar electric currents
are generated, the quantity and di-
rection of the electricity varying with
the nature of the metals and their re-
spective temperatures. The best ap-
paratus for exhibiting these thermo-
electric currents consists of alternate
bars of antimony and bismuth sol-
dered together at their ends, so as to
form a compound bar or parallelo-
gram, the junctions of which may
be alternately heated and cooled. In
this case, the direction of the current
is from the antimony to the bismuth ;
so that these metals bear the same
relation to each other in the thermo-
electric series as the zinc and silver
in the simple voltaic circuit. The
term stereo-chctric has also been ap-
plied to these currents, implying their
production in solid bodies independ-
ent of a fluid, and as opposed to the
hydro-electric or voltaic current." —
{Krandc.)

THERMO-ELECTRIC PILE.
See above.

THERMOMETER (from -Qepfio^,
rearm, and /^utjiov, a measure). An in-
strument to measure sensible heat.
It most usually consists of a tube of
small bore, with a bulb at the lower
end containing mercury, which, by its
dilatation from heat, ascends within
the tube. There is a scale attached,
marked into degrees, and the altitude
of the mercury is measured by its
position opposite the degrees. The
marking is after the plan of Fahren-

THI

THO

heit, 32'^ Fahrenheit being the freez-
ing of water, and 212= Fahrenheit
its boiling point. The 0 {zero) is as-
certained by the cold produced from
mixing snow and salt so as to melt.

The centigrade scale is used by the
French, in which the zero is the
freezing of water, and 100=' cent, its
boiling pomt.

The thermometer is of great ser-
vice to the gardener in the hot-house,
to regulate its temperature. Ruther-
ford's thermometer marks the lowest
and highest degrees of temperature
during an\' given time. " It consists
simply of two thermometers: a mer-
curial thermometer. A, and a spirit
thermometer, B, attached horizontally

o the same frame, and each provi-
ded with its own scale. The index
of A is a bit of steel, which is pushed
before the mercury ; but, in conse-
quence of its horizontal position, re-
mains in its place when the mercury
recedes, and consequently indicates ;
the highest degree of the scale to j
which the mercury has risen. The j
index of B is of glass, with a small ;
knob at each end. This lies in the !
spirit, which freely passes it when ;
the thermometer rises ; but when the |
spirit recedes, the cohesive attraction ■
between the fluid and the glass over-
comes the friction arising from the .
weight of tlie index, and the index is '
consequently carried back with the
spirit towards the bulb. As there is |
no force to move it in the opposite |
direction, it remains at the point near- j
est the bulb to which it has been
brought, and tl»us indicates the low-
est temp(?rature which has occurred. [
By inclining the instrument, the in- '■
dices are brought to the surfaces of,
their respective fluids, and prepared
for a new observation."

Til Eil.M OSCOFE. A general
term, including any implement for
measuring heat.

THICKET. A dense accumula-
tion of shrubs or young trees.
X X s

THILL. The central beam or
draught-tree of a wagon.

T H I X N I N G OUT. Removing
some plants or branches of a tree to
give the rest a better opportunity of
growing large. It is an important
operation in the orchard, as a tree
overburdened with fruit will not pro-
duce such tine specimens as one that
has a few to perfect.

THISTLE. The genus Cardmis.
The commonest kinds in the United
States are the C. lanceolalus and ar-
tcnsis : the latter is the well-known
Canada thistle. Considered as a
weed in our fields, our principal ob-
ject is to eradicate it, which, in con-
sequence of the ready dispersion of
the seeds by the wind, is not easily
done, as a slovenly farmer may seed
the vvhole country around.

" Those crops which are usually
hoed can readily be cleared of this-
tles ; but where the seed is sown
broad-cast, the labour of weeding
them out is much greater. If they
are not extracted with the root, they
will soon grow again with redoubled
vigour. In a moist season they may
be pulled up by means of a wooden
or iron pincers, which grasps them
strongly near the crown of the root.
A^'hen a field has been long infested
with thistles, the best way of clear-
ing it is to watch when the thistle is
in full bloom and the seed just form-
ing ; if it be then cut off" at the root,
it will die. Thus in two years a field
may be entirely cleared of thistles.

" It is chiefly in arable land that
thistles are most troublesome. In
pastures it is sufficient to eradicate
them once, and to permit none to
grow along the hedges and ditches.
The seed does not readily vegetate,
unless it finds a loose soil ; and little
birds are so fond of it, that they will
leave none that is not covered with
earth, especially in the beginning of
winter."

T H O R A QIC. Relating to the
chest. The thoracic duct is a vessel
which receives the contents of the
lacteals and absorbents, and con-
veys it to the blood by the subclavian
vein.

793

THR

THY

THORAX. The chest. The cav-
ty of the chest is termed the lliora-
cic cavity, and contains the heart and
lungs. In entomology, the second
segment of the frame.

THORN. The genus Crat<r<rus:
thorny shrubs of tlie family Rosacea.
The C. oxyacanlha is the .May, or Eng-
lish hedge thorn. The C. crus gaili,
or Newcastle thorn, is much used in
Delaware as a hedge ; it is supposed
to be superior to tlie C. cordata, or
Virginian thorn.

THORN-APPLE. The stramo-
Ilium.

THRASHING AND THRASH-
ERS. " The separation of the grain
from the ear in corn has always been
one of the most laborious operations
on a farm.

" Where the grain is thrashed out
immediately after harvest, to be put
into a granary, the most common
practice is to level a portion of a lieid,
and laying the grain in the straw in a
large circle, to drive oxen and horses
over it till it is all trodden out. Till
ingenuity had produced machines to
supersede the flail, this was the only
instrument in use. The first idea of
a machine for thrashing was that of
imitating the motion of the flail, but
so much depends on the eye of the
thrasher, that no mechanism could
■well imitate the motion of his arms.
This was consequently given up, and
an imitation of the rubbing of the
grains from the ears between the
hands, combined with the beaters
of a flax -dressing machme, grad-
ually produced the present improved
thrashing machine.

" Without a figure it would be dif-
ficult to describe the different parts
and motions of a thrashing machine.
They are, however, now so common,
that it will suffice to give the general
principal of action, and to mention
some of the latest improvements in
it. A rapid motion is given to a hol-
low cylinder round a horizontal axis ;
on the outer surface there are pro-
jecting ribs parallel to the axis at
equal distances from each other,
or, what is more common, spikes.
Around half the cyluider is a case,
79 i

the inner surface of which is lined
with plates of cast-iron grooved in
the direction of the axis, or furnished
with spikes. The ribs or beaters
come quite close to these, so that an
ear of wheat or other grain cannot
well pass between them without be-
ing flattened. The sheaves of grain,
having been untied, arc spread on a
slanting table, and in some machines
are drawn in by the spikes. The
motion of the cylinder or drum is
very rapid. The beaters act on the
straw as it comes through, and beat
out most of the grain ; but wliat re-
mains is carried in between the beat-
ers and the case, and when it has
made half a revolution all the grain
has been beaten and rubbed out. It
i falls on a sieve, which lets the grain
j through, but retains the straw, which
I is raked off by hand, or by circular
I rakes moved by the machinery. The
great perfection of a thrashing ma-
chine is to rub out every grain and
to break the straw as little as possi-
ble : the larger the scale of the ma-
chine the better it does this. Hand
machines have been made on the
same principle, but they do not effect
any saving in the expense, requiring
many men to produce the effect of
one horse. Moveable thrashing ma-
chines are very generally in use where
farms are small. They are often the
property of an industrious mechan-
ic, who undertakes to superintend
the work, the farmer finding horses
and men. Thus he goes from farm
to farm. The best machines will
thrash 25 to 50 bushels the hour."
The thrashers best known are Pitt's,
Hall's, Hale's, Whitman's, Stafford's,
Warren's, Bostwick"s.

THREAVE. Twelve sheaves of
grain in the straw.

THROAT. Faux, the commence-
ment of the tube of a personate or
labiate flower.

THRIPS. The genus of vine fret-
ters, minute flies which destroy the
buds, leaves, and flowers of several
fruit-trees. They are extremely act-
tive, and skip considerable distances.
See Insects.

TIIY.ME. The genus Thymus, ol

TIL

TIL

which T. vulgaris is cultivated as a
well-known aromatic pot-herb of the
family Labiahe. It is a perennial, and
propagated both by seed and slips : it
should be placed in a moderately fer-
tile bed in a dry situation.

THYRSUS, or TIIYRSE. An in-
florescence similar to that of the com-
mon lilac.

T H Y R 0 I D GL AXD. A gland
situated in front of the throat : its
office is unknown.

TIBIA. The largest of the two
bones of the fore leg. In entomolo-
gy, the fourth joint of the leg.

TICK. A well-known race of in-
sects found on grass, decayed wood.
&c. : they are easily removed by
smoking with tobacco. The sheep
tick is destroyed by mercurial or sul-
phur ointment, or dipping the sheep
mlo a strong infusion of tobacco.

TIE. In building, a limber or met-
al used to bind together two parts
which are liable to separate.

TILLAGE. " Applied to arable
land, the stirring and preparing the
surlace of the soil, so as to render it
fit for the vegetation of seeds ; its
object, also, is the destruction of
noxious weeds.

" The whole art of cultivation con-
sists in tillage and manuring, and the
profit of the husbandman depends on
the perfection of the tillage and the
economy of labour in producing the
elTect. A defect in tillage will cause
a creat deficiency in the crops in or-
dinary years. To ensure good crops,
the soil should be in such a state that
the rains and dews may readily be
diffu.sed through it, without giving it
a wet appearance, or evaporating too
rapidly. It requires great knowledge
and experience to give any particular
soil the exact portion of tillage which
is suited to it. A fine garden tilth,
as it is called, is the most perfect for
liglit soils which have been long cul-
tivated and manured : when they can
be brought to such a state, that after
continued rains the surface dries
without forming a crust, and crum-
bles of its own accord, the tillage has
been good ; and the deeper this soil
is stirred, the more it will produce ;

but where clay abounds in the soil,
which in dry weather can be readily
pulverized by crushing the dry clods,
and be reduced to the finest powder,
too much tillage may do more harm
than good. The fine clay is soon
converted into mud at the surface by
the least rain, because it is not suffi-
ciently porous to let the water tiirough
it ; it dries into a hard crust, which
effectually precludes the access of
air, and consequently stops the ve-
getation of the seed. It is only by
abundant manuring with organic mat-
ter that this natural tendency in clays
to cohere can be overcome ; and un-
til this is effected, it is best to stir
clay soils as deep as possible by
means of subsoil ploughs, but they
should not be pulverized so that the
water cannot run down between the
lumps and clods, and especially the
surface should be left in such a state
of roughness that heavy rains cannot
cover It with a coat of mud. The
clods which are left on the surface
imbibe the moisture more gradually,
and, in drying, fall to pieces, by which
the young plants are invigorated,
and, as it were, moulded up. This is
particularly the case in winter after a
frost, as all clay land tanners are
well aware. It is very easily ascer-
tained whether a soil will bear much
tillage or not. It is only necessary
to try some of it in a large pot or
box ; make the surface very fine by
breaking the clods, then water it
abundantly, and let it dry in the sun ;
if a crust is formed in drying, that
soil will not bear too much harrow-
ing and pulverizing, and should be
left in a moderately rough state after
sowing or drilling the seed ; but if,
after it dries, the surface is loose and
porous, then the finer the tillage the
better the seed will vegetate. The
whole depends on the ready admis-
sion of air or its exclusion. When
grass seeds are sown, the surface
sliould be well pulverized ; but this
cannot be safely done if the soil is apt
to run together when mucii rain falls
soon after the seed is sown. Some
plants, like beans, will force theii
way through a very hard surface ;
795

TILLAGE.

but small seeds are too weak to do
so, and their growth is entirely stop-
ped by the least crust on the surface.
Besides the preparatory tillage of the
soil before sowing the seed, there is
great advantage in the stirring it as
the plants are growing. On this de-
pends all the merit of the row culture
for every kind of plant, especially
those which have esculent roots or
extensive foliage, and which are
chiefly cultivated for the sustenance
of cattle. The effect of deep tillage
is here most remarkable. If rows of
turnips or cabbages be sown at such
a distance that a small plough or oth-
er stirring implement can be used l)e-
tween them, and the intervals be
stirred more or less, and at different
depths, it will be found that the deep-
er and more frequent the tillage, until
the foliage covers the whole interval,
or the bulbs swell to a great size, the
heavier and more abundant the prod-
uce will be. It is worth while to try
tl>e experiment ; Sow Swedish tur-
nips or mangel wurzel in rows three
feet apart ; let some of the rows be
merely kept clear of weeds by surface
hoeing, and the plants be thinned out
to the distance of a foot apart : let
oiher intervals be stirred to different
depths ; some three inches, some six
inches, and some nine inches or more.
The result will be, that the first rows
will appear to have been sown much
too far from each other, not half the
ground being covered with the fo-
liage of the plants ; the others will
he covered more and more as the till-
age has been deeper, and the last
will completely cover the whole in-
tervals. The roots or bulbs will be
in exact proportion to the richness
of the foliage, and the weight of the
deeply-tilled rows will far exceed
that of any of the others, while the
first will, by comparison, appear a
poor and scanty crop, however clear
of weeds the surface may have been
kept. The soil best suited for this
experiment is a good, light loam on
a dry or well-drained subsoil ; for
stagnant moisture under any soil will
chill the fibres and check the growth
of the plants, however dry the sur-
796

face may he. It was this which led
Tull, the father of drill husbandry, to
the conclusion that tillage was all
that the soil required to maintain
perpetual fertility. He carried his
conclusion too far ; but we shall not
be wide of the truth, if we assert that
with proper tillage the soil will be
gradually improved, and a much
smaller quantity of manure occasion-
ally added to recruit the waste pro-
duced by vegetation will render the
soil much more fertile than it would
be with more manure and less till-
age ; and as tillage can be increased
by mechanical contrivances where
labourers are scarce, whereas the
supply of manure must generally be
limited, it follows that, as a general
rule, the land should be well and
deeply tilled, due attention being paid
to the nature of the soil, and its prop-
erty of retaining or transmitting
moisture. Very loose sands should
not he much stirred until they are
consolidated by the admixture of
marl, clay, peat, or well-rotted dung ;
but in all cases the manure should
he mixed as intimately as possible
with the soil, and as deep as the til-
lage has gone, not including the stir-
ring of the subsoil ; for the roots will
always penetrate thus far, and find
the nourishment which they require.
Those plants which throw out roots
from tlie bottom of the stem, as
wheat, barley, and oats, require the
surface to be most pulverized and
enriched to allow these roots to
spread ; a spring tillage is therefore
highly advantageous, which can only
be given when the seed has been de-
posited in rows by drilling, or in
patches by dibbling. This last meth-
od is found to give much finer crops,
from the circumstance that the hoe
not only loosens the earth between
the rows, but also between the dif-
ferent patches of the growing corn,
by which the coronal roots are
strengthened, and the tillering of the
stems so much encouraged, that it is
not uncommon to see twenty, thirty,
or more strong stems, all bearing fine
ears, arising from one tuft of plants,
the produce of one or more seeds.

TILLAGE.

whose roots are matted together and
send out fibres in every direction.
The crowding of several plants does
not prevent their growth, provided
the fibres can spread around in a
rich, mellow soil, well pulverized,
and admitting the air and moisture
readily.

" As a perfect tillage requires much
labour and minute attention, and hi
many situations where the farms are
large labourers cannot be procured
at moderate wages, nor can they al-
ways be depended upon to perform
the work with sufficient care, me-
chanical ingenuity has been taxed to
invent implements of tillage by which
it may be more perfectly accomplish-
ed, and at a smaller expense, by
using the power of horses instead of
that of men, and making implements
which will till a considerable breadth
at once, and thus save time.

" The old plough, and which, how-
ever it may be improved, still acts on
the same principle of turning up a
fresh portion of the soil, burying that
which has for some time been at the
surface, will probably always contin-
ue to be the chief implement of tillage ;
but the minuter operations, which are
taken from garden culture, require
particular contrivances to effect them
by instruments. The harrows are but
an imperfect substitute for the gar-
den rake, and do not stir the soil to a
sufficient depth. Other implements
have therefore been invented, which
by means of wheels can be regulated
so as to act at a greater or less depth.
These have received the different
names of scarifiers, grubbers, or cul-
tivators, according to the fancy of the
inventors. Many of these answer
the purpose well, and save labour.
They can be used in all directions, so
as to pulverize the soil to any degree.
Heavy rollers, with and without
spikes around them, are used when
many clods require breaking ; and,
although not yet adopted in this coun-
try, the Belgian trunieau, a strong
frame of wood, boarded over and
loaded with weights if required, is a
most effectual instrument in levelling
the -urface and crushing clods, wilh-
X X X 2

out pressing them into the soil, as the
roller freijuently does.

" ft would be endless to enumerate
all the implements of tillage which
are daily invented. As the cultiva-
tion of the soil approaches more to
that of the garden, more perfect in-
struments will be used, such as can
be directed with great accuracy be-
tween parallel rows of growing plants
without danger of injuring them.
\Mien the width of the stitches or
beds accurately corresponds with the
width of the instrument, so that the
wheels will run in the intervals and
the horses step in the same, the soil
may be tilled perfectly, although the
rows of plants have but a small in-
terval between them ; and the lar-
gest field w'ill thus present to the
eye extended seed-beds or equal
rows of growing plants, as we are ac-
customed to see in a kitchen-garden.
The result will be the same as when,
for the sake of experiment, we sow
the common grains and leguminous
plants of the fields in a plot of garden
ground ; in such case the produce is
so far greater, that it quite baffles
our calculation when extended to a
large surface, and hence the incredi-
ble results which we continually
meet with in the reports of experi-
ments on some new produce lately
introduced : everything is on a mag-
nified scale, owing to superior tillage.
No doubt many fields possessed of
fertile soils might, by attentive tillage,
be made as productive as the best
garden ground. The Chinese have,
as we are told, already accomplished
this by their incredible numbers and
indefatigable labour ; but science and
mechanical contrivance are a substi-
tute for millions of labourers when
judiciously apiilied. The same in-
genuity applied to tillage might in-
crease the produce of the earth, if
not indefinitely, at least far beyond
what we may now suspect.

" In the early ages of agriculture,
tillage was almost confined to the
ploughing of fallows to clean the
land, which was very imperfectly
executed, and in ploughing the stubble
of one crop to prepare for the seed
797

TIM

TOB

of another, as long as the land would ]
give a return for tlie labour. The ;
idea of tdlage for tlie sake of a per-
manent improvement of the sod was
only entertained by a few men who
reflected, and that of encouraging tlie
vegetation while the crop was grow-
ing was not even thought of. The
plough to stir, and the harrow^s to
cover the seed, were the only instru-
ments in use, and they were very
rude of their kind."

TILLER. The branching of stems
from the root.

TILTH. The fineness and prep-
aration of the soil. See Tillage.

T I M O T H Y GRASS. Phkum
pralcnse. Meadow cat's-tail grass.
" This has been highly extolled by
many agriculturists for the profusion
of hay which it makes, and also for its
rai)id growth when depastured. It is
but a coarse grass when allowed to
stand till it is fit for hay ; and in rainy
weather it too readily imbibes moist-
ure. It is said to give a very sweet
and early herbage for sheep in spring,
and, mixed with other grasses, is
found very useful in laying down
land to pasture for a few years.

" The soil which suits timothy
grass best is a good, moist, and rather
stiff loam. On gravel it soon dies
off. It is scarcely to be recommend-
ed without a mixture of other grass-
es, although very heavy crops of it
have been grown ; and from its strong
stem when full grown, it should al-
ways be fed off when young, or cut
for soiling horses and cattle before
the stem has acquired its full growth.
In rich land which is tired of clo-
ver, it may form a very good sub-
stitute, to cut up green and depasture
afterward."

The seed is usually sown on
wheat in the spring, or it may be
sown with oats ; two pecks are
commonly used, but it is better to
use three pecks, or even a bushel
when other grasses are not used.
Clover and timothy do well together ;
eight pounds of clover and three
pecks of timothy seed may be used.

TirsGTLRE. A solution in proof
alcohol ; the substance is usually cut
798

or pounded, and allowed to remain
fourteen days, and then strained.

TINE. A tooth or spike of a hai-
row, &c.

TIN MORDANT. The common
mordant is made of 8 parts of aqua-
fortis, 1 part conurion salt, or sal am-
moniac, and 1 part granulated tin.

TISSUE. A mcuibrane, or expan-
sion of a cellular structure in animals
or plants.

TITHONICITY. A new impon-
derable existing in sunlight, and pro-
ducing chemical changes.

TOAD. Rana bujo {Biifo Ameri-
canus). A well-known hatrachian, of
great use in the garden to devour in-
sects : it is perfectly harmless.

TOADFLAX. Weeds of the ge-
nus Antirrhinum and Linaria : they
are usually perennial, and should be
extirpated.

TOBACCO. Plants of the genus
Nicotiana, cultivated for smoking, and
of great service in medicine and gar-
dening ; in the latter, for the destruc-
tion of insects by smoking, infusion,
or snuff. Its activity as a sedative
poison arises from the presence of
nicotine, an oily base, which is pro-
duced during the curing of the leaves.

Varieties. — The principal varieties
of tobacco in cultivation are the N.
tabacum {Fig. I), or Virginian tobac-
Fig. 1.

TOBACCO.

CO ; the varietywilh a large leaf (ma-

crophylla) is prclbrrcd ; the. iV. rusltca

{Fig. 2), tlie green, or Orinoko, as

Fig. 2.

it is sometimes improperly called ;
the N. repanda {Fig. 3, a}, which yields

the hcst Havana ; the N. qnadrivalvis
(i) and nana (c) make gooil tobacco,
and arc cultivated by tlio Indians for
that purpose.

The natural soil of the tobacco is
a forest mould ; but it grows well on
any light, well-tilled soil which has
been impregnated with manure. It
requires a dry soil with a good expo-
sure, protected from heavy winds,
which break the leaves. The follow-
ing account of the cultivation is
chiefly from Mr. Edmunds :

" Raising Ihc Plants. — The land for
the ■plant-bed is usually selected in a
warm exposure on the south or south-
eastern side of a hill in a wood, new
ground being always preferred. From
this the roots should be grubbed, the
rubbish cleared away, and the old
leaves raked ofT. Brush of pine or
other wood is then to be piled on
until from two to three feet thick all
over the bed, and this is to be set on
fire. As the beds should be prepared
for seeding immediately after the
frost is out of the ground, the brush

should be collected and put in place
some time during the winter. In-
stead of burning over the whole bed
at once, a part may be fired for an
hour or so at a time, proceeding thus
over the entire bed. The place is
then to be broken up with hoes, and
sometimes with coulters drawn by
horses or oxen, and the work repeat-

I ed until the earth is made perfectly
fine, being careful to avoid turning
under the surface. All the roots

! should then be extracted, and the.
land laid offin beds (slightly elevated,
if dry, and more if moist or wet; four
feet wide ; and to 16 s(juare yards a
common jiipe-bovvl of seed is sown.
The bed is then trodden or pressed
799

TOBACCO.

with hoes, and well covered with
brush to protect the plants from
frosts. When the plants have coine
fully out, tlicy should be slightly ma-
nured Willi strong manure made fine ;
this should bo repeated frc()uently,
and in larger (juantity as the plants
increase in size and arc able to bear it.

" When the plants have attained a
good size, and there is no longer dan-
ger of frost, the covering of brush is
removed, and the bed weeded with
the hand, those employed in this duty
taking great care to avoid bruising
the tender plants. The beds require
frequent picking to keep down the
weeds.

" Preparation and Pla7ithig. — Tlie
plants will be generally ready for re-
moval about the last of May or first
of June. They are to be drawn out
after a rain and transplanted in good
ground previously well prepared for
their reception.

" Field Culture. — The land for to-
bacco should be of the best quality,
either newly cleared and virgin soil,
or old ground highly manured and
well pulverized, or good clover fal-
low, ploughed in the fall, manured
and cross-ploughed in the spring,
just before planting, well harrowed,
and then laid off with a plough in
rows three, three and a half, or four
feet apart each way. Every square
thus made is to be scraped with the
hoe so as to form a hill, in which one
plant is to be set. In case the plants
die from drought, or are destroyed
by worms, a very common occur-
rence, others must be set in their
places.

" Cultivation. — The culture is very
much like that usually adopted for In-
dian corn, the plough, cultivator, and
hand hoe being freely used to keep
down weeds and loosen the earth.

" It is important to the early growth
of the plant to plough and work deep
once or twice, so that when it is ri-
pening, the ground will be broken
deep and fine. (The coulter is prefer-
red for this operation.) This should
be effected without much interference
with the roots, as that would check
the growth, and prevent the plant
800

from attaining its proper size. And
hence the advantage of greater dis-
tance between the rows than the
common distance of three and a half
feet, because the wide rows can be
ploughed, and worked with less dam-
age to the roots. In this, as in all
other crops, if we wish a good return,
" we must speed the plough" and hoc
before the roots run out. On our
high lands, we should endeavour, by
deep and horizontal ploughing, to
counteract the bad effects of drought.
On our fiats, we should aim to pre-
vent the collection of water by drains
discharged at the lowest point.

" The bed is best for high land, be-
cause it retains more moisture where
it is generally needed. The hill, re-
taining less moisture, is best for flat
land, where there is commonly a su-
perabundance.

" Priming, Topping, Suckering, and
Worming. — As the tobacco plant
grows and develops, a blossom bud
puts out from the top, which is term-
ed buttoning. This top must be pulled
off along with such of the upper leaves
as are too small to be of any value.
The plants are thus left usually about
two or three feet high. The plants
also shoot out suckers from every
leaf, which must be broken off, care
being taken not to break the leaf from
the main stem. This causes the
leaves to spread.

" The most regular topping is per-
formed by measure. The topper car-
ries in his hand a measure six inches
long, by occasionally applying which,
he can regulate the priming with
great accuracy ; and as the remain-
ing leaves are numbered, this governs
the operation, and gains the object of
even topping. The topper should
always carry this measure in his
hand, as it serves to prevent excuses
fur negligence and uneven topping.
Prime six inches, and top to eight
leaves. We have found, by experi-
ence, that this is the best average
height. We sometimes, but seldom,
vary from this general rule. If the
land is poorer than common, or if,
from the backwardness of the plant,
and the advanced state of the season,

TOBACCO.

we apprehend frost, we do not prime
as hif,'li (say four inches.) If we have
an uncominonlv rich spot, and there is
danger that the top leaves will come
to the ground, we should rise in the
same proportion. The crop should
be wormed and suckered at least
once a week.

" Cutting and Housing. — In about
three months after setting out, the
plants assume a spotted and yellow-
ish appearance, indicating that they
have attained sufficient maturity for
cutting and housing. This stage of
the tobacco culture is generally reck-
oned the most difficult and delicate
part of the whole business, and the
planter, if he wishes to be successful,
must give it all his attention, as the
profit of a whole plantation for the
year greatly depends upon the dili-
gence and skilful management exer-
cised during the few days of cutting.
He should, therefore, be well prepa-
red for this state of the crop, by hav-
ing the barns close, carts and wag-
ons in good order, and everything
arranged to despatch business as
much as possible, since it is hard
work he has to encounter. To save
a heavy crop in the best manner re-
quires both energy and activity. The
most judicious hands should be se-
lected for cutters. The plants are
cut with a knife near the ground, and
suffered to lie in the sun for a few
hours, to cause them to ' fall' or wilt.
When the field is a pretty large one,
a middling or average hand should
count the whole number of plants he
cuts, so that, allowing each cutter the
same ninnber, we may arrive at near-
ly the whole quantity cut. We should
never cut more nor less than will fill
the contemplated barn ; otherwise
there is labour lost in attending to a
barn not full, or the overplus is in-
jured for want of firing. The tobac-
co, after it has 'fallen,' or becomes
sufficiently limber, is carried to the
barn in carts or wagons, being from
six to ten plants on a stick, and stow-
ed away for firing. It is also of great
importance to be particular in the
arrangement of the sticks. The
equal and general circulation of heat

throughout the house depends on the
manner in which this is done. Our
barns commonly have three firing
tiers above, and three below the joists.
We commence arranging the sticks
on the most elevated tier in the roof,
to which we give five inches distance ;
and on each tier, as we descend, we
gain one inch ; so that on the lowest
tier, nearest the fire, the sticks are
placed eleven inches apart. This dis-
position of the sticks, I have ascer-
tained by late experiment, is impor-
tant. The sticks of tobacco being
wider apart next to the fires, gives a
freer circulation, and, consequently,
a more equal temperature than the
usual way of e(|ual distance from bot-
tom to top. The heat having more
space to ascend, must be more equal
and generally diffused, and will give
a more uniform house of tobacco. I
esteem this a considerable improve-
ment ; and if we have house room,
and make a greater difference in the
proportionate distance between the
sticks, it will be a still better arrange-
ment. The stems of the tobacco are
often split to hasten the drying.

" Curing. — We commence our
warming or preparing fires the day
after housing. We prefer what is
commonly called the ' bed logs' of
green, and the 'feeding' of dry or
seasoned wood. By this arrange-
ment the fires are rendered more
governable. The bed logs should be
nicely fitted to the barn floor, two
lengths to reach across, the large ends
placed outward, to guard agamst the
tendency of heat to the centre. We
keep up our warming fires from 36 to
48 hours, the mercury rangmg from
100° to 115=. This will generally
bring the leaf to the drying state ; the
tail, or end of the leaf, now begins to
curl handsomely, and then the planter
must be on the alert. If he is careless,
and his fires are made too hot, the
aromatic oil passes off with the sap
and smoke, and he has a house of red
or dark inferior tobacco. If his fires
are kei)t too low, his tobacco geta
into a clammy sweat, and the oil es-
capes. There is much more danger
of the former than of the latter evil.
801

TOB

TOB

There is more tobacco injured by too
mucli heat than by the want of a suf-
ficiency. Tiie fires shouhl now l)e
kept steady and regular, witli a grad-
ual increase of heat, so that in 48
hours the mercury will stand 150- to
160°. It must be kept at or about
that temperature until the tobacco is
cured.

" 6Vr !/)/); ?(ir, Prcsxintr. 6fC. — After
the plants become sufficiently dried,
known by the stems getting hard,
which will be in about two months
after housing, the leaves are stripped
from the stalks. For this operation,
a moist time in the spring or late in
winter is chosen, to prevent the leaves
from crumbling, 'i'hey are divided
by select hands into three classes for
stripping: 1st, that which is of the
best colour and quality ; 2dly, that
which is somewhat inferior, compri-
sing the balance of the leaf; 3dly,
higs, or ground leaves. Some planters
make still more classes, but this re-
quires more attention and discrimi-
nation than can be generally bestow-
ed, at least by ordinary hands. After
sorting, the leaves are neatly tied up
in bundles called ' hayuls,' consisting
of four leaves in each bundle of the
first class, or six of the second and
third classes. The hands are next
' put down to condition,' as the pro-
cess is commonly termed. This con-
sists in putting it in large bulks
and subjecting it to pressure from
weights, in which state it undergoes
a sweat. It must be watched during
this process, and as soon as it is ob-
served beginning to heat, taken out
and hung up to dry. After drying
thoroughly, it must be again taken
down and put into bulk, a damp time
being chosen, so as to prevent the
leaves from breaking or crumbling.
At the close of each day's stripping,
and oftener, if the weather is drymg,
we bulk down what has been strip-
ped, being careful to pack straight.
It is left in this situation until we
wish to commence pressing, and then
hung, from twelve to fifteen bundles
on a smooth stick, and hoisted in the
barn, the sticks placed six inches
apart, the bolster carrying a measure
802

in his hand. It is important to meas-
ure, as the order will be more uni-
form. It should remain until tbe
stems are pcrlectly dry ; after which
it should be taken down for j)ressing,
as dry as it can be handled without
breaking. It remains in this state a
few days, until the leaves are pressed
together, and we have soft weather
for packing. Each bundle is tlien
carefully straightened, repacked, and
heavily weighted. It is then ready
for pressing. We should press in
weather when the order of the tobac-
co will not change. Each bundle
should be straight, and closely pack-
ed in hogsheads in the usual way."'
The press is a long lever weighted
w'iih stones.

The hogshead contains from 1100
to 1300 pounds. One hand can at-
tend to 6000 plants, or rather more
than an acre, and these will average
from 1000 to 1100 pounds of cured
tobacco, and commands, if of good
quality, seven cents the pound.

New land tobacco and the Orinoko
variety are often sun-dried, without
any heat ; by this means they acquire
a rich golden colour, and are of supe-
rior excellence for chewing tobacco.

Diseases of Tobacco. — The first diffi-
culty the planter encounters is in the
dryness of the season at the time of
transplanting, for the young plants
will not take except in moist weather
and a wet soil. The next is the large
horn worm, which increases the ex-
pense of cultivation by requiring the
attention of pickers, and the worm-
holes injure the value of the leaves.
Hail storms and heavy winds are
often causes of damage. Sun burn-
ing during cutting and house burning
are also sources of loss. But per-
haps the greatest cause of loss is
firing or Fue Blight, which see.

TOBACCO, CHEMICAL RE-
MARKS CONCERNING. The fla-
vour and value of tobacco depend
entirely on the sweating or prepara-
tion : during this time the fermenta-
tion set up converts the fat which it
contains into the aromatic principle
nicotin. If, therefore, the heat is too
little, the quantity produced is defi-

TOI

TOR

cient ; if too great, the volatile nico-
tin is driven out. The object in cu-
ring is, therefore, in the first place,
to retain all the fat of the leaf, and
in the second, to get the largest quan-
tity of aromatic principle in the pre-
pared tobacco.

Special Manures. — The analysis of
tobacco in Europe has brought to
light a remarkable fact, that the best
varieties contain much potash in their
ashes, and the inferior kinds most
lime. — {Pclouze.) Now these bases in
tobacco can replace one another, and
the planter will produce lime tobac-
co in any soil in which that base is
more abundant.

One hundred parts of the ashes of
leaf tobacco contain, according to
Fresenius and Will,

Potash 30-67

Lime and magnesia 3336

Sulphate of lime (gypsum) 5'CO

Chloride of sodium (common salt) . . 5-95

Phosphates 603

Silica . . ~ 1839

lUJ-UO

From this, which is the examina-
tion of a good specimen, we learn
that the plants require not only pot-
ash and lime, but gypsum and salt :
the former is indeed added with great
effect in Virginia ; the latter is very
worthy of a trial ; one bushel to the
acre in a compost, applied to the
plants at the time of hoeing, or three
or four busliels to the acre, would no
doubt show good effects. Where the
New- Jersey green sand, or the ashes
of oaks or hickories can be obtained,
the potash salts can be procured. In
the red clays of Virginia, an addition
of lime would unquestionably be ser-
viceable. By these means we meet
tiie demands of the plants for miner-
al matters ; but it is not to be over-
looked that nitrates of potash and am-
monia, as well as sal ammonia {chlo-
ride), have been found in large quan-
tity in the juice : these are destroyed
by burning for the asii. Every kind
of animal offal and putrescent matter,
especially when composted into nitre
beds (see Xitre Beds), will therefore
be indicated as special manures.

TOI.S E. Six French feet, equal to
G 33 English feet.

TOKAY. A luscious and spright-
ly wine made from the Tokay grape
when nearly dried into raisins.

TOLU. A balsam, from the My-
roxijloii toluifcruni of South America.
TO.MATO. Solarium hjcopcrsicum.
An annual of the family Solanacece,
the fruit of which is much used as a
vegetable, preserve, and pickle.

The seed is sown in March in a
hot-bed, and the plants set out in May
along a fence, or near trellises where
they can be supported : place them
four feet distant. They are to be
hoed and weeded, and ripen in Au-
gust and September. There are four
principal varieties, the large red and
yellow, the pear-shaped, or fig, and
the cherry tomatoes, or small-sized.
The soil should be rich, dry, and well
exposed to the sun.

TOMENTOSE. Covered with
downy hairs.

TON. A weight of 20 cwt., or
2240 pounds.

TONGUE. The soft, fleshy organ
of taste. It is covered by nerves and
blood-vessels. The salted and dried
tongues of deer and oxen are much-
esteemed delicacies. They are cured
like hams, but usually with more nitre.

TONICS. Those medicines which
improve the general health and appe-
tite. They are commonly called bit-
ters.

TONKA BEAN. The fruit of the
Diptcri-x odorata, used to flavour snuff.

TONSILS. Small glands situated
in the throat.

TOP DRESSING. Applying ma-
nures to the surface of land, or to the
growing crop, grass, <Scc. Spring is
the proper time, but care should be
taken that the soil is not too much
pressed in carting.

TORMENTIL. PotenliUa officina-
lis. An exotic with an astringent root.

TORREFACTION. Roasting min-
eral bodies, usually under a red heat.

TORTRICES. A tribe of noctur-
nal lepidoptera, the larvaj of most of
which conceal themselves by rolling
up leaves and living in the interior.

TORUS. The end of the flower
branch on which the carpels are sit-
uated.

803

TRA

TRA

TOURMALINE. A gem, valued
from its jnopcrty of polarizing light.

TOURNlyl'ET. A bandage which
may be tightened to any extent by
means of a screw, so as to exert
pressure upon a cushion, and com-
press the arterial truniis to which it
is applied. It is chiefly used to pre-
vent hemorrhage in the operations of
amputation.

TRACHEA. The windpipe.

TRACIIE.E. The spiral vessels
of leaves and insects.

TRACIIELIDANS. A fainily of
coleoptcra, in many of which the head
is supported on a kind of neck.

TRACHEOTOMY. The operation
of cutting into the windpipe to ex-
tract foreign bodies, &c.

TRACHYTE. An ancient lava.

TRAGACANTH. A variety of
gum, which swells, but is not soluble
in cold water.

TRAINEAU. A Flemish imple-
ment of agriculture. See Tillage.

TRAINING. The education of
horses. See Horse.

TRAINING TREES. The man-
agement, by pruning, of the stem and
branches of trees, so as to secure an
increase of fruit of a superior quality.
Training against walls has also the
advantage of enabling the orchardist
to cultivate southern fruits, and ri-
pen them more perfectly. The chill-
ing effects of winds and excessive
evaporation are averted, while the in-
creased temperature to which the
fruit is exposed renders it sweeter.

There are three general plans of

training: on espaliers, walls, or as
dwarf standards. The espalier is usu
ally a trellis, consi-sting of posts ten
feet high, set eight or twelve feet
apart, and sustaining horizontal laths
or wires: the trees are therefore
trained horizontally. This is usually
intended for grapes, apples, or pears.
But the posts arc sometimes set in
circles, around which three or more
branches are trained. This is called
spiral or hoop training (see Fig. I).
Fig. 1.

Funnel training is a modification ,
the posts are set in an inclined direc-
tion, so as to meet at their summits,
and produce the outline of a cone ;
wire is wound around it at intervals
of a foot. Light iron bars are some-
limes used instead of the wooden
posts.

Walls. — The choicest varieties of
fruit, which require additional heat,
are placed on walls, as apricots, nec-
tarines, peaches, plums, grapes, figs,
and some cherries and pears. The
method of arranging the branches dif-

804

TRAINING TREES.

fers with the fruit, but the horizontal
flan is most recommended, espe-
cially for plums and pears ; but some
gardeners give it the preference in
nearly every case {Fig. 3).

Fan training is the most common,
especially for peaches, nectarines,
apricots, almonds, figs, plums, and
cherries of small growth [Fig. 3).

rig

Besides these most common meth-
ods, pendant, vertical, and high train-
ing are practised. In the first, the
branches are curved downward ; in
the second, several shoots, selected
from two horizontal branches, are car-
ried upright ; in the third, the main
stem is allowed to run nearly to the
top of the w'all without branchins,
3.

and then the uppermost shoots are
trained horizontally and drooping.
This is especially recommended in
the grape and pear. It is a good plan
for filling up a wall, the lower parts
of which are covered with peaches and
other fan-trained trees.

Some gardeners combine several
of these plans together, so as to give
the branches partly a horizontal, and
partly a fan training, and instead o.f
one main stem only.others select two.

Standards. — The commonest train-
ing for standards is dirarjing. The
leading shoot is kept down to eight
or ten feet, and the lower branches
trained out and thinned, so as to give
the tree the appearance of a shrub.
In this way apple orchards are man-
aged in Europe, and it is wonderful
how many varieties are thus culti-
vated on an acre. For this purpose,
crab or paradise stocks are chosen
for grafting, and the trees of small
growth taken. The main stem is
made to branch at eighteen inches,
and the trees set at eight to twelve
feet apart.

The filbert is trained in a peculiar
manner : the leading shoot is headed 1
down to eighteen inches, and eight i

strong shoots obtained within twelve
inches of the ground, and these are
trained outward by placing a hoop
between them : when they are well
formed, they are trained curving up-
ward. The centre is to be kept free,
and the shoots encouraged to six
feet ; the small TigA.

lateral branch-
es along these
shoots are to be
kept down to six
inches, and will
bear the fruit.

Training en
quenouille, or dis-
taff fashion, is a
favourite method
in France and
Brussels for ap-
ples and pears
{Figure A:). The
branches are tied
down to stakes
driven near the
root, or to the
stem, until the
wood is firm. The
height of these
trees is usually
eight feet, but in France they are
805

TRA

sometimes allowed to grow to twenty
feet.

Another French plan of training
standards is in a pyramidal form (en
pyramidc, Ftff. 5) ; this, with the pre-
Fig. 5.

ceding, is the common method of
managing apples and pears. The tree
is either cut down to a dwarf of eight
or ten feet, or allowed to run up to
twenty or more.

TRAM ROAD. A road set with
stone flags at such distances that the
wheels of wagons, &c., may contin-
ually roll on them.

TRANSITION ROCKS. The ex-
tensive series of stratified and an-
cient rocks lying between the granit-
ic series and the coal. It consists
of slates, gneiss, and crystaUine lime-
stones.

TRANSPLANTING. The remo-
val of plants or trees from one place
to another. See Planting.

TRAPA NATANS. The water-
chestnut.

TRAP ROCKS. Ancient rocks
of fusion occurring in mountains
and large seams. They consist of
various mixtures of hornblend and
feldspar, and when containing much
iron are very destructible, but usual-
ly resist the action of weather for an
immense time.

TRAUiMATIC (from rpav^ia, a
wound). Relating to or arising from
a wound.
806

TRI

TRAVELLER'S JOY. Clematis
vitalha. A climbing shrub with while
flowers.

TREFOIL. A general name for
the clovers, lucern, &,c. Plants which
have leaves of three leaflets.

TRENCH. A deep ditch. Trench-
ing, in gardening, is the preparation
of soils by digging two or more spades
deep, and exposing the soil.

TRENCH PLOUGHING. Deep
ploughing; subsoiling.

TREPAN and TREPHINE. In-
struments for removing a part of the
skull in disease or accidents.

TRIFOLIUM. Trifolmm incarna-
tuin. " This is an annual of rapid
growth, so that in southern climates
it may be sowed in summer after an
early crop of corn, and fed off or cut
before winter. It will stand the win-
ter well if sowed later, and give very
early feed in spring. It produces a
great abundance of seed if allowed to
ripen. It is a valuable addition to
the plants usually raised for fodder,
and fills up an interval between other
plants by its very early and rapid ve-
getation. The mode of sowing the
Trifolmm incarnatum is simple, and
attended with very little expense.
In the month of August, as soon as
the crops of grain have been reaped,
the stubble is well harrowed, to raise
a small portion of mould ; the trifo-
lium is then sowed at the rate of four
bushels of the seed, in the husk, per
acre. There is a double advantage
in sowing it in this manner ; it saves
the thrashing required to separate
the seed, as a very slight beating will
separate the florets of the head or
spike sufliciently to sow them ; and
it vegetates sooner from the moist-
ure retained in the husk which en-
velopes the seed. A bush-harrow is
drawn over the land to cover the
seed, and it is rolled with a light roll-
er if the land be of a firm nature, or
with a heavier roller if it be a loose
soil. Thus the trifolium will vege-
tate much more certainly than if the
land had been regularly ploughed and
harrowed, which would have loosen-
ed it too much.
" It is not advantageous to let it be

TRI

cut lor hay. Its stem then has ac-
quired a hard, woody texture, and it
makes very inferior liay. Its princi-
pal value is to feetl oil" with ewes and
lambs before other feed is ready in
spring, or to cut it green for horses
and cattle. The ground may be
ploughed and prepared for spring
crops as early as is required ; and
1^ thus the trifolium in no way inter-
" feres with the usual rotations. When
the common broad clover has failed
from any cause, and bare patches are
left in the fields in autumn, the trifo-
lium may be sowed there with advan-
tage ; it will overtake the clover sow-
ed in the preceding spring, and fdl up
the deficiency. In this case a mix-
ture of Trifolium incarnaliim and Ital-
ian rye grass {Loiium pcrenne Ilali-
cum) has been found very useful.
If the trifolium be sowed early in
spring, it will produce very good
feed in a few months, and the land
may afterward be sowed with tur-
nips, without any loss of time. It
must be recollected that the Trifoli-
um incariiatum is a catch crop, that
is, one which comes in between two
regular crops, without interfering
with the rotation, and that it costs
little more than the seed, which is
easily raised, or may be bought at a
very moderate rate. All cattle are
fond of it in its young state, and it
comes in a fortnight earlier than lu-
cern, which is one of the first of the
artificial grasses fit for cutting in
spring. The great expectations rais-
ed at its first uitroduction not having
been fully realized, this plant has
rather fallen in the estimation of
farmers ; but if it is not so valuable
as the broad clover in a regular rota-
tion, it ought not to be despised as a
subsidiary crop. When the season
has prevented the sowing of spring
corn, it may be advantageous to sow
it. together with Italian rye grass, as
soon as the land is clear of root-
weeds. They may e fed off with
sheep early in autumn, and the land,
being manured or not, as may be
thought necessary, may be plouglied
and sowed with wheat. Thus the
trifolium and rye grass will come in

TRO

the place of a clean fallow ; and the
ground having been covered during
the heat of the summer, and manu-
red by the sheep folded on it, will bo
much improved for the wheat crop.
It must be remembered that the tri-
folium requires a solid bottom, and
that the heavy roller should not be
spared before it is sowed. This is
chielly to be recommended on soils
which do not suit spring tares, and
as a substitute for these ; for under
favourable circumstances the tares
will produce the greatest quantity of
feed. It is, however, useful to have
a choice of different green crops,
from which may be selected those
which offer the greatest prospect of
success, when the season, the soil,
and other circumstances are takeu
into consideration."

TRIMERANS. A section of co-
leoptera, in many of which the tar
sus contains three joints.

TRIMMER. In building, a piece
of timber framed at right angles to
the joists opposite chimneys or the
well holes of stairs, which receives
the ends of the joists intercepted by
the opening.

TRIMMING JOIST. In build-
ing, a joist into which a trimmer is
framed.

TRIPLE SALT. A salt with two
bases combined with one acid.

TRISMUS. Locked jaw.

TROCAR. An instrument for let-
ting out water in dropsies, wind in
hoveu, &c. It consists of a sharp
rod of metal contained within a case
or tube of silver up to the sharp por-
tion. When used, the tube is separa-
ted in part from the rod and held
against the part, and then the rod is
driven in so as to penetrate into the
cavity, and, on being withdrawn, the
tube is pressed into the perforation,
and enables the fluid to escape per-
fectly.

TRONA. The impure carbonate
of soda, or natron.

TROPHI (from rpedu, I nourish).
A name given to the different instru-
ments or organs contained in the
mouth or closing it, and employed in
manducation or deglutition. They
807

TUF

TUR

include the labnim, labium, mandibula,
viaxilUr, lingua, and pharynx.

'I'KUCKr A kindofwhecl-barrow.

TRUFFLE. "A suhterrancan fun-
gus, of a roundish, ol)long Ibrni, and
a blackisili biovvn colour, much em-
ployed Ml cookery. It is found by
dogs and pigs, trained for the pur-
pose, in soil beneath trees, especially
beeches and oaks ; it is, however,
very local. It is propagated by spores
included in sinuous chambers in the
interior ; but has never yet been cul-
tivated with success, notwithstand-
ing many attem])ts that have been
made. Botanists recognise several
kinds of truifles, the commonest be-
ing the Tuber ctlmriumy — {Lindley.)

TRUNCATED. With the smaller
parts cut off or removed.

TRUNCHEONS. Stout stems of
trees, with the branches lopped off for
rapid growth.

TRUNK. The shaft of a column ;
the body without extremities ; the
large stem of a tree. In entomology,
the segment winch lies between the
head and the abdomen.

TRUSS. A bundle of hay or
straw : the truss of hay weighs 56 lbs.,
of straw 36. A frame of timbers for
supporting a beam or piece. Any
bandage intended to support a part
of the body, as in hernias.

TUBE. A pipe.

TUBER. In botany, a kind of
fleshy stem, formed under ground,
and filled with starch. It is com-
monly looked upon as a root, as in
the potato, but differs from roots in
having buds.

TUBERCLE. A roundish tumour
of small size, and of the consistence
of cheese, found in diseased struc-
tures.

TUCKAHOE. Indian loaf. An
underground fungus, often two feet
deep, but sometimes partly exposed,
and from the size of a nut to a man's
head, roundish, and of a brown col-
our. It is the Lycoperdon solidus
of Clayton. When fresh, it is of an
acrid taste, but becomes eatable
when dry.

TUFA. A volcanic rock, consist-
ing of cemented scoria?.
808

TTTFO. A light, calcareous stone.

TULIP. The genus Tuhpa, con-
taining numerous ornamental spe-
cies : they are all bulbous.

TULIP-TREE. Lirwdemlron tu-
lipifera. White wood. It attains a
great size on fertile bottoms, meas-
uring even 150 feet in the Middle
States, with a trunk of sixty to eigh-
ty feet without branches. The flow-
ers are very attractive to bees and
other insects. The wood is white or
yellowish, and very soft ; it is much
used by cabinet-makers and in build-
ing, under the name of poplar.

TUMBREL. A rough cart.

T U M B R I L. A feeding trough
made of basket-work, or withes, set
coarse, so that many sheep can take
hay from it at the same time.

TUMOUR. An unnatural enlarge-
ment. This term was formerly used
to express any swelling or enlarge-
ment, as that of an abscess, or from
a bruise ; but it is now more strictly
applied to enlargements of a more
permanent nature, in which a change
of structure takes place, or a new sub-
stance is produced, as fatty, fibrous,
or bony tumours, in which the swell-
ings are respectively formed of fatty,
fil)rous, or osseous matters. These
being organic diseases, are not to be
treated by poulticing or lancing, and
seldom give way to any treatment
but an entire removal by the knife.

TUN. A measure of 253 gallons,
or four hogsheads.

TUNIC, TUNICA. A membrane
or coat covering an organ.

TUPELO. The name given by
Michaux to several species of Nyssa,
or black gum.

TURBINATE. AVhirled, and of
a conical figure.

TURF. " The sod which cov-
ers the surface of pastures. Tlie
word is often also applied to the
substance which is generally call-
ed peat. We shall here notice the
uses to which turf is applied, when
we mean a sod taken from the sur-
face on which some living plants are
still growing, or have lately done so.
Near extensive heaths which have
never been reclaimed, and in situa-

TURF.

tions where no regular peat-bogs are
to be found, turf becomes a very use-
ful fuel. It is pared ofl" the surface
with the heath growing on it, in dry
weather, in sods of a convenient size,
generally round and about one foot in
diameter. The thickness of the sod
depends on the depth and abundance
of the roots found in it, as they are
the sole canse of the turf continuing
to burn when the blaze caused by the
burning of the heath is over. As the
soil of the places where turf is usual-
ly cut is generally of a sandy nature,
turf ashes are not so valuable for ma-
nuring the land as peat ashes ; still
they contain portions of potash and
other vegetable salts, and produce a
very good elfect when spread as a
top-dressing on moist meadows the
soil of which is chiefly composed of
clay.

" Turf is used for many other pur-
poses, as well as for fuel ; laid lilve
tiles on a roof, overlapping each oth-
er, they form an excellent and cheap
protection against rain ; cut some-
what thicker, and in the siiape of
bricks, they serve to build walls,
which are durable.

" The surface of good pastures, es-
pecially of commons, is often pared
for the purpose of forming an artifi-
cial turf for ornament, or for the pur-
poses of pasture. In the first case,
those spots are chosen where the
grass is of the finest and closest pile.
The surface is pared as thin as can
conveniently be done, so that the
sward shall not break. A proper
spot having been chosen, it is divided
by the spade, or some sharp instru-
ment like a knife stuck across a long
handle, into strips about a foot wide ;
and a very sharp flat instrument with
a bent handle, so as to work horizon-
tally, is thrust an inch, or a little
more, below the surface, paring off
the strip which has been marked.
As the workman who cuts the sod
advances, another rolls it up before
him, until it is of a proper size to be
carried off. A cut is then made
across the strip, and another roll is
begun. Thus a large space may be
completely bared, or parallel strips
Y v v2

may be cut out, leaving some of the
turf uncut between them. In this
case the loss of the herbage will be
soonest repaired by the spreading of
the grasses from the strips wbich are
left. When an ornamental lawn is
to be formed by laying down the turf,
tbe ground is levelled, or laid in any
desired form. It is well rolled and
beaten, to make it firm ; and if the
weather is dry, it is well watered be-
fore the turf is applied. As lawns
require frequent mowing, a close,
slow-growing turf is a great advan-
tage ; it should therefore be taken, if
possible, from a poor, thin soil. If
the ground to be covered is of a rich
quality, it is best to remove the soil
and lay some of the poorer subsoil
bare, to place the turf on : a rich
moist soil would make the grass grow-
too rank, and require constant mow-
ing and rolling to keep it down. Brick-
bats and rubbish are ot'ten spread
over the ground, where a lawn is to be
formed by turfing it over : these not
only form a poorer soil, but also keep
it drier by their porosity. It need
not be observed, that where turfing
is resorted to, to cover bare places in
meadows or pasture, the reverse of
all this should be done, and manure
spread over the places where the turf
is to be laid, so that the roots may
be invigorated and a rich pile of grass
may spring up.

" When there are banks and ine-
qualities in pastures, it is often use-
ful to pare off all the turf, rolling it
up from the places which are to be
levelled. The superfluous soil is
then removed, and if it has been long
in the form of a dry bank, it is spread
over the grass, which it greatly in-
vigorates. The new surlace is en-
riched with manure if it reijuires it,
and in moist weather, or after wa-
tering it. the turf is unrolled over it
and well beaten down. A heavy
roller drawn over it will greatly as-
sist its rooting, and thus an unsight-
ly bank, on which the grass was usu-
ally either coarse or burned up, ac-
cording as the season was wet or dry,
becomes a good and neat pasture.
Another important use of turf is to
809

TUR

TUR

cut it into small strips and divide
these into pieces of a square incli in
size, or somewhat more, (or tlie pur-
pose of hiying land to grass by inocu-
lahon. This is only a partial turfing,
which extends rapidly, and, in the
course of a very few years, converts
a field which was not very produc-
tive, as arable land, into a valuable
meadow, especially if it is so situated
as to be capable of occasional irri-
gation."

TURKEY. See Poultry.

TURMERIC. "The root of the
Curcuma longa. This root yields a
fine yellow powder, which is occa-
sionally used as a dye-stuff in medi-
cine ; it also forms one of the ingre-
dients oi cxary poicdcr. Paper stain-
ed with turmeric is often used in the
chemical laboratory as a test of the
presence of free alkalies and their
carbonates, by which its yellow col-
our is converted to brown."

TURNER'S CERATE. It is made
by melting half a pound of yellow
wax with two pounds of lard, and,
when cool, working into the mixture
half a pound of prepared calamine.
It is used to excoriations, or galled
places, burns, and is a rnild astrin-
gent.

TURXIP. Brassica rapa. *'This
well-known plant is cultivated for its
bulbous roots, both in the garden and
the field. As a culinary root it has
been prized from the earliest times,
and many varieties have been culti-
vated for the table ; but it is those of
a larger kind, cultivated in the fields,
which form so important a part of
the most improved systems of agri-
culture on all light soils, that the suc-
cess of the farmer is, in general, pro-
portioned to the quantity of turnips
raised on his farm. They are the
great foundation of all the best sys-
tems of cropping, by supplying the
manure required for the subsequent
crop, and, at the same time, clearing
the land of all noxious weeds, by the
numerous ploughings, stirrings, and
hoeings which they require.

" Turnips were first raised upon
land which had already borne a crop
that was reaped early in summer, and
810

on fallows which had been worked
and cleared early, so as to leave a
sufficient interval between the last
ploughing and the time of sowing
winter corn to have a tolerable crop
of turnips. These turnips, however,
which are still cultivated by the name
of stubble, or eddish turnips, never
grow so large as those which had
been sown earlier on land well pre-
pared and highly manured.

" The regular cultivation of tur-
nips on a large scale was originally
introduced from Flanders into Nor-
folk two centuries ago. It was long
confined to one or two individuals,
who cultivated turnips very success-
fully ; hut at last it spread, and was
greatly improved by introducing the
row culture, according to TuH's sys-
tem, which acquired the name of the
Northumberland mode of cultivation.
The usual mode of sowing turnips,
both in Flanders and in Norfolk, was
broad-cast ; and, as the labourers in
both countries became very expert in
hoeing them out at regular distances,
this mode was long preferred. In
fact, the cultivation of turnips m
rows is scarcely practised at all in
Flanders, and, notwithstanding its ev-
ident superiority in respect to quan-
tity of produce and economy of la-
bour, it cannot be said to be yet uni-
versally adopted. The Northumber-
land method of cultivating the crop,
which is particularly adapted to moist,
cold, or tenacious soils, or to farms
where manure is scarce, and which
is mostly managed with but little use
of the hand hoe, is illustrated by the
following cuts :

Fig. 1.

" Fig. 1 shows a transverse sec-
tion of the ground when prepared for
receiving the manure, it being gath-
ered in one-bout ridgelets. The dung
carts pass lengthwise, and the dung
is dropped, or pulled out into the fur-
rows : lads follow the carts and spread
out the dung from the little heaps
along the hollow of each drill. The
horse with the loaded cart walks in
the interval of the ridges, so that a

TURNIPS.

wheel of the cart shall go in each of
the liollows of the two lidffos adjoin-
ing:^. The person who directs the
horse follows the cart, which is open
hehind, and with a crooked two-prong-
ed fork, or dung-hack {Fig-. 2), drags

Fig. 2.

nr

out the dung, as the horse moves
along, into little heaps in the hollow
of every third ridge, at tlie distance
from each other of from eight to ten
feet. Behind follow three young per-
sons, with each a two-pronged or
throe-pronged fork (F/^'-.a), each walk-
Vig. 3.

ing in the interval of a ridge, and
spreading out the dung in as regular
a manner as possihle, as a cross sec-
tion of the ridgelets with the dung
deposited in the intervals would show
{Fig. 4). It is immediately covered
Fig. 4.

by the plough, winch, pasbuig down
the middle of each ridgelet, splits it
into two, so that a new drill is
formed, whose top is immediately
above the former hollow of the old
drill, as may be seen in Figure 5.
Fig. 5.

For this purpose, the double muuld-
board plough may be employed, but
the single plough is preferred, as it
does the work better, though it re-
quires double the time. The turnip
seed is sown upon the top of the ridg-
es, above the manure, with a horse
or hand drill, the former of which
has a roller, which precedes the coul-
ters and flattens the ridges. When
the seed is sown by hand, a hand roll-

er is drawn over the ridges {Fig. 6;.

Fig. 6.

"As soon as the plants have as-
sumed what is termed the rough leaf,
and are about two inches in height,
the process of hoeing commences.
This is done by turning first a light
shallow furrow from the plants, or
hy the horse hoe, or cultivator with
lateral coulters.

" The great object on poor light
lands, especially those which have
lately been brought into cultivation,
is to raise a crop of turnips ; for when
once this is obtained, and the land
has been improved by the folding of
sheep upon it, there is no great diffi-
culty in maintaining the fertility thus
produced by judicious management
and frequent green crops. Great im-
provement in poor soils has been ef-
fected by the introduction of ground
bones as a manure, which have the
peculiar property of favouring the
growth of the turnip, and have con-
sequently been used on poor light
sands and gravels to a great extent,
and with unvaried success, without
much help from farm-yard manure.
It has, however, been found that a
much greater profit is obtained from
the land by uniting the regular appli-
cation of farm-yard dung with that of
the bone dust. For this purpose, the
best farmers prepare their land, wliere
they intend to sow turnips, early after
harvest, by giving it as complete a
cultivation as they can before win-
ter ; and they put on it a good coat
of manure and plough it in. In the
beginning of summer another plough-
ing is given, with rei>eated harrow-
811

TURNIPS.

ings, to destroy the weeds which
have sprung up. If tlie subsoil is
dry, or the land has been thoroughly
drained, the seed may be drilled m
rows from two feet to thirty inches
apart, with bones or any equivalent
artificial manure on the flat surface :
a pound of seed the acre is a good al-
lowance. The turnip seed can scarce-
ly fail to vegetate soon. Less dan-
ger arises from dry weather than if
they were on the top of a ridge, and
the intervals can be readily stirred
by the plough, or any other instru-
ment adapted to the purpose. The
manure, which has had time to m-
corporate with the soil and to impart
to it the various gaseous products of
its decomposition, is in the best state
to nourish the young plant, untd it
can push forth its roots ; a more rap-
id growth is ensured, which is the
best preservative against the fly ; and
experience has proved that this is a
much more certain way to ensure a
good crop of turnips, especially of
Swedes, than the old method of put-
ting all the manure immediately un-
der the seed in the rows, where it
often remains inert if dry weather
comes on soon after the seed is sown.
The quantity of manure put on in au-
tumn, or very early in spring, depends
on the means of the farm. If ten
cubic yards of short dung can be af-
forded per acre, the crop of turnips
will amply repay it ; and tu enty bush-
els of bone dust or less p^racre wdl
be sufficient to drill with the seed.
Long fresh manure may be safely
ploughed in before winter, which
would be very improper in a light
sod if used in summer. This will be
rotten before the turnips are sown,
and all the expense of forming dung-
hills and turning them over is saved.
^^'here farm-yard manure is scarce,
hah the above quantity may be used,
and a fair crop of turnips may still be
expected. We have ourselves fol-
lowed this method with abundant
manure, and also with half the usual
quantity, the success being always
in proi;ortion to the quantity of farm-
yard maimre.

" The early vegetation of the seed
813

is essential to a goop crop of turnips.
In its young and tender state it is
liable to a variety of accidents. Its
great enemy is the turnip fly {Haltica
nemorum), which appears always in
great quantities if there is any con-
tinuance of dry weather. The mores
frequently turnips are sown n the
same ground, the more abundant is
the fly ; but where the surface has
been pared and burned there is sel-
dom any loss from this cause. It is
generally found that in moist weath-
er the fly does comparatively little
harm, as then the vegetation is rapid,
and the plant, when once it has put
forth its rough leaves, is considered
safe. Whatever, therefore, accel-
erates the vegetation will secure the
growth of the turnip. In very dry
seasons, if water is at hand, it is well
worth while to water the newlj'-sown
ro\vs by means of a common water-
cart ; and if some liquid manure be
mixed with the water, the effect will
be astonishing. By means of two
leathern hose two rows may readily
be watered at once ; and if the pond
or stream be not above half a mile
off, a vast extent of ground may thus
be watered in one day. Nothing
brings on vegetation so fast as dilu-
ted liquid manure, care being taken
that it be not too strong. The best
time for watering is in the evening,
or early in the morning ; and if in a
fine summer's night the water-cart
were used before daylight, there
would be no great inconvenieuee to
the horse or his driver. It some-
times happens in soils rather com-
pact, that a crust is formed on the
surface wiiieh has been harrowed fine
and rolled, and this impedes the ve-
getation by excluding the air neces-
sary to germination. In this case,
no better remedy can be applied than
watering, which softens the crust
and lets the young plant through. As
soon as the turnip plant has put forth
Its rough leaves, the intervals be-
tween the rows should be stirred with
a light plough drawn up by one horse.
The plough can be made to go with-
in an inch or two of the plants, throw-
ing the earth from the row into the

TURNIPS.

interval : a small harrow, wliich can
be set to any required width, is then
drawn between the rows, to loosen
the earth raised by the plougli : this
greatly increases the absorption of
moisture, and invigorates tlie young
plants. They may now be thinned
out in the rows by means of a hoe
about twelve inches broad. See Fiff.
7 ; a is the blade, which will hoe out all
Fig- 7.

the superfluous plants, leaving little
tufts a foot or more apart. These
tufts are thinned out by hand, leaving
only one healthy plant in each. Thus
the turnips are left at a proper dis-
tance, and, having ample room, will
soon cover the rows. A horse-hoe
is now drawn between the rows, to
eradicate all weeds and keep the soil
open forthe fibres of the roots to shoot
in. It is not advisable to throw the
earth overthe turnips, unless it be just
before winter, to protect them from tlie
frost ; on the contrary, in wet weath-
er the earth is more likely to cause the
turnip to rot than to help its growth.
The fibres which draw the nourish-
ment strike in the soil below, and
spread between the rows wherever
they meet with a loose and mellow
earth.

" In order to have a heavy crop,
especially of Swedish turnips, or rula
baga, it is advisable to sow the seed
early, that is, in the beginning of July ;
they will then have the advantage of
the summer showers, and be beyond
the reach of t!ie fly in a very few
days; and when the dry weather sets
in, they will already have a supply of
moisture in tlieir roots, and the libres,
having struck deep, will not suffer
any check. The only inconvenience
of sowing early is, that many of the
plants are apt to run to seed. This
is in many cases owing to the seed
which is used. If the seed has been
raised from fine roots which have
stood the winter, there is little dan-
ger of the plants running to seed in
the first summer ; but, as is often the
case, if small, imperfect roots are la-

ken, or those wliich run to seed in
autumn, then the plants will liave a
tendency to jiroduco seed, and not
bulbs. The white Norfolk turnip and
its varieties should be sown about
midsummer, to have a good and heavy
crop before winter. The distance at
which they may be left in thinning
them out must depend on the variety,
whether it has a wide-spreading top
or not. The best crops, both of
Swedes and common field turnips,
are generally those where the tops
are vigorous and moderately spread-
ing. A small top will not nourish a
large bulb ; but when the growth is
chiefly in the leaves, the bulbs are
seldom large.

" It may be considered as a gener-
al rule, that the most advantageous
mode of consuming turnips is to draw
them and cut them in slices in the
field, to be there consumed in troughs
by sheep, to whom corn or oil-cake,
as well as hay, is regularly given.
When the crop of turnips is abun-
dant, part of them may be stored for
the cattle in the yard or fatting-stalls,
and for the milch cows and heifers.
They will require nothing but good
straw, if they have plenty of turnips,
and no hay whatever need be used,
unless it be for the horses ; and even
they will thrive well on Swedish tur-
nips and straw, with a small quanti-
ty of oats. Turnips are often left in
the field all the wmter, which great-
ly deteriorates them. If they cannot
all be fed off before December, they
should be taken up, with the tops on,
and set close together, covered with
the tops, on a piece of grass, or in
some dry spot. They will thus be
quite sufficiently protected from the
frost ; or the tops may be cut off
within an inch of the crown of the
root ; and they may be stored in long
camps five feet wide and four feet
high, sloped like the roof of a house,
and covered with straw and earth, in
which state they will keep till they
are wanted. It is advantageous to
have different varieties of turnips,
which will come to perfection in suc-
cession ; and it is useful to sow some
at different times for this purpose.
813

TURNIPS.

The small turnip, which from its rap- ; Let us contrast this expense with
id growth is called the nimble turnip, tliat of feeding hay. We believe a
may be sown as late as the end of ration of hay is 28 lbs. Let us sup-
August, and in the mild seasons of pose it to be 25 lbs. Then, to keep
the Middle States will produce toler- | the tive cows 60 days would require

able bulbs in winter and early in
spring. The frost will not injure a
growing turnip so readily as one
which is come to perfection, and the
leaves of which are withered. Some
varieties, like the yellow Aberdeen
and the green round turnip, are hard-
ier than others, and will stand the
winter well in a light and dry soil."
The method of taking up t!ie crop

7500 lbs., or 3 tons 15 cwt. of hay,
which, at a fair medium price of 810
a ton, would amount to §37 50, ma-
king a diflerence in favour of the tur-
nips of $21 25, or nearly three fifths.
Let us test the relative profits in an-
other way. The average product of
our grass lands is about two tons the
acre ; say the product of two acres
would be 7500 lbs. ; then the prod-

for winter store is by running a fur- j uct of an acre in ruta baga would go
row along the rows, and turning the about as far in feeding stock as the

product of two acres in meadow ;
with the farther advantage, where
the turnips are sown upon a young
clover lay, that one half the hay may
also be cut from the acre which pro-
duces the 600 bushels of turnips, the
latter being raised as a second crop."
" There are so many varieties cul-
tivated that it is difficult to enumer-
ate them. The Swedish turnips may
be classed according to the colour
and size of their tops and the shape
of the bulb. The best have but little
stem rising from the bulb, and a good
tuft of leaves. The substance of the
turnips is of a bright yellow, and has
a strong smell, especially when they
have been kept some time. No frost
w.ll hurt them, if they are kept dry ;
but alternate rain and frost will do
them harm When they are stored,
it is advantageous that the air should
have free access ; and for this pur-
pose it has been recommended to
place them between hurdles set up-
right, and to slightly thatch them
with straw to keep out the rain. In
this way they keep longer sound than
when put in camps covered with
straw and earth.

" Of the field turnip there are nu-
merous varieties. The common Nor-
folk turnip is round and flat, the bulb
being half buried in the ground ; it
and thrive upon two bushels a day ; , throws out no fibres, except from the
hence an acre will afford 300 daily I slender root which proceeds from the
rations, or maintain five cows 60 ! centre of the bulb. There is a sub-
days, at the actual cost of $16 25, | variety which is reddish at the inser-
or $3 25 for each the two months, i tion of the leaves, and another of a
8U

earth from the roots ; tlie turnips can
then be pulled by the hand, or with
the hook {Fig. 8).

The following account of the prod-
uct and profits of ruta baga is by
Judge Buel :

" Profits.— From many years' ex-
perience, we estimate as an average
product, under good management,
600 bushels to the acre. We may
assume the following as the average
expense of cultivating and harvesting
an acre :

One ploughins and a thorough harrow-
ing . $2 50

20 wagon loads manure, at "5 cents . 15 01)

1 pound seed 1 J^O

) day spreading manure and drilling seed 0 75
3 dressings with cultivator, man aud

horse one day 1 25

2 dressings with hoe, six days, 6«. . . 4 50
5 days harvesting and pulling, 6s. . 3 75

$28 75

which divided by 600, the number of
bushels, would bring the cost of the
roots below five cents the bushel.
But if we abate half the cost of the
manure for the after crops, and allov/
a fair consideration for the tops, say
$5, it will reduce the cost of the roots
to less than three cents a bushel.
Now a cow or bullock will do we

TURNIPS.

green hue ; the latter is the hardiest.
The globe turnip takes its name from
its shape ; it rises more out of the
ground, and grows to a greater size ;
like the last, it is either entirely white
or red, or green near the crown. It
is, on the whole, the most productive
and hardy. The tankard turnip rises
high out of the ground, and approach-
es in shape to the mangel wurzel.
It grows to the greatest size ; hut it
is apt to become spongy if left long
on the ground, and its weigiit is not
in proportion to its bulk. Tliere are
red tankards and green tankards, as
well as white. The green round tur-
nip is considered very hardy, and is
usually sown late, to be consumed
after the winter. The yellow Aber-
deen, although somewhat less, is
compact, and stands the winter well;
it is a very useful variety.

'' Next to those above mentioned
come the smaller turnips ot* quicker
growth, which have mostly been ta-
ken from the garden. They should
not be sown early, as they are very
apt to run to seed in dry weather;
but in a moist climate they may be
sown at any time in the summer, and
they will be in perfection in three
months. Thus they may be made to
fill up the interval between the early
rye or trifolium fed off in spring, and
tiie wheat sown in autumn.

" Those who are possessed of a
good variety will do well to raise their
own seed, as that which is bought
cannot always be depended upon for
this purpose ; the best-shaped, mid-
dle-sized bulbs should be chosen, the
leaves being cut off not nearer than
an inch from the crown. They should
be planted in a mellow soil, in rows
three feet wide, and a foot from bulb
to bulb in the rows, about March or
April. When the pods are well filled
with seeds, and these are round and
hard, the stem should be cut close to
the root, and carefully laid under a
shed to dry. The seed will ripen
there without shedding, and when the
pods are quite dry, the seed is easily
beaten out with a stick or light flail.
Birds are so fond of it that a con-
stant watch must be kept ; and this

is the reason why so few farmers
grow their own seed. Turnip seed
is often raised in the gardens, and is
a branch of industry which every
farmer should encourage. He can
readily see that good bull)s only are
used, and he secures the seeds he
wants. If the seed is kept in a dry
granary, it will be good for several
years. It is, however, best to use
fresh seed, as it always germinates
sooner. The seed is seldom steeped,
but generally drilled in the rows by
a drill- barrow or more perfect sow-
ing machine. The best farmers, even
on land well manured and in good
heart, sow with tiie seed some artifi-
cial manure, as bones, rape cake, or
rich dried compost, to accelerate the
first growth of the plants."

Diseases. — "The diseases and in-
juries to which turnips are liable are
various. At their first appearance
their leaves are liable to the attacks
of tlie fly (Aphis and Haltica), the
caterpillar, the slug, and the mildew.
Their bulbs and roots are attacked
by worms of different kinds ; by a
singular tendency to monstrosity,
known provincially by the name of
fingers and toes ; by the anbury ; by
canker, and by wasting or gangrene
from water or frost. Of all or most
of these injurious diseases, it may be
observed, that they admit neither of
prevention nor cure by art. Under
favourable circumstances of soil, cli-
mate, culture, and weather, they sel-
dom occur ; therefore, ail that the cul-
tivator can do is to prepare and ma-
nure his land properly, and in the
sowing season supply water when the
weather is deficient in showers or
the soil in humidity.

" The fly (Hahica) attacks the tur-
nip when in the seed leaf, and either
totally devours it, or partially eats
the leaves and centre bud, so as to
impede the progress of the plants to
the second or rough leaves. Wheth-
er the eggs of these flies are deposit-
ed on the plants or in the soil, does
not appear to be ascertained ; in all
probability they are attached to the
former, as in the gooseberry cater-
pillar, and most cases of flies and in-
S15

TUR

TUR

sects which feed on plants. Prep-
arations and mixtures of the seed, as
ah-eady treated of, are all that have
yet been done in the way of prevent-
ive to this evil.

" The caterpillar makes its appear-
ance after the plants have produced
three or more rough leaves ; these
they eat througii, and either destroy
or greatly impede the progress of the
plants. There can be little doubt
that the eggs of these caterpillars
are deposited on the leaves of the
plants by a species of moth, as the
caterpillar may be detected when not
larger in diameter than a hair. As
preventives to the moths from fixing
on the turnips for a depository for
their eggs, it has been proposed to
place vessels with tar in different
parts of the field, the smell of which
isknown to be very offensive to moths
and all insects ; or to cause a thick
offensive smoke from straw or weeds
to pass over the ground at the time
when it is supposed the moths or pa-
rent flies are about to commence
their operations. To destroy the cat-
erpillar itself watering with tobacco
water, lime-water, strong brine, and
laying on ashes, barley awns, (Sec,
have been proposed.

" The slug and snail attack the
plants both above and under ground,
and eat both the leaves and roots.
Rolling, soot, quicklime, awns, &c.,
have been proposed to annoy them ;
but the only effectual mode is, im-
mediately after the turnips are sown,
to strew the ground with cabbage
leaves, or leaves of any of the Bras-
sica tribe. On these, especially if
sweet from incipient decay, the slugs
will pasture, and may be gathered off
by women or children every morn-
ing. If as many cabbage leaves, or
handfuls of decaying pea haulm, or
any similar vegetable, be procured as
will go over a ridge or two, say at
the rate of a leaf to every square
yard, a whole field may soon be
cleared by picking off the slugs and
removing the leaves once in 24 hours.
This mode we have found most ef-
fectual, and it is extensively prac-
tised by market and other gardeners.
816

" The mildew and blight attack the
turnip in different stages of its prog-
ress, and always retard its growth.
Its effects may be palliated by wa-
tering and strewing the leaves with
sulphur ; but this will hardly be con-
sidered applicable to whole fields.

" The worms attack the roots, and,
when they commence their ravages
at an early period, impede their
growth, and ruin or greatly injure
the crop. They admit of no remedy
or prevention.

" The forked excrescences known
as fingers and toes in some places,
and as the anbury in others, are con-
sidered an alarming disease, and hith-
erto it can neither be guarded against
nor cured." See Anbury.

TURNIP CABBAGE. The kohl
rabi.

TURNIP CART. " This is an in-
genious ajdaptation of the disk turnip
cutter to the turnip cart. The disk
is pat in motion by a face-wheel fixed
upon the nave of the cart-wheel,
which, as it revolves, communicates
by means of cog wheels with the axis
of the cutting plate. It offers a very
convenient mode of feeding sheep
on pastures or lawns, and was intro-
duced about the year 1834 by Arthur
Bidden, farmer, of Playford, the in-
ventor o!" the well-known scarifier
which bears his name." — {Johnson.)

TURNIP CUTTERS. In feed-
ing sheep and stock with turnips, as
well as other roots, it is necessary to
cut them into small pieces to hinder
choking and facilitate digestion. For
oxen and pigs, it may be better to
steam them ; but for sheep, the com-
mon practice is to cut them. The
simplest form of vegetable cutter is
like the simplest straw cutter, two or
more knives set in a lever and worked
upon a table {Fig. 1); but this is a
slow machine, and has been, for the
most part, superseded by implements
of the construction shown in Fig. 2,
which consists of a side hopper, con-
taining the roots, and a wheel set
with blades on two or more of its
spokes. As these are revolved be-
fore the bottom of the hopper, the
turnips or other roots are cut into

TUS

slices and fall below. The upright
position of the hopper constantly
brings down more of the vegetables.
In Gardner's imoroved machine, two
F.>. I.

ULC

spokes are set with knives at right
angles with the former, which split
the slices into small pieces as they
are cut by the long knives.

Fig. 2.

TTTRNSOL. Litmus.

TURPENTINE. The resinous sap
of pine-trees, especially of the Pinus
aitslralis, the long leaved or southern
pine, abounding in the sandy barrens
of the Southern States. It is pro-
cured by making an excavation in
winter of the size of about three
pints in the stem, near the ground ;
from the upper part of this the tur-
pentine exudes during spring, sum-
mer, and fall, and is received into
gourds or other vessels, and emptied
into barrels, which are exposed to dry,
and then headed and shipped. It is
a useful application to many wounds.
The oil, or spirit, is obtained by dis-
tilling crude turpentine with water ;
the spirit passes over, and common
rosin remains in the still. It is rec-
tified or redistilled for commerce.

TL'SSAC GRASS. Dachjlis ca-
spitosa. Falkland Island grass. A
large, sedgy grass, growing on the
seashore of those islands. It is very
nutritious and hardy, 150 acres fat-
tening 250 cattle and 70 horses du-
ring the winter. The grass grows to
a great height, and maintains its ver-
dure even in winter. Governor Moo-
dy of the islands found it would grow
on high and dry land if the stools
were set out in spring. It bears
Zzz

three cuttings per annum ; is peren-
nial. It' seed be sown, it requires
three vears to arrive at maturity.

TUSSOCKS OF GRASS. Clumps
or hillocks of growing grass.

TYMPANUM. The membrane of
the ear which receives the vibrations
of sound.

TYPES. In chemistry, a certain
number of elements combined to-
gether, every one of which may be
replaced by another, and, indeed, ev-
ery one in its turn, the arrangement
of the elements in every case re-
maining always the same with re-
gard to each other, the type being
no precise compound, but the man-
ner of grouping. The new compounds
(as when chlorine replaces hydro-
gen) have often the same properties
as the original.

TYPHUS. Continued fevers, at-
tended with great debility. They
arise from impure air, bad food, dec,
and are therefore often epidemic.
Typhoid fevers are those in which
there is a tendency to great debilitv.

TWITCH GRASS. Couch grass.

U.
UDDER. The milk-secreting
gland of the cow.
ULCER. An open sore dischar-
817

UMB

ging matter. Ulcers sometimes be-
come torpid and dilRcult to heal, in
which case stimulants are used. Tlie
application of caustic is necessary
vhen there is fungous growth ; ttie
nitrate of silver or red precipitate is
best. Calomel is extremely service-
able to heal healthy ulcers : tar is also
used for this purpose.

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS. The
determination of the elements of an
organic body. See Organic Analysts.

U.MBLL. In botany, a form of in-
florescence in which all the pedicels
proceed froin a single point. If there
is no subdivision, the umbel is called
simple ; but if the pedicels produce
other umbels, as in parsley, ihe um-
bel is compound.

U.MBELLIFER.E, UMBELLIF-
EROUS PLANTS. They are a race
of great frequency in all cool or
temperate climates, and even occur
in hot ones, though much more rare-
ly. They are known in general by
their flowers being disposed in an
umbel. They have an herbaceous
stem ; leaves usually much divided,
often inflated wlien they join the
stem ; and they have universally a
dry fruit, which divides into two seed-
like pieces. Some of them are poi-
sonous, as hemlock, fool's parsley,
and water dropwort ; others are es-
culents, as celery, carrots, and pars-
nips ; many yield aromatic fruits, as
caraway, coriander, and anise ; a few
secrete a foetid gum resin, of which
asafcEtida, ammoniacum, and galba-
num are examples. The species are
extremely numerous, and difficult to
recognise with accuracy ; and, un-
fortunately, no general rule has yet
been discovered for distinguishing
the poisonous from the harmless
kinds; but those whicii grow in damp
or wet places are to be suspected,
whereas those that are aromatic and
found in dry soils are often innocuous.

UMBILICAL CORD. In animals,
the cord of blood-vessels which pass-
es between the placenta and foetus ;
the navel string. In botany, the
thread which attaches the seed to the
earpel or placenta.

UMBILICUS. The navel.
818

URE

UNCIFORM BONE. One of the
bones of the wrist.

UNCONFORMABLE STRATA.
Strata which do not incline or dip in
the satrie direction as those below or
above them.

UNDERWOOD. Coppice, small
trees, or shoots from old stools.

UNGUIS. The claw or small ex-
tremity of a petal, where it is insert-
ed into the stem.

UNGULATES. Those quadrupeds
furnished witli a hoof

U N I L 0 C U L A R. Seed vessels
which contain but one cavity.

UPAS. A Javanese tree, from
which the upas poison is secreted ;
the Anliaris toxtcaria.

UPONG. Ilex vomiloria and cassi-
na. Tlie black drink, medicine, or
tea plant of North Carolina, used by
the Indians.

UREA. A peculiar crystallizable
substance held in solution in the urine.
When dried in vacuo it consists, ac-
cording to Dr. Prout, of,

Atoms. Experiment.

Nitrogen 2 45 65

Carbon 2 20 07

Hydrogen 1 6-65

Okygeu 4 2663

T 10000

Urea is readily soluble in water,
tasteless, inodorous ; and when mix-
ed with the other contents of the
urine, very prone to putrefaction, the
principal result of which is carbonate
of ammonia.

UREDO. "As the diseases of
corn occasioned by fungi belonging
to the genus Urcdo are of great im-
portance, we shall describe them
particularly. In the article Burned
Ear, a diseased state of wheat is de-
scribed, in which the Urcdo scgctum
appears.

" Urcdo caries, De Candolle {U.
fcr/ida, Bauer), is found on wheat ;
the sporidia are included within the
ovary of the fruit, and are exactly
spherical, rather large, globose, and
black. When this plant appears on
wheat it is said to have the bunt,
smut-balls, or pepper-brand. The
sporidia may be detected in the young
seed in the very earliest states of
the flower-bud, and when perfectly

UREDO.

ripe it occupies the whole interior of
the grain, but does not burst the skin,
so that the grain retains the charac-
ter of being perfectly sound. The
sporidia are frequently mixed with
delicate tibres, which seem to consti-
tute the niycelia of the plant. Hens-
low calculates that a single grain
of wheat may contain more than
4,000,000 of sporidia. Each of these
sporidia probably contains millions
of sporules ; hence some idea may
be formed of their minuteness, as
well as their capacity for spreading
themselves in every direction. An-
other peculiarity of this fungus is,
that it has a very disgusting smell,
and the consequence is that flour
made from grains containing it can-
not be eaten. Flour thus spoiled is,
however, sold to gingerbread-makers,
who have found out that mixing it
with treacle conceals its disagreeable
odour. It does not appear to act in-
juriously when taken. In raising
wheat for seed, the greatest care
should be taken that none affected
with the smut fungus is used, as it
seems proved that where the sporules
of the fungus are present in the seed
sown, they will grow up with the
plant, and be developed at the period
of its ripening the fruit. Many rem-
edies have been proposed for getting
rid of the sporules from wheat about
to be sown. Washing with clean
water has been found effectual, and
with lime-water much more so, but
of all applications a solution of sul-
phate of copper (blue vitriol) seems
to answer best. The following is a
good instance of the effect of dress-
ing wheat : ' Mr. John Woolnough,
of Boyton, sowed a large field in al-
ternate breadths with wheat taken
from a good sample without dressing,
and wheat that had been dressed.
Long before the grain was ripe the
difference was most distinguishable.
Upon those stretches sown with
dressed wheat it was difficult to find
any branded ears, while the others
were so branded as to make him de-
termine to carry the wheat at sep-
arate times to different places."' —
(Lain. Trans., vol. v.)

The common character of the fun-
gi of this class f,j. j.
is their production
within the plant,
through the skin
of which they ott
en break, as in the
Urcdo diffusa, that
attacks fruit-trees
(Fig. 1).

" Uredo ruhigo
and linearis form
yellow and brown
oval spots, and
blotches of an or-
ange and yellow
colour upon the
stem, leaf, and chaff of grain, and va-
rious grasses. The sporidia of U.
linearis are more oblong than those
of U. ruhigo, but they are frequently
found together. When these plants
are present the disease of the grain
is called rust, red rag, red robin,
and red gum. This is the plant
which Honslow believes to be iden-
tical with the Puccinia graminis,
which occurs in wheat affected with
mildew." Figure 2 represents the
Fig-'i.

Puccinia graminis, or rust: it is of the
natural size in the stem, a, magnified
in b, and the stem also magnified in c.
" The mildew and the rust are often
confounded together by farmers, and,
as shown by Henslow, there is no
difference in the essential character
of the plant which is the offspring of
the disease. Rust and mildew are
819

URE

URI

not so certainly prevented as smut,
although there is reason to l)elieve
that the sporules of the V. rubigo are
taken less up by the roots, in the
same manner as those prochicing
smut. As a dressing, the use of llie
lime-water or sulphate of copper
should never be neglected ; although
it may not always prevent rust, yet
there are instances recorded in which
undressed wheat has had rust, when
dressed wheat from the same sample
has not had it.

" Connected with the question of
blight in corn is one that has produ-
ced much discussion, and that is, how
far the barberry {Berberis vulgaris) is
the cause of it. Tiiere is a very
general impression among farmers
that the barberry-bush produces rust
in corn, and there are numerous well-
authenticated instances of blight oc-
curring in the vicinity of barberry-
bushes and hedges. Botanists, not
seeing how this could occur, have
generally treated the fact as a coin-
cidence, and acquitted the barberry
altogether of the crime of producing
blight ; but the evidence of blight oc-
curring as the consequence of the
presence of the barberry is constant-
ly increasing. One of the best ex-
planations of this curious circum-
stance is, that the barberry itself is
subject to the attacks of a fungus,
the JScidium berbendis, similar to that
which produces the disease in wheat.
The specific characters of the two,
however, are very different, and it
is only by having recourse to the
supposition that many of the record-
ed species of JEcidium are merely
varieties changed in character by
change of position, that such an ex-
planation of the fact can be admitted.

" Besides the species of uredo men-
tioned, corn and all other plants are
subject to the attacks of a large num-

ber of these fungi. On whatever
plant they are found they are indica-
tive of disease, and the produce of
the plant will not be so great as
when in a state of health. Sir H.
Davy fuund that 1000 parts of good
wheat yield, on an average, 95.5 parts
of nutritious matter, while specimens
from mildewed wheat yielded only
from 650 to 210 parts in the same
quantity." Sec, also, Mildew.

URETERS. The tubes which con-
vey urine from the kidneys to the
bladder.

URETHRA. The passage from
the bladder outward, for the discharge
of urine.

URIU ACID, LITHIC ACID. An
acid occurring in large quantity, com-
bined with ammonia, in the urine of
birds and reptiles, and to a small ex-
tent only in the urine of carnivorous
(juadrupeds. In the pure state it is a
very insoluble white powder ; it dis-
solves in nitric acid, and when evap-
orated to dryness and mixed with a
little ammonia, gives the rich red col-
our of murexide. The composition
of uric acid is Cio H4 N4 Or : it is con-
verted by putrefaction into bicarbo-
nate of ammonia. Peruvian guano
contains eight to twenty per cent, of
this acid, but the African is usually
without it.

URINE. The fluid excrement of
quadrupeds : in birds and reptiles it
is solid. The urine contains the
greatest portion of the nitrogenized
matters of the excrements, and is
therefore the most important portion
of manure. The composition of hu-
man urine is given in the article
Night Soil, the management of that
of the cow under the article Flanders
Husbandry.

" The efficacy of urine as a manure
depends upon the quantity of solid
matter which it holds in solution,

Urine of

Water

1000 parts.

Solid matter in 1000 parts.

Aver, quantity

voided in n'

hours.

Organic.

inorganic. Total.

Man

9fi9

23-4

7-6 i 31

3 lbs.

Horse

940

27

33

60

3 "

Cow

030

50

20

70

40* "

P.g

926

56

18

74

■t

Sheep ....

960

28

12

40

1

Not in milk. When in milk, about half of this.

820

URINE.

upon the nature of this solid matter,
;iiul especially upon the rapid changes
M hich liie organic part of it is known
to undergo. The preceduig table ex-
hibits the average proportions of wa-
ter, and of the solid organic and inor-
ganic matters contained in the urine
of man and some other animals in
their healthy state, and the average
quantity voided by each in a day.

'•Tiie numbers in the above tabic
show that the urine of the cow, esti-
mated by the quantity of solid matter
it contains, is more valuable than that
of any other of our domestic animals,
with the exception of the pig. But
the quantity voided by the cow must
be so much greater than by the pig,
that in annual value the urine of one
cow must greatly exceed that of many
pigs.

'• It might be supposed at first that
in all animals the quantity of urine
voided would have a close connexion
with the quantity of water which each
was in the habit of drinking. But this
is by no means the case. Thus it is
the result of experiment, that in man
the drink exceeds the urine voided
by about one tenth pari only, while a
horse, which drank 35 lbs. of water
in 24 hours, gave only 3 lbs. of urine
during the same time ; and a cow,
which drank 132 lbs. of water, gave
18 lbs. of urine and 19 lbs. of milk.—
{BotissingauU.)

'^ How very large a quantity of the
liquid they drink must escape from
the horse and the cow in the form of
insensible perspiration I That this
should be very much greater indeed
than in man, we are prepared to ex-
pect from the greater extent of sur-
face which the bodies of these ani-
mals present.

" Let us now examine more closely
the composition of urine, the changes
which by decomposition it readily un-
dergoes, and the effect of these chan-
ges upon its value as a manure.

"Human Urine— The exact com-
position of the urine of a healthy in-
dividual, examined in its usual state,
w as found by Berzelius to be as fol-
lows :

Urea ^^ '■

Z Z Z 2

Uric acid 10

Free lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, and

auiiiiul matter not separable .... l"'l

Mucus of the bladder (v3

Siilphate of potash 3'7

Solphate of soda 3-2

Phosphate of soda 2-9

Phos|)hate of ammonia 10

Coniiiion salt 4.5

Sal-ammoniac 1'5

Phosphates of lime and magnesia, with
a trace of silica and of fluoride of cal-
cium 1^^

lUOO-0

" From what I have already had
occasion to state in regard to the ac-
tion upon living plants, of the sever-
al sulphates, phospliates, and other
saline compounds mentioned in the
above analysis, you will see that the
fertilizing action of urine would be
considerable, did it contain no other
solid constituents. But it is to the
urea which exists in it in very much
larger quantity than any other sub-
stance, that its immediate and mark-
ed action in promoting vegetation is
chiefly to be ascribed. This urea,
which is a white, salt-like substance,
consists of,

per cent..

Carbon 20-0

Hydrogen <'"6

Nitrogen '^^''^

0.xygeu 26-7

100-0

" It is, therefore, far richer in nitro-
gen than all other richly-fertilizing
substances.

"But urea possesses this farther
remarkable property, that when urine
begins to ferment, it changes entirely
into carbonate of ammonia. Of the
ammonia thus formed, a portion soon
[ begins to escape into the air, and
' hence the strong ammoniacal odour
of fermenting urine. This escape of
ammonia continues for a long period,
theliquid becoming weakeraiid weak-
er, and consequently less valuable as
; a manure every day that passes. Ex-
! perience has shown that recent urine
i exercises in general an unfavourable
i action upon growing plants, and that
j it acts most beneficially after fermcnt-
: ation has freely begun, hut the longer
time we suffer to elapse after it has
: reached the npc state, the greater the
i quantity of valuable manure we per-
' mit to go to waste.

621

URINE.

" T/ie 7<nnc 0/ //le coio has been an- I with the following results in 1000
alyzed in several states by Sprengel, [ parts :

Fresh.

Water 926-2

Urea 400

Mucus 2"0

Hippuric and lactic acids 61

Carbonic acid ....... "o

Anmionia 21

Potash 6-6

Soda 5-5

Sulphuric acid 4'0

Phosphoric acid 0'7

Chlorine 2'7

Lime 0-6

Magnesia 0'4

Alumina, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese . 0*1

Silica 0"4

1000-0

Allowed to fer

ment for fu

weeks in the o|ien air.

A.

B.

954-4

934-8

100

60

0-4

0-3

7-5

6-2

1-7

15-3

4-9

162

6-6

6-6

5-5

5-6

3-9

3-3

0-3

1-5

27

2-7

trace

trace

0-2

0-4

trace

—

o-i

0-1

99S-2

999-0

" The first variety of fermented
urine (A.) had stood four weeks in
the air in its natural state of dilution ;
the second (B.) had been mixed
while recent with an equal bulk of
water — which is again deducted from
it in the analysis — with the view of
ascertaining how far such an admix-
ture would tend to retain the volatile
ammonia produced by the natural de-
composition of the urea.

'■ An inspection of these tables
shows three facts of importance to
the agriculturist :

1°. That the quantity of urea in
the urine of the cow is considerably
greater than in that of man. 2^.
That as the urine ferments the quan-
tity of urea diminishes, while that of
ammonia increases ; and, 3^. That
by dilution with an equal bulk of wa-
ter the loss of this carbonate of am-
monia, which would otherwise natu-
rally take place, is in a considerable
degree prevented. The quantity of
ammonia retained by the urine, after
dilution, was in the same circumstances
nearly three times as great as when it
was allowed to ferment in the state in
which it came from the cow.

" But even by this dilution the
whole of the ammonia is not saved.
This shows the necessity of causing
our liquid manures to ferment in cov-
ered cisterns, or of adopting some
other means by which the above seri-
ous loss of the most valuable constit-
uents may be prevented.

" The urine of the horse, sheep, and
822

pig have not been so carefully ana-
lyzed as that of the cow. They con-
sist essentially of the same constitu-
ents, and the specimens which have
been examined were found to contain
the three most important of these in
the following proportions :

Horse. Sheep. Pig.

Water .... 940 960 926

Urea 7? 28 56

Saline substances . 53 12 18

1000 lOUO 1000

" Some of the saline substances
present in the urine, as above stated,
contain nitrogen. This is especially
the case in the urine of the horse, so
that the quantity of urea above given
is not to be considered as represent-
ing the true ammonia-producing pow-
er of the urine of this animal. The
urine of the pig, if the above analysis
is to be relied upon as anything like
an average result, is capable of pro-
ducing more ammonia from the same
quantity than that of any other of our
domestic animals.

" Of the Waste of Liquid Manure —
of Urate, and of Sulphatcd Urine.
Waste of Human Untie. — The quan-
tity of solid matter contained in tbe
recent urine voided in a year by a
man, a horse, and a cow, and the
weight of ammonia they are respect-
ively capable of yielding, may be rep-
resented as follows :

Quantity

Solid <
matter.

Man . 1,00011)8. 67 lbs.
Horse 1,000 60 1

Cow . 13,000 900 400

. ■ - And yield*
"""'°5 ing of am-
^""^^ nionia.

30 lbs. 17 lbs.

230

URI

URO

" How much of all this enriching I orating the whole to dryness. From
matter is permitted to run to waste ! | the use of tliis substance very favour-
Tiie solid substances contained in ; able results may be anticipated. Still
urine, if all added to the land, would none of these preparations wdl ever
bo more fertilizing than guano. If ' equal the urine itself, part of the effi-
we estimate the urine of each indi- , cacy of which depends upon tbe per-
vidual on an average at only 600 lbs., ; feet state of solution in which all tiie
then there are carried into the com- ' substances it contains exist, and upon
mon sewers of a city of 15,000 inhab- i the readiness with which in this state
itants a yearly weight of 600,000 they make their way into the roots
pounds, or 270 tons of manure, which of plants.

would, no iloubt, prove more fertil-
izing than its own weight of guano,
and might be expected to raise an in-
creased produce of not less than 8000
bushels of grain.

"The saving of all this manure
would be a great national benefit,
though it is not easy to see by what
means it could be etJectually accom-
plished. What is thus carried off by
the sewers, and conveyed ultimately
to the sea, is drawn from and lost by
the land, which must, therefore, to
a certain extent, be impoverished.
Can we believe that in the form of
fish, of sea-tangle, or of spray, the
sea ever delivers back a tithe of the
enriching matter it daily receives
from the land !

" Urate. — In order to prevent a
portion of this waste, the practice
has been introduced into some large
cities of collecting the urine, adding
to it one seventh of its weight of
powdered gypsum, allowing the whole
to stand for some days, pouring off
the liquid, and drying the powder.
Under the name of urate this dry
powder has been highly extolled, but
it can contain only a small portion
of what is really valuable in urine

Loss of Coirs'" Urine. — When left
to ferment for five or six weeks alone,
and with the addition of an equal bulk
of water, the urine of the cow loses,
as we have seen, a considerable pro-
portion of volatile matter, and in
these several states will yield in a
year,

Solid matter.
900 lbs.
850 "

Yieldins
of ammonia.

226 lbs.

Recent urine ....

.Mi.xed with water, after ) g^Q „ 20O "

SIX weeks . . . {
Unmixed, after 6 weeks . 550 " 30 "

" Those who scrupulously collect
in tanks, and preserve the liquid ma-
nure of their stables, cow-houses,
and fold-yards, will see, from the
great loss' which it undergoes by nat-
ural fermentation, the propriety of
occasionally washing out their cow-
houses with water, and by thus dilu-
ting the liquid of their tanks, of pre-
serving the immediately operating
constituents of their liquid manure
from escaping into the air. Even
when thus diluted it is desirable to
convey it on to the land without much
loss of time, since even in this state
there is a constant slow escape, by
which Its value is daily diminished.
Gypsum, sulphate of iron, and sulphu-
The liquid portion poured off must I ric acid are, by some, added for the
contain most of the soluble ammoni- purpose oi fixing the ammonia, but
acal and other salts, and even were in addition to diluting it, an admix-
the whole evaporated to dryness, the ture of rich vegetable soil, and espe-
gypsum does not act so rapidly in fi.x- | cially of peat, will be much more eco-
ing the ammonia as to prevent a con- '• nomical, and, except in so far as the
siderable escape of this compound as gypsum and sulphuric acid themselves
the fermentation oflhe urine proceeds. | act as manures, nearly as effectual."

URX. The small receptacle of
mosses in which the sporules are
placed.

UROCER.VT.-V. The name of a
tribe of the Terchrantta, or boring hy-
menopterous insects, in which the tcr-
823

Sulpkatcd Urme.—A method of
more apparent promise is that now
practised by the .Messrs. Turnbull of
Glasgow, of adding diluted sulphuric
acid to the urine as the ammonia is
formed in it, and subsequently cvap-

VEB

VER

ebra, Or borer, of the females is some-
times very long and prominent, and
composed of. three filamentary pro-
cesses, sometimes capillary, and coil-
ed in a spiral form in the interior of
the abdomen.

USTILAGO. A name given to cer-
tain fungi which produce the appear-
ance of burning on the leaves of
plants ; lire bii^jht. This term was
formerly applied to the burned ear, a
disease of grain.

UTERi:s. The womb.

UTRICLE, UTRICULUS. A one-
celled, one or four seeded, superior
membranous fruit, often bursting by a
transverse suture. A little bladder.

U V A U R S I. Arbutus uva ursi
Bear's berry. A small shrub, the
leaves of which are used in medicine.

UVULA. The pendulous portion
of the soft palate which hangs over
the cavity of the pharynx.

VACUUM. A void space. The
cavity of any vessel from which air
has been extracted by the air-pump
is called a vacuum. A TorricelHan
vacuum is that above the mercury of
a barometer.

VAGINA. A sheath : the passage
from the uterus outward.

VALERIAN. Valeriana qfficinalis.
A perennial herb, the root of which is
a nervous stimulant.

VALLESNERIA. Agenus of wa-
ter weeds.

VALVE. In mechanics and zool-
ogy, a flap or small door opening only
in one direction, and serving to close
a tube or passage. There are many
kinds of valves, as the door valve, the
sliding valve. In botany, the pieces
into which dry fruits or anthers burst
naturally, are called valves.

VANiLL.\. The succulent fruit
of the Epidcndron vanilla, an orchid-
eous climbing shrub of Mexico and
tropical America. The seeds have a
delightful aroma, and are used in fla-
vouring confectionery and chocolate.

VAPOUR. The temporary gase-
ous condition of fluids.

VEERING. A ridge made in
ploughing where two lands meet.
824

VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY.
The chemical examination of all prod-
ucts of the vegetable world, as well
as the functions of plants.

VEGETABLE OYSTER. See
Salsify.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
An examination of the growth and
functions of plants.

VEIL. Calyptra. A membrane
connecting the pileus with tlie stem
of some mushrooms.

VEINS. The vessels which con-
vey blood that has circulated through
the body back to the heart.

VEN.\ CAVA. The great veins
which discharge the venous blood into
the right auricle of the heart.

VENTER. In entomology, the
lower part of the abdomen.

VENTILATION. The establish-
ment of a current of air through any
room or place.

VENTRICLE. A cavity of the
heart, brain, &c.

VENTRICOSE. Any part which
appears blown out.

VERATRIA. An active alkaloid
principle, from the Veratrum album,
or white hellebore.

VERBENA. The vervain {Verbe-
na teuerioides), a shrubby plant, with
leaves of a delightful lemon odour,
and which are distilled for perfumery.
It is propagated by slips.

VERJUICE. The juice of green
grapes or apples, from which a vine-
gar is made.

VERMIN. Destructive animals or
insects.

VERNATION. The manner in
which the leaflets of a bud are folded.

VERRUCOSE. Having a wart-
like appearance.

VERTEBR/E. The bones of the
spine, which is also called the verte-
bral column.

VERTEBRATES, VERTEBRA-
TA. All animals having a spinal col-
umn.

VERTICAL. Upright, pointing to
the vertex, or uppermost point over-
head.

VERTICELLUS. A whorl. Vcr-
tiecllate is a derivative ; disposed in a
whorl.

VIN

VIN

VERTIGO. Giddiness.

VESICANT.S. Substances which
produce blistering.

VESICLE. A small bladder.

VESPID-'E. The family of wasps.

VESTIBULE. A porch or ante-
room.

VETCH. The genus FiWa, 'sev-
eral of which bear pretty leguminous
flowers. The V. sativa is the com-
mon tare.

VETCIILING. The genus Lalhy-
rns, leguminous plants, frequently of
great beauty, as the L. latifolms, or
sweet pea.

VEXILLUM. The standard : the
upper petaiof a papilionaceous or pea-
like flower.

VIBRISSA. The pointed bristles
which grow from the upper lip of an-
imals, or from the jaws of birds, and
are used as feelers.

VILLOSE. Woolly, covered with
soft, fle.xible hairs closely set.

VILLOU.S. Having the appear-
ance of the pile of velvet.

VINE. Vilis vimfera, the Syrian
vine, from which the numerous Eu-
ropean varieties are produced ; but
in the United States there are indi-
genous the V. labrusca, or fo.K grape,
of which the Isabella, Catawt)a, and
Alexander grapes are supposed to
be hybrids ; the V. crslivalis, or little
summer grape ; F. riparia, the odorif-
erous grape. In the South there are
also the bullet grape, V. rotundifolia,
and the V. palmala.

Varieties. — Tlie kinds of vines
more or less cultivated in the United
States are very numerous, and are
divisible into two classes, foreign and
domestic grapes.

Of the foreign kinds, most are cul-
tivated for the table, and, according
to the evidence of many speculators
in the Nortii, cannot bo profitably cul-
tivated north of Maryland except un-
der glass, every effort to acclimate
them in vineyards having failed, and
few vines succeeding except in warm,
sheltered spots, or in cities. These
kinds are, however, of such remark-
able excellence, and so superior to
the native varieties, that they are ob-
tained wherever the means of culti-

vation exist. The best are the hiack
Hamburgh, black Muscadine, .Miller's
Burgundy, black, grizzly, and white
Frontignan, royal Muscadine {Chas-
selas), early white .Mu.scadine, white
Sweetwater {iclntc Chassdas), Muscat
of Alexandria, white and red .Malaga,
white St. Peter, and white Tokay.
Of these, the sweetwatcr is acclima-
ted in Virginia and South, and the
black Hamburgh will stand the open
air in Pennsylvania.

Of the American grapes, the Alex-
ander (V'evay, Madeira of York), the
Catawba, Cunningham, Elsinburgh,
Norton's Virginia, black Scuppernong,
and Warren's Madeira, are best :
most of them are, however, southern,
the Isabella, Catawba, Alexander, and
Elsinburgh growing north of Penn-
sylvania. Of these, the Scuppernong
is used for wine in North Carolina.
The Catawba and Cunningham also
yield good wine in Virginia ; the Alex-
ander (or Vevay) and Warren's Ma-
deira are cultivated in Pennsylvania
and Ohio for wine. Several seedlings
are also of good repute from Ohio ;
but, on the whole, the Scuppernong
and Catawba appear to be in the high-
est esteem of all native grapes for
wine.

Training. — The favourite method
of training vines which require no
wall is along espaliers ; but in North
Carolina they are carried over flat
arbours, rising eight to twelve feet
above the ground. The short bush
methodof pruning, by which the plant
is stunted to a small bush of three or
four feet, is common in some parts
of France. In Italy they are allowed
to grow over mulberry trees. Mr.
Hoare's treatise is the text-book
of the vine cultivator ; we therefore
abstract the following, which is the
plan pursued by the principal dress-
ers in New-York and Penn.sylvania :

" Aspect. — The warmer the aspect,
the greater perfection does the grape
attain in the North, provided all oth-
er circumstances are alike ; and if
the greatest quantity of the sun's
rays shining on the surface of a wall
were alone to be considered as con-
stituting the best aspect, there would,
825

VINE.

of course, be no difliculty in naming '
a due soutliern one ;is better than <'iny
other. But varinth alone is not suf-
ficient ; shelter from the wind is ('(jual-
ly necessary. The best aspects are j
those that range from the eastern ;
to the southeastern, botli inclusive.
The next best arc those from south- .
east to south ; but this depends some- :
what on local peculiarities. !

" Hoil. — The natural soil which is !
most congenial to the growth of the
vine, and to the perfection of its fruit
in this country, is a light, jiorous, ;
rich, sandy loam, not more than IS
inches in deptii, on a dry bottom of :
gravel, stones, or rocks. A strong
argillaceous soil is injurious to the
vine ; it checks the expansion of the ■
roots, and retains too mucli moisture.
In calcareous soils the vine always I
flourishes, especially if the bottom '
be stony or gravelly. No subsoil can
possess too great a quantity of these ;
materials for the roots of the vine, '
which run with eagerness into all [
the clefts, crevices, and openings in l
which such subsoils abound. In these j
dry and warm situations, the fibrous '
extremities, pushing themselves with {
the greatest avidity, and continually !
branching out in every possible direc- I
tion, lie secure from that excess of |
moisture which frequently accumu- j
lates in more compact soils ; and,
clinging like ivy round the porous sur- i
faces of their retreats, extract there-
from a species of food more nourish- |
ing than that obtained by them under i
any other circumstances whatever, i
All borders, therefore, made express-
ly for the reception of vines ought 1
to be composed of a sufficient quan-
tity of dry materials, such as stones
and brickbats, broken moderately
small, lumps of old mortar, broken
pottery, oyster shells, &c., to enable
the roots to extend themselves free-
ly in their search after food and nour-
ishment ; to keep them dry and warm
by the free admission of air and so-
lar heat, and to admit of heavy rains
passing quickly through, without be-
ing retained sufficiently long to sat-
urate the roots, and thereby injure
their tender extremities. The sweep-
826

ings obtained from a turnpike road,
or from any other high road kept in a
good state of repair by tiie frequent
addition of stones, and on which
there is a considerable traffic of hor-
ses or other cattle, is the very best
compost that can be added Xo any
border intended for the reception of
vines. Its com|Jonenl parts, consist-
ing chielly of sand, gravel, pulverized
stones, and the residuum ol dung and
urine, afford a greater quantity of
food, and of a riciier and more last-
ing nature, than can i)e found in any
other description of compost that I
have ever seen or heard of being
used for that purpose. Borders in
which vines are planted should nev-
er be cropped nor digged.

"■Manure. — The best species of
manure for the vine are those which
afford a considerable degree of nour-
ishment, but at the same time slowly
decompose in the soil. Such are
bones, whole or crushed, the horns
and hoofs of cattle, the entire car-
casses of animals, cuttings of leath-
er, woollen rags, feathers, and hair,
and the leaves of the vines them-
selves. Liquid manures are also val-
uable, and forcing in their eftect ; of
this class the most powerful are
urine, soot water, blood, the drain-
ings of dung heaps, and soap suds.
It should, however, always be recol-
lected that the more manure is used
the poorer the wine procured from
the grapes. As a top-dressing, and
to be forked into the border, night-
soil, refuse lish, stable manure, and
the excrements of all birds and ani-
mals, will be found highly enriching
substances as fertilizers, and their
nutritive and stimulating properties
have been frequently alluded to in
the progress of this work ; but if rich
manures are used, they should be
mixed with turf and sand. In the
Alto Douro is a law which prohibits
the vine being 'littered,' as this op-
eration, though it considerably aug-
ments the produce, tends to deterio-
rate the quality of the wine.

" On the Construction of Walls. —
No general rule can be laid dow-n as
to the height of the wall, which must

I

VINE.

necessarily vary under different situ-
ations and circuuistances. Mr. Hoare
states that in uuslielterod situations
and exposed aspects he has never
seen fine grapes produced nuich high-
er tlian eight feet from the ground ;
but in favourable situations height
is of no consequence. If built for the
express purpose of rearing grapes,
low walls of not more than six feet
are to be preferred, as more conveni-
ent for pruning and training the vines.
Brick walls are undoubtedly the best,
the surface being smooth and even.
A considerable heat is obtained by
blackening the walls.

" Propaoation. — Vines are propa-
gated in the open ground by layers
and by cuttings. The former is the
most expeditious mode, provided the
shoots be laid down in pots and
planted out the same summer. The
latter mode is much the best. To
provide cuttings to be planted at the
proper season, select, at the autum-
nal pruning, a sufficient number of
shoots of the preceding summer's
growth. Choose such as are well
ripened, of a medium size, and mod-
erately short jointed. Cut them into
convenient lengths of six or eight
buds each, leaving at the ends not
less than a couple of inches of the
blank wood for the protection of the
terminal buds. Stick these tempo-
rary cuttings about nine inches in
the ground, in a warm and sheltered
situation, where they will be effectu-
ally protected from the severity of
the winter. The best time to plant
them out is about the middle of
March, but any time from the 1st of
that month to the 10th of April will
do very well.

" Prvninir and Iraining are so close-
ly connected together, and so mutual-
ly dependant on each other, that they
almost constitute one oi)eration. The
judicious pruning of a vine is one of
the most important points of culture
throughout the whole routine of its
management. The object is to get
rid of all the useless and superabun-
dant wood ; for those shoots of a
vine which bear fruit one year never
bear any afterward. There are three

methods of pruning vines in practice
among gardeners, namely, the long
jn-unitig, spur pruning, and the fan or
fruit-tree method. The first is con-
sidered to be the most eligible meth
od, and is that which is practised and
recommended by Mr. Hoare. As the
sole object in view in pruning a vine
is to increase its fertility, the best
method to accomplish this is to leave
a sufficient supply of bearing shoots
on the least possible proportionate
quantity of old wood.

" Long pruning appears to recom-
mend itself by its simplicity ; by the
old wood of the vine being annually
got rid of; by the small number of
wounds inflicted in the pruning ; by
the clean and handsome appearance
of the vine ; and by the great ease
with which it is managed, in conse-
quence of its occupying but a small
portion of the surface of the wall.

" 1st. In pruning, always cut up-
ward, and in a sloping direction.

" 2d. Always leave an inch of blank
wood beyond the terminal bud, and
let the cut be on the opposite side of
the bud.

'•3d. Prune so as to leave as few
wounds as possible, and let the sur-
face of every cut be perfectly smooth.

"4th. In cutting out an old branch,
prune it even with the parent limb,
that the wound may quickly heal.

" 5ih. Prune so as to obtain the
quantity of fruit desired on the small-
est number of shoots possible.

'• 6th. Never prune in frosty weath-
er, nor when a frost is expected.

" 7th. Never prune in the months
of March, April, or May. Pruning in
either of these months causes bleed-
ing, and occasions thereby a waste-
ful and an injurious expenditure of
sap.

" 8th. Let the general autumnal
pruning take place as soon after the
1st of October as the gathering of the
fruit will permit.

" Lastly, use a pruning knife of the
best description, and let it be, if pos-
sible, as sharp as a razor.

" Training. — To train a vine on the
surface of a wall is to regulate the
position of its branches, the principal
827

VINE.

objects of which are, to protect them
from the influence of tlie wiiul ; to
bring then) into close contact with
the wall, for the jiurpose of receivinjr
the benetit of its warmth ; to spread
them at proper distances from each
other, that the foliage and fruit may
receive the full ellect of the sun's
rays, and to retard the motion of the
sap, for the purpose of inducing the
formation of fruit huds. The flow of
sap, it must be remembered, is al-
ways strongest in a vertical direc-
tion, and weakest in a downward
one. For this reason, the method
of serpentine training may be con-
sidered preferable to every other, be-
ing calculated in a greater degree to
check the too rapid ascent of the sap,
and to make it tlow more equally into
the fruiting shoots, and those intend-
ed for future bearers. On walls that
are much less than five feet high, a
portion of the shoots must be trained
horizontally."

In respect to the making of wine
much is to be learned ; it seems that,
in order to preserve it, an addition of
sugar, brandy, or spirits is universal-
ly made ; this is not, however, making
wine in the proper sense of the word.
I am informed by the largest wine
maker in North Carolina, that one
fourth part brandy or spirits is added
to each gallon of scuppernong wine,
or that two pounds of sugar are fer-
mented with a gallon of the must.
Mr. Weller, of North Carolina, breaks
his grapes by passing them between
rollers, and then strains the juice
through flannel, to deprive it of a por-
tion of the extraneous matters. Gen-
eral Van Ness, of Washington, pro-
duced a wine resembling hock, by
mixing equal parts of Isabella and
Catawba grapes, and adding 1 lb. 7
ounces of flue unrehned sugar to each
gallon of must ; but no spirits to the
wine. The following particulars of
the culture and management of
grapes are from Mr. llham and M.
Boussingault :

" It may, however, be interesting to

know how the vine is cultivated in the

countries which produce good wine,

of which France is one of the principal.

828

The vine grows best in a soil where
icw other shrubs or plants would
thrive. The vine delights in a deep,
loose, rocky soil, where its roots can
penetrate deep into Assures, so as to
ensure a supply of moisture when the
surface is scorched by the sun's rays.
On the deep slopes of hills towards
the south, and sheltered from the
northeast, the grapes attain the
greatest maturity, and the vintage is
most certain. So great an influence
has a favourable exposure, that in the
same vineyard the greatest difference
exists between the wine made from
one part and that made from another,
merely because there is a turn round
the hill, and the aspect varies a very
few degrees. A change of soil pro-
duces a similar eflfect. The famous
Rhine wine called Johannisberg,
when made from the grapes which
grow near the castle, is worth twice
as much as that made a few hundred
yards farther off Here both soil and
aspect change. The Clos dc Vovgeau,
which produces the finest Burgundy,
is confined to a few acres ; beyond a
certain wall the wine is a common
Burgundy, good, but without extra-
ordinary merit.

"The best vineyards in Europe
formerly belonged to monasteries, and
the quality was then thought of more
importance than the quantity ; of late
the demands of commerce have made
the quantity the principal object, and
to this the quality is frequently sacri-
ficed.

" When a vine is first established
on any spot where none grew before,
the first thing is to prepare the ground
for planting. In steep places, where
the soil might be earned away by
rains in winter or spring, terraces are
formed by building massive stone
walls along the slope, and levellir.g
the soil behind them. The walls
serve to reflect the heat, and form a
shelter to the vine below. Thus a
whole hill is sometimes covered with
terraces from top to bottom, and
there the wine is generally good, if
the exposure is favourable. Lime-
stone, gravel, or coarse sand, with a
small mixture of clay, form a good

VINE.

soil for a vine ; venretable substances
alone should be used to enrich it, such
as the leaves and tendrils of the vine,
the residue of the grape when press-
ed, and, failing these, the leaves of
trees collected when green, and form-
ed into a compost with earth. The
ground should be well trenched, if it
will admit of it, or loosened with the
mattock and pickaxe, as we should
do a mass of gravel which was to be
spread on a road, and which was too '
hard for the shovel or spade. The 1
ditTerent parts of the soil should be '
intimately mixed, keeping some fine
earth or soil at top to set the plants
in. When the ground is prepared,
holes are dug in rows four or five '
feet wule, at the same distance from ,
each other, so as to alternate ; some
of the finest of the soil is put mto
each hole, and the vine plants which '
have been rooted in a nursery, or else [
simple cuttings, are carefully insert- i
ed, pressing the mould round the
roots, and levelling the earth round
them. Rooted plants will bear the
second or third year, but cuttings
take a much longer time. The sea-
son for planting is during the winter,
when the weather is open. If cut-
tings are used, they are taken off the
vine on which they grew at the usual
time of pruning after the vintage ; a
piece of the preceding year's wood is
left on the cutting, and when it is
planted, the end where the old wood
is left is bent or twisted to facilitate
its striking : three or four eyes are
buried, so that the end is at least a
foot underground. If the plant is al-
ready rooted, care is taken not to
wound or bend the roots, but to
spread them out and cover them with
mould. During all the time that the
vine is growing, the ground must be
regularly cultivated and kept perfect-
Iv^clear of all weeds. The usual in-
strument of tillage in stony and rocky
soils is a two-pronged fork fixed in a
short handle, at an angle less than a
right angle with the prongs, which
afe a foot long and very strong, like
a double pickaxe (see Fig.)- This is
struck into the ground and then
drawn towards the workman, while
4 A

the handle is lifted, w^hich acts as a
lever in raising the soil. The roots
are by this means enabled to spread
through the soil in search of moisture
and food. The next year it is usual
to prune the young vine down to one,
or, at most, two eyes or buds ; but
some experienced vine dressers rec-
ommend deferring this operation to
the second year, by w^hich, although
the vine will not be so forward in
fruitinn, it will be much strengthen-
ed, and fully repay the apparent loss
of time in the end.

" In the third year the vine is train-
ed, that is, the shoots are tied to up-
right stakes planted at each root, or
they are laid in an arch and tied from
one root to another along the ground.
In southern climates trees are plant-
ed at a certain distance from each
other, and the vine, planted at their
foot, is allowed to run up their branch-
es, from which it is led in festoons
from tree to tree, while the head
and branches of the tree are cut off
to prevent too much shade. This is
by far the most elegant mode of
training the vine ; but in France the
stakes and the low training are the
only methods suitable to the climate.
The pruning is generally done in the
beginning of winter.

" When vineyards are established
in the plains, where sometimes, as
those of Medoc, they produce very
good wine, the intervals between the
plants can be stirred by the plough,
although forking and digging by hand
' is more common ; hoemg is as ne-
cessary in a vineyard to destroy
. weeds as it is in a field of turnips or
any other crop sown in rows. Wher-
' ever a vineyard is overrun with
weeds, you may be sure that there is
no good wine, and much poverty in
the proprietor. The pruning of a
vine in bearing, the object of which
829

VINE.

is to produce much fruit without
weakening the plant, can only be
learned by experience and practice ;
much of the success of a vineyard
depends on this operation. In the
best vineyards no manure is used ex-
cept that which we mentioned before,
of leaves and tendrils ; but some soils
require to be recruited, and without
manure would produce little or no
wine. In this case there is no alter-
native, and composts must be formed,
as is done in common cultivation,
with animal and vegetable substan-
ces mixed and decomposed. Horse
dung should be avoided, if possible ;
cow dung is cooler and more nearly
of a vegetable nature ; this should be
mixed with as much virgin earth from
pastures and meadows as can be pro-
cured, and laid in small heaps in the
intervals between the row^s. It may
be left a little while if it has any rank
smell, and then forked in round tlie
roots ; the more it is decomposed the
better. Many a vineyard has lost its
reputation after having been abun-
dantly manured. The Johannisberg
was much reduced in value after hav-
ing been dunged, while in the pos-
session of General Kellennan. and it
has not yet regained all its former
reputation.

" After a certain time, which dif-
fers in different situations, the vine
becomes less productive from the ex-
haustion of the soil, as is the case
when the same crops are repeatedly
sown in the same ground: this de-
pends on the depth of the soil. All
perennial plants shoot out their roots
farther and farther every year in
search of fresh earth, and it is by
this means that trees flourish for a
long time on the same spot ; but if
the roots are prevented from spread-
ing, or, the plants being too crowded,
tbeir roots interfere, a diminution of
vigour is the consequence. So it is
with the vine. In some situations,
w'liere the roots strike in crevices of
rocks in which rich earth is accumu-
lated, the vines will continue in vigour
for many years ; but where their prog-
ress is arrested by a solid rock or
substratum, they will, in time, show
830

signs of exhaustion. In this case the
remedy is the same as for land bear-
ing corn. A fallow, or rest, as it is
usually called, is necessary, together
with the addition of such manures as
shall restore the lost fertility. For
this purpose, a portion of the oldest
roots are dug up every year, and the
ground trenched or loosened two feet
deep or more with the mattock, to
expose it to the influence of the at-
mosphere. A compost is prepared
with sods taken from pastures, or any
virgin earth which can be procured ;
this is mixed with some lime and
turned over several times, to rot all
the roots and grass which may be in
it, and to make it a uniform and rich
mould. Holes are now made, exact-
ly as when a new vine is planted, and
in each of them a basket or barrow-
ful of earth is thrown; in this the
new plants or cuttings are planted to
produce new vines in due time : thus
the vineyard is gradually renovated.
The proportion thus fallowed every
year depends on the natural duration
of the vine in that particular situa-
tion. In inferior soils one seventh is
thus renewed every year ; in some a
twentieth part is sufficient ; and there
are vineyards which have never been
renewed in the memory of the pres-
ent generation, but these are few in
proportion to the rest."

" Grape juice contains, 1st, grape
sugar; 2d. albumen and gluten; 3d,
pectine ; 4th, a gummy matter ; 5th,
a colouring matter ; Gth, tannin ;
7th, bitartrate of potash ; Stli, a fra-
grant volatile oil, cream of tartar ;
9th, water. It is obvious, thereibre,
that grape juice contains within it-
self the elements necessary for the
production of the vinous fermenta-
tion. The relative proportions of
these dilferent elements, however,
are singularly modified, according to
the nature of the vine, the quality of
the soil, and especially the heat of
the climate. The limits to the cul-
ture of the vine in Europe are gen-
erally fixed where the mean tempera-
ture is from 50° to 52- Fahr. Under
a colder climate no drinkable wine is
produced. To this meteorological

VINE.

datum must be added the farther fact
that the mean heat of the cycle of
vegetation of tlie vine must be at
least 59^ P'ahr., and that of the sum-
mer from 65 ' to G7 ' Fahr.

"As the quality of wine depends
mainly on the ripeness of the grapes,
the vintage does not take place until
this is complete, or until there is
no longer any prospect of improve-
ment.

" The must of the grape is procu-
« red by treading and pressing the
fruit ; the juice is run into vats, and
the fermentation takes place in cel-
lars : different procedures, however,
are followed in different places. The
fermentation havuig subsided in the
larger vessels, the wine is drawn off
into smaller casks, which are care-
fully filled up from time to time, and
in which it is preserved.

" Wine may be defective, especial-
ly by wanting strength and being too
acid. Sharp wine contains an ex-
cess of cream of tartar and free ve-
getable acids, and is always the prod-
uce of grapes which have not been
completely ripe. The deficiency of
strength is due to the same cause,
for it is well known that as the grape
ripens, its acids disappear and are re-
placed by sugar. Tliis deficiency of
saccharine matter in the must is now
habitually supplied by the addition of
a quantity of artificial grape sugar,
prepared from starch. In warm coun-
tries, where the grape always ripens,
the quantity of tartar is small ; the
sugar then predominates greatly —
sometimes to such an extent that the
azotized substance of the must is in-
sufficient as a ferment, and it is then
that we have wines of too sweet a
flavour, such as those of Lunei and
of Frontignac. When these musts,
which are so rich in sugar, contain
the proper quantity of ferment, they
produce very strong wines, in which,
of course, the sweet flavour no long-
er predominates. Such are tiie dry
wines of southern vineyards, of which
that of Madeira may be taken as the
type. There are some wines which
participate at once in the properties
that distinguish the two varieties

that I have mentioned, or that show
one of them in excess, according to
circumstances ; such are the wines
of Xeres, Alicant, and Malaga. Some
of these wines are what are called
boiled wines, that is to say, a por-
tion of the must, as it flows from the
press, is concentrated to a fourth or
a fifth of its original bulk by boiling ;
and this being added to the rest, the
strength of the resulting wine is in-
creased. Sometimes the concentra-
tion of the juice is effected by drying
the grapes partially. It is in this
way that the celebrated Hungarian
wine, called Tokay, is prepared ; the
clusters arc left upon the vines after
they are ripe, and alternately exposed
to the cold of the night, which prob-
ably decomposes, to a certain extent,
the texture of the grapes, and to the
heat of the sun. They shrivel and
become partially dry. In this state
the grapes are subjected to pressure,
and a very sweet must, as may be
conceived, flows from them. In less
favourable climates, where the rains
of autumn prevent the drying of the
clusters upon the vine stocks, the
same thing is effected by laying the
bunches upon straw in open or well-
aired granaries or sheds. It is with
the must procured from grapes so
treated, that the sweet and often
strong wines, which are called vtns
dc paille, are obtained. Wines, when
stored in the cask, always deposite
with time a copious sediment, the
lees. This sediment, in which tar-
tar predominates, appears to be the
consequence of an increase in the
proportion of alcohol in the liquor.
The alcohol may increase from two
causes : first, by the fermentation
which, though nearly insensible, goes
on in most wines so long as there is
any sugar left unchanged ; and next,
from mere keeping. It is well known,
in fact, that wine put into the liest
casks, and kept in a well-ventilated
cellar, loses a very perceptihle quan-
tity by evaporation. It is found ne-
cessary to fill up the casks from time
to time. The loss has taken place
through the pores of the wood, in
virtue of an attraction exerted be-
831

VINE.

twecn the substance of the wood and
llie iiichnlcd liqiiid ; ami as this at-
traction IS niiicli greater l)et\veeii tlie
organic matter and water than be-
tween organic fibre and alcolioi, it is
easy to conceive how wine kept in
wood should improve. The very same
thing, in tact, a|)pears to go on in re-
gard to wine in corked bottles : the
cork does not opjjose all evaporation,
and it seems probable that it is not
merely upon some new and little
known change of a chemical nature
in the constitution of tiie wine that
its improvement and mellowing in
bottle depend, but also ujjKn tiie loss
*)f a certain quantity of its water
through the pores of the cork.

" Throwing quality, flavour, &c.,

out of the question, it is well known
that a vineyard, cultivated in the
same way, year alter year, receiving
the same quantity of the same kind
of manure, of which the vintage is
managed m the same manner, the
wine made by the same method, &c.,
yields a produce which difiers greatly
in regard to the quantity of alcohol it
contains in diflerent years. The vine-
yard of Schmalzberg, for example,
near Lainpertsloch, which has been
under my management for several
years, yields wines of the most dis-
similar characters from one year to
another. Some idea of this may be
formed from the different quantities
of alcohol which the wine of diiferent
years contains :

Mean temperature.

Pure al-

Of tbe whole tirm of

Wine

Pure alco-

cohol

Years.

tlie growtU ot the

Of the beginning of

per acre

hol

per .icre

vines.

autumn.

in gallons.

per cent.

in galloha.

deg. Jeg.

>i^K. .le^.

deg. deg.

1833

)4-7C. 5&4F.

17-3C. 63-lF.

11-4C. 51-5F.

311

5-0

11-4

1834

17-3 631

20-3 68-i

170 63

314

11-2

40-3

1835

]5-8 60-2

19-5 07

12-3 54

621

8-1

50-0

1836

15-8 60-2

21-5 71

12-2 54

544

7-1

38-6

1837

15-2 59 5

18-7 0(3

11-9 54

184

7-7

]40

" If we now inquire how the me-
teorological circumstances of each of
these five years influenced the pro-
duction of our wine, we see at once
that the mean temperature of the days
which make up the period of the cul-
tivation of the wine has a perceptible
influence. The temperature of the
summer was G3 1^ of tlie year which
yielded the strongest wine, and only
68-4° in 1833, the wine of which was
scarcely drinkable.

"The produce of a vineyard also
depends upon its age ; and it would
be curious to examine the progress-
ive increase of the quantity of wine
yielded. This information! am able
to give in connexion with a vineyard
established in Flanders. I only re-
gret that I have no means of present-
ing parallel observations from a coun-
try more favourable to the vine. The
vineyard of Schmalzberg was plant-
ed in 1822, with new cuttings from
France, and from the borders of the
Rhine. The vines are trained as es-
paliers, and are now rather more
832

than four feet in height. The vine-
yard began to yield wine in 1825, and
the following table shows the re-
sults in the successive years up to
1837:

v»,^ Wine per acre in

''^^"- gallons.

1825 68-75

1826 192-0

1827 0-0

1828 115-0

18'29 55-9

1830 0-0

1831 1530

1632 2(J9-9

1833 31]-6

1834 413-4

1835 6200

1836 544 5

1837 184-4

" The mean quantity of wine fur-
nished by this vineyard from the date
of its plantation is 224^ gallons per
acre. M. Villeneuve reckons the
mean produce of many vineyards in
the southwest of France at from
about 146 to 192 gallons per acre :
considerably less, consequently, than
our vineyard at Schmalzberg ; and
official documents, while they give

VIN

the mean produce of the vine for the
whole of France as 170 9 gallons per
acre, state the whole of the wine pro-
duced over the country at 976,906,414
gallons." — (Boussiitgault.)

VINEGAR. "This term is ap-
plied to various moditications of the
acetic acid. The simplest mode of
obtaining vinegar is to excite a sec-
ond or acetous fermentation in wine,
beer, or cider. In this case oxygen is
absorbed, a variable proportion of car-
bonic acid is generally evolved, and the
alcohol of the wine passes into acetic
acid. \'ery good vinegar is also made
from a wort or infusion of malt pre-
pared for the purpose, or from a de-
coction of common raisins, or from a
mixture of about one part of whis-
key with eight of water, and some
sugar and yeast. See Cider.

" When vinegar is distilled, various
impurities which it contains remain
in the still, and the liquid which pass-
es over is the acetic acid, nearly
pure, but largely diluted with water.
In this state it is usually called dis-
tiUcd vinegar, and is chiefly used in
pharmacy ; but the market is chiefly
supplied from another source, which
is the destructive distillation of wood.
It has long been known that when
certain kinds of dry wood, especially
beech and such woods as are not
resinous, instead of being burned in
the open air, are converted into char-
coal in close vessels, so as, in fact,
to be submitted to distillation, that
the vapours which pass off yield,
when condensed, a large quantity of
tar and of very acid w^ater : the lat-
ter is, in fact, an impure vinegar. I
\Vhen this nnpure acetic acid is freed 1
from the tar and empyreumatic oils j
with which it is mixed, it is called i
crude pt/roltgneous acid. To convert ;
it into pure acetic acid, that is, to
separate from it the empyreumatic ,
products with which it is intimately
combined, is a somewhat circuitous
process. It is first distilled, by which j
j/l/roxiiic acid and oil of tar first pass •
over, and these are foHowed by a!
quantity of impure or rough acetic ;
acid. This rough acid is used bydy- j
ers and calico printers, and by ma- 1
4 A2

VIT

kers of sugar of lead. The pure ace-
tic acid, in its most concentrated state,
is extremely acrid, sour, and pun-
gent, and is often called radical vine-
\gar, or, when perfumed, arowa/ic i-in-
; egar ; it is also occasionally termed
glacial acetic acid, from its property
of congealing at a low temperature,
and remaining frozen at temperatures
below 50^. In this state it is a com-i
pound of] atom of real acetic acid =:
51, and 1 of water = 9, the real or
anhydrous acid, as it exists in the
dry acetates, being composed of

Carbon 4

llvtirogen 3

O.tygen 3

" When this strong acetic acid is
diluted with water and slightly col-
oured, it forms a very pure and ex-
cellent substitute for common vine-
gar, and is cheaper than acid of the
same strength prepared in any other
way.

" The combinations of acetic acid
with various bases are called acetates;
and of these salts some are impor-
tantly useful in the arts : such, espe-
cially, are the acetates of lead, copper,
iron, and alumina, which are chiefly
employed in dyeing and calico print-
ing ; the acetates of ammonia and of
potash, which, as well as acetate of
lead, are used in medicine ; and the
acetates of lime and of soda, which
have been mentioned as steps in the
preparation of strong acetic acid. The
acetates are recognised by their sol-
ubility in water, and by the fumes of
acetic acid which they evolve when
acted upon by sulphuric acid. The
specific gravity of the strongest liquid
acetic acid is 10629 ; that of good
malt vinegar is 10200 ; and that of
distilled vinegar about 10023. The
strength or value of vinegar, and of
acetic acid, can only be learned by its
saturating power."

VINE Y A II D. A plantation of
grapes. The vines are set in rows,
four to six yards apart, and usually
sustained against trellises or stakes.

VIOLET. The genus Vwla, of
which V. odorata is the perfumed vio-
let, and V. tricolor the heart's ease.

VITELLUS. An occasional cov-
833

WAG

WAI

cring of the embrj'o in seeds. The
white of the egg.

VITREOUS HUMOUR. The fluid
or luiinour wliich fills the posterior
chamber of the eye.

VITRIOL. An old name for the
sulphates.

VITRIOL, OIL OF. Sulphuric
acid.

VIVES. A disease in horses, con-
sisting of an enlargement of the glands
at the curve of the jaw, and nearly
resembling strangles. It is treated
by slight bleeding and purging ; and if
it does no t give way, becomes changed
into strangles.

VIVIPAROUS. Producing living
young, and not eggs.

VOLATILE ALKALI. Ammonia.
See Nitrogen.

VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. Gal-
vanism.

VOLUTE. In architecture, a scroll.

VOLVA. The wrapper or veil of
certain fungi, as the agaricus.

V 0 U S S 0 I R S. " In bridges,
the stones which immediately form
the arch, being of the shape of a
truncated wedge. Their under sides
form the intrados, or soffit. The
length of the middle voussoir, or key-
stone, ought to be about one fifteenth
or one sixteenth of the span, and the
rest should increase all the way down
to the imposts. Their joints should
be cut perpendicular to the curve of
the intrados ; consequently, the an-
gle of the sides is determined by the
curvature." — {Huttons Tracts, vol. i.)

W.

WACKE. A hard rock of the ba-
saltic kind.

WAGON. " A wheel-carriage, of
which there are several varieties, ac-
commodated to the different uses
which they are intended to serve.

" In the business of husbandry,

; wagons constructed in different
I forms, and of various dimensions,
are made use of in different districts,
i and mostly withoiit much attention
I to the nature of the roads, or the ar-
ticles which are to be conveyed by
them, being in general heavy and in-
convenient.

" Wagons require more power in
the draught than carts, which is cer-
tainly an objection, though they carry
a much greater load, and are far from
being so handy and convenient ; and
Mr. Parkinson is of opmion that more
work may be done in any particular
time, with the same number of hor-
ses, by carts than by wagons, on level
land, in the general run of husbandry
business, especially where the dis-
tance is small between loading and
unloading ; a fact which has long
been known and attended to m Scot-
land.

" Where wagons are used for hus-
bandry, they should be made wide
and low. Alanures may be carried
in this sort of wagon almost as well
as in carts. Broad wheels are im-
proper for passing and repassing upon
tillage lands ; for, if in fallow, they
press the land too much, and make
it so hard as to prevent its being
ploughed ; but on grass land broad
wheels are projjcr for all uses, as
there they operate as rollers.

" Wagons are probably the best
conveyances for different sorts of
heavy loads to a distance ; but for
home business, especially harvest,
and other work which requires to be
speedily performed in the field, carts
with proper shelving will be found
preferable."'

WAIN. A light harvest wagon. The
following {Fig.), which is called the
Cornwall wain, is an excellent kind.

WAINSCOT. A panelled framing
between rooms or against a wall.

834

WAR

WAR

WALL. For its uses in horticul-
ture, see Hot-icall.

WALL EYE. Opacity of the cor-
nea or glaucoma

WALL-PLATE. A timber lying
on a wall on which girders, joists,
&c. rest.

WALNUT. The European, or
Madeira nut, is the fruit of the im-
proved Juglans rcgia, a very large
tree. It does not bear well until some
15 or 20 years old. It is suggested
to graft them by approach with bear-
ing branches of an older tree. The
wood is very valuable for cabinet pur-
poses, and especially sought for gun
stocks ; it is not, however, of the rich
colour of the American walnut (J.
nigra), or black walnut. The hulls
of the fruit are rich in tannin, and
used in France to dye brown col-
ours.

The black walnut is not found north
of New- Jersey, but exists in immense
quantities in the woods of Virginia,
Ohio, Tennessee, and in rich soils,
where it attains an altitude of 70 feet,
and a circumference of five to seven
feet. The fruit is well known, but
rather inferior to that of the Europe-
an tree ; the wood is, however, bet-
ter, and extensively employed.

WARBLES. Black sores, sitfast.
See Galls.

WARP. The sediment of rivers
or the sea. In weaving, the long
threads which run the lengthway of
the fabric.

WARPING. " A mode of produ-
cing a deposition of the earthy mat-
ter suspended in rivers of which
the current is frequently changed
by the rising and falling of the tide.
This causes a stirring of the water,
which prevents the finer particles
from being deposited. It is only ne-
cessary to produce a stagnation of
the water for a few hours to have a
copious deposite, leaving the water
clear over it.

" On the low flats which border the
mouths of rivers occasional inunda-
tions often cause a deposite which is
hijilily fertilizing. Thus, the polders
ill iloihind and Flanders have been
Icrii.ed of the mud of large rivers,

and, being drained and kept dry by
dikes and sluices, have formed the
most fertile soils.

" ^\'arping is an imitation of this
natural process : a bank of earth is
raised along the course of the river,
so high that the floods cannot pass
over it. In some part of this dike is
a sluice for the double purpose of let-
ting in the water and letting it out at
pleasure. When the tide is setting
in and counteracting the natural cur-
rent of the river, the sluice is opened,
and the water flows in by one or
more channels made for the purpose
of conveying it over the lower land,
and covers it to the depth of high
water. The sluice is now shut, and
the imprisoned water, becoming stag-
nant, deposites all the mud which it
held suspended before. The sluice
is opened at low water, and the wa-
ter is allowed to run out slowly ; it
leaves a coating of mud or sediment,
which hardens and dries rapidly. This
operation is repeated until a thick-
ness of several inches of new soil has
thus been warped, when it is allowed
t!) dry, and then ploughed and cultiva-
ted like any other field. It takes some
time before any corn will grow on
the new warp : at first it looks like
barren mud, but it soon dries to a
better texture, and ultimately produ-
ces very extraordinary crops. If its
fertility decrease, and its surface is
still below high-water mark, a slight
warping, like the inundations of the
Nile, immediately restores the fertil-
ity. What is curious is the almost
total absence of organic matter in the
warp soils, or, rather, its intimate
combination with the earths, so that
it is not readily separated from them.
It is neither like clay nor sand, but
something between the two, soft to
the touch, but not hardening into
lumps when dry ; neither very porous
nor very retentive of moisture. The
principal earth is silica in a very fine
state. It generally contains a portion
of calcareous matter, probably from
j comminuted shells. It produces oats,
beans, potatoes, and wheat in abun-
! dance, without any manure. It is
j admirably adapted to the growth of
835

WAS

WAT

flav, especially when the warp is of
a good depth.

" 'i'lie principal expense in warpin<f
is the sluice, and the canal through
which the water is conducted over
the land ; the longer this latter is,
the slower the process, as much warp
is deposited in the canal, which has
sometimes to he dug out. Accurate
levels must be taken, or much ex-
pense may be incurred uselessly, if
the water will not cover the surface
to a sufficient depth.

"It is of little consequence what
the soil was originally, for a new soil
is deposited over it. It should, how-
ever, not be too wet nor marshy : a
porous soil is best, as this becomes
the subsoil. All the inequalities which
existed before are obliterated by the
warping, whicli tills up all cavities,
and leaves a perfectly level surface."

WARREN. A place in which rab-
bits or other game are preserved, or
in which they are naturally found.

W A S H. The fermented liquor
from which the spirit is distilled.

WASHER. In building, a plate of
iron set between a wall and timber,
and the nut of a screw.

WASPS. The genus Vcspa: the
V. crabro is the hornet. They are in-

jurious to agriculture, inasmuch as
they destroy bees and eat fruits, es-
pecially grapes, and those of thin
skins. The greater number die at
the approach of winter, only a few
females surviving in the nests.

WATER. That of rivers and wells
is impure, from containing mineral
matters drawn from the soil. Melted
snow and rain water are purer, but
contain ammonia, gases, and a small
amount of salts. It is only to be ob-
tained pure by frequent distillation,
and then consists of one equivalent
of hydrogen and one of oxygen, or
one part by weight of the former and
eight of the latter. Its influence on
vegetables need not be dwelt upon.

WATER CHESTNUT. The Sdr-
pus tuhcrosus, a rush cultivated in Chi-
na and Italy for its root, which resem-
bles a chestnut. It grows in ponds
and ditches.

WATER-CRESS. See Cress.

WATERING CART. This is no
more than a common barrel, of large
size, set on a cart or on wheels (Fig.),
and furnished with a tin tube, a, bored
with numerous holes, for the distribu-
tion of water. A valve, b, is placed be-
tween the distributing tubes and the
interior of the barrel. The water is

836

WAX

introduced by a hose at c, the tubes
for dislrihulion are supported by the
rod, d, and tlie water tiovvs from the
barrel bv e and e.

WATER MEADOWS. See Irri-
gation.

WATERMELON. See Mc^on,
Water.

WATER OF CRYSTALLIZA-
TION. Water contained in crystals.
WATER PLANTAIN. The genus
Alisma, consisting of useless water
weeds. I

WATERING PLANTS. The ap-
plication of water by the common
watering-pot to garden vegetables is
not a practice altogether safe or use-
ful. Where it is persevered in, and
the soil is well worked, it may pro-
duce good results ; but if not cau-
tiously applied, the soil is rendered
stiff. It is cooled by the water, and,
should it want drainage, stagnant
water is accumulated. It should only
be done after sunset, and with rain
water collected in tanks and exposed
to the air. Newly-planted vegetables
require watering. '

WATER WHEEL. An engine '
for raising water in large quantities.
Also, a wheel turned by the force of
running water. Of these there are
two kinds : the undershot icheel, and .
the overshot wheel. In the case of
the undershot wheel, the water strikes
the float boards below the axle, and
acts by the impulse due to its veloci-
ty ; in the case of tlie overshot wheel,
the water is brought over the top of
the wheel, received in buckets, and
acts solely by its weight.

WAVELLITE. A mineral of a
radiated or stellated character, con-
sisting of a hydrated phosphate of
alumina.

WAX. A hydrocarbon, composed
of 0:3 H:o Oi. insoluble in water, and
but slightly affected by most acids.
It is obtained from plants and from
bees' wax. It is prepared by drain-
ing and then washing the honeycomb,
and finally melting m hot water. The
yellow product is bleached by being
run into strips, and exposed to the
air until whitened sufticientlv.
WAX MOTH. See Bee Moth.

WEA

WAYFARING-TREE. The guel-
der rose. Virhurnum opulus.

W E A L D E N FOK.MATION. A
portion of the upper secondary, con-
sisting of heavy clays and green sand.
It is remarkable for the great number
of large saurians it contains.

WEANING. " The means cm-
ployed to reconcile a young animal to
the loss of its mother's milk and ha-
bituate it to take common food. The
process of weaning calves is vari-
ously managed by different farmers.
When not let run with the cow, the
most advisable mode, as it regards
the calf, is to place it loose in a crib,
and to suckle it by hand with the
mother's new milk, of which it will
consume for some time not more
than about four quarts per day : the
quantity, however, must then be grad-
ually increased, as it will, in the
course of a few weeks, require as
much as three gallons. If the weath-
er be fine, it should be, within a fort-
night or three weeks, turned out dai-
ly in the orchard, or some well-shel-
tered enclosure of sweet herbage ;
' and, as it will in the course often or
twelve weeks have acquired some
relish for the pasture, it may be reg-
ularly weaned by gradually diminish-
ing the quantity of milk, and then
substituting the skimmed for the new.
Calves may, however, be reared with
i skimmed milk and meal, without any
portion of new rnilk except the first
few days' biestings, and many per-
' sons give them nothing but water-
I gruel and hay tea within a fortnight
j after they have been remo%^ed from
I the cow. Sago and linseed jelly are
also very nutritious, and calves may
' be weaned on them without any oth-
er food.

1 " The time of weaning lambs dif-
fers materially, according to the lo-
cality of the farms and the quality of
the pasture. Four months old is
about the period usually selected.

" The lambs should be turned into
somewhat better pasture than that to
which they had been accustomed, in
order to compensate for the loss of
the mother's milk. Many farmers
are very fanciful as to the provision
837

WEA

WEA

for the weaned lambs. The clover,
or the sainfoin, or the aftcr-nialli are
selected by some; otiiers put their
smaller and more weakly lambs to
weed the turnip crops ; but there can
be notiiing more desirable than a fresh
pasture, not too luxuriant, and yet
sufficient to maintain and increase
their condition." — (Yuualt on Sheep.)

WEAR. A fence or dam made of
twigs and set in a stream.

WEATHER. " The state or condi-
tion of the atmosphere with respect
to heat, cold, dryness, moisture, wind,
rain, snow, fogs, &c. The apprecia-
tion of the various causes wliich de-
termine the state of the atmosphere,
and produce those changes which are
incessantly taking place in its condi-
tion, and which are popularly called
the weather, forms the subjects of
Meteorology and Climate. (See those
terms ; also, Atmo.sphere, Barometer,
Cloud, Dew, Hail, Rain.)

" In all ages of the world, mankind
have attempted to explain and prog-
nosticate the changes of the weather ;
but such is the complication of the
subject, and the vast multitude of
circumstances to be taken account
of, that no theory can furnish rules
for determining the order in which
they succeed each other, or for pre-
dicting the state of the weather at a
future time, with any approach to cer-
tainty. Nevertheless, all the differ-
ent modifications of the atmosphere
are the necessary results of princi-
ples not only fixed and unalterable
in their nature, but (many of them at
least) well known in their separate
and individual operation. The diffi-
culty of tracing the results of their
combined influences arises chiefly
from their complexity and endless
concatenation.

" The principal cause of all the va-
riations which take place in the state
of the atmosphere is the heating ac-
tion of the sun's rays ; but in order
to appreciate correctly its effect, it is
necessary to know not only the ex-
tent of the atmosphere, but the prop-
erties of all the substances of which
it is composed. Modern science has
discovered that the atmosphere is
833

composed of three different gaseous
fluids, everywhere combined in the
same proportions, and penetrated by
an ever-varying quantity of elastic
vapour. These two distinct enve-
lopes of air and vapour mechanically
mixed have difl^erent relations to heat ;
and therefore, in consequence of the
unequal temperature of the surface
of the earth, with which they are in
contact, they cannot both be in a
state of equilibrium at the same time.
In consequence of the diurnal rota-
tion, the different parts of the atmo-
sphere are constantly receiving differ-
ent quantities of heat, as the solar
rays penetrate more or less obliquely.
This inequality of temperature pro-
duces winds, which, if the surface ol
the earth were perfectly regular and
homogeneous, would always blow ia
the same direction ; but the surface
of the earth being composed of ma-
terials of various kinds, and irregu-
larly disposed, the distribution of heat
over it is extremely irregular. The
winds, sweeping along the surface,
acquire its temperature ; and hence
the atmosphere also becomes irregu-
larly heated. This produces an ac-
cumulation of air at one place, and a
deficiency at another ; and hence a
subsequent rush to restore the equi-
librium. As the air is cooled it be-
comes also incapable of holding the
same quantity of aqueous vapour, a
portion of which is therefore set free,
and gives rise to clouds, mist, rain,
dew, snow, &;c. Besides all this,
there is to be taken into account the
development of electricity ; the influ-
ences of light and galvanism ; the agi-
tation of the atmosphere produced
by the rise and fall of the tides ; and
probably a variety of other circum-
stances with which we are entirely
unacquainted. This very imperfect
enumeration may serve to give an
idea of the difficulties to be overcome
in forming a theory of the weather.

" It has always been a favourite
prejudice that the weather is influ-
enced in some mysterious manner by
the moon. The moon can be sup-
posed to act on the earth only in one
of three ways ; namely, by the light

WEE

WEE

which it reflects ; by its attraction ; or
by an emanation of some unknown
kind. Now, the light of the moon
does not amount to the 100,000lh part
of that of the sun ; and the heat wliich
it excites is so small as to l)e alto-
gether inappreciable by the most del-
icate instruments, or the best devised
experiments. No effect can be at-
tributed, therefore, to the moon's
light. With a regard to the attrac-
tion of the moon, we see its influence
on the tides of the ocean, and might
therefore be disposed to allow it a
similar influence on the atmosphere ;
but when we take into accoimt the
small specific gravity of atmospheric
air in comparison with water, and the
consequent smallness of the mass of
matter to be acted upon, it will read-
ily be perceived that this influence
also must be extremely feeble. In
fact, it has been demonstrated by La-
place that the joint action of the so-
lar and lunar attraction is incapable
of producing more than an atmospher-
ic tide flowing westward at the rate
of about four miles a day, and con-
sequently scarcely, if at all, appreci-
able. As to the remaining supposi-
tion, that the moon may act on the
atmosphere by some obscure emana-
tion, it is sufficient to remark that no
meteorological observations that have
yet been made afibrd the slightest
traces of any such connexion be-
tween the earth and its satellite. The
registers which are now kept in va-
rious observatories and other places
also prove, contrary to the popular
belief, that the changes of weather
are in no way whatever dependant
on the lunar phases."

WEATHER-BOARDING. Board-
ing nailed either upright or horizon-
tally, and lapping on the outside of
the framing.

WEATHER GLASS. See Barom-
eter.

WEDGE. One of the simple me-
chanical powers, the efficiency of
which is proportional to the length
of the side. Knives are wedges.

WEED S. " Every plant which
grows in a field other than that of
which the seed has been sown by the

husbandman is a weed, and, inas-
much as it interferes with the in-
tended crop, should be carefully erad-
icated. It is a proof of good culti-
vation when few weeds appear among
the growing crops, and many of the
operations of tillage are intended
chiefly for their destruction. One of
the principal uses of summer fallows
is to destroy the weeds which come
up in spring, and which would shed
their seeds in summer if they were
not destroyed before the seeds ripen.
When roots are sown in drills and
carefully hoed, they produce the
same cleansing efTect, and supersede
the fallow ; but in heavy loams which
have been neglected and overrun
with weeds, a clean fallow is some-
times indispensable, before any im-
proved method can be adopted. When
a farmer enters on lands which are
in a foul state, it is the cheapest
way, in the end, to sacrifice a crop,
and thoroughly purge his fields from
weeds, especially those which have
vivacious roots, and cannot be e.xtir-
pated by simple ploughing. The
mode of doing this must depend on
the nature and duration of the weeds,
whether their roots are perennial, or
die off after the plant has borne seed.
Annual weeds are most readily ex-
tirpated by repeated harrowings, by
which the seeds are brought within
the influence of the atmosphere, and
when they have fairly vegetated may
be buried or rooted out, and by ex-
posing their roots to the influence of
a hot sun they are effectually destroy-
ed. The seeds of annual weeds are
chiefly brought on the land in the
manure which is made in the yards,
where the cattle fed on hay or straw
swallow the seeds, which pass
through them undigested. By exci-
ting a great degree of fermentation
in the mixture of dung and litter
some of the seeds may be destroyed,
but many of them will keep their
vegetative powers even after having
been exposed to a considerable heat ;
and as it is not advisable to let the
manure undergo a great degree of
decomposition before it is carried on
the land, many seeds always escape
839

WEEDS.

destruction, and vegetate as soon as
they are placed in a favourable situ-
ation. Those wiiich are buried deep
lie dormant for a long time, and ve-
getate as soon as the plough brings
them up again.

"The experienced farmer knows
well what peculiar species of weeds
infest his fields, according to the soil
and situation ; and by studying their
habits, time of flowering, and of ri-
pening their seed, he learns the best
mode of destroying tliem.

" One of the greatest advantages
of composts made with human excre-
ments mixed with earths and mmeral
substances is, that they introduce no
weeds into the soil. It is reported
that in China, where the dung of cat-
tle is little used, in comparison with
human excrements, no weeds are to
he found in the fields ; and if more
attention were paid to the preserva-
tion of this highly enriching manure,
and its proper application to the soil,
much expense would be saved which
is now unavoidably incurred in de-
stroying weeds.

" Feeding slieep on roots and corn,
while they are folded on the land, is
another mode of manuring a field,
without introducing weeds, especially
if no hay is given them, except clo-
ver hay of the second crop, which is
generally most free from the seeds
of weeds. It would be impossible to
enumerate all the various weeds
which may infest our fields. This
would be giving a flora of all the
British plants ; but we will select
some of the most common and troub-
lesome to the farmer, with such an
account of each as may suggest the
most ready means of destruction.

" Of the annual weeds, we may
mention the following, noticed by
Professor Low, in his Elements of
Practical Agriculture :

" Sinapis arvensis, or wild mustard,
usually called charlock, is a weed the
seeds of which, being of an oily na-
ture, will remain dormant in the soil
for an indefinite time, if buried above
six inches. Hence some farmers
fear to deepen their ploughings,
which otherwise would be very ad-
840

vantageous, because they have found
that, in some soils, a ploughing be-
yond six inches deep will cause the
crop to be overrun with charlock, so
as to choke it with its yellow flowers.
It only requires a little resolution,
and an outlay which will be well re-
paid in the end, to destroy this enemy
Hoed crops will destroy the plants as
they come up. Winter tares, which
may be cut before the charlock per-
fects its seeds, will help to destroy
it, and if they arc succeeded by tur-
nips, there will be little charlock left
in autumn. Wherever it appears
and raises its yellow flower it must
be pulled out, whatever be the cost,
and care must be taken to carry the
plants out of the field to burn or rot
them ; for the seeds will vegetate
when they are but half ripe in the
pods. We have dwelt at length on
this weed, because it is one which
infests many of our best soils, and
which must be eradicated before the
land can be properly cultivated.

" Somewhat allied to the last is
the wild radish {Raphanus raphanis-
tium), which is often also called char-
lock : the mode of destruction is the
same.

" Papaver rhccas, or corn poppy,
infests some soils in particular sea-
sons. If the seed is allowed to ripen
and shed, it will increase rapidly ;
good tillage, however, soon destroys
it ; clover and tares which are cut
while the poppy is in flower general-
ly eradicate it. In some seasons it
will appear in great profusion, and in
others not a plant will be seen.

" Centaurea cyamts, or blue-bottle,
is seldom found in any quantity, ex-
cept where there is a slovenly cul-
ture, or two white crops are taken in
succession, a practice which, it is
hoped, will soon be obsolete.

" Chnjsantkemum scgetum, corn
marigold, infests some soils, and
must be eradicated by careful weed-
ing ; when the crops are drilled, this
is not a difficult task.

" Pyrethrum inodorum, corn fever-
few, often called May-weed, as is
also the wild camomile, often infests
the crops of grain, and with every

WEEDS.

care in weeding, some of the seeds
vill be carried to the barn. We may
here observe, generally, that where
the grain is reaped by the sickle and
a long stubble is lelt, the seeds of
weeds remain on the land, and al-
though some of them are eaten by
birds, yet many are ploughed in after
the stubble has been raked off or
mown ; whereas, if the corn is mown
or cut close to the ground, which is
called fagging or bagging it, all the
weeds are tied up with the corn, and
go into the barn or stack ; and if care
be taken in the winnowing and sift-
ing of the corn to separate the small-
er seeds from the straw and burn
them in a heap, the straw will be
clean and the dung of the cattle will
contain no seeds of weeds. This is
by far the best mode of proceeding ;
and by careful hoeing and weeding,
and burning the small seeds, the land
may be kept tolerably free from seed
weeds.

" The sow thistle (Sonchus olerace-
us) often raises its head above the
oat. The seeds are blown about by
the winds, and if the hedges and head-
lands are not kept clear of them, they
will sow themselves in all directions ;
but it is a conspicuous plant, and ea-
sily pulled out by hand before its
flower expands. To destroy thistles,
in general, it is only necessary to cut
them down just as the flower is ex-
panding ; the roots will then die, and
in a few years, by the united atten-
tion of tlie farmers in a district, this-
tles may easily be eradicated. In
some places the infirm paupers are
employed in pulling up all the thistles
in the hedges which border the roads,
and wherever they make their appear-
ance in the highways and lanes of a
parish. This practice cannot be too
generally recommended, for the hedg-
es and ditches, and the sides of roads
and lanes, are often perfect nurseries
of weeds.

" Arctium lappa (burdock) is a very
common weed in fields ; but with a
little care it is easily e.\tirpated.

'• Asrostcmma gilhago, or corn
cockle, is a very injurious weed, be-
cause its seeds ripen about the tiii^e
4B

I of harvest, and, from its size, cannot
be easily separated from the wheat by
' sifting ; it contains a farina, which
is oily, and, when ground with the
corn, greatly deteriorates the flour.
: The only mode of extirpation is by
hand-weeding.
j " Stellana media, or common chick-
! weed, is a small plant which grows
profusely on light soils which have
been abundantly manured. If it be
i allowed to overspread the ground, it
will choak the young crops, especial-
I ly turnips, carrots, and all slow-grow-
j ing seeds. Drilling the crops and
j early hoeing them is the best means
of destroying this weed ; as soon as
the crop gets above the chickweed,
it is soon destroyed, if the latter cov-
ers the ground well. It often does
harm to young clover, but the latter
soon overpowers it. Tares smother
it readily. The same observations
are applicable to the Spe.rgula arven-
sis, or corn spurrey, a larger variety
of which, however, is cultivated as
excellent food for milch cows.

" Galium aparine, or goose grass,
also called cleavers, is a weed which
is dispersed by the seeds attaching
themselves to the wool of sheep by
means of hooks with which they are
provided. They increase rapidly ia
some soils, if they are not carefully
pulled up and the hedges cleared of
them.

" Urlica urens, stinging nettles,
generally grow where the ground
has been strongly manured, especial-
ly where heaps of dung have lam.
They are seldom very troublesome,
and are easily eradicated by repeated
ploughing ; they infest gardens more
than fields.

" Polygonum convolvulus, climbing
buckwheat, is a very troublesome
weed, which winds round the stems
of the corn, and often overtops them.
The seeds are said to be nutritious,
and not to injure the oats when mix-
ed with them ; but in wheat it is very
destructive, and diminishes the prod-
uct while it injures the quality of the
corn.

"All the common grasses are
weeds in cornfields, and in the al-
841

WEEDS.

tcrnate husbandry are introduced in
the regular cultivation. Wiien tlie
grass is plougiied up, if the sods are
not covered sulficienlly so as to rot,
tufts of grass remain, which greatly
increase, to the injury of the next
crop. However carefully the land
may be ploughed, if it be sown im-
mediately, the roots of grass will be
raised to the surface by the harrows.
Tlie only remedy is to have them
carefully forked out, and carried to
some corner or waste spot, there to
form the foundation of a dung heap
or compost. When the land is plough-
ed up before winter, and the seed
sown in spring, the grass will be
rotten and have lost its vegetative
power.

"The bearded wild oat {Arena fa-
tua) is a very troublesome plant, and
sometimes almost exceeds the true
oat in quantity ; but this can only be
the case with very slovenly farmers.
It ripens sooner than the corn, and
sheds its seeds before harvest. Crops
cut green for fodder, such as rye,
winter barley, and tares, repeated if
necessary, soon destroy this weed,
which has no perennial root.

" Tiiese are some of the most
common annual and biennial weeds.
They may all be easily destroyed by
weeding at the time when they have
pushed up their seed stems and the
flower is about to expand ; if they
are cut up at that time they seldom
recover. Hoeing them when very
young, unless the weather be dry
enough to scorch the roots exposed,
often increases them instead of kill-
ing them. But the last-mentioned
weeds are easily got rid of in com-
parison with those which have peren-
nial roots, and some of which in-
crease the faster the more the roots
are divided. It may be proper to ob-
serve, that too little attention is paid
to the weeds in our upland meadows
and pastures. One would imagine
that every plant which increases the
weight of the hay or covers the
groiuid in spring is wholesome for
cattle, whereas many are detrimen-
tal when they are eaten for want of
better food. Of this kind are the ra-
842

I nunculi, commonly called butter- rups,
' which, far from deserving this name,
are never touched by the cows, so
long as they can find other food.
Vv'ithout going the length of ascribing
to the butter-cups the power of caus-
ing epidemic diseases in cattle, and
even in men who eat of the milk and
butter of cows who have eaten them,
there is no doubt that where the
cows are forced by hunger to eat
many of them, they may be very in-
jurious to their health, and to the
production of good milk. As these
plants have strong perennial roots,
they take possession of rich, moist
soils, to the exclusion of good grass-
es. When not very abundant, the
plants may be weeded out by means
of a sharp spud or hoe, and the ex-
pense will be well repaid in the qual-
ity of the hay or pasture. Wliere
they are very abundant, the only
remedy is to break up the grass in
autumn, let it be exposed to the frost
in winter, take a crop of corn next
season, and lay it rough again the
winter after. In the succeeding
spring the land may be inoculated
with good tufts of grass, and before
the next year an improved pasture
will have been formed ; or, if this is
too much trouble, it may be summer
fallowed, and sown in August with
pure seed of the best grasses. This
is expensive, as a whole year's prod-
uce is lost, but the subsequent pas-
ture will be so much better, that the
expense may be considered as a prof-
itable investment. The most com-
mon species of butter-cup are the
Ranunculus acris, 7cpcn.i, and hulbo-
sus : the R. Jlannnnla is highly poi-
sonous, but not common, except in
marshy pastures.

" Senecio Jacolcca, or rag wort, is
another troublesome weed ; but as
sheep eat it readily when young, it
is easily kept down by jiasturing and
folding. In moist weather, also, it
is easily pulled up by hand.

" Tussilago farfara, colt's foot. By
its large leaves it kills the finer grass-
es under it. As moisture is essen-
tial to its luxuriance, draining tends
to diminish its growth ; careful ma-

WEEDS.

nnnng, also, makes the grasses get
the better of it, and choke it when
young.

" C hrysanlhcmum Iciicanlhcmum, or
great white one eye, sometimes
abounds in inferior pastures, and is
only extirpated by tillage and impro-
ving the soil by manuring it well.

" \^'e have already mentioned an-
nual and biennial thistles, but the per-
ennials, such as the Cnicus artensis
and Sonckus arvcnsis, or corn thistle
and sow thistle, arc much more dif-
ficult to eradicate, as the roots strike
deep in the ground and throw up
fresh shoots every year. The most
effectual mode of destroying them is
to draw them out with an instrument
like large pincers, made of wood or
iron, and called 'a thistle-drawer,'
the form of which is well known, and
which may be bad in most ironmon-
gers' shops. The lime to draw the
thistles is when the stem is grown
sufficiently to give a good hold of the
crown of the root. Great care must
be taken not to break the root too
near the ground, but to draw it out
completely. In ploughing, also, a
broad and sharp share, cutting hori-
zontally seven or eight inches below
the surface, will cut off the long roots,
BO as to prevent their making fresh
shoots ; and when this is done while
the thistle is in a growing state, the
root will bleed and be destroyed. In
grass land they are soon destroyed,
if they are carefully cut down with
a scythe just as the llower is expand-
ing, and before the seed is formed.
If this is done for two or three years, ,
not a thistle will be seen ; but then i
all the neighbouring farmers must
agree in a general war upon thistles,
whether on the land or in the liedge-
rows.

" The dock {Rumcx oblusjfoUus and
others) is another most troubleson^e
weed, both in fields and pastures, and
is only to be eradicated by similar
means with the thistle. Docks are
often left in the field after harvest,
where they shed their seed at leisure,
whereas they should be collected
with as great care as the corn itself,
and invariably be burned in heaps ;

this is the only sure means of de-
stroying the seed. They are often
thrown into the roads, supposing tha*
they will bo crushed by the wheels
of carts passing over them ; but it
must be remembered that birds may
swallow them, and void them again
with their vegetative powers unin-
jured, if not improved ; and that thus
they are again sown on the land.
Nothing but burning is a sure de-
struction of the seeds.

" Ccntaurca nigra, black knapweed
or horse-knot, is a coarse plant which
chiefly infests pastures, and takes up
the room of useful grasses, most an-
imals refusing to eat it. It is only
to be eradicated t)y pulling the plants
up iiy the roots or cutting them close
to the ground wherever they appear.
Manuring the surface highly and
mowing the grass soon makes them
disai)pear.

" Pohigonum amphihinm, commonly
called amphibious pcrsicaria, is found
on very wet land, and is best destroy-
ed by draining.

" Besides the common conch grass
{Triticum rcpcns), which is the pest of
farmers on light soils, there are a va-
riety of plants which spread both by
the roots and by creeping along the
surface ; of this kind are the differ-
ent sorts oi quitches, as they are pro-
vincially called, which grow in wet
soils. Of these, the Agrostis stolonif-
era, once so highly praised as fodder
under the name of fwrin, and the
Agrostis alba (March bent grass), are
the most common ; when they take
possession of a spot they exclude all
other grasses. The only mode of
extirpating these last is draining and
careful tillage. But to return to the
common couch. This weed sonie-
times takes such possession of the
soil that nothing else can thrive in it.
It is not a single fallow or cleaning
which will get rid of it, but a regular
system. Ploughing does often more
harm than good, by dividing the root
(which is, in fact, an underground
stem), and thus increasing the num-
ber of plants. The most effectual
means of destruction is by the fork.
If, after the ground has been once

WEE

WEI

plougned, it be forked up carefully in
dry woalhor, and liie lulls of c()ut;li,
with their roots, be exposed to the
hot sun, they may be rakeil ofl" and
burned ; but as tliese roots contain
mucii nutritive saccliarine matter, it
is often wortli while to wash them,
if the adhering earth cannot be beat
out, and to give tlicm to liorscs and
cattle to cat, taking care that the
litter and dung made at that time be
reserved to manure grass land, and
not arable fields. Heaps of couch
may be rotted by pouring urine or
the drainings of dunghills over them ;
and if they are frequently turned, will
produce a rich compost. Any incon-
venience from the extreme vitality
of the roots is obviated by using this
compost, mixed with earth, as a top-
dressing for pastures.

" Another weed with perennial
and very vivacious roots is the Ar-
rhcnatherum arcnaceum, common oat-
like grass. The root is bulbous, and
the bulbs, separated, grow again. It
is difficult to eradicate, but the means
employed to get rid of the couch
grass will succeed with this and most
otlier perennial roots. These troub-
lesome weeds may have been wisely
dispersed through the soil by Provi-
dence, to induce the cultivator to
give his land a more perfect tillage
than he might have done otherwise.
The expense of forking, and what
is usually called couching, is gener-
ally amply repaid by the finer tilth it
gives to the land, and the crops are
more certain and abundant in conse-
quence.

" There are many other weeds,
both in arable and pasture land, which
indicate slovenly culture, and which
disappear on careful cultivation ;
such as briars, furze, broom, and
rushes, the last being a well-known
sign of superabundant moisture, and
only to be destroyed by under-drain-
ing. The whole process of cultiva-
tion is a continual struggle between
the farmer and the weeds natural to
the soil he cultivates. The sooner
he subdues them entirely, the less
will be his subsequent trouble ; and
the perfection of agriculture is to
84'i

produce crops of such vegetables as
are useful and piofitaiile, and are
suited to the soil which is cultivated,
while all others are excluded which
might interfere with the crops to be
raised. That much remains yet to
he done in this respect on farms
which are looked upon as models of
cultivation will be acknowledged on
sinqjle ins[)ection. The almost uni-
versal adoption of tiie system of drill-
ing and hoeing the crops tends great-
ly to the destruction of useless plants
on arable land ; much yet may be
done by way of improving the prod-
uce of meadows and pastures by the
destruction of all noxious and useless
plants, and th(> introduction of those
wliich are nutritious and improve the
herbage, whether depastured or made
into hay ; and nothing is so likely to
do so as a good system of alternate
husbandry, where the best grasses
are cultivated as carefully as the
plants which are immediately appli-
ed to the food of man."

WEEVILS. The true weevils are
coleopterans of the family Rhyncho-
phondc^, distinguished by the head
being prolonged into a snout, and
sometimes into a narrow tube. The
grain weevils will he found figured in
the article on Insects. The weevils
are all destructive to grain and trees,
the Hylohius pales, picivorvus, &,c., be-
ing particularly injurious to pine-
trees. They are, however, the food
of numerous woodpeckers, which
keep down their numbers. Tlie pine
weevils appear in the fall, from Au-
gust to October.

W'EIGH. A common term for a
certain quantity of produce, which is,
however, indeterminate.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
" St/stcm of Lineal Measures. — The
unit of lineal measure is the yard, all
other denominations being either mul-
tiples or aliquot parts of the yard.
The yard is divided into 3 feet, and
the foot subdivided into 12 inches.
The multiples of the yard are the pole
or perch, the furlong, and the mile ;
5^ yards being a pole, 40 poles a fur-
long, and 8 furlongs a mile. But the
pole and furlong arc now scarcely

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

ever used, ilinerary distances being
reckoned in nules and yards.

"The relations of these different

drnnminations are exhibited in tno
following table ;

In.-lies.

Keet.

Yiirds.

Poles.

Furlongs.

Mile-.

I

0Ub3

0.028

0 00505

0-000 121126

0,0000157828

12

1

0333

DOB060

0-00I5I515

0-00(IIh'J39

3li

3

1

01818

0004545

0-(J0(l5nS18

198

10-5

55

1

0025

0003125

7920

fi60

220

40

1

0125

63300

5280

1760

320

8

1

" Of the different measures of | es ; 144 square inches being equal to

length used, the foot is the most uni
versally prevalent. We subjoin the
relation between the foot of different
countries and the English foot.

English foot

Russian foot !•

Paris foot 1 065765

Prussian and Danish foot . 1 029722

Austrian foot 1037128

'' Mcasuresof Superficies. — In square
measure the yard is subdivided, as in
general measure, into feet and inch-

a square foot, and 9 square feel to a
square yard. For land measure, the
multiples of the yard a/e the pole,
the rood, and the acre ; 3();J (the
square of 5^) square yards being a
pole, 40 poles a rood, and 4 roods an
acre (see Acre). Very large surfaces,
as of whole countries, are expressed
in square miles.

" The following are the relations
of square measure :

q.,,,re Fe,-:.

Squaiv V;irJ<.

P.ilc*.

Kood<.

Acres.

1

0-1111

0-00:5!i7309

o-ooo«yi«27

0 000022957

9

1

0-03305798

0(100826448

0000-20i;(512

272-25

30-2O

1

O-O-io

000620

10,«90

1210

40

1

025

435G0

4.340

160

- 4

1

"Land is usually measured by a
chain of 4 poles, or 22 yards, which is
divided into 100 links. Three chains
in length, and one in breadth, make
an acre, w-hicb equals 1G9 square
perches, or 4840 square yards.
Square, or Superficial Measure.
144 square inches = 1 square foot.
9 " feet = 1 " yard.

304 " ^""'s = 1 " ■■"''•

40 " rods =1 " acre.
640 " acres = 1 " mile.

''Measures of Volume. — Solids are
measured by ci.bic yards, feet and
inches ; 1728 cubic inches making a
cubic foot, and 27 cubic feet a cubic
yard. For all sorts of liquids, corn,
^nd other dry goods, the standard
measure is declared by the act of
1824 to be the imperial gallon, the ca-
pacity of which is determined imme-
diately by weight, and remotely by
the standard of length.

" The parts of the gallon are quarts
and pints, 2 pints being a quart, and
4 quarts a gallon. Its multiples are
the peck, the bushel, and the quarter ;
the peck being 2 gallons, the bushel 4
pecks, and the quarter 8 bushels.
4 B 2

Pmt^.

•en:irts.

Gatlotis.

I'ecks.

Itusi.els.

Quarters.

1

Uo

0-1 io

U-0t)-21

OOl.itH.-)

0-001');Vii:,i

2

I

0-25

01 25

01131-25

O0ai>lli(i:.i

8

1-

0-5

0-1-25

001.-)lv2ft

ir.

S

2

1

0-23

0^5125

m

3S

8

4 -

1

0-1-23

I3l-i

25li

«

.T2

8

'

Ciiliic, or Solid Measure.
17-23 cubic inches make . . 1 cul)ic foot.

27 ciibii; feet 1 cubic yard

40 feet of rough timiier ,
50 feel of hewn timber

1 load.

"This comprehends length, breadth,
and thiL-kness.

"And 108 solid feet, that is, 12 feet
in length, 3 feet in l)ieadth, and 3 feet
deep, or, commonly, 14 feet h'ng, 3
(eet 1 inch broad, and 3 feet 1 inch
deep, are a stack of wood.

" .Vnd 128 solid feet, that is, 8 feet
long, 4 feel broad, and 4 feet deep,
are a cord of wood.

Grain Pleasures.

No. of efjual

Name of

Countries.

BusheU

to English

Quarters.

Kngland .

1-000

b-000

SrotlanJ .

l-O-.'-l

France

H-427

1-S07

Seller.

Holl'iil'l .

3-117

2 5.14

Mu.l.le.

14;<>

5-409

Spain . .
Poland . .

1-.599

5003

FanngA.

1-451

5-313

Ktfraee.

845

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

English Corn Measures.

4 gills =^ 1 pint = 34! cubic in.

2 pints = I quart = 69i '^'

4 quarts = 1 gallon = 277^ "
2 irallons = 1 peck = 5444

8 .rullMiis = 1 bushel = 2218i

8 bushels = I quurtcr = JOi cubic ft.

5 quarters = 1 load = 51^

" Tlie Wincliestcr quarter is more
than the imperial quarter, being in
the proportion of 1 to 0 96945. The
English imperial quarter, in estima-
ting weight, means the ith of a ton of
2340 lbs. =560 lbs., or 1 quarter.

" Measures of Wood and other Fuel.
— Cord-wood, being the bigger sort
of fire-wood, is measured by a cord
or line, whereof there are two meas-
ures : that of 14 feet in length, 3 feet
in breadth, and 3 feet in height ; the
other is 8 feet in length, 4 feet in
breadth, and 4 feet in height, which
is generally employed.
Table of Weights and Mea.sures ac-
cording to the Imperial Standard.

Avoirdupois weigbt. French grammes.

1 drachm =: 1771

16 drachms 1 ounce =: 2S'346

16 ounces 1 pound = 453-544

28 pounds 1 qr. cwt. = l-2-69a kilogram.

4 quarters 1 cwt. = 50~96

20 cwt. 1 ton = 1015-920

" The Stone is generally 14 lbs.
avoirdupois weight, but for butcher's
meat or fish it is 8 lbs. Hence the
cwt. equals 8 stone of 14 lbs., or 14
stone of 8 lbs.

''Wool Weight. — Like all other
bulky articles, wool is weighed by
avoirdupois weight, but the divisions
differ thus :

7 pounds =: 1 clove.

2 cloves == 1 stone.

2 stone ^ 1 t"d.

ei tods = 1 wey.

2" weys = 1 sack.

12 sacks =; 1 last.

" Cheese and butter,

8 pounds = 1 clove.

32 cloves = 1 wey in Essex.

42 cloves = 1 w-ey in Suffolk.

56 pounds = 1 firkin of butter.

A cubic foot of lallovr
" " oak

" brick
" " air

weiihs

59 lbs.
73 15
125
-0753

" The quintal is 100 lbs. ; the torn
2240 lbs.

" The weight of a cubic inch of dis-
tilled water, in air, is 252-458 grains.

"The Turkish pound is 7578grains ;
the Danish, 6941 ; the Irish, 7774 ;
the Neapolitan, 4952 ; the Scotch
pound troy, 7620-8.

"The imperial gallon contains 10
lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water,
weighed in air at 62 = , with the ba-
rometer at 30 inches. 2 gallons are
equal to a peck, 8 gallons to a bush-
el, and 8 bushels to a quarter.

" Heaped measure, per bushel, is
28154; cubic inches clear.

"The Winchester bushel is 18^
inches in diameter, and 8 inches deep,
containing 21.54 42 cubic inches.

" 1000 ounces of rain water are
equal to about 7^ gallons wine meas-
ure, or to a cubic foot.

" 7 pounds avoirdupois are a gallon
of flour.

" A chaldron of coals is 58| cubic
feet.

" 12 wine gallons of distilled water
weigh 100 lbs. avoirdupois.

"The imperial dry bushel, when
not heaped, is 2218 192 cubic inches ;
the peck, 5.54 548 ; gallon, 277 274 ;
and quart, 69 3185. The bushel is 8
inches deep, and 18 8 wide, with a
heap 6 inches high.

" A bushel of wheat is 60 lbs. ;
rye, 53 lbs. ; barley, 47 lbs. ; oats, 38 ;
pease, 64 ; beans, 63 ; clover seed,
68 ; rape, 48 lbs.

" A Scotch pint is equal to 4 Eng-
lish pints.

"A Scotch quart is 208-6 cubic

inches.

" There are 545,267,000 cubic yards

in a cubic mile.

According to usage, in Philadel-

^- r . c ^ -i .... phia and other parts of the United

A cubic foot of loose ear.h or , ^^^^_ K„ii,iin.r.«tnnP u-l.Pn niled or

sand weighs 95 lbs.

K cubic ft. of common soil weighs 124

" " strong soil " 127

" " clar " 135

" " distilled water " 62-5

" " cast iron " 450-45

" " lead " 709 5

" " copper " 466-75

846

States, building-stone, when piled or
' perched,' as it is usually termed, is
measured by allowing 25 cubic feet to
the perch ; but when placed in the
wall, only 22 feet are allowed to the
perch. In measuring stone wall, 14
inches of thickness is usually allow-

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

ed. When the thickness of the wall
exceeds 14 inches, the extra thick-
ness is estimated, and made an addi-
tional charge. This is the common
rule when the walls have only one
face. In double-faced walls there is
commonly an allowance of about one
third more. 3 pecks of good lime
will generally sufiice to lay 1 perch
of stone wall. About 2 one-horse
loads of sand are allowed to make
mortar for 3 perciies of stone wall.

"To convert cubic feet into perch-
es, divide by 25 ; or, what is still
more easy, multiply by 01.

" In brick-work, 14 bricks are usu-
ally allowed to the cubic foot : some-
times only 13 are allowed. To con-
vert cubic feet into cubic yards, di-
vide by 3, and the product by 9.

" Lumba- Measure. — In estimating
the number of feet in a board, the
length in feet is to be multiplied by
the width in inches, and the result,
divided by 12, shows the contents in
feet. When boards are more than 1
inch thick, all over is added. A
board 12 feet long and U inch
tliick would of course be estimated
to contain one fourth more than a
board only 1 inch thick.

" Capacity Measures. — Wine gal-
lon, 231 cubic inches : beer gallon, 2S2
cubic inches ; bushel, 2150 42 cubic
inches ; lime bushel, 131 inches diam-
eter at bottom, 15 inches at top, and
13-47 inches deep. A cord of wood
contains 128 cubic feet. A hogshead
of cider 1 10 wine gallons.

" Weights. — A Troy pound is equal
to that of the United States mint, and
the avoirdupois pound bears to it
the ratio of 7000 to 576.

6U lbs. of wheat pass for a bushel.
58 " rye.
58 " corn.
48 " buckwheat.
47 " barley.

32 " oats.

85 " coarse salt (foreign).
70 " ground salt.
62 " fine.

60 " anthracite coal, 112 lbs. make 1
owl., and 2240 lbs. = 1 ton.

" If the square of the diameter of
a circle be multiplied by -7854, the
product is the area. If the diameter '
of a sphere be cubed and multiplied 1

by -6236, the product is the solidity ;
and tlie square of tiie diameter, mul-
tiplied by 314159, is the surface of
the sphere.

" To find the contents of a cask,
add double the square of the bung di-
ameter to the square of the head di-
ameter, and multiply this sum by tlie
head of the cask ; then divide tiie
product by 1077 for ale gallons of
280 cubic inches each, or by 882 for
wine gallons of 231 cubic inches each.
" Method of ascertaining the Weight
of Cattle while living. — Tliis is of the
utmost utility for all those who are
not experienced judges liy the eye,
and by the following directions llie
weight can be ascertained witliin a
mere trifle. Take a string, put it
round the beast, standing square, just
behind the shoulder-blade ; measure
on a foot-rule the feet and inches the
animal is in circumference ; this is
called the girth ; then with the string
measure from the bone of the tail,
which plumbs the line with the hind-
er part of the buttock ; direct the line
along the back to the fore part of the
shoulder-blade ; take the dimensions
with the foot-rule, as before, which
is the length, and work the figures in
the following manner: Girth of the
bullock, 6 feet 4 inches ; length, 5
feet 3 inches ; which, multiplied to-
gether, make 31 square superficial
feet ; that, again, multiplied by 23
(the number of pounds allowed to
each superficial foot of all cattle
measuring less than 7 and more than
five feet in girth), makes 713 lbs. ;
and allowing 14 pounds to the stone,
is 50 stone 13 lbs. ; and where the
animal measures less than 9 and more
than 7 feet in girth, 31 is the number
of pounds to each foot. Again, sup-
posing a pig or any small beast should
measure 2 feet in girth, and 2 feet
along the back, which, multiplied to-
gether, make 4 square feet, that mul-
tiplied by 11, the number of pounds
allowed for each square foot of cattle
measuring less than 3 feet in girth,
makes 44 lbs. ; which, divided by 14,
to bring it to stones, is 3 stones 2
lbs. Again, suppose a calf, sheep,
&c., should measure 4 feet 6 inches
847

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

in girth, and 3 foot 9 inches in length,
which, niiiltiphcd togetiicr, make 1G|
square feet ; tliat niultiphcd hy IG,
th,e numher of j)ounds allowed to all
cattle measuring less than 5 feet and
more than 3 in girth, makes 2G4 lbs. ;
which, divided by 14, to bring it to
stones, is 18 stones 12 lbs. The di-
mensions of the girth and length of
black cattle, sheep, calves, or hogs,
may be as exactly taken this way as
it is at all necessary for any compu-
tation or valuation of stock, and will
answer exactly to the four quarters,
sinku)g the offal, and which every
man who can get even a bit of chalk
may easily perform. A deduction
must be made for a half-fatted beast
of 1 stone in 20 from that of a fat
one, and for a cow that has had calves
1 stone must be allowed, and another
for not being properly fat."

" French Si/stcm of Weights. — The
French denominations of weight oc-
cur so frequently in works connected
with the physical sciences, that it is
convenient to be acquainted with their
values. The unit of weight is the
gramme, which is the weight of the
100th part of a cubic metre of distil-
led water at the temperature of melt-
ing ice. A gramme is equal to 15 434
Troy grains ; whence the following
comparative table of French with
Troy weight :

Dyers' weed, or yellow rocket, an
annual used for dyeing purposes, es-

Milligramme =:

•001 =

•01543

Centigramme =

•01 =

•15434

Decigramme =

•1 =

15434

Gramme =:

1 =

15-434

Decagramme =:

10 —

154-34

Hectogramme =:

100 =:

1543-4

Kilos;rarame =

1000 =

15434

Myriagramrae =

lOUOO =

154340

"The kilogramme is equal to 2
lbs. 3 oz., 4-428 drachms avoirdupois
weight. In the Sf/slemc Usucl the
standards are the same as the above,
but the denominations are those
which were anciently in use. It was
found impossible to introduce the
new terms. The divisions are bina-
ry. Half the kilogramme forms the
livre usuel, which is divided into
halves, quarters, eighths, &c., down
to the gros, which is the eighth of
the once, or the fljih of the livre.

WELD. Reseda luteola {Fig.).
843

pecially for yellow dyes. The fol-
lowing is Loudon's account of its
cultivation :

" The soil being brought to a fine
tilth, the seed is sown in April or the
beginning of May, generally broad-
cast. Tiie quantity of seed is from
two quarts to a gallon per acre, and
it should either be fresh, or, if two or
three years old, steeped a few days
in water previously to being sown.
Being a biennial, and no advantage
obtained Irom it the first year, it is
sometimes sown with corn crops in
the manner of clover, which, when
the soil is in a very rich state, may
answer, provided, also, that hoeing,
weeding, and stirring take place as
soon as the corn crop is cut. The
best crops, however, will obviously
be the result of drilling and cultiva-
ting the crop alone. The drills may
be a foot asunder, and the plants
thinned to six inches in the row. In
the broad-cast mode it is usual to
thin them to six or eight inches' dis-
tance every way ; often, when weld
succeeds corn crops, it is never either
thinned, weeded, or hoed, but left to
itself till the plants are in full blossom.

" The crop is taken by pulling up the
entire plant, and the proper period
for this purpose is when the bloom
has been produced the whole length
of the stems, and the plants are just

WEL

beginning to turn of a light or yellow-
isli colour ; as in the beginning or
middle of July in the second year.
The plants are usually from one to
two and a half feet in height. It is
tiiought by some advantageous to
pull it rather early, without waiting
for the ripening of the seeds, as i)y
this means tiiere will not only be the
greatest projjortion of dye, but the
land will be left at liberty for the re-
ception of a crop of wheat or turnips ;
but in this case a small part must be
Icl't solely for tlie purpose of seed.
In the execution of the work, the
plants are drawn up l)y the roots in
small handfuls, and set up to dry after
each handful has been tied up by one
of the stalks, in tlie number of four
together in an erect position against
each other. Sometimes, however,
they become sufficiently dry by turn-
ing without being set up. After they
have remained till fully dry, which
is mostly effected in the course of
a week or two, they are bound up
into larger bundles that contain each
CO handfuls, and wiiich arc of the
^veight of 50 lbs. each, 60 of these
bundles constituting a load. These
last, in places where this kind of crop
is much grown, are tied up by a string
made for the purpose, and sold under
the title of weld cord.

" The produce of weld depends much
on the nature of the season ; but from
half a load to a load and a lialf is the
quantity most commonly afforded. It
is mostly bought by persons who af-
terward dispose of it to the dyers oc-
casionally as they find it convenient.
The demand for it is sometimes very
little, while at others it is so great as
to raise the price to a high degree.
It i-s sometimes gathered green, and
treated like woad or indigo ; but in
general the dried herb is used by the
dyers in a state of decoction.

" The use of weld in dyemg is for
giving a yellow colour to cotton,
woollen, moliair, silk, and linen. Blue
cloths are dipped in a decoction of it,
which renders them green ; and the
yellow colour of the paint called Dutch
pink is obtained from weld. It yields
a brownish yellow decoction, the col-

WEL

our of which is rendered paler by
acids, and richer and deeper by alka-
lies. Alum tiiruws down a yellow
precipitate, and leaves the clear liquor
of a fine lemon yellow ; tartar also
brightens its colour ; and solution
of tin gives it a dilute green lint.
When a ini.xture of whiting and alum
is added to a hot decoction of wvM, a
yellow precipitate is obtained, which,
when collected, washed, and dried, is
of a fine delicate colour, and much
employed by pa[)er-stainers.

" To save seed, select a few of the
largest and healthiest plants, and
leave them to ripen. The seed i-s
easily separated.

" The chief disease of weld is the
mildew, to which it is very liable
when young, and this is one reason
that it is often sown with other crops."

W E L D I N G. The union of two
pieces of metal at a white heat by
hammering; iron, steel, and platinum
are the only metals susceptible of
welding. The surfaces are cleaned
by borax in welding steel.

\V E L L. " Before proceeding to
dig a well, it ougtit first to be deter-
mined on whether a mere reservoir
for the water which oozes out of the
surface soil is desired or obtainable,
or a perpetual spring. If the former
is the object in view, a depth of fifteen
or twenty feet may probably suflice,
though tills cannot be expected to
alford a constant supply unless a
watery vein or spring is hit on : if
the latter, the depth may be various,
tliere being instances of 300 and 500
feet having been cut through before
a permanent supply of water was
found.

" The art of well-digging is gener-
ally carried on by persons who de-
vote themselves exclusively to that
department. The site being fixed on,
the ground-plan is a circle, generally
of not more than six or eight feet in
diameter : the digger then works
j down by means of a small short-han-
! died spade, and a small implement of
I the pickaxe kind, the earthy iiaate-
i rials being drawn up in i)uckets by
1 the hand or a windlass fixed over
the opening for the purpose. Where
849

WEL

WHE

persons conversant with this sort of
business are employed, they usually
nianai,'e the whole olthc work, brick-
ing round the sides with great facility
and readiness ; but in otlicr cases it
will be necessary to have a bricklayer
to execute this part of the business.

" There are two methods of build-
ing the stone or brick within the well,
which is called the steening. In one
of these a circular ring is formed, of
the same diameter as the intended
well ; and the timber of which it is
composed is of the size of the brick
courses with which the well is to be
lined. The lower edge of this circle
is made sharp, and shod with iron, so
that it has a tendency to cut into the
ground ; this circular kirb is placed
flat upon the ground, and the bricks
are built upon it to a considerable
height, like a circular wall. The
well-digger gels within this circle,
and digs away the earth at the bot-
tom ; the weight of the wall then for-
ces the kirb and the brick-work with
which it is loaded to descend mto the
earth, and as fast as the earth is re-
moved it sinks deeper, the circular
brick wall being increased or raised
at top as fast as it sinks down ; but
when it gets very deep, it will sink
no longer, particularly if it passes
through a soft stratum : in this case,
a second kirb of a smaller size is
sometimes begun within the first.
When a kirb will not sink from the
softness of the strata, or when it is
required to stop out water, the bricks
or stones must be laid one by one at
the bottom of the work, taking care
that the work is not left unsupported
in such a manner as to let the bricks
fall as they are laid ; this is called
underpinning.

" AVell-diggers experience some-
times great difficulty from a noxious
air which fills the well, and suffocates
them if they breathe it. The usual
mode of clearing wells of noxious air
is by means of a large pair of bellows
and a long leathern pipe, which is
hung down into the well to the bot-
tom, and fresh air forced down by
working the bellows.

"The use of the auger is common
85.0

in well-digging, both in ascertaining,
before commencement, the nature of
the strata to be dug into, and also in
course of digging tor the same pur-
pose ; and because, by boring in the
bottom of a well to a considerable
depth, the spring is sometimes hit
upon, and digging rendered no longer
necessary.

" The use of the borer alone may
procure an adequate supply of water
in particular situations. This mode
ajipears to have been long resorted
to in this and other countries. From
what we have already stated as to
the disposition of strata, the C(rndi-
tions requisite for its success will be
readily conceived ; viz , watery strata
connected with others on a higher
level : the pressure of the water con-
tained in the higher parts of such
strata on that in the lower will read-
ily force up the latter through any
orifice, however small. All that is
necessary, therefore, is to bore down
to the stratum containing the water,
and, having completed the bore, to
insert a pipe, which may either be
left to overflow into a cistern, or it
may terminate in a pump. In many
cases, water may be found in this
way, and yet not in sufficient quan-
tity and force to rise to the surface ;
in such cases a well may be sunk to
a certain depth, and the auger-hole
made, and the pipe inserted in it at
the bottom of the w-ell. From the
bottom it may be pumped up to the
surface by any of the usual modes "

WETHER. The castrated ram :
it yields the best mutton, especially
at three to five vears old.

WHALEBONE SCRAPING S.
They form a manure very similar to
woollen rags : half a ton is applied
to the acre.

WHALE-OIL SOAP. A solution
of this substance, at the rate of one
pound in four or five gallons of water,
is found the best application for de-
stroying plant lice, whether on the
stem or roots of trees. A weaker
solution, sprinkled over vegetables
attacked with lice, will also be found
serviceable.

WHEAT. Triticum hybernum.

WHEAT.

" Some botanists have divided wheats
into different species, from some
marked peculiarity in their formation.
Others, eoiisideriiig tiiat they mostly
form hybrids when mixed in the sow-
in<T, and that their pt'culiarities vary
with the soil and climate, have look-
ed upon all the cultivated wheats as
mere varieties. There are, however,
three jirincipal varieties, so ditierent
in appearance that they claim pecu-
liar attention. These are the hard or
liint wheats, the soft wheats, and the
Polish wheats. The hard wheats are
the produce of warm climates, such
as Italy, Sicily, and Barbary. The
soft wheats grow in the northern
parts of Europe. The Polish wheats
grow in the country from which they
derive their name, and are also hard
wheats. It is from their external

form that they are distinguished from
other wheats. The hard wheats have
a compact seed nearly transparent,
which, when bitten through, breaks
short, and shows a very white flour
within. The soft wheats have an
opaque coat or skin, and which, when
first reaped, give way readily to the
pressure of the finger and thumb.
These wheats require to be well dried
and hardened before they can be
conveniently ground into flour. The
Polish wheat has a chaff which is
much longer than the seed, a large,
oblong, hard seed, and an ear cylin-
drical in appearance. It is a delicate
spring wheat, and not very produc-
tive ; hence it has only been occa-
sionally cultivated by way of exper-
iment.

" The following cuts represent

, Eapfi>n»t'e.-'t { TrU,cum Eg„p,.acim): 2. Spelter wheat { Tr.<.T.,m tp.UayZ. -^^^-^^^f, T "I'^l.m'l^rVL^'f"" '"'"^
icum]; 4SuigledK™^whc«U3Vi<icummom)coc«im); 5. Common beardeJwUeal (Truicum I..rf.^»m).

851

WHEAT.

some peculiar species of wheat. Tiie
first is a eonipoiind ear, i)roduced by
very liixurianl vegetation, and is com-
mon in Ejjypt. The second is tiie
spelter wheat, of which the chafl" is
so strongly attaclied to the ^n-ain as to
be separated only hy passing throngh
a mill. It is an inferior variety, hut
grows in less fertile soils. The third
is the Polish wheat, with very long
chaff and hard grains. The fourth is
a variety which only ripens one seed
in each spikelet, and is not much cul-
tivated. The fifth is common soft-
bearded wheat. If the awns of this
kind are obliterated, it forms our
common soft wheat. The existence
of awns seems not to affect the na-
tiir(^ of the wheat, and they differ so
much in length that tiie varieties of
smooth-eared and bearded wheats run
insensibly into each other.

"The hard wlieats contain much
more gluten, a tough, viscid substance,
which is very nutritious, and which,
containing a portion of nitrogen, read-
ily promotes that fermentation, or )(-
sing, as it is called, of the dough,
which is essential to good, light bread
The soft wheats contain the greatest
quantity of starch, which fits them
for the vinous fermentation, by its
conversion into sugar and alcohol ;
for brewing or distijling, therefore,
the soft wheats are the best."'

VARIETIES OP WHE.iT.

White Flint. — This is one of the
most valuable kinds in the Northern
Stales. The heads are not long, but
well filled, with thirty to forty grains ;
the kernel is white and flinty, large,
and with thin bran. They are firm-
ly attached to the chaff, and do not
shell out except when very ripe. Tlie
heads are rather drooping, with few
awns, the straw medium length, and
very white and strong. The flour is
very superior : the perfect wlieat
weighs from 63 to 67 pounds the
bushel.

Harmon's While Flint. — A variety
improved from the above, in which
the berry is larger, bran very thin,
and the flour equally good, if nc.'l su-
perior : weighs 64 pounds the bush-
852

el. This and the above are little in-
jured by the Hessian fly, and will
stand a good deal of wet weather
without injury.

White I'rorcncr. — Heads middling
and bald; chaff bluish ; berry large
and white; bran thin; flour good. It
is early, but the straw is small, long,
and soft, and very liable to fall.

Old Red Chaff. — An old and favour-
ite kind, but now liable to rust and
the fly. Red chaff, bald ; long straw ;
berry v/hite, large, weighing 62 pounds
the bushel ; bran tliin ; superior flour.

Kentucky White -bearded, Canada
Flint. — White chaff, bearded ; heads
short and heavy, well filled; shells
readily ; berries round, short, and
while ; weighs 60 to 6o pounds the
bushel ; flour very good, but not equal
to the white flint. It tillers little ; the
straw is strong, but liable to injury
from insects.

Indiana Wheat. — White chaff, bald ;
berry u'hite and large ; bran thin ; the
berry not as flinty as the white flint,
some of the best quality weighing six-
ty-four pounds to the bushel, produ-
cing flour of superior quality and
quantity ; straw is larger and longer
than the white flint ; shells easily, so
that there is considerable loss if it re-
mains in the field till fully ripe. In-
sects have attacked it more than the
flint, and it is more liable to be win-
ter-killed.

A variety of while wheat is much
esteemed in western New -York,
which resembles an improved Indi-
ana. It is called Scotch u-hcat.

Virginia White May. — It has a white
chaff, bald, much resemi)lingthe white
flint in its growth and straw ; the
heads are more clumped ; the berry
standing out more, and shells easier.
The berry is white, with a very hard
and flinty appearance, weighing from
63 to 60 pounds to the bushel ; bran
of a medium thickness, producing
flour of a good quality. Its early ma-
turity makes it valuable.

Wheatland Red. — This is a new va-
riety which originated with General
Harmon, from the Virginia May. It
has a red chaff, bald ; heads of medium
length, and well filled with a red her-

I

WHEAT.

r>'. weighing 66 pounds to the bushel,
and producing tiour of good quality.
Tliis is a very hardy variety ; straw
of good size, and very bright ; it has
the quality of the Virginia May in its
early ripening.

Red Bearded. — Red chaff, bearded ;
beards standing out from the head ;
berry white, weighing from 60 to 62
pounds the bushel ; yields Hour well,
and of good (juality ; this is a hardy
variety; succeeds well after corn, or
on light soils. Straw not large or very
stiff. This variety would be more
extensively cultivated if its beard
were not objectionable.

Mediterranean. — This was introdu-
ced into .Maryland from the Mediter-
ranean Sea. It is a light red chaff,
bearded ; berry red and long ; very
flinty ; bran thick, producing flour of
an inferior quality. This variety may
prove valuable at the South, being
seldom affected with the fly, and its
early ripening is favourable on ac-
count of rust. Its long, stiff beards,
heads short, shelling very easy (so
much so, that if it is not cut while
in its doughy state, there will be a
great loss), and the inferior quality
of its flour, are strong objections to
its culture, where wheat of superior
quality succeeds well.

Blue Stem. — Has been cultivated in
Virginia for about thirty years ; white
chaff, bald ; berry white ; weighs 64
pounds to the bushel ; bran thin ;
produces flour of .superior quality.
Formerly this was a rod wheat, now
it is changed to a beautiful white.
Straw fair size, producing well. It
is now one of the most productive
varieties cultivated in Virginia.

Besides these well-known varieties
of winter wheats, several are of local
reputation and worthy of trial. Some,
as the Valparaiso and Humes's white,
are of great promise, but remain to
be fully tested. The choice English
varieties, as the Talavera, golden
drop, are found too tender for our se-
vere winters in Xew-York.

Of spring- wheats, the Tea, or Sibe-
rian, bald, and Black Sea are the best.
The Italian sprmg. formerly in great
demand, has much degenerated.
4C

" The distinction between the win-
ter and summer wheats is one which
arises entirely from the season in
which they have been usually sown ;
for they can readily be converted into
each other by sowing earlier or later,
and gradually accelerating or retard-
ing their growth. The difference in
colour between red and white wheats
is owing chiefly to the soil ; white
wheats gradually become darker, and
ultimately red in some stiff, wet soils,
and the red wheats lose their colour
and become flrst yellow and then
white on rich, light, and mellow soils.
It is remarkable that the grain soon-
er changes colour than the chaff and
straw : hence we have red wheats
with white chaff, and white wheats
with red chaff, which on the forego-
ing principle is readily accounted for.
The chaff retains the original colour
when the skin of the grain has al-
ready changed to another. We state
this on our own experience. The
soil best adapted to the growth of
wheat is a deep loam inclined to clay
with a dry subsoil. If this is not so
naturally, it must be drained artifi-
cially, to ensure good crops of wheat.
In such a soil, wheat may be sown
every third year, with proper inter-
mediate crops. Formerly, the prep-
aration for a wheat crop was gener-
ally by a clean, naked fallow, with a
certain addition of manure, the re-
mains of which were thought suffi-
cient for a crop of barley or oats ;
after which the fallow recurred. It

, was soon found out that, by this
means, a crop of wheat could never
be forced beyond a certain average ;

I for if more than the usual portion of
manure was carried on the land, the
wheat failed, by being laid before it
arrived at maturity. Thus a limit
appeared to have been set to its in-
crease. New modes of cultivation
have shown that this was not with-
out its remedy, and that it was recent
manuring which caused the wheat to
lodge ; but that an increased fertility,
produced by judicious preparation, en-
abled the land to bear crops of wheat
far superior to what it ever could be-

. fore. Wheat requires a soil in which
853

WHEAT.

the organic matter is intimately mix-
ed with the earthy inij^redioiils, wliere
it can liave a firmer hold hy its roots,
and can at ilie same time striki' the
fibres of tliem downward as well as
around, in search of food. When it
meets with such a soil, and is depos-
ited at a proper depth, it vegetates
slowly, pusliing to tlie surface one
cylindrical filament, while numerous
fibres strike into the soil from tlie
seed. These supply the plant with
regular nourishment, and in due time
a knot is formed at the surface of
the soil, from which several roots and
stems branch out. This is called the
tillering of the wheat. The new roots
near the surface soon become the
chief source of nourishment, and in
a rich, compact soil, where there is
room, numerous stems arise, forming
a tuft, and each of these in time bears
a large ear well tilled with seeds ; so
that, from a very moderate quantity
of seed, a great return is produced.
The strong stems supporting each
other are well able to resist the ef-
fect of storms and rains, which would
lay weaker plants level with the
ground. The effect of abundant ma-
nuring immediately before the seed
is to produce too rapid a growth,
weakening the straw, and increasing
its quantity at the expense of the ear,
which does not attain its proper de-
velopment. This is called running
to straw. All strong manures, which
contain manyazotized particles, have
this effect, which is corroborated by
late experiments with saltpetre and
nitrate of soda. They produce more
straw and less corn, and hence are
not found of the same use, when ap-
plied to crops which are cultivated
for their seed, as they are on grasses.
" Decayed vegetable matter, or hu-
mus, seems essential in a good wheat
soil ; and it may, in the slow prog-
ress of its entire decomposition,
when it is continually absorbing the
oxygen of the air, have some chem-
ical effect on the nitrogen also, so as
to make it of use in the vegetation,
whether hy first forming ammonia, or
in any other way. Farther experi-
ments may, perhaps, throw a light on
854

this subject. It is well known, howev-
er, that, provided a soil be conii)act, its
fertility is very nearly proportioned
to th(! quantity of humus which it
contains, especially if there be calca-
reous earth or carbonate of lime in
its composition. Lime has been oft-
en considered as the most efficacious
manure for wheat, even more than
dung. As long as there is organic
matter in the soil lime acts benefi-
cially ; and tlie richer the land which
does not contain carbonate of lime
already, the more powerful the effect
of liming. But experience has pro-
ved that lime has little effect on poor
soils in wheat, until they are first ma-
nured with animal and vegetable sub-
stances. To produce good wheat,
then, the land should be gradually
brought to the proper degree of fer-
tility, by abundant manuring, for pre-
paratory crops, which will not suffer
from an over-dose of dung, and will
leave in the soil a sufficient quantity
of humus, intimately blended with it,
for a crop of wheat. Clover is a
plant which will bear a considerable
forcing, and so are beans, and both
are an excellent preparation for
wheat. The roots left in the ground
from a good crop of either decay
slowly, and thus furnish a regular
supply of food for the wheat sown in
the next season. Potatoes, also,
admit of much forcing, but the neces-
sary loosening of the soil for this crop
renders it less fit as a preparation for
wheat. Experience has fully proved
that, as a general rule, it is better to
sow barley and clover after potatoes,
and let the latter be succeeded by
wheat.

" Improved chemical analysis has
discovered various substances in mi-
nute quantities in the grains and
straw of wheat ; and this has led to
the doctrine that these substances,
being essential to its formation, must
be excellent manures for it, if they
do not already exist in the soil in
sufficient quantities. Most of these
substances are found in all soils
which contain a due proportion of
clay. Silica, in a very minutely-divi-
ded state, and probably in combina-

WHEAT.

tion with soda or potass, seems one
of the most important to give due
strengtl) to the straw ; and licnce, in
some soils, potashes or wood-ashes
whicii contain it may l)c advanta-
geously used as irianures to the wheat.
The analysis ol' the ashes of grains
of wheat chosen out of the ears, by
Theodore de Saussure, gives the fol-
lowing results :

Potass ]5

Phosphate of potass 32

Muriutc of potass 0-lC

Sulphate of potass a trace.

Earthy phosphates 445

Silica 0-5

Metallic oxides 0-25

Loss 7-59

TUiT^

" The analysis of the ashes of the
straw gave the following results :

Potass 12-5

Phosphate of potass 5

Muriate of potass 3

Sulphate of potass 2

Eartliy phosphates 62

Earthy carbonates I

Silica 61-5

Metallic oxides 1

Loss 7 '8

TotT
" The analysis of the ashes of the
whole plant, when in blossom, gives
of

Soluble salts 41

Earthy phosphates 10-75

Earthy carbonates 025

Silica 26

Metallic oxides 05

Loss 2 1 5

100-

"By comparing these results, it
will appear that, from the time of
flowering to the maturity of the seed,
a portion of the soluble salts is re- 1
placed by earthy phosphates ; that |
silica accumulates in the straw, but |
not in the grain ; and as potass is ;
the principal moans of rendering the
silica soluble, it is an imiiortant in-
gredient in a wheat soil, as well as
the phosphoric acid. This last is
found chiefly in bone earth and ani- ,
mal manures. 1

" Although wheat thrives best on !
heavy soils, and, without due prepar- '
ation, produces only scanty and un-
certain crops in those wluch are nat-
urally light and loose, it may be made
to give a very good return in soils ,

[ which would once have been thought
j fitted only for the growth of rye and
j oats ; but then the texture and com-
[ ])Osition of th(!se soils must have been
greatly improved by judicious tillage
and manuring. A\'hile tlu; heavy soils
are repeatedly ploughed and pulver-
ized to render them mellow, the light-
er are rendered more compact by
marling, where this can be readily
done, by adding composts in whicli
the princii)al earth is clay, and espe-
cially by such plants as have sub-
stantial and long roots, by which the
soil is kept together, such as clover,
lucern, sainfoin, and other grasses.
If these i)lants have been well manu-
red, and cover the ground well, keep-
ing in the moisture, the soil will have
become sufficiently compact to bear
wheat. One ploughing is then quite
sufficient ; and if a heavy land-press-
er is made to follow two ploughs and
press in the furrows, so as to leave
deep, smooth drills, eight or nine
inches apart, in which the seed can
find a solid bed, there will be every
probability of a good crop of wheat,
which will come up in regular rows,
the roots being at such a depth as
to run no risk of wanting moisture
till the stem has arisen to its full
height and the ear is formed ; a few
showers at that critical time will
make the grain swell, and ensure a
good crop.

" On some soils it may not be ju-
dicious to attempt to sow wheat;
hut these are the poorest loose sands,
which naturally would bear only oats
and buckwheat ; on these, unless
they can be abundantly marled, it is
much better to sow rye. When
wheat is sown on light soils in good
heart, it grows vigorously in spring,
if it has not been injured by the frost,
which is very apt to raise up tho
roots and throw them out of the
ground. The driving of sheep ovci
the field presses the roots into the
ground, and prevents this throwing
out ; but a vigorous growth of straw
is not always a sure sign of a good
crop at harvest, as many farmers
know by sad experience ; what would
be advisable in heavy soils is not al-
855

WHEAT.

ways so in ligliter. A heavy rolling
in sprinjr after a light harrowing is
very usclul at a time when the sur-
face is moist. It clo.ses the pores
and eheciis the evaporation ; and the
tigliter the surface can he made, the
hotter chance tlicre is of a fair crop.
Tlie Norfoli< rotation, as it is gener-
ally called, in which wheat is sown
after clover, is the only one well
adapted for wheat on light soils.
The manure havin;^ heen put ahun-
dantly for the turni|)s or roots, and
the land being freed from weeds, the
barley which follows is generally a
good crop ; and the clover, which is
sown in this, is trodden in the reap-
ing and carrying of the barley ; and
there is only one ploughing from the
time the barley is sown to the sow-
ing of the wheat. If this be dibbled
on the turned sward of the clover,
the land will receive another tread-
ing by the dibblers, the seed will be
regularly deposited at a proper depth,
and no preparation of light land can
be more likely to produce good wheat.
On heavy soils the process must be
varied ; the surface, instead of being
rendered more coinpact, will often
be so bound as to require to be stir-
red by harrowing or hoeing before
the wheat plant can properly tiller.
If a farmer is anxious to have good
crops of wheat, he must not rest sat-
isfied after he has plouglied, manured,
and sown ; he must watch the growth
of this important crop daily, and use
the means which experience and ob-
servation have suggested to assist
the growth and to remove the caus-
es of failure.

"In heavy soils nothing is more
detrimental than excess of moisture.
Even in well-drained fields the water
will stand too long in the furrows if
there is not a proper outlet for it.
Tlie furroAvs should be well cleared
out with the spade as soon as the
seed is sown, drilled, or dibbled, the
earth being thrown evenly over the
surface of the stitches, and not left
in an unsightly ridge, which crumbles
down with tiie furrow at the first
frost. In proper places and at regu-
lar distances, deeper water-furrows
856

' should he dug out after the plough
has ploughed a deep furrow in the
intended line ; and this should then be
finished as is said above ; so that if
a heavy fall of rain should come sud-
denly, the water will have a regular
course and outlet into the ditches
which lie in the lowest part of the
land, without soaking into the soil,
which is already too retentive of
moisture. It is chiefly in spring and
when snow melts that there should
be a daily inspection of the wheat-
fields. An experienced eye, going
along the bottom of the ridges of a
large field, will discover at once
whether there is any stoppage of the
water ; and by means of a spade or
shovel it will be remedied with little
trouble. \^'hen the surface binds,
as it does in some soils, and jire-
vents the access of air to the roots,
the land is harrowed, and in a few
days the effect will be apparent.

" Soils which lie on a very porous
subsoil, or which, by artificial drain-
ing, have been so dried and mellow-
ed that horses can go over the land
at all times without making such an
impression as will retain water if it
rains, may be laid flat, without more
open furrows than are necessary for
the convenience of ploughing with a
fixed turn-furrow ; and thus a con
siderable portion is made productive
which would be taken up by furrows,
and, perhaps, produce w-eeds. But
if the soil is of a tenacious quality,
easily compressed when moist, and
horses cannot safely be allowed to
pass over it when wet, it is absolute-
ly necessary to divide the land into
stitches, or beds with furrows be-
tween them, in which the horses can
walk while they draw harrows or
any other implement over the land.
All the implements should be so con-
structed tliat, if they have wheels,
these may run in the furrows, so
that nothing will disturb the even-
ness of the stitches, which should
have a gentle slope from the centre to-
wards the two furrows which bound
it. For spring crops this is not so
essential, although it is advisable not
to deviate from the usual form, even

WHEAT.

when barley and clover are sown :
because, when the surface is laid in
double stitches, as is somt'times done,
it is not very easy to lay it in narrow
stitches again, at one ploughing, for
wheat. No doubt a very expert
ploughman would do so, but it is not
often that many expert ploughmen
are on the same farm. Even in very
light soils, as in Flanders, narrow
stitciies with deep intervals are
thought most advantageous.

" It is a very common notion that
good wheat and bean land is not well
adapted to the growth of roots, espe-
cially of such as are usually fed off
the land by sheep, because the tread-
ing of animals is injurious in winter
and spring, when these crops are
usually wanted ; and if they are cart-
ed ofl; the wheels and the horses
make such impressions as are equal-
ly detrimental, or more so. But all
roots, even the white turnip, will
grow luxuriantly on heavy soils, well
prepared and manured ; and they
may be so managed as to be taken
oft' before the winter. The bulbs
will not be so large, but they will be
more succulent, and may be kept in
various ways till they are wanted for
the cattle. The land, being plough-
ed immediately on the removal of
the roots, will be v.ell prepared for
wheat, or, when mellowed by the
winter's frost, may be sown in spring
with beans, barley, or oats. The
manure will be incorporated with the
soil, even if it has been put on in a
very fresh state for the roots, which
can only be recommended on very
compact soils. If the root crops are
well cleaned, fallows may be avoid-
ed, or, at least, recur very seldom,
and tlien only v. hen weeds have ac-
cumulated from neglect.

"When the wheat has blossomed,
and the grain in the ear is fully form-
ed, it should be watched, and as soon
as the seed feels of the consistence
of tough dough, and the straw is dry
and yellow below the ear, it should
be reaped. The skin of the grain
will be thinner, and its substance
will harden readily, by mere drying,
while the straw is better fodder for
4C2

the cattle. It is found by experience
that the increase of (lour hy adopting
this method is very considerable.

" It was the custom of our fore
fathers to cut the straw half way be-
tween the ear and the ground ;' and
their reason was, that thus less room
was required in the barn, and no
seeds of weeds were carried there
in the straw ; but the loss of half the
straw, which might have afforded lit-
ter or fodder for cattle, was over-
looked : and if the weeds were not
taken into the barn, where they could
do little harm, except giving a little
more trouble in winnowing and sift-
ing the corn, they were left to shed
their seeds on the land, and thus per-
petuate its foulness, or add much to
the labour of weeding the succeed-
ing crops. The stubble or haulms had
to be mown or raked off before the
land could be well ploughed ; and,
although this might make a very good
shelter for cattle in a yard,' when
made into haulm-walls, as they are
sometimes called, there was a great
loss of labour in thus going twice
over the field. The most approved
mode of reaping now is that which
is called fagging or bagging (see
Harvest) ; but the most expeditious
is mowing, which, by means of a cra-
dle scythe, may be done so regularly
as to allow all the corn to be tied up
in sheaves without any loss. The
weeds are tied up with the corn, and
when the whole is thrashed, the
seeds of the latter are winnowed out
and burned ; thus they cannot infest
the land, and there is double the quan-
tity of straw to convert into manure :
a matter of great importance where
cattle are fed on turnips in the yard,
chiefly for the sake of their dung.

" The choosing of wheat for seed
is a matter of great importance.
Some farmers liKe to change their
seed often ; others sow the produce
of their own land continually, and
both seem persuaded that their meth-
od is the best. The fact is, that it is
not always the finest wheat which
makes the best seed ; but il depends
on the nature of the land on which it
grew. vSome soils are renowned fai
8f>7

WHEAT.

and wide for producing good seed,
and it is well known that this seed
degenerates in otlier soils, so that
the original soil is resorted to for
fresh seed. Many places have been
noted for this peculiarity, and among
them we may mention Genesee, New-
York ; the wheat which grows there
is sold for seed at a price considera-
bly above the average. It has been
asserted of late, and we have no rea-
son to doubt the assertion, that the
various noted seed-wheats, when
analyzed, are found to contain the
different elements of which they are
composed in nearly the same propor-
tion, especially the starch and glu-
ten. For bread, that which contains
most gluten is preferred, as we ob-
served before ; but to produce a per-
fect vegetation there should be no
excess of this substance, nor any de-
ficiency. The seed, also, should have
come to perfect maturity. This last
is usually obtained by beating the
sheaves over a block of wood or a
cask, without untying them, by which
means the ripest seeds fall out. The
proportion between the starch and
gluten is easily ascertained by care-
fully washing the flour when the
wheat has been ground. It is most
convenient to tie up the flour in a
cloth, which, shaken and beaten in
water, will let all the starch pass
through, and retain only the gluten.
The operation should be continued
as long as the water is tinged with
the white starch. Anyone can read-
ily make the experiment ; and as
soft wheats vary much in the propor-
tion of the gluten they contain, the
difference will be readily ascertained.
This leads to a practical conclusion ;
if we \\'ish to grow any peculiar sort
of wheat for seed, and if we find
that, by our preparation of the soil,
or its original composition, we pro-
duce a wheat in which the gluten and
starch are in a different proportion
from that of the original seed, we may
conclude that this is owing to more
or less animal or vegetable manure
in the soil ; and by increasing the
one or the other, we may bring our
wheat to have all the properties of I
858

the original seed. This is a valuable
discovery, and deserves to be fully
confirmed by experience. The glu-
ten varies from 10 to 35 per cent.

"Diseases. — While the wheat is
growing, it is exposed to various ac-
cidents, which it is often difficult to
foresee, and more difficult to guard
against. The smut and burned ear
are diseases which may be generally
prevented by a proper preparation of
the seed before it is sown. (See
Stnut.) Many corrosive substances
have been recommended to steep the
seed in, such as blue vitriol and arse-
nic, and those who have used these
steeps place great confidence in them.
It seems, however, that washing the
seed well with plain water, or with
salt and water, and afterward drying
it with quicklime, sufficiently destroys
the germ of the snuit to prevent its
propagation. The most common steep
is water in which so much salt has
been dissolved as will enable it to float
an egg. In this the seed may be left for
twelve hours or more, and then spread
on a floor, and mixed with as much
quicklime as will absorb the moisture,
and allow it to be sown or drilled, with-
out the grains adheringto one another.
" In the second volume of the
' Journal of the Royal Society of Agri-
culture of England,' Part I., is a val-
uable paper, by the Rev. T. S. Hens-
low, on the diseases of wheat. He
describes the different fungi which
produce the various diseases of pep-
per brand, dust brand, rust, and mil-
dew ; he doubts the truth of the as-
sertion that Berbery trees or bushes
cause mildew in wheat which grows
near them, although this is believed
by many farmers.

"The ergot in wheat is an excres-
cence from the ear, like a small horn,
into which the seed is transformed.
It has a poisonous quality, and is
medicinal. See Ergot.

' Another disease of the seed is
called ear-cockles, and is caused by
extremely minute insects, like eels,
which fill the skin of the seeds instead
of flour. This insect, which is call-
ed Vibrio trilici, is described by Mr.
Bauer in the ' Philosophical Trans-

WHE

WHE

actions' for 1823. This disease is
not so common as the smut and pep-
per brand, It^ probable, according
to Mr. lIenslo\v, that the animalcules
may be killed by exposing the grain
to a certain heat, so as not to destroy
its power ol" vegetation, but sufficient
to kill the vibrio."

The chiiick bug, in the Southern
States, is often more destructive than
the Hessian fiy.

" Great attention has been lately
paid to tlie introduction of the best
and most prolific varieties of wheat,
and by merely observing what cars ap-
pear much superior to others in a held
of ripe wheat, and collecting these to
be sown separately in a garden or por-
tion of a field, the variety, which may
have been produced by some fortui-
tous impregnation, or some peculiarity
in the spot where it grew, is perpet-
uated. By carefully selecting the
seed which is best adapted to tlie
soil, by a more careful and garden-like
cultivation, and by adding those ma-
nures which are found most adapted
to favour its perfect vegetation, crops
of wheat have been raised which, at ;
one time, would have been thought
miraculous."

WHEAT, CULTIVATION IN !
^^'ESTER^• NEW-YORK. The fol- '
lowing, from General Harmon, is I
worthy of great attention from its
practical value : i

" The soil that I have under culti- j
vation is probably as well adapted to ;
the producing of as fine a quality of j
wheat as any in the world. It is a |
gravelly loam, with limestone of small !
size gravel up to several pounds each. '
It is what has been called the hard !
oak openings. My rotation is of three j
years shift. Clover is invariably sown '
on wheat in March or April, about
eight pounds to the acre ; and as :
soon as the ground is dry in April, sow
one bushel of plaster to the acre.
The next year pasture or mow ; the
third year, in June, plough seven or
eight inches deep. The clover should
be mostly eaten off when ploughed. I
The turning under of a great growth
of clover 1 believe to be injurious to
the next crop of wheat. If fed offi

i with sheep, the manure they drop is
worth more to tlie wheat crop tiian
if it had been turned under in its
green state. In turning under green
clover, there is in the next crop fre-
quently a coarseness in tlie leaf and
! straw that is not favourable to the
I production of a fine quality. 1 go
over the ground thus ploughed with
I the cultivator harrow three or four
I times by the first of September ; then
cross-plough, and sow on the furrow
from the 10th to the loth of the
month ; then harrow it in with the cul-
tivator harrow. It buries the wheat
deeper than the common harrow, giv-
ing the plant a more vigorous appear-
ance, and rendering it less liable to in-
jury by the thawing and freezing in
March and April. M'heat, for seed,
should be selected from that part of
the field tliat is iirst ripe and where it
ripens evenly. All lodged or rusty
straw should be rejected, for wheat
from such straw does not fully malu; e.
It will grow as soon as any other,
but wheat of superior quality is se.-
dom obtained tVom such seed. A,l
small or imperfect kernels should b.i
sifted out, and nothing but the pure
seed sown. Twenty-four hours be-
fore the wheat is sown it should be
washed in a brine as strong as salt
will make it. After draining a few-
minutes, mix with each bushel two
quarts of newly-slacked lime, and
then sow one and one fourth bushels
to the acre. The above is ray cours.e
of operation. My average crop for
several years past has been over 20
bushels per acre, of very superior
quality, mostly sold for seed ; the
past season over 1100 bushels. My
price has uniformly been twenty-five
cents over the millers. One great
difficulty in the way of farmers im-
proving their wheat crops is, the sow-
ing of poor grain mixed with other
seeds, and believing that Wheat turns
to chess. While at the State Fair,
at Poughkecpsie, last fall, I saw sev-
eral barrels of wheat, of different va-
rieties, all mixed with so much cockle
and chess, that a Wheatland miller
would not take such for flouring as
first quality. The man that had it

^^'HE

WHE

said it was sent to him from Western
New-York for seed, and he was try-
ing to sell it as such. As U>ng as
such seed is sown, we shall have
those farmers that believe wheat will
degenerate into chess. In selecting
the best winter variety, 1 will name
the ones that I believe will do best
on the different soils where wheat is
sown. There are some varieties that
succeed hotter on some soils than
others. If the soil is rich clay loam,
it is important to sow a small and
early variety : the Kentucky white,
better known as Hutchinson wheat ;
Mediterranean; or Wheatland red. If
sandy, gravelly loam, the improved
white Flint, old Genesee red, Chaff
bald, Saul's wheat, and Flint. In se-
lecting the variety that will do best
on all soils, I am confident the im-
proved white Flmt stands first for the
quantity and siiperior quality, produ-
cing more flour of superior quality
than any other of nearly forty differ-
ent varieties that I have had under
cultivation. I know of no spring va-
riety that will come up to the winter
where they succeed well. In some
sections of country none but spring
varieties will succeed. The Black
Sea red, Chaff bearded, are the hard-
iest and most productive "f any of
the spring varieties of good quality.
The Tea wheat is a very beautiful
spring wheat, white, chaff bald, berry
white. It is not as productive as the
Black Sea ; the qualitv is superior."

WHEAT, COW. S'ee Cow Wheat.

WHEAT GRASSES. Grasses of
the same genus as wheat {Tnlicuin),
of which the couch grass (7'. repcns)
is best known. They are not indige-
nous in the United States, and, al-
though very nutritious, are not ob-
jects of special cultivation.

WHEAT, INSECTS OF. The
two most severe enemies are species
of Cccidomyia, a genus resembling
the gnat.

Tlie Hessian fli/ {C. destructor), Fig.,
b, is represented of the natural size
at c; it has a black head, thorax, and
wings, with a brownisii tjody. Two
generations appear in the year : the
first in spring, the second in Septem-
8G0

her and October. The females lay
their eggs on the young shoots of
spring or fall wheat. The worm,
which is hatched in a few days, de-
scends to the lower parts of the stem
near the earth, where they become
changed into grubs of the size and
appearance of a flaxseed (d) ; here
the winter generation remain, and
are converted into winged insects in
spring. They destroy the plant by
sucking its juices, and hinder the de-
j velopment of flower steins. The most
effective means to avoid this fly is by
selecting wheat with a tough straw,
\ as the Mediterranean, by sowing ear-
j ly, and preparing the ground and seed,
I so as to give it a good start. Scat-
j tering lime, and using nutritious ma-
nures, such as guano, early in the
{ spring, may do good. Close feeding
i by sheep is also adopted where the
' grubs are found early. Burning the
infected straw is a preventive. The
Hessian fly is attacked by ichneumon
flies, which deposite their eggs in the
} body of the grub.

The wheat midge, or Jlij (C. tritici),
Fig., a, has been of late a severe pest
in the Northern and Eastern States.
It is smaller (c) than the Hessian fly,
of a yellow colour, with clear wings.
They are seen in June, when the
wheat is in flower, and the eggs are
deposited during dusk in the scales
of the chaff. The maggots (/) are
of a yellow colour, changing to brown,
and eat the young seed as it is form-
ed, g represents one of the worms
magnified. The maggots fall to the

WHE

WHE

ground to change into chrysales, and
aio protected in the soil until the
next season, when tliey come forth in
spring.

Fumigations with sulphur and
smoke have been tried during the
evening to destroy the worms ; the
success is, however, only partial.
Sprinkling lime and ashes is much
better : a mixture of half a bushel of
each may be used to tlie acre. The
lime should he water-slacked. After
an invasion of these destructive in-
sects, the stubble should be burned,
the soil ploughed dee[), and no wheat
sown for one or more seasons. Early
or late sowing wdl do little towards
saving a crop of wheat, for it ap-
pears that the midge lives for thirty-
nine days.

The English papers mention an-
other insect, tiie Ascius pumilanus,
which attacks wheat in the same way
as the Hessian fly.

In Virginia, and some other South-
ern States, the chinck hvg is often
destructive. See that insect.

The wheat weevils found in the
United States are the Calandra {Cur-
culio) granaria and ori/z(e; they are
both readily destroyed by kiln-drying,
at 150° to ISO - Fahr. A figure of the
former will be found in the article on
insects.

Besides these, other insects are
occasionally found in smaller quan-
tities, preying on the roots and young
stem, but they seldom produce the
destruction of the crop.

WHEEL and AXLE. A common
mechanical contrivance for raising
weights, especially water from wells ;
the advantage is increased by en-
larging the wheel and diminishing
the axle, hut always with a loss of
time. The best form for great me-
chanical advantage is that represent-
ed in the figure.

WHEELBARROW. A light car-
riage driven by a man and moving on
one wheel. It is made of .stout jjlank
for carrying st(Uie and earth, and is
lighter and larger for the transporta-
tion of grain.

WHEEL PLOUGH. A plough
with a wheel m the heel to dinunish
the friction of the sole. See rUmsli.

W HEELS OF CARRl AOES.
The wheel consists of three parts :
the nave, centre, or hub ; the spokes ;
and the circumference, or felloes,
bounded with its iron tire. The ma-
terials may be of iron or wood ; if the
latter, elm or white oak is preferred
for the nave, white oak for the spokes,
and ash for the felloes. The centre
of the nave is furnished with an iion
box to receive the axletree. The
wood should be thoroughly seasoned,
and the framing of the wheel set to-
gether some weeks before the tire is
put on. The manner of setting tlie
tire is well known ; it is healed in a
brush fire until nearly red hot, and
then placed over the felloes and at
once chilled with water. It should
be so set as to allow the nails used
to fasten it to be driven into the
spokes. Great improvements have
been made in the axle, which is en-
closed in iron or of wrought iron :
the latest im[)rovement is that of sur-
rounding it with a systein of friction
wheels, which lie between the box
and axle, and reduce the friction to
a minimum.

The advantage of the wheel is two-
fold. " In the first place, they greatly
diminish the friction on the ground
by transferring it from the circum-
ference to the nave and axle ; and in
the second place, they serve to raise
the carriage more easily over obsta-
cles and asperities met with on the
roads. The friction is diminished in
the proportion of the circumference
of the axle to that of the wheel ; and
hence the larger the wheel, and the
smaller the axle, the less is the fric-
tion. Large wheels are, therefore,
best adapted for surmounting inequal-
ities of the road. There are, howev-
er, circumstances which prescribe
liuiits to llic height of the wheels of
861

WHE

WHI

carriages. If the radius exceeds the
height of that part of the horse to
whicli the traces are attached, the
line of traction will he inclined to the
horizon, and part of the power will
be exerted in pressing tlie wheel
against the ground. The hest aver-
age size of wheels is considered to
be about six feet in diameter. The
fore wheels of carriages and wagons
in this country are usually much too
small.

" Cylindrical wheels are best adapt-
ed for level roads ; and the breadth
of the rim should be considerable (not
less than three inches), to prevent
liieir sinking into the ground. In
hilly and uneven roads a slight incli-
nation of the spokes, called dishing,
tends to give strength to the wheel ;
but it is very frequently carried to
excess."

" Carriages with four wheels are
much more advantageous than car-
riages with two wheels, as carts ; for
with two wheels, it is plain the tiller
horse carries part of the weight in
one way or other; in going down lull
the weight bears upon the horse, and
in going up hill the weight falls the
other wa)* and lifts the horse, which
is still worse. Besides, as the wheels
sink into the holes in the roads, some-
times on one side, sometimes on the
other, the shafts strike against the
horse's sides, which destroys many
animals ; moreover, when one of the
wheels sinks into a hole or rut, half
the weight falls that way, which en-
dangers the overturning of the car-
nage."

Mr. Scripture, of New-York, has
recently patented a carriage wheel
which i)romises well. It is furnished
with two separate hubs, which can
be screwed together ; by this means
the pressure of the spokes on the fel-
h)es and tire is easily regulated, and
the tire can neither become bound
nor .so loose as to want cutting.

WHEEL-SHAPED COROLLA.
A rotate corolla : it is monopetalous,
with a spreading border and very
short tube.

WHEEL WORK. A combination
of wheels for the purpose of increas- ,
862

ing speed or gaining power. Motion
is communicated from the circumfe-
rence of one wheel to the axis or pin-
ion of another by teeth, belts, or oc-
casionally by friction. The teeth of
all the wheels and pinions in the
work must be of the same size ; they
should also be smooth on their surfa-
ces, and curved gradually to the sum-
mit to diminish friction. " Toothed
wheels are of three kinds : spur
ivhccls, crown wheels, and bevelled
wheels. When the teeth are raised
upon the edge of the wheel, or are
perpendicular to the axis, the wheel
is a spur wheel ; when they are rais-
ed parallel to the axis, or perpendic-
ular to the plane of the wheel, it is a
crown wheel ; and when they are
raised on a surface inclined to the
plane of the wheel, it is called a bev-
elled wheel. The combination of a
crown wheel, with a spur wheel as
pinion, is used when it is required to
communicate motion round one axis
to another at right angles to it."

WHEEZING IN HORSES.
Broken wind.

WHELP. The voung of the dog.
WHETHERING. Retention of
the after-birth in cows. It should be
removed by hand if retained too long,
as the decomposition of the substance
will otherwise destroy the animal.

WHETSTONE. A silicious slate
used for whetting implements.

WHEY. The watery parts of
milk containing the sugar of milk,
with a little casein and saline mat-
ters. It is fermentable, and made
by some of the Asiatics into an in-
toxicating drink. In the dairy there
are two kinds of whey ; that which
is clear and separates from the milk
when rennet is added, and that which
is pressed out from the curd. The
latter is white, and used to make
whey butter or cottage cheese. See
Butter. Whey is used for feeding
hogs, and given in Scotland even to
horses.

WHEY BUTTER. See Butter.
WHIN. Gorse. See Furze.
WHINSTONE. A kind of basalt.
WHIP GRAFTING. Tongue
grafting. See Grafting.

WHI

WIL

WHIPPING OUT GRAIN. Stri-
king the ears against a stone or the
edge of a board till the corn is sep-
arated from the straw.

WHIPPLE-TREE. A swinging
tree. The bar to which the traces of
the horse are fastened.

^VHIRLBONE. The knee pan.

uated near the joints. It is very dif-
ficult to manage.

WHITE VITRIOL. Sulphate of
zinc. It is a powerful emetic, and is
also vised in lotions.

WHITEWASH. Awash of milk
of lime with size, to enable it to ad-
here. Whitewashing not only ini-

In the horse, the articulation of the proves the appearance of wood-work,
thigh bone in the pelvis ; the ace- but protects it from the weather and

tabulum.

WHIRLWIND. A revolving wind,
blowing to a centre. The tornado is
a violent whirlwind.

msccts. It is a good means of puri-
fying rooms in which substances of a
bad odour have been stored.
WHITE WEED. The larger per-

WHISKEY. A strong spirit dis- I ennial May weed {Chrysanthemum),
tilled from the fermented mash of occurring in wheat fields and mead-
corn, barlev, wheat, or other grains. I ows.

WHITE ARSENIC. Common ■ WHITE WOOD. The tulip-tree,
arsenic, arsenious acid. It has been WHITING. Prepared chalk, for
recommended for dusting grain after > cleaning brasses and silver

brining, but should never be used ;
for other substances, as blue vitriol,
answer muchbetter, and are not so
dangerous.

WHITE CEDAR. See Cedar.

WHITE CROPS. Grain crops ;
the Cercalia. They are exhausting,
from the quantity of seed they form,

WHITLOW. A painful inflamma-
tion near the bone, tending to suppu-
ration.

WHITLOW GRASS. The genus
Draha : cruciferous plants, some of
which are ornamental.

WHORL. In botany, an arrange-
ment of leaves orother organs around

and are foul crops, from allowing | the stem, and apparently on the same
weeds to grow among them. White . level, as the leaves of madder,
crops require to be followed by clean WHORTLEBERRY. The genus
crops, and should be preceded by root Vaccinium, yielding the berries called
crops, as far as practicable. • bilberries, huckleberries, and whor-

WHITE-LEAD. Carbonate of tleberries. The plants are small
lead, a valuable pigment, but liable to , shrubs, often es'ergreen, and growing
adulteration with sulphate of barytes. \ in rocky v.-astes or boggy places. The

This is detected by mixing a sample
with dilute nitric acid, which will dis-
solve all the true white -lead and

leaves contain much tannin, and turn
red when dead. They are readily
propagated by root suckers, by root

leave the barytes. It is the basis of or stem cuttings, or seed.

all colours used in common painting,

WHITE PRECIPITATE. A vio-
lent mercurial poison, used in oint-
ments for destroying vermin.

WHITE ROOT. Asclepms Inbe-
rosa. Colic or pleurisy root ; but-
terfly weed. It is used in domestic
practice as a cathartic, diaphoretic,
and expectorant.

WHITE SCOUR. Diarrhoea.

A\' H I T E THORN. The haw-
thorn.

WICKET GATE. A small, light
gate for the passage of men and hor-
ses onlv. and not for wagons.

! WILD INDIGO. Baptism tincfo-
ria. A perennial leguminous plant,
with wedge-ovate leaves, and yellow
terminal racemes, flowering in July.
It grows three feet high, is common

: in the woods throughout the States,

j and affords a good amount of indigo

! dye.

i WILDING. Young trees produ-

A\'HITE TOP. Agrostis alba. A ccd from seeds naturally distributed,
grass verv similar to red top. , WILD PEAR. The June beny.

A\'Hri E SWELLING. An indo- WILD RICE. Ztzaina aqualica.
lent, scrofulous tumour, usually sit- , Water oats. See Rice, wild.

863

WIN

WIN

WILLOW. The genus Saliz, con- 1
taining thiity-five species indigenous '
to the United States. They are ,
amentaceous and dicEcious trees and I
shrubs, growing for the most ])art in i
swampy lands. The genus iuchides
large trees, as the 6'. Babylonica, I
weeping-willow, and some shrubs of j
only a few inches height. The light i
and elegant appearance of many spe- \
cies have introduced them into shrub- [
heries and parks, as the .S'. vilcilina,
yellow willow ; S. alba, white willow ;
<S'. Russcliiana, the Leicester or Bed-
ford willow : the last is also valua-
ble for timber, the tannin of its bark,
and the proportion of salicine it con-
tains, and is therefore extensively
cultivated in England.

The wood of most of our willows
is of no service except for charcoal,
and of this they produce a kind pre-
ferred for the manufacture of gun-
powder. The commonest species are
S. nigra, the root of which is very
bitter, and used as a domestic medi-
cine ; S. luciJa, or shining willow,
the twigs of which are used for coarse
baskets. The bark of some kinds is
used for domestic dyeing, and produ-
ces a yellowish red colour. In the
north of Europe the .S'. alba is put to
a variety of purposes : the bark is
employed for tanning and dyeing, and
the leaves and young shoots used as
fodder, both in the fresh and dried
state. See Osier, for basket willows ;
also Sallow. Nearly all the species
are readily propagated by cuttings
placed in a moist soil or well watered.

WILLOW HERB. The genus
EpUobmm, perennial herbs, growing
in wet soils : a few are cultivated
for their flowers.

WILLOW LICE. Aphidians, plant
lice.

WILLOW WE ED. An annual
weed. Polygonum lapalhifolium, grow-
ing in wet, light, arable lands. The
seed resembles a small buckwheat ;
they are relished by birds and hogs.

WINCH. A bent or rectangular
handle for turning an axis, attached
to grindstones, the windlass, and
other machines.

WIND. The motion of large por-
8o4

tions of atmospheric air. It occurs
with a velocity differing from a few
miles to sixty or more miles the min-
ute. The origin of winds is usually
referred to the unequal temperature
imparted to the earth's surface by the
sun ; this not only varies with the
latitude, but with the elevation, geo-
logical character, and extent of wa-
ter, and, secondly, to the sudden con-
densation of large quantities o{ its
vapour. The excess in expansion of
the air produced at any place causes
an upward current, which affects the
bulk of air lying around, and gener-
ates a motion from all points to the
centre. In seeking the centre, the
motion is spiral or centripetal, ac-
cording to the best theories. Winds
are of interest to the farmer from the
meteoric effects they produce, as
rain, snow, frost, increase of the
drying power, and hail. A body of
air in motion increases the evapora-
tion of water from the land and plants
even to double the extent of the or-
dinary action at the same tempera-
ture ; this increases their coldness,
and may produce frost even during a
mild season ; in hot, dry weather,
plants wither more rapidly during
windy weather. For this reason,
tender plants require shelter from
rough winds. Tiie character of any
wind is dependant upon the country
over which it passes ; those which
sweep over hundreds of miles of the
sea or lakes are usually surcharged
with moisture, and produce rain if
they pass into a northern region, as
in the case of our southwestern
storms. Winds which sweep over
hot, dry deserts become simooms ;
their contact withers vegetation in a
few minutes. So winds produce
coldness which come from snowj'
districts, and warmth when they come
from the south. The study of the
peculiarities of every wind, and the
season of its prevalence, is to the
farmer one of the most important ob-
jects, and, taken in connexion with
the fluctuations of the barometer and
thermometer, will after a time enable
him to foretell rain for many hours
before its appearance.

WIN

WIN

WIND FLOWER. Anemone Vir-
giniana. A wood flower.

WIND GAUGE. See Anemometer.

WIND IN HORSES. Respira-
tion. See Broken Wind.

WIND GALLS. Small tumours
near the fetlocks of horses, produced
by strains and over-driving : they
contain a serous lluid. The animal
should have rest : astringent lotions
may be used, and a bandage applied
very tight. If they do not disappear,
a little blistering ointment may be
applied near them.

WINDLASS. .\ simple mechani-
cal contrivance, of the wheel and axle
kind, the winch, D C B, being the
representative of the wheel (Fig.).
c

BFV.

In heavy windlasses, as those em-
ployed on shipboard, the axis is large,
and moved by levers inserted into ;
mortices cut into it at convenient ■
distances. A strong windlass, made !
by taking the trunk of a tree for the ]
axis, and adjustuig it lengthwise i
against the stems of two trees, might
be used in tearing up stumps. This i
a.xis siiould be pierced with mortices
and turned with handspikes; it should i
also be furnished with ratchets (pauls) j
or wedges, to hinder it from turning
backward when the handspikes are |
out. A strong chain made fust in the
stump, and to the windlass, will af- j
ford a means of acting upon the for- '
mer, and, by cutting the longest roots
at a little distance, it may be drawn '
out sutliciently to permit the use of
the plough.

WINDMILL. "In mechanics, a
mill which receives its motion from
the wind. The building containing
the machinery is usually circular. To
the extremity of the principal axis, or
wind shaft, are attached rectangular
frames (generally five), on which
canva.'js is usually stretched to form
the sails The surfaces of the sails
i D

are not perpendicular to the axis, but
inclined to it at a certain angle, about
72° at the extremities nearest to the
axle, and 83° at the farther extremi-
ties ; so that their form is in some
degree twisted, and difi'erent from a
plane surface. The wind-shaft is in-
clined to the horizon in an angle of
from 8° to 15°, principally with a
view to allow room for the action of
the wind at the lower part, where it
would be weakened if the sails came
too nearly in contact with the build-
ing.

" As the direction of the wind is
constantly changing, some apparatus
is required for bringing the axle and
sails into their proper position. This
is sometimes effected by supporting
the machinery on a strong vertical
axis, the pivot of which moves in a
socket firmly fixed in the ground, so
that the whole structure may be turn-
ed round by a lever. But it is now
usual to construct the building with
a movea!)le roof, which revolves upon
friction rollers ; and the shaft, being
fixed in the roof, is brought round
along with it. The roof is brought
into the required position by means
of a small vane wheel, furnished with
wind sails, which turns round when
the wind strikes on either side of it,
and drives a pinion which works into
the teeth of a large crown wheel
connected with and surrounding the
moveable roof."

This is the vertical windmill, but
sometimes the sails are fixed on a
horizontal axis. Windmills are sel-
dom made because of their inferiority
to water and horse, or steam power
mills. The internal machinery is the
same as that of the water-mill.

WINDROW. A line or rovr of
grass, peat, or produce exposed to
dry. The unfilled borders of a field.

WINE. See Vine.
' WINE STONE. Crude tartar,
argal.

I WINGS. Alee. In botany, the
side petals of pea-like flowers, the
membranous expansions of the seeds
' of the ash, alanthus, parsnip, and oth-
er seeds.

1 WINLE STRAWS Bents, the
665

WIN

WIR

withered flower-stalks of grasses
standing in meadows.

WINNOWING. The separation
of wheat or grain from cliatf, an-
ciently performed hy throwing up
shovelfuls into the air on a windy day,
but now accomplished by the fan.

WINNOWING MACHINE. The
wheat or grain fun. A machine for
separating grain from chaff", and
cleaning wheat from cockle, cheat,
and other small seeds. It consists
of a frame-work enclosing a fan,
which is moved by a crank and
wheel-work on the outside. Tiie
grain faWs from a hopper at the top
of the machine upon a sieve, to which
a jogging motion is given hy the
crank ; in this way it is sifted from
stones or bodies larger than the grain.
The current of wind produced by the
fan blowing over the sieve drives out
all light particles of chaff". The seeds
which pass down from the sieve fall
on the upper parts of an inclined
shaking screen of wire, set too close
for the transmission of plump grains,
but allowing shrivelled seed, cockle,
&c., to pass through. A machine is
provided with three screens and
sieves to enable the farmer to use it
for different grain. Forty to fifty
bushels can be cleaned in an hour
with the common fans.

The English winnowing machines
are combined with smut machines,
and are therefore much more expen-
sive and complicated. The follow-
ing description is of Mr. Salter's pat-
ent:

" The undressed grain from the
hopper passes through a cylindrical
sieve, having within it a rotary spin-
dle, upon which short, blunt arms are
arranged in a spiral direction ; these
agitate the grain as it passes along,
and thus separate the small dirt and
dust as well as the awns of barley,
which fall through in a closed box or
cupboard. The cylinder is placed in
a slanting direction, and is provided
at each end with slides, which regu-
late the quantity and speed with
which the grain shall pass. Through
the slide aperture at the lower cad,
the grain is introduced upon other
866

sieves, which, having a backward and
forward motion, distribute it equally
over their surface, when it is sub-
jected to the blast of the fan, driving
obliquely through the sieves ; this
carries the chaff' out of the machine ;
the grain falls on a screen, which,
having a similar motion to the sieves,
separates from it all small seeds, and
the dross corn is carried away in a
division formed for the purpose. The
grain, dross corn, and chaff are thus
all thorougly separated from each
other, and the dust, dirt, and small
seeds, having fallen in an enclosed
box from the cylinder, may be entire-
ly removed."

WINTER BERRY. Prinos vcr-
(iciHalis. False alder, a shrub of four
to eight feet, with permanent red ber-
ries, adapted to shrubberies.

WINTER CRESS. Barharca prce-
cox. An indigenous, perennial, cru-
ciferous plant, growing in the Nor-
thern and Eastern States, near spring
branches. It is very similar to wa-
ter-cress, but more pungent in fla-
vour. B. vulgaris, also indigenous,
is the water-radish, or rocket.

WINTER GREEN. The genus
Chimaphtla ; pretty Alpine plants.
They are perennial, with long roots,
and grow in the shade of woods. The
C. umhellata, pipsissiwa, is used in
domestic medicine as a tonic and as-
tringent.

WINTER PROUD. A term ap-
plied to wheat or barley which ap-
pears too forward in winter, and
hence frequently gets injured, and
yields a poor harvest.

WIPERS. " In some kinds of ma-
chinery, as oil mills, powder mills,
fulling mills, pieces projecting gen-
erally from horizontal axles, for the
purpose of raising stampers, pound-
ers, or heavy pistons, in vertical di-
rections, and then leaving them to
fall by their own weight. The prin-
cipal object to be attended to in the
construction of wipers is to give them
such a form that the weight shall be
raised with a uniform force and ve-
locity."

WIRE GRASS. Several grasses
are so called, but the true wire grass

WOA

WOA

is the Eleusine Iiidica, an annual, flow-
ering in spilces.

W I R E WORM. Elatcr segctis.
See Insects. The following plan for
the destruction of wire-worms is by
a practical farmer, Mr. Tarrant : He
cleans the infested field of all weeds
and roots, and drills white mustard
seed, keeping the land hoed, and by
the end of the season finds the worms
entirely gone. — {British Farm. Mag.,
1831.)

WISP. A small bundle of hay or
straw.

WITHE. A flexible twig or bough.

WITHERITE. Mineral carbonate
of baryta.

WITHERS. The high portion of
an animal's back over the shoulders.
Horses with high withers are said
to have the fore hand well up ; they
go high above the ground, and are
quick and safe. In draught horses
the breadth or weight of the fore
hand is desirable.

The word is sometimes applied to
the womb of the cow. Casting the
u-ithcrs is inversion and protrusion of
the womb. It should be returned by
the hand and arm, and maintained in
its place by a roll of linen introduced
into the vagina in a wet state. The
animal must be kept quiet and free
from fever.

W 0 A D. Isatis tinctoria. See
Fig. " It has been greatly superseded

by iodigo, which gives a stronger

and finer blue ; but on some soils it
might be still cultivated to great ad-
vantage, especially as it is said to im-
prove the quality and colour of indi-
go when mi.ved with it in a certain
proportion.

"The woad is a plant of the natu-
ral order of the Crnafcra. It has a
strong tap-root, which lasts two years.
The height of the plant, when in per-
fection, is from three to four feet. It
throws out many branches from the
upper part of the stem. The leaves
are alternate and smooth. The flow-
ers are yellow, in panicles at the ex-
tremity of the branches. The fruit is
a heart-shaped pod, with two valves,
containing one seed only. It grows
well on the borders of the Baltic, and
is very hardy.

" It is still cultivated to a consid-
erable extent in the south of France
and Flanders. It requires a good
substantial soil of considerable depth
and fertility ; for the larger and more
numerous the leaves are, the more
profit is derived from the plant. A
wet clay soil is not at all suited to
its growth, nor a loose sandy one.

" When it was largely cultivated in
England, old pastures ploughed up
atTorded the best soil for the woad to
grow in. To have good woad. the
land should be naturally very rich, or
much manure should be intimately
mixed with it some time before. No-
thing but completely decomposed
dung should be used, or compost
made on purpose a long time before.

"The land, having been prepared
by repeated ploughings, and perfectly
clean, is laid into narrow beds with
deep intervals. On these beds the
seed is sown as early in spring as
possible. It is sometimes sown broad-
cast, and the plants thinned out ; but
sowing it in drills, two rows on a
four-feet bed, is much the best prac-
tice. The drills are one foot from the
edge, with two feet clear between
them ; some make iive-feet beds, and
there is an interval of thirty inches
between the rows, which allows of
better cleaning, and gives the plants
more room to spread. When the
plants are come up iu the rows, they
867

WOAD.

must be thinned out by hand, leaving
the strongest about two iVet apart :
the leaves will soon fill up the inter-
vals. They begin to ripen in June.
They are fit to gather wlicn they be-
gin to droop and become yellowish :
This should be done in very dry weath-
er, and alter the dew is off. The
leaves of the woad are either twisted
off close to the stems, or cut down
with a sickle. Great care must be
taken that no dirt or earth adheres to
them. Some recommend taking off
the lower leaves first, when they ap-
pear ripe by drooping and turning
yellow, and letting the upper leaves
remain till they show the same ap-
pearance ; then nothing but ripe
leaves will be gathered. This strip-
ping may be repeated two or three
times, as the leaves grow again. I'lie
plants destined for seed are only strip-
ped once or twice, for fear of weak-
ening them. It might probably be ad-
vantageous not to strip them at all,
but to leave the whole strength for
the formation of the seed, which will
be larger and produce finer plants the
next year.

" The first gathering of the leaves
is the best ; they should therefore be
kept separate, to obtain the best dye.
As soon as the leaves are gathered
the beds should be well and deeply
hoed or dug, to give a fresh impulse
to the roots.

'• The leaves are naturally full of
sap, and soon begin to decompose if
laid in a heap. They should there-
fore be partially dried, and imme-
diately carried to the mill to be man-
ufactured.

" There is a variety of this plant
cultivated in Flanders and about Va-
lenciennes, which has seeds of a
violet colour, and the leaves very
smooth ; it is larger than the other,
and gives a better dye. It is that
which is cultivated near Avignon,
■whence the best woad dye is procu-
red. The leaves are ground in a mill,
like an oil mill, into a paste, which,
when quite uniform and smooth, is
laid in heaps under a shed, and pressed
with the hands or feet into a mass :
each addition is carefully joined to
tC8

the preceding, so that the whole crop
forms a long heap. A fermentation
is soon established, by which the blue
dye is separated. A black crust is
formed all over the heap, which keeps
in the gases produced. If any part
of this crust is cracked, it must be
immediately stopped up with some
of the paste. It takes a fortnight to
complete the operation. When the
disengagement of gas ceases, which
is soon perceived by the smell, the
heap is broken up, the crust is mixed
with the inside, and small portions,
like bricks of about one pound weight,
arc made up with the hands by press-
ure in a mould, which, when dry,
are fit for sale. As great attention
is required both in the growing and
preparing of the woad, it is best done
by those who make a trade of it,
and have the necessary experience.
When the crop succeeds, the profit
is very considerable ; but, like all oth-
er crops, it is liable to many acci-
dents.

"Woad is often shamefully adul-
terated with earth and other impuri-
ties. In Germany the process of pre-
paring the woad is somewhat differ-
ent. The leaves are first washed,
and then put into a tub three quarters
full of water, and kept under water
by blocks of wood laid on them. l"he
fermentation soon begins, and is
shown by a blue scum on the water.
When it has gone on to a certain
point, the water is drawn off below,
and it comes away of a deep green.
It is strained through a cloth, the re-
maining leaves are waslied with fresh
water, and this is added to the first.
Lime-water is now added, in the pro-
portion of two or three pounds for
every ten pounds of leaves used, and
the mixture is well shaken for some
time ; the dye is deposited in the
form of a powder, as starch is ; the
water is decanted off, and the thick
part at the bottom is filtered through
very tine cloths ; the powder which
remains is washed repeatedly, tdl the
water comes off without being dis-
ccdoured. The residue is cut into
squares and set to dry. If there is too
much water added, the dye is iiife-

woo

AVOO

rior ; and if not enough, there is less
of it. '1 he exact (|iianlity can only be
derided by practice and exi)erience.
"Tlie seed will vegetate wjien two
years old, but cannot be depended on
after that.

" Woad is also occasionally sown
as food for cattle ; and as everything,
old and new, has been brought for-
ward by the late renewed zeal for
agriculture, it has been reconnnend-
ed for thi-s purpose under its French
name of ' Pastel.' Its vigorous
growth and hardy nature have rec-
ommended it ; but it will only grow
in very rich soils. There are many
other plants as vigorous and hanly,
which will thrive well in inferior
soils, and therefore are to be pre-
ferred. But for its dye, this plant
is well worthy of the attention of
those who have good rich and deep
soils."

WOLF. On the prairies much loss
is sustained by shepherds from the
attacks of wolves ; these may be de-
stroyed in the same way as the fox,
or poisoned by sprinkling twenty
grains of arsenic on some offal placed
in their way. Some use a quarter of
a grain of strychnine, inserted in a
l)i(>ce of meat.

WOLF'S BANE. Monk's hood.

WOLLASTONITE. A species of
prismatic augite.

W O O D. The substance of the
trunk of exogenous trees ; it consists
of an internal hard and coloured por-
tion, the heart-wood (duramen), and
an external, softer, and more perish- 1
able part, the new wood, sap w'ood, I
or alburnum. It consists of woody |
fibre and ducts. (See Timber, and the
different trees.) The composition of
oak wood, according to Gay Lussac,
is, carbon, 52-5; oxygen, -11-8; hy-
drogen, 5 7 per cent. Wood decays
slowly, and yields water and carbonic
acid when in contact with air.

WOOD ASHES. The saline bod-
ies of trees : they are obtained for
their potash. Oak and hickory ashes
contain from twenty to twenty-five
per cent, of real potash, and yield the
best ashes. As a manure, ten bush-
els of fresh ashes to the acre in com-
4D3

' post are enough, hut if unleached,
twenty or more may be employed.
See A.shes and I'ola.sh.

WOODBINE The honeysuckle.

WOOD S O R R E L. The genus
Oxalis, the leaves of which are sour,
and contain oxalate of potash : tliey
grow in rich, shady places. Many
species bear beautiful fiowers.

WOOD WASPS. The saw flics.

WOOD WAXEN. Gcmsia tniclo-
ria. Dyer's broom, a perennial legu-
minous plant, with yellow flowers,
growing one foot high, leaves lanceo-
late, smooth, stem round, uprigl^J,
without spines. It is exotic, but
grows readily in the Northern and
Eastern States The plant in flower
yields a yellow dye, which is fixed
by solution of tin or acetate of alu-
mina. It may be readily rai«ed from
seed, in drills a foot apart, and the
plants kept clean bv the cultivator.

WOODY FIBRE. Very slender,
tapering cellular tissue, containing
lignin, and forming, when compacted
together, the tough fibre of hemp, flax,
and vegetables, as well as the bulk
of wo.id.

W^OOL. Hair which is somewhat
curled and possesses the quality of
felting ; this results from numerous
serratures on the staple. For the
qualities of wool, see Sheep. The
value of wool depends upon the fine-
ness, felting quality, and trueness of
the staple, which arc explained in the
article on Sherp ; but the quality of a
fleece is not the same throughout : it
is, indeed, divisible into four parcels.
In some ijarts of Europe it is the cus-
tom for the farmer to make the sep-
aration, but in the United States this
is left to the manufacturers. The
only preparation necessary is to re-
move burs, tags, and the coarse hairs
of the legs, which is done before
shearing. The sheep is washed a
week or ten days before shearing, in
a cistern or trough, or, w-liat is prefer-
al)le, n running stream ; the tags are
first removed, and the wa.shing made
perfect by squeezing the wool. In
the case of Merino bucks a little soft
soap may be used, for the cleaner
the wool the higher the price obtain-
869

WOOL.

ed. In Spain, it is the custom to

sweat the sheep the night before
shearing, by keeping as large a num-
ber as can he crowded together in a
hut : the wool is removed the next
day witliout being washed, that op-
eration being conducted afterward.
The wool is first sorted into three
parcels ; in some places these parcels
contain the different qualities : 1st,
superfine picklock (rcjinn), taken from
the back, flanks, and sides of the
neck ; 2d, fine ifma), from the
breast, belly, sides of the haunches,
and upper part of the neck ; 3d,
third kind (iercera), from the cheeks,
upper part of the throat, the fore legs
above the knee, the hams, and back
of the haunches ; the fourth quality,
or cayda, is refuse, and is from the
tail, rump, lower parts of the legs, and
between the legs. The assorted par-
cels are hence treated separately :
first they are beaten on hurdles ; then
placed in vats containing water heat-
ed to 120= Fahrenheit, where they
are stirred with sticks ; then removed
to drain and transferred to a running
stream ; here the wool is pressed by
the feet of the workmen, and finally
thrown out to dry on the grass : in a
few days of hot, dry weather it be-
comes sufficiently dry to be packed.
When sheep are washed, as with us,
the wool is by no means so clean ;
indeed, Spanish Merino wool by
scouring only loses ten per cent.,
whereas American Merino loses for-
ty per cent. The washed sheep are
transferred to clean meadows, and if
fed in sheds, they should be laid with
clean straw. If the weather he fine,
in a week the fleece will be dry, and
a new secretion of j'olk will have in-
creased its weight.

The shearing must be postponed
to fine, warm, settled weather, and
may take place in a well-lighted barn,
the floor of which is spread with
straw and then covered with a can-
vass ; but a clean sward is well
enougli. {See Shearing.) The fleece
is to be removed carefully, tiie wool
cut truly, and not clipped irregularly,
but severed with each stroke of the
ehears. A good workman can man-
670

age 25 to 30 sheep a day of the Me

rino breed. All tags, burs, and hail
about the legs should be removed
before bringing the sheep on the can-
vass, which is to be done with man-
agement, and not violently. The re-
moval of hair is important, as it af-
fords shelter to ticks, and may hide
diseases of the skin. After shearing,
the sheep should be classified, accord-
ing to the wool they produce, their
healthiness and form, and marked so
as to carry out the views of their
owner. They may be marked with
a ho-t iron on the forehead, or with
an ointment of lampblack and lard :
tar is objectionable on the wool-bear-
ing parts.

The fleeces are piled one on the
other until the shearing is done ; or
they may be removed by a new hand,
and carried to a table, one by one, to
be rolled. With each fleece the loose
locks are taken, but the hair of th.e
legs separated and placed in a bag or
elsewhere. The fleece is carefully
spread out on the table, the ragged
portions on the edges are separated,
and, with all the loose wool, thrown
into the middle. The workman next
presses the sides inward, so as to
condense the wool ; the sides and
ends are then turned over, so that
the folded fleece forms an oblong two
or three feet long and one and a half
feet wide ; this is drawn to the front
edge of the table and rolled, during
which the assistance of a boy is ne-
cessary to press the wool together
and condense it; the roll is finally
tied with a stout twine. The fleeces
are preserved in a well- ventilated loft.
When sold, they are put up in bales :
these are made of burlaps ; a piece
of a yard wide and three yards long
is used for a sack. The sack is kept
open by a hoop, and the fleeces press-
ed down by a man until the bag is
nearly full ; it is then made up and
sewed along the top.

The weight of a fleece, and the price
it fetches in the market per pound,
are subject to considerable difference.
The following represents the average
fleece : Saxons, 2 to 3 lbs. ; Merinos,
2.i to 3 lbs. ; South Downs, 3 to 4 lbs ;

woo

new Leieesters, 6 to 7 lbs. ; Cots-
volds, 7 to 8 lbs. ; Lincolns, 8 to 10
I!js. The price of wool per pound, as
reported in 1845, was, Saxony, 35 to
50 cents ; pure Merino, 30 to 35
cents ; liaK-biood Merino, 25 to 30
cents ; common country sheep, 20 to
25 cents. Tlie wool of the English
kinds are not separated, but are worth
about the same as the half-breed Me-
rinos.

WOOL-GROWING. In the arti-
cle Food, we remarked that provender
differed in its effects, some kinds, as
the oily seeds, producing rapid fatten-
ing ; others, as the dry grains, serv-
ing to sustain strength. The fod-
ders best calculated to increase the

WOR

} weight of wool may be ascertained
J theoretically by considering the com-
position of that staple (see Wovllcn
Rags) ; it is there seen tlial 100 lbs , in
the ordinary state, contain 177 nitro-
gen, a quantity unusually large. The
inference is, therefore, 'that azotized
or nitrogen food is best calculated for
the increase of wool, and that pease,
beans, rye, barley, may be judiciously
I given. On this point theory is also
abundantly confirmed by the experi-
ments of M. de Ilaumer, of Silesia.
The following table exhibits the value
of 1000 lbs. of vari<)us fodders in in
creasing the live weight, producing
wool and tallow- : the sheep were
Saxons :

Inrreaseof

Prod need

Produced

Nitrogen

Kinds of food.

weight in
live animal.

w

rioi.

OW.

per cent,
in food.

IIjs.

r,z.

U.S. o7..

1000 noun

lis of raw potatoes, with salt . . .

46J

6

b?

12

5i

0-36

1000 "

" " without salt

44

t)

8

10

m

0-36

1000 "

raw mangold wurzel . . .

38

5

3*

6

5i

0.21

1000 "

pease

134

14

11

41

6

3 83

1000 "

wheat

155

13

I3i 59

9

209

1000 "

rye, with salt

90

13

14i 35

lU

200

1000 "

rye, without salt

83

12

lOi 33

Hi,

2-00

1000 "

oats

14fi

9

12 40

8

1 TO

1000 "

barter

136

11

fiA 60

1

1-90

1000 "

buckwheat

no

10

U 33

8

210

1000 «

good hav .

58

7

lOi 12

14

115

1000 "

hav, with straw, without otlier

fodder

31

15

8 6

n

1000 "

whiskey still-grains or wash .

35

6

1 4

0

The daily ration of the sheep is
i-egulated in the same way as for cat-
t(e ; two per cent, of the weight be-
ing allowed for those in an ordinary
state, and more for such as are put
up to fatten ; 2 to 2i lbs. of hay, or
its equivalent in other fodders, are
about the average. In M. de Rau-
mer's experiments the animals were
permitted to eat all they would, and
tlie result shows that they took each
daily of potatoes, sliced, 7 lbs., with
straw ; mangold, 8 lbs., with straw ;
pease and beans, 2 lbs. : these should
be soaked in water or steamed, to en-
able the sheep to chew them ; wheat,
rye, barley, oats, from 2 to 21 lbs. ;
buckwheat, 3 lbs. : in every instance
where dry fodders were given, the
animals required two or three quarts
of water.

WOOLLEN RAGS. They are
used as manure, at the rate of half a
ton to the acre, citlier alone, chop-

ped into pieces not exceeding half an
inch square, or in compost. The hop,
tobacco, turnips, and plants requiring
much putrescent manure, are most
benefited. Wool is almost identical
in composition with hair, horns, and
feathers : it consists of 506 carbon ;
7 0 hydrogen ; 17-7 nitrogen, and 247
oxygen, with a very small amount
ofash. The rags alone will show
good effects for four or five years.
In their decay, 100 pounds produce
20 pounds of ammoia, which is liber-
ated in the form of carbonate. When
rotted in compost, 200 pounds will be
enough to the acre, spread as a top-
dressing on growing plants.

WOOL SHEARS. Sheep shears.

WOR.M. A common name for cat-
erpillars and the tribe Vermes. See
Cm/ Worm, Wire Worm.

W'OR.MING. An operation per-
formed on puppies, consisting in the
removal of a vermiform ligament from
871

wou

FAM

under the tongue : it is sometimes
supposed to prevent madness, hut, in
faet, mert^Iy biealvs them of their hab-
it of gnawini,'.

WORM SEED. Goosefoot, Jeru-
salem oak. An oil is distilled from
the seeds, and called worm-seed oil :
it is exceedingly nauseous, and is giv-
en to children in the dose of five to
ten droi)s, and followed by cathartics.
See Goosefoot.

WORMS, INTESTINAL. There
are many species infesting animals,
especially horses. The principal are
hots; lumbrici, or round, long worms,
resembling the earthworm; ascandes,
which are slender and with flattened
heads, and ttsnicE, or tape worms.

The etfects of worms are soon seen
in the health of animals ; they get
poor, low-spirited, and weak, notwith-
standing their appetite is often vo-
racious. As soon as these symptoms
are discovered, measures must be ta-
ken for the expulsion of the worms :
this is n.ot easily accomplished, but
purgatives containing calomel, jalap,
and aloes are most effective. The
tape worm must be previously killed
by doses of turpentine ; for this pur-
pose, a wine-glassful should be giv-
en at intervals of six hours, three
or four times, until portions of the
worm are evacuated by the purge.
See Bots, Horse.

WORxMWOOD. The genus Arte-
misia, including southernwood, mug-
wort, &c. Tliey are composite, bit-
ter perennials, with a strong, rank
odour, and have been much used as
tonic bitters, and some species are
vermifuges. Common wormwood is
A. absinthnim : the French flavour a
cordial with it. The seeds of any of
the species grow readily in the Uni-
ted States : they are also propagated
by root slips.

WORT. A decoction of malt ; an
old name for an herb.

WO ULFE'S APPARATUS. A
series of two or three necked bottles,
connected by intermediate tubes, used
in the chemical laboratory for impreg-
nating water and other liquids with
various gases or vapours.

WOUND. A division of the soft
872

parts. If it he a clean cut or incised
wound, all tiiat is necessary is to
wash the parts with tepid water to
remove all dirt, and bring the sides
of the wound together with sticking
plaster. Torn and contused wounds
do not heal so kindly, but often run
into suppuration. If an artery be di-
vided, it is flrst to be tied with a silk
thread before the wound is closed.

W 0 U N D W O R T. The genus
Stachys, weeds of little account.

WROUGHT. Materials which
have been brought to a surface by
hammering or other labour.

X.

XANTHINE (from ^avdoc, yellmc).
A yellow colouring principle in mad-
der.

XANTHOPHYL (from ^avdoQ, and
<pv?L?Mv, a leaf). The yellow colour-
ing matter of autumnal foliage.

XYLITE (from ^vlov, wood). Lig-
nonc, an empyreumatic spirit exist-
ing in the products of vinegar distil-
led from wood.

XYLOPHAGANS, XYLOPHA-
GA (from ^vlov, and ^ayw, I eat). A
tribe of coleopterous insects, compre-
hending those of which the larva; de-
vour the wood of trees in which they
are developed ; also applied to a fam-
ily of dipterous insects, the larva;
of which have similarly destructive
habits.

XYLOPHILANS, XILOPHILI
(from ^vT^ov, and (j>iXeu, I love). A
tribe of beetles, consisting of those
which live on decayed wood.

XYLOTROGES, XYLOTROGI
(from ^v?^ov, and rpuyo, I gnaw). A
tribe of serricorn beetles, compre-
hending those which perforate timber.

YAK. The Himalayan bison, re-
sembling the buffiilo, three and a half
feet high, and with flue, long hair.

YAM. The tuber of the Ihoscorea
sativa, alata, and other species. It is
similar to the sweet potato, but much
larger. The cultivation is the same,
only that a stake is driven near each
plant, to allow the stem to climb.

YAM ROOT. Dioscorea villosa.

YEL

YEL

An indigenous perennial climbing
plant, of the same geiuis as the yam.

YARD DUNG. Farmyard ma-
nure.

YARD OF LAND. A measure
varying from 15 to 34 acres.

YARROW. The genus Achillea.
Bitter, aromatic weeds, of the com-
posite family. They are wholesome,
and are found in good pastures, es-
pecially A. millefolium, common yar-
row. They have been recommended
for cultivation.

YEARLINGS. Calves and other
stock one year old.

YEAST, BARM. The substance
produced during the vinous ferment-
ation of vegetable juices and decoc-
tions, rising partly to the surface, in
the form of a frothy, flocculcnt, and
somewhat viscid matter, insoluble in
water and alcohol, and gradually pu-
trefying in a warm atmosphere. It
excites fermentation, and accelerates
the process when added to saccha-
rine liquors. It is changed gluten
and other protein compounds in in-
cipient decomposition.

Artificial yeast, or that made with-
out recourse to the introduction of a
portion of yeast, is very important in
families. The following recipe gives
a good yeast : Boil a handful of hops
in three pints of water ; add three
mashed boiled potatoes, strain, and
mix with a cupful of flour; set aside
to cool, and tlicu add a lea-spoonful
of sugar, and bottle up for use. A
more permanent ferment is made by
boiling a quantity of wheat bran and
hops in water ; the decoction is not
long in fermenting, and when this
has taken place, throw in a sufficient
portion of bran to form the whole into
a thick paste, which work into balls,
and afterward dry by a slow heat.
When wanted for use, they are bro-
ken, and boiling water is poured upon
them ; having stood a jjroper time,
the fluid is decanted, and m a lit state
for leavening bread. In the place of
bran, Indian corn meal may be used,
if a little of a previous ferment be
broken up in the mass.

YELLOW DYES. Persian ber-
ries, weld, quercitron bark, fustic,

turmeric, dyer's broom, annotta, wil-
low leaves, berberry roots, are the
principal vegetable dyes. Chrome
yellow, oxide of iron, sulphurels of
antimony and arsenic, and nitric acid
are obtained from the mineral king-
dom. Solutions of alum and tin are
used as mordants.

YELLOW FEVER. A bilious re-
mittent fever of a malignant kind.
It attacks animals as well as men,
but does not so readily destroy them.
Large doses of calomel, with bleed-
ing, m the earliest stages, form the
best treatment ; but in the later sta-
ges the system is often so prostrated
that it re(piires sustenance from spir-
ituous licjuors and carbonate of am-
monia.

YELLOW RATTLE. The weed
lihi n a n t hits cristagalii .

YELLOWS. Jaundice, irritation
of the liver, attended with a yellow-
ness of the eyeballs. A calomel
purge is necessary, and bleeding, if
there be fever.

YELLOWS IN TREES. This,
which is called a disease of trees, is
only an effect produced by different
causes, such as plant lice, worms at
the root or in the bark, and improper
soils. The leaves turn yellow, and nu-
trition being cut off", they usually die.
Whenever this symptom is seen du-
ring early summer, the tree should
be thoroughly examined, to ascertain
the cause, and treated accordingly.
Scraping the bark, making an incis-
ion from the branches to the root, and
washing the stem, root, and large
branches with solution of whale-oil
soap may be found serviceable. Plant
lice are to be smoked with tabacco.
See Plant Lice, Borers, and Scale In-
sects. Peach trees are very liable to
this ailment in the Northern States.

Y E L L O W S E E D. The weed
Thiaspi campcstrc, false flax, mithri-
date mustar<i, a cruciferous annual
with mustard-flavoured pods, which
abounds in flax fiolds, and is very
troublesome. It can only be avoided
by screening the flax seed carefully,
and omitting the cultivation of flax
for a season, introducing cleaning or
hoed crops instead.

873

YOL

ZEO

YELLOW TOP. White top.

Agros/is alha.

YELLOW WASH. An applica-
tion to ulcers. Jt is made l)y adding
a draclun of lime-water to two grains
of corrosive sublimate dissolved in
one ounce of water.

YELLOW WEED. The butter-
cups, or Ranunculus, are so called.

YELLOW WOOD. Vngdm lulca.
A medium-sized leguminous tree of
West Tennessee, seldom attaining
forty feet, and growing in rich, deep
soils. The leaves are large, smooth,
pinnate ; the flowers in pendulous
clusters, like the locust, and white.
It is a highly ornamental tree, and
an infusion of the bark affords a yel-
low dye.

YEW. The genus Taxus, conif-
erous trees and shrubs, with ever-
green, small leaves, of slow growth,
but producing very hard, strong wood,
formerly reputed for bows, and now-
used in cabinet-work. The T. bac-
cala is the yew-tree ; the T. Canaden-
sis is a shrub of five feet. They make
good hedges, but the leaves are poi-
sonous.

YOKE. A frame of wood fixed
with bows over the necks of oxen,
whereby they are coupled together,
or yoked. It is sometimes written
"yoak," and is composed, 1. Of a thick
piece of wood that passes over the
neck, and is properly called the
"yoke ;■' 2. Of a bow, which encom-
passes the neck ; and, 3. Of the
" wreathings,'' or "stitchings," that
serve to connect the whole. Besides
these parts, there are employed a
ring, denominated the " yoke-ring,"
and a chain for securing the traces.
For a new method of yoking, see Ox
Yoke.

Yoke is also an old measure of
land, the quantity ploughed in a day
by a couple of oxen.

YOLK. The yellow of the egg.
An animal soap, also called gum, se-
creted by the skin of sheep, and per-
vading the wool. The finest fleeces
contain most yolk, especially that of
the Merinos. It is readily softened
by warm water, and may be washed
out without trouble ; but there re-
874

mains an oil among the wool, which
is only separated with trouble. Tlie
amount varies from twenty to fifty
[jer cent, of the fleece, and is most in
warm climates and fine fleeces.

YTTRIL.M. The metallic base of
yttria, a rare earth resembling alu-
mina.

YUCCA. Adam's needle, bear's
grass. A genus of shrubl)y, liliaceous
plants, with large, rigid leaves, inhab-
iting the sandy sea-coasts of Georgia
and the South. The Sisal hemp is
of this genus, and the leaves of all
the species may be wrought into a
long staple. l"he Y. glonosa, petre,
is celebrated for its magnificent in-
florescence, and yields sti'ong hemp.
The roots of some species abound in
farina, and w'ere used by the Indians
for food.

YULE. Christmas.

Z.

ZAMIA. A genus of cycadeous
trees, the stems of which yield a kind
of sago. The Z. integrifulia and Z.
pumila grow in Florida, and furnish
sago, or what is improperly called ar
row-root.

ZAPZIEGER CHEESE. Sap
sago. See Cheese.

ZEA. The generic name of the
Indian corn (Z. 7nays).

ZEBRA. The zebra is of the size
and general appearance of the mule,
but with a skin striped with brown, or
black and white : it has not been do-
mesticated.

ZEDOARY. Curcuma Zedoaria.
An East Indian plant, of the same
family as the ginger, but producing
rhizomes not quite as pungent.

Z E C K S T E I N. A magnesian
limestone, lying below the red sand-
stone.

ZEIN. The azotized product of
Indian corn, similar to albumen.

ZENITH. The vertical point in
the sky of any place ; the point im-
mediately overhead.

ZEOLITE. A family of minerals
which fuse and boil before the blow-
pipe ; they are silicates of alumina
and lime, or soda with water. The
soda zeolite is called Nalrohte.

ZIZ

ZERO. Nothing; it is used to
designate the 0" jwint of graduated
scales, as the thermometer, areome-
ter, and usually means a degree equal
to a given lest ; thus, the zero oftiic
areometer is the specitic gravity of
IKire water at 59° Fahr. ; the zero
of Fahrenheit's thermometer is the
temperature of snow mixed with
salt. The zero of the Centigrade
and Reaumer scales is the freezing
point. Degrees ahove zero are plus
(-J-), below it minus ( — ).

ZERUMBET. An East Indian
rhizome, similar to ginger.

ZIMO.ME. That part of the glu-
ten of wheat which is insoluble in al-
cohol.

ZINC. Spelter. A valuable met-
al for rooting and the construction
of vessels, such as are made of tin
plate, than which it is more durable
and stronger. In chemistry, it is of
great use for the construction of gal-
vanic circles and batteries, forming
the positive surface or pole of single
circles. It is rapidly acted on by the
strong acids, and forms an oxide
which combines with most acids. Of
its salts, the suJphaie, or white vit-
riol, is most employed ; it is emetic
and irritant, and used chiefly in lo-
tions. See Pharmacopeia. Calamine
is an impure native carbonate of zinc.
Tutty is an impure artiticial oxide.

ZIXCOUS, ZINCOID, ZLNCODE.
Resembling zinc. This term is used
to designate any metal or other body
which, in a galvanic circle, occupies
the place of the zinc. It is the same
as positive metal or pole, positive
electrode, anode, and the derivatives.
Zincnlysis means the same as elec-
trolysis ; zincolyte, as electrolyte.
These terms are indeed to be prefer-
red over those previously in exist-
ence, because they refer to tlie zinc
element, or its substitute, as the ori-
gin of the galvanic action.

ZINGIBER. The generic name
of the ginger plant (Z. qfficuialis).

ZIRCOATU.M. A rare metal, the
base of zirconium.

ZIZANIA. Wild rice. Sec Rice,
WUd.

ZIZIPHUS. The generic name of

200

the shrubs yielding the jujube (Z.ju
juha).

ZONE (from ^uvn, a bell). A word
much used by naturalists to denote a
band or stripe running around any
object. In geography, a division of
the earth's surface. There are five
great zones. The tropic or torrid
■zone, occupying the central or equa-
torial regions of the earth to a dis-
tance of 23^ degrees north and south,
and therefore having a width of 47
degrees. The north temperate zone
lies between 23^ N. lat and 66^ N.
lat., and occupies 43° of latitude. The
south temperate zone lies in the same
space on the south side of the globe.
The north and south frigid zones oc-
cupy the space beyond 66^ degrees
to the poles ; they are also called the
arctic and antarctic regions.

ZOOLOGY (from ^uov, an animal,
and /.oyog. a discourse). The history
and classification of animals. The
objects of the animal kingdom are so
extremely variaus that a classifica-
tion of them is one of the severest
labours. Numerous suggestions have
been made as a basis for classifica-
tion, but the advance of knowledge
has shown them all to be wanting in
comprehensiveness. When it is re-
membered that under the term ani-
mal is grouped thousands of species
differing from the scarcely organized
and imperceptible dots of jelly called
monads, to the most complicated quad-
rupeds, the difficulties of classifica-
tion will be apparent. The following
view by Professor Owen is the most
complete we have seen.

In this there are four primary di-
visions, or sub-kingdoms : 1. Verte-
brafa, or animals furnished with a
regular back bone : 2d. Artieulata,
animals which contain no internal
skeleton, but are covered with a crust
or shell made of distinct parts or ar-
ticulations, as the lobster ; 3d. Mol-
lusca, animals destitute of skeleton or
articulations, but usually inhabiting
shells ; and, 4th. Radiala, animals of
the lowest organization, destitute of
an internal respiratory organ, and
having a nervous system composed
of mere lines, which are often radia-
875

zoo

ted from a centre. These sub-king-
doms contain each several classes, as
may be seen in the table.

Kingdom Ani.malia.
Sub-kingdom Vertcbrata.
Class Mammalia, mammals.
AvES, birds.
Reptilia, reptiles.
Pisces, fishes.

Sub-kingdom ArticuJata,
Class Crustacea, such as lobsters.
Arachnida, spiders.
Insecta, insects.
Anellata, loorms.
CiRRiPEDiA, barnacles.

Sub-kingdom Mollusca.
Class Cephalopoda, with a cartilagi-
nous head.

Gasteropoda, with an organ
forlocomotion situated under
the stomach, as the snail.

Pteropoda, organs of locomo-
tion two membranous fins,
situated at the sides of the
neck.

Lamellibranchiata, without
head, the gills disposed in
bands, as oysters.

Brachiopoda, without head, en-
closed in a mantle, with two
fleshy arms.

Tunicata, without head, with-
out shell, covered with a
membrane.

Sub-kingdom Radiata.
Nematoneura, nerves apparent.
876

ZYM

Acrita, nerves rudimentary.
Class EcHiNODERMA (Cuvicr), those
furnished with a crust.

AcALEPHA(Cuvier),those\vhich
are witiiout crust.

Ccelelmintha (Owen)^ Ento-
zoa, with a distinct alimen-
tary canal.

Sterklmintha (Owen), without
a separate abdommal cavity,
hydatids.

Ciliobrachiata (Farre), with a
distinct abdomen and anus.

Nudibrachiata (Farre), corals
without intestines or sepa-
rate anus.

RoTiFERA (Ehrenb.), Infusoria,
furnished with a nervous sys-
tem, a distinct abdominal
cavity, and cdliae around the
mouth.

PoLVGASTRA (Ehrcnb), Infuso-
ria, a simple jelly containing
many cavities or stomachs.

ZOONOMY. General animal
physiology.

ZOOPHYTES, ZOOPHYTA (from
fwoi', and <ivTov, a plant). Plant-like
animals, as the corals, corallines,
sponges.

ZU.MIC ACID. An acid found in
sour bread, and other vegetable bod-
ies, resembling the lactic acid.

ZYGO.MA. The zygomatic pro-
cess of the temporal bone, which,
with the molar or cheek bone, forms
the zygomatic fossa or cavity under
the temple.

ZYMOME. Zimome.

i

HAVE RECENTLY PUBLISHED,

In one handsome Volume, of nearly 1400 pages, Sheep extra, Price $3 50

Dr. tUcbstcr's American Dictionary

OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

EXHIBITING THE ORIGIN, ORTHOGRAPHY, PRONUNCIATION, AND DEFINITIOW
OF WORDS, ETC.

THOROUGHLY REVISED AND CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED,
335 i3vof. G:i)auncc» ^. efoo'jirtcjl),

OF YALE COLLEGE,

ISSISTED BY A NUMBER OF GENTLEMEN DISTINGUISHED FOR THEIR HIOH

ATTAINMENTS IN THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF LEARNING, WHOSE

NAMES WILL BE FOUND IN THE PREFACE.

The entire work has been re-stereotyped, and is now beautifully printed
upon a new set of plates. Several thousand additional words have been
incorporated in this edition, embracing all the terms given in the recent edi-
tion in the quarto form. The Synopsis and Walker's Key to the classicaJ
pronunciation of Orcein, Latin, and Scripture proper names have been re-
vised and improved. A complete Vocabulary, giving the pronunciation of
modern Geographical names, has been added to this edition. Great at-
tention has been given in the revision to the pronunciation. A large num-
ber of words having been respelled, it will now be found to be a complete
Pronouncing Dictionary. This edition has been made a Synonymous Dic-
tionary: a new and very important feature, not to be found incorporated
in the same form into any similar work. The utmost care has been given
in every department of the work to render it the most perfect and satis-
factory ever offered to the public. Considering its comprehensiveness, its
numerous essential improvements, and its general utility, it will be found
One of the most indispensable and cheapest books of the times. For a
more particular statement of the principles on which the revision has been
conducted, reference is made to the preface of the work.

The most complete and thorough manual of
our language yet offered to the public : it can
not fail to come into universal use, not only
in all schools and academies, Imt with every
practical person and general reader. — Liter-
ary World.

This edition of Webster is all that could be
desired. It is superior to any that has pre-
ceded it, and is a monument of learning and
research. — iV. Y Commercial Advertiser.

We can safely say that, for a dictionary for
common use, it has no superior — in our judg-
ment no equal. — Evangelist.

The best English dictionary extant. Many
of the orijoual errors of Dr. Webster have
been corrected, while a few only of his cor-
rections of the old defective orthography have
been abandoned, and the work, on the whole,
is better than he left it. — Tribune.

The whole work has been thoroughly re-
vised by Prof. Goodrich, of Yale College, and
geveral important and most valuable iiuprove-
neuls introduced, which will give tu this edi-

tion a pre-eminent advantage over any that
has been previously published. — New York
Observer.

'The labors of Professor Gooodrich have ma-
terially added to the value of tins dictionary.
He has been engaged in them for three years
past, and the application of his acute philo-
logical faculties to this tnsk has not been
without ample fruit. — iV. Y". Evening Post.

It must be the standard English dictionary
throughout this country. It conforms more
nearly than any other tu the usage of the best
authors, and is in every respect the best work
of Its kind, for general use, now before the
public. — iV. Y. Courier and Enquirer.

Undoubtedly the best English dictionary
ever published. It is complete in all its parts,
and in every possible way the work has bi-en
adapted to the wants of the great body of the
people. It will find Us way not only into all
the sch«>ols and academies of the country, but
tu the desk of every student aud the liresid*
of every family. — Mirror.

WORKS OF STERLING VALUE

RECENTLY PUBLISHED BY

MESSRS. HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK.

Sparfes'js C2!&*ritings of a^'aslunstoit ;

Comprising his Correspondence and other Papers, Official and Private, SfC.

With illustrative Portraits.

New, revised, and cheap edition. 12 vols. 8vo, Muslin. $1 50 per volume.

As historical records, Washington's letters are invaluable, delineating, as they do, more
minutely and more truthfully than any other sources, the particulars of our revolution. They
stand among the archives of our history, imperishable, being, in their truth and minuteness,
from the hand of one who knew the things whereof he wrote. — Buffalo Courier.

These volumes are replete with instruction. Every page serves to show bow wise and good
A man our great Washington was. If every man in our country would read these writing*
carefully, they would infuse a portion of his patriotism into the present generation. — Albany
Evening Journal.

^vtstotVn Wi^tot^ oC the (Conquest of |3cru,

With a Preliminary View of the Civiiizatinn of the Incas.
With Portraits, Maps, ifC. 2 vols. Svo, Sheep extra, $4 50 ; Muslin, $4 00.

We can most conscientiously recommend this work as indispensable to complete that long-
line of English histories which is gradually appropriating to itself the most important events
in the chronicles of mankind. — Quarterly Review, October, 1847.

The world's history contains no chapter more striking and attractive than that comprising
the narrative of Spanish conquest in the Americas. Teeming with interest to the historian
and philosopher, to the lover of daring enterprise and marvelous adventure, it is full of fasci-
nation. Mr. Prescott has added to his well-merited reputation by his narrative of the Con-
quest of Peru. — Blackwood.

^^rfscotfjs W^stov^ of the Conquest of fHe^rieo,

With the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortez, and a View of the Ancient

Mexican Civilization.

With Portrait and Maps. 3 vols. 8vo, Sheep extra, $6 75; Muslin, §6 00.

It abounds with sketches of scenery worthy of Scott, with battle-pieces rivaling those of
Napier, with pictures of disaster and desolation scarcely less pathetic than those drawn by
Thucydides. Mr. Prescott appears to us to possess almost every qualification for his task. —
Edinburgh Review.

One of the most remarkable historical compositions that has appeared for a long time. —
Bibhotheque Universelle de Geneve,

23ce.srotf js f£?tstori> of JFertJinan^ antr l:js."iijeUa,

The Catholic.

With Portraits. 3 vols. 8vo, Sheep extra, $6 75 ; Muslin, $6 00.

It is by much the first historical work which America has as yet produced, and one that

jeed hardly fear a comparison with any that has issued from the Eurojiean press since this

century began. — Quarterly Review.

J^ejsrott's i3iosrci})Uical antr Critical JHisrellanies.

With a finely-engraved Portrait. Svo, Muslin. $2 00.

The essays embrace a variety of literary subjects, and treat of American, Spanish, French,
Italian, ani English authors. All who love a light and pleasant style of observation thrown
over topics of universal interest will find enough here to afford them acceptable information
and rational pastime. — Literary Gazette,

PUBLISHED BY

HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK.

i^istorn of Cl)arlcs t[)c iTirst

Of England. By Jacob Abbott. With an Illuminated Title-page and nu-
merous Illustrations. 12mo, ]\[uslin. 60 cents.

i^istorg of iilarg Cinccn of Scots.

By Jacob Abbott. AVith an Illuminated Title-page and numerous Illus-
trations. 12mo, Muslin. 60 cents.

A beautifully-executed volume for youno^ readers, presenting in that easy, admirable style
of which Mr. Abbott is such a consummate master, the strange incidents of the life of this
most interesting personage. The story is complete, and the impressions left on the mind wil'
be ineffaceable. — Evangelist.

Kings anh (ttnccns;

Or, Life in the Palace. By J. S. C. Abbott. With Illustrations. 12mo,
Muslin. Si 00.

We have read its pages with the most intense interest. It comprises the sterling worth of
historical truth with the enchantment of the romance and the novel. — Eastern Times.

(£I}C ^^istoi-11 of Qllcxanbcr tlje (Qxcat.

By Jacob Abbott. With an Illuminated Title-page and numerous Illus-
trations. 12mo, Muslin. 60 cents.

^ Summer in Srotlanb.

By Jacob Abbott. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo, Muslin. $1 00.

Truthful in its descriptions, beautiful in its style, and unexceptionable in its moral tone. —
London Athetueum.

®l)c €a%ton3.

A Family Picture. Attributed to Sir E. Bqlwer Lyttox, Bart. 8vo, Pa-
per, cents.

^atolh, ll)c Cast of tijc Qajcon Kings.

By Sir Edward Bclwer Lytton. 8vo, Paper. 50 cents.

A splendid effort, combining all the brilliancy of his genius with the laborious research of
his best productions ; as a drama of real life, it is perhaps unsurpassed by any similar work of
the age. — Mirror.

QIlic i^orgerg.

By G. P. R. James, Esq. 8vo, Paper. cents.

2ri)irtg ^cars Since;

Or, the Ruined Family. A Tale. By G. P. R. James, Esq. 8vo, Paper.
25 cents.

A tale of much amusement and interest. We heartily commend it to our readers as a very
pleasant and a very clever work. — Literary Gazette.

An original novel, by an able hand. — Spectator.

The story is well told, the characters clearly unfolded, and the conclusion natural and »at»
igfactory. — Athenaum.

2 Popular Literature PuhUshed by Harper Sf Brothers.
ai)e £ife of ^cnrj) tl)e iTonrtl),

King of France and Navarre. By G. P. R. James, Esq. 2 vols. 12mo,

Muslin. S2 50.

Mr. James has endeavored, and with success, to throw more light upon the earlier years of
Ilenry than has hitherto been done, the latter and more important events in his striking ca-
reer having naturally attracted the greatest attention. — Literary Gazette.

®l)e U0mance of ^adjting

Voyage the First. By Joseph C. Hakt. 12mo.

iHobel men.

Modeled by Horace Mayhew. With numerous Comic Illustrations.
18mo, Paper. 25 cents.

Sketches of various characters smartly executed, and one of the steam-boat and rail-way
class of belles-lettres. The embellishments are also clever. Perhaps the " Fast Man" will
appear to be the most extraordinary nuisance to country readers, and to persons who are only
acquainted with the higher classes of society. — London Literary Gazette.

®I}e ittoral. Social, anii Professional Duties of ^ttor-
ncBS anb Solicitors.

By Samuel Waeren, Esq., F.R.S. 18mo, Muslin. cents.

^oro anb STlicn.

A Tale. By Samuel Warren, Esq., F.R.S. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents;
Paper, 50 cents.

Dr. Warren's skill is of a peculiar kind ; it is earnest and emphatic. This tale excites
strong interest. — Athenmum.

<:^rabian J^igl)ts' Entertainments.

Newly Translated and arranged for Family Reading, vi^ith Explanatory
Notes, by E. W. Lane, Esq. Illustrated with Six Hundred Exquisite
Engravings, &c. 2 vols. 8vo, Muslin extra gilt, or Morocco super.

Fifty volumes of books of travel extant will not convey the instruction concerning the sin-
gular and graceful habits of the Asiatics, that may be found in the reading of these fascinating
tales, and in the correct and beautiful engravings. This edition will be valued by the accom-
plished scholar as a precious gallery of Oriental pictures: from the title-page to the last en-
graving, it is a casket of rare and beautiful gems, and from the palace to the hut, it lays bare
all that is interesting to know of the followers of Mohammed. — Neio York Sun.

Mrs. ittarkljam's ^istor^ of irance.

Prepared for the Use of Schools, with a supplementary Chapter, bringing
down the History to the Present Time, by Jacob Abbott. Maps, En-
gravings, &c. 12mo, half Bound. $\ 25.

Mrs. Markham's historical works have, by common consent, long occupied the highest rank
as school histories ; it has been stated that upward of 56,000 copies of her excellent series
have already been sold in England. The London Journal of Education, referring to her pro-
ductions, admits they are constructed on a plan well chosen, and adds that they can not be
too strongly recommended as adapted for youth.

2:i)c ^istorg of Congress, jBiograpljical anir political:

Comprising Memoirs of Members of the Congress of the United States,
drawn from authentic Sources. By H. G. Wheeler. Numerous Steel
Portraits. 8vo, Muslin. $3 00 per vol. {Vols. I. and II. are now ready.)
The author has enjoyed unusual opportunities for collecting the materials for such a work ;
he has entered upon his task with a zeal and determination to make it permanently and emi-
nently valuable. — New York Courier and Enquirer.

Popular Literature Puhlislied hy Harper Sf Brothers. 3
^axnt Influence:

A Tale for Mothers and Daughters. By Grace Aguilar. 12mo, Muslin,
$1 00; Paper, 75 cents.

The author's intention in this volume is to aid in educating the heart — an object which must
commend itself to all who have the Christian faith, and all who hope and believe that the
■world may, by kindly influences, be transformed from a world of warring passions to one of
love, and faith, and hope. — Cincinnati Journal.

®l)e Image of l)is i^atljcr.

A Tale of a Young Monkey. By the Brolliers M.vyhew. With Illustra-
tions. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents ; Taper, 50 cents.
Sportively sarcastic and humorous, it touches off very graphically many follies of the day.

•^Baltimore AmeHcan.

A very witty production of those distinguished comic writers, the Brothers Mayhew, two of

the most celebrated disciples of the "Punch School." — Spirit of the Times.

toutl)cring ^eigl)t0.

By A. Bell. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents ; Paper, 50 cents.

We strongly recommend all our readers who love novelty to get this story, for we can prom-
ise them that they never read any thing like it before. — Douglas Jebrold

ODliJ i^icks tl)c enibe;

Or, Adventures in the Camanche Country in Search of a Gold Mine. By
C. W. Webber. 12mo, Muslin, $1 00 ; Paper, 75 cents.

It has incidents enough for a score of novels. — Mirror.

Here is a book to stir a fever in the blood of age. Full of wild adventures, and running over
with life. — Graham's Magazine.

<^bt)entnres in iHc^cico anb tl)e Hockjj iflonntains.

By George Ruston. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents ; Paper, 50 cents.
Crowded with the wildest adventures, it has that reality which makes Melville's " South
Seas" so charming and fresh. It has none of the homeliness of Robinson Crusoe, but the ad-
ventures are as startling. — London Economist.

banitn fair;

Or, Pen and Pencil Sketches of English Society. By Wm. Makepeace
Thackeray. With numerous Illustrations by the Author. 8vo, Muslin,
$1 25; Paper, $1 00.

He is the prince of etchers and sketchers. His genius is environed with a warm and glow-
ing atmosphere of fine feeling and cultivated fancies— light, playful, kindling, acting upon the
Imagination and heart of the reader with a secret but irresistible influence. A humor, re-
markable for Its geniality, illumes and vivifies every page. — Dickens's Daily Netos.

She Cl)iibren of tl)e Nero i^crrcet.

By Captain Marryat. 12mo, Muslin, 50 cents ; Paper, 37^ cents.

The author's facility of description has here brought out a romance which will freshen the
recoUections of his former fame in the mind of the public. — Springfield Gazette.

a;i)c Storn of tl)e peitinsnlar iHar.

By General Charles W. Vane, Marquess of Londonderry. New Edition,
revised, with considerable Additions. 12mo, Muslin, 81 00; Paper, 75
cents.

It is the object of this publication to present what has long been a desideratum— a Complete
History of the Peninsular War down to the peace of 1814, in the smallest possible compass,
and at so moderate a cost as to be accessible to all classes of readers ; it will be regarded as
aa indispensable companion to " The Story of the Battle of Waterloo." — Athemcum.

4 Popular Literature Published by Harper Sf Brothers.

Coiterings in ^urc^ae;

Or, Sketches of Travel in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Austria,
Prussia, Great Britain, and Ireland. With an Appendix, containing Ob-
servations on European Charities and Medical Institutions. By J. W.
Corson, M.D. 12mo, Muslin, $1 00 ; Paper, 75 cents.

The author evidently wrote just as he traveled, with a perfect overflowing of enthusiasm.
The impressions which he received, and which he communicates to the reader, have all the
minute fidelity of the Daguerreotype as to form, while the author's imagination imparts to
them those natural hues which are heyond the reach of that art. — Journal of Commerce.

2ri)c Sattle 0f Btiena bista,

With the Operations of the " Army of Occupation" for One Month. By
Captain Carleton. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents; Paper, 50 cents.

The best description that has yet appeared of one of the most distinguished battles fought
during the Mexican campaign. We read it through from title-page to Colaphon with unabated
interest. Its style is simple and pure, and its pictures vivid in a marked degree. — Knicker-
bocker.

Man anb Iji© ittotiDe©.

By George Moore, M.D. 12mo, Muslin. 50 cents.

Dr. Moore is one of the very best writers of the day. He is both a practical and a philo-
sophical physician, and he derives much advantage in developing the spiritual as well as phys-
ical nature of man, from the practice of his own profession. This is the third of his works, all
of which have been placed by intelligent readers in the first class of modern literature and phi-
losophy.— Cincinnati Herald.

a;i)e tenant of toilbfdl ^a\\.

By A. Bell. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents ; Paper, 50 cents.

It is by all odds the best temperance story we ever read. It is difficult not to believe in
the reality of the scene. You can not doubt that it is an actual copy of life. You forget you
are reading a romance, and put just as much trust in the narration as if it were told of your
next-door neighbors. To produce this effect completely is, we take it, the highest success of
a novelist. — Mirror.

®l)c 0tDis0 i^amib Hobinson;

Or, Adventures of a Father and Mother and Four Sons on a Desert Island.
]3eing a Continuation of the Work published some years since under this
Title. 2 vols. 18mo, Muslin. 75 cents.

Every one will remember the first two volumes of this charming story for children, and, of
course, be desirous to see the conclusion. The present volumes are quite as interesting as the
former.— Godet/'s Lady's Magazine.

The first two Volumes of the same work may still be had. 2 vols. 18mo,
Muslin. 62^ cents.

®l)e (3ooli genius tl)at ttxrneb @t)crg ®l)ing into (3olh;

Or, the Queen Bee and the Magic Dress. A Christmas Fairy Tale. By
the Brothers Mayhew. Engravings. l8mo. Muslin, gilt edges, 45 cents;
Muslin, plain, 37^ cents ; Fancy paper covers, 37^ cents.

This IS a most charming little fairy tale, written with singular beauty and spirit, and incul-
cating the duty of industry.

©moo; or, a Narrative of ^bocntnres in t\)c SoutI) Qeas.

By Herman Melville. 12mo, Muslin, $1 25 ; Paper, $1 00.
Musing the other day over our matinal hyson, we suddenly found ourselves in the entertain-
ing society of Marquesan Melville, the phcenix of modern voyagers, sprung, it would seem, from
the mingled ashes of Captain Cook and Robinson Crusoe. The title signifies a rover ; the
book is excellent quite first-rate. — Blackwood.

Popular Literature Published by Harper Sf Brothers. 5
£ife of ittoiamc Cati)arin£ Qlborna.

Including some leading Facts and Traits in her Religious Experience. To-
gether with Explanations and Remarks, tending to Illustrate the Doc-
trine of Holiness. By T. C. Upham, D.D. 12mo, Muslin, gilt edges, 60
cents ; Muslin, plain, 50 cents.

This is a very curious piece of biography ; the sources from which it has been principally
derived were the manuscript notes of Madame Adoma's confessor, .Marabotti. She lived during
the latter half of the fifteenth century, and was a remarkable instance of exemplary piety and
eminent moral worth. The story of her life presents a rare and highly interesting chapter in
the records of religious experience.

Coroper's |)octical tHorke.

Illustrated by Seventy-five exquisite Designs. With a Biographical and
Critical Introduction by Rev. Thomas Dale. 2 vols. 8vo, Turkey Moroc-
co, gilt edges, S5 00 ; Imitation Morocco, gilt edges, S4 25 ; Muslin, gilt
edges, S3 75.

Cowper has long been regarded as the favorite Christian poet ; his muse devoted to the in-
culcation of the domestic virtues and the sublime truths of religion, will ever take elevated
rank among the great classics of the language.

ilXilton's Poetical ttJorks.

With a Memoir and Critical Remarks on his Genius and Writings, by J.
Montgomery. Illustrated by 120 Engravings. 2 vols. 8vo, Morocco,
gilt edges. So 00 ; Imitation Morocco, gilt edges, 84 25 ; Muslin, gilt
edges, S3 75.

Says a distinguished critic, " He possesses sablimity enongh to command our fear, and gen-
tleness enough to awaken our affection. He unites the fancy of Spenser to the majesty of
^schylus, and the delicate finish and grace of Canova to the bold and sweeping outlines of
Michael Angelo. The humblest thought, subjected to the alchemy of Milton's genius, became
transmuted into something precious and costly. He was an encfianter who changed all the
earthen edifices of the imagination into pure gold."

£ife of tl)c Cl^eoalier jBasari.

By W. GiLMORE SiMMs. With Engravings. 12mo, Muslin. Si 00.

The present production is the most valuable that has appeared from the pen of Mr. Simms,
and will do more than all his preceding works to establish his reputation. It displays consid-
erable research into the history of the period to which it relates, and is clothed with all the
fascination which beauty of style and chivalric adventure can throw around it. — Literary Reg-
itter.

2l()c Discipline of £ife.

A Novel. 8vo, Paper. 25 cents.

This work is intended to show how much of happiness depends on self-discipline , and it can
not fail to place the authoress in the first rank of female novelists. It contains passages of
great beauty and pathos, evidently written by one who thinks much and feels deeply, and im-
presses us with a high idea of the talent of the author. — Britannica.

!3rotl)ers avib Sisters.

A Tale of Domestic Life. By Fredrika Bremer. Translated from the
Original unpublished Manuscript, by Mary Howitt. Svo, Paper. 25
cents.

"Brothers and Sisters" will share in the popularity the author's former works have acquired,
aa it possesses the like qualities. — Chronicle.

Jfane (Egre: on ^ntobiograpf)2.

Svo, Paper. 25 cents.

There is a freshness and purity of thouglit and sentiment that one rarely meets with stamped
on every page. We repeat it — if people will read novels, let them peruse Jane Eyre. — NeaVt
Gazette.

6 Popular Literature PuhlisJied hy Harper ^ Brotlters.

^^omcs anb i^annts of tlje most (Eminent Sritisl} |)oet0.

By William Howitt. With Numerous Illustrations. 2 vols. 12mo, Mus-
lin. $3 00.

Full of beautiful descriptions, of lively and affecting anecdotes ; full of the lessons of hu-
man experience, and the teachings of human weakness and griefs ; and as full of inspirations
to the young mind and heart. — Golden Rule.

Conis tl)e iTonrtcentl), anb tl)e Conrt of Sxanu in tl)e
Qcvcnttentl) Centnrs-

By Miss Pardoe. With numerous Engravings, Portraits, &c. 2 vols.
12mo, Muslin, $3 50 ; Paper, $3 00.

We do not know of any work in the language which tells the same things so well nor so
prettily. — London Herald.
An accession to our literature, as eminently useful as it is delightful. — British Quart. Rev.

Men, tDomen, anb Books.

By Leigh Hunt. A Selection of Sketches, Essays, and Critical Memoirs,
from his uncollected Prose Writings. 2 vols. 12mo, Muslin. $1 50.

They have a sunshine in them which will be as good sunshine fifty years hence as it was
at the very first. There is so much variety, and such agreeable lore of all kinds in them — such
a soul of reflection — such brilliant animal spirits — and so cheerful a philosophy, that we may
recommend them to all. The topics embrace almost every variety of a pleasurable or refiuing
kind. — London Atlas.

SCmc Qtorg of tl)e Battle of Waterloo.

By Rev. R. Gleig. 12mo, Muslin, 90 cents ; Paper, 75 cents.

This account is instinct with spirit, and many are the touching and striking anecdotes which
add to its interest. It is likely to become one of the most popular productions of the day. —
Literary Gazette.

Bog's Book of tl)e Seasons;

By Thomas Miller. Descriptive of the Scenery, Rural Life, and Country
Amusements. With Numerous Engravings. 4 vols. 12mo, Muslin, 50
cents each ; Paper, 37^ cents each.

Charming books, written in most captivating style, and illustrated in such a manner that
they must be popular with the young people. Pure books for little readers — they are far pref-
erable to the thousand publications upon which are squandered the juvenile pennies of those
who are fascinated with the gaudy colors of miserable daubs, intended for pictures. — Philadel-
phia Chronicle.

(Jl)e Bacl)elor of tl}c ^Ibang*

By the Author of the " Falcon Family." 12mo, Muslin, 50 cents ; Paper,
37i cents.

A very amusing work ; one of incessant liveliness ; it is a prodigy of smartness. Such a
perpetual volley of smart things was never kept up at that rattling, never-pausing pace, in any
other book that has come to us. The author seems to have a horror of being one moment dull.
— Frazer's Magazine.

©braarb bernon: iUn Cousin's Qtorg.

By E. V. Childe. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents ; Paper, 50 cents.

ilXarg ©rower;

Or, the Trusting Wife : a Domestic Temperance Tale. By Charles
BuRDETT. 12mo, Muslin, 40 cents ; Paper, 30 cents.
This is a temperance tale conceived with terrible fidelity to truth and life ; well adapted to

impress a great moral lesson vididly upon the mind. — Evangelist.

iJaluablc anb ^ttractbc New lUorks

RECENTLY PUBLISHED BV

Messrs. Harper & Brolliers, New York.

J^upton's SliJijrnturcs in fHrjrico anXi the iiocfes
iHountatns,

12mo, jilitslin, 62i cents ; Paper, 50 cents.

No book could be more certain of a public welcome : it gives a much more life-like and vivid
picture of the country than any other book we have seen. — Allnon.

The author's dashing, picturesque style reminds us of Captain Head's " Roi/^^ Notes on
the Pampas ;" it is rife with adventure and wild exploit. It is exactly the kind of book we
require at the present moment. — Mirror.

A more racy delineator of incidents we have rarely met with : he never flags, but carries
the reader with him, unwearied and delighted. — Methodist Protestant.

The best book of the kind we have seen for a long time. — Courier and Enquirer.

127710, Muslin, 62.J cents ; Paper, 50 cents.

Mr. Warren's skill is of a peculiar kind ; it is earnest and emphatic. This tale excitea
8t rone interest. — Athenceum.

" Iww and Then" is a graceful and firm movement forward on the part of Mr. Warren. Fev»
eermons inculcate the highest religious duties of faith and untiring love to man more effectu-
ally than this tale ! — Douglas Jerrold's Newspaper.

We scarcely remember a work in the whole range of modern fiction so thrilling in its char-
acter, and .so beautifully natural and life-like in its details, as this new tale by the gifted au-
thor of " Diary of a Physician.'' — Albion.

Hamartfnc's iJ^fstorg of tlic dffroutrists.

Wilh Portraits. 3 vols, limo. Muslin, §2 10 ; Paper, $1 80.

A magnificent and oratorical style — spangled with gems, some of " purest ray serene," some
dazzling and gaudy even to giddiness — abundant, yet not prolix — rythmical and measured, yet
wanting occasionally in variety. The reader is sure to find in every chapter treasures many.
— London Athenattm.

No work in our day seems to have created such a ferment in Paris. The tale of the victims
of the Revolution is told with pathetic splendor by De Lamartiue; he unites so many of the
highest qualifications for a great historian. — Edinburgh Review.

No history, romance, or poem has for a long time appeared, that possesses more attractions,
or that will have a wider popularity. — Knickerbocker

Simms'.s 3lifc of Chcbnlicr iJanartr.

" THE GOOD KNIGHT." — " SA.NS PEUR ET SANS KEPROCHB."

With Engravings. 12j7io, Muslin. §1 00.

Chevalier Bayard is one of the most romantic and attractive figures in history, and Mr.
Simms has made a hit in selecting him as his subject. For the public, it will have more at-
traction than a novel, and we predict for the book an extensive popularity. The style has an
agreeable qaaintness quite appropriate to the theme. — Tribune.

The Chevalier Uayard stands in history as a type of the noblest properties of the chivalry
of the Middle Ages— pure in life, great in exploits, self-denying, courteous, and manly — a re-
alization of the highest ideal of the gentleman, in the chivalric sense of the word. The roman-
tic incidents of his life, as well as his generous and attractive personal characteristics, are de-
lineated with unaffected admiration and with a happy tact. It is a picture of the age of chiv-
alry which, as illustrating the peculiarities of a marked era of the history of civilization, is
well worth the study of the literary man and the Christian. There are several well-conceived
embellishments, which adorn the beautiful pages of the volume. — Ncxo York Evangelist.

2 New Works PublisJied by Harper S,- Brotliers.

Scenes at aiWajsIu'ngton.

12mo, Muslin, 50 cents ; Paper, 37^ cents.

This is a graphic picture of scenes and persons, " saying^s and doings," at the Capitol half
& century ago : the incidents of tlio nairative, and the fluency of its style, will ensure the pe
rusal of all to whom the work comes.— Christian Intdligencer.

The curiosity excited by the title of this volume is abundantly stimulated and satisfied in
its perusal. — Protestant Churchman.

J^cl^iUc'js "#moo-/' or, Sliiljcnturcjs tn tlic Pacific,

12mo, Muslin, $1 25; Paper, $1 00.

As fascinating as Robinson Crusoe. — London Times.
The book is excellent, quite first rate. — Blackwood.

Since the joyous moment when we first read Robinsou Crusoe, we have not met with so be-
witching a work as Melville's " Omoo." — John Bull.

3LtiQ\x pjunrs ^ttiy Sisromcu, antr iJoofes.

With Portrait. 2 vols. 12mo, Muslin. $1 50.
Full of variety, beauty, and cheerfulness. It is a book to lie in the cherished comer of a
pleasant room, and to be taken up when the spirits have need of sunshine. — Examiner.

'^oSaitVH fktomtn antr i^atints of the Poets.

iVith numerous Engravings. 2 vols. \2mo. Muslin. $3 00.

We have found the largest amount of enjoyment in these volumes.— Lonrfon Atlas.

Full of beautiful descriptions, of lively and affecting anecdotes ; full of the lessons of human
experience, and the teachings of human weakness and griefs ; and as full of inspirations to the
young mind and heart. — Golden Rule.

©apt. ii^enrj)*s SfeetcJies of the i^e):tcan 21S.^ar.

With Engravings. 12mo, Muslin, $1 00 ; Paper, 75 cents.

Apart from its authenticity, which is unquestionable, it is modest, spirited, graphic, and

picturesque. The author's style is clear, concise, and lucid, his language perfectly correct,

and his narrative rajiid and well connected. The " Campaign Sketches" are evidently the

work of a gentleman, a scholar, and a soldier — Tria juncta in uno. — Spirit of the Times.

CKleiYs Storg of tlie Battle of S^^atetloo.

I2mo, Muslin, 90 cents ; Paper, 75 cents.

This account is instinct with spirit, and many are the touching and striking anecdotes which
add to its interest. It is likely to become one of the most popular productions of the day. —
Literary Gazette.

J^is.s Hattroe's Court of Stouts the iFourteentfi.,

With numerous Engravings. 2 vols. 12mo, Muslin, $3 50 ; Paper, $3 00.
The most romantic and dramatic portion of the history of France. — Albany Atlas.
We do not know of any book in the language which tells the same things so well nor so
prettily. — London Morning Herald.

Samcs's 3life of f^enrs tiie jFourtii, of iFranee.

2 vols. I2mo, Muslin, $2 50; Paper, .52 00.
Mr. James is justly considered a very lucid and spirited writer of history ; his descriptions
are dramatic and interesting, and his portraitures of characters graphic in the extreme. The
author has produced a deeply interesting and powerfully written work, which will be eiten-
eively read. — Albion.

New Works PvilisJied brj Harper ^- Brothers. S

);k. i^arbcrs jjFrcsh CSlcaniufls.

12mo, Muslin, $1 25 ; Paper, §1 00.
This is decidedly the most a^rec^ble book of the season. It reminds one by an occasional
association of ideas, rather than resemblance or imitation, uf Sterne's " Sentimental Journey."
It alx>unds with acute observation, wit, and vivacity, and describes scenes of great interest
nrely visited by continental travelers. — Rochester Advertiser.

Soutlits's Hifc of Sohn Z'^tnlt^,

2 vols. 12mo, Muslin. $2 00.

All will agree that Sonthey is the best biographer in our language : his life of Wesley is
enn of his most successful efforts. — Britannia.

As a library book, this edition is sure to make its way ; we can hardly promise readers a
Biore gratifying enjoyment than to go over the biography from beginning to end ; we have
found It a great treat. — Literary Gazette.

Smith's (Consular Cities of China,

Illustrated with numerous Engravings. 12mo, Muslin, $1 25 ; Paper, $1 00.

A work as instructive as it is entertaining : we have met with none that has given us so fall
an insight into the individual character of the Chinese ; that has made us so familiar with the
thinkings and habits of an ordinary intelligent Chinese. — Commercial Advertiser.

This work is written in a graceful, flowing style, in an amiable spint, and indicates an nn-
Qsual facihty in the matter of describing scenes and events. It reveals a large fund of inter-
esting and valuable information. — Neto York Recorder.

33'Ksracirs SCmcnitCcs of attcraturc.

2 vols. 12mo, Muslin. §1 50.

In many respects this is the most valuable of all the literary productions of its erudite and
carious author. It abounds in acute and learned criticisms upon authors and their works, and
brings to light a vast deal of information respecting the early literature of the language, and
shows the influence of authors and their views upon the age in which they lived. It is charm;
ingly intermingled with anecdote and incident. — Biblical Repository.

^rotonc's Etcfttnos of a C^lhalCng Cruise,

With Engravings. 2 vols. Svo, Muslin. $2 00.

Quite worthy to be the companion of Dana's " Two Years before the Mast." — Edin. Review,
This 13 a minute and apparently faithful account of the romantic and exciting, but danger-
ous adventures of a whaling cruise. The extreme hardships to which the common sailor is
often subjected by the tyranny of the officers, are described with the truth and graphic powef
which personal experience alone could give. — Christian Intelligencer,

iirof, ja^Jham's Memoirs of fHatramc Cfuoon.

M'ith Portraits. 2 vols. 12mn, Muslin. $2 00.

The subject of this remarkable biography was a woman of rich endowments ; her suffer-
ings and her triuipphs can not fail to endear her memory to the Christian world.— Pr«6y/en"aii.

He writings and life constitute a bright page in the history of that period. Her life was
active and useful, and her writings evince a vivid intellect. — Albany Journal.

Schlrgcrs iShtlosophn of JLitt anXf aaneuajjr,

12mo, Muslin, 90 cents ; Paper, 80 cents.
For a book to replenish wisdom and solidify the cast of your mind's habit, we scarce know
a better one than this. It is sound, elaborate, and most instructive, and has already, by wise
consent, passed into a sort of philosophic gospel. — N. P. Willis.

Neiv Works Published by Harper Sf Brothers.

ISojjK'iS EclcctCc f^iorfil PiilosoiJUg.

12mo, Sheep, 87K cents ; Muslin, 75 cents.

As a selection of the best thoughts of other writers on the various topics usually compris«J
in a system of morals, claimin? originality for its plan, it is eminently worthy of admission
into our private liliraries ; and I have no doubt may be used with advantage in our literary in-
ititutioiis of every grude. — Prof. Mandeville, Hamilton College, New York.

A careful examination of this work, we arc satisfied, will not fail to produce the conviction
that it possesses more substantial merit than any other work of the kind yet published. — Pro-
fessor DODD.

The work has an additional advantage, which no other of the kind can possess, of suggest-
ing to the pupil the works and authors where the various topics are more extensively treated.
It is, in fact, an excellent guide-book for an exploration of the wide and tangled field of moral
science. — Biblical Repository.

JSogVs KUctoric antr 2litcr»ir|) itxiiizimu

12mo, half Bound. 50 cents.
This is a valuable school-book. It contains, in a small compass, the cream of the more la-
bored compilations of 131air and Watts, and has thus to the student saved labor in the acqui-
sition of useful knowledge. This work is highly recommended by the Secretary of Slate. —
Albany Argus.

30rajprr*s S'cvt^ijooit on (Jfthnni.strg.

With nearly 300 Illustrations. I2mo, Sheep. 75 cents.
For a concise, lucid, and complete analysis of this delightful science, this manual must take
nndoubted precedence. The recent improvements and discoveries of the German and English
writers on chemistry have their appropriate notice in the present volume, and, as far as wo
have beenabl* to ascertain, Dr. Draper has given in a succinct form the best arranged system
of chemical lore yet ottered to the student. The origin of the present work was the outline
courses of the professor's lectures to his classes at the University. — Methodist Quart. Review

Draper's S'cpt^tcoft on Jiatural PiilosoiJUg.

With nearly 400 Illustrations. I2mo, Sheep. 75 cents.

This new work of Dr. Di aper's is well deserving the grateful acknowledgment of teachers ;
never was there a book more wanted. We cheerfully recommend this volume to the various
academies and institutions where natural science is professed to be taught. — GiLBEKT L.
Hume, Professor of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy.

i^arpcr's Scto ^orfe €lass=lJOok«

Arranged by William Russell.
\2mo, half Sheep. $125.
This book ought certainly to be universally introduced to the youth of the state, whose his-
tory, biography, <tc., it illustrates. It has long been regretted that the popular reading
books were not made to subserve some other purpose than mere instruction in the uses of lan-
guage : and here we have a large and very carefully-prepared volume, which, while it is not
deficient in point of style and language, will impress upon the youthful learner's mind that
sort of knowledge which is most of all essential, as well as interesting, to the citizens of this
great state. — Methodist Quarterly Review.

MunntlVB JJu^cnile Saicafeer.

12mo, half Bound, 70 cents ; Muslin, 60 cents.

It gives excellent rules, which are so simple that all may understand them, and »o strikingly
necessary that all must respect tliern. In fact, the work is in keeping with the progress of
the age, and is therefore a great improvement on all that have gone before it of the same class.
The selections, by the way, are all gems. — Farmer and Mechanic.

Ml

: /4cjU<j

*

\^

«♦''

&

c
t^

v!

^^

w

.k

'V

'M'

yut<^c-.i»-o

V

tp'

\i'

-vi

^<

14 DAY USE

RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED

LOAN DEPT.

RENEWALS ONLY — TEL. NO. 642-3405

This book is due on the last date stamped below, or

on the date to which renewed.

Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.

JAN 2 2 1970

2 !i 197012.,
REC'D LD IffAY

287P-a)J'Jd 18

jja

I

1

LD21A-60wi-6,'69
r.T9096sl0)476-A-32

General Library

University of California

Berkeley

^i«<m' cvr ^-

'^m^Wr™'-Z

'«r.

w

"i^s:

<??«(' c .<

?.V<-V!i

^CC;- t__

^i^

V -

.'^'--tateilrV-

-'-t

■<' ^'«

c^SlE

,■-<„<*:.

<<. '^..-*

, •<

". ■««

«S^fe::.v-v-

PMB^kT ' -ij ' .