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AUG 4 1953

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BULLETIN No. 24.

DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE

BRITISH COLUMBIA.

FAEMERS' FOES AND THEIR REMEDIES.

L^JU.JjiAA.ry^ f v. h^>

PRINTED BT AUTHORITY Of THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

BULLETIN No. 24.

DEPARTMENT OF AGIUCULTURE

BRITISH COLIMBIA.

FARMERS' FOES AND THEIR REMEDIES.

Hon. R. G. Tutlow.

Miiiisler of Agrk-uUiirc,

Victoria, B. C:

Department of Agriculture.

Victoria, 15th January, 1908.

Sir. — In fulfillment of a long-standing promise. I have the honour of
presenting the following bulletin on the various pests, animal, insect and
disease, of stock-raiser and farmer, with their remedies. The information
conveyed has been culled from various sources, and has been in course of
preparation for over a year, and it is therefore hoped that it will meet the
requirements of our people.

I have the honour to be.
Sir,
Your obedient servant,

J. K. ANDERSON,

Dcputii Minister of Aiiriculturc.

Am-
faemees' foes and theie eemedies.

CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTION.

The iinrpose of the iirescnt bulletin is to att'urtl a deseription in a succiut
form of tliose pests which are prevalent, reporteil. or are liljely to be intro-
ilured in the Province, and their natural enemies, with the remedies prescribed
li.v competent authorities, or which liave been found by experience to be the-
most effective.

The question of pests, whether insect, disea.se or animal, and whether of
jilant or animal life, intimately affects the welfare of ever.v tiller of the soil
.ind breeder of animals, to an extent not generall,y recognised. The running
of animals on ranges and rounding . them up. occasionally, or feeding them,
even if done lavishly, about a farm, is not all the business of a breeder of
animals, or the planting, cultivating and pruning of an orchard all that the
fruit culturist has to do, to ensure success, or the sowing and reaping of grain
all the farmer is called upon to perform. The enemies of the productions of
these various avocation.s. whether of native or introduced origin, all demand
close and constant attention. The lack of knowledge or of appreciation of
tlie methods jiursued by the successful person, not the least amongst which is
the ceaseless warfare against insect and animal pests and diseases, is too
often the cause of failure on the part of the farmer, and it is therefore hoped
that the information furnished, which is culled from all available authorita-
tive sources, may prove a real benefit to all concerned. In fulfilraent, there-
fore, of the long-standing promise for a publication dealing with the subject,
this bulletin is now presented, and which it is earnestly hoped will meet most,
if not all, of the conditions involved, and awake our people to renewed efforts
ill adopting the repressive measures advocated against enemies and the
protection of insect friends.

In presenting this brocliure to the public, however. I do not for a moment
liretend that the contents are all emanations resulting from my own observa-
tions. It would be presumptuous of me to set up m.v opinions against those
cif persons who have made a life-long studj- of their respective subjects, with
all the necessary opportunities to study the life histories of insect and plant
life, and the most reliable methods of combating the depredations of the
enemies of the stockman, farmer and orehardist. I have, therefore, endeav-
oured, as far as possible, to cull the best from the researches of the most
advanced entomologists and scientists of our own and other countries, supple-
mented by such information as naturally is obtained by constant contact witli

f7.S14C69

the subject under review, giving credit in all eases to the authorities quoted.
I have to express my thanks to Dr. James Fletcher. Dominion Entomologist.
;md the Rev. Geo. W. Ta.vlor. of Wellington, for assistance rendered in revising
my work: also to Dr. S. F. Tolmie on " Stock Pests." and Mr. E. F. Robinson
on " Bee Pests." ?s'evertheless, I am quite aware that in a publication of this
descriiJtion mistakes will occur in .spite of the most careful revision, and for
all such I ask the indulgence of the public.

Kellogg, in his introduction to "American Insects." says:

" Throughout this book reference is constantly made to the iu.iuries done
hj insects to our forest-trees, flowers, fruits, vegetables and grains. The
millions of dollars lost annually because of the sap-sucking of the San .Jose
scale, the grape-phyllo.xera, the chinch-bug. and the Hessian fly, and the biting
and chewing of beetles and caterpillars, grubs and borers, are a sort of direct
tax paid by farmers and fruit-growers for the privilege of farming and grow-
ing fruit. If this tax were levied by Government and collected by agents with
two feet, instead of being levied by Nature and collected by six-footed agents,
what a swift revolt there would be ! But we have, most of us, a curious
inertia that leads us to suffer with some protesting complaint but little
protesting action the ' wa.vs of Providence.' even when we fairly well recognise
that Providence is chiefly ovirselves.

" When we reflect on the four hundred millions of dollars a year lost to
our pockets* by insect ravages, we may incline to believe that the only kind
of insect study which should claim our attention is the .study of how to rid our
lauds of these pests. We may be excused for affirming of bugs, as was said
of Indians by some epigrammatist, that the only good ones are the dead ones.
When, however, we learn, as we are learning iu these present days, that
insects are not simply serious enemies of our crops and purses, but are trul.v
dangerous to our very health and life, we must become still more extravagant
in our condemnatory expressions concerning them.

" We have long looked on mosquitoes, house-flies and fleas as annoyances
And even tormentors, but that each of these pests actuall.v acts as an inter-
mediate host for, and is an active disseminator of. one or more wide-spread
and fatal diseases is knowledge that has been got only recently. Mosquitoes
lielp to propagate, and are. almost certainly, the exclusive disseminating agents
of malaria, yellow fever, and the various forms of fllariasis ; house-flies aid
in spreading tyiihoid fever and other diseases ; fleas are agents in distributing
the germs of bubonic plague. Other insects are known to spread other
■diseases. Howard says : ' While in malaria and tj^'lioid we have two principal
diseases common to the United States which may be conveyed by insects, the
agency of these little creatures in the transfer of the disease-germs is by no
means confined to human beings. In Eg.^i)t and iu the Fiji Islands there is
a destructive eye-disease of human beings, the germs of which are carried b.y
the common house-fly. In our Southern States an eye-disease known as piuk-
e.ve is carried by certain very minute flies of the genus Hippelates. The so-
called Texas fever of cattle is luiquestionably transferred by the common
cattle-tick, and this was the earliest of the clearly demonstrated cases of the
transfer of disease b.v insects. In .Vfriea a similar disease of cattle is trans-

•In the United States.— J. U..\.

fen-fd by the bite of the faiiKms hitiiig tly Uiinwu as the tsetse-fly. The germs
of the disease of eattle liiiowii as anthrax are carried by gad-flies, or horse-
flies, and when these flies subseqnently bite hiininn l)eiugs malignant pustule.s
may result. And other discoveries of this nature are constantly being made.
Even the common bedbug is strongly suspected in this connection.'

" These statements are not guesses, they are proved facts of science. It
will be some time before these facts and their significance receive their full
recognition in the medical practice ; the knowledge of medicine is always in
advance of Its practical recognition. But modern medical practice is much
swifter to incorporate the new facts of biology than was tlie practice of even
a decade or two ago, and in such lines of work as army and other govern-
mental service the new methods of preventive medicine are quickly adopted.
Already there are organised movements all over the world to make use of the
new knowledge concerning the relation of insects to human disease. As I
write these pages comes the reiiort of the work of JIajor Ronald Ross, one of
the di.scoverers of the malaria-di.sseminating capacity of the mo.?quito and one
of the leaders in the anti-mosquito crusade, in nearly stamping out malaria in
the long notorious pest-hole of Ismailia. Material cases have been reduced
tliere from 300.000 cases annually to 300, by effective war on mosquitoes. Dr.
Cruz reports that Rio Janeiro has abolished its old-fashioned quarantine
regulations, 'and vessels with yellow fever on board will hereafter simply be
disinfected and supervised. In October, 1903, Cruz directed the operations of
1.200 men especially employed in destroying the larvte of the mosquito in
their breeding-places in and around the city, and, as a result, only nine cases
of yellow fever developed in the midsummer months of January and February
(1004), as against 27.5 cases in the same months iu 1903. In the period from
18.50 to 1896, 51,600 deaths occurred in Rio Janeiro from this di.sease, and at
times as many as 2,000 patients have been cared for in the isolation hospital,
which is now closed. The benefits of the war waged on the mosquito at Rio
Janeiro have been as great as those obtained at Havana, where the vigorous
work of the American authorities during our occupation of the islands practi-
cally stamped out yellow fever iu a city long notorious the world over as a
plague-centre." — Insects Injurious to Crops, bii Dr. Flctclicr.

Every crop grown by the farmer and gardener is lialMe to he attacked and
reduced iu value b.y various insect enemies, from the time the seed is sown
until it is harvested. Frequent inquiries concerning even the commonest and
most in.lurious pests make it advisable to Issue in concise form for reference,
an account of some of the more important of these, together with the latest
aiiproved remedies, and the most convenient methods of applying them.

It must be acknowledged by all observant people that the losses due to the
attacks of insects are every year enormous; and it should be more widely
known that there are practical — that is effective, cheaj) and easily aiJplied —
remedies for most of those kinds which year by year levy such a heavy tax
on all crops. For the effective use of remedies against injurious insects, a
certain amount of knowledge as to the habits and .structure of the latter is
very useful, so that the most appropriate remedy may lie made u.se of, and
this at the time when it will be most effective.

Lives of Insects.

The lives of insects ;u-e diviileil into four well nKirketl stages. Tliese are:
<1) the egg; (2) the lai-vu (eateriiillar grub or maggot), during which, as
■a rule, they are most injurious; (3) the pupa or chrysalis, iu which, except
in a few orders, they do not feed, anid are, as a rule, without the power of
locomotion: and (4) the iierfeet in.sect. Although most insects are injurious
iu one or two stages, onl.v some are destructive in all three of their active
stages. It therefore l)ecomes important to learn their appearance and haliits
from the time the eggs are laid until the whole life history is completed, so
that no opportunity of destroying them ma.v be lost.

liitiufi and Siirkiiif/ Insects. — All insects may be divided into two large
•classes, by the nature of their mouth parts. In the first or larger division.
Biting Insects, they are furnished with mandibles or biting jaws, by means
■of which they consume the substance of their food, as iu the case of cater-
pillars, lieetles, grasshoppers, etc. Iu the second class. Sucking Insects, they
Iiave, instead of mandibles, a beak or tube by means of which they suck up
their food in a liquid form from beneath the surface, as in the case of the true
Tjugs, plant-lice, scale insects, mosciuitoes etc.

CHAPTER II.— REMEDIES.

X.4TURE OF AtT.\CK.

When insects are ob.served to be injuring a crop an examination should
at once be made to discover the nature of the injury, so as to decide upon the
proper remedy. It is plain that with Biting Insects, which bite off and
■swallow parts of the plant attacked, all that is necessar.v is to place upon the
food plant some poisonous substance which will not injure the plant, but which
being eaten by the insects attacking it. will kill them. With Sucking Insects.
Tiowever, this treatment would be useless, for they would push their beaks
through the poisonous covering on the outside of the food plant, and would
with impunity suck up the sap upon which they live, from beneath the surface.
For Sucking Insects, therefore, some substance must be used which will kill
by mere contact with their bodies, or by suffocating them.

For nearly all the kinds of injurious insects which attack our staple crojis.
we have now good practical remedies ; and all that is necessary for the farmer
or gardener who sees that his crops are being injured by insects is to write at
once to the Division of Entomology, at the Central ExiMrimeutal Farm.
■Ottawa, stating plaiul.v what the trouble is, and. whenever possible, sending
specimens for examination. In most cases, useful advice can be sent back at

ouce. liy which much loss will lie iireventea. because those insects which are
most iu.iiirions to crops are uaturally couimou species, and the life histories
of nearly all of these have been worked out, and already practical remedies
have been discovered.

Tliere is at the iireseut time in North America a large and earnest body
fif students working at problems connected with the discovery of new remedies
fir the improxement of old ones, by means of which insects which injure crops
may be controlled. Something new is being learnt every day as to the means
of either making or applying remedies, and day by day new facts are being
learned concerning the life histories and habits of the insects which are the
causes of loss. In the present bulletin an effort has been made to supply
Canadian farmers with the best remedies and the latest developments in
methods of applying them. So much is written nowadays in magazines, new.s-
papers, etc., concerning insect in.1uries and the best ways of preventing them,
that a great many experiments have been necessary to find out how reliable
some of the proposed remedies were, and the present bulletin gives only the
best results of such experiments as have l)een actually tried by officers of tlie
Division of Entomology.

App.\k.\tus.

Nearly all insecticiiles may be used both as dry powders or in liquid. In
tlie case of the useful arsenical poisons, it is necessary to mix them with ,some
other substance as a diluent, on account of their caustic action upon tender
vegetation, and also for convenience of distribution and to economise the
material. For dry aiaplications, suitable diluents will be found in flour, land-
Vilaster, air-slaked lime, finely sifted ashes, or even road dust. The Important
point is that the powder shall be perfectly dry and in a very fine state of
division, so as to mix thoroughly with the insecticide and thus insure eveu
di.stribution. There are several implements for di.stributiug dry in.sectieides
such as bellows, insect guns, dusting boxes, etc.. many of which will be found
mentioned in the catalogues of our leading seedsmen. A convenient method
for distributing dry poisons is to place the powder in a small bag of very fine
nuislin, then tie this to the end of a short stick so that it .swings freely. If
the bag is tapped lightly with another stick held in the other hand, the opera-
tor can walk erect and do much better work than b.v stooping along over his
crop with an aching back. Dry mixtures should be applied in still weather
and. if possible, when the plants are wet with dew. It is found by experience.
Iiowever. that during the spring mouths when insecticides are most needed,
there are often periods of several days when these conditions do not occur.
It therefore becomes necessary to apply the poison in some other way, so that
the material may be evenly distributed over the jilant to be protected, and not
blown away by the wind. For this jiurpose. mixing with water and then
applying with a sjiraying pump is the most conveuient plan.

I have no doubt that it will repay any one who has to apply in.sectieides,
even in a small garden, to go to the expense of procuring a pair of jiroper
bellows for dry mixtures, and a force pump with a spraying nozzle for liquid
applications. Makeshift contrivances, such as watering cans, whisks, and even
bunches of leaves, which are frequently used, actually cost far more in wasted

8

time and iiintcrials than wdulil pay for the best special implements, in acMitinn
to which, when the work is done, it is neither satisfactor.v nor effective.
There are a great many lands of implements for distributing both dry and
liqnid insecticides, many of which are advertised in the agricultural and horti-
cultural papers.

Piimiifi. — Before deciding on what kind to use, it is advisable for one
who has not used these implements to consult his neighbours who have done
so. then write for catalogues to the best known makers; and when buying
make it a general principle always to procure the most suitable and the best
of its kind. The difference in the initial cost between a poor, cheap implement
and a thoroughly good one is small, compared with the subsequent loss and
inconvenience from using a cheap pump or a poor nozzle. Spraying pumps
are made in four sizes: (1) hand pumps, suitable for small gardens, whicli
can be iir<Kiired at prices ranging from $2 to $5; (2) larger pumps mounted
(,n wheels or suitable for loading on a stone-boat, and consisting of an
ordinary 4(l-gallon barrel, with a strong force pump to be worked by hand,
which will cost about $20, and will be all that is required in an orchard of
from fifty to a hundred trees, or in a large garden; (3) knapsack sprayers,
which are useful machines, consisting of a tank of about four gallons' capacity,
to be carried on the back, and useful when treating outbreaks of cut-worms,
turnip aphis, etc., in field practice; (4) power machines; the.se are of
various kinds, and are for use in large plantations, or for spraying street trees
where great power is required to elevate the spray. These are worked by
steam, by being geared to the wheels of the vehicle on which the tank is
drawn, or by the escape of carbolic acid gas. The cost of these will vary
very much according to the make and size of the machines.

fiprau'ino nozzles. — Of equal importance with a proper force immp in
distributing liquid poisonous applications is a suitable nozzle, by means of
which the liquid can be distributed evenly. The late Professor Riley, who
did much in the development of sjiraying machines, said : " The desiderata in
a spraying nozzle are: the ready regulation of the volume to be thrown, the
greatest atomising power with the least tendency to clog, facility of cleansing
or separation of its conqionent parts, cheapness, simplicity and ad.iustability
to any angle,"

Almost every maker of spraying nozzles has some special make which ho
recommends; but many kinds now in the market have not the qualities
necessary for spraying crops for injurious Insects in the best way. All that
can be said here is that some of these nozzles are far better than others, and
that great care is necessary in choosing one which will come up to Dr. Riley's
requirements, as mentioned above. The experience of others is a valuable
guide in this work; and, both at the Dominion E.vperimeutal Farms and at
the similar Provincial institutions, spraying work is carried on every year,
which can be witnessed by all wlio wish to do so, and advice will be freely
given by the officers in charge.

The operation of " spraying " consists of applying liquids by means of a
force pump and spraying nozzle with such force as to break up the liquid so
thoroughly that it falls upon the plants treated as an actual mist or spray.
Such terms as .•.■iiiiiiliiii;/ or ■'■■hoirciinfj are inaccurate for the operation here

infcnaca. T'lifdrtniuitely, nuicli of the so-ealled sprnying. as usually carriecl
our, rciuUl more aecuratt'ly be designated by these terms, \vhich describe a much
less c-aretnl aud less even distribution of liquids.

Remedies.

Remedies are eltlier I'reventive or Active and must lie amiHed in accord-
ance with the circtinistances of the case and the habits of the attaclcing iu.seets.
Prcrciitirr rciiialicfi are either agricultural or deterrent. The former of these
consist chiefly of such methods as special rotation of crops, high culture, so as
to stimulate a healthy growth of the crop aud keep the land free of weeds and
rubbish; early aud late seeding, so as to present a crop to its insect enemies
when they appear, in such condition that they cannot in.iure it. and rotation
of crops, by which insects attracted to a locality by a crop will not have in
tb.-it place the same crop to feed npon the following year. Deterrent preventive
remedies consist of the application of mechanical contrivances, such as bands
of paper or tin placed round plants to prevent cutworms getting at them, or
the destroying or mashing of the natural odours of some plants by scattering
amongst them substances possessed of a stronger or a disagreeable odour, like
gas lime, carbolic acid, etc. Aclire remedies include such methods as hand-
picking and the application of various poisonous substances to the plants to
l)e protected.

.Ir.vc/u7r.<. — Tlie licst known of these are Paris green. Arsenate of le.-id.
the Arsenate of lime with soda, which has lately come into very nnu-h more
general use. aud Green Arsenoid.

In all of these poisons, arsenic is the essential ingredient, and other chem-
icals are mixed with the arsenic for the purpose of preventing it from injuring
vegftation. There are many spraying compouuds which contain arsenic, some
of wliich are sold ready-made, and many others are made at home l)y combin-
ing tlie necessary ingredients.

Paris Green. — Undoubtedly the best known, and in many respects the
safest, poison to use, is Paris green. It has passed through many years of
trial, is well known, has a distinctive colour, and is a definite chemical com-
]ionnd containing 5S.65 per cent, of arsenious oxide. 31.2!) per cent, of copper
oxide, and 10.0(5 per cent, of acetic acid. It is, therefore, an aceto-arsenite
of copiier. It is soluble in ammonia. Paris green, if demanded, is now
obtained pure in all parts of Canada; but, as there is sometimes an
adulterated article found in the market, it is wisest always to add an equal
amount, with the Paris green, of freshly slaked lime, whea tiie free arsenic
will combine with the lime, and it can then be used safely at the rate of one
ipouud of Paris green in ICO gallons of water on all vegetation, and, for a dry
.ipplication, one pound Paris green in 50 pounds flour, laud-plaster, slaked
lime, tir some other perfectly dry powder.

As a general principle, lime should always be used with Paris green
whenever it is applied in a licpiid insecticide. Paris green is very heavy, aud
the particles quickly sink to the bottom of any liquid with which it is mixed.

10

This makes constant stirring necessary. Paris green does not dissolve in
water, and is merely mixed with water to facilitate its even distribution on
vegetation in the very small quantities that are necessary to destroy insects.
The finer the poison is ground, the quicker its effect on the insects which eat
it, because the minute crystals are more rapidly dis.solved by the digestive
juices in the stomachs of the insects. The finer it is ground, the better also
it will remain susjiended in a liquid application. For most insects, one ounce
of Paris green in 10 gallons of water is the standard strength ; but .some plants
with coarse foliage, such as the potato, will stand double that strength.

Adulteration of Paris Green. — The unsatisfactor.v results so frequently
reported from the use of Paris green against cutworms and other pests is
largely due to the frequent adulteration of this article. The following are
some of the methods by which pure Paris green may be known :

It dissolves wholly and freely in ammonia, forming a beautiful blue liquid.
All of the material whicli fails to dissolve represents so much crude matter
which has been added as an adulterant. While this affords valid grounds for
re,iection of the article, it must be borne in miud that white arsenic and a
number of other substances used in the adulteration of Paris green are also
soluble in ammonia, hence the test is but a partial one.

Another test of purity is to talvc a small quantity of the green uijou a slip
of glass, holding it at such an angle as will cause it to slide. If it is pure it will
leave a bright green streak on the glass ; if adulterated, this streali would be
pale in colour with light and darker shadings, due to the presence of such
articles as arsenic, gjiisum, fiour and other foreign substances which the
inten.se green hides from view, unless critical examination is made with a com-
pound microscope, which will show the Paris green to consist entirely of green
spheres. In case of adulteration, the green spheres are mixed with matter
more or less white, of cr.v.stalliue irregular shape, entirely foreign to the pure
article and .should be rejected, as lilvewise should all samples showing any
tendency to dampness or caking.

Arsenate of Lead. — A poison which has come into much notice since the
work of the Massachusetts Gypsy Jloth Commission is Arsenate of Lead, which
has been placed on the market in a very convenient form under the name of
Bowker's Disparene and Swift's Arsenate of Lead. The chief advanta.ges of
Arsenate of Lead are that it can be applied to all kinds of foliage with less
danger of injury than is the case with Paris green ; and. on account of its
fine state of division, it lasts longer on the foliage, because it does uot wash
off so easil.v. The cost of using it is about the same as that of Paris green.
becau.se, although cheaper, i^ound for pound, it is necessary to use three times
the amount of it to get the same results. Arsenate of Lead may be made at
home. Formula? for its preparation vary slightly: but in the Fnited States
Division of Entomology, Bulletin No. 41. the following instructions are given
for making the Arsenate of Lead wash ready for use: —

Arsenate of soda 10 ounces.

Acetate of lead 24

Water i;o to 200 gallons.

n

The arsenate of sucla niul acetate of lead slmuld be dissolved separately
and then ponred into a tank eoutainins the required amount of water. These
chemicals unite readily, forming a white floceulent precipitate of lead arsenate,
wliieh is easily kept in suspension and can be used in excessive strengths ou
delicate plants without the addition of lime. When sprayed upon the foliage.
it forms a filmy adhering coat, which is but little affected by ordinary rains.

.\nother formula for making Ar.senate of Lead is that recommended by
rrof. H. T. Feniald. and is :—

Arsenate of soda. .50 per cent, strength 4 ounces.

Acetate of lead 11

AVater 150 gallons.

Put the arsenate of soda in two quarts of water in a wooden pail, and the
acetate of lead in fotir quarts of water in another wooden pail. When both
are dissolved, nii.x with the rest of the water. Warm water in the pails will
hasten tlie process. I'rof. Fernald recommends that in mixing this with
Ilordeau mixture one gallon of the above should lie nuxed with Hfty gallons
(if the mixture.

NVjo/j Wdslwf. — The most effective soap wash is made with whale-oil soap,
one pound to from four to six gallons of water. The term whale-oil soap is
merely a trade name for a fish-oil soap, made with either potash or soda.
The potash soaiis, whicli .-ire the best, because even strong solutions remain
liciuid when they cool, are soft soaps. The soda soaps are hard. Of the two,
the potash soaps are considered the best to use on vegetation, as well as being
more convenient. Both kinds should always be dissolved hi hot water.

When bought at retail prices, these soaps cost from 1.5 to 20 cents per
poiuid, according to the locality, but if obtained iu large quantities, can be
got at from 3 to ,5 cents jier pound. Fifty-pound kegs are supplietl at 5 cents
per iiound. Two wellkudwii brands of potash soft soaps which have been
much used in Canada, and have given good satisfaction, are those made by
W, H. Owen, of Fort Clinton, Ohio, and by Good & Co., of Philadelphia, Pa.
If thought desirable, these soaps can be made at home; but it is very
inq)leasant and dirty work, and it is besides doulitful w'hether such good or
clieap results can be secured as by buying from firms which make a special
business of manufacturing soaps with only the reipiired amount of moisture
and the proper grade and amount of jidtash. It has bwu found iu experi-
ments carried on at Washington that what is reipiired for spraying purposes
is a caustic potash and fi.sh-oil soap, made with a fairly good quality of fish-oil,
and from which water has been eliminated by boiling, so that it does not
exceed 25 or .30 per cent, of the weight of the soap. Soaps made with caustic
Soda instead of caustic potash are unsuitable for spraying purposes. Dr. J.
V>. Smith, iu his circular No. 5, " Whale-oil Soap and Its Uses," says : " Whale-
oil, or fish-oil, soap is one of the most reliable materials for u.se against pl.int-
lice, and generally against sucking insects which can be killed by contact
insecticides. It kills by clogging the spiracles, or breathing pores, of the Insects
and also to some extent by its corrosive action. The advantages of fish-oil
over ordinary lauudry soap lie iu the greater iienetrating power, in the fact

12

that it remnins liqnul when cold, at iiuieh grpatfr strengths, and that fish-oil
itself seems to he more fatal to insect life than other animal fats. A good
soap can he made as follows: —

( 'oncentrated potash l.ve 31/2 It)S.

Water '^ .gallons.

Fish-oil 1 gallon.

Dissolve the lye in hniliiig water, and to the hoilhig solntion add the fish-oil;
continne to lioil for two h(.>nrs. and then allow to cool. Any grade of fish-(.iil
will answer."

Whale-oil soap umy he applied in the strength of one pound in four gallons
of water for hrown or hlaclj plant-lice, and one pound iu six gallous for green
plant-lice; warm water should always be used when dissolving it.

Soaps of all kinds are very useful In adding adhesivene.«s to liquid mix-
tures when it is necessary to apply these to such vegetation as cabbages,
turnips, peas, etc., which have their leaves covered with a waxy secretion
which prevents water from lying upon them. Any kind of soap will answer
for this purpose, and it may be remembered that one quart of soft soap is
about equal to one pound of hard soap.

Carbolic Acid. — This fluid is very valuable as a preventative remedy, owing
to its permanent and characteristic odour, which is found to be distasteful to
many insects. A convenient form of using it is the Cook w-ash, which is so
effective against root maggots. This consists of boiling up one quart of soft
soap, or one pound of hard soap, iu a gallon of water. When boiling, add half
a pint of crude carbolic acid. Boil for a few minutes and stir thorou.ghly.
The mixture is then read.v to be stored away for future use. When required,
take one part of this mixture by measure to fift.v of water, and spriukle or
spray directly upon the growing plants once a week from the time they appear
above ground.

Carholised Plaster, Sand, Ashes or Saicdust. — This is simply one pint of
crude carbolic acid, well mixed with fifty pounds of land plaster or some other
diluent. It is used dry by sprinkling it among plants to be protected, and is
said to be very efficient against flea-beetles, striped cucumber beetle, etc.

Poisoned Bordeaux Mixture. — The discovery of the great value of Bor-
deaux mixture as a destroyer of fungous diseases was soon followed by the
equally important one that various poisons could be mixed with it and form
a joint mixture destructive at the same time of fungous diseases and insect
pests. All of the arsenical poisons can be mixed with the lime Bordeaux
mixture, and this practice is now a general one, when it is necessary to protect
crops against fungous diseases, and at the same time to destroy insect enemies.
A useful formula for making the Poisoned Bordeaux Mixture for fungi and
leaf-eating insects is given farther on.

13

INSECTICIDES.

No. 1. — Lime (mil Sii!iilii(r Wash. — For winter use.

This sjiray is now so uuiversally reeommeudeil. and is so effectual, not
only as an insecticide, but to a large extent as a fungicide, tliat it is deemed
e.Yiiedient to give a full resume of its uses and tbe formuUe for its manufac-
ture iu the various States and in Canada. From tlie I". S. Year Book. lOOli.
I take the following : —

"The lime sulphur-salt, or so-called California wash, has been for many
years the principal treatment for the San Jose scale (AxiiUIiotiis itcniiciosus
— Corast. ) in orchards in California and elsewhere on the Paciflc slope, and
within the last five or si.\ years it has become practically the standard treat-
ment for this insect in the East. Originally developed as a dip for the coutrol
of scab on sheeji. it was first used as an insecticide on fruit trees, according
to Quayle. iu 1880. by a Mr. F. Dusey, of Fresno. Cal., who experimented with
a sheep dip prepared by Mr. A. T. Covell. The wash proved very efficient, and
with modifications came quickl,y into favour. Lime-sulphur preparations,
cither dry or iu the form of washes, have long been more or less used h.v
orchardists in the control of insects and fungi, but these preiiarations are not
coniparable to the boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash, and practically the usefulness
of the lattei- as a scalecide was an independent discovery. Since first used on
fruit trees, the wash has been variously modified in formula, and it has been
shown to have a consider.al)le range of usefulness, both as an in.seeticide and
as a fungicide.

'■ For small orchards, i>i 50 acres or less, it may not be considered advis-
able by owners to erect a steam-cooking plant, but the writer believes it would
he economy to do so where orchards of 25 acres or more are to be treated,
especially if the trees are large ones. If but small quantities of wash are
needed, as for the treatment of a small home orchard, an ordinary kettle or
bog-scalder will be satisfactory. It may be placed ou biiciis on the ground
and the fire built beneath, as in the oi-dinary heating of water. The kettle
should hold 35 to 40 gallons, and preferably more if a barrel spray pump is
to he kept supplied; and it will be necessary to make final dilution of the wash
iu tlie spra.v-p\mip barrel. With some .such facilities for cooking, one barrel
sjira.ver can be kept bus,v most of the time.

■• For larger orchards, if a steam outfit is not considered advisable, large
iron kettles holding from GO to SO gallons should be placed in a brick furnace,
one or more kettles being used, according to size of orchard and the number
of si)ray gangs which it is proposed to run. With a battery of three or four
large kettles and with proper water facilities, from 1.50 to 200 gallons of wash
may be prepared every hour. An important objection to this method of cook-
ing is that tlie wash. wluMi iirepared, must be dipped from the kettles and
lioiired into the spray liarrel or tank, entailing an important loss of time: and
to jirevent burning, while cooking, the wash must he constantly stirred. Time
and labour-saving conveniences, however, may often be iirovided which will
considerably lessen these difficulties."

14

The self-cookiug method is not considered satisfactory, according to tho
I'. S. Report quoted above, iu which the following remark occurs : — " In the
experiments of the Bureau of Entomology this wash has not been satisfactory.
Sufficient heat is not generated during the slaking of the lime to bring into
solution a sufficient quantity of sulphiu-." Nevertheless, Mr. W. E. Scott, whose
formula here follows, has had the greatest satisfaction from the self-boiled
spray.

FoRMtL.\ FOB SEr.F-noii.iNO Lime. Salt akd Sulpiivr.

Xo. 1 Spraii. — For winter u.'fe, while the trees are dormant : —

By W. E. Scott, Ganges Harbour, member of the Board of Horticulture.

1. Take 20 IDs. flowers of sulphur and stir into a paste with a little hot
water in a coal-oil can. (Refined sulphur should only be used.)

2. Take 40 lt)S. fresh lime — slaked limo is useless. (The better the lime
the better the spray.)

3. *Pour into a 50-gallon barrel, from 12 to I.j gallons boiling water and
immediatel.v add the lime and sulphur. Cover the mouth of barrel with thick
sacks to retain the heat and stir occasionally, whilst dissolving, with a wooden
paddle.

In half an hour the sulphur will be well dissolved, and the mixture is
ready for u.se after adding 15 IDs. salt and filling the barrel full up with hot
water.

Strain into the sjiray barrel through a tine l)rass-wire sieve to prevent
the nozzle clogging.

General Remarks.

1. Apply this spray as hot as po.ssible, the hotter the better.

2. A great many authorities omit the salt. The writer favours the use of
it on account of it making the solution adhere better to the trees.

?,. A nozzle which will throw a fine mist-like spray should be used, such
as the 2 or .3 cluster spramotor nozzle.

4. Use a good siiray pump and apply the mixture with as much force as
possible.

5. Spraying to be rffrctirc must Tie tlwrongh, so as to cover evcrii part of
the tree with the mi.xture. To spray a tree, say 10 to 15 years old, it is
necessary to .spray from at least two sides, and preferably from three.

a. A bamboo extension rod, long enough to reach the tops of the trees,
should always be used.

7. To kec]! the spray pump iu good working order, run through about five
gallons of clean water every day when you have finished spraying. This is
very iiniJortiiiit.

8. Anyone who has the means of generating steam on the jilace can
improve this mixlure by turning steam into the barrel, after it has been self-
boiled, for abdut a (piarter of an hour longer.

•Mr. Scott alliuies to .\mi/ri<;an gallons in his formula, eoual to about 42 imnorial
gallons.

15

This mixture, thoroughly and conscientiously aiijilied. will completely
eradicate oyster scale, is a sure preventive against the borer, and will kill the
eggs of the aphides and other insect pests, and from personal exiierience the
writer is convinced that it is a iiioxt valuatile fungicide.

Wm. E. Scott.
Gntuics Hurhour, Salt Spring Ishuul, B. C.

The following is the recommendation of the I'rovincial Inspector of Fruit
Pests :—

Fresh unslaked lime 40 Itts.

Sublimed sulphur 20 .,

Salt 15 ..

Water 50 gals. ( Imperial ) .

riace 10 ITjs. of lime and 20 lbs. of sulphur in a boiler with 20 gallons of
water, and boil over a brisk fire for two hours, until the sulphur is thoroughly
dissolved. It will then be amber-coloured. Next place .30 lbs. of lime in a
cask and pour water enough over it to thoroughly slake it. Add the salt.
When dissolved, add the lime and sulphur and boil half an hour longer.
Add enough water to make 50 gallons. Apr)ly at a temperature of 130 degrees
in the tank.

Spray when the trees are dormant, or as soon as the leaves fall, and again
in tlie siiring before the buds swell. A good force pumj) should be used, and
care must be taken to thoroughly cover the infectwl trees from the ground
to the tips of the shoots with the mixture, which should be constantly stirred
when appl.ving.

If you have facilities for cooking the number one solution (and you should
have). I would certainly recommend you to use your own manufacture iu
preference to any brand that ma.v be offered for sale. You are iu a position
to know that your own article is properly made. Be very sure that the lime
which you use is perfectly fresh and very hot. also that .you use only suhliined
sulphur; use no other quality, no matter how cheap it may be. The sublimed
I article is well refined, and so finely ground that it quickly combines with the
lime.

[Recent experiments have demonstrated that this wash is equally effective
if the salt is eliminated. This spray is the standard insecticide for all scale
insects, woolly aphis, etc.. and is highly recommended for cleansing fruit trees,
acting not only as an all-round insecticide, but to a great degree as a fungicide.
—J. K. A.]

Central Experimental Farm foruuila : —

Lime 12 ITjs.

Sulphur, powdered 12 ..

Water 40 gallons.

Ontario Department of Agriculture: —

Fresh lime 20 ITjs.

Sulphur ( flowers ) l.s .,

Water 40 gallons.

16

Handling the Sprat:.

The pumps used with sulphur-lime wash must he washed out each night
after using. Pumps with brass working parts will have a scaly crust formed
over the brass after continued use. Brass nozzles are eaten out by several
days' spraying, and a sutfleient supply should be kept on hand to replace those
worn out. Sulphur-lime will keep for several days. The horses as well as
the men should be protected during the time of application. This is done by
blankets and hoods of gunny-sacking or canvas. Sulphur-lime is caustic to
the skin and may produce ulcers. It is a good i)lan to anoint the hands and
face with vaseline before spraying.

No. 2. — Quassia Chios and WJiale-oil .S'offp. — Summer spray for aphis; —

Quassia chips 8 lbs.

Whale-oil soap 7 ,.

Water 100 gallons.

Boil the quassia chips in about 8 gallons of water for one hour. Dissolve
the soa)i in hot water, strain and mix both solutions together, and dilute with
sufficient water to make 100 gallons altogether. To be used with a spray
pump with as nuich force as jjossible in applying. This mixture is the
standard remedy for hop-aphis, and has given most satisfactory results against
other forms of aphides, with no injury to the foliage of trees treated.

No. 5. — Kerosene Emulsions. — These are particularly valuable against
insects as plant-lice, scale insects, and animal parasites. The best formula is :

Kerosene (coal oil ) 2 gallons.

Rain water 1

Soap % pound.

Boil the soap in the water till all is dis.solved; then, while boiling hot,
turn it into the lierosene, and churn the mixture constantly and forcibly with
a syringe or force pump for five minutes, when it will be of a smooth, cream.v
nature. If the emulsion is perfect, it will adhere to the surface of glass
without oiliness. As it cools, it thickens into a jelly-like mass. This gives
the stock emulsion, which must be diluted with nine times its measure of
warm water before using on vegetation. The above quantity of 3 gallons of
emulsion will make .30 gallons of wash. Insects breathe through small open-
ings along their sides. The effect of kerosene emulsion is to suffocate them,
by stopping up these breathing pores.

Kerosene emulsions may also be made conveniently by using an equal
amount of sour milk instead of soap and water hi the above formula, and
churning for the same time to get the stock emulsion. Recently another
method has been suggested by Mr. F. T. Shutt and Mr. W. T. Macouu, of
mixing kerosene first of all with flour and afterwards with water, by churning
the two together. This convenient plan is a modification of a method jiroposed
by Prof. Close, of the Delaware Experiment Station, in which it was shown
that lime has the jiower of holding kerosene in suspeusiou ana forming an
emulsion whieli does not seiiarate for a long time. Lime is not conveniently
(ibt.iinalilc^ in all parts of c.in.-ula. and Mr. Shutt made the valuable discovery
tii.-it Hnur. whieh is to lie liad everywhere, may be used with equally good

17

results, if the eimilsioii is tn lie used at (iiice. Tliis irives us. tlien. li.v far tlie
most eouveuient keruseue enuilsiou, wlieu small quautities are reijuired iov
immediate use.

The preparation is slmjile. Tlie requisite amount of kerosene is placed
in a dr.v vessel and flour added in tlie proportion of eight ounces to one quart
of kerosene. It is then thoroughly stirred and 2 gallons of water are added
for ever.v quart of kerosene ; the whole is then vigorousl.v churned for from
two to four minutes, and the emulsion is ready for use. When re<iuired for
immediate u.se. two ounces of flour will emulsify one quart of kerosene ; but.
ou stan<lina a few hours, the kerosene will separate. However, it has been
further found b.v Mr. Shutt that, by scalding the flour before adding the
kerosene, an excellent emulsion which does not separate in the least after
one week, can be prepared with two ounces of flour, by mixing the resulting
paste with one quart of kerosene and emulsifying with two gallons of water.
Dr. FIctclier.

White HcUchorr. — This is a vegetable poison, being the finely powdered
roots of Vcratnim albinii. It is useful for leaf-eating Insects and root maggots.
Although very poisonous to insects, owing to the poisonous principles being
soluble, it can be safel.v used where the arsenites would be dangerous. It can
be applied as a dr.v iiowder or ;is a liquid mixture, using one ounce to two
gallons of warm water.

Iiis-crt Poirdcr { I'iiitI/iiiiiii. HiiIiikIi). — This is another vegetal)le insecti-
cide of special value, from the f.-ict. although it is extremely active in its
effects upon nearly all insects, it is practically harmless to human beings and
the higher animals. It is the pulverised flowers of some plants belonging to
the genus Piiictlinon. It is useful for many household pests, as flies, mosqui-
toes and wasps, all of which are quickly affected, either by having a small
quantity thrown into the air of a room by means of an iuseet-gun or small
bellows, or by a small quantity (a teaspoonful) being ignited and allowed to
smoulder. It seems to have a marked effect upon the breathing organs of
insects. Where practicable, a dry application gives the best results. If mixed
with four times its weight of ciimmon flour, and then kept in a tightly closed
ves.sel for twent.v-four hour.s. the mixture will kill nearly all caterpillars it is
aiipliecl to, and in this strength becomes the best remedy for the caterpillar
of the Imiiorted Cabbage Butterfly. It can also be used mixed with water.
1 oz. to 2 gallons of water. — Dr. Fletcher.

Xo. 6. — Tobacco and Soup Wash : —

Soak 4 rbs. waste tobacco in 9 gallons hot water for four or five hours (or
in the same quantity of cold water for four or five da.vs) ; dissolve 1 lb, whale-
oil soap in 1 gallon hot water : strain the tobacco decoction into the dissolved
soap and apply the mixture to affected trees with a spray pump, using a fine
nozzle and all the force possible. Or the mixture may be applied directly to
the insects with a swali or brush. A good .summer wash for all forms of
a|ihi(les.

Xo. 7. — Resin. 11'h.s//. — For Aphis and Scale Insects: —

Resin 4 lbs.

Sal soda 3 „

B

18

Place the resin ami sal soja in a kettle with three pints of cold water
(soft or rain water). Boil or simmer slowly until thoroughly dissolved, when
it will look black. The sal soda will adhere to the sides of the kettle and
must be scraped down. When sufficiently boiled, the resin being completely
dissolved, add enough hot water to make 50 gallons. After adding the water
it will become thick, but after boiling again it becomes thiu. The above is
ready for immediate use and should be used lukewarm. If desired for future
use, make as directed above, but add only five gallons of water and boil until
thick. When required for use, dilute with boiling water as follows and stir
thoroughly, when applying: —

For hop-louse 1 gallon compound to 0 gallons water.

For woolly aphis 1 .. 7

For scale insects 1 .. 0

For green aphis 1 .. 9 ..

The spray is not injurious to the tree, for after three or four days' sun-
shine it dissolves or breaks away from the surface.

No. 8. — HeUehore Spray. — For Pear and Cherry Slugs, Gooseberry and
Currant Worms : —

Hellebore 1 ounce.

Water 1 gallon.

Steep the hellebore for an hour in one pint boiling water, then add the
balance of water cold. To be used with spray pump.

Note. — Hellebore may be applied as a powder, dusted on the trees or
plants treated. A machine known as Leggett's Powder Gun is a very efficient
means for its use on a large scale. In all cases, care should be taken to obtain
good fresh hellebore, to ensure the results aimed at.

No. 9. — Paris Green Spraii. — For Codling Moth. Caterpillars, and other
leaf-eating insects : —

Paris green -t ounces.

Fresh slaked lime 1 lb.

Water ." 50 gallons.

Make a paste of the Paris green with a little water. Make the lime into
milk of lime of water, mix both these together, and add water to 50 gallons
altogether. Paris green is a heavy powder, and will not remain long in
suspension, hence it must be kept constantly stirred when using. P.e sure
that good fresh lime is used to prevent the burning of foliage. Apply with
spray pump.

Paris green can generally be used to advantage with Bordeaux mixture,
making a combined fungicide and insecticide, in the proportions given above,
viz. : 4 ozs. Paris green to 50 gallons Bordeaux mixture. Apply with spray
pump.

No. 15. — Lye and Soap Wash. — For winter use only: —
1 lb. concentrated lye.
1 It), whale-oil soap.
5 gallons water.
Dissolve the lye and soap in the water heated.

19

This mixture may be applied with a swab or brush, or with the spray
pump, if used warm. Oue thorough application in the fall, and another before
growth commences in the spring, should be made when used against woolly
aphides. This is also an excellent wash to remove moss and lichen from trees
and bushes, and if used for this jiurpose alone, half the amount of soap is
sutficient.

FUNGICIDES. €'

No. 4. — Bordeaux Mixture. — The formula recommended by the Board of
Horticulture for summer use is as follows : —

Sulphate of copper (bliiestone) 4 tbs.

Fresh unslaked lime 4 ..

Water (soft) 40 gallons.

Double strength for winter use: —

Sulphate of copper (bluestone) 8 to 10 lbs.

Fresh unslaked lime S lbs.

Water (soft) 40 gallons.

Bulletin 60 of the Washington Experiment Station recommends for ajiple
tree anthraenose even of greater strength, viz. : —

Copper sulphate ( bluestone) 12 IDs.

Quick-lime S ,,

Water 50 gallons = 40 Imp. gal.

The ordinary double strength mixture, viz., .S, S, 40, is, however, sufficient
for general purposes.

For poisoned Bordeaux mixture add 4 ozs. Paris green to the above.
JIake the Paris green into a paste by adding a little warm water and then
pour into the barrel and stir thoroughly. The quantities are easily remem-
bered, being all fours, viz. : —

Sulphate copper 4 lt)s.

Lime 4 ..

Water 40 gallons.

Paris greeu 4 ounces.

The greatest care should be used in preparation of this mixture.
If but a small quantity is to be used, prepare as follows : — Weigh out
four pounds of fresh (never air-slaked) lime, add to it, gradually, warm
water, a little at first, more as the slaking proceeds, being sure that at
no time the lime lacks w-ater enough, stirring all the while with a hoe. Con-
tinue adding water till a soft milk of lime is the. result. Dissolve in a bucket
or half barrel (never a metal vessel) four pounds of bluestone, using warm
water to hasten solution. When this is completely dissolved, dilute both lime
and bluestone with about 10 gallons of water. Strain the milk of lime into
the spray tank through a rather close-meshed wire gauze, thus preventing any
lumps, rocks, or fibers from going into the tank. Then, while one stirs the
material in the tank with a hoe, another man gently adds the bluestone water,
seeing that no lint or trash goes in by this means either. Then fill the tank

20

with water, stirring all tlie wliilc and tlie sjiray is ready to use. Xercr
lioiir tlie undiluted bluestone water into the undiluted milk of lime, or a poor
chemical union will result. Such a mixture lias poor fungicidal value, settles
rapidly and clogs the nozzles.

Stock Solutions.

Where UKire tli;iii a li:irrel or two of Bordeaux is to be made, it saves time
to unike what are called stneli; solutions: —

Weigh out and juit into a long, deep trough lil^e a " feed trough "' enough
lime to make a definite number of barrels or tanks of spray. If the barrel
holds 50 gallons, or the tank 100 or 150 gallons, use some multiple of four
pounds of lime, say 40 pounds. Bring to milk of lime by adding ,1ust tlie
number of gallons of water that you u.se pounds of lime, here 40 gallons. The
lime slacks best if warm or hot water be used as a starter. Dissolve in a very
large tub or wooden tank 40 pounds of bluestone in 20 or 40 gallons of water.
Never use less water than 1 gallon to each 2 pounds of bluestone, or the
material will recrystallise in the bottom and on the sides of the container.

Then all you have to do is to measure out 4 gallons of the milk of lime. 2
or 4 gallons of the bluestone water, dilute to nlicmt l,"i gallons each and iiour
together into the barrel. If the spray-tank Imlds 2 nr 3 barrels, you have to
measure out two or three times as mucli and diUite two or three times as much
as for the liarrel.

Testing Spr.w.

If the Hine u.sed is a fine lime, neither air-slaked. ini]ir(iperly Imnied, nor
having much " rock " in it, I have found 4 pounds sufficient to each 4 pounds
of liluestone. However, many stations now recommend using C pounds of lime
to 4 pounds of bluestone. and this should certainly be done if the lime is not
fir,st-elass. The best way to assure oneself that he has lime enough is to test
the mixture. There are three ways of testing : —

1st. Dip a perfectly clean, bright blade of a pocket-knife into tlie Biirdeaux
and leave it In it for about one minute. If tliere is not lime enough, a tliin.
reddish stain of copper will be left upon the blade.

2nd. Fill a small bowl with the Bordeaux. ,'iiid, holding it level with the
e.ve, breathe gentl.v u]mmi and across the liiiuid. If it is jiroperly made, and
there is any excess of lime, the carbonic acid of the breath will cause a tliin
pellicle to form on top.

3rd. Dissolve in six ounces of water one ounce of ferro-cyanide of jiotas-
siuni. I'Diir s<]ine of the Bordeaux into a bowl and add a little of the
solution ici it. droll by drop. If a brownish discolouration takes place, you mu.st
add more lime to the stoclv solution and tanlc.

Uses of This Spr.w.

Apiilc Sctih. — rse once before flowers open, best .iust as buds are bursting,
and twd cir tliree times after fruit has set, according to the prevalence of rain
and clmid.v weather. In ordinarily pleasant seasons three sprayings are
eiKiugli. When a|ilyiiig the last two siira.vings the insecticide can be added
til the siiray. thus scali and insects being combated at the same time.

21

I'dinlnii Mi!<I( ir of (int])<\ Apiilc. Peach and Rose. — Arnily first just as
luiils are burstiiitr. iniil eontiinic at intervals throughout the seasun. Each
fruit-grower must denioustrate for himself just how many sprayings he needs,
for this is governed largely by seasons, location and prevalence of diseases the
[irevious year.

I'cach-Icaf Ciiii. — Ajiply just as liuds are Imrsting. and two nr tlin^e more
times through the early season. Instead of Bordeau.x. the lime-sulphur salt
spray can be used for the first spraying with excellent effect.

Ajiiile Cdiikcr or Antlirac7ws-r. — Professor Cordley. of the Oregon Stati(m.
sn.vs: — "Spray as soon as possible after crop is gathered, and repi'at in two
weeks." For all spraying, in the dormant season or fall, wliether tor this
disease or other.s, best results are obtained by increasing the amounts of botli
bluestone and lime to six pounds.

Cojiiiir .^iil/ilKite t^oliitioii : —

( 'upper suliiliate 2 or .'! rr)s.

Water SO gallons.

This spray is nnicU endorsed b,y experiment stations both Eastern and
Western, to take tlie place of Bordeaux during the dormant season. Though
of equal efficiency with Bordeaux, and more easily made and applied, it is of
so corrosive a nature when coming in contact with any iron or steel parts as
to make its use very disagreeable. Iron nuts about the waggon or pump
l>ecome in a few da.vs so soldered to the bolts as to make It next to impossible
to loosen them. Metal parts of the harness, and even tools employed, are soon
rendered unsightly or even spoiled. Copper sulphate solution renders its best
service in the treatment of grain, though formalin is largely displacing it.

Xo. 10. — Aiiniionidcal CopiKi- Cdihonutc: —

Copper corbonate 5 ounces.

Aninidiiia (annnonia water of commerce) 3 or 4 pints.

Water 50 gallons.

Dissolve the copper carbonate in the annnonia and dilute with water to
50 gallons. The ccmcentrated .solution should lie )ioured into the water. Keep
the ammonia in glass or stone jar tightly corked.

Home Manufacture of Copper Carlioiiate. — As the precipit.-ited form of car-
bonate of copper is not always obtainable, the following directions are given
for its preparation : —

In a vessel capable of holding two or three gallons, dissolve l^o lt)S. of
copper sulphate in 4 pints hot water. In another vessel dissolve 1% lbs. sal
soda (washing soda) in 4 i)ints hot water. When both are dissolved, pour the
second solution into the first and stir briskly. When effervescence ceases, fill
the vessel with water and stir thoroughly. Allow this to stand 5 or G hours,
wlien a iireciiiitate or sediment will h.ave settled at the bottom. Now pour off
the clear liquid without disturbing this sediment, fill up the ve.ssel again with
water and stir as before, then allow this to stand until the sediment has again
.settled, and then pour off the clear liquid carefully as before; the residue or
sediment is carbonate of copper, and from the quantities given there .should be
formed 12 ounces weight. Instead of drying this (which is a sloW process).

add to it 4 quarts strong ammonia, stirring well, and then add water to bring
the wliole quantity up to 6 quarts. Tlnis may be kept iu an ordinary stone jai"
but should be closely corked.

Each quart will contain two ounces carbonate of copper, which when
added to 20 gallons water will furnish a solution ready for spraying, of the
same strength and character as that obtained by the use of the dried carbon-
ate of copper.

Caution. — Most of the copper compounds corrode tin aud iron. Conse-
quently, in preparing them for use, earthen, wooden or brass vessels should
be employed; and in applying them, the parts of pump which come in contact
with the liquid should be made of brass.

Though this is, in many respects, as good a spray as Bordeaux, it is more
costly, and the ingredients less commonly attainable. It used to be recom-
mended for the final spraying of almost all fruits, since it leaves no stain as
does the Bordeaux; but since all of our first-class apples out west are now
wiped before being packed, its usefulness has decreased. For grapes, or any
other fruits attacked by fungi, and which cannot easily be wiped or cleaned in
any wa.v. this is superior to Bordeaux as a final spray. This is peculiarly the
case with powdery mildew.

FonitaVin.

This is a 40 per cent, solution of formaldeh.vde gas in water, though, owing
to the escape of the gas and to adulteration, the commercial article hardly
ever contains 40 per cent. I have never yet happened to find any of so poor
qualit.v. however, as not to do the work expected of it. Such complaints are
by no means infrequent, but I judge from my own success in the use of forma-
lin that the cause of failure is to be laid more often to the door of the one
using it. He either uses it too weak, or allows his grain or potatoes to become
reinfested by the disease through careless sacking or handling after treatment.
The grain or potatoes should be treated in the sacks in which they are to be
left, or in the case of grain, where .sprinkling is adopted, the sacks should be
soaked before the treated grain is put back into them.
ForiiKiliii for Potato Scah: —

I^"i'm'ilin 14 pint.

^y-Atvv 1.5 gallons.

Foniifilin for Siiiiit of Grain: —

Formalin 1 pj^t.

■^^'•■t*'!' .jO gallons.

Corrosire Siihliniate : —

Corrosive sublimate 3 ounces.

■^ater 15 gallons.

Or,

Corrosive sublimate 10 ounces.

Water CO gallons.

Dissolve the sublimate in warm water, and when dissolved pour into a
vessel containing water and stir vigourously with a lath.

23

Tre.it the potatoes as with the formalin. As no better results were
obtained by me with the corrosive sublimate than with formalin, and as the
first is an intense and lasting poison whilst the latter is not. I advise the use
of formalin.

Xo. 10. — Potassium Sulphide: —

This is a hard substance of a brown colour when fresh, though turning on
the outside yellow on exposure to air or sunlight. It is. from Its colour, often
called •■ Liver of Sulphur." It should be kept in a closed vessel not exposed to
sunlight.

rotassium sulphide ^i; oz. to 1 oz.

Water 1 gallon.

This spray is used for most of the powdery mildews. Init I have had best
results with it in combatting mildew on the gooseberry. Four or five sprayings
will do away with mildew, when on previous years it has been so bad as
entirely to spoil the crop. It dissolves readily in water .slightly warmed, while
it never clogs the nozzle, so perfect is its solubility. I found three sprayings
would completely save the crop, but that one or two more were needed to do
away with the disease completely. The first spraying should be applied just
as the young leaves are putting forth, and the subsequent applications two or
three weeks apart through the growing season.

Arscnitc of Lime with Soda: —

White arsenic 1 ^■

Sal soda (crystal) 4 ITjs.

Water 1 gnl-

Tlie ingredients are boiled in the required amount of water until dissolved,
which will take place in a comparatively few minutes, after which the water
lost by evaporation is replaced. To every 40 or 50 gallons of water a pint of
this stock solution and from 2 to 4 pounds of fresh slaked lime are added. The
chemical compound derived from the combination of the sal soda and the white
arsenic is arsenite of soda. In the presence of lime this breaks down and
arsenite of lime is formed. It requires 4.4 It)s. of crystal sal soda, or 1.6 lbs.
of dry sal soda to combine with 1 lb. of arsenic and 2 lbs. of freshly slaked
lime to combine with 1 IT), of arsenic to form arsenite of lime. It is always
desiralile to have an excess of lime present, in order to prevent all danger of
burning: furthermore, this excess is a convenience to fruit growers, because
they can .see by the distribution and amount of lime in the foliage how well
the spraying has been done. The formula, which is the Kedzie formula, with
a few minor changes, has been used in many different sections of the country
with unvarying success. In all of the practical tests under the advice of the
writer, this solution is used and is found to be not only as efficient as other
.solutions, but far cheaper.

When it is desired to use Bordeaux mixture with this solution, it is added
to the Bordeaux mixture in the same proportion as to a similar quantity of
water.— C. B. Simpson, Bull. J,l, U. S. Div. Ent.

The above combination of arsenite of lime with soda is preferable to arsen-
ite of lime on account of the difficulty in making this latter combination per-
fectly, and, when this is not the case ,the free arsenic is very destructive to
foliage.

24

Loiulon rui'iilo. which is an imimre arsenite of lime, is now vt'i-y seIt.loin
used, for the same I'easoii. As it Is a waste iii-oduet in the mauufac-ture of
aniline dyes, it is very variable in composition, and therefore unsafe to use.

G-rccn Arsciiokl. — This is a convenient poison to use, being practically
Paris green not crystallised, and is, in some ways, better. Being a very fine
powder, it remains in suspension longer and adheres better to foliage. Its
chief disadvantage is, it has a rather larger percentage of soluble arsenic, and,
unless mixed with fresh lime, as suggested for Paris green, there is danger
of it injuring foliage. It may be used in the same proportion as Paris green,
viz., one ounce to 10 gallons of water. — Fletcher.

Fumigation With Hydkocyanic Acid Gas.

During the iiast few years the method of destroying various insect pests b.y
means of fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas has been much advocated, and
the recommendation ha.s been made in certain of the Board's leaflets. For the
destruction of mussel scale, woolly aphis, meal.y bug, thrips, weevils and red
spider in greenhouses, etc.. the method is very valuable, while it may also be
employed for the fumigation of poultry-houses in case of infestation by lice
and mites.

Nursery stocl^ fumigated with h,vdrocyanie acid gas liefore planting will
be freed from insect enemies in all stages save that of the egg.

M-\TERIAI.S TO BE U.SED.

The materials necessary for purposes of fumigation are: — (1) potassium
cyanide of 98 per cent, purity; (2) sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of not
less thau 1.83; (3) water; (4) jars and a glass measure.

The following quantities may be talcen as a standard for use : — Potassium
cyanide, 1 part; sulphuric acid, 1% parts; and water, 3% parts.

The proportions of cyanide, sulphuric acid and water to be used, and the
amount of space per unit of cyanide, vary slightly as recommended by different
authorities, three different worliers recommending 1 oz. of cyanide of OS per
cent, purity to every 200, or 300, or 500 cubic feet of space respectively.

The variation in the amount of cyanide depends to some extent on the
character of the plants that are being treated, on their strength, whether they
are dormant or aeti\-e, evergreen or deciduous, and also on the season. In the
case of tender plants, 1 oz. of cyanide may serve for 500 cubic feet of space,
while hardy plants may be treated with 1 oz. of cyanide to 200 cubic feet of
space.

Treatment of Greenhouses, Conservatories, Nursery Stock, Etc.

Method of Application. — The glass-house, or other place, which is to bo
treated, must be received as air-tight as possible.

The sulphuric acid should be poured very carefully and slowly into the
water, which may be put in an earthenware vessel, e.g., a large jam-jar. The
cyanide of potassium, wrapped in thin blotting paper, should then be dropped
into the now diluted sulphuric acid. The vessel into which the cyanide is
dropped must be so near the door that it can be reached by the outstretched
arm of the operator, who should inniicdiatel!/ shut the door and close up its
chinlss by ijajier previously prepared. Another, and better, method is for the

dlierator to introflnce the cyanide to the diluted sulphuric acid through a
window, the cyanide being placed at the end of a long stick or rod. or being
lowered into the acid by a string and pulley. The window must be closed
inunediately after the addition of the cyanide, so that the operator may escape
the fumes. Strawson recommends the pouring of the diluted acid from a
bottle fitted with a corli in which two slits are cut, one to let in air and the
other to allow a small aud even stream to flow upon the cyanide, the olijeet
lieiug to provide a slow and even disengagement of gas. The bottle should be
arranged so that it can be tilted up when all is ready.

It is of importance also that the hydrocyanic acid gas fumes be distributed
over the house, and this may be done by an arrangement of fans which can
be worked from the outside.

Fumigation should take place in the evening, or after nightfall, aud not in
strong sunlight. The temperature of the house should be from 50° to G0° F.
The plants to be treated should be dry. The surface of the soil of the house
should also be as dry as practicable. Experiment has shown that the eggs of
the woolly aphis may remain unaffected, and therefore fumigation should be
repeated in ten days. Eggs of the apple mussel scale are also unaffected by
gas of the strength mentioned.

Points to he CarefuUy Xoted. — The work should be done by a careful and
skilled operator, for the cyanide aud its fumes are very poisonous and danger-
ous to human and animal life.

The treated room or conservatory must be kept closed during fumigation
from three-quarters of an hour to an hour, after which the room should be
ventil.-ited, the windows, etc.. being opened from the outside, and no one should
enter until an hour has elap.sed. While oijening the windows, etc., the operator
should be careful not to enhale the escaping fumes.

It is safer not to fumigate when the jjlants are in bloom.

yinscrii Stock-. — In tlie treatment of nursery stock the bushes or young
trees should be placed in an air-tight box or canvas tent of known capacity,
and sub.jected to the fumes of hydrocyanide gas for one hour. Large numbers
can be treated at once at little expense.

When the time has expired the tent or box should be opened in such a
way that the wind blows the fumes away from the operator, and should be left
to ventilate for half an hour before the stock is removed.

Trees in the orchard may also be treated by the use of a canvas tent or
cover.

('Axv.\s Covers for Fumigating.

The practice of using canvas covers for fumigating is not so common in
Creat Britain as in some other countries and the method followed in the
Colonies may here be given for the guidance of those who wish to undertake
orchard fumigation with hydrocyanide acid gas. According to Claude Fuller,
the Xatal Government Entomologist, the covers should be of a light, durable
material, and comparatively gas-tight, the most suitable, probably, being
canvas. Eight-ounce American duck canvas is recommended.

There are three t5T[)es of covers — sheets, tents, aud box covers. The sheets
are octagonal in form, and can be further enlarged by sewing on a " skirt "
round the edge. These can be easily lifted over small trees up to six or seven

feet iu height, above which a hoisting aiiparatiis must Ije used. Tent covers
may be used for trees up to 13 feet in height. They take the form of dome-
shaped teuts, the mouth of which is Icept open by a ring of gas-piping passed
through canvas loops, and they can be quiclvly lifted over and removed from 8
to 13-foot trees by a couple of men, where the hoisting of a sheet would talie
three or four. Bow covers are made to any convenient size by covering a
wooden framework with canvas or calico; the latter material should be painted
or oiled to make it sufficiently gas-tight. They are especially adapted for small
trees and bushes.

Note. — As both the pota.ssium cyanide and the hydrocyanide acid gas are
deadly poisons, the former should be kept in a tightly-stoppered bottle and
labelled Poison, whilst the gas as generated must on no account be breathed.
Fumigation should not be carried out in a high wind, nor when the trees are
wet, but otherwi.se it may be done at any season of the year. — Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries. .} Wliitciiall Place. London S. W., Januanj, 190S.

CHAPTER III.— BENEFICIAL INSECTS.

The subject of parasitism among insects is not only a very interesting one,
but it is one which, affecting as it does, either directly or indirectly, nearly
every species of plant or animal on the face of the globe, has an economic
bearing that, in all of its ramifications, is important even beyond our com-
prehension. If we look out upon the heavens on a bright summer night, we
observe myriads of worlds each of which is rushing with resistless force and
almost lightning rapidity along its course through trackless space, yet never
colliding or jostling one another. We can only in a vague manner, at Ijest.
comprehend the magnitude of this mechanism, or realise the power which
holds each planet in its proper place, and prevents it from rushing to its own
destruction or that of its neighbour.

In our own natural world, assuming that species are living representatives
of what we witness iu the heaven.s, then one of the greatest, if not indeed the
most powerful, force which holds each .species in its proper sphere, is that
influence which we call parasitism, and but for this influence, puny humanity
would scarce be able to live out a miserable existence. As it is, the value of
insect friends in combating insect, and I might also add plant, foes, is but
little understood, and, in fact, very few of those receiving a direct benefit even
know of the existence of their benefactors.

There are, of course, many destructive insects which are exceedingly
abundant every season, but they are such as have been imported and their
jiarasites left behind, or they are such of our native species as a change of
environment, brought about by our progress and improvement, has, apparently,
enabled to reproduce much more rapidly, and hence they have become too

27

stroug to be coutrolled by those parasites which, doubtless, formerly held them
within bounds; but even among these, were the partial checks removed, we
should very soon feel their loss, and, perhaps, better appreciate their value.

The term parasite, as used in this country, is of a somewhat general
meaning. Thus, the louse is a true parasite because it lives and has its home
upon the body of its host, and while e.xtracting its nourishment therefrom
does not necessarily destroy life. The bee moth. GalJcria ccrcanu. Fab.,
although it may cause the death of an entire colony of bees, is not a parasite
at all, but simply a mess-mate. It does not devour the bees, but simply robs
them of their store of food.

Our beneficial insects are of neither one of these two classes, because they
not only feed upon the body of their host, but cause its death thereby ; for
this reason, that class of insects, which in this paper are termed parasites,
are. by mo.st foreign naturalists, designated as cannibals, wliich is really the
more proper term. All beneficial insects are not necessarily cannibals, how-
ever, the scavenger beetles being a notable exception, while on the other hand,
the cannibals are not all of them beneficial, as some of them destroy those
which are directly engaged in preying upon the injurious species.

Of the beneficial cannibals we have two classes. First, such as deposit
their eggs in or upon the body of their victim, the young hatching therefrom,
feeding upon the living tissue. Second, such as catch and devour their prey,
or extract the juices from it, rejecting the more solid portions of the body.
The first of these classes is composed almost entirely of insects belonging to
either one or the other of the two orders, Hymetioptcra, the most numerous,
and having four transparent wings, and Diptera, or flies, which have but two
wings. The second cla.ss is made up of a vast multitude of insects, belonging
to all orders. Some of these are cannibals in the larval or worm stage only,
others during all of their stages of development.

The parasitic Hymenoptera, which so largely compose the first class,
nearly all belong to one or the other of the three families. Ichneumon flies.
Jclinciiinonklw. egg iiarasites. Proctotnipidce and the ClialciiUdcc. The first
are described as being readily recognised by the usually long and slender body,
the long, exserted ovipositor, which is often very long and protected by a
sheath formed by four stylets, of the same length as the true ovipositor.
Tlialcssa lunator, so called on account of the crescent-like spots across the
body, is a good illustration of one portion of this family. With the aid of her
long ovipositor, the female is able to probe the burrows of wood-boring larvK
and deposit her eggs in their bodies. Phnpla pedaUs, Cr«fss., and P. con-
qiiisifor. Say., are both parasitic on the tent caterpillar, while P. annuUpcs,
Br., commonly called the ring-legged pimpla. is parasitic on the larvae of the
codlin moth. Two other allied species. Biacon clianis, Riley, and Labcna
(iraUator. Say., destroy the flat-headed apiile tree borer. Another, a Bracouid,
Microdiis carinoides. Cress., attacks the apple-bud worm, Eccopsis maJana, Fid.
Two other species, Sigalphus curculionis. Fitch, and Thersilochus conotracheJi,
Riley, attack the larvre of the plum curculio. The former during one season,
in the vicinity of St. Louis, Missouri, was found by Dr. Riley to have destroyed
three-fourths of the early developed larvie of this pest. The long-tailed

28

opliion, Opliioii maeninim. Linn, and the cecropia eriptus. Cnjiitiis cjirematis.
Cress., are parasitic upon tlie American silk worm, Platysamia cecropia, Linn.
Tlie large green worm infesting the vines of potatoes and tomatoes is often
observed nearly covered with white egg-like cocoons, about the size of grains
of rice. The worm is the larva; of the five-spotted sphinx, Sphinx cehis.
Haw., and the cocoons are those of another hymenopterous parasite, Apanteles
congrcgatus. Say. The occurrence of these on the worm is brought about in
this way : The adult parasite deposits her eggs in the body of the worm, ju.st
under the .skin. As soon as the eggs hatch, the small, white, footless grubs
which develop from them begin at once to feed upon the fatty parts of the
worm, and continue to do so until full growth, when they eat their way out
through the .skin and .spin their cocoons, within which they pass the pupal
stage, and from which they emerge as adults. These parasites do not, how-
ever, always attach their cocoons to the body of the host, and those of this
and other species may frequently be observed in clusters on twigs, grass or
weeds, some of them licin^' white, like those ju.st mentioned, others .yellowish,
and still others are lirowu: but they all lielong to some of the many .species
of these useful insects, and should never be wantonly destroyed. These
liarasites are frequently themselves attacked by a second, and we have even
reared a third species.

Although very diminutive in size, among the entire family of Braconidre,
there are none more useful than those which attack plant lice or "green fly,"
The female parasite deposits a single egg in the body of the jilaut lonse, often
while the latter is quite young. On the hatching of this egg, tlie young larva
at once commences to feed upon the bod.v of its host, internally, while the
plant louse increases in size, gradually as.suming an unnaturally large and
swollen appearance, and eventually changing to a brown colour. Within the
body, however, the parasite has been developing, and when it lias transformed
to the adult it- eats a round hole in the now dry skin of the long since dead
host and makes its escape. These large, round, brown plant lice are often
observed on the leaves of corn and cabbage or other vegetables, as well as on
the leaves of trees, and illustrate to what extent these useful little insects are
engaged in destroying tlie most insidious pest of the horticulturist and also
of the farmer. Aphidiiis aveiiapJiis, Fitcli, de.stroys myriads of the grain
aphis, and besides this species we have reared eight others from the same
insect host. We have found in all twenty-one species of insects destroying
this grain aphis during the last few years.

Syrphus tiles are, as a rule, very gail.y coloured, and may not unfrequeutly
be mistaken by the unentomological for bees. Their maggots are particularly
fond of plant lice, Aphides, and there are very few species of these iirolifie
little pests which do not suffer severely from the attacks of these maggots.
The eggs are deposited among the swarms of plant lice, and the young maggots,
as soon as they hatch, begin to feed upon them. As the latter grow in age and
dimensions they move about among the former and seize one and another of
them, sucking out the juices from their bodies, leaving only the empty skin.
These maggots are fof)tless and eyeless, of wrinkled, flattened form, very
pointed at the anterior and blunt at the posterior extremities. The colour is at

29

first nearly whitt'. Imt flK'.v bfcdiiif .urt-enisli and brown. Wlii-n full grown,
they adhere liy a iilntinous secretion tn tlie leaf, the body hardens and con-
tr.-icts. forming a half cylindrical pniiariuni, from which, after a time, the adult
enieri;es.

We h.ave ourselves seen an outbreak of the )ilum a]ihis overcome by the
larva' of Siirpliiiii rilicstiii. Fab. lu eases where the aphis eauses the leaf to
curl, it is almost impossible to reach them with insecticides, and these
lianisites are then of the greatest value, and we cannot estimate the vast
imiioi'tance of their services, because we do not observe tlieui at their worlc.
]n fact. the.\- are supposed by some iieojjle to be the cause of this curling of
the leaves, as it sometimes occurs that the larva' will be the only living
things found on these leaves, they having made a <-lean sweep of the true
<lepredators.

The Tachin.a tlies and closely allied species are sha]ied and coloured nuicli
like our common house tl.v. but are u.sually larger and heavier bodied. Tlie.v
attack other insects in a different manner from the Syrphus flies, the female
placing her eggs on the surface of the skin of caterpillars and many other
larv.-i' which feed in exposed positions. Tlie eggs are somewhat elliptical in
'lutlhie. tlatteni'd. ;iud of a whitisli colour, adhering tenaciously when once
stuck upon the victim, and as the parent fiy takes especial pains to place them
on iiarts of the boily of the larva where it cannot reach them, the eg.gs are
Ijrob.ably seldom disiilaced. From these eggs young maggots soon hatch,
eating I heir way downward through the shell of the egg and through the skin
of their host into the fatty parts of the bod.v, upon which they subsist, after
the manner of the .voung hymen opterous larvie. The empty shells cover the
wounds caused b.y the maggots eating through the skin, thus saving the life of
the victim for a still worse fate. T'sually, only a limited number of these eggs
are jilaced upon each larva, the number varying from about four to eight or
ten. A case, however, came under our observation where the astonishing
nunilier of iliis eggs liad been placed upon a single cateri)illar of the handmaid
moth. hiitiuHi tiiiinisii. Drur.v. The caterpillars of this species are some years
very abundant, and defoliate our shade trees, esijecially the walnut. They are
often attacked b.y myriads of a species of Tachiua, and i)ursued on the ground
.and among the grass and weeds in the vicinity, often four or five flies being
engaged in chasing a single caterpillar. These last are frequently a sight to
behold, and from five cateriiillars wt' liave reared over fifty adults, — Insect
I'dnisitrs. /■'. M. Wi-h.<:tcr.

The following are some of tlie beneficial insects found in the Province: — ■

Aphei.inus : fuscipennls (How.),

Is a common enemy of armcaired scales. The general characteri.sties of
fKficiixiinis are well shown in the accompanying figure of a closely allied
s|iecies. (Fig. 1.) This parasite has been raised in large numbers in Califor-
ni.a. Mr. Alex. Craw reports it as doing very effecti\-e work in the neiglibour-
liood of Los Angeles,

30

Iwf^'

(Fn! 1.) — ( Aiihcliiius (lUisphidcs.)

(L 0. Houaid ami r. L. Murhitt. Bulletin No. 3. Neic Scries, Dirision of Bolanu, V. S.

Department of Agriculture. )

Pentilia Misella.

(Fig. 2.)

(o), beetle; (h), larva; (c). pupa; (d'), blossom end of pear, showing scales with larvfe

and pupie of Pentilia feeding on them, and pupa of Pentilia attached within calyx

— all greatly enlarged.

(L O. Hou-urd and C. L. Uurhitt. Bulletin Xo. 3, New Series, Division of Botany, V. S.

Dciiurtmcut of Ayriculture.)

31

Of preilaceoiis insects, perhaps the most interesting is the little eocciuellid
Pcutilia misella. (Fig. 2.) Both larvie and beetles feed upon the scales, the
beetles seeming to prefer the full grown female scales, and their larvre the
.voung scales. It is found both in the Eastern States and, possibly, also on the
Pacific slope.

Twice-Stabbed Ladybird {Chiloconis hiviiliieris) .
This is a beautiful little black beetle with two bright read spots on its
wing-covers. The larva is shown in the cut. and is black, crossed b.v a bright

Beetle.

Larva.

(Fig. 3.)

yellow band about the middle, and is armed with many soft. long, branching
spines. This Ladybird preys upon various .scales, and is especially destructive
to the San Jose Scale (.l.s//i(?io?».s iicrniciosiis). and the Oiisler-shcll scale
( Mi/tilaspis pomorum ) .

Brown-Neck Ladybird. (Scymnus marpinicollis).
This very small beetle feeds upon scale insects and delights
in attacking the red spider. To the naked eye it appears deep
Iilack and shiny, and at the touch drops or rolls off, but before
reaching the ground spreads out its wings and flies away. The
colour of the body is yellowish-gray, and is thickly covered with
mealy powder. The head is black and the neck brown. The
wing cases arc black and covered with hair.

Ambiguous Ladybird (llimiodainia umhigua).

(Fig. 5.)
This is a blood-red Ladybird, which is very plentiful,
the largest of the Ladybird.?, and feeds upon aphides.

The larva is one of

32

Convergent Ladybird (Ilijiiiiiiliniiid coni-crf/cns).

(Tig 0 I
This beetle works destnirtion to aijlii'? and scale insects, aud is quite

Lace-Winged Fly {Clnij-iopa oculata).

When the Ladyliirds are sireat destroyers of scale aud aphis, the larv.ie of
the Lace-winged flies rid trees and plants of million of Aphidn-. The fly has
a slender body, with delicate, gauze-like wings, and its colour is generally
green with golden eyes. The eggs are deposited on iicdides and laid in the
midst of a group of aphides. The larva is supplied with sliarp uiundihlcs, with
which it attack.s the aphis.

Syri'hus Fly, Hovering Fly'.

In the .Thove cuts YMg. 1 represents the fl.v : Fig. 2, magnifled, the case In
which lit transforms into a fly ; and Fig. 3, magnifled. the larva.
The Syrjjhus flies are also great destroyers of aphides. The larvic feed
entirely iijion aphides, and appear and disappear as the aphides appear and
disappear. The larva is a footless, eyeless, flattened, transversely wrinkled,
gaily coloured, green and purple maggot, having a very extensile body, which
enables it to reach up and grasp the aphis with its peculiar looking mouth.
The single egg. dei^osited in a group of aphides, hatches forty-eight hours after
it is laid, aud the lar\-a becomes full-grown and transformed into a pu]ia in five
or six days. The reason of this extremely rapid development in the first two
•stages, the egg and the larva, is explained when we consider how brief is the
existence of the aphis, and Imw suddenly its colonies appear and disappear.
When tlie larva is actively feeding, it destroys dozens of aphides, one after the
other, anil its body changes colour. AVhen filled to repletion the larva falls into

33

a lethargy, lasting two or three hours, during whieh the iiroeess of digestion

<h;mges the juices of the body to varying sh.nde.s of brown. After the process

of digestion has^taken place, the larva again begins its work devouring aphides.

Tachix.\ Fly.

These are parasitic in habit, feeding largely iipo cntcriiillars. and
perhaps, preferably, upon cutworms, Frequently, wlien the latter are
numerous, a large percentage will be noticed with one or several small white
eggs, attached to the anterior segments, in such a position that the larvie
•cannot possibly reach or destroy them. These eggs hatch in a very short time
into little maggot-like creatures that at once bore through the skin of the
cateriiillar and live within its body, feeding upon the fatty masses and
nuiscular tissue not absolutely neces.sary to life. When the maggots are full-
grown, and the welfare of the unfortunate caterpillar no longer a matter of
importance to them, they feed on, regardless of consequences. The maggots,
sometimes without attempting to get out of their host, then change to small
barred-shaped pupa>. Occasionally the maggots leave their host and make their
way a little below ground to jiupate. Some large caterpillars will attain their
full growth with as many as thirty or more of these maggots feeding inside
them.

Tachina flies are generally rather large for their class, robust in appear-
ance, always bristly, and sometimes formidable looking from the array of
sharj) shiny points projecting in every direction from their bodies. They are
.-imong the most effective of nature's cliecks to caterpillars, especially cut-
worms.

Cutworm Lion Black Gbound Wasp.

(CaJosoma cnlitUim) {Ammophlla luctuosa).

34

There are two enemies of ciitworins which deserve special notice, and
from the good service they do should be linown by sight to every cultivator.
They are the fiery ground beetle or cutworm lion and the black wasp. Both
of these are de.sperate enemies of the cutworms, the former feeding on them
in all of its stages ; the latter digging them out and storing its nest with them
as food for its young grubs.

CHAPTER IV.— INSECT PESTS OF MEN AND ANIMALS,
DISEASES OF POULTRY AND TREATMENT OF
WOUNDS.

REMEDIES— PREVENTIVE TREATMENT.

There are so many of the e.Ktei-nal parasites of domesticated animals
which, oven though very widely different in structure and affinities, have very
similar habit and can be reached by practically the same treatment, that a
chapter devoted especially to general treatment will be of special Importance.
We may consider the subject under the heads of " Preventive Jleasures,"
" Insecticidal Substances," and " Methods of Application of Remedies."
Preventive Measures.

Prevention is, for a large number of parasitic forms, by far the most
desirable plan. For .some it is the only plan that can be of any service in
avoiding in.iur.v.

The attacks of semi-parasitic forms, as mosquitoes, flies, buffalo-gnats,
etc., may be abated by operating upon their breeding iilaces and, further, their
direct attacks upon animals, where the number to be protected is not too
great, may be prevented, in some degree, by smearing the hair of the animals
with preparations of fi.sh-oil, tar, train oil and axle grease. Pennyroyal is
also recommended as beneficial.

For the bot-flie.s it is imjiortant to destroy the eggs before the larva^
hatch, by shaving or clipping off those noticed on horses, or washing them
with kerosene emulsion, carbolic acid solution, dipping solution, or if a
dipping vat is available, by swimming the animals through the vat.

For the constant external iiarasites, as lice, itch, mites, etc., quarantine
of all animals introduced into a herd, or thorough treatment of .such animals
to iirev<'nt infection of a herd that is free, cannot be too strongly urged. It is
the most practical protection against these pests.
IxsECTiciDAL Substances.

In this enumeration of substances which may be u.sed in treating insects
affecting domestic animals, the aim shall be to include all that have a real
value in this direction, either individually or in combination, and to indicate
their valueable properties and, very briefly, the forms to which they may be
applied.

35

Arsenic, a dendly poison, is iisod in some of the dipping solntions and liills
qnickly when taken into the alimentary canal or penetrating the tissues of the
uisect. It is, however, too dangerous a poison to be used except with the
greatest care, and the possibility of the animal treated licking itself, or eating
food ui)on which the solution has dripped to such au extent as to get a
poisonous dose, is too great to give it strong indorsement. It has its greatest
value in this connection in treatment of sheep scab, which often resists more
simple remedies.

Carbolic Acid, one of the most effective of agents against parasites, and
especially in certain combinations, is to be highly recommended. In many
cases the crude article can be used to as great advantage as the refined, and at
great saving in cost. T'sed extornally. without other combination than with
water, it should have a dilution of aljout 100 times its bulk of water. If used
too concentrated or upon very susceptible animals, such as dogs, it may be
aljsorbed and cause poisoning. Dr. Francis recommends it ver.v highly in com-
bination for cattle ticks, and the " Poultry World " gives it the highest praise
as a combination with slaked lime, to be used in buildings for chicken lice.

Calomel is used in some cases, but is for the most part superseded by more
satisfactory remedies.

Bcnxine may be used in the form of a spray or wash against bed-bugs and
fleas, and in chicken-houses against ticks, though for this purpose it has no
advantage over kero.sene emulsion.

Cjusoline may be used In the same way and for the same jnirpose as
benzine. Roth must, of course, l)e used with due regard to their inflammable
properties.

Cotton-seed oil is strongly recommended by Pr. Francis for treatment of
ticks in the Southern States, especiall.v in connection with dipping solutions.
Its action is similar to that of other oils, and while it kills some of the ticks,
there are others on the same animal which apparently are not injured b,y it.
Tn the States, where cotton is produced and the oil can be secured at low cost,
it has special advantages, either alone or combined with other remedies, as
an application for various external parasites.

Kerosene has a wide range of usefulness in the treatment of parasites,
notwitlistanding the fact that it does not seem to have fulfilled the require-
ments for a good dijiping solution. It may be used free for the spraying of the
interior of chicken-houses, f.ir tlie destruction of bed-bugs, and for filming the
surface of small ponds, water tanks, etc., in order to destroy mosquitoes or
their larvte. and abate the mosquito nuisance. In emulsion it is very effective
against lice on cattle, killing Iwth adults and eggs, for use as a spray to kill
horn-fiies. and as a wa.sh to kill eggs of bot-flies or lice.

Emulsions may be made with either soap or milk, and according to the
following well-known formuUe : —

.¥(770 emulsion. — To one part milk add two parts of kerosene and churn by
a force-pump or other agitator. The creamy emulsion which results is to be
diluted with water, using eight or ten times the bulk of water.

Soap emulsion. — Dissolve one-half pound hard soap in one gallon of hot
water, and while still at near boiling point add two gallons kerosene, and
emulsif.v by use of force-pump or agitator of some kind. Dilute with water,
one part emulsion to eight or ten parts water, and use as spray, wash or dip.

36

Oil of tHrpciitinc is recommended as an application for external parasites,
but sliould not be applied to tlie skin of horses, thougli \Ylien snitably mixed
it is Roinetinies prescril)ed for bots in these animals.

Ciiiil tin- is useful as a barrier to mites and lice in the ponltry-honse.

Diixt and iislicx arc natnral remedies used bj' fowls.

Lime, in form of tine slaked dnst. mixed with carbolic acid and scattered
thronf^hont the bnildings or applied as whitewash, is one of the best remedies
for chicken pests, as well as for the lice and mange insects of other animals
which infest stables and fences. It is also used as one of the ingredients in
sheep dips.

Piircthrnm powder, known also as Persian insect powder. " Buhach " (the
California brand), and Dalmatian insect powder, is a most excellent para-
siticide, and the powder dusted in rooms troubled with tleas, lice, or bed-bugs,
on dogs, cats, chickens, etc.. is very effective. It has been found to be the only
satisfactory remedy for lice and ticks on sheep in winter, when the long wool
]>rohibits other treatment.

Xiiliihiir, as a fumigating material, or dusted on the skin, in ointments and
in dii)ping solutions, has a great range of usefulness.

Toliacco is a ver.v effective agent against parasites ami in fun\igatioii. in
dipping solutions, and in form of snutt'. dusted among hairs or feathers, is
applicable to many external parasites. — V. S. Biilleliii. Xo. o. Dcpt. of Ayricnl-
tiire, Div. of Entomology.

Liver Fluke in Sheep {Dictoma Jiepaticum).

This is caused by an insect which attacks the livers of sheep, and is
described in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Vol.
67, as follows : —

The mature fluke is flat and about an inch long. While in the liver, the
female deposits her eggs, which are carried out and distributed over the
pasture with the dung. If the fresh water snail (Liimoea truncatuUi) is avail-
able, the embryo enters it.

It will be seen that the egg must get into w;iter and there develop into
an embr.vo capable of boring into the body of a snail. This snail lives only in
fresh and not in salt water. In the body of the snail the embryo develops, in
three generations, many more, each of which passes out of the snail, and if
taken in by the sheep with its food or water, becomes the sexually mature
hermaphrodite fluke. The parasite, having gained the liver of its host, defies
remov;il by any known means.

I'rcvcniion.

As tliere are no known means of expelling the flukes from the bile duets,
the imiiortance of preventive measures is paramount. Moisture is essential
to the development of the free-swimming embryo and of the snail {Limnaea
tnincatiil(i) into which it bores. Without the snail, the embryo can advance
no farther. The surest and probably the easiest way to prevent liver rot is
to prevent the existence of this and all other fresli water sn.nils. The snail
will not live without water and that water must lie fresh. All means should,
therefore, be taken to prevent water standing in ditches, pools, etc.. while the
application of salt to infested pastures (5 to 10 ewt. per acre), in the autunni.

37

helps to establish oonditidiis iiiifaviiuralile to its litV. I>iiniiiK of pastures has
been freely advocated, but it is ditheult to see how this can be of substantial
service. Livers containing flukes should be well boiled if to be used for dogs,
etc.. but under all circumstances the flukes it may contain should be des-
troyed. Sheep from affected flocks should not be brought on to a place. When
liver rot is detected in a flock, and it seems likely that the dLsease has been
acquired on the farm, it will probably prove most economical to kill the whole
flock, as it is impossible to determine what animals may not be infested.

Plentiful supply of good dry food, to which has been added some edible
salt and some bitter tonic, may assist the infested sheep to recovery, while it
may help to expel any flukes which may happen to be in the intestines. Pas-
tures should not be overstocked, and high ground is preferable.
Sheep Tick (MeJophagus ovinus. Linn.)

It differs from the other members of the family in never possessing
wings. The head is small and sunken into the prothorax. The middle portion
of the thorax is rather slender, contrasting with the development of this
region in the winged forms.

It is of a reddish or gray-brown colour, aliont one-fourth of an inch long,
and easily detected when present in any nnmliers on sheep. They never
migrate from the original host, except it be to attach to another animal of the
same species, and probably the principal movement is that which occurs after
shee]i are .sheared, when the ticks tend to migrate to lambs. On the sheep,
if abundant, they may cause considerable damage, indicated by lack of growth
or poor condition, and when massing upon lambs they may cause great
damage, resulting in the death of the victims if not properly relieved.

They are distributed over the world generally where sheep are kept, and
are too well known by sheep breeders to make it necessary to emphasize the
in,)\iry they ma.v cause. All breeds of sheep seem alike sub.iect to attack, but
I know of no record of their occurrence upon other animals.
Remedies.

While the ticks may be greatly lessened in numbers by the vigorous use
of pyrethrum — a most valuable remedy during winter — the most practical
plan to adopt, and one which, if thoroughly followed, will make all others
unnecessary, is to dip the sheep each year after shearing.

Of the numerous dips which are in use, and which are discussed more
fully in the chapter on remedies, the kerosene emulsion is recommended for
this form, and several of the patented dips on the market are good, while
tobacco dips, tar dips, etc.. may be u.sed, if preferred.

It is, of course, desirable to use a dip that will effectually destroy not only
these ticks, but the two forms of lice and the s<-ab mites, in case any of these
•■ire present. A dipping tank is an essential part of the equipment for sheep-
raising, and its construction is de.seribed in the chapter on remedies.

A flock once freed from the pests will not be again infested, except by the
introduction of infested animals : hence, care .should be taken in making
additions to the flock to free the newcomers from parasites. It is also well to
keep the sheep, for a few days after dipping, in a different inclosure from

38

wUat they oceuiik-d before, to avoi<l ixissible infestation from any stragglers
that may have been caught on wool upon posts or brush, and if the wool is
charged with them when clipped it should be stored where the ticks could not
easily return to the sheej). The ticks cannot travel any distance independently,
and will soon die when removed from the sheeii, but proper care here will
assure success. With due care to have an efficient dip, one operation should
suffice, but it is a good plan to examine the herd a week or ten da.vs after
dipping, and if any parasites are found to have escaped, or to have issued
from pupa^ that survived, to repeat the njieration. — fSiillrUn .A"o. 5, V. S. Dcpt.
Agiicultiiic. Dir. o/ EiitijiiiDJoifii.

Cattle Tick (Thipicephcthi^ (iinnildtiis)

Attacks rattle and sometimes deer, goats and horses. The change from larv.-i
to nymplia. and. according to Lounsbury. the further cliaiiije from nymph to
adult, may be effected on the host, and Imth adult and larval ticks may carry
the jiarasite of Texas fever, red-water, or bovine piroplnsmosis, which exists
more or less extensively in the United States, Australia, South Africa. Argen-
tine Iteiniblic. Jlexico. Rcjumania. Ital.v. West Indies. Russia. Germany.
Southern l-'r.incc, Finland. i:ngland, Ireland, etc.

It is jirobalik' tluit nxire than one species of tick transmits the parasite of
piroplasmosis to cattle, as red-water occurs in places where no species of
Tliiiti<ri)hahis has been found. In some isolated outbreaks of red-water, the
part pla.ved by ticks has not been ascertained, and it has been suggested that
other agents than ticks may carry the parasite from diseased to healthy cattle.

The connection of infected ticks with the production of Texas fever was
firmly established (1889-1893) by Smith and Kilborue's investigation.s. which
have been summarised by Dr. G. II. F. Xuttall. F.R.S., Cambridge University.

The destruction of ticks in cattle can be effected by the application of
acaricides in the form of a smear or a dip. Hand-picking may be tried when
only a few animals are infested, the ticks being touched with benzine,
petroleum, tur)iintinc, or tnliacco juice, then removed by forceps or by hand,
and destro.yed by burning. I'.ut hand-picking is both tedious and uncertain, as
the larva' and nymphie are small enough to be overlooked. To be effective,
this method should be followed by smearing with a mixture like that recom-
mended by Cor)pt.r Curtice; Kerosene. 1 gallon; lard. 10 pounds; sulphur.
1 pound; jiine-tar. 2 iionnds. This smear is applied with a brush.

Wheji large niniiliers of cattle are infested, dipping must be resorted to.
the animals being made to swim through a tank containing from 400 gallons
to 2.500 gallons of a reliable parasiticide. Xorgaard was successful with
chloronaphthol, 50 pounds, dissolved in 2.500 gallons of water containing 40
pounds of soap. Gray and Robertson (Rhodesia) employ a dip comjiosed of
arsenic. G pounds; .soap. 24 iiounds: washing soda, 24 pounds; wood-tar, 5
gallons: and water. 400 gallons.

With the object of bringing about the destruction of ticks on ]iastures.
various measures have been advocated. Jlorgau. after experience of Texas
fever, advises keeping cattle off infested pastures for eighteen months, or until
the ticks, in the absence of their hosts, have perished. Others, including

39

Liguieres, suggest snwiiii; {Uc I.-iud with lueerue. better drainage, ploughing up.
tup (Iressiug with gas lime, liurniiig utt' the grass, feuciug off infested parts,
etc. — yeiiiiiun's Pinasitcs of Domesticated Animals.
Ways to Kill TicKs.

There are two general plans that may be followed in getting rid of ticks,
and either one will prove successful if it is carefully followed out. The first
lilan. and the one that every farmer can adoiit, is to use oil. either by dipping
tlie stock in crude oil. or by applying the oil by means of a brush or mop; the
second plan is to make use of pasture rotation, that is. to change the stock
from one pasture to another during the summer and fall.
Use of Oil.

Constructing a dipping vat is too expensive for tlie f.-irmer who may have
from ten to thirty head of cattle on his farm. Such a stockman will devise
other means of getting rid of the ticks. Several farmers in the neighbourhood
of Stillwater have practised the following method of work, and their farms
:ire now free from ticks. Build a small but substantial corral at some con-
venient i)lace. and iu this build a narrow chute that will accommodate one
animal, and build it so that you can examine every ))art of an animal that is
< ciufined iu it. Collect all of the stock on the farm and examine them closely
fur ticks every two weeks during July, Augu.st and September. The large
ticks sliould lie jiii-ked off and dropped into a can of oil. After this is done,
ap]ily rrude ]ietroIeuni by means of a brush or mop to every )iart of the
animal where .vou can tind young ticks. If there are ticks on an animal the.v
w ill be found on the inside of the hind legs, iu the tianlcs. on the bell.v. behind
the forelegs, and on the side of the neck. Go over all of these regions care-
fully with oil. If crude petroleum cannot be had. then use the following:
Tliree gallons of kerosene, oue gallon of black machine oil. and one pint of oil
of tar. Apply this iu the same way as for the crude oil. If the cattle are
c.irefully treated the first time, it will be light work afterwards if they are
treated every two weeks. Don't expect to find small ticks on cattle b.v walking
ur riding among them, but .get the stock into the chute and go ever them with
the hand. A little carelessness will allow .some of the ticks to mature and
dro]j off. jind this will k<Tp the pasture and cattle infected and there will be
infection the next year. If the work is thoroughl.v done for three or four
months during the summer and fall, any pasture or farm ma.v be made free
from ticks. — Oklahoma Bulletin ?.?.

Ticks in Connection With Red-W.\ter i>f C-^^ttle.

In a previous Annual Report (Vol. Gt?, page 14.3) an account was given
of the pathology of this disease, including some hints regarding measures of
jirevention. The disease is again referred to here because it has been found
that the old erroneous opinions regarding its cause are still widel.v held.

It must therefore be repeated that red-water is cau.sed by a micro.scopic
blood parasite which is transferred from affected to healthy cattle liy means
of ticks. It is the fact that ticks jilay an essential role in the causeation of
the disease that explains the pernliar regional and seasonal occurrence of
cases of red-water.

40

Cattle of any age can be infected with red-watei-. but whereas the disease
is generally severe and frequently fatal in adults or animals over two years
of age, it is so mild a character in calves or animals under a year old that
it generally fails to excite in tliem any visible disturbance of health. As one
attack of the disease tends to render an animal insusceptible, cattle which are
infected during early life rarely afterwards become visibly affected or die,
even though they are grazed on notoriously dangerous ground. Nevertheless,
these animals are uot entirely free from the disease, for the rule is that wheu
once an animal has been infected it ever afterwards, or at any rate for years,
continues to harbour the minute parasites which are the cause of red-water.
This may in most cases be readily proved by using a small quantity of their
blood for the inoculation of a healthy adult ox, the almost invariable result
being that the inoculated animal develops the symptoms of red-water after
about one week. On what may be called red-water pasture, the animals which
were infected while young tend to perpetuate the disease, for ticks, in sucking
their blood, become infected and pass the iiarasites on to other animals on
the same pasture.

These facts give the clue to the prevention of the disease. If ticks could
be eradicated from any given pasture, red-water would thereby be stamped
out, but in actual circumstances such eradication is usually difficult. It may,
however, be achieved b.v keeping cattle and other animals off the pasture for
one whole year, as this probably exceeds the greatest possible lifetime of a
tick which is denied the opportunity to suck the blood of an animal For-
tunately, however, there is a simpler and less expensive method of, so to
speak, cleansing a jiasture, and that is to graze it exclusively with horses or
sheep for a full period of one year. Such a procedure does not lead to the
extermination of the ticks, for these may maintain their existence and propa-
gate their species on horses and sheep, but as only cattle can be infected with
red-water, an infective tick ceases to be dangerous after it has attached itself
to a slieep or horse. It is to be hoiked tliat in this country attempts will soon
be systematically made to stamp out red-water by taking advantage of the
facts just mentioned. It must be noted, however, that an essential part of this
plan is that after the full .year has been allowed for the cleansing of the ticks.
no animal of the ox species that has had an attack of red-water, or whi<'h has
even been grazed on red-water ground, must be allowed on the purified pasture,
because, as alread.v explained, such animals often for life contain the germs
of the disease in their blood, and would, therefore, provide the means for re-
infecting the ticks.

Although the measures here advised can scarcely anywhere be altogether
impracticable, it is obvious enough that in general a certain amount of loss
and inconvenience would be caused in carrying them out, and it may, therefore,
be asked whether there is any other means by which a farmer may prevent
or reduce the loss which he annually suffers from red-water. That there is
another method in reality follows from what has already been said, for it has
previously been explained that the disease, wheu contracted in youth, is
usually so mild as to be of little consequence to the animal, and yet protects
it for the rest of its life. Hence, where the more radical measures sketched
above cannot be put into operation, a farmer may seek to minimise his losses

41

by graziug the dangerous laud exclusively with young cattle, or with cattle
which have beeu for at least one season on such land. This plan. is. however,
not free from risk, for although an animal may have been grazed as a calf
on dangerous tick-infested ground, it may have accidentally escaped infection,
and thus failed to acquire immunity. The probable consequence would be that
when this same animal returned to the pasture next season it would contract
the disease in a dangerous form. To counteract this risk, the owner might
assure the infection of his calves, or of such of them as were afterwards to
be grazed on the dangerous pasture, by having them inoculated with the blood
of an animal known to have recently recovered from au attack of red-water,
as experience shows that this is an operation attended with little or no risk
in the case of animals under six months old.

In conclusion, it ought to be pointed out, however, that all animals which
have thus been vaccinated against red-water, and all those which have beeu
grazed on infected pasture, are capable of carrying the seeds of the disease
to pasture previously healthy, provided they carry ticks with them or ticks
are already there. This danger scarcely exists in moving infected animals to
land sub.1ect to rotation of crops, for ticks cannot there permanently establish
themselves, but the risk is a very real one when infected cattle are moved to
jiermanent pasture or moorland. — Jouniul of Rouul Ayikultiiriil Society of
Enylunil, Vol. 6S.

HoESE Bot-Fly (Gastrophihis cqiii. Fab.).
Bots in horses have been a familiar form of parasite to farmers, stock-
men, and veterinarians for we know not how long. Whether they were
familiar to the ancients has been a matter of discussion among learned men.

Adults of this species are about three-fourths of an inch in length; the
wings are transparent with dark spots, those near the centre forming an
irregular, transverse band. The body is very hairy, the head brown with
\\ hitish front, thorax brown, abdomen brown with three rows of blackish
spots, which are subject to considerable variations. lu the females the
segments are often almost entirely browu with simply a marginal series of
j-ellowish spots, while in males the abdomen may be almost entirely yellow
or very light brown, with brown or dark spots very distinct. The males are
rarely seen, for while it is one of the most common occurrences to witness
the females around the horses, depositing their eggs, the males evidently hold
aloof. The eggs are light yellow in colour, and will be found attached to
the hairs of the shoulders, forelegs, underside of body, and sometimes even the
ninne and other parts of body, most commonly, however, on the forelegs and
shoulders. The method of deposition has beeu frequently observed. The
female hovers near the horse in a position which appears to be nearly vertical,
since the body is bent downward, and the extended abdomen is thrust forward
under the body to its full extent. The fly then darts toward the horse, the
egg is glued to the hair in an instant, and the fly retreats a yard or two to
hover till another egg is ready to be deposited. The eggs are held by a sticky
fluid, which quickly dries and thus glues them firmly to the hairs.

In dealing with bots in horses, by far the most important point is to pre-
vent the introduction of the larvte, and while we have no opportunity, as in the
case of the ox bot-fly, to completely exterminate the pest, it is certain that

42

proper attention to preventive mensures would in a few years greatly reduce
the numbers of the insect and procure comparative freedom. The better care
Tisually accorded horses makes it possible to deal with it iu some respects
more easily than the species infecting cattle. The most vulnerable point of

3

«^^^

(Fig. l.'J.I
1. Egffs. natural sizp. from specimens obtained in AVcUington : 2. The same rendered
transparent to show young maggot, magnified : 'A. I'ortion of stomach of horse
with larv;e attached, also showing " pits " from which larvii? have been removed,
natural size (from horse that died at Christchurch) ; 4. Larvie. further developed;
0, chrysalis ; G, Female fly. from specimen obtained at Hutt ; 7. Side view of
female, showing the way in which the abdomen is turned under ; 8. Male fly.
1-7, from nature ; 8, after Miss Omerod. — New Zealand Bulletin 19.
attack lies iu the conspicuous position of the eggs. Xo horseman, probably,
cau overlook these objects when occurring on the horse he is earing for, and
colts in pasture sometimes become so covered with them as to give a decided
change in colour to the parts most affected. It is evident that removing or
destroying these eggs previous to hatching is all that is necessary to prevent
" hots " in the horse.

During Jul.v, Augu.st and Septemlier. or as late as eggs appear mi the
horses, those kei)t in pastures should be examined once e\ery two or three
weeks and the eggs destroyed or removed. This can be accomplished in

4.3

several ways. By using wasln's (if ililute carbcilir ai-id. almvit niic jmi-t carbolic
aeid to thirty parts of water, or rubbing tlie affected p.arts over lightly with
kerosene, by clipping the hair or by shavhig the eggs off with a sharp knife
or razor. Our own experience leads us to prefer the last. AVith a very sharp
knife or razor (a dull one will glide over the eggs) the affected parts can be
very (juickly nni over, without removing much, if any. of the hair. This
method leaves no doubt as to whether or uot the eggs have lieen touched, as
in washes, and subsequent examinations are not complicated by a lot of dead
eggs or shells. Perform once every two weeks, and there can be very few of
the larvre which gain entrance to the stomacli. V.'ill it |iay. may naturally
be asked by the man who has, say, from twenty-five to a hundred colts iu the
jiasture. Possibly not, if but a single season is con.sidered, l)ut the loss of a
single horse, or the poor condition of a aiumber, re.sulting from hots, or the
fretting of the whole number in pasture, would more than equal all the cost
of removing the eggs from the entire lot. But \\'hen the presence on the farm
of the pest year after year is considered with all its attendant evils, we
believe most eni)ih:itic;illy that it will pay.

l;viiie<lic.-< for Botx.

The prescription of drugs for the removal of bots from the stomach, when
their pnscni'c is known or suspected, belongs r.-ilher to the veterinarian than
to the entomologist, but it may not be out of place here to call attention to a
few of them. It is, of course, uot an easy matter to determine during the life
of the horse whether any particular disturbance of the digestive organs or
lack of nutrition is due to the presence of bots or to some other agency pro-
dui'ing similar symptoms, and even a competent veterinarian may be puzzled
in diagnosis. If occasimial liofs .-ire noticed in the excrement of the animal,
together with poor condition, their presence in numbers may lie inferred. It
must be remembered that the bots are capable of withstanding almost any
substance that the walls of the stomach can endure, and the safest plan, if
intending to dose for them, is to employ a veterinarian. Turiientine is perhaps
most generally given, but nnist be used with care. — Biilleliii \o. <j, U. S. Dept.
of Ainiviilturc. D'nminii of Enioninlofjj/.
BoT-FiY OF C.\TTLE — Wabble Fly. (Ilnpodcniiii liixtitii.) Figs. 14 and 15.

T'ntil a few years ago it was assumed that the coumion bot-tly affecting
cattle in this country was the same as the one most common in European
countries, and the same specific name was applied to it. with apparently little
careful examination of either larvie or adults to determine the question with
certainty. There is so much in common, however, in the liabits and nature
of the injury of the two species that it seems appropriate to discuss some of
these general features for tlie two species, and then to give the distinctive
features for the two forms, with reference to such dilt'erences of habit or
treatment as ma.v be necessary.

A considerable portion of this general matt<'r was prejiared prior to the
discovery of the identity of our species with lincata, and. while written with
horis in mind, applies projierly to the former species. — Bulletin \o. J, V. S.
Deixirl incut of Aijih-nltiirv. Diriniun of Entomology.

44

(Fig. 14.)
Female: natural size indieatcd bv side line. — Circular
Agriiiilture.

V. S. Depart mciit of

(o) Second stage of larva from back; (6 and c) enlargement of extremities; (d)
venti-al view of tliii-d stage. With details of extremities at (e) and (/ ) ; (</l
dorsal view of mature larva, witli enlargement of analspiracles at h; (t) the same,
lateral view; natural size indicated by side lines. — From "Insect Life," Circular
25, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Ox-Warble, Ox Bot-Fly, Gad-Fly {Hypoderma horis).

The eggs are usually laid during the months of June, July and Augu.st.

The female fly, which is provided with a very strong ovipositor, selects, if

possible, a young beast, and, alighting on the back near the spine, manages

to pierce the skin and deposit a single oval egg in the hole. This operation

45

is repented till all her eggs are laid. After a time the eggs hatch, and tiny,
worm-lilve maggots emerge. The gradual gniwth and movements of the grubs
cause inflammation, and produce "tumours" <.ir warbles. The grubs are
found within these warbles, head down, the tail, provided with breathing
tubes, being pressed against the opening.

Approaching the last stage they press constantly against the openings,
which are thus enlarged sufficiently to allow the exit of the grubs. These
fall to the ground, where, like the maggots of the horse-bot. they wriggle Into
llie earth, or under any available shelter, and pass into the chrysalis stage,
from wliiih within a month the perfect flies emerge.

Till' fl.v has but two wings. The head and front part of the body are
,\'('llowish, the back portion of the body black; the abdomen is banded white,
lilaek and yellowish. One specimen in my possession measures just three-
<iuarters of an inch in length.

It will be seen that not only does this fly ruin the hide, liut it also in,1ures
the health of the beast, and cau.ses it t- lose condition. A correspondent
states that the annual loss in the United Kingdnm fmrn tliis cause alone
amounts to several millions sterling.

.1 I'rcicntin- of Wiirhlr.<!.

For preventing the attack of the warble tly, the dressing recommended
by the late Miss E. A. Orraerod is very effective. This consists of 4 ounces
of sublimed snlphur, 1 gill of spirits of tar, and 1 quart of train or whale-oil.
Mix well t<igether. and ajiply along the sjiine with a brush. The smell drives
off the flies and prevents them fmin deiiositing their eggs; the cattle are left
to grazi- in peace, and warbli's are prevented.

MosQurroES.

These pests, not only a torment to man and beast but a fruitful cause of
the spread of some fatal diseases, are so numerous in some parts of the country
that every means should be used to mitigate the evil. Of course, in large
wild areas of swampy land, it is all but useless to attempt any remedy, but
near buildings and in circumscribed breeding areas, a great deal can be done
towards ridding ourselves of the pests. The following treatment is recom-
mended by Herbert Osborn, of the United States Department of Agriculture :
•• Probably the best ,and certainly the easiest, of -wholesome remedies against
mosquitoes is the application of kerosene to the surface of breeding pools.
The suggestion that kerosene could be used as a remedy for mosquitoes is not
new and has been made more than once. Exact experiments out of doors and
on a liirge scale were made in 1S!I2 Ijy the writer. These and subsequent
experiments show that apiiroxiumtcly one ounce of Icerosene to each ]5 square
feet of water surface on small p(jols will destroy all the larvre and pupre
in that pool, with the additional advantage that the adult females, not
deterred from attempting to oviposit, are killed when they alight on the
kc rosene-covered water. Ordinarily, the application need not be renewed for
a month, though varying circumstances may require more freipient applica-
tions in certain cases."

4fi

L. O. Howard (Bulletin No. 4. I'. S. Department of Agriculture), says:
" Altogether the most satisfactory ways of fighting mosquitoes are those which
result iu the destructiou of the larvie or the abolition of their breeding places.
In not every locality are these measures feasible, but in many places there is
absolutely no necessity for the mosquito annoyance. The three main pre-
ventive measures are the draining of breeding places, the introduction of small
fish into Ashless breeding places, and the treatment of such pools with
kerosene. These are three alternatives, any one of which will be efficacious,
and any one <pf wlii<'h may lie used where there are reasons against the trial
of the others.

HorsK-FuES. {Mitsica domcstiea) Linn.

"Under this general designation the several species which infest dwellings
and are not only disagreeable, but from experiments recently conducted, it
has been found that hou.se-flies do carry about on their legs filth of all kinds,
and are therefore not only disgusting but probably disseminators of disease.
The common house-fly (iliiscu (lomestica, Linn.) breeds in manure and door-
yard filth, and it is therefore of the utmost importance that cleanliness should
be observed in and alwut the premises. Howard says : " There is not much
that need be said about remedies for house-flies. A careful screening of
windows and ddors during the summer months, with the supplementary u.se of
sticky tly-paiicr, is a niethdd known to everyone, and there seems to be little
hope in the near future of much relief by doing away with the breeding places.
A single stable in which a horse is kept will supply house-flies for an extended
neighbourhood. People living in agricultural communities will probably never
be rid of the pest, but in cities with better methods of disposal of garbage, and
with the lessening of the luimber of horses and horse stables consequent upon
electric street railways and bicycles, and probably horseless cartages, the
time may come, and before very long, when window screens may be discarded.
The iirompt gathering of horse manure, which may he treated with lime or
liept iu a specially yirepared pit. would greatly abate the fly nuisance, and cit.v
ordinances compelling horse owners to follow some such course are desirable.
Absolute cleanliues.s, even umlcr existing circumstances, will always result in
a diminution of the numlicrs of the house-fly, and, as will be pointed out iu
other cases in this bullcliu, most household insects are less attracted to the
premises of what is kudwn as the old-fashioned housekeejjer than to those of
the other kind."

Clothes-Moths.

These are the dread of every housekeeper. The mere mention of the word
" moths " is enough to conjure up visions of household treasures of woollen
and fur eaten full of holes, their beauty gone, their usefulness past. It was
formerly supposed that these well-known injuries were caused by a single
species; but it has since been discovered that we have in this country three
species of clothes-moths. These differ in habits as well as in structure.

The Case-bearing Clothes- Jlcith iTiciia iJeUioiiclhi). — The larva of this
species is a true case-bearing, making a case out of bits of its food-material
which are fastened together with silk. As the larva grows it enlarges its case

47

by atiiling to eaeli eiiil and l).v >>littin.i; it ami iiisertiiit; a i)ieee. lustructive
siieciiiieus can lie obtained by rearing the larvte and changing them from time
to time from fianuel of one eolonr to that of another. The shape of the
successive additions to the case being of different colours, can easily be seen.
The pupa state is passed within the case. The adult is a small lirown moth
with a few dark spots on its fore wings.

The Tube-building Clothes-Moth {Tinea tapctxcUa). — The larva of this
species malies a gallery composed of sills: mixed with fragments of cloth.
This gallery is long and winding and can easily be distinguished from the case
of the preceding species. The pupa state is passed withiu the gallery. The
moth differs greatly in appearance from the other two species, the fore-wings
being black from the base to the middle and white beyond.

The Nalved Clothes-Moth {Tinea hiscUieJla). — Although this species spins
some silk wherever it goes, it makes neither a case nor a gallery. It may be
termed, therefore, the Naked Clothes-Moth, in contradistinction to the
other two species. But when the larva is full-grown it malies a cocoon, which
is composed of fragments of its food-material fastened together with silk.
The adult is of a delicate straw-colour, without dark spots on its wings.

Protection from Clotlica-ilotlix.

In late spring or earl.v summer all winter clothing, flannels, furs, and
other articles that are to be put away for the summer should be thoroughly
brushed and examined for these pests and exposed to the sunlight as long as
practicable. Then they should be wrapped carefully in stout paper, or better,
p.-icked in pasteboard boxes, which can be procured at small cost, and the
crack between the cover and tlie box closed by pasting a stri]) of paper over
it. — Insects, Comstock.

Cattle Hobx-Fly i IIik inatohin scrrata. Desv.'i Fig. IC}.

This troublesome pest of horned stock, which appeared first in Canada
in 1.802, has done much harm by irritating cattle with its bites, so that wheu
it is abundant they fall off rapidly both in flesh and in yield of milk. From
the time it first appeared in Canada this fly has spread over all parts of the
Dominion, reaching the I'acific Coast in 1003, but is by far more troublesome

48

in the Eastern Provinces tlian in the West. The fly is a small and very active
dark gray species, about one-third the size of the ordinary cattle-fly, and
shaped just like that insect, with the same kind of biting, dagger-shaped beak,
carried projecting forward in front of the head. When in large numbers these
flies frequently cluster on the horns to rest. It was from this habit that they
got their name. Statements that they bore holes into the horns are inaccurate.
The only harm done by them is due to their very irritating bites on the bodies
of the animals. The eggs are laid by the females in freshly deposited cow
droppings. The maggots hatch in 24 hours and become full grown in about a
week ; they then burrow down a short distance into the ground and turn to
brown jiuparia, from which the flies emerge in four or five days. There are
several liroods during the summer, and the last brood or maggots passes the
winter as puparia.

Remedies.

Of the many remedies we have tried, the following have given the greatest
satisfaction: (1) Smearing the parts most usually bitten with a mixture of
lard, 5 lt)s., and pine tar, 1 It). Two applications each week when the flies are
very bad. Mix well together and apply to the parts most attacked, brushing
the mixture lightly over the tips of the hair. After two or three applications
the treatment has more effect than at flr.st. (2) Spraying the animals twice
a week with ordinary kerosene emulsion. ,(.3) Fish oil, 2 quarts, and oil of
tar, 2 oz. ; or fish oil, 2 quarts, coal oil, 1 pint, and oil of tar, 2 ozs. (4) Good
work may be done by breaking up the cow droppings in the field. The maggots
can only live in the dung while it is in a moist condition. A boy with a rake
could go over a pasture three times a week and break up all the fresh
droppings and the drying up of these by the sun or the washing away by rain
would kill all the eggs or maggots, thus locally reducing the numbers very
much.

Cattle Lice (Trivhodectcs scalaris, Uacmatopinus curystcrniis, Nitzsch.)

The loss from these disgusting and very common parasites of horned
stock is far greater than is generally appreciated. Many animals turned
out in spring in poor condition have been reduced in flesh by the constant
discomfort of being preyed upon by myriads of lice, which might have been
destroyed by a little attention on the part of those in charge of them. On
account of the small size of lice, they are often overlooked until they have
become very numerous and have done a great deal of harm. Lousy animals
will neither rest nor feed well. They are prevented from putting on flesh,
their growth is stunted, and their meat is neither so good nor produced so
economically. It is well known that an animal kept in good condition and
steadily increasing in weight costs much less to prepare for the market than
one whose growth is cheeked and allowed to get into poor condition. Lice
cause more loss in stock than is generally appreciated. This loss is unneces-
sary, because all of the common external parasites of live stock can be easily
and cheaply treated. There are two kinds of lice found commonly on cattle,
the small blue louse or biting ox-louse (Trichodectes scalaris. Nitzsch), and
the big black louse or short-nosed ox-louse {Haeiiiatopiniis eiirijsternus.

49

Xitzsch). Both of thcsi. partisites are smiu'tiinrs roiinil in m'cat inimlicrs (in
Deslwti'd t-attle. and when the stalls have becc.nie thiinai;;lil,v infestiMl are hard
to clear out entirely; l>nt tills can lie done by continued eft'ort and with great
honetit to the stock and to tlie owner. Many remedies are known. We have
used kerosene emulsion with nuic-h satisfaction, spraying it on to the animals
and then rnhbing it well in with the hands. Any of the recognised sheep
dips will also answer and are very convenient. Uecently zenoleum has been
used for this purpose and answius well. All of the latter are used of the
strength advised by the makers. An important part of the treatment consists
of spraying thoroughly the stalls where the animals have stood, after cleaning
them out. Both of these lice leave the animals and hide in the cracks and
crevices of the woodwork.

IICG LorsE ( IJaiiKilDpitiiis sidx. Ln.xtiii.
This is the largest louse known, measuring one-iiuarter of an inch in length.
It is of a dirty white colour marked with brown. 'J'he feet are jirovided with
strong claws, with which they eliug tightly to the hairs. Although, from the
nature of the animals they infest and the usual way their pens are Imilt, these
lice arc rather difficult to eradicate, the same remedies mentioned for the
cattle lice will qr.ickly and entirely kill these jiarasitcs also, as I have found
<in several occasions. It is necessary to siir.-iy llie sleeping q\iarters very
thoroughly.

SliF.y:i> LorsK iTrirlt(i<h-i-tcx siiliurni-iiihitUin. XiTZScir).

This is a very small louse but is :i very troublesome parasite, causing
great irritation to infested animals, wiiidi show their discomfort by rubbing
themselves and by biting at the w 1. Most of the severest cases of infesta-
tion by sheep lice have been in the winter. Sheeii should be exandned before
winti r sets in. and if any lice are foun<l they should be dipjied.
Fm;.\s.

Two species of Heas very constantly attack man. These .-ire the house
Ilea (I'ldcx irritaiis] and the <log and cat flea (/'. xirraticciis ] . The rat and
mouse flea (/*. fusiinliis) and other fleas will also occasionally attack him.
Of all the fleas, that of the dog and cat is perhaps the most conmion in houses,
and being less active than the house flea is more easily captured.

A very com ise statement of the remedies to lie applied for fleas is given
In ('ii-(a;lar Xo. Vi. by Dr. L. o. Howard:—

■'The larvje of the dog and i-at flea will not devi'lop successfully in
situations where they ai-e likely to be disturbed. The use of carpets and straw
nnittin.gs. in our opinion, favours their development, since the young larva-
can penetrate the interstices of either sort of floor covering and iind an
abiding place in some crack where they are not likely to be disturbed. It is
oomparatively easy to destro.v the insect in its early stages (when it is
noticed), as Is shown by the diflicult.y of rearing it. but the adult fleas are so
active and so hardy that they successfully resist any but the most strenrous
measures. Even the persistent use of California Imhacli and other iiyrethruni

D

50

powders was ineCfectiial in one case of extreme infestation, as was also, and
more remarkably, a free sprinkling of floor mattings with benzine. In this
instance it was finally necessary to take up the floor coverings and wash the
floors down with hot soapsuds in order to secure relief from the flea plague.
In another case, however, a single liberal application of buhach was perfectly
successful, while in a third a single thorough application of benzine completely
rid an infested house of fleas.

" To sum up : Every house where a pet dog or cat is kept may become
seriously infested with fleas if the proper conditions of moisture and freedom
from disturbance exist. Infestation, however, is not likely to occur if the
(bare) floors can be frequently and thoroughly swept. When an outbreak of
fleas comes, however, the easiest remedy to apply is a free sprinkling of
pyrethrum powder in the infested rooms. This failing, benzine may be tried,
a thorough spraying of carpets and floors being undertaken, with the exercise
of due precaution in seeing that no lights or fires are in the house at the time
of the application, or for some hours afterwards. Finall.v, if the plague is not
thus abated, all floor coverings must be removed and the floors washed with
hot soapsuds. This is a useful precaution to take in any house wihch it is
proposed to close for the summer, since even a thorough sweeping may leave
behind some few flea eggs from vi-hich an all-pervading swarm may develop
before the house is re-opened.

" Provide a rug for the cat or the dog to sleep on and give this rug a
frequent shaking and brushing, afterwards sweeping up and burning the dust
thus removed. As all the flea eggs on an infested animal will not, however,
drop off in this way, and tho.se which remain on it will probably develop
successfully, it will be found wise to occasionally rub into the hair of the dog
or cat a quantity of pyrethrum powder. If thoroughly applied, it will cause
the fleas to fall off in a half stupefied condition, when they, too, may be swept
up and burned." — Bulletin No. 5, V. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of
Entonwlof/y.

Bed Bl'g (Acantliia Icctulariu, Linn.).

This species, de.scribed by Linn.'cus a century and a half ago, has been a
most familiar insect to man, though for bow long a time it is quite difficult
to determine.

It is by ,no means easy to estimate the amount of injury caused by this
insect, for, so far as man is concerned, it consists of loss of time and comfort,
while its effects upon other animals are involved in too much obscurity to
allow of any estimates being formed. As found in houses infesting man, it
can only be considered as semi-parisitic, living for the most ijart secreted in
cracks and crevices and attacking its victims during the night. Probably its
attacks upon other animals are of a similar nature, although it is referred to
by some authors as a parasite of domestic fowls.

The eggs are oval in shape, of a whitish colour, slightl.v narrowed at one
end, and will be found in great numbers in the cracks which furnish shelter
for the adults. The young bugs escape from the eggs by pushing off a
circular lid at one end.

51

There is some confusion as concerns the attacks of the bed bug or its
parasitism on other animals than man. Packard (Guide to the Study of
Insects, p. 551) states that " it lives as a parasite ou the domestic birds, sucli
as the dove," and further, same book and page, that " Mr. James Macdouald
writes me that he has found a nest of swallows ou a court house in Iowa
swarming with bugs." In the American Entomologist (Vol. 1., p. ST) the
following statement occurs : —

" Ordinarily the bed bug is confined to the dwelling-places of man and
li\es on the blood of us great lords of creation, but we have known It to swarm
in prodigious numbers in a chicken house, where it must have fed exclusively
upon cV.iekens' blood, and it is said to occur also in European pigeon hou.ses."

Whatever its foundation, there is a widespread belief that birds and bats
carry bed bugs from place to jilace, and considering the suddeness with which
they appear in new buildings, and sometimes in buildings never used for
dwellings, it seems hard to otherwise account for their appearance. Still, to
those familiar with the habits of the bed bug and its opportunities for trans-
IHirtation, there will be no insuperable ditticulty in accounting for all such
appearances. Another impression seems to be that bed bugs occur in the
woods and under bark.

I'irrrniioa and Remedy.

Cleanliness and the application of the common remedies, such as benzine,
cnrrosive sublimate, and hot water, will usually suffice to keep these pests
reduced in ordinary dwellings, but in large buildings more general measures
may sometimes be necessary, and in such cases there is probably nothing more
effectual, when it can be done, than thorough fumigation with sulphur, brim-
stone or perhaps bi-sulphide of carbon.

" I have known a house which had long stood empty, and yet swarmed
with them, thoroughly cleansed by fumigation with brim.stone." — Westicood.

We know personally of an instance where a largo building, badly infested
with this pest, ou being thoroughly fumigated with sulphur as a disinfectant
against scarlet fever, remained for some time comparatively free from bugs.

Attention to the cracks in the walls and around casings, as well as to Uhe
joints of bedsteads, will do nuich to keep pests under control.

For immediate relief in a sleeping room, pyrethrum is most available, since
it can be used while a room is occupied. Dusted between the sheet.s of a bed,
it will protect the sleeper from the most voracious hotel bug. — Btillrtin Xo. 5,
r. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomohigij.
Lice of Human Beings.

Children and people of dirty habits are especially subject to infestation by
these, perhaps the most objectional>le of all in.sects. Three kinds are commonly
known to attack human beings. These are the head-louse (PedieulUH capitis).
tl\e body louse (P. vestimenti). and the crab (PJithirius iiujniiialis). When
once these insects appear they can only be exterminated by thorough watch-
fulness and cleanliness. Children (who are frequently attacked by the head-
louse) require their hair to be frequently combed, as all lice are prolific
breeders. Many children obtain lice at school by hanging their hats up near
those of others. The head-louse seems to prefer the region just above the ears.

lint in till' ci

all 11

(' rlaws ai-i' can

Td.siiiiiiiiii.

Wllsll

Aliplirnti

ins (1

f liiinid l■^■nl(•lli^■^

of external |

ii-asi

us. and tlic cluii

the amount (

r \v(.

•k til lie (lone.

52

and in sncli plares tlieir eggs or "nits"' may sometimes be seen iu lumrtreds.
<Jn very dirty people tUe eggs may sometimes be seen tliiekly sprinkled like
sand tlirougUont the hair. On examination, these eg.gs will nsually be fonnd
to be empty, as they will stick to the hair long after the young are hatched.

The biidy louse is seldom found on any but very dirt.v peoiile. although
anyone is liable to be attacked liy it. It is a larger and thicker insect than
the head-louse, and appears to live by jireference on the un(U»r-clothes, into
any fold of which it will irrcii. and from which jiositinn it will surk up the
blood of its victim. It is best, therefore, to boil any clothes which harbour it.

The crab prefers the private regions, and causes intolerable itching. .V
person may be absolntely free from this pest, and .vet within a fortnight be
nearly driven mail by tlicm. and on examination liud them swarming on him.
They are. fortunately, very readily killed by the use of merciu-itil or ■■blue"
iiintmeiit. All lire arr iiniviiled with strong claws foi- banging on to hairs,
riuiiusly lie VI '1 oped. — A(jiiciill Ural (lazcltr,

-v (iiiil Hips.

■■ are the main reliance in the treatment,
■e between methods depends largely upon
The most available substances are tiie
.solutions of tobacco, diluted carbolic acid, kerosene emulsion, infusion of
stavesacre for lice, or .some of the regular sheep diiis.

For lice on cattle, a wash of kerosene emulsion, rubbed on with a rag or
the hands to the parts where eggs and lice are most abundant, ciui be used
even in winter, with some care to avoid exposure, and while not usually
reaching every louse, will suftii-e tn keeji tlie pests in check.

Tohacri) ilccdctimi. — .V simjile toliarro decoction is nnule b.v steeping tobacco
leaves and stems in water. Such decoctions are poisonous to most animals,
and should not contain more than 2 to 5 per cent, of tobacco. Willi horses
the.y should only be applied to a part of the body at one time.

TohaccD and siilijliur dip. — .\ combination, especially favoured iu .Vustralia,
given by (Jurtice, consists of tobacco and sulphur, of one pound etich to every
four gallons of «ater to be used, the tobacco .solution and sulphur being stirred
togetlier till nf a creani.v consistenc.v and then diluted with requiretl amount
of water.

Siiliiliiir (iiiil liiiir dill. — Flowers of sulphur. 2."i pounds; quicklime, "20
pounds: water. KKi gallons. Lime is tirst slaked in the usual manner, then the
rest of the water and sulphur are added, iioil for twenty minutes and
strain well. Hold the sheep in the mixture until the scabs are thoroughly
soaked. Inuuerse the head at least once. Use the dip at 100 to 110 degrees F.
Dip twice, with an interval of ten days. The ingredients should be carefully
sifted before mixing, and the sediment should not be thrown into the tank.

'I'olidrro. siiliiliiir. and Ij/e dip. — Thirty pounds of tobacco, 7 pounds of
suliiliur, :; iioiniils of concentrated lye. dissolved in 100 gallons of water.

J.dir's (liji. — Tobacco, 16 pounds; oil of tar, 3 pints; soda ash, 20 iwunds ;
soft soap. 4 pounds; water, 50 gallons. Sutlieient for .50 sheep. The tobacco
should be steeped, afterwards the other ingredients addeil at 70 degrees F.

1 livelier who 1;

eeiis 11,1

houses

•IS the wnter ;

ml lenl

vessels

liseases.

53

Cottoii-.scc(l oil.—'nus is elaiiiied hy Dr. I'rnneis to sive on ;i liiru'e scale
the most satisfat-tory results for tk-Us. The oil is siiuiily iioiireil on a vat
fillecl with water, the cattle being drenched with it as they emerge.

For a few animals a small vat is sufficient, and liigs. lamlis. dogs. etc..
may be dii.ped in a tub or liarrel. There is a iiatented dii.iiing device for
lowering animals into a tank.

Wherever dippiuK is to lie iiractised to any great e.Ktent. the construction
of a iiermanent tank or vat for the imrpose will be a matter of econoiuy.—
lliiJlcthi Xo. J. r. S. DriHirtiii'iit of Auririiltiirc. Diri.'iioii of EntoinoUnni-
IlISEASKS OK I'0l"I.TRy.

Prevention is lietter tlian cure, and the
clean, warm and ))ro]ierly ventilated, and has
always clean, need have little to fe.-ir fvon

This is the most to be dreaded of any of the troubles that the poidtryman
^^W\ have to encounter, as if It once gets a start the whole flock may go
with it. This affection, if taken at the start, is easily checked, and the bird
tliat shows any signs must be immediately isolated from the rest of the flock.
Tlie symiitoms are: Eyes watering, nostrils closed, breathing deep and fre-
iinently swelling round the eyes.

As soon as it is detected, take tlie liird and after dissolving a teaspoonfnl
of bor.-icic acid in a small tin or cup of warm water. plun,ge tlie bird's head
nniU'r and liold it tliere till it seems to choke, which action will draw the
solution into all the cavities of the nose and throat, and I have found it a
most effective remedy. Do not use any tins or cuiis that arc wanted for any
other purpose, as the disease is very infectious. Put the bird in a dry. warm
lilace and repeat the treatment in a few hours. Zinc ointment or carliolated
vaseline is also good to apply to the swelling round the e.ves.

The fowl affected with cholera is de.iected. sleepy and droopy, is very
thirsty, has a slow, stalking gait, and gapes often. They often stagger and
fall from weakness. Tlie wattles turn iiale or sometimes dark .nid they have
diarrhiea. At once remove all affected birds to a warm, light |il.ice with plenty
of clean straw. Give no water .•xcept with " Do'tglas .Mixture - in same,
formula for which is given herewitli. The droppings should )»■ drenched with
a solution of carbolic acid, to prevent the spread of the disease. Nothing but
cooked food should be fed. Prevention is the o:dy sure cure for this disease,
but if .anything will do any good, the above treatment is most likely to be
effective.

Cinp r.dtniil.

This complaint is lialile to affect birds in conlincmcnt more than those on
a large rani-'e. It is caused mostly liy over-feeding, and unless relieved
liromptly death is sure to follow. Kelief may lie (luickly given by opening
the crop on the side with a sharii knife, cutting a slit sufliciently long to
remove the contents. Clean the imp with warm water and sew up again.

54

taking care not to sew the skin of the bird to the sack of the crop. Close the
crop with white linen thread first, having the knot on the inside, then put a
few stitches in the skin. Put in a warm place and give no water for twenty-
four hours and only soft food, and it will soon recover.
Gapes.

Causes. — Foul water, exposure to wet, damp places, particularly at night,
want of nourishing food, etc.

8i/mptoms. — The general symptoms, as the name implies, consist in con-
stant gaping, coughing and sneeziujj, together with inactivity and loss of
appetite.

Treatment. — Give the bird daily, until it recovers, a small piece of cam-
phor about as large as a grain of wheat, and add a few drops of camphor or
turpentine to the drinking water, or mix with the fond, about ten drops to
the pint.

Leg Weakness.

Cause. — It often arises from the inbreeding of the same strain of fowls
for too long a period, but is usually caused by too high feeding, which
increases the weight of the body out of proportion to the muscular strength of
the legs ; it more generally occurs in the large breeds, such as Cochins and
Brahmas, particularly in the cockerels.

Symptoms. — Squatting around on their hocks, after standing for a short
time, as if tired; in bad cases they are unable to .stand on their feet at all.

Treatment. — In an early.stage give the following pill twice or three times
a day : One grain of sulphide of iron, five grains of phosphate of lime and
half a grain of quinine.

Douglas Mixture.

"Douglas Mixture" is made thus: — Take of sulphate of iron (common
copperas) 8 ounces; sulphuric acid, % fluid ounce. Put into a bottle or jug
1 gallon of water, into this put the sulphate of iron. As soon as the iron
is dissolved add the acid, and when it is clear the " mixture " is ready for use.

In hot weather, or when the flock is small, less may be prepared at once,
but the above proportion should be observed. This " mixture " or tonic should
be given in the drinking water every other day — a gill for every twenty-five
head is not too much — and where there is infection It must be used every day,
but where there is no disease, not so often, or in small quantities if used every
day.

This preparation, simple as it is, is one of the best tonics for poultry
known. It is alternative as well as tonic, and posses.ses, besides, antiseptic
properties which make it a remedy as well as a tonic.

There are many other disea.ses that poultry are liable to, but the above
are most prevalent and most likely to be met with.
Vermin Pests of Fowls.

To keep fowls in good healthy condition it is absolutely necessar.v to
keep down the vermin. This isarticularly applies to chickens; turkeys are
also troubled, but to a less degree, while ducks and geese are worried little
if at .-ill.

55

In British Columbia tlie vermin pest is even greater, tlioiigli this is
needless, than it is in any other part of Canada. But it can be controlled
with comparative ea.se if proper methods be adopted.

So great has been found this plague to fowls that certain concerns have
found au eager market for all kinds of patent fixtures for the positive
lirevention of the vermin pest. I term such fixtures luxuries and stamp them
as non-esseutial. But it will be necessary for us to know something of the
kinds of vermin which infest poultry houses and the fowls themselves, as
well as something of the nature of the same, before we can intelligently
discuss tlieir prevention as pests.

Vermin pests are of two kinds, viz., lice and mites.

The lice stay on the fowl and are mostly the large grey louse.
Kinds of Lice on Foicls.

1. Lescer lice. — These are a small louse similar to the large grey louse.

2. Large lien louse. — Very common and very prolific; it trails a tickler
behind it. making a very irritating sensation : lives chiefly on feathers.
Hence it is a parasite and stays on the bird all of the time.

3. Burnett's hen louse is similar, though not so large as the large hen
louse.

4. Chicken louse. — This loi:.se Is usually found ujion yonng birds, is very
small and ver.v prolific.

.'). Lone/ cliiclfii. Idusc is similar to above, but different in shape, as its
name denotes.

(!. Coinnioii lien louse is a medium size, with habits similar to all of the
above.

Ill fact, all of the six kinds of chicken lice above-mentioned are similar
in their habits as they are in appearance, though differing much in size. Some
are so small that they can scarcely be seen with the naked eye; other so
secretive in habits as to be scarcely discernible among the feathers. The
lice usually seen on the bodies of birds are the "large" and the " conuuon "
lice. AVhen lice are plainly seen, even though it be only one here and there,
it is a sure sign of grey.t numbers of the pests.
Among the varieties of lice there is also :
The common duck louse.
Squalid duck louse.
Clear duck louse.
Clear goose louse.
Biting louse of turkey.

Mites.
These are of two kinds, viz.: —

1. Chicken mite (4 legs), sometimes white and grey, but blood-red when
full.

2. Itch mite. — About 1 /SO of an inch in length, thus being so small as to
be not discernible to the naked eye. It affects the legs and comb.

The chicken mite bites the fowl and suclM the blood, and when a poultry
house becomes infected with this worst of all pests, such a thing as a good
healthy fowl soon becomes impossible. The chicken mite leaves the body of

50

the Ueii betVire the fowl leaves the roost ; as soon as the fowl begins to move
it makes off. It lives during the day in crevices and under the roosts: cleats,
loose boards, cracks, knot-holes, etc., make admirable hiding places. At dusk
the.v come forth in search of the fowls. They are very prolific.

The itch mite produces scales on the legs and, as mentioned above, it also
attacks the comb. The first appearance on the comb is little white points or
scales, and the comb skin is not pure red but brown. The disease sometimes
.seems to stand still for perhaps a month, but all of this time the mite is at
work. Tlie base of the comb becomes swelled and is full of little burrows.
The feathers of the head stand straight out and die, then, curling up, they
imbed themselves in the flesh and result in the swelling called the itch. On
tlie feet and legs this mite is also very active. The scales drop off or form in
knots ; a crust forms beneath the .scales and the feet and claws smell badly.
•■ Scaley leg" is nothing more nor less than an excessive .state of the work of
the " itch mite."

Remedies.

Isolate the affected liirds. Then treat by using a solution of .5 per cent,
creolin and batlie tlie affected parts, ap|ilying it aliout every two weeks.
Cleanliness of Hen Houses.

I eiui)hasise this point, and the individual who aims ror success must
insist upon it. A good sy.stem is to wash the hen houses with boiling w'ater
al)Out tliree times a year — spring, midsummer and fall. Then whitewash Witli
liot lime and 5 per cent, carbolic acid. Dry the house by fumigating well with
sulphur. Put coal oil in the cracks and on the roost.s. Lee's In.sect Killer is
good. .IS is also Persian Insect Powder.

To kill the vermin it is necessary to smother them. They breathe through
tubes in their sides. Dust or a strong odour will close these tubes and hence
effect their death. So. then, it will be understood that the fowls mu.st always
have access to a dust bath, and the place in which they roost should smell
strongly of simie tar e.\tra<-t.— B. C. Jliillctiii. \o. 19. Duiihniii.

THE TUKATMEXT OF WOIXDS.

I'.y .T. L. Iliinis. V.S., Acting Cliief Inspector of Stork of Western Australia.

•Indging by the large numbers of inquiries from correspondents and others,
tliere aiipears to be a good fleal of ignorance as to the correct method of treat-
ing winnids and other injuries of a similar de.scriiJtion ; and it is with the
nli.iect of endeavouring to helj) in this direction that the following remarks
.ire ofl'crcd. which are primarily intended for farmers and those In the bush
in roiitact with animals, who are mostly out of reach of professional assi.^t-
auce.

There are peojile who think that in dealing with questions of tliis sort the
use of highly technical language is necessary; but this is a mistake, and the
constant use of which merely tends to mystify. If we are to understand each
oIlHT. plain Erglish will be the best; and on the present occasion we shall.

o<

as f;ir as iidssililc. stick tci it. leaving; the jaw-lii-c-al;i'rs tor the anatciiny
classes and for tbusc auximis to imiircss otlicrs with the vast aiimunt of
kiuiwledge they possess.

The ke.vuote of success in tlealiitu' with evci-y ilcs. riiitiou i>( woimd is
tleauliuess, aiid withotit this our efforts are often unavailing. No wound is
so uniniportant as to lie looked upon as of no consequence; and the slightest
scratch sonietinics may lead to serious coniplications, ending perhaps in deatli
itself. Simple precautions taken in time often prevent such things happening.
The first thing to do in the case of a clean-cut wound on some muscular part
of the hixly is to stop the bleeding, if excessive, but unless it is very great, and
an inipcirtaiit blood-vessel is severed, this need not bother us. In all cases,
whether dirt can be seen adhering to the wound or not. it is advisable to wash
it with an antiseptic. There are many such at present, such as carbolic acid
il part of acid to ."0 of water), lysol. permanganate of potash, phenvle. eti .
.Vll are good. This often prevents trouble afterwards, by helping to wmd off
infection of the exposed lacerated tissues caused by inicro-orga\iisms in the
atmosphere, and which are ever ready to iuerea.se and multijily at o:ir exi)ense.
.\ wound is the ojjen door by which they enter our system, in many instances.
.\ll troul>le with wounds is now well known to be due to these small organisms,
and when means are taken whereby they are prevented from gaining access
to the tissues nmch better results are experienced. Antiseptics have the
)iov,er of .arresting the growth or of entirely destroying these organisms. In
ilays gone liy. when antiseptics were not used and their action not known,
the mort.-ilily from woinids and injuries. e.specially those affecting internal
parts of the body sr.cli as the chest or abdomen, was sometimes dreadful, and
fnlly 40 per cent, never recovered. In those times to amputate a leg or an
arm. not to mention anything worse, was about as much as the patient's life
was worth; and abdonnnal surgery was so dreaded on accoiuit of bad results
that scores of people |)relVrred to run all other risks rather than resort to it.
Xowada.vs these things are done every day and it is not often v.e Iiear of death
resulting from the operation itself. Antiseptic surgery has changed every-
thing and operations of a nature which would have been laughed at as
impossible by surgeons of ZO years back are performed now with success.
Skill, no doubt, counts; but .50 .vears ago there were srrgeons in France and
Ki'gland .skilful enough for an.vthiug. .vet they were doomed to failun.' without
the assi.stance of antiseptics.

Punctured wounds are dangerous, such as a stab from a pitclifork. because
tliey are difficult to ele.an o\it projierly and are liable to I'lose up on the outside
before the internal parts heal; and often on this account di.sclnirges from the
wound are imprisoned which sooner or later cause trouble. A word of
warning is, therefore, necess.ary in such cases, so thai precautious are taken
to see the iu.iury is thoroughly irrig:it<'d w itb some .int isej.tic l>efore permitting
the outside to heal up.

In bringing the edges of wounds together, it is always as wi'll to be careful
to cut away as little of the skin as i)ossible. as it doi's not reprodnce itself, and
ugly blemishes are left where skin is removed.

Tlie apiilications applied to wiamds by ignorant jicrsons an> sometimes
of an extraordinary descriiition .-mil do more b.-irni llian good. Cow dung,
which is now mentioned in the iiliarnnicoiKeia. finds great favour with some

58

persons as au application to ttie foot in cases of injuries by nails penetrating
the sole. Burnt leather is another firm and universal favourite, only second,
I think, to cow dung, and is further valued, according to some, for promoting
the growth of hair. A more improper remedy than cow dung in cases of
penetrating wounds of the foot could hardly be thought of, and burnt leather
has no virtue in making the hair grow. If a ijoultice is necessary where the
foot is concerned, linseed meal or bran,, or marshmellows, will be found much
better and cleaner.

Then there are people who must apply sulphate of copper (blue-stone) to
every wound, whether it is wanted or not. Blue-stone may be used in cases
where the ijroud flesh or granulations are excessive, but I am not aware that
it does much good otherwise, its action being more of a caustic, killing living
tissues, and retarding rather than assisting the reparative process of nature,
and, therefore, should be used sparingly and with caution.

A very common practice is blowing ground glass into the eye, with the
idea that it will do good in helping to remove opacities of the glassy portion
(cornea) caused by Injuries. Is it possible to think of a more barbarous
remedy, which can only act something after the fashion of sandpaper on this
most sensitive and delicate organ. Let anybody try to imagine the effect of
finely powdered glass being suddenly blown into the eye. We have all
occasionally experienced the pain and inconvenience resulting from a small
speck having got into the eye, but think of this one speck multiplied thousands
of times, grating and rubbing against the ball of the eye and surrounding
structures. Of all the mad notions that ever entered the brain of man, and
their name is legion, surely none ever equalled in absurdity this powdered
glass treatment as applied to the eye.

With regard to wounds pure and simple, it is well to remember that wheu
bringing the edges together it is advisable to take up a fair amount of skin,
as unless this is done the sticthes are liable to cut through if they have to
support much weight. I need hardly say that each stitch must be entirely
separate and tied on its own and it would never do to stitch away after the
style of a tailor stitching a piece of cloth. This would not answer at all, as
one part breaking, the whole would give way and our labour would be in vain.
What Is known, therefore, in surgery as the " interrupted " suture or stitch
is the proper thing. The best sort of needle (they are of various sizes for
different work) is one with a lance point and slightly curved. Ordinary
needles are very difficult to pass through the skin and are awkward in many
ways. Silk suture thread (carbolised) is very good, but ordinary twine, as
long as it is clean and uneoloured. may be used at a pinch, previously having
dipped it in some antiseptic solution.

One has to use common sense in every case and do what is best, always,
as far as possible, sticking closely to the principle of things as laid down by
the highest authorities and not bothering about fads and petty details.

Do not be prejudiced agaiust twine because it is called twine, but be
careful that it is clean, which is far more important than what material it is
made of. Cat-gut makes good suture if procurable, and also wire made of
silvei' is useful in special cases, but the latter nuist be removed when the

59

wouiul has thoroughly healed aud no longer recjuires the support ot the
stitches. It will be found iu nearly all wounds that when once brought
together they do best afterwards with the application of dry dressings.
Iodoform is excellent but expensive. Mixed with about 10 parts of boracic
acid, it makes a useful dressing. Plain powdered charcoal answers well; it
has the advantage of being cheap, and there is any amount of it in the bush
after burning off. Half boracic and half charcoal does very well. The
wound should be continually dusted over with it. Bandages are all
right in their way, but if they can be done without, all the better.
Wet applications, such as oils and lotions, do not seem to act so satisfactorily
as dry dressings; they keep the wound weak, and there is a tendency to
a prolongation of the natural process of repair. In the case of a wound that
has not been attended to for some few days after the injury has happened,
the edges of which are dry and beginning to scab over, it will be necessary,
before attempting to bring it together, to scarify or scrape the edges with a
knife until raw and bleeding, so as to make it as it were fresh again and give
things another start. Wounds no doubt will often heal if left entirely to
nature, but nature does not always make a very artistic job of it. and needs
a little help if we do not desire to see ugly blemishes remaining. A blemish,
more e.speciany one on the front of the knee of a valuable horse, lowers the
value of the animal iu the market ; and it is wonderful What can be done to
avoid such things if wounds are properly attended to and iu time.

Flies are a great trouble in this country, as in all warm climates, aud
every injury requires to be very carefully covered up aud kept protected from
them. They often poison otherwise healthy wounds, by inoculating them with
matter of an injurious nature. Tar, used so frequently in the bush as an
aiiplication to all sorts of wounds, has certainly much to recommend it. and
flies do not care about it. Farmers and those who are isolated in the wilder-
ness aud have to depend uiiou their own ingenuity iu cases of emergency
would do well to provide themselves with some simple remedies applicable to
ordinary injuries.

A few surgical needles, suture thread, bandages, carbolic acid, phenyle,
and such like, should always be on hand. As for medicine, well, it should
seldom be wanted in this land of sunshine ; aud when proper attention is paid
to the exercising, feeding, watering and housing of the animals, I am of the
opinion that most of the physic may be thrown overboard, and it will never
be missed.— Joi/eno! of Agricultuic. Wtstcni Australia, January, lilOS.

CONTAGIOUS ABORTION.

Prevention and Treatment of.

Aborting cows should be isolated from all others and from other breeding

female farm animals. Separate stable utensils should be used and, if possible,

separate attendants should care for these animals. All. stalls where aborting

cows have stood should be thoroughly scraped and I'loaned aud washed with

oO

a solution of Wue-stoijc '> (unices to ] ^callon of \v;iter. The cow-house gutters
should he dressed this wm.v Mlxjut once a week. Tlie whole of the interior of
the stable should be sprayed with a solution consisting of 1 part crude carbolie
acid to 30 parts of lime wash.

Spraying stall and floors twice a week with a 1-30 solution of crude
carbolic and water is reported to have a very beneficial effect by some
breeders, some claiming that the inhaled fumes act as a preventive in
pregnant cows.

The vagina of aliortcd cows should be syringed out daily for a week, or
until discharge ceases, with a mixture of alcohol, 1 ounce, corrosive sublimate
1 dram, and gl.vcerine 1 ounce, dissolved in one gallon of water. The vulva,
anus, back of the hips and root of the tail should be sponged with this liijuid.
This external washing m,iy lie ajiplied to the whole herd. A 1 per cent,
solution of acid carbolic may be used instead of the corrosive sublimate.
When a cow aborts, the foetal membranes must be removed as soon as possible
and burned or deeply buried with lime, and the stall should be at once cleaned
and disinfected as above, and the vagina and external parts treated as
described.

Aborting cows sbeiild not be bred for two or three ni.mtlis and care slionld
be used in selecting a Iiealtliy bull for the jmrpose. Tlie linll sIkiuM li:ive his
sheath injected and belly washed, before and after service, willi a 1 per cent,
solution of carbolic acid.

When the di.sease exists in a distriit no outside cows slionld be received
for service. Newly iiurcbased i-ows should be kept isolated am! treated as
above lielni-i' lirinnin- llu'in in cont.nct with the others of the herd.

Cows usually abcrt fmiii the third to the seventh inontli of gestation.
Some very .good reports are given of the use of carbolic acid iiiterii,-illy in
suspected cows, administered at the rate of half a dram dail.v, with feed. It
is prepared by diluting freely with water and then mixing with food. Fatten-
ing and disposing of aborting cows will help to rid the herd of the disease.

Thorough disinfection of stable utensils, milk-stools, clothes of attendants,
etc.. is absolutely necessary, and over a year or more will elapse betoi-c> y,m can
safely .say that .von have succeeded. Any half-way measures will prove dis-
appointing.

S. F. TOLMIK. V.S.

Gl

CHAPTER v.— ANIMAL PESTS.

(Joi'llEHs AXi) (jROiNii S(ji ir;ni:i.s.

These pests are very numerous iu some i);n-ts of the I'liper Couutry. dohig
ici-eat iujury to crops of all kinds aurt fruit trees, by gnawing the roots.

The following method is recommended by the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture for the extermination of gophers: —

lUsiiliiliiilc (if railioii. — In most eases bisulphide of cnrlion is the simplest
agent for the destruction of gophers. It nuiy be used as tollows; — Open the
gopher hole wliere one of the freshest hills has been thrown out. Pour two
tablcspoonfuls of bisulphide on a bunch of cotton rags. tow. waste, or any such
material, and push it well down into the hole; then close th<' opening. The
bisulphide quickly forms a heavy suffocating gas that Hows down the hole and
along the galleries. Wherever it overtakes the gojibcr lu' is cpiickly kille<l.
The whole operation is perfectly simple and easy. The only dithculty arises
from the length of the tunnels, which is so great that the animals m.iy he
beyond the reach of the gas. Hence it is sometimes necessary to open the
tunnel and introduce the bisulphide at two or more jilaces.

The gas has a vile odour. It should be carefully kept from lire, as it is
liighly inflammable and e.xiilosive; otherwise no danger attends its tise.

Fiiinii/ation. — Rude pumps, known as " fumigators," by means of which
the fumes of burning sulphur may be forced into the burrows to suffocate the
occupants, are extensively used in some parts of the West, particularly in
California. They are. however, clumsy, expensive and less effective than
bisulphide of carbon.

T III iipi 11)1. — Gophers are easily tra]iped. anil once exterminated in a field,
others do not soou come in. Their inainicr of travi'lling is so slow that onl.v
those near the edge of the ticld will work in during a summer. In the spring
the males iu their wanderings may settle down in a new place, but this does
not often happen. The ]irocess of trapping is i)erfcctly simiile. although many
farmers have assun-d nie tb.it pocket gophers can not bi' caught in traps.
rieuce a few directions m,-iy be useful. Having selected a fresh hill and
observed from which direction the earth is pushed out. dig down on that side
until the open hole is found. Enlarge the hole sulHciently to admit a Xo. 0
steel trap and remove such loose earth as may have fallen in. The trap
should be set very lightly. i)laced well down in the hole, sunk in loose earth to
the level of the runway, and partly concealed by s]>rinkling of fine earth.
Finding its hole open the gojiher jiroceeds to rep.-iir the breach, in doing which
he steps on the trap and is caught. If loose earth is left iu the burrow it will
be pushed out in front of the animal, covering the lra]i. so that it will fail to
spring.

Other methods of trapping goiihers have been tried with varyiug success,
and numerous kinds of traiis have been devised for the (lurjiose. Five of
these are figured iu the bulletin of the Oregon Agri<iiltural Experiment

62

Station (Bulletin No. 25, April 1893). Many of them are clumsy and expen-
sive, and few, if any, can compete with the common steel trap when the latter
is properly used.

Poisoning. — Poisoning is a simpler and more expeditious method of
destroying gophers than trapping, but is more laborious than the use of
bisulphide of carbon. The use of poison is always attended with danger, for
in spite of all precaution, other animals than those for which It was intended
are liable to get it.

The usual method is to Insert a small quantity of arsenic or floured
strychnine into a piece of potato and push the potato as far as possible into a
fresh goi)her's hole and then close the opening securely. The Honourable J.
Sterling Morton, Secretary of Agriculture, has found arsenic on white potatoes
and apples efficacious in destroying pocket gophers at his home in Eastern
Nebraska.

Phosphorus has been used extensively in California, Wa.shington and
Oregon, in destroying ground squirrels, and to a less extent for pocket gophers.
Mr. Allen Chattin, of Charter Oak, Iowa, states that he has entirely extermin-
ated the gophers from his own and several neighbouring farms by the use of
phosphorus. His recipe is as follows : —

Put a stick of phosphorus in a 5-gallou can with a little cold water; next
pour in hot water, not quite boiling, until the can is half full, and stir with a
stick. When the phosphorus is melted add, while the water is stirred con-
stantly, 2 pounds of sugar, and immediately after the sugar is dissolved
thicken to a stiff batter with corn meal and flour, half-and-half. Now add
wheat and stir until stiff. While adding the wheat add also 1.5 to 20 drops
of oil of rhodium. The wheat will soak up all the water in the mass and
it will become quite hard. Keep in a cool place. Small pieces may be chipped
off as needed. Gophers may get too little strychnine to kill them, but no
matter how small a piece of phosphorus they get it will finally prove fatal.
Dig down to an open hole, drop in a small piece, put a clod to keep the hole
from filling, and cover over with loose dirt to exclude the light.

It should be borne in mind that phosphorus is one of the most deadly
poisons. I do not wish to be held responsible for recommending the use of
this or any other poison on the farm.

Carbon Bisulphide as a Squirbel Killer.

The use of carbon disulphide (or as is more commonly known, carbon
bisulphide) as a solvent for grease and oils has been known for many years.
Likewise its use as a germicide and insecticide in agriculture, museums and
herbaria has been recognised for a considerable period of time. It has been
employed for several .years in the extermination of rats, gophers and prairie
dog.'^. luit I know of no one who has made careful use of it in the extermina-
tion of ground squirrels and then checked up his work. Therefore, I deter-
mined to give the sub.stance a most careful test this spring, as my experience
with it in former years had been of too haphazard a character to warrant its
l)eing placed in a press bulletin. Whenever, during the past two years, I had
(lug out tlie run-ways or dens, after employing the disulphide, I had found the
squirrels dead, but I liad found too few of them to say that It always kills
th^m. After a trial this .spring. I can state with certainty, that where

63

<'iu|ilo,veil in the right way and in roquirerl amounts, it kills all of the squirrels
ill all of their dens. It has been thought that this knowledge would benefit
growers of grain, alfalfa, clover or grasses in the State, and has led to the
present bulletin.

Description of the Suistancc.

Carbon bisulphide (or more accurately, disulphide) is made b.v passing
sulphur vapour over coke or charcoal which has been heated to a "cherry
red " colour in a vertical retort of cast-iron or glazed earthenware. In so
doing, two atoms of sulphur unite with one of carbon, giving us the compound
CS2. It is generally, when imiuire, as ordinarily sold and used, of a yellow
colour and of a sickening fetid odour. When pure it has almost no odour
and is glistening white, owing to its high refractive index. It is extremely
volatile, that Is, passes off readily into a gas, and should, consequently, be
closely stoppered. It is extremely inflammable, its vapour taking Are at
149° centigrade, or 300° Fahrenheit, and it should never be used in the presence
of lights, pipes or cigars. Its specific gravity is about 1.2923, making it,
therefore, considerably heavier than water. In fact, compared with water,
which weighs about 8.35 pounds per gallon, this would weigh nearly 10.8
pounds to the gallon. Though more poisonous to the .smaller animals and to
insects than to man, an unclosed jar or jug of it in a closed room could easil.v
cause the death of the inmates in a short space of time. By keeping it well
stoppered, and opened out-doors and away from lights or fires, there is
ab.solutely no danger. I use the special precaution to pour it out, when in
the Held, on the side of me away from the wind, more to escape the sickening
odour than from any real danger.

Jloiv to Use it.

Take it to the field in a connuon gallon or two-gallon oil can with snout.
Have with you a bundle of the cheapest cotton, bought at' the store or taken
from an old unused bedquilt. Have with you also a spade or shovel to fill
holes, and a small measure to tell how much of the liquid you pour out. An
old tablespoon will answer, but far better is a little wine-glass marked off into
" teaspoons " and " tablespoons," which can be purchased at almost any
druggist's. By using this, none is wasted and you can tell with exactness
linw much you wish to employ. Pour out the required amount into the glass,
liniu- it into a handful of the cotton just large enough to prevent the running
through and loss of the rather costly liquid, stuff it down into a squirrel hole,
throw on two shovels of earth, tramping each tight, fill up the other connecting
lioles in the same way, and every squirrel in the den will soon be dead.
How Much to Use.

In my exiieriments I tried to determine whether it were better to use a
small amount in each hole or a larger amount in one hole but the results were
inconclusive, as wherever the squirrels were found they were dead. Both
ways have their advantages. If you poison only one hole, you are not sure
that all the holes you close, thinking they connei-t with this one, really do
<'(Minect, and you may have to go over the field two or three times before you
get them all. On the one hand, of course, much more time is consumed in
I Hitting the poison in, say, four holes of the run-way than in one, and is

G4

imuecessary if they cuuiR-t-t. I depend much \\\nm my judgment of whether
there is a den or not, to which conclusion many tilings lend you. such as near-
ness of lioles, size of lioles, lay of the ground, amount of injury to grain or
grasses, etc.

In my e.xperiincnis tliis sinhig I likewise tried to determine how nuu-h
would kill the squirrels. To be sure of the mortality, we dug thou oi(t, and
did not rest content with seeing whether the holes remained clo.sed. This is
too uncertain, as visitors or strnvs ma.v dig out holes from the outside.
Time to Use.

It can be ]Hit out any time in the day, but is best init out near evening, for
two reasons. First, late in the afternoon all of the s<iuirrels have gone into
their holes, and the e.xeiaitiou is more perfect. In the second place, a great
deal of work can be done after sujiper, when during summer or late spring the
evenings are long and darkness does not come till 8:30. It is remarkable
the number of lnjles two persons, one to handle the spade and the other the
poison, can attend to in two hours. If a field is simply overrun by .s<pHrrels.
I would advi.'^e using the whole of several days for the principal poisoning,
doing the finishing touches after sup]ier.

Cost of Curhiiii DinnUiliiilc.

As retailed by druggists, the cost is high, varying from .fl.T.j to .$2.2.5 per
gallon. In rive-galbin cans it can be bought for about .^T.."!) per can, or .^I.iJO
per gallon. Owing to the danger in handling it. the freight charges are very
high. It is likewisi' extremely volatile, as before stated, and there is con-
sequently much w.iste in handling it. Could the farmers unite, however, and
get a carload from the manufacturers direct. ])robabl.v the price could be
reduced one-half. I may add in conclusion that, though unich more costly
than pho.sphorns. or perhaps even than strychnine, it is iiifinitclii better, as it
kills all the squirrels in the holes, while food-poisons kill only a small per cent,
of them.— /(/o/(o Jlullitiii. Xo. 11.

WoLvios .\ND Coyotes.

These pests, particularly the latter, are so luimerous and cunning that
the production of s<ime classes of live stock, such as sheep and poultry, in the
U])per Country, is rendered unprofitable, and the almost human sagacity of
coyotes is such that they are rarely caught in traps or killed liy jioison, and
the bounty paid lur their <lcstrur(ion, viz.. .f2. is not a suHicient inducement
for anyone to make a business of hunting them. Therefore, any method that
can be suggested by which the.se wily animals can be circumvented will be
hailed with the greatest satisfaction.

A Bulletin recently issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture says
that success in trapping wolves and coyotes depends largely on the use of a
.scent that will attract them and keep them trami)ing and i)awing until caught.
Meat bait alone is of little use, and often, indeed, scants the animals away.
Of the many scenls and combinations tested, the fetid bait has in-oveil most
successful. The following directions for its prei).-iration and use are given: —

riace half a pound of raw beef or venison in a widemouthed bottle and
let it stand in a warm place (but not in the sun) for two or six weeks, or
until it is thoroughly decayed and the odour has become as offensive as

Go

IKjssible. When dccdiiiiKisitinii has reaclietl the iiniiicr sta,i;i', ailil a quart nf
s|icnn oil or any lic|Ui(l animal oil. Lard may hr used, hut iirairip-il<ig nil is
licttcr. Then add one ounrc of tinrturi' of SilM^riau nnisk. or Tonciuin inusU.
If this oannot ln> iiroiairod. nso iu its iilaee ono oumv of dry. |iulverisi'd
c-astorcum (beaver castor ). or one ounce of the coninion music sold for ]ier-
t'uniery. Mix well and bottle securely until used.

After setting the trap, apply the .scent with a stick or straw or by jiouring
from the bottle to the grass, weeds, or ground on the side of the trap opposite
that from which the wolf would naturally approach. Never put scent on the
traji. .-IS the first impulse of the wolf, after snufling the scent, is to roll on it.

This bait is very attractive also to cattle and Inu'scs. which are sure to
tramp over and paw out the traps if set where they c.ni i;et at them.

The Bulletin also reconuuends the following; method of jioisonini; wolves
and coyotes : —

'No poison has yet iiroved so effective as pure sulphate of str.vchnine.
provided the proiier dose is used. The most effective <lose is 4 grains for
wolves and 2 grains for coyotes. The common 3-grain gelatin capusules sold
by druggl.sts will hold, if well filled, 4 grains of strychnine, and are better
than the larger cajisules. The regular 2-graln cajisules should be used for
coyetes. The capsules should he filled, securely c.-ipped, and every trace of
the intensely bitter drug wi]ied from the outside.

E,-icb c.ipsule should be inserted in a pici-e of |j<'ef su<-t the size of a
walnut and the cavity securely i-loscd to kei'p out the moisture. I-ean meat
should not be used, as the juice soon dissolves the gelatin of the capsule. The
necessary number of poisoned baits may he prepared and carried in a tin can
or pall. They should never be handled exce[it with gloved viands or forceps.
The baits may be dropped from horseback along a scented drag line made by
<lragging an old bone or piece of hide well saturated with tlie fetid scent, or
they may be placed around or jiartly undi'r any car<-ass on which the wolves or
<-oyotes are -feeding or along tr,-iils which they are in the habit of following.

Gelatin capsules quickly dissolve in the .iuices of the stomach. Strych-
nine taken on an empty stomach S(unetlmes kills in a \c ly few minutes, but
on a full stomach its action is much slower, and the atnmal may have time to
travel a considerable distance.

Fiirthn- liistiiictioiis.

• 'ircular No. G3, Issued by the Ilureau of the P.iological Stirvey, Washing-
ton. I). ('.. gives the results obtained during V.»>~. in the way of wolf destruc-
tion. The methods of capturing wolves iu common use are three: — (1)
Tr.-ipping, (2) use of .scents, and (3) poisoning. For li:iii|iiug. the best No. 4
double-spring trap should be used with a heav.v stunc .-is :i drag. When
possible, the trap should be placed between two tufts of grass or weeds, so that
it c.in be reailily ajiproached from one side only. The trap, stone and chain
should be buried on a run-way. Scent is used to attrait \\(ilves to the vicinity
of the trap. Fetid bait is made by placing half :i pound of raw beef or
\enison in a wide-mouthed bottle and letting it stand in a warm place for
from two to six weeks. When completely decom|iosi'd. .-idd a <|uart of any
.■inimal oil. an ounce of pulverised asafetida and ati ouik'c of Siberian or Tou-

E

GG

quiu musk. The mixture should be sprinklea over the grass, weeds and
ground near the trap, but never on the trap. No poison is so effective as
sulphate of strychnine; 4 grains should be placed in a capsule and inserted
in a piece of beef-suet the size of a walnut.

The bounty on wolves, which has been up to the present time .*2 per liead.
was in .January, 190S, raised to .?15.

Cougars.

Commonly known as panthers, and often called mountain lions, are
common on Vancouver Island, and less so on the Mainland, and are the
principal enemy of the shepherd, often causing great loss amongst sheep, and
to a certain extent amongst pigs. A good dog, who will track a panther and
tree him, is about the best protection for a sheep-producer. The bounty on
these pests has lately been raised from .$7.50 to .$1.5 per head. This will, no
doubt, offer such an incentive that it is hoped the numbers will hereafter be
materially reduced.

Skunks

Are a nuisance in several ways ; their depredations in hen-roosts are well
known, and the malodorous effluvium emitted when they are disturbed is of
such a pungent character as to render dwellings uninhabitable on occasions.

Of course, shooting the pests is a quick way of ridding the hen-bouse, but
there arise the disagreeable consequences alluded to. A method which the
writer can vouch for, having seen it done, by which all disagreeable conse-
quences are avoided, is to approach the animal gently, and by coaxing it and,
as the performer observed, gaining its confidence, a noose at the end of about
three feet of line, attached to a short stick, is slipped over its head, and he is
at once lifted off the ground and then drowned. Jlr. Kimpton, at Windermere,
who rids his place by this method, assured the writer that as long as the hind
feet of the skunk are kept off the ground, he is incapable of emitting his
effluvium.

Raccoons

Are very prevalent, especially in the vicinity of the sea, where their
depredations are principally directed to hen-roosts and fruit. A good dog,
such as a large fox terrier, with a little training, soon acquires the trick of
tracking coons and killing them. A dog, unaccustomed to the tactics of a
raccoon, however, generally comes off second best.

67

CHAPTER VI.— PESTS AND DISEASES OF BEES.

Pests of Bees.
Core of Eiuiitii Coiiihf:. — licmeily for the Bee ilotli.

Almost any bee-kft'in'i- will have honey-combs that are for a time unoc-
cupied by bees; even if thron,i.'h no other cause, colonies may have died in
winter, Irnviiii; coiiilis cmiity or containing honey or pollen. Such combs are
valiialilc pniiicrty and will repay the care required to preserve them. The
three iirin<-iiial enemies of unoccupied combs are mould, mice and moths.

Combs kept in a damp, close cellar are likely to be affected by mould
This cannot be entirely prevented where bees are wintered in the cellar ;
for. even if no colonies die, it may happen that some of the outer combs unoc-
cupied by bees will be covered with mould. Fortunately, the remedy is not
difficult. Put a mouldy comb next the brood-nest of a prosperous colony in
the working sea.son, and you will be surprised to tind how soon the bees will
clean it up so that you will hardly recognise it as the same comb.

Mice must be kept away from combs by shutting these up in Jiives or in
such other places vi-here mice cannot enter. But be careful that you do not
pen the mice in with the combs.

The chief enemy of the apiarist is the wax moth. If a colony dies in the
spring and the hive remains unnoticed on its summer stand, it is almost certain
that before the summer is over, you will find it containing a solid mass of webs
and cocoons, with jierhnps not a vestige of comb left. You may have sealed
up the hive moth-tight before it is warm enough for a moth to fly; the result
will be the same; for the eggs of the moth by some means have been laid,
during the previous fall, in the hive, notwithstanding the presence of the bees.
It is, however, not an easy thing to make a hive moth-tight, for a moth will
squeeze through a much smaller crack than a bee. The right thing to do with
a hive full of combs upon which a colony has died ,is to get the combs as soon
as possible in the care of a strong colony of bees. Especially if of Italian
blood, the bees will make short work of cleaning out the worms before they are
large enough to do much harm.

There will be little danger to the combs from the moth until the weather
lias become warm and bees have been flying for some time, say. about the time
of apple bloom. When a hive is noticed with unoccupied combs, clean out all
dead bees, and put it under a hive occupied by a strong colony. If there
should be any entrance directly from outside into the upper hive, close it up,
so as to oblige the bees to pass through the lower hive in going in and out.
Keep the entrance very small the first few days, for fear of robbers. After
the colony has had this lower hive in charge for about a week, so as to get it
cleaned out and get used to the work, you can give it a second hive of combs
to clean out, putting the second in the place of the first.

08

If colonies hnve dit-d in liives in tlif cell:ii-. tliere will not be the same neeil
<it' haste as to getting them in oare of the bees. Indeed, it maj- not be a bad
jilaii to taki> hito the cellar hives whose bees have died on the summer stand:
for in tlie cellar the worms will hardly get a fair start until the next spring,
when the unoccupied eoniljs will lie needed to form swarms. It is well, how-
ever, to look at them oc<'asionalIy to see that they are all right, for it is not
dilticult to see where the worms havi' run their silken galleries. The question
is often asked whether it will do to hive a swarm in a hive in which a colony
liiis died. Unless such a hive is exceedingly tilth.v, the bees will promptly
clean it up. at the same time being saved much labour in building new combs.

It is well to know that freezing* destroys the worms. So a hive of combs
tliat has been left out all winter is in no danger of worms until well along in
warm weather, when moths have had time to mature and to lay eggs. If such
combs are hung up in an airy jilace with a space of au inch between them,
they will .-ilmost surely be sale from wurms throughout the summer, and
indeed worms nia.v not trouble them all sununer if left in tlie hive in their
usual position.

If for any reason it is desired to l;ill worms in combs, sulplnir is the
material usually resorted to. A very little of the fumes of burning sulphur
will tinish the worms when they are (piite small, but when full grown it takes
a very heavy dose ; so it is well tirst to pick out the larger ones b.v hand.
For this take a .sharp ijointed knife and pick out the comb at one end of the
silken gallery for half an inch, then commence at the other end and tear it open
the whole length. This will drt\'e' the worm along till it comes out of the
hole you first made. You can end its existence by what means may seem best.
To fumigate a hive with sulphur, set into a ]i;iu or kettle partly full of ashes a
small vessel of iniii. In this put the sulphur and tlimw on it a shovelful of
live coals or a red hot iron. This must be in an empt.v hive or some tightl.v-
closed box or chamber, so that the fumes cannot escai)e. Great care must be
exercised so that the Are does not extend to the surroun<ling wood. The
combs pliK-ed ovi'r the burning sulphur may be jirevcnted fmni catching fire
by means of a piece of old sheet-iron placed under them. It nnist be further
remembered that burning sulphur destroys only the worms, not the eggs. So
it may be necessary to treat the combs a week or two later, when any eggs
laid will have hatched.** Combs of honey for table use are not likely to be
infested with worms; but in the case of black-bees, especially if the combs are
left too long in the hives, there might be some worms. The dose of sulphur
for these may be lighter than for bn.cid ci.mlis: if the dose is too heavy, thi'
white combs \\ ill assume ;i gre<'nisli colour, which, Imwcver. does not hurt them
for e.-iting.

When extracting combs are extracted for the last time in the season, it is
the practice of most bee-keepers to allow the bees to lick them dry. A hive
full of such ((imbs may be placed over a colony, a propolis quilt with a small
ii|icning tlirnngh it having first been placed over the brood frames, and this
allowing b\il one or two bees to pass at one time. Thus the bees are not .so
apt tci break down the combs and there is less danger of robbing; but a surer
way is to set the hive at some distance from the apiary and let the bees have

•Noti- by Mr, 10. V. Koliinson. — Hai'd freezing, zoro at least.
•*Note li.v Jlr. Itobinson — Spead.

C!l

free play at it. After lieiiii; tlinrimfjlily cleaiiecl. all liives ediitaiiiiiii; (■(nnlis
should he reinoveU to a dark n.Kiiii until late in the autumn, and then to a
liuildins where they will get the full henetit of frost during the winter. — Dr.
Fletcher. lirimrt ISOrj.

Aiiicriean Foul Brood.

American foul hrood (often ealled simply "foul hrood " ) is distrihuted
through all parts of the T'nited States and from the symptoms published in
Kuropeau .iournals and texts one is led to believe that it is also the prevalent
brood disease in Europe. Although it is found in almost all sections of the
United States, there are many localities entirely free from disease of any kind.

The adult bees of an infected colony are usually rather inactive and do
little toward cleaning out infected material. When the larvre- are first affected
they turn to a light chocolate colour, and in the advanced stages of decay they
become darker, resembling roasted coffee in colour. I'sually the larva^ are
attacked at about the time of capping, and most of the cells containing infected
larvje are capped. As decay proceeds these cappings become sunken and
perforated, and, as the Ii<>althy broml emerges, the comb shows the scattereil
cells containing larv;e wliiih have died of disease, still capped. The most
noticeable characteristic of this infection Is the fact that when a small stick
is inserted in a larvi^ which has died of the disease, and slowly removed, the
l)roken-down tissues adhere to it and will often stretch out for several inches
before breaking. When the larva dries it forms a tightly adhering scale of
very dark brown colour, which can best be observed when the comb is held
so that a bright light strikes the lower side wall. Decaying larv:ie which
have died of this disease have a very characteristic odour which resembles a
Iioor qualit.v of glue. This di-sease seldom attacks drone or queen larvne. It
.ippears to be much more virulent in the Western part of the United States
than in the East.

Tniitiiiriit of hifivtioiiK nisriiscx.

Drugs, either to be given directly in food or to be used for fumigating
combs, cannot be reconmiended for eitlier of these diseases.

Sliakiiifj treatment. — To. cure a colony of either form of foul brood it is
necessary first to remove from the hive all of the infected material. This
is done b.v shaking the bees into a clean* hive on clean frames with small
strips of comb foundation, -care being taken that infected hone.y does not drop
from the infected combs. The healthy brood in the infected combs may be
saved, provided there is enough to make it protitable by [liling up combs from
several infected hives on one of the weakest of the diseased colonies.** After
A weekf or ten days all the brood which is worth saving will have hatched
out, at which time all these combs should be removed and the colony treated. ft
In the case of box-hives or skeps the bees may be drummed out into another
box or preferably into a hive with movable frames. Box-hives are hard to
inspect for disease and are a menace to all other bees in the neighbourhood
in a region where disease is present.

•Mr. E. F. Robinson recommenfls ninv hivss and now frames, with half-inch strips
of comb foundation.

••Entrance should be closed to about half-inch.

tAtter lit days.

tfBees treated as before and united to a new colo;iy or given a la.ving queen, kill-
ing the poor one m the weak colony.

70

The shaking of the bees from combs should be done at a time when the
other bees in apiary will not rob and thus spread disease, or under cover. This
can be done safely in the evening after bees have ceased to fly, preferably
during a good honey flow. Great care should be exercised to keep all infected
material away from other bees until it can be completely destroyed or the
combs rendered into wax. Wax from diseased colonies should be rendered
by some means in which high heating is used, and not with a solar wax
extractor. The honey from a diseased colony should be diluted to prevent
l)urning and then thoroughly sterilized by hard boiling for at least half an
hour, if it is to be fed back to the bees. If the hive is again used, it should
be very thoroughly cleaned. t and special care should be taken that no infected
honey or comb be left in the hive.+J

It is frequently necessary to repeat the treatment by .shaking the bees on
to fresh foundation in new frames after four or five days. The bee-keeper,
or In.speetor, must determine whether this is necessary, but when there is any
doubt it is safer to repeat the operation rather than run the risk of re-infectiou.
If repeated, the first new combs should be destroyed. To prevent the bees
from deserting the strips of foundation, the queen may be caged in the hive,
or a queen-excluding zinc put at the entrance.

Treatment with hee escape. — The shaking treatment may be modified so
that, instead of shaking the bees from the combs, the hive is moved from its
stand, and in its place a cleani hive with frames and foundation is feet. The
queen is at once transferred tothe new hive, and the field bees fly there when
they next return from the field. The infected hive is then placed on top of
or close beside the clean hive and a bee escape placed over the entrance of the
hive containing disease, so that the younger bees and those which later emerge
from the cells may leave the hive, but cannot return. They, therefore, join
the colony in the new hive.

Fall treatment. — If it is desirable to treat a colony so late in the fall that
it would be impossible for the bees to prepare for winter, the treatment may
be modified by shaking the bees into combs with plenty of honey for winter. -
This will be satisfactory only after brood-rearing has entirely ceased. In
such cases disease rarely re-appears.

In the Western States, where American foul brood is particularly virulent,
it is desirable to thoroughly disinfect the hive by. burning the inside, or by
chemical means before using it again. This is not always practised in the
Eastern States where the disease is much milder. Some persons recommend
boiling the hives or disinfecting them with some reliable disinfectant such as
carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate. It is usually not profitable to save
frames, because of their comparatively small value, but if desired they may
be disinfected. 3 Great care should be exercised in cleaning any apparatus.^
It does not pay to treat very weak colonies. They should either be destroyed
at once or several weak ones be unitetl to make one which Ts strong enough
to build up.

+ Hive should be scalded by pouring boiling water all over it. especiallv the inside.

4:-^0r about the apiar.y.

Notes by Mr. E. V. Robinson. — 1. New hives and new frames in all oases are
better, as used material may not be absolutely clean. 2. Better feed them upon 20 lbs.
of sugar syrup. 3. Cut out the combs, render the wax, and burn the frames. 4. Scald
and boll everything possible, or bake.

71

Recently some new •■ cures " have been advocated In the bee .iournals,
liartieuhirly for European foul brood, with a view to saving combs from
infected colonies. The cautious bee-l^eeper will hardly experiment with such
methods, especially when the disease is just starting in his locality or apiary,
but will eradicate the disease at once by means already well tried.

In all cases great care should be exercised that the bee-keeper may not
himself spread the infection by handling healthy colonies before thoroughly
disinfecting his hands, hive tools and even smoker. Since it takes but a very
small amount of infected material to start disease in a previou.sly healthy
colony, it is evident that too much care cannot be taken. In no case should
honey from unknown sources be used for feeding bees. Care should also be
exercised in buying queens, since disease is often transmitted in tlie candy
used in shipping cages. Combs should not be moved from hive to hive in
infected apiaries,

*"Piclcle Brood." — There is a diseased condition of the brood called by bee-
keepers "pickle brood," but practically nothing is known of its cause. It is char-
acterised by a swollen watery appearance of the larviie, usually accompanied by
black colour of the head. The larvre usually lie on their backs in the cell,
and the heads point upward. The colour gradually changes from light yellow
to brown, after the larv;e die. There is no ropiness, and the only odour is
that of sour decaying matter, not at all like that of American foul brood.
In case the larvae are capped over, the cappiugs do not become dark, as in
the case of the contagious diseases, but they may Ije punctured. So far no
cause can be given for this di.sease, and whether or not it is contagious is a
disputed point, t'siially no treatment is necessary beyond feeding during
dearth of honey, but in very rare cases, when the majority of larva? in a
comb .-u-c dead from this cause, the frame .should be removed and a clean
comb jiut in its place, to make it unnecessary for the bees to clean out so much
dead brood.

Chilled, Orcrliriitcd and f<t(irccd Beoof/.— Many different external factors
may cause brood to die. Such dead brood is frequently mistaken, by persons
unfamiliar with the brood diseases, for one or the other of them. Careful
examination will soon determine whether dead brood is the result of disease
or merely some outside change. If brood dies from chilling or some other
cause, it is usually soon carried out by the workers, and the trouble disappears.
Brood which dies from external causes often produces a strong odour in the
colony, but wholly unlike that of American foul brood, merely that of decaying
matter. The colour of such brood varies, but the characteristic colours of
the infectious diseases are usually absent, the ordinary colour of dead brood
being more nearly gray. — U. S. Circular A'o. 70.

Note bv Mr. E. F. Robinson, — 'The established principles underl.vin? tbe cure of
foul hroo'd are : — First, shake the bees into hives and fixtures, absolutel.v without
contacion : new are the best. Secondly, compelling the bees to use all the honey
ill thi'ur honei/ sack, which thev loaded themselves with when opened up before shaking,
inio irar for "new eomh as it lias been proved beyond doubt that it is the honey mostly
that I'arries the contagion, being polluted by spores thrown o£E from the diseased dead

CHAPTER VII.— PLANT DISEASES.

Crown (;aij. ok Uoot (Jall. Fig. IT.

Tliis disease causes galls to a)iiieai- on tlie root.s of various trees and
shrubs. On fruit trees it coniiiinnl.v forms siilieriral s\vellin.gs of various
sizes, occasionally as large as a walnut. These globular bodies have usually
a peculiar warty surface. They should not be confused witli the galls formed
by woolly aphis, which, moreover, are smaller and usually oval or irregular.
Besides, in aphis galls some of the " wool " is usually to be found.

It frequently happens that when the roots are affected with this disease
the secondary roots are abnormally abundant and often somewhat spongy in
texture.

Particular attention is called to this disease, because a .good ni;iny nursery
trees have been sold in the Xorth-West with the roots affected by it. A safer
rule is to reject all trees disesised with the galls, even if the latter have been
removed. We have found that they are sure to appear again.

Xo remedy is known, and, as the disease appears to be contagious, every
effort should be made to jireveut the sale of nursery stock afliected b.v it.

Prof. J. W. Touniey has recently discovered in Arizona that the cnnvn
gall of the almond is caused by a slime mould which he names D(ii(hiiii)iiigit^
i/lobosii.s.

I liave been unable tci discover this nr .-my similar organism in the galls
on aiiple roots. — V. S. D< inirtiiicii/ of A;n inillinr. liiilh tin l.'i.i — I'iiicr.

.\|>l)li' Cruwn ij.Tll on grafted trcM'.
(Fh!. 17.1— ««;?. no, V.

giiiftf.l ;\pi)li. ti-

S. Dciwrlmciit III Aiji

73

A iiapiT nil Crown <;;ill, by Prof. E. A. Poikmioc, Entom()lo^'i.•<t. Kansas
State Agricultural College, concludes as follows: —

■■ In cldshi.ix I may say that as I read the results of experiments to check
the growth of crown gall, they appear to be practically futile so far: and
about all that can be done by the planter is to examine closely .ill trees before
planting and burn any found infested; by the nurseryman to follow rigor-
ously, and for his own final interest, the present practice of the conscientious
grower, of burning all trees found, on digging, to be infested, and giving him-
self the benefit of the doubt that yet remains, to practise a strict rotation of
sus(;eptible trees with other crops or those not capable of iutection."
Gall ox Linden Tbees (Eriophijes aJiiwrmis.)

(.;all on I.iiulen trees occurring at Victoria was referred to Dr. Fletcher,
who replied as follows: —

"The Linden leaf is the work of Eiiopkyes ahiiormig. Garman. This is
a common gall on the basswuod and linden, but cannot be said to do much
harm other than producing an unsightly appearance on the leaves."

Apple .\nd Pear Scab (Fusichuliiim dendritleum and F. pirinum.)

Dcsi-iipiion.

Although the fungi causing scab on apples and pears resiiectively are
iliffereut .species, they are very closely allied; but as the general appearance
of the disease and the methods of treatment in each case are identical,
separate descriptions are not necessary.

Scab is probably the most general and most widely distributed of fungus
diseases attacking apples and pears, and during certain .sea.soiis the
entire crop is much depreciated in value, or rendered altogether unsaleable,
owing to the presence of numerous blackish blotches or scabs and gaping
cracks on the surface.

To the casual observer scab is only recognised on the fruit, whereas in
reality the fungus appears first on the leaves and young shoots, from whence
the spores are washed by rain on to the fruit, which is the last to be attacked.
If the fruit is nearly full-grown before it is infected, the spots formed by the
fungus remain small and are irregularly scattered over the surface. Although
the market value is thereby depreciated, such fruit is not materially injured,
the scab being quite superficial. If, however, infection occurs when the
fruit is young, its further growth is checked; the surface becomes more or
less covered with scabs of various sizes, and at a later stage is irregularly
cracked. On the leaves and young shoots the fungus forms minute velvety,
dark-coloured patches, which have an olive-green tint when the spores are
ripe. — liotird of AgririiUiii <• niul Fisheries, Leaflet Ao. 131.

The apple scab fungus has two stages — a summer, or parasitic stage, and
a winter, or saprophytic stage. The summer stage infests the leaves, flowers
and fruit : the winter .stage lives in the dead leaves of the apple which fall
off in autumn. The winter stage develops from the summer stage in the
leaves, after they fall off in autumn. The winter stage produces the spores
that cause the infection of the flowers, leaves and fruit in spring.

74

15?"^

Remedies.

To destroy the fungus, destroy the fallen leaves in the fall or winter.
To prevent the fungus attacking the apple in spring, .spray with a pn^iierly
prepared Bordeaux mixture.

The above experiments .sprayed twice at the proper time, or just before the
flower-buds opened and just after the petals fall, clearly indicate the value
of the Bordeaux mixture as a preventive of the scab disease. It is also
evident that two apiilications of the mixture, when properly prepared and

75

used at the proper time, will, to a large degree, prevent the ravages of the
fungus. From past exijerience it is thought doubtful that a third applica-
tion does sufficient good to make it worth trying. The only spray to be
recommended at this writing is a properly prepared Bordeaux mixture of
G-4-50 formula. Further experiments nia.v show tliat a weaker Bordeaux
can be used with good results — that point has not .vet been determined. —
Washiiiffton E.riJeriiiienial Stalion Bulletin Xo. (?},

Bl.\ckspot Canker.

( Mncroiilioniri rurrispora, C. II. Peck; GJoeof:poriinn nialicorticis,

A. B. CORDLEY. )

Ciimmon yamc of llir Disease.

Blackspot canker is known under a number of different names. Canker,
Black canker, Blackspot Apple canker, Blackspot, Dead spot Apple tree
Antliracnose and Sour Saj) disease, are several of the names applied to it.
Tliere are several somewhat similar di.seases of the apple throughout the
Inited States. Among these are the New York Apple tree canker and the
Illinois Apple tree canker. The term canker is a general one that includes
nearly all the diseases involving the bark of trees. In order to retain
luiiforniity of names and to retain the name which so accurately describes the
canker, the author has chosen to use the common name of Blackspot canker.
Occurring on ioth Fruit and Bark.

Parasitic in the bark and sapwood of the trunk and the branches and on
the stored fruit of the cultivated apple.

//( tlic Burl-. — Infested areas depressed, dark brown to blackish, oblong
in outline one-fourth to six inches in length or longer; sometimes merging
together when fully grown, free from the sapwood and bounded by a ragged
fissure.

On the Fruit. — Decaying spots light to dark brown, concave, dry and
leathery; acervuU numerous, usually larger than those in Tjark. usually con-
centrically arranged.

Cau.te of the Disease.

Xumerons theories have been offered in explanation for the occurrence
of the disease. >«'early all these theories have been abandoned. One which
has been recently promulgated is the sour sap theory. This holds that the
trees have been feeding on an excess of nitrates : that nitrates collect in the
bark of the tree ; that fermentation takes place and puts the bark in such a
condition that the fungus is able to penetrate it. Such a theory is easily
refuted by testing the bark for nitrates. Such tests have been made of
infested bark in all stages and of healthy bark, and in neither case have
nitrates been found.

It has been known and definitely proven for a period of several years
that the canker is caused by a parasitic fungus. According to Miuto (1),
Pierce as early as June, 1895, grew the fungus from diseased bark collected
at OlymiJia, Washington, inoculated healthy trees in the Sacramento Valley,

76

California, with the fungus antl ubtniued the typieal canliers. During tlio
winter of 1900. D. A. BroJie produced the disease ou apple twigs placed in
water in the laboratory by iuoculatiug them with bits of diseased bark
collected in the field. Cordley (2) germinated the spores of the fungus in
artificial cultures. Later, when the uiycelium was developed far enough to
be seen b.v the naked eye. the fungus was transferred to tube cultures. Later
inoculations were made in apple twigs with the fungus. The fungus attaelied
the bark and caused small cankers, showing definitely that the fungus is
the cause of the disease. Prof. C. V. Pijoer has done considerable worlc ou
the fungus and lias reached similar results. All of the above worli lias been
successfull.v duplicated by the writer and some additional work has been done
(in the life history of the fungus.

Insects Associated ivitli Blncksiiot Ctniker.

In some localities where this disease exists, two kinds of insects worlc in
or near the wounds caused by the fungus. One or both may sometimes be
found in the same orchard.

The Bronze Apple-tree Wccril (Magdalis cenesccns. Lev.). — The adult
females are small bronze or nearly black beetles with long beaks. Abnut the
time the cankers are mature in size these beetles eat Iioles in the bark near
the margins of the canlcers. A single egg is dejiosited in each hole. A few
to several hundred of these eggs may be deposited around a single canker.
The work of the beetle and of the larvte retard or prevent the growth of a
callus.

The Woollii Apliis iSehi::on( iini hiniurra, Hausmann). — After the cankers
are surrounded by a fissure split down the centre, or the diseased bark has
fallen out. the woolly aphis finds its way into the wound. The aphides multi-
jiiy raiiidly and soon involve the entire callular tissues. The action of these
inserts on the tissues cau.ses them to become abnormal, forming a thick knotty
callus which does not grow enough to close the wound.
General Description.

The time that new cankers make their appearance during a single season
varies considerably with the seasons. Vary rarely new ones .start during
July and August. Their apiiearance at this time is exceptional and occurs
only when weather conditions are favourable. They are few in numbers and
never developed enough to be of economic importance. Tlie first cankers that
appear in the fall are usually found about the first week of November on the
tender twigs of one and two years' growth. Others appear on the trunlc and
large limbs later in the season. The cankers that do the damage appear from
early in November to early in Februar.y. The greater number appear during
late Xoveniber and early December.

■\\'hen the young cankers have developed enough to be seen Iiy the naked
e.ve the.v are round, somewhat sunken and dark coloured — a colour character-
i.stie of the infested areas. The canker increa.ses ver.v slowly in diameter,
but the fungus penetrates through the bark into the sapwood beneath.
Having entered the cambium or growing layer between the bark and the sap-
wood la.vers it grows rapidly and soon involves a considerable area of it — often
many times larger than the outer portion of the canker. With the return of

I i

the STOwiug season of the host tlie eaiikers Incrense rapiiUy and are fully
grown by the last of June, or a little later. When mature the fungus has
involved the overlying epidermis, so tliat the outer iiortion of the canker is
aliout the same size as the area of infested cambium beneath.

At first the cankers are circular, but later they become oblong in outline
and nearly black in colnur. When the cankers are mature in size the bark
becomes dry and brittle and the dead tissues separate from tlie surrounding
living (incs. leaving a marked fissure. Beyond this fissure tlu' fungus never
spreads.

'riic mature c;iiikcrs measure one-fourth of an inch to si.x inches or more
in ]<MigtIi by (ine-fimrtli bi live cir more inches in width. A'cry often they
appear te lie of nmch l.irgci' ilinicnsiuns. but. as a rule, the larger ones are the
result of twci or ninre i-ankers merging together.

After the cankers are full grown the rest of the life of the fungus is
spent in maturing the spores. The first indication of the formation of spores
is a slight roughening of the epidermis at the centre of the canker, caused by
the developing pustules. Later, other pustules appear nearer the margin, so
that there are, near the close of the season, spores in all stages in a single
canker. When the pustules are mature thi' over-lying epidermis has
ruptured, exjiosing a creamy white mass wliich later becomes black. Tills
mass is ccimpMsed of hundreds of spores and a substance soluble in water.
As file older pustules (j|ien first, spores are discharged from a single canker
for a considerable period of time. The bark remains on the tree for a time
and then dro]is out. leaving a scar.

Remedies.

I'liltiiiii nut tlic ('(iiilcr.t. — Ucmoving the cankered bark is .an expensive
and laborious method. It is iiossible to keep the disease in check on small
.young trees, when little di.sea.sed, b.v keeping all the cankers cut out. When
the trees are large and have hundreds of I'ankers on them, with new ones
appearing from November to February, it is impossible to keep the disease in
check by such a method. In some cases the fungus matures spores in the
sa|iwood even after the infested bark has been removed.

1 >oubl<' strength Bordcau.x |a-oves to lie a valualile iprcventive when
applii'd liel'ore the fungus attacks the trees in autunm. — WttxIiiiiiiUni Ij.ipai-
iiiriildl Stiitidii. BuUetin X<i. Hi!.

Appi.i; akd I'e.\k t'.\NCER (Xcetariti ilitis.siiiut.)

<)I<1 canker-eaten trees which are. commercially, absolutely useless, are
frecpiently left quite neglected from .vear to .vear. These only .serve as
nurseries for the .sjiread of the disease for miles around, as the minute spores
of this fungus can easily be blown for long distances b.v the wind. One of the
nniin reasons for this ajiiiarent ajiath.v is that man.v fruit-growers look ui)on
canker as caused through some special physical condition of the soil, and not
-as the result of attack liy a par.asitic fungus. Thus the.v consider that pre-
ventive measures are quite beyond their control, and they do not rank this
iiffection as a contagious disease .and one that b.v the employment of certain
methods can be kept well in check.

78

Cause of Canker.

True apple canker is caused through the infection of the tree by a parasite
fungus Imown as the canlier fungus (Nectaria dUissiiiia). The spores of this
fungus gain admission into the tissues of the tree through wounds which are
always to be found on fruit trees. Heuce the fungus belongs to that group of
fungi which are often teruaed wound-parasites. Trees may have also what
may be called " false canker," where the effects resemble those of true canker,
but in them the nectaria fungus is not to be found. The cause of this " false
canlcer " has been attributed to bacteria, and the researches of Byrzezinski
seem to point to this conclusion.

Prevention and Remedies.

When young trees are attacked all affected branches should be carefully
cut off below the point of infection and burnt. The exposed cut should then
be protected with a coating of ordinary gas-tar. When thick branches are
diseased the affected parts may be cut out and the cuts treated with tar.

It is most important never to use scions from a tree that is or has been
diseased ; through the neglect of this precaution thousands of young stock
have been ruined. Where trees have been neglected and are badly diseased
they should be cut down and burnt.

Healthy and disea.sed trees should not be pruned with the same knife, as
spores are often carried from tree to tree during pruning, and the newly-cut
surfaces offer an admirable starting place for fresh infection. The tools
should be sterilised after pruning an infected tree.

Spraying is of very little use in destroying this disease; still, lime-and-
sulphur mixture seems to lessen its ravages considerably. Proper cultural
methods, and the keeping of the trees in a vigorous state, will generally prove
successful in warding ol'f this disease. — ycic Zcahnid Bulletin No. 10.

GUMMOSIS

Is the name given to a disease which attacks stone fruits, especially
sweet cherries. Its nature is not well understood, and is described in
Michigan Bulletin 25, as follows : —

The flow of gum from branches of plum, peach, cherry, almond, etc., has
in some cases been attributed to the prasence in the tissues of a parasitic
fungus. Thus Massee described a ^'iiiiniinsis of the tloweriug almond due to
the attacks of CJadosporium ( iiiiilnillinn, and a similar trouble on the same
plant has been noted by the writer under the head of Brown Rot of Plum
{Selcrotinia friictitK ii<i i.

Clado.iijorium ciiiiilij/llinn has also been found causing gummosis on the
purple-leaved variety of the Myrobalan plum, growu for oniament at the
Agricultural College, while the same disease on cultivated plums has been
found to be associated with a species of Cladosoporium. In many cases the
trouble probably begins in some crack or wound which allows the fungous
parasite to gain an entrance. The presence of the mycelium induces a flow
of sap which exudes and hardens, forming tear-like drops, sometimes of
considerable size. This gum is partly utilised by the fungus in tlie production
of more sjiores. The piirtion of branch beyond the affected spot may in some-

79

oases be killed or permanently weakened. In such cases the branch should be
cut off below the diseased area and burned. The use of fungicides will serve
to reduce the tendency towards gumming.

Boring insects of the peach, plum and cherry may also cause a flow of
gum from the wound made in entering, and these wounds probably often serve
to allow the entrance of fungi, heuce the desirability of combating the insect
enemies of these trees. — Michigan Bulletin Xo. 25.

FiBE Blight (Bacillus amylovorus, Burrill. )

That species of blight which i.*! sometimes called " fire blight '' frequently
destroys trees in the fullest apparent vigour and health, in a few hours turn-
ing the leaves suddenly brown, as if they had passed through a hot flame, and
causing a morbid matter to exude from the pores of the bark of a black
ferruginous appearance; this happens throughout the whole course of the
warm season.

tiiimptoms.

The first indication of fire blight is .seen either in the browning and sub-
sequent blackening of the leaves, or of the young twigs, or of the tender
shoots. When the twigs or shoots are the principal parts affected the disease
is spoken of as twig blight. Pears show the presence of the di-sease more
frequently by the blighting and blackening of the leafy tufts of the spurs, and
show 'it especially by the darkening of the blossom clusters on the
larger clusters, while later the branches themselves become blackened.
The progress of the disease is always downward, an Inch or more each da.v,
depending upon the season, until the larger branches are infected. In the
more susceptible varieties it spreads more quickly, involving the whole tree ;
but in the more resistant varieties the progress of the disease is not so fast.
When the disease is active the bark of the diseased branches cracks, and a
thick, blackish, gummy fluid exudes, and later the infected bark becomes
hardened, dry and shrunken. The disease occasionally appears on the larger
branches and trunks of fruit trees when these have been bruised or otherwise
injured, when it appearance is similar to the injury known as " sunburn " or
•• sun-scald." This disease of the trunks or larker branches is sometimes
spoken of as " body blight " or " rough bark." The inner bark and cambium
layer of the limbs and trunk are the most important parts of the tree killed
by the blight. lu.stances are known of its attacking the fruit, producing
watery ulcers accompanied by brown discolouration and decay. The disease
may be known by its peculiar odour, said by some writers to resemble
IHitrefactiou.

Wheu the disease is in progress, the discoloured blighted portion blends
gradually into the colour of the normal bark, but when the disease has stopped
there is a sharp line of demarcation between the diseased and healthy
portions. — (^yaitc.)

Conditions Affcvting the Spread of the Disease.

Fire blight differs in severity in different localities, and there are a
number of conditions which affect the character and progress of the disease.

Every tree of the pome family is subject to the blight, but pears and
quinces are more suscejitible than plums and apples. The mountain ash,

80

service berry and hiiwtlMirn are freijueutly diseaseil. lint nut to sucU an extent
as the first-named trees. There is a difference in the susceptibility of varieties.
Thus, among pears, Clapp's Favourite, Flemisli Beauty, and Bartlett are more
liable to the disease than Keiffer and Duchess, and amongst ajiples. the Crab
varieties are the least resistant.

Climatic conditions influence the disease : warm, moist weather with
much rain favour it, whilst bright, dry, sunny weather tends to check it.

High cultivation, rich soil, heavy manurin.i;. free use of fertilisers, heavy
pruning, or any other treatment which has a tendency to induce new and
succulent growth, favours the disease, as the bacteria grow with far greater
rapidity and penetrate more quickly from cell to cell when the tissues are
gorged with sap. Insects are more partial to young succulent shoots and
leaves, and the bites and punctures of such Insects whose mouth parts may be
contaminated with pear blight germs often serve to infect the tree.

It is thus manifest that healthy, thrifty, vigorous, well fed and well
cultivated trees urc more Uahir to Ihc rlisrnxc than others, and hence the
severity of an attack of fire blight may be lessened by conditions which .-ire
under the control of the grower.

Trciitmcnt.

The treatment of fire blight is of two kinds — that which is designed !(•
put the tree in a condition to withstand the attack of the blight microbe, and
these methods which aim at the extermination of the casual bacterium.
■Unfortunately, all methods which are used for hindering the attack of the
microbe consist of restraining the full development <if the tree, and hence any
such system of procedure should not be followed unless an orchard is ^ery
badly atacked.

High cultivation, with jiruning and the other conditions alread.v mentioned
as predisposing trees to blight, should be avoided, but the trees should be
allowed to ripen the wood, and in order to do this the fruit-grower must use
any method which will check the amoimt of moisture in the soil — for instance,
by the growth of a clover crop.

The fire blight organism cannot be exterminated by spra.ving. as tlie
microbe lives in the tissues beneath the outer bark, and it is impossible to
reach it with any spraying solution, for. unless the bacteria come into contact
with the germicide, spraying is ineffectual.

There is. therefore, but one remed.v, to cut out and Inu'n the affected
parts of the tree. It is ver.v necessary when cutting out a diseased branch
or twig to cut well below the discoloured portion, as the bacteria are in most
cases far below the discoloured portion, the discolouration not being produced
immediately upon the appearance of a few bacteria, so that if only the dis-
coloui'ed portion were cut off numbers of bacteria would still bi' left in the
stump, and these would continue to nuiltipl.v. and the disease would soon be
evident again.

Cutting of affected jiarts may be dune at any time in the winter and
spring, but it is not advisable to cut in the growing season, as fresh cases may
be constantly occurring, and these, owing to lack of sufficient development,
would nut be seen.

81

The best time for cutting out affected branches is towards the fall, or
when the trees have stopped forming new wood, wlien most of the blight has
developed, and when the contrast between the discoloured leaves and branches
and healthy tissues is easily seen.

Trees should be carefully inspected for blight during the winter and in
spring before the blossoms come out, in order to destroy any affected parts
that may have been missed at previous inspection.

All trees of the pome family in the vicinity should be examined as well,
as these, if blighted, may serve to re-infect an orchard which has been care-
fully treated.

In cases where the bark of the trunk is affected, it can be cut out and
the wound covered with a lead or oil paint. The cut surface of the branches
over one-half inch in dianu'ter should also be painted.— F. ('. 11 unison.
Oiitaiio Bulletin, yo. ISiS.

When a tree blights, remove and burn at once, outside the orchard, every
trace of diseased wood. 8aw off the smaller branches about a foot below the
least sign of disease, and dig out the spots on the trunk and larger limbs,
cutting deep enough to remove all discolouration. The knife and saw used in
pruning should always be disinfected with carbolic acid before leaving each
tree, to avoid infecting the freshly-cut healthy wood of the next tree. The
exposed surfaces should be at once painted to exclude germs that may be
lloating in the air. — Oregon Hull. 27.

Leaf Blight of Pears (Entoino.sporiuiii inuculatUDi, Lev.).

The fungus causing this disease attacks the leaves and fruit of tbe pear
and (luince. On the leaves it produces small rounded spots of a brownish-red
colour. On the fruit the .spots soon lose their reddish colour, becoming much
darker, while the surface sometimes becomes cracked in severe cases as with
the scab. In the centre of the diseased spots small pimples may be seen, due
to the formation of spores beneath the epidermis. Later these cracks open,
allowing the spores to escape.

The spores themselves are very peculiar, each being composed of two
large and several small cells, united and possessing .several bristle-like
processes giving them an appearance suggesting some kind of an insect. It is
sometimes especially bad on nursery stock in the row.

It is quite readily controlled by the Bordeaux mixture, about three appli-
cations .serving to keep the foliage and fruit free from the disease. — Michigan
Bullet in Xo. 2o.

The Shot-hole fungus {Cyllnrlivsporiuin piuli. K.I iienetrates the entire
leaf, but congregates in spots to produce spores. Here the tissue dies, becomes
brittle and soon breaks away, riddling the leaves, whic-li turn yellow and fall
lircm.-iturely.

UenieOii.
Spray with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal copper carbonate about
June 1st, and every three weeks thereafter, if the disease is huA.— Oregon
Bulletin Xo. 27.

82

It GTS.

Til the iiiiiuitintcil ;ill " Itots " arc pretty niucli the saint', but a niomenfs
reflection will show that if a remedy or jireventive is to be fortlicoming. the
disease must be proi)erly diagufised. The following •' Rots " affect fruit : —

1. Bitter rot or Ripe rot. due to a fun,2;us scientilically named Glwosiinr-
iiim fructigcnum. Berk. This produces a soft brown rot, and the fungus is
readily determined under the microscope.

2. Brown njt. which attacks a great variety of fruits besides the apple,
is cau.sed by a fungus wlii<-h produc'cs its spores in chains, and hence called
Moniiia frKftii/riiti. I'ers.

3. Mouldy core, whii-h begins at the core of certain varieties of apples
and spreads outwards until the entire a[iple lnH'onics rotten and worthless, is
caused by the same fun.gus as the disease. It is simply a case of
infection starting from the centre instead of from the circumference, and is
naturally prevalent in those apples which have a jiassage at the blossom end
leading to the core.

4. " llouldy Rot " gives a mouldy ta.ste to the apple, and is due to a
fungus wlilch is very connnon indeed, the "Blue-green Mould" or PeiiiriUiiuii
glauciiiii. Link. I have called it the "Blue-green Mould" because there is a
so-called "Blue Mouhl ' ou tobacco which Is quite distinct from this one.

The Pciiicilliinii is everywhere present, and is moi'e generally regarded as
attacking decaying or decayed fruit, than as being itself the cause of decay. —
Virtiiiiii. AiiatraUa. JiiiUctin ^'o. -Ul.

Bitter Rot (Gloiiiciilld nifo-iiiuviiUnns: Berk.).

The diseased si)ots are usually a quarter to a half-inch in diameter before
the fruit-grower ordinaril.v notices them, but they first appear as very small,
yellowish-brown, sometimes watery, specks, frequently bordered with a ring
of puri)le-red. The jiurplish margin is especially ])rominent on spots that are
retarded by cool weather, and many late infectious appear only as red or
purplish specks, never developing farther on account of adverse conditions.
On the other hand, the puri^lish colouration is likely to be entirely absent from
a spot that is develoinug rapidly under favourable conditions. As the spot
enlarges and grows older it becomes dark-brown in the centre, shading off into
.■1 light, watery margin. It is circular in outline, with a well-detini'd margin.
.■ni<l sniiu becomes sunken.

When the .sjiots are about one-half inch in diameter, fruiting pustules begin
to appe.ar in the form of small black dots, slightly rai.sed and usually arranged
in concentric rings. These pustules soon break through the skin, discharging
pink, sticky spore masses, which are readily washed off by dews and rains. As
the disease progresses, other rings of pustules appear and give forth spores in
great abundance. When the pink spore masses are washed away the pustules
aijpear as black, ragged openings through the skin of the apple. Au apiile
may have only one diseased spot, but in a serious outbreak there are usually
several, and it is not uncommon to see a fruit literally peppered with points
of infection. During the past season the writer counted 1,200 ou a single
apple. an<l estimated i.OOO on each of several others. When so numerous.

83

these splits are at first raised, aiipeariiis as small lirdwn lillsti-rs un the skin
of the apide. and are freiiuentl.v su arranged as to snggest that the points of
infection had followed drops of water trickling down the sides of the apple,
tlic specks being distribnted evenly over the nii|ier or stem end. from which
tlic specked areas extend in strips toward the i-il.vx end.

When a nnmlier of sjiots aiipcar on a single apple tliey soon coalesce, and
three or four gaining the ascendency, envelop tlie others and retain their
lirciilar shape, each producing its rings of fruiting pustules. Finally, the
entire fruit is converted into a (hirk-browu sbrivelle<l and wrinkled innnnny.
wliic'li may hang on the tree a year or more. However, the nj.-ijority of the
affected fruits fall to the gr(.nnd before they are half roltcu, .-lud their
decomposition is hastened by scavenger insects and <lecay fungi.

IltfliK llrillfl Cu)ldUii>llx.

Weather.— 'n\e ijredonnnating (•onditi..iis that inliuence the development
of bitter-rot are temperatun- and hnmidity. A lew r.-iys of hot. showery
weather may start an epidemic that will destroy the entire cro]) of certain
varieties, provided the fungus is jiresent.

Miiistiin:. — Moisture is not only necessary for the germination of tlie
spores, but it f.avonrs tlie growth of the fungus and hastens spore prodni-tion.
In a moist atmosiihere the .sjiores are produced mueli more rapidly tlian when
the air is dry. Moreover, rain is .-in active agent in the siircad of the disease,
splashing the S|iores from an inleeted a|i|ile
Heavy dews, folbjwed by hot iloudy d.iys with
to ni.ike ideal conditions for the rapid dcvi>lo]ini

roiirliisidii.s (I ml i;,'rniinii<i,ihilh,iis.

Sunnnarising the results obtained, and c(jiisidering the f.-c-t tli.it the experi-
ments were made during a season muisnally favourable to bitter-rot. the
following conclusions may be drawn : —

1. Bitter-rot can be completely controlled by pro]ier a|iplii at ions of Hor-
deaux mixture, 9.3.3 to 9S.9 per cent, of sound fruit having been sa\ed by sueh
treatment in these experiments, while the checks rotted eoni|iletely.

2. Four ap)ilic'ations. when maile jvist at the right time, are stiltieient to
control the disease satisfactorily, but in order to be sure of c'overing the
infection periods one or two additi(jnal ajJlilicat ions may be necess.ary.

3. The applications should be made .at intervals of two weeks, begiiniing
about six weeks after the trees blooni.

4. It is necess.-iry to sjir.ay the trees thoroughly, co.-iting the fruit on all
sides witli fine mist-like apiJlications.

7\. Other diseases, such as scab, leaf-spot and s.ioty-lilolch, may be con-
trolled in connection with the treatment of bitter-rot.

For the treatment of bitter-rot alone, spray (lie trees thoroughly with
Kordeaiix mixture at intervals of two weeks until five applications have been
m.adc. beginning not later than forty days after the petals liave fallen.

For the c-onibined tfeatment cif apple scab .-ind bitter-rot. s]iray tlie trees
thoroiiu'hly with liordcaux mixture: (It .Just betore they bloom, but after
the c-lnster buds have opened and exposed the tlower buds: ( 'J I As soon as

. ad.ia<-ent

he.-iltby

fruits.

lnimid ;iti

nosplua-e.

appi'ar

1 of this d

isease.

S4

the petals fall; (3) A week or tea days later; and (-t) About forty to fifty
days after the shedding of the petals, and at intervals of two weeks thereafter,
until, in all, seven or eight applications have been made.

It is true, of course, that the number of applications required and the
dates on which they should be made depend to a considerable extent upon the
season, but the treatment should alwa.vs begin before the infection period,
which may occur as early as forty to fifty days after the fruit has set.

In a dry or cool season the intervals between the later sprayings may
be lengthened, thus reducing the number of applications required, provided
the fruit is first thoroughly coated, which will necessitate at least two appli-
cations.

On the other hand, in a hot. Iiuniid season it will jirobably be necessary
to shorten the intervals and increa.se the total number of applications.

Should, for any reason, the treatment be delayed until after it is discov-
ered that infection has taken place, the trees should be thoroughly .sprayed
twice in rapid succession with an interval of only a few days, in order to coat
the fruit thoroughly as quickly as possible. With one application alone it
is difiieult to coat the fruits suiflciently to protect against bitter-rot, and the
second application, which adheres better than the first, on account of the
presence of the previous coating, and also reaches parts of the fruit not
touched before, is necessary for thorough protection. — U. S. Bulletin. Xo. 03.

Brown Rot (Monilia fmctigcna)

Affects all kinds of stone fruits. Warm, moist weather at the time the
fruit is about full-grown, will almost certainly develop the disease to a very
large extent in districts subject to its attacks, when measures of a preventive
nature have been neglected, and cause the lo.ss of a large portion of the crop.

The ash-coloured velvety coating, or mould, seen on plums infected with
the disease, shows the final or fruiting stage of development. If examined
with the pocket lens, this mould will be seen to consist of numerous tufts of
mimjte thread-like projections, and if further examined under a compound
microscope, it will be seen that each of these " minute threads " is composed
of a number of small oval bodies, joined end to end. like a string of beads.
These bead-like bodies are the spores of the fungus, and each infected fruit is
capable of producing them in thousands.

These spores may remain unchanged for a great length of time. or. on the
other hand, they may, when conditions are favourable, germinate and grow so
rapidly that infected fruit soon becomes capable of producing fresh crops of
siiores. Through the agency of winds, insects, etc., spores are distributed
widely, and when one of them lodges on a fruit suflieiently soft, and when
moisture is present, it starts the di.sease again, sending out a germinating tube
which penetrates the skin of the fruit; here it grows rapidly, branching
through the pulp in all directions, forming a dense mass of m.vcelium, which
absorbs the contents of the cells of the fruit, disorganising the tissues and
causing the so-called " brown-rot."

Infected fruit first turns brown in spots, which gradually enlarge, until
tlie whole fruit becomes brown and rotten, and in its turn becomes covered
with fruiting .spores.

85

The mycelium or pliint body of tbe fungus renuiins dormant during the
winter in the dried or mummied i)lums which are left on the trees infected
with the disease, or on the ground beneath them, and when warm weather
comes the following season will produce an abundant crop of spores to start
infection afresh.

In dealing with this disease, it will be easily seen that the most successful
treatment will necessarily be of a preyentive nature. It is usually first
noticed in the season on cherries, especially on soft varieties which burst their
skins after a rainstorm, such as the Governor Wood, and, undoubtedly, infected
fruits which are left to dry up on these trees are a fertile source of infection
to plums later in the season. Great care should be taken to gather and burn
these, and also the first infected mouldy fruit noticed on plum trees. In
orchards which have been infected this season, the first thing to be done is
to pick off, as soon as possible in the fall, all dried up or mummied fruit which
may have been left on the trees, then with a fine-toothed garden rake gather
together all fruit that may have fallen on the ground, together with fallen
leaves and trash, and burn up all these sources of infection ; after whicli the
trees should be thoroughly sprayed with Bordeaux mixture of double strength,
viz. : S pounds sulphate of copper, 8 pounds lime, and 50 gallons of water ;
the ground beneath the trees should also be well sprayed with the mixture.
This should be followed by a thorough spraying with No. 1 Mixture (lime,
salt and sulphur spray), during the dormant season, both of the trees and of
the ground beneath them.

In the spring, the spraying of the trees with Bordeaux mixture of the
ordinary strength should be commenced as soon as growth starts, and at least
two sprayings given after the blossoms have fallen.

If there is reason to expect an attack of the disease after the fruit has
attained its size and before ripening, Spray No. 10 — the Carbonate of Copper
Spray— should be carefully used, as at this stage the fruit is particularly liable
to be infected. Cherry trees should be carefully sprayed with double strength
Bordeaux mixture as recommended for plum trees, while the trees are dor-
mant, and in the spring the trees should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture
of ordinary strength when growth commences, and again after the fruit has
formed.

In Oregon, it is stated by rrofcssor Cordley. "that now the disease is well-
established, any prune or cherry grower who fails to employ preventive
measures against brown rot deliberately takes the chance of lo.sing a large
proportion of his crop, even though such loss may occur every year," and this
statement applies with the same force in Lower British Columbia.

In selecting and packing fruit for market too much care cannot be exer-
cised to exclude not only infected fruit, but all that which has been in contact
with it, and it has been amply demonstrated that this season almost the entire
crop of some badly infected orchards was unfit for shipment. A good deal of
the loss experienced this year was due to the development of the disease
in the packages en route to market, the temperature inside cars filled with
fruit being high enough, and sufficient moisture present to furnish favourable
conditions for the spread of the rot to a large portion of the shipment.

SG

Peach Leaf Cuel (Ejuaxriis ihiuDnans).

This disease attacks various stone fruits, but especially the peach. The
peculiar curl or blistered appearance which the young leaves of peacli trees
frequently present in spring is caused by a microscope fungus which attacks
their tissues. The blisters sometimes extend across a leaf, sometimes along it.

Tlie entire leaf may be so puckered up as to be unrecognisable, or only a
portion may Ije attacked. The foliage becomes leathery, the blisters assuming
various colours, from the normal green to red. purple, or white, or combina-
tions of these. The foliage generally falls off, and another crop is thrown out :
thus the tree is exhausted, and the yield of fruit greatly lessened and deterio-
rated, or in severe attacks completely lost, because it usually falls a few weeks
after setting. The attacks are worst in damp, draught.v situations and in
changeable weather. The disease lives through the winter on the buds and in
the wood; thus scions and buds from a diseased tree will carr.v the ilisnnler
into localities where it was previously unknown.

I'lcniitioiis iiiid Tirntiiiciit.

Nursery stock is frecpientl.v very l)adly affected; therefore, take care that
the young trees are obtained' from a reliable firm. Be most particular to avoid
scions or buds from any tree that has had the least trace of the disease within
two .vears. Keep a sharp look-out. and directly the disease appears in a peach
orchard give the tree the greatest attention and care. No trouble should be
spared at this stage — "A stitch, in time saves nine." All prunings and fallen
leaves from diseased trees should be raked up and burned, especially in nur-
series. Bordeaux mixture, jiroperly made and applied, will check the disease.
Soon after the leaves have fallen, prune the tree and treat leaves and jirun-
ings as suggested above; then spray the tree with Bordeaux mixture, full
strength. Again, .inst before the buds burst, with a weak solution, and just
after the petals have fallen, with the same strength.— -Vr/r Zaihinil Lidpit.
Xo. 2-',.

Peaili leaf curl occurs during the early part of the .season, and appears to
be caused by a minute internal fungus in the pores of the leaf develo]5ed by
ct)Id weather. As soon as the leaves show any sign of curl, pick every affected
leaf on the tree ami on the ground, and bmn them. Sometimes it will not
appear again. Tlie imly jiernianent remedy h a thrifty growth, imparted b.v
good cultivatiim .ind ijrnning back. When the disease is severe, it destro.vs
most of tlie foli.'ige and impairs and sometimes kills the tree. — Tlioma.f'
Amcrifiin Fruit Ciiltiirist.

Gooseberry Mildew {Siilianitlirid mnis-iiiir. B. and C).

Tile great drawliack to the successful cultivation of the European goose-
berry in Canada has lieen the annual loss occasioned by the prevalence of this
disease. Tlie external appearance of the fungus is well-known, showing on
the .voung woods, leaves and fruit as a whitish, downy coating, usuall.v appear-
ing socin after the leaves have fully expanded, (irow on clay soils.

Treritiiiciit.
Successful results are reported by Prof. (ioff. i,f the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station of Wisconsin, by the use of pdtassium sulphide (liver of .sulphur)

87

at the rate of one (Jiince. dissolved in four sallniis of water. Sprayini,' was
romineueed when the leaves were partly expanded, and repeated seven or
ei-^iht times during the summer.

Without actual exjieriment. it would not be wise tn rei-omniend the nnre-
strirted use of any remedy for this disease, lait frum our present knowledge
of the general etficaey of the animuniacal col. per <-arlionate. it seems safe to
advise a trial, at any rate, of this remedy, in the same i)r(M">rti')ns as tho.se
given for the ajiple or grape, viz. : —

Carbonate of eopper - oz.

Ammonia I'L' pints.

Water -■> gals-

— Central E.rpcriiiiciitiil Farm, lialhliii Xo. JO.

Kosi: ,Miiih;w { Siili<rrotli<i-a jiaaaiixa.).

■\'ery little dcsi'ription is i led of this only too well-known rose affection

which cl(jthcs. with a fclt,\-. whitish mass of interwoven thread.s. the leaves,
twigs and tlower-stalks of r.ises. The treatment is to dust affected plants.witli
Mowers of sulphur mixed with one-third its volume of slaked lime. Spraying
with potassium snlphidt — 1 oz. to J gallons waters-is also e<inally efficacious.
In this, as in all similar <-ases. it canmit be too strongly urged that all the
diseased parts should be cut off and burnt to ])revent the dissemination of the
si>ores. Vigorous treatnient always miiumi.ses disease. — Xcir Zealand Ball..
Xo. .j(l.

I'owniciiv Mii,iu:w.
l'owd<a-y mildew { l'<i<hisiiliiira ti.riiaraiitltn ) occurs .-ill throngh the coast
districts on orchard trees. It usually appears in .spring or early summer,
especially during unfavourable seasons for growth. On nursery stix-k it is
often later in making its appearance. It appears first as small, round whitish
bjntihcs. which soon cnl;irge and r>in together on the leaves and young shoots.
The nnlclcw is composed of a vast nuuiber of minute white threads, branching
in all directions, which form tlie mycelium or "plant body" of the fungus.
Soon after this mycelitim gets well developed it assumes a powdery appear-
ance, due to the production of quantities of minute white spores, which .serve
to .spread tlie disease during the growing season. Towards the end of summer
the mycelium develops small round black masses, just visible to the naked
eye, ami these are the cases which contain the winter spores and carry the
fun.gus through the winter.

7'/(H//»c»?.

In orchards, cutting olf and burning any shoots which show the fungus is
the simplest method of treatnient ; nursery stock may be protected by spraying
with I'.ordeaux mixture, or the carbonate of copper spray, which should be
repeated at intervals of ten days, for three or four sprayings.

Apple Thee MiLiiKw {Siiliirniilnia iiiali. M.vciNcs. ».

The disease known as Apple Tree .Mildew is a close ally of the hop mildew,
.\mcrican gooseberry mildew, and rose mildew. It is very prevalent, and is
one of those pests likely to accompany apple trees to all parts of the world,
as the ni.vcelium is believed to tide over the winter in the bark or between the
bud scales, and thus escape detection.

ss

Prcrcnlirc and lici}icdial Measures.

1. When the disease is present in its worst form, tlie only certain luetliod
of arresting its progress is to cut off and burn all the infected rosettes of leaves.
The cut should be made about two inches behind the tuft of leaves. Trees that
have been treated in this manner throw out healthy branches and remain free
from the disease.

2. When the disease ajipears in a mild form on the scattered leaves the
tree should be sprayed with a solution of potassium sulphide (liver of sulphur).
one ounce dissolved in two gallons of water.

Infection of the leaves only takes place when they are quite young, and
then is the time to look for the mildew. On the first symptoms of its appear-
ance spraying should be commenced. If this opportunity is neglected and the
mildew is allowed a start, spraying may be considered useless.

3. It would, under all circumstances, be advisable to .spray trees where the
disease had previously e.xisted, commencing when the leaf buds are expanding.

4. No definite proof is as yet forthcoming as to whether insects assist in
distributing the spores of the fungus, or aiding in its atack in any other way.
It is, however, quite certain that mildew is most abundant on trees that are
infested with " woolly ajAis " and "green fl.v" ; consequently, these pests
should be dealt with. — Board of Agrleulturc and Fi.slieries of England, Leaflet

2o;.

Appij; Powdery JIildew.

The most serious injury to the seedling, caused b.y this disease, is the loss
of its foliage. To prevent this, and thereby insure good working stocks for
buds, spray the seedlings with the ammoniacal copper carbonate solution, first
when the leaves are about half-grown and thereafter at Intervals of twelve
days. Following this plan, three sprayings will usually be made before
budding, and at least two after this operation, making five in all. It is seldom
that powdery mildew proves serious to budded or grafted stock, except upon
certain particularly susceptible varieties. In such cases, practically the same
line of treatment recommended for the seedlings may be followed. — B. T.
Oalloway, U. S. Cireiilar yo. 10.

Anthkacnose of Raspberry and Blackberry' {Glccsporium vcnetum. Spec.)

The anthraenose of raspberyy and blackberry is a common disease of these
plants and one which is capable of doing much harm. It affects the canes
first, later appearing also on young shoots and leaves. The spots in the earl.v
stages of the disease are purple, but as the disease progresses these spots
acquire a whitish centre and become somewhat sunken. In bad cases the
spots run together, sometimes encircling the cane; at other times they run
along one side, producing large patches of a gra.vish colour. During the
second season the spots tend to dry out, producing cracks in the wood and
scaling of the bark. On the leaves the spots are apt to be small, but numerous,
and follow the general appearance of those on the canes. The effect of this
parasite is to reduce the vigour and size of all parts of the plant. The fruit
often fails to mature properly, but frequently dries up before ripening.

89

Treatmeut should consist of euttiug out the worst diseased canes and
spraying. Beginning in spring, the first application may he the copper
sulphate solution (1 pound in 25 gallons of water) before the leaf buds open.
The second, soon after the foliage is out, with Bordeaux mixture. A third
sjiraying with the Bordeaux should follow the harvesting of the crop. Start
new plantations from healthy canes or from root cuttings in case of red
raspberry and blackberry. — ilichiijan Bulletin, 'Ko. 25.

Irish BLRiirx. or L.^te Blight of Pot.\toes (Plnjlo/ilithora iiifrxtuiis).
Siiiiiiitoms.

The first indication of this disease is to be seen on the leaf in the .shape
of a slight reduction in the intensity of the colouring-matter of the leaf. This
is rapidly followed by the appearance of small brownish blotches, commencing
generally at the edge of the leaf. These spots soon increase in size and the
tissues die, turning dark brown or nearly black. In dry weather these
patches do not increase much, but in humid weather they spread over the
leaves with immense rapidity. After destroying the leaves, the disease
travels down the haulms, and in severe cases the whole of the aerial portion
of the potato plant may within a few hours become a blackish mass of rotten
plant-debris, which emits a characteristic and unpleasant odour. If the under-
surface of the leaves be examined with a pocket-lens, there will generally be
seen around the margin of each spot a more or less distinct border of whitish
mould. looking somewhat as if fine flour had been sprinkled on the leaves.
This white mould is the fruiting portion of the fungus causing the disease,
and as myriads of spores are quickly formed on each leaf, it is easy to
understand how it can be spread so rapidly.

This potato-disease is practically wholly propagated and carried ou from
sea.son to season in the tubers themselves. It is, therefore, of the first
importance that none but perfectly sound potatoes should be used for seed.

The appearance of diseased tubers is very characteristic. Numerous
sunken, dead, brown patches are developed on the surface of the tubers.
These may remain firm and hard for some time, but generally they become
soft, and the whole tuber rapidly rots. This rot is accompanied with a partic-
ularly foetid odour, quite distinct from the rots caused by bacteria, fusarium,
etc. — New Zealand, 13th Report.

Seed potatoes should be stored in a perfectly dry and well-ventilated shed.
They should be examined at intervals, and aiiy tubers showing signs of disease
should be at once destroyed.

The dipping of seed potatoes iu Bordeaux mixture, using the 4-4-40 form-
ula, or, if the skin is well hardened, the G-4-40 formula, is to be recommended.
A large barrel should be used, and the iiotatoes placed in a basket made of
wire-netting, or some such material, and the potatoes totally immersed for a
few minutes, then lay them out in a warm place to dry before storing. It
must be remembered that this dipping kills only the spores and those portions
of the fungus that are on the surface of the potato, and is quite ineffectual in
destroying the part which winters in the tissues of the tubers themselves,

90

should it have nlrpMcly cilitaini'd ailniissiim. It will, thercfure. still he iiiiiHir-
taut to sort out the tubers from time to time, and remove any sho^vi^^' the
least sigu of rot.

The spriiikliiijr of qiiirk-lime amnn;;st the potatoes is a useful measure
and helps to kee]i them dry and healthy.

Wiilc Ciiltiniliitii.

It is iniiiortant nnt to have the niws t -lose t<i;JCether; plenty of spaee

must be left for high ■■ earthing-up." This will enable one to eover the tubers
with a good dei)th of soil and render them mueh less liable to be affected,
even though the foliage may suffer severely. It jirevents the spores from being
carried down by rain ami other agencies on to the tubers.

Miiiiiiiiiiii.

In districts wliere it is the i)ractice to use uumnres. care unist be taken
to employ (ml.y those which are known not to encourage the disea.se.
Numerous experiments carried out in many parts of the world have shown
that crops manured with highly nitrogenous manures, such as nitrate of soda,
blood, etc., contract the disease with great ease ; while, on the other hand,
when they are manured with potash-salts aud phosphates they often escape
the disease to a great extent.

(!<iO(t Drainage.

As has been iiointed out. the Irish disease is .speeiall.y aided to spread b.v
moist surroundings. It therefore follows that good drainage is very essen-
tial, and the addition of large quantities of lime to the soil will render crops
grown on over-moist soils less susceptible to attack.

Si)ia!iiii<j.

The most important method of preventing this disease is b.v means of
thorough and systematic' sjiraying with Bordeaux mixture. — yiir Zralainl

Bulletin. Xo. :;.-}.

Minn to Spiaii.

So much dcjiends uimu the wc.-ither conditions for the development of the
Ijotato blight that no sot time can be given for its appearance. Last .year it
appeared about the 1st of July, and the year before somewhat later. When
it first appears, .small mildewy .spots appear on the under side of the leaves,
then dead, brown six)ts appear. When once started the disease spreads very
rapidly and has been known to spread over an entire lield in one or two days.
Soon the leaves and stems are reduced to a decaying mass which emits a very
disagreeable odour. From this it is plain that as soon as the disease is
developed no time should lie lost in .going to work.

I'ucbiubtcdly the tic'^t jilan would be to spray once quite early, s.-iy about
the middle of .Innc. in order to be .sure of heading off tlie disease. This sh.iuld
be repeated every two weeks to insure success, as a great deal depends on
keeping the jilants safely guarded against the attacks of the ^[loves.— Bulletin
Xo. .'/6', Washiiiyton AgriciiUural College.

91

Early Blight, or Potato Leaf-Curl {MdcnisjKiihiiii sulinin.

This is <':uiseil l),v a fimgiis which attaclis tlie foliage. It first appears*
(in tlie older leaves in the form of small brown or gra.vish-brown spots, which
gradually spread and join, so that soon a considerable area is involved, the
affected parts becoming curled, hard and brittle, while the remainder
frequently assumes an unhealth.v yellowish colour. ()u the apjiearance of the
disease the tubers cea.se to grow. T'sually in about three weeks most of the
leaves are dead ; the stems remain green for some time longer, and then
gradually perish. The tubers, being undeveloped and unripe, turn soft and
will not keep. It has been proved b.v extensive experiments, both in Kurojie
and America, that spraying with Bordeaux mixture will not only prevent or
kfH'p down fungous disease.s. but will so increase the yield as to more than i)ay
the extra expense incurred. Great care must, however, be taken in mixing
and applying fungicides and insecticides.

The Macrosporlinii must not be mistaken for th(^ extremely destructive
"potato-rot," so much dreaded in ohler countries. There is no doubt that it
has been so mistaken, both in England and Anieric-i. and this mistake has
given rise to reports that "potato-rot" { I'lnitdjilitlnjid i}if( stuns] had broken
out in various localities, when it w:is only MdfKisjioi iinii. whicli. serious as it
ma.v be. is not nearly so bad as I'lnilfijihtJniiii.

rrriili/irnt.

As the spores of the potato leaf-curl live through the winter on the deail
haulms and leaves of affected ]ilants, it n.ntnrally follows th,-it to prevent a
recurrence of the disease it is essential to carefully burn all to]is. etc.. that
have in the previous sea.son shown the least signs of infection. This burning
should be done as soon after the potatoes are harvested as possible, as delays
are always dangerous.

I'OTATO BacTERIOSLS (ISdl-HlK.I sold IlllClltnl III).

The tirst si.gn of di.sease is disclosed by the yellow colouration and jirema-
ture wilting of the foliage. Sometimes only a few isolated plants are
attacked, at other times whole rows may become diseased. \t a later stage
the veins of the leaves take on a darker hue than the rest of tlie foliage, which
then rai)idly discolours and dies.

If a di.seased haulm is cut across it will be seen that the wood.v cylinder
sliows a brown discolouration, and the vessels are filled with bacteria, which
gradually ooze out from the cut surface in dirt.v-cobiured drojis. In cases of
severe attack the tubers become affected early and ra]iidly rot.
Prcrciitirc Menus.

It has been definitely proved that this disease is transmitted from field to
field through the agency of leaf-eating insects; in the United States the
Colorado beetle being especially active in spreading this bacterial blight. In
consequence of this, it follows that in districts where bacteriosis is known t<i
exist all leaf-eating insects should lie kept in check. For this purpose the
addition of 4 oz. of I'aris green to every 4(1 gallons of Bordeaux mixture will
be found an excellent check.

92

All affected plants should on the first appearance of the disease be cut
down to the ground, to avoid the affection spreading to the tubers, for it
must be remembered that when once this bacillus has gained an entry into the
tissues of the potato-haulm, spraying would be of no avail. The tops, when
cut off, should, if possible, be burned. — Tslew Zealand Bulletin, No. 25.

ToTATO Scab (Oosporia scabies).
Description.

At the present day Oosporea scahies is one of the most widespread of
diseases affecting the potato. The fungus usually attacks the tubers while
young, forming scattered rough patches or scabs on the surface; these patches
gradually increase in size and number, and not infrequently when the tuber
is full-grown its surface is more or less completely covered with scab.

The injury is confined to the surface of the tuber, the skin being broken
up into fragments over the diseased patches. Although the marlcet value is
much depreciated when scab is present in quantity, the quality of the potato
Is not in the least imiiaired for eating.

Prevention and Remedies.

(1.) If .scabbed potatoes are used for "seed" without having been ster-
ilised, the resulting crop will almost certainly be di.seased, and in addition the
fungus will pass into the soil, where it is capable of living for several years.
Scabbed potatoes may be used for "seed" without the slightest danger of
spreading the disease if they are immersed for two hours in a solution consist-
ing of one pint of commercial formalin (:=formaldehyde, 40 per cent. I mixed
witli thirty-six gallons of water. The potatoes are then spread out to dry.
when they may be cut and planted in the usual manner. Great care must be
taken after potatoes have been treated as above that they are not placed in
sacks or hamj)ers that have contained scabbed potatoes.

(2.) Land that has produced scabbed potatoes is certain to lie infected
with fungus, and should not be planted with potatoes for several years after-
wards ; beet, swedes, carrots, and cabbages are also attacked by the fungus.
Cereals may be sown with safety on infected land.

(3.) In the case of gardens and small allotments, where potatoes are of
necessity grown every year, the trenches in which the potatoes are planted
should be sprinkled with powdered sulphur.

(4.) Lime favours the development of the fungus in tlie soil: the same
is true of stable manure, night-soil, etc. Add manures only should lie applied
to land that is infected.

(5.) Peelings from infected potatoes should not be fed to pigs unless they
have been boiled. Burning is the safest, and in the end the most economical,
method of dealing with them. — Board of .Agriculture and Fisheries, London,
Leaflet No. 137.

What irill prevent Seal) on Potatoes?

There are two more or less standard remedies for the prevention of potato
scab: (1.) Soak uncut seed potatoes in a solution of one ounce of corrosive
sublimate in eight gallons of water: (2.) Soak cut or uncut potatoes in
a solution of one pound of formalin in fifteen gallons of water. These solutions

93

are nlicuit eiinally effeetivp. and onp's fhoiee will (lepend uikhi the ease with
which they can be proeureJ. Formalin has the advaiitafje <if nut beini; a
violent poison like the corrosive sublimate. For that reason. I prefer the ii.se
of formalin. — Prof. John Craif), Cornell Universiti/.

Dry-rot of Pot.\toes { Fiisarin m ujiispfti-mii) .

The disease to which the name •■dry-rot" has been tiiven is caused by
several different fungi, but the one which does the main anmunt of damage is
linown as Fiisarium oxysporum, a fungus very closely allied to the sleepy-
disease fungus of tomatoes. The Fusaritim is fairly prevalent, but is generally
not noticed until a considerable time after the tubers have been stored,
although the disease is contracted while the crop is growing in the field. The
foliage of diseased plants generally wilts, but as this does not occur till the
tubers are nearly full-grown, very little notice is taken.

The disease enters the tubers at the stem end and gradually spreads
through them, following the course of the vascular bundles, and thus shows
up a discoloured ring when cut across. At first sight one is reminded of
potato-bacteriosis, but it can at once be distinguished, owing to the absence of
any watery matter oozing out from the discoloured ring. The tubers gradually
shrink and the skin becomes wrinkled, while the whole interior becomes trans-
formed into a more or less hard, crumbling mass of a gray colour. The fruit-
ing part of the fungus appears on the surface of the tubers as specks of white
mould, on the delicate filaments of which are produced the characteristic
sickle-shaped siiores, which are divided into four by transverse septa. Sound
potatoes can readily contract the disease through coming in contact with
diseased ones. Thus the loss that may be sustained through the storing of
liealth.v and diseased tubers together can easily be imagined.
Trail incut.

As this fungus enters the plant below the ground, .ind may gain access
during any part of the season, it is difficult to cope with ; nevertheless, the
following measures will be found fairly satisfactory : —

1. Onl.y sound tubers should be used for seed. It is equally injportnnt not
to plant potatoes on land where the disease has recently appeared, for this
fungus can live in the soil for a considerable time, probably for several years,
8nch infected land should be used for other crops, such as cereals or grasses.

-. Collect and burn all l)adlj'-diseased tubers and store suspected ones in
a cool, dry place, where the temperature remains about 40 Fahr.

3. If it is found impracticable to store in a cool place, the tubers should be
sold and eaten as soon after harvesting as possible. There is no danger in
eating partly affected potatoes, as boiling kills the fungus; and even if they
were eaten raw the fungus cannot harm human beings, as it cannot grow at
ordinary blood temperature.

4. Nitrogenous manures have been shown to increase the virulence of this
disease, hence they should be avoided as far as possible.

5. Never throw diseased tubers on the manure-heap ; this is one of the
most fruitful sources of the spread of nearly all fungus diseases.

0. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture makes the plants much more healthy
than the.v would otherwise be, and helps them to resist this disease.

94

Wet-rot.

The disease kiiiiwn as '■wet-rut" is often to lie foiina in ilaiiip. iiiuf,'^,v
seasons, and lu land wiiioli is liadly drained. It is now considered to lie
i-ansed li.v bacteria, but wlietlier one or more separate org.-iuisnis are ijrimaril.v
responsilile Lias not as yet been ascertained. Tlie affection apiie.-irs when tlie
tubers are in tin- itronnd. .-uid ((iDniiciic-es as a sdft sjiot un<lcrnc.'itli tlie sliin
of the potatii. 'IMiis extends rajiidly. tlie tissues heiii^' coiiipleteiy destroyed
.•ind tlie whole interior converted into a brown, sliuiy mass, often greatly
distended with various gases. Tubers In which this disease appears often
decay with great rapidit.v, owing to the entrance of various sapro]ihytie fungi
and bacteria which are enabled to gain admission .-is soon as tlie rot has set
in, and thus greatly aid its rapid spread.

(lood diainage is the most important thing to attend to in localities where
tliis •• rot " is iireseut. and vs-herever it is noticed that crops are being attacl;ed
tliey should be at once dug up and all the rotting tuliers carefully burnt.

P.ArTERI.M, I)ISi:.\SE OF T0M.\TOES.

The symptoms are very marked and cannot be confouiu-:ed with those of
any otiier tomato disease at present known. When the tomato is about the
size of a marlile a minute lilackish jiatch first appears at the base of the style.
This iiatch gradually increases in size, retaining a circular outline, until
eventu.-illy the eiitiri' fniit is reduced to a blackish, soft deca.ved mass.

Experiments have shown that infection talies place during the Howeriiig
stage, and that tlie bacteria c.-iusing the disease are deposited on the stigma
by tlies visiting the Howcrs. The stigma appears to be the only vulnerable
part under ordinary conditions: nevertheless, if bjicteria from a diseased fruit
are introduced into the Hesli of .-i healthy tomato at any ]ioint of its surface
by means of the |ioint of .-i very line needle, infection follows. This disease
does iiol appear to be intliieiiced to any extent by the forcing inetln.d of cultiva-
tion coniinonly followed, as it has been observed in .-i house whi'i-e tlie tempera-
ture was kept comparatively low.

When the disease appears all disea.sed fi'iiil should be removed as ijuii^kly
as po.ssible. and not be .•illoweil to ilecay and liberate the bacteria present in
the ti.ssue.s. Inseds slnaild ,ils,, b,. exclmled by using an insecticide. Tills
last act would necessitate artilicial pollination with a caniel-hair brush.—
Lcii/tn \,i. ir,,!, H,iiinl <,/ Aiirii-iilliiic. Eii,il,uiil.

DlSKASE OF THE To.\l.\TO.

.Vnllirac-iiose [I'dlh l<itiiflnim h/copersiri. ('. ) attacks the ri]ieiiii]g tomato
at the jioint where it b.-is begun to colour and spi-e.ids rapidly, causing iniicli
lo.ss before the fruit can be marketed. It ap|ie.irs .-is sunken dis... loured sjiols
with a dark centre; (liese iiicrea.se in size, run to-eihcr. coNcr ,-i large portion
of the decaying fruit and are surrounded by wrinkled, dis.'olonred skin. Spray
the vines and .voiing fruit e.irly in the .reason with i.otassium sulphide.
Si,ii1lirnt. Ill- rirhl liliiilil.

'i'be le.-ives become yellowisli .-ind curled, tin' ends shrivel .■iiid droo|i,
finally l,ec,,ining <lry and black. (J.Mlber and burn all disea.se.l vines and fruit
ni the fall. Change the lomato iKibh to another liel.I for two ,,r three vears
~(hr,/uii UiiUetiii, Xo. ,?r.

95

Onion Rust, ok .Miinicw { l'< idiiiiKiKird .idilciih iiimiti. T'ng.)-
This disease Ims been particularly Ijad in tlie vicinity of Nanaimo. It
MttMclcs the leaves and very soon destroys all the plants in a lied. As soon as
the slightest sign of attack shows the plants should be sprayed repeatedly with
fungicides, such as Bordeaux mixture. This may save the crop, but unless
taken early and persisted in, the chances are against .success. Above all,
ccrt.-iin jirccautions should nut be neglected, such as burning all tops and refuse,
anil since it is said that the spores of some fungous di.seases survive for long
]iciiiids in the ground, the best means of avoiding future trouble is to abandon
(lid union laud and grow the cro]) only uijon fresh soil. Po.ssibly liming the
(inion beds and growing new cri>ps on them would have the effect of eventuall.v
getting rid of the spores. I sliould also recommend the spraying of the soil
(if (lid beds with strong liordcaux mixture before it is dug. You can safely
use a very strong nnxtiirc, as high as twelve pounds of cdpiier sulphate to
eight pounds of lime and ."(i gallons of water, for spraying old beds. The
lirst appearance of this disease in the spring-time results from the presence
of the resting spores, which are produced in the decaying leaves; hence it
natnrall.v follows that innniuiity from this disease depends largely upon the
care that has been bestowed the previous year on the collecting together
and burning of the decayi'd foliage.

8ti!.\wi!|:I!kv Le.vf Blight. Fig. 1S.\.

OG

Blight (SphccrrUu fragariw, Tul.) usually causes its greatest injury
by attaekiug tlie new growth which appears after the fruit is harvested,
the old leaves then contain countless spores which will infect the young
growing foliage. To prevent this, mow the plants with a scythe, rake up
all the leaves, allow them to dry, and then burn carefully. Some recommend
renewing the setting annually and planting in deep, well-drained soil. Spray
with ammoniacal copper carbonate every fortnight, beginning the latter part
of April. Four applications should be sufficient.

Mint Disease (Piicciiila menth(F).

Specimens of a disease which killed off most of the garden mint in
Victoria were submitted to Dr. Fletcher, who reported on it as follows : —

"The trouble with the mint seems to be a species of rust, allied to grain
rust, and known as Puccinia menihrv, the uredo form being present at the
time you plucked the specimens submitted. Curiously enough, I found
associated with this fungus vei-y small red maggots, very much like those of
the common wheat midge, several of these larvie being in the package that
you sent me. I find this or a similar kind of maggot feeding on the spores
of grain rust, and also I have recently found what appears to be the same
thing feeding on the spores of a rust attacking the leaves of the May apjile.
These maggots devour the spores, but I fear can do but little in controlling-
the rust. .\s you know, we are almost helpless in controlling rust, aud I
regret that I am not able to suggest a remedy in your case. Its abundance
on mint with you may be due to meteorological conditions, though it must be
present in more or less abundance every year."

Diseased Ghass (Phj/sarum cincrcum).

A specimen of diseased grass from the lawn of Jlr. .Justice Martin was
submitted to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and the following report
was received from A. F. Woods, Pathologist : —

" The material was so broken before it reached us that only a small
portion of the organism could be observed, which is by no means sufficient
for a specific determination. Similar material from lawns is very frequently
sent us, which, probably without exception, has proved to be Physarum
cinereum. which occurs ver.y commonly on richly maniu'ed ground. Myxomij-
cetes, also called Mycvtozoa, are peculiar organisms possessing both animal
and vegetable characteristics ; hence they have been claimed by both zoolo-
gists and botanists, probably not belonging rightly to either, although their
descriptions are generally included in works of systematic cryptogamic
botany. The life history of the Myxomycctes comprises a motile stage in
which the Plasmodium streams or spreads over a surface of perhaps even
several square feet, and ascending substances, as the blades of grass, are com-
pletely covered with the fruit called sporangia. As far as I know, the
Myxomycetrs, with external sporangia, have never been reported as of any
economical importance. Changes in temperature and humidity, unfavourable
to the si)ecies on grass, may have already cau.sed its disappearance, and it is
doubtful if e.xperiments with fungicides would be profitable."

97

Smut in Grain.
What the hiiiiut is.

Wheat smut is caiisod tiy a small plant wbk-h steals its fncid from tlio
wheat plant. The smut plants are distributed by the fine, black powdery
grains of smut which cling to the seed wheat. Even when the wheat
appears to be clean, they may be present in the grooves in the side of the
grain or in the tuft of hairs at one end. When the farmer plants the wheat
he also plants the smut. As the smutted kernel goes into the ground it
carries with it several grains of smut. After being planted, the wheat grain
grows and brings forth a small plant. So also the smut plant germinates and
sends out a fine thread-like plant so small that it cannot be seen with the
unaided eye. The smut iilant soon produces small threads, which penetrate
into the small wheat plant through its soft and delicate skin. After a few
days, however, at about the time that the wheat unrolls its first leaf, its skin
gets too hard to be penetrated by the smut, so that if the wheat has escaped
thus far it is no longer in any danger from the smut.

If the smut has penetrated the wheat skin during its danger period it
continues to grow in the wheat plant up through the stem. About the tims
that the wheat plant makes its seeds the smut sends its thread into the wheat
kernel. As fast as food is stored up for the young wheat plant, the smut
steals it and replaces it with its smut grains.

In the covered or stinking smut of wheat only the inside of the kernel is
removed by the smut and a shell is left around it, hut in the loose smuts, as
for example the loo.se smut of oats, the whole kernel is destroyed and the
spores are left exposed to be blown about by the wind.

The wheat kernels which have been smutted are broken in handling or
in threshing, and the smut grains are thus scattered on to new wheat, and
are ready for the next year's planting. Very evidently, the only way in which
this disease can be reached and the smut plants killed is by treating the seed
wheat with something whicli will kill the smut grains, but which will not
injure the wheat.

Hard Smut (TiUctia caries). Fig. ISb.

TilUtia nni's (Till) and T. l(rvis (J. Kuchn.)
(a) A "Bunted" griin ot wlit it (6i ^ traverse section of the same; (c) A longi-
tudinal scition ( \I1 enlarged five diameters. I
The diseases of w heat kno« n generally in Korth America under the name
of " Bunt," " Hard Smut," or one of the other designations mentioned above,
«re due to the ravages of two parasitic fungi belonging to the family Tilletia.

98

In a •■ Runted " kernel ol' wheat the whole of the farinaceous contents of the
grain are destroyed by the invading fungus and their place filled by a black
powdery dust — the ripe spores of its reproductive system — sometimes called
the fruit. — BulJctin Xij. 3, Central Experimcntul Farm.

.Smut, ok Loose Smut {Ustilago curho). Fig. ISc.

■• Snuil," or as it is generally called, " Loose Smut," to distinguish it from
'•Bunt" or "Hard Smut." to which it is distinctly related, is very In.iurious
to wheat, barley and especially oats, in many parts of Canada. The scientific
name Ustiluijo is derived from the Latin word ustiis, burnt, and the sijecific
name carho means charcoal. Both names refer to the appearance of the spore
masses when they are produced in the ear. This disease is not of the same
serious nature as hard smut, from the fact that the smutted ears are easily
observed and can, with a little labour, be all removed and destroyed before

I

99

many o( the spoivs are ilissoiiiiiiiiffd, and lii-i-aiise. thcvf- beins no fetid odour
emitted by tlie spores, tiiey du nut .siiuil eitlier tlie erop of wlieat amongst
wliit-li they grow or the tlour made therefrom.

As with bunt so with this loose smut: it is evident tliat the disease
begins at tlie bottom aud works upwards. lu all instances when the spores
appear in the in.iured ears the spawn may be detected in every part from
the root througli the stem to the inflore.seence. In no ease, however, can thi.'>
spawn be found in parts throngli which it is not neces.sary for it to pass iu
order to reach tlie point where the spores are formed ; thus tliey are not
found in the blades of the leaves. This smut is not restricted, like bunt, to
the si'eils alone, but the whole ear is destroyed.— rc»fri/; E.i'iicriiiiriiliil Fiinii
liulUiiii. No. 3.

h'ciiicflics.— Wheat.

l-'or wheat, probably nothing is more effective than the common bluestone
treatment, using one pound of bluestone dissolved in a pail of water for eight
or ten bushels of wheat. The solution should he sprinkled over the seed and
the grain shovelled over several times, to insure that every kernel of grain
is moistened with the solution. It is not always convenient to have boiling
water to dissolve the bluestone. and It will not dissolve in cold \'\-ater unless
it be placed in a sack and su.spended in water, just below the surface, when it
is claimed it will dissolve in a few liours. The amount of blue.stone necessary
to make a barrel of pickle can thus be dissolved readily by suspending it in
an old sack across the top of the barrel, ju.st so that all the bluestone i.s.
submerged under water.

Funiialiii Treatment.

Formalin is a 40 per cent, solution of a gas in water. As obtained at the
drug-store it has the appearance of water, but has a characteristic odour.
It is iioisouous in the strong solution in which it is bought and sold, but not
in the weak solution in which it is used on the grain. About one pound of
formalin is necessary to each 10 or ."lO bushels of .grain to lie treated. One-
should be able to purchase it at the drugstore tor about 4.". to (50 cents per
pound, buying it in pound lots or larger. Mix it witli water at the rate of
one pound of formalin to 60 gallons of water. Make a wooden trough about
the size and st.vle of a watering trough and a little wider than a shovel.
Partly fill this trough with the formalin solution. Pour the wlieat slowly from
the sacks into the trough, so that the grains will separate and the smut balls
and wild oats will float. Skim these off. Let the wheat remain in the trough,
and see that it continues to be covered with the formalin solution for at
least one and a h.-ilf or, better, two hours: at the end of this time, shovel it
out on to a barn floor wliich has been cleaned with boiling water, or shovel it
into a canvas sheet which has been cleaned in the same way and is supported
lietween posts. If the weather be favourable for drying the wheat, it may at
oncfr be put Into the sacks and dried in them. T'se only clean sacks, that Is new
sacks, or those which have been cleaned in boiling water. Soaking Little
t'lub Wheat (which is the softest wheat raised in Eastern Washington) for
one and a lialf to two hours will not apprecialjly soften it. At the end of that
time it can scarcely be dented by the finger nail.

100

Another method of treatment may be used. Put the solution made as
above in a barrel and dip the wheat, a half sackful at a time, leaving the
wheat in the barrel cue and a half or two hours. Except for the time, this
is the same method as is often used for vitriol. By this method, however,
neither the smut balls nor the wild oats will be removed. To get rid of the
wild oats alone is worth very much to the farmer.

Care of Seed after Treatment.

One of the most important points in the whole matter is the care of the
seed after the smut has been removed. If this wheat, which is now clean, is
put into dirty sacks or into anything which is covered with live smut, it will
again become infected and the treatment will be useless. After treating, then
careful disinfecting must be used. The seeder especially is something that
should be looked after carefully. Many a farmer plants away year after
year with a seeder w-hich is full of smut, and then wonders why his wheat
has smut in it. Wash out your seeder thoroughly with boiling w-ater and keep
the smut out of it. Keep your wheat clean and you will have a clean crop ;
let your wheat get dirty with smut, and you will go into the smut-raising
business, one which at present is not profitable for any farmer.
Oat Smut. — Formalin Treatment.

If the desire is to sow fort,y bushels of seed oats or less, secure from your
druggist one pint of formaldeh.yde. Put into a barrel or tank thirty-six
gallons of water and pour in a pint of formaldehyde liquid and stir
thoroughly; next fill a gunny-sack with the seed oats and submerge it in
the solution for ten minutes; then lift the .sack from the barrel and allow it
to drain for a minute or two. in order to save the solution. Empty the oats
on a threshing floor or on some outside platform to dry, and repeat until all
is treated ; shovel the treated grain over at intervals until dry, or nearly
dry, before sowing.

If a lai'ge quantity of seed is to be treated the work will be facilitated
by having several barrels or a large tank which will hold a number of sacks
of oats, so as to treat several bushels every ten minutes. The time saved by
having an abundant supply of the solution in the tank or barrels will more
than repay the extra expense of the formaldehyde purchased. The oats must
always be completely submeryed for ten minutes.

It is well to treat seed grain several days before sowing, in order to give
it ample time to dry, or difficulty may be experienced when sowing with
seeder or drill. If sown while damp, the seeder or drill should be set so that
it will sow about one bushel more per acre than when sowing dry oats.

The formaldehyde solution here recommended is not poisonous to farm
animals and will not injure sacks or clothing coming in contact with it. Oats
treated with formaldehyde solution and not used for seed may be fed to
stock, but when so fed should be mixed with other oats.
Hot Water Treatment.

This consists in soaking the oats for a given time in water of a definite
temperature, 133° F., for ten minutes being usually recommended. This treat-
ment in the 1S97 experiments of the Station at Tramansburg entirely pre-
■«e.uted smut. The method does not seem to gain in popular favour, owing.

101

no doulit, to the prevnlciit idea that it is iliffieult to keep tlie water at tUe
required temperature tlirougbout the treatment. The following directions,
however, will enable anyone to secure excellent results with little trouble and
only ordinai-y care. Near a large kettle in which the water may be heated
a barrel should be sunk in the ground until the top is about a foot above the
surface. A few feet from this barrel set a post with a pole across the top,
to use as a lever in dipping the sacks of oats into the water. When the
temperature of the water in the kettle is above 148° as tested by a good
thermometer, pour part of it into the barrel and add hot or cold water until
the mercury stands at 14S°. About one bushel of oats enclosed in a coarse
gunny-sack is now lowered into the water by means of the lever. The oats
will cool the water and fresh supplies from the kettle should be added until
the temperature is 133°. The sack should be moved constantly to insure
perfect penetration of the water to all of the oats, and should be taken out at
the end of ten minutes. The oats may be dried by shovelling them over upon
a floor three times a day for a few days, and may then be sown as usual;
or they may be sown broadcast within a few hours by cooling them with
water. The soaking swells the oats so that about one-fifth more, by measure,
should be sown. — Experiment Farm Bulletin, Xo. 3.
Barley Smut.

The same method of seed treatment prescribed for oat smut will be found
effective for barley smut, excepting the solution is made by using one pint of
formaldehyde with twenty gallons of water, instead of thirty-six, as recom-
mended for the eradication of oat smut.

The barley hull may be more resistant to the formnldchyde and offers
better protection to the smut spores than the oat hulls, or it may be possible
that the smut spores of the barley are more resistant than the oat smut
spores, consequently, need a stronger solution for their extermination.
A Rot of Stobed Celery.

Celery may be dug in the fall and stored in a cellar to be used during
winter and spring. It is usual to pack it closely, with the roots in soil which
is kept moist. With right conditions of moisture and temperature the celery
keeps well until spring, but if the .soil is wet and the temperature varies, and
especially if the celery freezes and thaws, it will decay. Decay follows close
upon death. The bacteria and moulds are its active agents. They are always
present in the soil in which the celery grows, and in the soil in which the
roots are packed, and there are no practicable means by which they can be
kept away from the plant; neither can they be killed without killing the
plant. It remains then to keep the celery alive and in health so that it can
resist the invasion of the bacteria. A constant temperature, a little above
freezing, keeps the celery alive without growing, and keeps the bacteria in
check, for they also become dormant at low temperatures and increase
slowly, or not at all. If the celery freezes it becomes so much dead matter
without resistance, fit food for bacteria, and, as soon as the temperature
rises, the celery rots.

This was observed in some celery stored in the cellar of the Horticultural
Department of the Ontario Agricultural College during the winter of 1003-4.
The celery tops showed signs of having been frozen, but, as the temperature

102

■coiitiimed low, it reuiain(.'(l souiul within, tlie outer leaves and stalks only
showing signs of decay. While the weather continued cold the celery in the
cellar remained sound, although it developed a sweet taste; but when warm
weather came in early spring, what had uot been consumed, rotted.

By such stud.v we learn that bacteria cause decay, and that decay takes
lilace under conditions in some measures known to us and under our control.
To keep celery well it should be packed with the roots in clean soil. For this
Iiurpose it is best to use the humus, or muck soil, in which the celery is
commonly grown. The soil in which the roots are packed should be kept
moist, but not wet, with good water. The cellar or storage room should be
kept at a uniform low temperature, a little above freezing. Free ventilation
should be iirovided. both as a means of regulating the temperature and for
the health of the plants. It should be remembered, also, that celery kept in
a clo.se. foul atmosphere becomes tainted. — Ontario BiiUctin .Yo. 13ti.

CHAPTER VIII.— APHIDES AND MITES.

Red Spider (Tetranijchus tfJariiis, and Allied Species).

These minute pests of the hop-grower and orchardist all have a similar
life-history and habits, which, however, vary in different climates and locali-
ties. Infested fruit trees or i)lants show their presence by the unhealthy
pale colour of the foliage, as the sap being sucked b.y a multitude of tin.v
mouths the leaves .soon assume a .yellowish cast, with patches of a grayish or
lighter shade.

In the species most commonly found here, the eggs appear as ruby-red
globules as seen under the microscope, and are sometimes found in vast num-
bers on the bark of fruit trees, on hop poles, or under rubbish and clods of
earth at the base. These eggs are difficult to destroy, and two applications
flf the No. 1 spra.v, used as warm as possible, are advised to be made to
infested fruit trees, in the winter or very earl.y spring, before growth starts.
During the summer mouths, a badly infested leaf has its under side eompletel.v
covered witli a den.se web. under wliirh arc <'ggs an<l mites in all stages of
development, and it is difficult to reach the jiests with ordinary spraying.

In California, however, where they are very troublesome pests, the follow-
ing methods are in use in spring and early summer as soon as the eggs are
hatched out. The trees are thoroughly dusted with suli)lnir by means of a
bellows or other appliance, after they have been wetted by a sjirayiug. Some
growers use a .spraying mixture made in this way : Take 20 1T)S. of sulphur,
and mi.x to a paste with cold water in a barrel: then add to this wet sulphur
10 lt)i5. of caustic soda, 98 per cent., when it will boil up like lime slaking:
have ready 20 gallons of water to add to it as it boils, to prevent burning.

103

This forms a stock solution, and wlien ready to spray put 40* gallons of water
in another barrel, and take half a ^'allou of the stoek solution and add to it;
strain, and apply with the spray pump, taking care to wet the under sides of
the leaves.

At Chilliwack, a strong hot solution of whale-oil soap, applied with hand
sprayers, has given good results against the red mite of the hop, but very care-
ful work is required to reach the pests, and it must be done soon after the
mites are hatche<l out.

Remedies. — Various preparations of sulphur and soap have been recom-
mended, used separately or together, mixed with water, and applied to the
bushes with a syringe, riain soap and water, or water alone, freely applied,
is regarded by some as etficient, as the insect is known to thrive best in a dry
atmosphere. In applying any liquid, it is nece.ssary to wet the under side of
the leaves in order to make the application effectual, since, if applied to the
upper surface only, the mites would remain uninjured beneath. — ir. Saunders.
Pear-Leaf Blister Mite (Phytoptus piirl, Nalepa).

A considerable amount of injury is done every year in all parts of Canada,
where the pear is grown, by the operations of the pear-leaf blister mite. The
irregular blotches, about one-eighth of an inch in diameter and frequently

(Fig. m.) The Mite. (Fig. 20.) Work of Miti<.

confluent, caused by these mites, are frequently so abundant on the foliage
as to make it impossible for the leaves to perform their functions. These
blotches, when examined, are found to be hollow blister-like galls with a hole
in the centre through which large numbers of almost invisibly small mites
issue and attack fresh parts of the leaf. Few people recognise this injury as
the work of an insect at first sight. It is nearly always sent in as a fungous

104

disease, but if one of tliese galls is cut open and examined with a strong
magnifying glass, it is easy to detect the white elongated mites with which the
inside is filled. The remedy for this insect enemy is to spray the trees just
before the leaf-buds expand with the lime and sulphur wash. The sulphur is
pi'actically obnoxious to all kinds of mites, and it has been found that this
serious enemy of the pear-gi-ower may be practically exterminated with a
single thorough spraying with the mixture above mentioned. — Fletcher Report,
1906.

TuKNip AND Cabbage Aphis {Aphis hrassicw, L.). Fig. 21.

(Fiu. 21.) Natural size and enlarged. — Fletcher.

Attack. — Clusters of gray plant-lice situated all round the bases of the
stems and beneath the leaves of Swede turnips and all kinds of cabbages, from
which they suck the sap, causing them to become withered and stunted and, in
serious outbreaks, destroying whole crops.' As a rule, these plant-lice are not
noticed until the end of the season ; but in dry autumn.s, or on high lands, they
increase with incredible rapidity and become one of the most destructive
enemies of the turnip grower. The eggs are laid late in autumn upon the
leaves and stems of the plant.s.

The Turnip and Cabbage Aphis is very widespread, occurring in all parts
of the Dominion. In British Columbia it is frequently very destructive to
early cabbages and cauliflowers: but in Eastern Canada the most important
injury is to Swede turnips In fields at the time that they are forming their
roots.

Remedies. — When cabbages in gardens are attacked, the colonies of plant-
lice should be destroyed by spraying with kero.sene emulsioii or whale-oil soap
on their first appearance. In turnip fields the injury is always in autumn, and
the colonies of plant-lice should always be looked for when the turnips are
being hoed and thinned. At this time good work may be done by simply hoeing
out the infested plants and, having ijulled some earth over them with the
hoe, pressing it down with the foot. When the plant-lice are too numerous
for this simple treatment, the infested plants, which at this time are generally
in restricted areas, should be promptly sprayed with a knapsack sprayer, using
kerosene emulsion or whale-oil .soap, one pound in six gallons of water. As
the eggs are laid late in autumn on the leaves of turnips and cabbages,
remnants of these crops should always be ploughed down as soon as the crop
Is got in. Infested cabbages may be dipped in kerosene emulsion before
storing for the winter. — Fletcher.

105

A corresiioiidfiit states that lie has successfully used a solution of salt as
a spray, which ho found effectual in destroying this pest. His method of
prejiaring the spray is to place a quantity of salt in a vessel and fill it with
water, allowing it to stand for 24 hours and then pouring off the water, which
is then ready for use. The water will only take up salt to point of .saturation.
The quassia and whale-oil soap spray, Jvo. 2, has also been found to be effica-
cious iu this Province.

Bean Anns (Aphis ruiiiicis, L.). Fig. 22.

(I'lG- 22.) Natural size and enlari^i'd.
If/oe/i.— Black plant-lice thickly clustered on the tips of horse beans and
liroad beans, and also occasionally on other smooth beans, at the time of
tldwering.

One of the great ditliculties of growing horse beans in Canada has been
the occurrence of this European species of plant-louse, which is such a serious
pest of horse beans in Europe. As this crop is little grown in Canada, small
attention has been drawn to it.

Remedy. — The usual jiractice in Europe is to cut off the tips of attacked
plants, upon which the plant-lice are nearly always clustered, leaving the rest
of the plant at the time of flowering free. This practice is al.so beneficial
because it overcomes one of the chief difficulties in growing this crop, which is
the failure of the pods to develop. This checking of the growth I)y cutting off
the tips causes the flowers to set pods better tlian if the tips .are left on. —
Fletcher.

ArPLE Aphis (Apliis mali).

(Fig. 2:>.) Gi-L'atly enlarged.

106

The eggs of the apple ajihis are deposited in the fall, usually ou the
extremities of the new growth, or around the buds. Two thorough appli-
cations of the No. 1 spray, according to the directions given, or of the lye and
soap wash (No. 15), will destroy the eggs, and this is by far the best method
of dealing with the i)est in the first instance. In a natural wa,y the eggs hatch
out just when growth coumienees in the .spring, and the leaves of infested trees
soon become curled and roll up, making it very dithcult to reach the insect
with any spraying mi.xture.

They multiply at an enormous rate, those first hatched giving birth to
living young which in their turn reproduce in the same way, and so on for
several generations, so that as fast as new leaves expand, they are attaclied, if
the weather conditions are favourable to the aphides.

For summer spraying, any one of sprays Xos. 2, G or 7 will, if used as
directed in the earlier stages of attack, prove effective; two sprayings are
usually required, and are better given with only a short interval between them,
not more than three days. Care should be observed to make the sprayings
very thorough, as the washes kill only by actual contact with the insects.

During the summer winged broods of the pests are born ; these should be
looked out for, and prevented from establishing themselves by a timely use of
one of the spra.ving mi.xtures referred to.

Black Cherry Aphis (ili/ziis ccrasi)

is very in.iurious to the new growth, especially on young trees. It multiplies at
an enormous rate in a similar manner to the last-mentioned pest. Badly
infested trees are often a source of attraction for swarms of flies and wasi>s,
which feed upon the sweet exudation from the bodies of the aphides.

Prompt and thorough spraying in the early stage of the attack is necessary
to deal with this pest effectively. It is more resistant to the action of sprays
than the green aphis, but the same remedies should lie used, and better results
will follow if tlie spraying mixture is ma<le as hot as tlie leaves of the trees
will iM'ur without injur.v.

CURR.\NT Al'IUS {MllZK.S rn}i.s) .

is yellowish in colour and is found ou the under sides of the leaves of currant
bushes, which become curled, blistered and reddish in colour. They migrate
during the summer, but return later on, and their eggs are deposited ou the
stems, especiall.v around the buds.

Spray with the No. 1 mixture to destroy the eggs iu the winter months, and
with either of sprays Nos. 2, G or 7 in the growing season, directing the spray
so that the under sides of the leaves are reached. It is most important that
the work should be done early in the season'before the insects become too
numerous, and the leaves roll uji so that spra.vs cannot reach them.

They are i)articularly subjei-t to attacks by predaceous enemies, such as
the soldier-beetle {I'oihibrus comes), ladybirds, etc.. and are often eomi)letely
cleared off in this manner.

107

Mealy Plum Aphis (Hiiiiloiitcriis iiniiii)

is a species of aphis wliicli attacks tlie young slioots and under sides of tlie
leaves of plum and prune trees. Wlien first liatched tliey are wliitisli in colour,
but as they iucrease in size they lieconie darker. The insects and infested
leaves are covered with a whitisli jiciwdcr.

Their life history is simihtr to tliat of the green apliis. and the remedies
used for that pest should be api)lied, taking care to wet tlie under sides of the
leaves, and rejieat the spraying to insure the destruction of the pests.

Hop Aphis {PhoroOon liiniiiili).

Wherever it occurs, whether in England or on the continent of Europe, in
New York, Wisconsin, or on the Pacific Coast, the Hop Plant Louse (Phorodon
humvli) has substantially the same life round. The eggs are laid in the fall
on different varieties and species of the plum, l)0th wild and cultivated. They
are small, glossy, black, ovoid, and are attached to the terminal twigs,
especially in the more or less protected crevices around the buds.

From an egg hatches in the spring, about the time when the plum buds
begin to burst, a stout female plant-louse, known as the stem-mother, which
differs from the summer individuals by having shorter legs and shorter honey
tubes.

She gives birth without the intervention of the male, to living young, and
this method of propagation continues until the last generation of the season.
The second generation grows to full size and gives birth to a third, which
becomes winged and develops after the hoiis have made considerable growth in
the yards. The winged plant-lice then fly from the plums to the hops, deserting
the plum tree entirely and settling upon the leaves of the hops, where they begin
giving liirth to another generation of wingless individuals. They multiply with
astonishing rapidity. Each female Is capable of producing on an average
about one hundred young, at the rate of three per da.v, tnider favourable con-
ditions. Each generation begins to breed about the eighth day after birth, so
that the issue from a single individual runs up, in the cour.se of a summer, to
trillions. The issue from a single stem-mother may thus, under favouraljle
circumstances, blight hundreds of :icrcs hi the course of two or three months.
From five to twelve generations are produced in tlie course of the summer,
carrying us in point of time to tlie hop-picking sea.son. Tliere then develops a
generation of winged females (sexupane), which fly hack to <lie plum tree and
give birth to the true .sexual females, which never acquire wings and never
leave the plum tree. By the time this generation has matured, which requires
but a few days, varying according to the temperature, belated winged indi-
viduals, which are the true males, tly in from the hop-fields. These fertilise
the wingless true female upon the |iliini h-aves, and these soon thereafter lay
the winter eggs. Thus there is but one generation of sexed individuals pro-
duced, and this at the close of the life round— the females wingless on plum
trees: the males winged on hoi)S. All intervening generations are composed of
virgin females only {piiiiliciidi/ciKiic) . This is the invarial)le round of the
insect's life.

108

(Fig. 2o.) Winter egg of the hop plant louse, and the shi-ivelled skin of the sexual
female which laid them. (Enlarged.)

(Fig. 20.) The hop plant lou.se third generation on plum,— the generation which flies
to the hop plant. Head below at right. (Both enlarged.)

109

(Fig. 27.) The hop plant Iousl'. true sexual female. (Enlarged.)
From the life history just given, three important facts are obtainea. (1.)
It will pay to make a preventive application of some of the mixtures men-
tioned further on, with apparatus before described, to all plum trees in the
neighbourhood of hop yards, either in the spring, before the appearance of the
first winged generation and its consequent migration to hop, or in the fall after
hop picking and after the lice have once more returned to the plum, and are
making their preparations for the laying of winter eggs. The latter time
will, perhaps, be preferable, for the reason that In the fall the plum trees will
be less susceptible to the action of the washes, and a stronger solution can be
applied without danger to the trees. (2.) All wild plum trees in the woods
through a hop-growing country should be destroyed. (3.) The hop vines should
be either burned or thoroughly drenched with kerosene emulsion as soon after
the crop is harvested as possible, with a view of killing tlie males, and thus
preventing the impregnation of the females. (4.) If the above measures have
been neglected and the lice have attacked the vines, the crop can still be
protected by spraying with insecticide mixtures, which if thoroughly applied
will prove effective, and there will be no danger of reinfestation from neigh-
bouring untreated yards, since during the summer the lice cannot migrate
except by crawling from one yard to another.

Mr. Chas. Whitehead, F.S.A., etc., etc.. Agricultural Adviser to the Privy
Council, says in reference to the formula given below : " There are no actual
proofs that any other remedy or treatment than washing is at all effectual
against the aphis blight. Lime has been thrown up over the plants without
any results. Soot has been tried. Insecticides are dead failures, and man-
uring has had no marked influence."

The following formula for a sjn-ay is recommended by the Board of
Agriculture of England and is found to be most effectual : A decoction of 10
lbs. of quassia chips made by boiling; 7 lbs. soft or whale-oil soap, and 100
gallons of water. The chips may be used twice, the second dec'oction being of
course weaker. The hops should be sprayed at least five times during the
summer, and if the insects are very bad, oftener.

■Woolly Aphis (Schizoiiriiru Uiiiit/cai). After Kilev.

(Fig 2S.) Branch of applo infected. 1, 'J. .'i and 4 the insect enlarged.).
New Zealand Bulletin 4'J.)

Ill

It is generaly considered tlie most troublesome inseet pest of apple trees
we have, from the difficulty experienced iu cleansiug an orchard infested with
it. and its harmful effect upon the trees. Its name of woolly aphis is derived
from the secretion resembling fine cottony fibre, which more or less covers its
body. The insects appear on infested trees during the summer iu masses like
tufts of cotton, attached to the twigs or leaves, beneath which will be found
the bodies of the insects.

In the winter months they shelter under the bark or in cavities iu the
wood of the trees, or descend to the roots ; large numbers will often be found
at or near the collar of the root.

The eggs of woolly aphides are stated liy Dr. Smith " to lie found singly
in crevices of the bark, enveloped in the dry skin of the female."

During the summer months the.v reproduce in the same manner as green
aphides, but winged forms appear only in the fall.

During our mild winters in the coast districts, woolly aphides may lie
found in different stages of development, showing that if egg laying takes
place, the eggs jirobably hatch off at once, and new colonies are started, or
that viviparous reproduction goes on without the necessity of egg laying.
The prevalence of dead-spot or bark disease in apple trees gives just the con-
dition of the liark which favours the pests, by providing them with shelter,
and increases the difficuty of reaching them with spraying mixtures.

It is therefore important that, as far as possible, dead and deca.ved bark
and all surplus limbs and branches of infested trees should be removed before
spraying is done, to allow the mixture used to penetrate all parts of the trees.

The best winter wash is tlie No. 1 spray; the l.ve and soap wash (No. 1.5)
is also effective. At least two applications should be made to badly infested
trees, and the spray applied warm, with all the force possible, by means of a
good spray-pumi). During the summer months, masses or colonies of the
aphides occurring on the trunk or limbs may be destroyed liy touching tliem
with a swab or brush dipped in coal oil, or either of sjirays No. v, or 7,
applied with a spra.v-pump. It will be necessary to repeat the treatment at
intervals to keep the pests in check, until the strong winter washes can be
iised. For the root form of woolly aphides the No. 1 spray is effective, or
the lye and soap wash used freely, especially where the stem and roots .ioin.
These substances will also act as fertilisers to the trees. To increa.se their
effect, the roots of infested trees should be uncovered as far as possible before
applying. Refuse tobacco dug in about the roots will also help to keep down
the pests.

The Missouri Experimental Station h.-is ni.ide extensive experiments
with different methods of killing woolly apliides, particularly the root form
of tlie i)est. ai'd a bulletin issued by the station states that the root form may
be cheaply and easily killed, and kept away from the roots of apple trees by
a liberal use of tobacco du.st, applied by removing the earth from around the
trunk for a distance of two feet, and four inches deep, evenly rilling the
space with tobacco dust, and covering with earth.

As a preventive measure, tobacco dust should be used freely among and
over the roots of newly planted trees and nursery stock.

112

Quite frequently during the fall months other species of aphides, having
a similar "woolly" appearance, are often mistaken for the true " apple woolly
aphis," and specimens of woolly aphides of different species were sent to Dr.
Fletcher, who writes in regard to them as follows : — " In the box of which
you describe the specimens as taken off an apple twig badly infested with
woolly aphides ; these were the true S. lanigera, but amongst them were some
other specimens of aphis muIifoUa:, which has the venation very similar to
that of aphis mali. The difference between these two last-named species is
chiefly colourational and in the size of the insect. The other box containing
specimens of the " woolly aphis," which has given you so much trouble to
identify, and which are flying in such myriads in your woods, are neither the
alder aphis nor the true tcoolly aphis, but a species called Pemphigus pi/ri.
which belongs to the same genus as the alder woolly aphis.

" The difference between these two genera is very easy to recognise when
once pointed out, and that is, in the genus Schixoncura tlie third diseoidial
vein is forked, while in pemphigus all tlie veins are simple.

" Pemphigus pijri i)robably is a native species with you. and occurs
through your woods on different species of pyrus and Crataegus."

This species of woolly aphis {Pemphigus tessellata) is very connnon upon
alder trees in lower British Columbia, and is often confounded with the
woolly aphis of the apple, from which it is quite distinct. Like other aphides,
they reproduce by giving birth to living young. Vast numbers of winged
specimens appear in the fall and spread over the country, the air sometimes
appearing full of the insects moving with the wind. They have not been
found injurious to fruit trees, although many of these winged specimens are
found on them. They do not seem to reproduce except on their proper food
plant.

Wheat Midge {Diplosis tritici, Kirby).

Attack. — When wheat is in blossom in the montli of .Tune, minute yellow
midges with black eyes may be found, particularly towards evening, flying
over the fields and laying eggs in the florets of the ears of wheat. These eggs
in about a week hatch into small reddish-orange maggots, which sometimes
to the number of ten or twelve lie inside the chaff and suck the juices from
the swelling kernel. When mature, they leave the ears of wheat and pene-
trate about an inch beneath the surface of the ground, whei-e they spin tiny
cocoons, inside which they remain normally until the following spring, when
the perfect midges emerge. Under special circumstances, however, some of
the flies appear in late summer and lay their eggs upon volunteer wheat or
the young fall wheat.

It is many years since the Wheat Midge, which is generally known by
farmers and millers as " the weevil," has been the cause of much loss in the
wheat crop of the Dominion. Fifteen years ago the losses were enormous :
but, just when it seemed at its worst, it suddenly disappeared entirely and
since that time has not been the cause of widespread injury. There have
been occasional outbreaks, as in the Niagara district in 1S98, and last year
in the fertile Chilliwack di-strict of the Fraser River Valley, B. C, where it
was estimated that in some fields fully half the crop was destroyed.

ii:;

Roiirdici. — The ivnieilies for the Wheat Midse ilepeiiil lariicly npon the
way it passes the winter. The methods which have jriven tlie best results
are as follows : —

1. Deep ploughiiiff ilirectly the crop is carrieil. so as to Imry the larva" so
deep that the flies eamiot work their way out throush the soil.

2. The hurning of all chatf. dust or rnbhish known as "screenings" or
"tailings" from beneath the threshing machines, as these contain many of
tlie larva? which are carried with the croi>. If feci to chickens or domestic
animals, this should he done in a place where none of tlie pnparia can escape
destruction.

3. Clean farming, including the cutting of all grasses along the edges of
fields and the ploughing down of all volnuteer crojis found in wlieat fields
before the winter sets in. so as to destroy an autunm brood where one exists.

4. The cultivation of such varieties of wheat as experience has shown
are least affected by this insect.

Grain Aphis iXo-tnniiihoin iirinunUi. Kirhy ; etc.).

Attack. — Green, yellow, reddish or dark-coloured plaut-lice. sometimes
occurring in large numbers upon the heads and leaves of wheat, oats, barley
and rye. weakening the plants and preventing the kernels from filling as well
as they should. These plant-lice generally disappear suddenly just as the
grain is beginning to change colour, being as a rule destroyed by their many
parasitic and predaceous enemies liefore much harm is done to tlie crop.

It is probalble that there are two or three species of plant-lice which attack
grain as described above. It is known that some broods of several species
feed upon one class of plants during jiart of their lives and upon grasses of
various kinds at other periods of their existence. Some of the.se, as the
apple aphis, occasionally may lie found upon the small grains and grasses.
It is convenient to speak of all these kinds occurring upon grain crops under
the name of grain aiihis.

Rrmcd;/. — So far. no treatment lias been disi-.i\-criMl for conlrnlling jjlaiit-
lice when on grain croi)s; but. fortunatel.v, they seldom affect the ijutjiut to
any considerable extent. The apple aphis iapliis iiinli. Fab. I frequently
develops into a serious enem.v of young fall wheat: and. as this insect ]iasses
the winter as an egg upon the twigs of apple trees, the regular spraying of
apple orchards with Icerosene emulsion (Remedy L'l would not only clear
those trees of a serious enemy, but also to a large measure protect the fall
wheat of the following season. A similar alternation of generations takes
place in the case of the hop aphis, whicli passes the winter in the egg state
on plum trees, from which .a winged brood of the plant-lice the following
summer migrates back .again to their summer quarters on the hop. Spraying
tlie plum trees during tlie winter reduces largely the occurrence of hop aphis
later in the year. — FIctrlicr.

114

CHAPTER IX.— INSECTS ATTACKING LEAVES
AND TWIGS.

Grasshoppeks oe Locusts.

(Fig. 2!>.) Locusts laying their eggs. (Fio. 30.)

Attack. — Cirasshopper.s, or locusts, sometimes multiijly enormously,
especially during a dry season following another of the same character.
They tlien become very destructive to grain and other crojos. Most of the
in.1urious species pass the winter in the egg state. The females deposit their
eggs in the ground in "pods," or masses, of about thirty or more cemented
together by a mucous fluid. The young grasshoppers are wingless and can
only travel by hopping, but after several moults they acquire wings and are
able to move freely from place to place, some species, especially the voracious
so-called Rocky Mountain Locust (Mclunnplus sprctus, Uhler), being able to
fly long distances. The species is found only in the West. It is about one
and a quarter inches long, from the head to the tips of the closed wings.
Another migratory and destructive sjjecies, rather smaller in size, is the Lesser
;\Iiirrat(iry Locust (M. ailani.t, Rile,y). This latter is much more generally
distributed throughout the continent.

Several non-migratory locusts have in some years appeared in destructive
numbers, as the Red-legged Locust (M. femur-rulinim, DeG.) and the Two-
striped Locust {M. hivittntns, Say), in all parts of Canaaa. In the West,
Tackard's Locust (M. pacJcardii, Scudd), and the Pellucid Locust (Camnula
pclUicidu, Scudd), frequently add their injuries to those of other species.

Extensive losses from locusts have taken place in various parts of Canada
in certain seasons; but by far the most important ravages have been wrought
in Manitoba and British Columbia. Various species take part in this devasta-
tion, but the mo.st destructive species in British Columbia has proved to be

115

Camnula pcUiicida, Sciidd), although much harm was doue in the Nicola
Valley by a species closely resembling the Rocky Mountain Locust, but a
rather smaller species, called Mcldiioplus afflnis, Coq., which has the same
habits. In Manitoba the Rocky Mountain Locust and the Les.ser Migratory
Locust have done by far the largest proportion of injury to crops.

The eggs of the Rocky Mountain Locust are laid by preference in light
soil with a tirm surface, such as is presented in a field under a grain crop.
So much is this the ca.se that, when such conditions are available, hardly any
eggs will be laid elsewhere. In Manitoba the young grasshoppers hatch in
May, become full grown and have wings about the 1st July, when they begin
migrating in swarms to fresh feeding and breeding grounds. Egg laying
takes place mostly in August, and the numbers drop off rapidly from the
beginning of September, although a few may be found lingering on until
frost comes.

Remedies. — For the migratory species the remedies are: (1.) The
ploughing down of the eggs in autumn or before the young hatch in spring.
This is rendered easy by the fact mentioned above that the eggs are laid
almost entirely in land which is or has recently been under crop and hardly
ever on the bare prairie. (2.) The destruction of the .voung before the wings
are developed, by ploughing down, poisoning, or by burning in windrows of
straw placed as traps for them, and to which they will resort in large numbers
at night. (3.) Catching in implements known ste hopper-dozers, consisting
of a light frame covered with canvas or sheet irOn, in the bottom of which
some water with a little coal oil on the top is placed. — Fig. 30a. (4.) Poison-
ing. This has been very satisfactory either with the poisoned bran-mash or

(Fii;. oOa. I IIoppiT-Dozer.
with the recently devised Criddle mixture. In Manitoba, where for some
years grasshoppers were very destructive, after a thorough trial of hopper-
dozers, the implements have been entirely superseded by the use of the
Criddle mixture, which was widely used and gave general satisfaction. The
latest improved formula for making the Criddle mixture is as follows : — For
convenience it is made in quantities of half a barrel at a time. Take fresh
horse droppings 100 parts, Paris green 1 part (=1 iiuund) and salt 2 pounds,
dissolved in half a pail of water, and mix thoroughly. In this connection Mr.
Criddle, the originator of this mixture, says: "We usually measure with a
three-gallon patent pail, because it is more convenient to farmers than to
weigh the materials. Five pails, we calculate, approximately equal 100 parts
of horse droppings and each part equals in bulk one pound of Paris green.

116

A great drawback in using weights is that horse droppings are not always of
the same weight.'' This mixture is made in ;i half barrel and drawn on a
cart to the edge of an infested field, or one likely to be infested. The mixture
is then scattered broadcast along the edge of the crop by means of a trowel
or wooden jjaddle. Locusts are attracted to it from long distances and are
killed in large numbers by eating the poison. If this mixture is distributed
as above, and scattered loosely through the plants at the edge of a field of
standing grain, there is little danger of stock or jioultry being poisoned.
Should any of the mixture l)e left over, it should be scattered loosely over a
piece of land where its fertilising effects will be secured and where there will
be no danger of poisoning animals. This is in every way the cheapest and
most effective remedy for grasshoppers which I have ever tried. It has been
found by Mr. Criddle that the most effective way of using this remedy is to
spread a little at a time every other day, which gives far better results than
scattering a lot at once, less frequently. — FIrfrlici:

Turnip Flk.\-beetlf, or Turnip Fi.y ( I'Inillotntii rittatu. F.\B.).

{Fig. ."lib.) Enlarged eight times.

Attack. — Small active shining black beetles, %th of an inch long, with
yellowish marks on the wings, which eat the seed-leaves of turnips and other
cruciferous plants directly they appear above the ground. When disturbed
they hop to some distance.

The injury by the Tuniip Flea-beetle in hot. dry .Junes is well known by
farmers in every part of Canada. The larvte have been round at Ottawa,
feeding on the leaves of Curled Cress, a plant belonging to the same family
as the turnip, but it is certain that this stage in the American insect is
generally passed on the roots. As soon as young turnips appear above ground
the beetles swarm on them and destroy the seed leaves, which are so
important to the young plants, frequeutl.v destroying whole crops and making
it ueeessar.v to re-sow large areas.

Remedies. — (1.) Taris green and land plaster, one pound of the former
to twenty of the latter, dusted along the rows of youug turnips, if possible
■when they are covered with dew, is an effective remedy against this trouble-

117

some insect. The land plaster aots as a stinuilaut to the plants and pnshes
on growth. As soon as the rongh. true leaves are formed, the plants are, as
a rule, able to make more growth than the beetles can destroy.

(2.) Late sowing. Careful observation has shown us that fur Central
Ontarici. the third week in June is the most satisfactory time for sowing
turnips to .-ivoid injury liy flea-beeth's. Dy th.-it time the perfect insects of
the first brood have, as a rule, disapjieared. and the young plants gmw r.-ipidl,y
and jiroduce as gO(jd cro])s as when sown two or three weeks earlier. —
Flcichcr.

The Ked-iilwded Fle.\-1!Keti,e ( Ni/.v/c/k; fiontuJls. Fab.).

(Fig. r.Oc. I Enlarged eight times.

Atturk. — Large, black, shining flea-beetles, %th of an inch long, with a
reddish blotch between the eyes. These sometimes occur In large numbers
on potatoes and many other different plants, particularly clover, to which
they are sometimes a serious pest. On the slightest disturbance they hop
actively from the leaves which they are att.acking.

The injuries to potatoes are sometimes rather severe, and, when this is the
ca.se, demand attention.

Reincdii. — Spraying potatoes with the poisoned Bordeaux mixture
(Remedy Xo. 7) i.s tli<' best treatment. Other plants, as grape vines and
uian.v garden flowers, may be dusted with Paris green and lime. or. when con-
venient, sprayed witli the poisoned Bordeaux mixture. — I'lcldirr.

Small Wiiitk Caf.uage P.itterfiv ( /'/< r/.s-

rii/Kr.

L.I.

(Fig. 31.)

118

Attack. — Velvety green cat^rpilliirs, commonly kuown as Cabbage Worms,
about au inch in length, with a broken yellow line along each side, and an
imbroken one down the middle of the back. At first eating the outside leaves,
but eventually boring right into the head of the cabbage. These, after three
or four weeks, produce the white butterflies so common in gardens.

This injurious insect, which was imijorted into Canada about 1S59, has
now spread across the Dominion, and is every year the cause of considerable
loss, not only to cabbages but also to turnips and other plants of the same
family. It is, however, one of the easiest of the well known insect, pests to
control. There are two broods during the growing season, and sometimes a
late supplementary one, of which the caterpillars are found as late as
November. Farmers and gardeners should watch for the first appearance of
the larvre and apply the remedy promptly. The eggs are laid by the female
butterflies on the leaves.

Rcmcdii. — The caterpillars can he destroyed easily by dusting the plants
with a mixture of one pound of pyrethrum insect powder and four ijouuds of
cheaji flour. Mix the whole together and keep it in a tightly closed canister
or jar for 24 hours. The powder is then ready for use and may be dusted over
the cabbages either with a cheese-cloth bag tapped lightly with a slender
stick, or from one of the various insect guns, or dusters, now sold by seedsmen.
The advantage of this remedy over many others which are recommended is
that, although insect powder is so deadly to caterpillars and most insects, it
is quite harmless to human beings and the higher animals.

The rather prevalent custom of using Paris green and other arsenical
poisons on cabbages and other vegetables, must be condemned as being very
dangerous without any commensurate advantage.

Blisteb Beetles {Eplcauta sp.).

Among the usually unimportant injuries to potatoes wliich on occasion
become more extensive and involve large areas, are those due to swarms of
Blister Beetles, long, cylindrical shaped beetles with soft bodies, which fly
to fields and swarming over the potatoes devour the leaves rapidly. As a
rule, these swarms remain only for a short time and then pass away.

A remedy which has been adopted successfully consists of driving the
swarms from a crop by several people walking across it with branches or
other conspicuous objects in their hands, waving them from side to side and
driving tliese easily disturbed beetles ahead of them until they come to the
edge of the crop, where the.v will disperse and seldom return. It is undesir-
able to destroy the Blister Beetles if this can be avoided, because in their
larval form they are predaceous parasites on the eggs of grasshoppers; but.
as in the case of nearly all leaf-eating insects, these can be destroyed l)y
spraying the crops with a poisonous mixture such as one of the arsenites.
Prof. F. M. Webster has found that crops sprayed with Bordeaux mixture are
not attacked by Blister Beetles and as all potato crops should be sprayed with
Bordeaux mixture every year, there is no reason why they should suffer
from these insects. In addition to potatoes, many other crops and plants,
particularly members of the pea family, are attacked by diftVrent species of
Blister Beetles.

lit)

Si)e(_-ies which have at differont times been tlic cause of c(jusi(lernlile injury

to potato ci'ops are the Black Blister Beetle (Eiiirauta iicnnsiilrdiiieu, DeG.).

the Spotted Blister Beetle (Epicaiita maculata, Say) ami the Gray Blister

Beetles (Macrohasis unicolor. Kirby, and Eplcauta cinerea, Forst.) — Fletcher.

Hop Flea Beetle (Pxylliodes piiiictiihita. Nels. ).

This pest has been reported during the last few seasons as doing great
injury to hoiis at Chilli wack and Agassiz. On referring the matter to Dr.
Fletcher, he replied as follows: "The course you suggested is exactly what I
should have advised myself, viz., to spray the vines with a Bordeaux mixture
poisoned with arsenate of lead, using lib. of the poison to every 50 gallons of
the mixture." In consequence of its habit of attacking the young shoots of
hops denuding them of their leaves, it Is a most difHcult insect to cope with,
and Mr. Wilson, Manager for Sir Arthur Stepney, at Agassiz, says : " I do
not think the beetle will eat the poisoned foliage, as they get a new growth
ever.v day to feed upon." Mr. Hulburt first reported the pest on his hops at
Chilliwack some years ago. and was recommended to use Paris green in the
usual manner for leaf-eating insects, but he reported that it was a failure,
probably for the same reason as given by Jlr. Wilson. Jlr. Hulburt after-
wards reported that the only, in the least, successful method he had discovered
•was by spreading tarred sheets, which he placed as follows : " I take thin
cotton sheeting and tack it on to a frame made of two laths with a centre
piece of 2 in. x % in., to which a light handle is attached.

" The cloth is painted with tar. which has to be constantly scrajied off and
freshly painted, so that it does not dry. These are placed under the vines,
which are tapped or jarred with a light stick, when all the fleas fall off and
adhere to the tar. The fleas can only be caught on a hot' sunny day."

Jlr. Wilson, writing on the ISth August, says : " We used the remedy
recommended by Jlr. Hulburt last season, but the beetles came in so numerous
early this season that they did not give the vine a chance to grow, to allow us
to trap them with tarred sheets ; Iiowever, the beetles are di.sappearing now,
and there are but few to be found in the yard."

Dr. Fletcher, writing under date of 26th March, 1907, says : " I have read
the correspondence concerning the hop beetle in the Agassiz hop-yards. I
cannot help thinlving that the whole of this trouble is as you have gently sug-
gested in your letter, that the arsenate of lead was not ajjplied quite as it
should have been. Your letter of 10th December to Mr. Itoberts covers the
ground thoroughly. The only thing at all iu the matter wliich is not quite
accurate, but which at the same time does not aff('<-t the ijuestion in the least,
is your surmise that this beetle, I'sijUiorJcs pidictiiliita, passes the winter in
the pupal condition. It is nuich more likely that this insect always passes the
winter as a perfect beetle. Ijut the remedy you suggest would be beueflcial for
this form also.

"The amount of arsenate of lead used. .3 lbs. to -10 gallons, did
undoubtedly kill a great many of the beetles, but. of course. Mr. Wilson would
not be able to find them unless b.v chance he might find one by accident. If.
as Mr. Wilson suggests, the flea beetles will not eat the poisoned foliage, he
has attained the object aimed at. The growth of the hop-vine is not so rapid
that it would supply enough uusprayed new foliage every day to feed the

120

beetles. The most effective time of spi-a.viiig would be early iu the spring, just
as the plauts were appearing, and I still believe that Bordeaux mixture,
poisoned with Paris green or arsenate of lead, would be the best remed.y.

" These insects feed freely at the time of the year when spraying is recom-
mended, and one meal of the poisoned foliage is enough to destroy them, so
that if all the foliage in the hop-yard were thoroughly covered, I have no
doubt that most of the beetles would be destro.ved by a single spraying.

'■ If 3 lt>s. of arsenate of lead was not sufficient, it might be well to try
4 lbs. iu the 40 gallons."'

After a visit to Agassi/,, by Dr. Fletcher and Mr. Anderson, in August. 1007,
when a thorough inspection of Sir Arthur Stepney's hoji-yards was made, the
recommendation which follows was made by Dr. Fletcher and has been found
to be efficacious in destroying large numbers of the beetles. The contrivance is
simply a modification of the hopper-dozer used for destroying locusts, viz,, a
tin hopper, containing a small quantity of coal oil and water, to be dragged
through the yard, the jiau in be nearly as wide as the rows, and to be drawn
on wheels or on a stone lioat ; the jilants to be beaten lightly with branches or
brooms t(i disturb the beetles, which would then jumii from the hop iilants and
fall into the pan as it was drawn up the rows. Mr. Ackroyd found it advan-
tageous to have a float in the pan to prevent the liipiid from slopiiing over.
The coal oil pan should be used from early in the seasim :\m\ in cnujunrtion
with spra.ving with arsenate of lead.

Slugs and Snails.

Slugs and sn;iils belong to a group of animals called Mollusca. The Slugs
(or Liiiuiri(lir) and the Snails (or IlcUcklw) are terrestrial in habits, and
feed upon all manner of substances. The majority of snails prefer green diet,
such as plants of all kinds; many slugs also live upon plants, but others
prefer dry vegetables and animal substances, and will nut tou<-h green matter
unless under stress of circumstances.

Slugs are unprotected by an external shell, but they hav<" a shell neverthe-
less in the form of a small tl.il iilate buried under the skin iu the front region
of the body. Snails, on the other hand, have usually a large shell into which
the whole body can be withdrawn. They also have the jiower of closing this
shell completely by means of a hardened plate which is sjiread over the opening
into the shell.

These so-i-allcd mcilluscous animals have a mouth coinposed of
external fleshy lips, and within there is an apparatus, the chief )i.-u-t of
which is a ribbon-like mass of teeth, by means of which they rasp :nvay the
tissues of plants and other substances which they employ as food. Both kinds
of these molluscs move by means of a flattened muscular part of the body
called the " foot." One notable feature is the copious flow of slimy mucus
these animals can produce, and. in the case of slugs, this especially interferes
with killing them. This slime cannot be produced continuously for long at a
time, but it is necessary to give two or three dressings of irritant powder
before the skin Is reached. Many different kinds of slugs and snails occur iu
Britain, some being injurious, others of no economic value, while a few are
even beneficial. Both slugs and snails have male and female sexual organs
iu the same individual. Both deposit eggs, and the young resemble the adults.

• 121

Xiiliinil Ei\i )iiirs o/ t<iiiiils and Sliii/.s.

I!.v t';ir tbe t;rc:iti'st natural checks are birds, esiieeially the thrush or
so-called robin. whi<h not only eats many slugs, but is especially jiartial to
snails, breaking their shells atrainst a stone and picking out the mollusc.
Klackbirds devour large numbers of slugs, as also do starlings. Toads are
great devourers of slugs and small snails. Moles and shrew mice also help to
keep down the number of slugs. Poultr.v and ducks eagerly search for them.
Centipedes attack slugs and ants fre(iuentl.v kill snails, but none of the
foregoing, save birds, do any appreciable good in keeijing down an excess of
the.se molluscan creatures.

Prciviilidii mill h'ciiirdiex.

The following may lie inentiimed as tending to prevent an<t lessen the
attack of these pests : —

1. Drainage, because dampness favours them.

2. Avoid long manure, or, in fact, any orgaui<' manure where slugs are
abundant in the soil. Employ artificials for a lime.

3. Dr.v dressings of some irritant to kill the pests, (n) Soot and lime;
(h) salt and lime; ('■) lime and caustic soda; or to act mech.-micall.v. ('/)
powdered coke.

The lime must be in a ver.v finely divided state and quite fresh. Tiro or
tlirrc clrcssiiiffs niiist 6e giren, the second some l.j to 30 minutes after the first.
I^ime and caustic soda is found to act best — four parts of caustic soda to or. of
lime, well mixed. Dry dressings, except powdered coke, should be aiijilied very
early in the morning.

4. "Rings" of slaked lime or tine ash soaked in paratlin may lie iiut
around choice plants.

5. In gardens and hop plantations hea])s (if bran-mash or moist oatmeal
ma.v be placed here and there. These bails attrait the slugs, which may then
be easily collected.

6. Heavy applications of soot are best to keep off snails, which should be
dealt with mainly by hand-picking and by trapping with cabbage leaves.

7. Rows of peas. etc.. are best protected either b,v spreading barley sweep-
ings or cinders and lime along the rows, or by heavy dressings of slaked lime.

8. Rockeries, ferneries, hedge bottoms and rough herbage at the base of
walls should be cleaned out in winter and the masses of hibernating snails
crushed.

U. Land that is thnroughly fouled with slugs should be treated with gas-
lime and in winter deeply trenched.

111. Wherever invasion is seen to I'ome from a neighbouring copse or
spinney a deep trench should be dug and tilled with lime or tar, in order to
trap the creatures.

11. Ducks and poultry should be kept in hop gardens in late autumn, and
ducks in spring, and also, whenever possible, the latter should be iienned on
garden land, as they greedil.v devour both kinds of pests.

122

12, Thriislies sliouUl !>& enemiiMged. It is easier to keep tlieui off our
fruit tluin to su])press the snails and slu.:;s wliii'h tliey largely devour. — Board
of Agriculture. Englund.

XoTE BY Rev. G. W. Tayloe. — Our worst pest among the slugs is an im-
portation from the Old Country. The native slugs (Limax ugrcstix) are not
usually sufficiently abundant to do much damage.

Variegated Cut-Worm (I'criitroiiia satiria. Hbx.K

(Fig. .32.) <i, moth; h, v, il. catcriiiiliirs ; r. r^g, inlaife'ed ; /, egg, mass on twig.
Dc!irrii)tion and Habits.

The moth, which is the parent of the variegated cut-worm, is a large
species expanding from an inch and a half to uearl.v two inches when the
wings are spread. It varies very much in colour ; the forevviugs are, as a
rule, rather dark-brown, but varying to ochreoiis or russet-brown, shaded on
the disk and toward the end of the wing with a darker brown; occasionally
specimens are quite light along the costal region and at the base of the wing.
The wings are crossed by the usual four more or less distinct double spots on
the costa. The reniform or kidney-shaped spot is usually darker than the
orbicular or round spot, and the reniform bears a few white scales on the
outer margin. The under wiugs are pearly white in the centre with a inirplish
sheen bordered broadl.v and v(>iued with dusl;y-lirciwn and fringed witli white
(hence the English name of the motli, the "Pearly Underwing." ) The
thorax is of the same colour as the forewings, and bears in the centre a tuft
of raised, light tipped scales.

The eggs are laid in elongated flat patches, and were first found b.v Dr.
Hiley, and figured in his first Jlissouri report for 18GS. In years of great
abundance it is probable that these eggs are laid in various places other than
on the food plant. Eggs which were most prob.-\bly iif this species were

123

fmniil u|i(m curtniiis. in clothes hanging npon lines iiiiil nn the woodwork of
houses, by Mrs. Walton, of Armstrong, B. C, and Jlrs. I'laee. of Dog Creek.
B. C. On hatching, the young caterpillars, as iu the ease with some other
cnt-wornis. are loopers. and resemble the larvii? of the geometrid moths, lack-
ing some of the pro-legs which appear in the later stages. — Dr. Fleiclier't:
A'cpijii. J'.KiO.

iFiiiiit h'ciiort of 1S90).

•■ (_'ut-worms are tlie caterpillars of diill-i-olotired, a<-tive moths. Iiclongiug
to the iwctiiiikc or owlet moths, of which there are upwards of -lUU different
kinds in North America. The caterpillars of these different kinds var.v
.somewhat iu their habits, but on the whole they are very similar, being
smooth, almost naked, gray-lookiug caterpillars of some dull shade of colour
similar to the ground iu ^vhich tbey hide during the day. The head is smooth
and shining, as well as a small horny plate and the segment next to the
head. Their habits are almost always nocturnal : lying hid liy day .iust
beneath the surface of the soil, the.v come out by night to feed.

"When tliey occur in large numbers they change their habits somewhat^
;ind feed liy day as well, owing to the reduced food supplj. consequent upon
their ravages. The eggs from which cut-worms hatch are laid by some
species iu the autumn, and by others in the spring or summer, and as a con-
sequence cut-worms of all sizes can be found iu the spring; for these insects,
according to the species, may pass the winter in the state of either a perfei-t
moth, a chr.vsalis, a partially grown caterpillar, or au egg."

The eaterjiillars \inder consideraticm are those of the moth known as
" T'criilnjiiKi sdiirid." of wliich Dr. Fletcher says iu his report of 1000, "named
somewhat inappropriately the variegated cut-worm." The parent moth is
known in England under the name of the " Pearly Underwing."

When the caterpillars are first hatched they are minute, dark-coloured
and hairy, and are at that time, and for about a week after, what are com-
monly known as loopers or geometers. As they attaiu a larger size^ however,
they are provided with six true legs and ten tlesh,y pro-legs, when they
relinquish the habit of looping and assume the normal cut-worm habits.

When cut-worms are sufficiently abundant to cause wholesale destruction,
they, as a rule, as.sume the habits of the arm.v-worm, moving in large
numbers from place to place as food becomes scarce, and it is frequently
possible to head them off from further progress by scattering poisoned bait
iu front of the army. Ditches with perpendicular sides are also found good
barriers. Ilie caterpill.-irs being unable to climb up the steep sides.
/,V//iC(//r.s-.

The use of the poisoned bran remedy is strongly recommended, it having
proved to be most elBcacious. Large numbers may be destroyed by placing
between the rows of an infested crop, or at a short distance apart on infested
land, bundles of succulent weed or other vegetation, which have been
previously poisoned by dipping them into a strong mixture of Paris green
(two ounces to a pailful of water). The cut-worms eat the poisoned plants,
then hur.v themselves and die. In hot. dry weather these bundles should be
placed out after sundown, and a shingle may be laid on each to prevent
fading.

124

Spraying does not seem to be the most s.-itisfactory way nt ajiplyins
poisons for eut-worius. Tlie poisoned bran reiin'ily j,'ives really reiiiarliable
results, and is actually more attractive than green vegation. The mixture
consists of brau moistened with sweetened water and Paris green mixed in
the proportion of 1 jiound to 50 pounds of bran In making tliis mixture,
the most convenient method is to dampen a small quantity with tlie sweet-
ened w.afer (a few ounces of sugar in a pail of water), and then add more
dry brau, until the whole is almost dry again. If the Paris green is added
to the brau without dampening, It sinks with remarkable rapidity to the
bottom, even in this dry mixture, when it is stirred.

If it is desired to use the poisou as a wet application, more w.iter can lie
added until it is of about the same consistency as iiorridge. but if it is to be
used dry. dry bran must Im- Ktirre<l in until the mixture will run through tlie
fingers easily. The jioison may then lu' applied to the land, cither around
or between the jjlants to be protected, or a row of it may be rnn dose to the
drills of crops planted in that manner.

This mixture is extremely attractive to cutworms, being preferred to
plants in all tlie instances which have come uuder my notice. It takes
about ten jiounds of this mixture to an acre of potatoes as ordinarily planted.
Paris green being a deadly poison, care should lie exercised to keep it out of
rhe reach of children and domestic animals.

Salt in lieu, of Sugar.

W.altcr W. Froggatt. F. L. S.. Government Entomologist of New South
Wales^ in an article entitled "A Fight with Climbing Cut-Worms { Liii,(iiii<i
iinipuncta)," says: "The bran was brought up in bags, weighed, and I pound
of Paris green added to every 10 pounds of bran. The bran, after being
weighed, was poured out on large bag sheets, tlie Paris green scattered
through it, .■nid two men with long-handled shovels mixed it up thoroughly.
When the whole was of a delicate green tint, water was .added from a hogs-
head, in which about half a bucket of salt had been put, so that it just had a
salty taste. The first lot of poisoned bait used before I arrived had been
flavoured in a similar manner with sugar. This had a hardening effect uiioii
any bait remaining over till the next da.y, so I substituted salt, with very
good results; the caterpillars seemed to eat it more readily, and the food
remained moist at night."

Hand picking or digging up the cut-worms whenever a iilant is seen to
be cut off sliould, of course_ always be practised.

Traps made of disused tins, short sec'tions of drain pijies and similar
things sunk in the ground and covered over with boards, allowing sufficient
room all round fi>r the caterpillars to creep under, will capture numbers of
the pests. Even ditches with steep, smooth sides, prevent a great many from
getting from one part of the field to another, and when the ditch has water
in it it is quite effectual.

PiTfciitivc Mcasiirt-f:.

Preventive measures consist of: Clean cultnre. by whicli all vegetation
is removed uiion wliic'h tlie .voung caterpillars could feed in the antunin. or
which would attract the moths to lay their eggs.

125

Cut-worms are heiivy liddicd iiisrcts uiialilc tip cliiiili uvcr snidotli surfaces,
therefore surrounding a plant or tree with a liand of tni iir even paper in
the case of such plants as cabhages and tomatoes is an efficient means of
protection. Tin bands may easily be made by taking pieces of tin six inches
long by two and a half inches wide and bending them around a spade or
broom handle so as to form short tubes. In placing them around a plant the
two euds can be sprung apart to admit the stem and then the tube should be
pressed a short distance into the ground. I have found this a useful means
of disposing of tomato and other cans. To jirepare these easily the cans
need only be thrown into a bonfire, when the tops and bottoms fall off and
the sides become unsoldered. The large piece of tin can then l)e used whole
or may be cut down the centre with a jiair of shears, so as to form two bands.
It may be well to mention here that the two remedies so often mentioned
in newspapers, salt and lime, have proved quite worthless in our experiments
for preventing cut-worm injuries.

Another excellent plan to prevent cut-worms ascending fruit trees is to
cut cotton batting in strips about four inches wide and sutHciently long to go
round the trunk of the tree and to overlap an inch or two, according to the
size of the tree. These bands should be tied round the trees with twine on
the lower edge, the upper edge is then pulled down so as to f(irm a sort of
umbrella-shaped obstruction, over which the cut-worms are ini:ihl(> to climb,
especially if the edge of the cutton batting is a little teased nut.—l'ciiort. VJdli.

Cilt-ironiis' ill Grain.

Different kinds of cut-worms attack grain crops during the spring and
sometimes eat them bare. Tlu'.v seem to be most niuiierous where weeds have
been allowed pos.session of the land during the previous autunm. The species
which has been most frequently detected feeding njion the small grains Is the
Red-backed cut-worm H'arai/rotix (ichrnrinsicr. (in. I. Two other species,
however, when the.y occur, are nuich more ditticiilt to rcaili. l)ecause they
feed chiefly U]>on roots and work almost entirely beneath the surface. These
are the (ilass.v cut-worm (JIadciia (icrastatri.r. Brace), and the Yellow-
headed cut-worm Uicdt'iiii urcticd. Bdv.). These are of a dirty whitish
colour, very similar in general .■ippc.ivance^ but the former has .-i reddish-brown
head, and the body is tinged with liluish green, while the Yellow-headed eut-
".'orm has a smoky-gray body, :ui(l the head and neck-shield are tawn.v-yellow.
The crops most attacke<l by these cut-worms are oats, wheat, corn, and grass
in meadows.

/,'o//' (//rx.— \Yheii gr.-iin is foiniil to lie attac-kcd by cut-worms the fields
should at once be examined to discover if possible what sjtecies is at work.
If the cut-worms are of a surface-feeding kind, like the Red-backed cut-worm,
they may frequentl.v be controlled with comparative ease by scattering
poisoned bran lightly through the grain, near the spots where the caterpillars
are most numerous, or ahead of them, where they are so numerous as to have
assumed the marching habit. If land is systematically kept clear of W'eecls
in autumn, there will seldom be troulile from cut-\-\-orms in the crop of the
following year. Prairie or sod land which is to be broken for seeding the

126

uext year shoiiltl be fed off as late as possible or mowed before breaking. In
this way tlie female moths will not be attracted to the tall vegetation on such
lands when laying their eggs. — Fletcher.

Pear axd Cherkv Slug (SeUinclria ccrasi).

I Fig. 33.)

This insect i)asses the winter in the pupa state under ground ; the flies,
the progenitors of the mischievous brood of slugs, appearing on the wing
about the third weeli in May until the middle of June. The fly is of a glossy
black colour, with four transparent wings, the front pair being crossed by a
dusky cloud ; the veins are brownish and the legs dull yellow, with black
thighs, except the hind pair, which are black at both extremities, and dull
yellow in the middle. The female fly is more than oue-flfth of an inch long ;
the male is somewhat smaller. When the trees on which these flies are at
work are jarred or shaken, or if the flies are otherwise disturbed, they fall to
the ground, where, folding their antennas under their bodies and bending the
head forward and under, they remain for a time motionless.

The female of this species begins to deposit her eggs earl.y in June ; they
are placed singly within little .semi-circular incisions through the skin of the
leaf, sometimes on the under side and sometimes on the upper. In about a
fortnight these eggs hatch.

The newly-hatched slug is at first white, but soon a slimy matter oozes
out of the skin and covers the upper part of the body with an olive-coloured
sticky coating. After changing its skin four times, it attains the length of
half an inch or more and is then nearly full-grown. It is a disgusting-looking
creature, a slimy, blackish, or olive-brown slug, with the anterior part of its
body so swollen as to resemble somewhat a tadpole iu form, and having a
disagreeable and sickening odour. The head is small, of a reddish colour,
and is almost entirely concealed under the front segments. It is of a dull,
yellowish colour beneath, with twent,y very short legs, oue i^air under each
segment, except the fourth and the last. After the last moult it loses its
slimy appearance and dark colour, and appears in a clean, yellow skin entirely
free from slime. Its form also is changed, being proportionatel.v longer. In a
few houi's after this change it leaves the tree and crawls or falls to the groimd.
where it buries itself to a depth of from one to three or four inches. By
repeated movements of the body the earth is pressed firmly on all sides, and
an oblong oval chamber is formed, which is afterwards lined with a sticky,

127 ' •

glossy substtmce, which makes it retain its shape. ^Yithiu tliis little, earthen
cell the insect changes to a chrysalis, and in about a fortnight tinishes its
transforniatious, breaks open the enclosure, crawls to the surface of the
ground, and appears in a winged form.

About the third week in July the flies are actively engaged in depositing
eggs for a second brood, the young slugs appearing early in August. They
i-each maturity in about four weeks, then retire underground, change to pupie,
and remain in that condition until the following spring.

Pear and cherry growers should be on the look-out for this destructive pest
about the middle of June and again early in August, and if the young larvic
are then abundant they should be properly attended to, since, if neglected,
they soon play sad havoc with the foliage, feeding upon the upper side of the
leaves and consuming tlie tissues, leaving only the veins and uuder-sUin.
The foliage, deprived of its substance, withers and becomes dark-coloured, as
if seorclied by fire, and soon afterwards it drops from the trees. In a badly
Infested pear orchard, whole rows of trees may sometimes be seen as bare
of foliage during the early days of July as they are in mid-winter. In such
stances the trees are obliged to throw out new leaves, and this extra effort
so exhausts their vigour as to interfere seriously with their fruit-producing
power the following year. Although very abundant in a given locality one
season, these slugs may be very scarce the next, as they are liable to be
destro.ved in the interval by enemies and by unfavourable climatic influences.
Spray with Paris green or hellebore as soon as noticed ; or small trees
may be treated as for the currant worm, with hellebore or Paris green.
Raspberry Saw-fly, or Raspberry Leaf Worm (Selandria rubi).
The larvie feed upon the leaves and young growth of raspberry and black-
berry plants, and do very serious injury. The parent flies appear early in
siiring_ having wintered in the pupal form beneath the surface of the ground
near their food plants. Eggs are deposited in slits or cuts in the leaves, and
the young larva? soon hatch out and commence their worli of destruction.
Infested leaves become spotted in appearance on the upper surface, before the
larvip hatch out, and indicate the presence of the pests. The larvoe are light
)wish-green in colour, varying to darker shades, imitating tlie colour of
the leaves upon which they are feeding.

Hellebore, used either dry or in the form of a spray, is the most useful
remedy against these pests, but requires to be applied early in the attack, a
few days' neglect resulting in much harm being done, as they are voracious
feeders. AYhether sprayed or dusted on, the hellebore must reach the under-
sides of the foliage for best results.

Cicada, or "Harvest Fly."
No injury is done by these insects in feeding, but their egg-laying habit
causes considerable trouble. The eggs are laid in the twigs and branches of
trees, a .series of slits being cut by the ovipositor of the female, forming
hnnibers in whicli the eggs are arrangefl in series. They are easily known
ly their broad, transparent wings, the large head, with prominent e.ves set on
ach side, and b.v the shrill, loud noise or song, which is caused by the males,
^■ho have an elaborate drumming and sounding structure on their imdersides.

128

GOOSEBKHRY WoRM (IR CaTKKI'ILLAR (G IIIII IIOII llfll II fl iipiicniUciiliitiis. IIartif.

(Fig. 34.)

In the iujurious stage of their existence they are small green caterpillars
which feed voraciously uiion the leaves of gooseberry and currant bushes.
This species is a native one, identified from siiecimens of the parent tly, bred
by the liev. G. W. Taylor, of Nanaimo. The parents are members of the saw-
fly family, and there are at least two or three broods of these pests in .i
season. Late appearing broods, which are generally very numerous, are
often neglected, and infested bushes become defoliated in a very short time.

The first brood usually appears early in Ma.v. At this time there may only
be a comparatively small number of the larva\ but it is important to destroy
these, as each succeeding brood is vastly increased in numbers under natural
conditions. The eggs from which the larvae hatch are deposited on leaves near
the base of the branches, and the young caterpillars can be destroyed with a
minimum of labour and expense, if attacked in the early stage of their
existence.

Hellebore has been found the Ijest remed.v for this pest. It may be used in
the form of a dry powder, or in water as a spray, at the rate of 1 oz. to U
gallons water. On a large scale Leggefs Powder Gun is a very quick and
economical means for applying dry hellebore: by its use there is a great
saving of time in the application as well as material.

If desired, Paris green mixed with dry flour, at the rate nf 1 oz. to 4 lbs.
flour, can be used to dust the bushes for the early brood, or as a sjiray. but
would not be advisable for later use. when fruit is on tlie bushes.

The Imported Currant-Worm i\cuiiitii.^ irntrico.sux. Ring).

The insect appears soon after tlie currant and gooseberry bushes put
forth their leaves, and the eggs are laid upon the under surface of the lower
leaves, along the principal veins. The eggs hatch in a week or ten days into
a pale, twent.v-legged caterpillar, with a large, dull, whitish head. Tliey soon
become green and accquire shining black spots on the body, and the lu'ad
lieeomes black. The full-grown worms are about three-fourths of an inrh
long, and are shown in various positions in Figure 34a; a and h give the
position of the black spots upon ma.gnified .ioint of the bod.v. When they
have completed their growth they leave the bushes and either hide just
below the surface of the ground or under any leaves that may be on the sur-
face, spin a thin cocoon of brownish silk, within which they assume the puiia
state. Late in Jane, or early in July, sometimes not until August, the perfec^t

121)

insects appear : a second crop of eggs is laid, and tlie same round in repeated :
but this second brood does not issue from the pupa until the following spring.
The perfect female is shown in Figure 34b. the lines showing the actual size.

Those who receive currant bushes from a distance, in order to avoid the
introduction of this insect in the pupa state, should carefull.v wash the roots
•of the plants and burn whatever may be washed from them.

Remedies. — When the worms are not checked, they soon strip iM.th the
currant and gooseberry bushes of their leaves, and the partly-i:rown fruit
shrivels and dies. The insect threatened to put an end to currant culture in
localities where it is au important crop, until an effective remedy was made
known. By the prompt use of white hellebore the insect may be subdued with
l)Ut little trouble, and the crop saved. Some papers speak of the use of
•■hellebore," and it is necessary to specify white hellebore (Veratrum
iilbiiiin. which is an entirely different drug from the black hellebore (HeUe-
honis itif/cr). The powdered root as sold at the drug stores, is of a light
greeni.sh-yellow colour, and excites violent sneezing when taken into the
nostrils: hence care should be observed in handling it. The powder may be
sprinkled upon the bushes by means of a tin sifter, but this is often attended
by unpleasant sneezing, and is not so economical or effective as to apply it
mixed with water. I'lace a heaping teaspoonful of the powder in a bowl :
make sure that the powder is thoroughly wetted: tlu'U add nmre water,
stirring until a quart, more or less, has been added. Turn this mixture into
a pailful of cold water, stir well, and apply by the use of any garden syringe
or hand-eugine, or a watering-pot may be used. The object should be to wet
every leaf: hence much force is not needed. In a few days, if any worms
are found to have escaped, the application should be repeated ; rarely are
more than two doses needed. The use of white hellebore is so easy and .so
effective that none of the other applications that have been recommended need
be noticed. — Iiijiirioiis Insects, Trent.

130

Winter Moth {RaeJiela occidciitalis)

Is line of the measuriug wovms in the iiroviiiri-. of whidi. the Rev. Geo.
W. Taylor says, the female is wingless.

Rcmcili/. — Spraying with the Paris green wash (Spray No. 0) soon after
the worms hatch.

Obliqve-Banded JjEaf Roller (Cacwcia rosaccaiia)

Injuring the buds and young leaves of apple and other fruit trees. This
moth is a member of the Tortrwidif or leaf-rollers, so named on account of
their habit of rolling up the leaves or portions of them into hollow cylinders,
within wliich they live and feed. The larva commences operations as soon as
the buds begin to expand ; when full-grown they are about three-quarters of
an inch iu length, of a green or yellowish-green colour, with the head and top
of the first segment brown; there is usually a darker stripe along the back,
and a few smooth dots on each segment, from each of which arises a fine
short hair.

The ravages of the larvje are often quite serious, as they check the new
growth and destroy the blossoms. Spraying, to be effective, requires to lie
done early in the season, using the Paris green spray. After tlie eases are
formed, hand-picking and crushing of these is advised.
Lace Bugs (TingitiiUcc).

They are found on the under sides of the leaves — small, whitish, flat
insects, with gauze-lilce broad wing covers, usually in masses together. They
suck the sap of the leaves. The insects are black or brown in colour. Some
of tCe adults usually live through the winter, and the females deposit their
eggs iu the spring, but sometimes eggs are laid in the fall and the winter
passed iu that stage. For shelter in the winter fallen leaves are used, or the
adult insects creep under loose bark scales or into crevices. In the sununer the
insects may be destroyed by using either of sprays Xo. 2. G, or 7 with the
.spray pump, taking care to reach the under sides of the leaves.
Thrips.

Of this species of iusects there are many members, some of which do
considerable harm to fruit and ornamental trees and bushes. Rose bushes
are very subject to attack, especially if suffering for want of moisture. The
evergreen blackberry is also very often infested with these pests. They
usuall.v feed on the under sides of leaves, and take their food by suction ; the
infested leaves lose their colour iu spots. They are small Iu size, slender
and active, with the head so narrow that they seem to be pointed at both ends.
The wings ai-e laid longitudinally on the back, are narrow and trausisareut.
The.v run and fly readily ; some of them jump or spring when disturbed.

These Insects thrive in hot. dry weather^ hence become more injurious,
as plants are less able to resist them, so that iu addition to destroying the
pests the plants should, if possible, be well watered aud fed.

Either the tobacco and soap (Xo. 6), or the quassia and soap wash (Xo. 2).
will give good results against these pests, but care must be taken to wet the
under sides of the leaves.

131

Lesser Apple-Leaf Roller (Tcnix mi nut a).

(I'K, ".' 1

(n.). Lai-va: ((Ji. I'uija , u ). Mutli , (r/l. Folding case of leaves.
The caterpillar of the lesser apiile-leaf roller is a greeuish-yellow larva,
smooth, with a pale brown head aud whitish markings, affecting the young
leaves of the terminal twigs, with which the insect forms a protective case.
This species is remarkable in that two of the three broods of moths which
appear during the .vear are of a bright orauge colour, while those of the third
brood are reddish-gray. It is an example of what naturalists call dimorphism.
The eggs are laid in tlie spring, on the unfolding leaves of apple and other
trees and bushes, the larva" soon hatching and feeding on the young foliage,
some of which they roll into a protective covering.

Here they continue feeding for about a mouthy when they pupate within
the folded leaves, and a week or so later emerge as small orange-yellow moths.
These moths lay eggs for another brood of larvie. the moths of which are also
yellow, and they in turn lay eggs for a third brood, which develop in the fall
as reddish-gray moths. These winter in sheltered places aud in the following
spring deposit their eggs as previously stated.

The caterpillars feed together in numbers, usually stri|ipnig the branches
of leaves as they proceed. When handled, they emit a transparent fluid
having a strong acid smell. When full-grown they descend to the ground and
conceal themselves under leaves or slightly below the surface, after a time
clumging to brown chrysalids.

The moths usually appear about June, aud are desc[-il)i'd as follows: — ■
The fore-wings are dark-brown on the inner and grayish on the outer margin,
with a dot near the middle, a spot near each angle, and several longitudinal
streaks along the hind margin, all dark-brown.

The hind wings of the male are brownish, or dirty white: those of the
female dusky brown. When expanded, the wings measure 1 to Hi inches
across.

The female deposits her eggs in a cluster on the under side of a leaf;
these soon hatch into small caterpillars, which at first feed on the substance
of the under side of the leaf: later on they consume the entire leaves. When
not eating they remain close together^ sometimes completely covering the
branch they rest upon. On aci-nuut of this habit they can be easily gathered
and destroyed, or the linili cut off and trampled under foot. They are also
easily destroved by using the Paris greeu .spray. Xo. 0.

132

(Fig. 36.)
JIOTTLKi) r.MUKR MoTH {Enniiiis (Ivfdt id rill) .

Injurious to the folhifie of fruit trees, especially plums and cherries.
The larva? are slender looiiers or measuring worms, IV^ inches in length, with
chestnut red heads, dark reddish-brown backs, mottled with broken narrow
black lines, the lowest distinct and waved; the sides bright yellow, paler
Tieneath. There is a dark reddish patch, shaded with black, surrounding each
spiracle. The male moth is of a dull ochre-brown hue, expanding 1% inches,
and has the ujiper wings dotted and crossed diagonally by two dark wa^■e(l
bands; the si)ace between these is pale and bears on each wing a dark discal
spot ; the lower wings are paler than the upper and like them sprinkled with
Tjrown dots, and they have a dark spot near the middle. The female moth is
brown, with two rows of conspicudus sjiots down the Imrk. The wings are
almost entirely aborted. When llic moths api>ear in the ;iutuiini the females
crawl up the trunks of trees and lay their eggs on the branches. In this
ieondition tlie in.sect i)asses the winter.

The usual remedies for the canker worms are aiiiilicable for this species,
and consist of tying stick.v bandages or mechanical cinitrivMncTS around the
trunks of fruit trees to prevent the females from crawling up to de]iosit their
eggs, or what will be found far more effective, spraying the trees in siiring
when the young caterpillars hatch, with Taris green and lime, 1 pound of
■each to 200 gallons of water, or the Bordeaux mixture and Paris green spra.v,
No. 0.

Tin: I)i.\mond-Back JIoth
(Pliitcllii iiKiciilijifiiiiis. i'lRTK^I'liitilld riiiiifcriiiinii. Zi:i,L. t.

Attiirk. — Small, green, exceedingly active caterjiillars about one-cpiarter
to three-eighths of an inch in length, which attack the leaves of cabbages,
turnips, etc.. e.-iting iiiniicmiis small lioles through the younger leaves, and
irregular blotches from tla- under surface of the older leaves. When disturbed
they run backwards, wriggling their bodies violently from side to side, and,
by means of a silken thread, fall to the ground, where the.v lie quite still.

The caterpillar of the <li:im 1 back moth is in some years a serious pest

of cabbages, turnips, r,-i]ie ,iiid almost all other cruciferous plants. lu years
of bad attack the whole plant soon turns white from the green cellular matter
Iiaving been eaten away, and the plants dry up. It is probable that there are
two regular broods in the year: but occasionally in late autumns some of the
second brocMl emerge and iimduce a third suiiplementary brood, part of which

133

(■(Hues tn nintiirity. nnd tlir impu' winter over and fnrni |p;irt <i( tlic sprinfr
bi-(iud uf uiutlis. TUu effects of the tir.st brood are seldom noticed until about
the first week of July, iiud, when seeu, should at ouce be attended to. The
active caterpillars cau be recognized by their spindle-shaped bodies and their
wriggling motions when disturbed. When full grown, the.y spin open net-work
i-ocoons on the lower sides of the leaves, through which the black-lined white
pupiie can be easily .seen. The larval stage in suniuier lasts from three weelcs
to a month, and the pupal stage about a fortnight. The perfect moth is a
slender little creature, very variable in size and markings. The general colour
is asliy-gray with a stripe of light somewhat diamond-sha]ied marks on the
back when the wings are closed.

The occurrence of the diamond-back moth in large numbers is fortunately
ver.v irregular. This is undoubtedl.v due to the large number of parasites
whicli always appear witli a serious attack. This is a fortunate circumstance,
as it is a dilHcult insect to control. The injuries are generally more serio\is
in hot. dry seasons.

Rtiiiciliis. — Remedies which have given g 1 results are: (1.) Dusting

the infested plants with a dry Paris green mixture, using preferabl.v lime or
wood ashes as a diluent. In England where soot from soft coal can be easil.v
obtained, this substance mixed with equal ipiantities of slaked lime is found
to give the best results. (2.) Kerosene emulsion s]ira.ved well under the leaves,
has given excellent results in garden pr.-utice. (.3. 1 As a supplementary
treatment, inducing a vigorous growtli with light dressings of nitrate of soda,
or some special fertiliser, is most useful. (4.) Several reports mention the
advantage of watering thoroughl.v the attacked plants, where this is practi-
cable. {■'>.) As a preventive measure, care sliould be taken to keep down all
weeds and plants of the mustard family, and to destroy in autumn all surplus
plants of a crop which has l)een attat-ked. In this way the over-wintering
brood will be destro.ved. — Fhtchcr.

F.\i.r. Wku-Worm i II uplKiiitrhi tt.rlnr).

The moth of this species deiiosits her eggs in broad jiatches on the under-
side of the leaves, near the end of a branch, during the latter part of May or
early June. These hatch during June and July. As soon as the young larviie
appear they begin to eat and to sjiin a web over themselves for protection.
They devour only the puljiy jiortion of the leaves, leaving the veins and skin
of the under surface untom lied. '\YIien full grown they are an inch or more
in length, and vary greatly in their markings; some examples are pale-yellow

or greenish, others much darker, and of a bluish-black hue. The head is
blacji, and there is a broad, dusky or blackish stripe down the back, along each
side is a yellowish band, speckled more or less with black. The body is
covered with long straight hair.s, grouped in tufts, arising from small black
or orange-yellow r)rotuberauces, of which there are a number on each segment.
The moth Is of a milk-white colour, without spots. When expanded, the
wings measure about IM inches across. From their birth the web-spinning
habits of the larvie promptl.v leads to their detection, and as soon as seen they
should be removed by cutting oft" the twig or branch and destroying it. As
they remain constantly under the web for so long a period, the removal of the
branch insures in most instances the destruction of the whole colony. Scr
also remedy recommended for Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar.

Tussock Moth {Orriyia anfifiiia).

Feeding upon the leaves of fruit and other trees. When mature, the
caterpillars are ver,v pretty, having bright red heads, and j-ellowish bodies,
bearing a series of dense, abruptly cut-off brushes ou the middle of their
backs, with two pencils of black liair on the anterior, and one on tlie posterior
of each.

The eggs from which the cateriiillars hatch are often noticed in winter
on dead leaves which are fastened to the tree, with usually the empty cocoon
attached. The injury from these pests is best prevented by the destruction of
these egg masses during the winter.

The caterpillars may be killed by using the Paris green siiray, or. if not
too numerous, picking might be resorted to.

Eed-Humpkd Caterpillar (CEdcmasla concinna).

(Fig. ^8.) (Fig 3<J )

This caterpillar feeds upon the foliage of apple and other fruit trees. Its
head is red, and thei-e is a hump on its back of the same colour, on the fourth
ring or segment ; the bod.v is marked lengthwise by slender black, yellow and
white lines, and has two rows of black prickles along the back and other
shorter ones upon the sides, from each of which there arises a fine hair. The
hinder segments taper a little, and are alwa,vs elevated when the insect is not
crawling. It measures, when full grown, about 1% inches in length.

Dr. Fletcher, under date of ."th September, 1906. says : "• This caterpillar
has been rather more abundant than usual in all parts of Canada this year, but
although it ajipears to be a very bad pest on account of the caterpillars feed-
ing in large clusters, as a matter of fact it is not an important enemy of the
apple, because the whole colony can be cut off and destroyed at once, whenever
their presence is detected by their injuries."

13a

Tent Caterpillar (Clisiocainiia Aiiii'ricaiia) .

(Fig. 40.'

<a.). Side view; (!)i. V.ark view, full grown, at about six weeks old: (ci, Clustei- of

eggs: (rfj. Cocoon, oval of pale yellow colour.

Tliis pest of the fruit-grower is widely distributetl tlirougliout tlie Province
4111(1 luiowii by all fruit-growers by tlieir habit of buildiug webs or nests from
which they issue to feed. Tlie eggs of these pests are deposited upon the
twigs of fruit and other trees in riug-lilce clusters or patches and covered with
41 viscid liquid, which dries into a sort of varnish, by the parent moths: this
talces place during July and August.

On the principle that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,
the easiest way of dealing with this pest, especially on small trees, is to
destroy the egg masses, either removing them for the purpose, or cutting off
the twigs on which they are found. Careful searching is required to do this,
l>ut the work can be accomplished in tlie dormant season, when there is not
so much press of work in other ways. If the caterpillars are allowed to hatch
out. they are easily detected by their conspicuous web or iiest. In the early
and late portions of the day they will all be found in these nests, and can be
readily destroyed by crushing the nests and their contents with the gloved
hand, by trampling under foot, or by using a torch to burn them out. Some-
times when a nest has been destroyed some of the caterpillars will be absent
feeding, and within a few days the nest will iie repaired and the vennuints of
the colony re-established, so that repeated visits should be made to the orchard
in order that all may be destroyed. Neglected trees are .soon stripped of their
foliage and become exhausted by having to reproduce foliage at an unseason-
able time, so that little or no fruit will be produi'ed the fcillowing season.

13G

Whci-c these iK'sts h;ive lieeu iiesleeted till they lieeonie iiiatur(\ it niny
become necessary to use the Paris f,'reeii spray (N<i. 'J) to prevent them from
spreading.

Forest Ti:xT-CATERPir.LAR (ClUiocatiiim siilriiticu).

A near relation of the last-mentioned i)est. and like it. widely distrilnited
and destruttive. both in orchards and to forest trees, such as willows, maples.
birches, etc., often completely defoliating considerable area.s. They do not
spin such extensive webs as the preceding pest, and are great travellers
during the latter part of the day, and often during the earlier ixtrtion too :
they collect on the trunks and larger branches of infested trees in large
masses: this habit can be taken advantage of in destroying them, but it is
often difficult to protect orchard trees in the vicinity of infested forest areas.
Constant watchfulness is needed in such cases and the Paris green spray must
be used freely, comliiniMl with liand-]iickiiig and destruction of massed bodies
of the pests.

P>ri) Moth {Tmctocrni ovriliiini) .

The half-grown lai\:i' winter in inconspicuous temporary roconns. which
are usually secreted about tlie buds on the twigs and smaller branches. When
the buds begin to open in the s|iring the larva' leave their cocoims and attack
both leaf and fruil buds. During the day time lln> m<iths remain ipiietly
resting upon the trunks and larger branches of the tree, with their wings
folded roof-like over tlu' back. In this position they so closely resemble the

137

linrU ill colour that it is difflcult to detect them. The moths iirobably lire
two or three weeks, and. besiimiiig a tew da.vs after they emerge, fly about
from tree to tree, mostly in the iii£;ht. aud deposit their eggs siugly or in small
clusters upon the leaves. In from seven to ten days these eggs hatch. The
young larva-, which is at first green, at once begins to feed, usually ui>on the
lower epidermis of the leaf. It soon spins for itself a silken tube open at
both ends, aud usually located beside the midrib. Throughout the summer the
larvaj work upon the leaves in this manner, but towards fall they retreat
upon the twigs and branches aud construct the temporary cocoons in which
they pass the winter. — Cordh'ij, Oregon Horticultural Iiei)ort. 1901.

This insect is found attacking both leaf and flower buds upon the apple,
and sometimes proves very injurious. The half-grown larva winters over,
and appears in spring as a small brown caterpillar, just about the time the
buds begin to open, and feeds upon them. It measures about half an inch
when full grown. By rolling up one side of a leaf, aud securely fastening it
with silken threads, it forms a tube in which it enters the pupa stage, having
lined the little chamber with a closely woven layer of silk. This condition
lasts ten days. The imago is a small moth, resembling the codling moth in
size and form. It is of an ash-gray colour. The front wings have a whitish-
gray band across the middle ; the hind wings are dusty-brown. The
expanded vings measure half an inch across. It also attacks i)ear. plum,
cherry, quince and jieach trees, and blackberry buds.

Rcmeilil. — Paris green added to Unrdraux mixture, as directed for the
treatment of the apple.— O/i^/rio BiiJIrlin ,,ii /V.vrv.

F<ir Tiriij Bon r mid Bud ilolli.

Spray in the fall, as soon as all the leaves have dropiied. with sulphur,
lime, and salt solution, followed up in the spring, as s<ioii as the buds begin
til swell, with following wash: Sulphate of copper. .3 pounds; lime, i pounds;
I'aris green. 4 ounces: w.iter. 4."i gallons; aud again with the same wash the
latter part of .May.— 0/cf/„» Ihni iniltiinil h'rport. 19(1.1.

138

CHAPTER X.— INSECTS ATTACKING FRUIT.

SYXOrSIS OF LIFE III8TOUY OF CODLING MOTH.

CODLIXG JIOTii {('itriiiji-(i[ts(i poynoiiclhi. Lixx.)

(Fig. 44.)

The pnnctm-c? made by tlir ni.iili is (ni. Nest of larva on outside of tree,

represented at (bi, tlie li..rinj- ..i ili.- under the old bark; (!)). pupa; {c\,

larva at (<n, the maiui'- worm ,ir larva exposed from nest; (rf), old

(e), the moth with wiims r|i>s cl at nest: (fi, larva about to build nest:

(/), the moth with wings expanded ifi. the moth at rest: i<ii. moth with

at (.(7), and the cocoon at (ii : id), wings spread: (7m, head of larva,
the chr.vsalis. and (li) , the anterior
part of the body magnified.

Tliore ;i«' throe stages in the life liistor.v of tlie codling moth: —
(1.) Tlie hirvit or wonn ; ( J. I Tlieinipa: (o. ) Tlie moth or mature iusect.
The Iusect alwa.vs ji.-isses tlie winter in the larval couclition, as a worm.
It .spins about itself in tlie fall a web ealled roeoon, to protect itself from the
cold, rain, other insects and birds. It endeavours to find, and almost alwa.vs
succeeds in finding, some dry place to pass the winter, such as old fences.
boards, scaly bark of trees, or even large clods. At varying times in the
spring, according to the season or whether it has a warm or cool hiding place,
this -U'Orm changes into that iieculiar brown object called the pupa, and from
this stage into the moth. Here is the first and most important point for the
apple-grower, who intends to figlit the moth succe.ssfully, to understand.
Yon must know just ichcn the moth appears in order to do intelligent work.
Therefore, prepare yourself a hreediiig cayc and confine some of the worms
in it, that you ma.v hiinii' with certainty when the moth comes out. One of
the simplest cages is a wiile-montlied fruit ,iar, and in place of a lid tie some

139

light wire-gauze alxmt the month securely, so that neither werm nor moth
can get out. Place the jar in the orchard in a cool, dry pl.-ice. About the
time of apple blossoming refer to your jar daily. As soon as the first moth
comes out you should begin your spraying, whether all the petals, or
" blossoms," have fallen or not. It is rare that a moth emerges from its pupa-
case before most of the petals have fallen; often it does not take place until
a week or two after this time. To show how this varies from year to year, let
me instance from other bulletins and from my own work, lu Utah, in 1003,
the first moths appeared, according to Ball, about the first of June. In 1899.
according to Aldrich, the first moth appeared about June 16th, probably two
weeks later than usual, while the blossoms did not fail till June 14-17. This
year, the first moth appeared iu my cage May ISth, while the apples were in
full blossom about May 14th. This was due to the unusually warm, dry
spring which forced out both moths and flowers a couple of weeks earlier
than usual. To be iu time to catch the first worms, which might have come out
before those iu my cage did, I had to spray before most of the petals had
fallen. The transformations of the worm take aliout fifty days, and may
be shown gi-aphieally as follows : —

(1.) Winter worms change to moths about when petals are falling. First
spra.vnig.

(2.) Moths mate and lay eggs in a day or two.

(3.( Eggs hatch almost always in about eight or ten days, while petals
clo,se iu about ten days. " First brood of iroriiis."

Many advise a second spraying at this time, to get the poison into the
ral.vx cups before the last of them close, and to catch the last of the young
\\orms of the first brood before they enter the apple. No spray can affect the
\\orm when once he has entered the fruit unharmed or unpoisoned.
(4.) Worm remains in apple about eighteen or twenty days.

{').) He then comes out by enlarging the tunnel he nia<le on entering, or
by eating out a new tumiel. and lets himself down from tlie apple to the
ground by a silken thread, or crawls down the trunk of the tree, seeking a
hiding place in which to ]mpate.

((). I Having found such a hiding place, he wraps himself up as did the
winter worm, gradualy changes to a pupa, and comes out as a moth in about
twenty da.vs. Simpson found this time varied from eleven to forty-nine days
in Southern Idaho.

(7.) The eggs are again laid, and they again hatch in about eight or ten
days. As this forms the time for the third siiruuiiig. or the second, if we have
omitted the last one mentioned, we must again have recourse to the breeding
cage. In fact, it is much more essential that we should know the exact time
this set of moths appears than the first, as we are more or less limited iu
tlie first spraying by the date of full flowering. So, as soon as the worms
come out of the apples, which can be told by the liinnU on your trees (and
yon should use bandsi. catch .some, place them in your cage, watch when the
first moth appears, add eight or ten days for hatcliing of young worms, and
you will know when this second lirood of worms is ready to enter the apples.
Your siiray should be on the aiiiiles soon after the emergence of the first
moth, in order to catch early as well as late worm.s of this brood.

140

(8.1 The young worms again ent tlieir way into the apples, and remain
inside the fruit for another twenty days or so. The first brood enters the
apple mainly by the vali/.r end ; hence the necessity of having the poison well
diiwn in the calyx cup and ready for them. The second brood enters the
aiiple anywhere, but usually not by the calyx. When the mature worm
emerges from the apple again lie does not. about Moscow, change again this
season into the moth, but seeks a hiding-place, spins about him his cocoon,
and there spends the winter, Ifarely they remain in the apple when stored, —
Hciiilcrsoii. Biillrtin .3J. Iilalio.

Rciiiedicf:.

Sprayiiio with the Paris green mixture Xo. '.). or with arsenate of leail,
are the recognized spra.ys now universall.y used,

Desfroiiinn fdllcii fruit. — Fallen fruit should be promptly gathered and
destroyed. It has been recomended that hogs be kept in the orchard for the
Ijurpose of devouriug such fruit, and where they can be so kept iritlKnil injiinj
to the trees or other crops, they would, no doutit. he useful.

The following is from the U. S, Farmers' Bulletin, No, 247 ; —

Bundiiifi. — The use of bands to trap the full grown larvre of the coilling
moth was the only remedial measure of value employed before arsenical sprays
were discovered. If au orchard has been given good care, and spraying is
thoroughly done, it may be unnecessary to use bands. If, however, the trees
are old and cracked, and have holes in the trunks and liranches. or are jilanted
clo.se together, so that .spraying is diflicult. the use of bauds will materially
aid in bringing the insect under control.

Banding for this insect is simply affording it a good place to spin its
cocoon, and killing the larva or pupa after it has gone beneath the band.
Cloth bands, from 10 to 12 inches in width, are folded once Ieugthwi.se and
placed around the tree. They can lie fastened in such a way as to be easily
removed and replaced, by driving a nail through the ends and then nipping
off tlie head at an angle so as to leave a sharp point. If a tree is large, one
band should be placed on the trunk and one on each of the larger limbs. Cloth
bands of any heavy dark-coloured stuff are much preferable to bands of hay
or paper. When bands are used, the trees should be scraped clean of rough
or loose bark, to leave as few other attractive places as possible in which the
larvre might spin cocoons. luspection of the bands should be made regularly
at intervals of ten days, and all larvre and puji.-e found beneath them should
be destrfiyed with a knife. If used alone, banding is but little effective in
badly infested localities, but it is a most valuable adjunct to siiraying. Under
no circumstances should banding li(> used as a substitute for spraying.

The use of arsenate of lead for the codling moth is thus referred to in the
New Zealand Agricultural Iteport, l'.)U7 :~

■■ Spidiiiiiii far Codliitu Moth.

•■ Such excellent results in the cdutrcl of the moth have been derived
through sju-aying with disiiarene (which is only another name for arsenate of
lead) that it seems probable that either dis|iareue or Swift's arsenate of lead
will take the place of other forms of arsenic as an insecticide for codling

141

uioth and other (li-strurtivc catiii^-inst'rts. The in-icc nt wliirh arsenate
of lead was pnt on the market iireviously has heen almost iirohiliitive as
far as extensive use in large commercial orchards was ronierned. but recently
a material i-ecUiction has brought it within the reach of all those who need
to use an effective insecticide. ( Swift's arsenate of lead is now being used
to a very large extent in the Pajaro Valley, one of the largest apple-growing
districts in Calfornia. The Port Albert apple-growers have derived splendid
results from the use of disparene. By careful and thorough spraying they
liave reduced moth infection to next to nothing. In some young orchards
of smooth-barked trees there is not more than 1 per cent, of infected fruit,
while in the older orchards tlie infection is not more than .'! per cent.)"
JIdir til Si)itiii.

S|jraying should be don(> with a definite object in view, and the method
of siiraying adapted to the aecompllshraeut of that oliject. Tlie first sprayipg
for the codling moth is for the sole object of getting the poison into the calyx
cup before it closes, and everything else should be subordinated to that end.
It has been found by repeated experiments that a rather coarse spray, thrown
with great force, will penetrate and remain in the cups better than the mist-
like spray ordinarily used. At this time the api)les are standing upright or
out towards the light just as the blossoms were, and .so to go into these cups
tlie spray must be thrown from aborc iloicii and from tlic skies in, and not
from below up, as it is usually done. In the latter ca.se the mist-like spra.v
gathers on the stamens and either runs off or else dries there and does not
carry any poison down into the cups. It will <lo no harm to i-ontinue the first
spraying until the tree is dripjiing all over, as the liiiuid tli.it has lodged iu
the calyx cups will stay there.

The second spraying serves two jmrposes. one to till any calyx cups still
open, and also to leave a coating of poison on leaves and fruit. The writer
formely used the mist spray for this application, but changed to the coarse
spray and secured better results. This spraying should cease as soou as the
tree begins to drip.

What Xozzir to Use,

For both these sprayings the best nozzle to use is one that throws a
fan-like spray, such as the Bordeaux, manufactured by the Deming Co., or
the Seneca of the Gould Co., setting the nozzle at about the medium capacity,
so that under the working ju-essure of the pump the spray will be thrown G to
S feet before a mist is formt'd. If such a spray is thrown up and down on a
smooth surf.u-i. .-it a distance of (1 to s feet, it will leave the surface covered
with little drops of water the size of a pinhead or smaller, eaili one containing
a grain or more of poison, whicli will be left there as the water evaporates.
If spraying is continued too long these little drops will unite and run off,
carrying the poison with them. If the nozzle is set too fine, progress will be
slow, if too coarse the drops will run off. Care should be taken at all times
to see that the pressure is kept up and that the mixture is well agitated.

The Bordeaux nozzle has a greater capacity than the other fan-shaped
ones, and we have found th.-it on(> of this style will cover as much ground and
do better work than two of the other kind.s.

142

^Vll<•ll to Si)r(i)i.

The first aiiplicntion shouUl be uiade as soou after the bloom falls as
possible — never while the blossoms are on. In a badly mixed orchard this
might possibly be when a few blossoms were on the late trees, but in case the
different varieties were separate, spray each variety three or four days after
the petals fall. In planting au orchard different varieties should be kept in
blocks, or at least in rows, so that they can be sprayed when ready.

The length of time in which the calyx remains open varies in different
varieties and in different seasons; probably six to ten days would be a fair
average. This can be watched and those that close the quickest sprayed first.

The second spraying should be made from ten days to two weeks after
the first. This will catch those calyx cups that are late in closing and any
from which the first spray has been washed, and will also leave a coating of
poison on the now fairly well-grown leaves and the developing fruit. — BuUctin
yo. S~, Utah.

Lesser Apple-Worm (GraphoUtha itninivora, Walsh).

This is the insect which has so often been mistaken for the codling moth
by our fruit-growers, and certainly in some respects there is a marked resem-
blance. It is also known as the plum-moth, and was first figured and
described by Walsh as a plum enemy.

Full-grown specimen larvre are described as follows : three-eighths of an
inch in length, one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, tapering slightly towards
both extremities; reddish pink to pale pink in colour; lightest in colour
between the segments. Head smaller than first segment, with blotchy, darkish
brown markings; thoracic and anal plates also darkish, marked with brown.
Body covered with white bristles, with finely dotted surface to the skin
(under microscope). The parent moth expands about five-eighths of an inch
across wings; the ground colour of the front wings is black, with large
patches of rusty red and a central steel-blue patch. Along the costa are
seven very conspicuous short white streaks, arranged 2, 2, and 3 together, of
which the longest are the 1st, 3rd, oth and 7th. These streaks are nearly
parallel to each other, and are obliquely directed towards the posterior angle
of the wing. The hind wings are dusky gray at the base, shading into black
at the tip.

The conunon form of attack of this pest in cultivated aiiples is at the
calyx end of the fruit, and in the majority of cases the larvse do not penetrate
very fur into the fruit. There are. however, many exceptions to this, and
quite a number of apples have been found in which the larv.T had bored into
the centre of the fruit and even fed upon the piiis. just as the true codling moth
does.

From this habit of feeding, it is apparent that effective use can be made
of the Paris green spray, or Bordeaux mixture and Paris green (Xo. 9). applied
very soon after the trees have blossomed, and before the young fruit turns
downwards, and wherever there is a probability of the pest appearing, this
course should be adopted. In addition to this, infested fruits, which usually
ripen prematurely, should be carefully collected and destroyed, as soon as

143

observed. A general observance of this jiractiee would greatly lessen the
numbers of the mature larv;e. and has the merit of costing nothing but a little
time and care.

CVRRANT JIaggot {Ei)oclira Canadeusis, Loew.)

Is a very serious pest of both red and black currants.

The parent fly varies in colour from pale yellow to pale orange, with
abdominal markings, greenish iridescent eyes, and dark bands across the
wings ; it is two-winged and appears during the latter part of May or early
in June, and is active during three or four weeks.

Eggs are deposited in the fruit during this period by means of the insect's
ovipositor, and each female is capable of laying at least 200 eggs. The young
larviE hatch out very quickly, and feed upon the seeds of the fruit. Infested
fruit at first has a clouded appearance, but soon turns reddish, prematurely
on one side, where the pest is located, and later, blackish. Jlost of the infested
fruit falls to the ground, and sometimes the ground is literally covered with
infested fruit. When the larvte are about to transform they crawl out of the
currants and enter the ground for a short distance, or they may transform
on the surface, under rubbish. In pupal form the insect is of a pale yellowish-
brown colour. In this condition the insect spends several months of the year,
gradually undergoing changes into the fly, which emerges in the spring.

As a preventive measure, the bushes and ground adjacent should be
.sprinkled with a mixture of air-slaked lime and carbolic acid, just at or pre-
vious to the time when the parent fl.v is active, probabl.v early in JIay. One
pint of crude carbolic acid to one bushel of lime, well mixed together, is
strong enough for the purpose. This method is useless after the eggs have
been deposited, .so careful attention is ncccssari/.

Gathering and destroying the fallen fruit during June would reduce the
numbers of the pest considerably, and as the pupal form is passed at or near
the surface of the ground, these can be destroyed by removing and burying the
soil to a depth of an inch, or by carefully digging and turning down the top-
soil so that the young flies are unable to emerge in the spring. Much good is
done by chickens in picking up the pests, and, if convenient, they should be
given the run of the patch for that purpose.

Injury to currants, both black and red, by the larvie of the currant fly
are somewhat frequent in the West, and. unfortunately, ui) to the present
time no very satisfactory remedy has been devised. The only treatment which
has given any results is the labourious one of removing about three inches of
the soil from beneath bushes which have been infested, replacing this with
fresh soil, and then treating the infested soil containing the puparia in such
a way that when the flies mature they cannot emerge. — Fletcher, Iicport 1003.
The Plum Cukculio {Conotrachcliis ■neiiiiphar. Herbst),

So far as known, this pest of plum-growers in Eastern States and Prov-
inces does not occur in British Columbia, but it is advi.sable that our fruit-
growers Should know the appearance of the insect. It belongs to the family
of snout beetles, so-called from the shape of the head, which is elongated into

144

(Fig

The differpnt stages are shown in the engraving above : a represents the grub much
magnified; 6 the chrysalis, antl c the beetle, both much magnified; (I the young
fruit, showing the croscent-sh.nped mark made by the insect, and the curculio. lite-
size, at its work.

a betik. The beetle is a sfuall, rough, grii,vish insect, about one-flfth of an
inch long. The female deposits eggs in the young fruit of plums and cherries,
causing them to drop prematurel.v, generall.v before the larva^ are full grown.

Api'lk-Fruit Mixer (Arf/i/rcslliiii conjiiiicUii. Z.)

(Fig. 4G. ) Infested .\pi)Ie — Halved,

The first apparent sign of infestation is the exudation of juice from the
fruit, at the iioint where the larva entered, which generall,y dries up in the
form of a little bubble, grayish in colour. The point of entrance is often
between two fruits which tout-h each other, or under a leaf which covers part
of the apple attacked. Later on. when the larva has left, the small hole in the
side of the fruit tbi'ough which it escaped can lie seen on close examination.

Many fruits were found to be infested both with this ;ind the lesser apple-
worm (Oruphdlitliit iiniiiinini. Walsh). The full-grown larva is smaller than
the last nicntioncil. It li.is been described as follows: Nearly cylindrical in
shape; slender; .-diout ', inch in length, when extended; bod.v whitish, some-
times greenish-white, with black head; surface of the body uneven, iutraseg-
mental folds deep; as also a nu'dinm transversal fold on each segment.

145

The cocoon •within whicli tlie impal stage is passed is Oonlile. consisting of
a close, dense, white spindle-shaped inside cocoon. % i"- i" length, enclosed in
a network or loose, open bag of large meshes, % in. by % in. The inside
cocoon is apparently open at one end, for in nearly every inst.-unr the larval
head and skiu are puslied (Uit into tlie laiter cdriKin.

Specimens of the apple-frnit miner confined in a ,i:ir having a layer of
moist earth at the bottom, and containing, also, lonsc ]ii('( cs of bark, invariabl.v
fhoo.se the latter to spin npon. the cocoons being generally jilaced deep in a
frevice, or under a flake of bark.

The moth is a very slender insect, measuring %-inch across the expanded
wings, I'pper wings are silvery-gray in colour, mottled with darker patches.
Along the imier margin, from the base to the middle of the wing is a broad
silvery hand of white iMidiiig abruptly on the inner m;irgin. but in a sjiur
ruiaiing backw.-irds at the nuter angle of the band. This is followed by a
conspicuous, lilaek patch, whicli, widest at the inner margin, runs diagonally
l>ackwards across the wing: next to this is an elongated triangular white
patch mottled with brown, having the base ou the inner margin of the wing
and the apex elongated and directed backwards towards the tip of the wing,
which terminates with an eye-like spot somewhat like a peacock's feather.
The dark gray lower wiugs are heavily fringed all round with long silky gray
hairs, as also is the lower apical margin of the up))er wings. The frontal
tuft and the thorax are of the same silvery-white as the broad bands on the
upper wings, which come together when the wings are closed and, .ioining with
tlie thorax, form a continuous white dorsal stripe from the front to half way
down the wings, where it is cut off by the dark baials which cross the wiugs
diagonally. The two white triangular jiatches also coihc together when the
wings are closed, forming a crescent-shaped saddle toward the tip of the wings.
^^■llen at rest the posterior end of the body is raised up at an angle of 4.5
degrees and the insect is supported on four legs very widely separated. At
such times the moth bears very little resemblance to an insect and may
<-ertainly be easily overlooked.

There is little ibaibt that Ibis insect is indigenous in this I'rovince. and
when its jinjiier food is abundant, would be of siu.'dl consequence to fruit-
growers, but it should certainly receive attention when numerous in orchards,
as. if allowed to increase unchecked, its jiresent habit of feeding upon culti-
vated fruit only occasionally may become changed, and yearly attacks the rule
instead of the exception.

The life history of the in.sect, so far as known, docs not disclose any
vulnerable point of attack by means of spraying, but their numbers may lie
reduced by a systematic yearly destruction of all infested fruit, and by
destroying, so far as jiossible, all crab-apple trees and bushes in the vicinity
of orcliards.

Infested wild crab-apple fruit turns lilack and may be readily distinguished
on the trees by the difference in colour between this and sounil fruit. It has
been observed that siiecimen l.-irva' were read.v to sfiiu u]) early in August, and
destruction of infested fruit must necessarily be done sullicii^ntly early to
catch the larva before this takes i)lace — to be of any service.

146

Japanese Fruit-Borer (Lavcnia licn-Ilcra) .

An item appeared in a paper published in Sacramento. Cal.. in November,
1907, to the effect tliat 0,000 boxes of apples from Orcas Island had been con-
demned in San Francisco on account of being infected witli bud moth, and that
a quarantine had been declared against British Columbia fruit for the same
reason. This absurd statement naturally called forth an inquiry from this
Department as to what was really meant. Whereupon Mr. J. W. Jeffrey, the
State Commissioner for California, explained that the apples in question had
been condemned liy Mr. E. M. Ehrhorn, on account of being infested with the
Japanese Fruit-Borer (Lai'erna herellera) . Mr. Jeffrey remarli.s furthermore;
" The mistalie as to the identity of this insect was not ours, and I hope you
will give the facts to your people."

Mr. Ehrhorn, who, Mr. Jeffrey sa.vs. is an entomologist of national reputa-
tion, says : —

" Your letter of January 0th. addressed to Mr. J. W. Jeffrey. State Com-
missioner of Horticulture, Sacramento, Cal.. was sent to me, as in it you
express a desire for specimens and a description of the pest found in a ship-
ment of apples l*rom Orcas Island. I am sorry to sa.y that I have no specimens
of the insect, which is tlie apple fruit-borer, Larcnia herellera, and not the
bud moth Tmetoccra occelana, as was reported in the various papers. I don"t
know how your Province came to be mentioned, but sometimes reporters get
things mixed. I have from the start said that the fruit came from Orcas
Island and was shipped from Bellingham to San Francisco."

Under the circumstances, it is considered best to publish the following
descriptions of two Japanese insects taken from the V. S. Year Book. 1S07: —

" Of Japanese insects we need mention at this time only two si)ecies.
These are the apple fruit-borer (Larcnia licnllcra. I)up. ) and the pear fruit-
borer CNephoplerijx ruhrizonrUn. Rag.). Accounts of each have been sent us
by Prof. JI. Matsumura, of the Agricultural College at Sajiporo. Tlie figures
which we introduce of these two insects are re-drawn from Prof. Matsunuira's
sketches.

Apple Fruit-Borer (Larcnia lirrrUrra, Prp.)

'■ Is said to be the most troublesome insect witli which the fniit-growers
of Japan have to contend. It is thought to have been introduced into the
country, and is now met with there wherever apples are grown. The lar\a'
live only in the core of the apple, injuring the seeds. They mature in about a
montli. make a pa.s.sage through the fiesli of the fruit, crawl or drop to tlic
ground or emerge from tlie fallen fruit, making white cocoons in the earth
and hilii'rnating in the pupa stage. It produces only one hr I cai-Ii season.

••On the day that these -words were written. Xovembcr lllh. ISDT. parts
of two apples were received from Mr. Craw, at San Francisco, which a
pasesenger on the steamer from Japan liad given him, and which showed
evidence of the work of what is ver.v pi'obabl.v this insect. Xo specimeiis of
the in.sect itself were found, but the api)Ies contained the lar\-.il biiiTuws lead-
ing to the core, and two of the seeds had been eaten out. It is not likely that
the passengers would have bought damaged apples in Jaiian. .-iiid. thercfiire.

147

(Flo. 47.)

(n) adult; (■)) same, side view; (ci larva; (rf) cocoon; (o) injured apple. All sligbtly

enlarged, except c, which is reduced. Ue-drawn from Masumura. )

it i.s probable that the larvip issued from the fruit on the jounie.v ; so that it
appears to us that this insect is one which is particularly liable to be intro-
duced. It has since been learned th.-it this insect has already probably gained
a foiitliold in British Columbia. iXnt in British Columliia. — .T. U. A.)
■■ Pe.\r Fruit-Boukk { Xciilioitlriii.r riihrizoiicllii. K.\g. ).
■■ Is the larger of two species of similar habits found in Japan. Professor
Matsumura states that pear-growers lose every year from 30 to 50 per cent,
of their crops from this insect which is more troublesome tlian the apple fruit-
borer. The eggs are laid under a small twig, in clusters of twenty, protected
by a white silken web. They hatch early in June, at the time when the fruit
has reached the size of a cherr.v. The young larvie spin a considerable amount
of silken thread on the twigs and make their way to different fruits near by,
which they puncture to the core, always leaving a blackish opening at their
entrance. Their presence is readily detected by these holes. The larval stage
lasts three weeks or more, and the pupal change is undergone within thin
silken cocoons inside the fruit. The insect hibernates in the egg stage.''
On the matter being referred to Dr. Fletcher, he wrote as follows : —
" I have your letter of the !lth January, and am nnich interested in the
matter of the apples which were condemned. If the insect was the apple
fruit-miner, Argyrcsthla coiijiiiiilln ( wliicli pnilmbly is what :\Ir. Jeffre.v means
by the Japanese Fruit-Borer. Lanrnii lirrrUcni) I lliink tlic Cnlifornian people
were quite wise to condenni the shipment. You will tind tliis insect treated of
at some length in my annual report for l.SOS, at page lOS ; also in Bulletin
No. 10, new series, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology,

148

Adult above, larva boniatb ft,fi miss
left. VU mtuial size

n twic; at light; damaged pear with pupa at
{Rt drawn trom Matsumuia.i

and iu Canadiau Eutoiuologist, 1S99. page 10, where you will see that I'l-nf.
Renter, iu au article ou au outhreak of the same iusect iu Fiuland, dissents, as
I had done jireviously, from the opinion that onr insect is the same as the
Japanese Laverna iK'rvllcrd."

The report refern'<l to by Dr. Fletcher, contains the following statement: —
"An interesting account of a Japanese hisect {[jiicnxi liinilcni. Dnp. ).
which, if different, resembles in most respects the ajiple fniit-niiner in a very
remarkable mamier, is given with an excellent figure iu BuUetiu No. 10, new
series. Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, by Prof.
Matsuunira, of Sapporo, Japan. In a foot-note to this article, Dr. Howard has
suggested, from the resemblance of Prof. Jlatsumuras figure to bred specimens
of the apple fruit-miner from British Columbia, which he was good enough to
examine, the identity of the two in,sects. Although it is true the figure cited
and the perfect moths of the apple fruit-miner do agree closely, the habits of
the larv.T, as given by Prof. Jlatsumara (loc. cit.) and as described in my
annual report for ISOd. differ upon what seem to be such important characters
that for the ])resent I can hardly think that the two attacks are by the same
species. The writer of tlie article referred to says that the larviE live only
in apple coi-cs. injuring tlie seeds, tliat there is usually only one egg deposited
on each .•ipplc. and that tlie cocoons arc made in tlie earth whenever possible.

140

■• The British C'oluiubiau insfct vi'ry rart'ly attnelsS the cores and seeds of
the fruit. There are usually several, two. three nr more, hirv:e iu each apple,
and the cocoons are made beneath flakes of the l,ark on the trees or beneath
leaves or rubbish on the surface of tile gromul."

CHAPTER XI.— BORERS.

I!orND-HEAD.\I) r.OHKR [SuiKlild i-illlfli'ld

a b

( Fn;

(o) and (6) larva; ici bcotlo ; u!
The cijgs are deposited about June, near th'

[lupa. L"nlai'g(?a.

Iiase of the trunk of the ■^\\\^\o
tree. The larva eats its way throush the outer bark to the inner, and takes
about three years to develop. It works in the sapwood. where it forins flat,
shallow cavities, tilled with sawdust-like castiiiirs. These are often seen on
the bark, and indicate where the " borer " is at work. As it reaches maturity,
it cuts a passage ui)wards into the solid wood and then curves towards the
bark. In this channel it enters the /)»/<« stase, about sprins. When fully
developed it is an inch long, with a round head that distinguishes it from the
tlat-headed borer, which also affects the apple tree.

The imago is a slender l]eetle. one inch long, with two broad, whitish
striiies on the wing covtrs, .-uid long .iointed antenna-. It apiiears aljout
June.

Rcmcdij. — Same as that for the following:

150

Flat-He^dad Borfr (Chnjsobothris fciiinratii. Fab.)-

(a) larva: (h\ hoctlo ; (oi hoad of malo ; d/i inipa. Enlargod.

This insect also attiu-lis the trunk ot the ai)iile tree, l)nt lays its eggs
higher up the tree thau the preceding one. The hiria is a pale yellow, an
inch long, and has a well-marked flat head, much wider than the body. It is
sometimes found even in the limbs, and is not so long in developing as the
round-headed borei'. It cuts flat channels in the sapwood, and sometimes
girdles the tree. Ca.stings and discoloured bark indicate its pre.sence. It
ttually bores into the solid wood, and becomes a pupa for about two weeks,
and then emerges as an imago about half au inch long, somewhat flat, and of
a greenish-black colour, with three raised lines on each wing-cover. The legs
and under sides of the body present a coppery lustre.

Remedies. — 1. Examine the trees iu autumn, and where the sawdust-like
castings hidicate the presence of the " borer," a stiff wire may be ijushed iu
and the larva killed, or sometimes the larva can be cut out with a knife,

2. About the beginning of June apply the following mixture to the trunk
of the tree: one pound of hard soap, or one quart of soft, in two gallons of
water; heat to boiling and add one pint crude carbolic acid: make a second
aiiplication iu three weeks. This can be well done b.v using an old scrubbing-
brush to rub it in. — Ontario Bulletin on Pests.

Peach Tbee-Borer (Saniiinoiilea e.ritiosa).

The peach tree-borer passes through four different stages during life.

It begins as an egg, deposited on the bark of the trunks of the trees from
si.x to eighteen inches above the ground. From the egg there hatches, in a
week or ten days, a minute larva, the young borer, which at once works its
way into a crevice of the bark, and soon begins feeding on the inner la.vers of
the bark.

It continues to feed in this nianncr. gradually enlarging its liurrow under
the barlv, until winter sets in. when it stops fi'cding and hibernates. Tlie
winter is always spent as a larva or borer; a few of them may be nearly full-
grown, but most of them will be considerabl.v less than half-growu at this time.

In the spring they break their winter's fast and grow rapidly for a month
or more, most of them getting their full growth in June. They then ieave their
burrows and spin abont tliemselves brown cocoons, at the base of the trees.

151

usuiilly just at the surface of the soil. A few days after its cocoon is made,
the borer changes to a puija, in which stage it remains for about three weeUs.
From the pupa, the moth emerges, thus completing its life cycle in a year,
fully ten mouths of which are usually spent as a borer in the tree.

iFi..;. .jl.i
(n) female; (&i mah- : (ci larva: c/, f i female and male pup* of cocoon.

The dates at whicli they hil)ernate and hatch out will vary with the
locality and climatic coiulitions.

When fully grown the larva' or ■•borers" are about .-in inch in length, of
a light yellow colour.

California Peach TRf;E-BoRER (StiiiiKinia I'ucifica. Kiley).

Description.— FciiKilr iliffcrs frnm the Eastern species, in not having any
yellow markings upon the abdomen. The head and eyes are jet black; thorax
and abdomen are bluish-black, with slight bronze tint: edges of abdominal
segments are marked wnth light blue; forewiugs are black, opaque, and in
certain lights have a beautiful greenish lustre, tips are fringed; posterior wings
transparent, with six black veins, narrow margin of bho-k. .ind lower edge
with jiurple fringe ; antenna? and legs black.

_l/fl/r.— Head, eye.s. thorax, and abdomen bluish-black: forewings trans-
parent, with a black blotch acro.ss the veins: extremity of wing black, with
purple fringe; posterior wings transparent, with narrow bl;ick border; lower
edge of wing furnished with purple fringe. Anteini;e black, and upon inner
edge are two rows of very minute hairs: legs black, with light yellow hairs at
the joints between the femur and tarsus. Kxpanse of wings one and one-
quarter inch.

Jfahit. — The female moth ile|iosits her eggs on the bark, generally near
the surface of the ground. The larva^. soon after hatched, burrow into the
bark and work downwards, and as they increase in size penetrate deeper,
devouring the inner bark and sa|iwood. causing the tree to exude gum. This
species has more of a tendency to work vertically, still where the borers are
present in numbers the death of the tree is certain. I have recently examined
apricot and iieach trees where the entire bark around the collar was
destroyed by this species.

152

Land. — A soft, jiiile yellow cylindrical gruli. resembling somewhat a I'liU-
grown aiiple-worni (VuriioeupMi puimnivlld) ; head dark brown; first and last
segments are darker than the balance: it has sixteen legs — six horny, and ten
fleshy or membraneons ones; veiT few short hairs upon the Ijody.

Pupa. — When the larvfe are fully developed they crawl upwards, and near
the surface they cous-truct a pupa ease with their eastings and gum. In
California they reach this stage of their existence in April, Jlay and June,
remaining in this condition three or four weeks. The pupa is brown, and when
about to change to the moth it forcP.s' itself through the end of the cocoon,
from which the moth afterwards issues.

llnu- til Fiin! TIiCiii.

reacli-^'rnwei-s sluaild make a careful examination of their trees in tlie
spring, by removing the soil a few inches deep around the trtuik. brush tlie
stem, and if any part shows an excess of moisture or gum it is a sure indica-
tion of the presence of borers, unless the tree has been injured in cultivating.
Carefully remove the l)ark on the suspected part, and cut in the direction of
the burrow until the larva is found. Hot water has lieen recommended liy
some, and others use a thin, flexible wire, with which they probe tne wound ;
but the most certain and satisfactor.v wa.v is the kuife. After the borer has
been found and destro.ved. cover the part with moist soil; or, where the iu,1ured
surface is large and the sapwood cut away, allow the wood to dr.v and aiipl.v
two coats of rubber paint : afterwards cover with clean sand. This treatment
will keep the wood sound and healthy until the bark again covers the part,

Pi-rrintin- Mvasiins.

Nearly all onr warfare against insect jiests lias been carried on after
they attack the tree, but with this one we have the means of pi'eventing. to a
great extent, any very serious damage. They prefer the moist, cool bark near
the surface of the ground, and as this is the most vital part of the tree, it can
be so protected that it will be impossible for the moth to reach it. The old
s.vstem of banking the soil against the tree to the height of eiglit or twelve
Inches has been found of great lieneHt in preventing the borer from reaching
the roots, if the banks are formed In Jlay — liefore the moths deiiosit their eggs
— and keiit in iiositioii until winter. This will not iirevent their attacks, but
'when the soil is removed they can be reached to better advantage. In our
dry climate the placing of a small conical bank of soil against the trunk has
no ln.iurlous effect, provided it be removed before lieav.v winter rains. Tin-
trees can then be examined, and the liorcvs destroyed before tln'v develop. —
California State Boanl of Horticiiilinc. Iiidl< tin A <-. .IN.

Wksters Sthawukkhy Ckown-Borer (Tiiloilrniia fori'ilatiiiii).

Destructive to str.-iwlierry plants. P.i>tli beetles •■lud larv.-e .-ire destructive,
and so far have not proved amenable to poisons, ('hanging tlu' location of
strawberr.v beds infested with this pest is recommended, being careful to get
plants from locations wliere the insects are not found. The plants on infested
beds should be dug u\> and burned as soon as the fruiting season is over.

15::!

Bkonzk Appi.I': Thkk-P.oher iiUitiiJiiHx J:iiikc( ns) .

The luireut bfftles are artivo duriii;: the warm ilays in late May aiut Jniie,
lireferriuf,' the sunny side uf ainile trees; the et;y:s fmni wiiicli tlie ilestrnctive
larviB hatch are deposited iu perforations made in tlie liarl^. often where a
twig has been broljeu or cut off. usually clusterefl to.i;etlier in a cirrular form,
with space's between eadi perforation; sometimes liadly infested trees will
luiye their truulis and main branches almost (nvereil with these circular
markings. The young larvje soon hatch out, and conunence to feed upon the
bark and sap wood, seriously affecting the yitality of infested trees.

The preyentive measures recommended for the larger borers are effective
against these pests, but usually two applications are rccpiired. one not later
than the middle of May. the other iu two or three weeks' time, or late hatched
beetles are apt to escape and continue their species.

Where young trees are slightly infested with larva' tliey shmild be over-
luiuled in the spring, the larva' cut out with a sharp knife, and the stems
••bound up or covered with pieces of Siicking, when the injury will be quickly
repaired. It is usually ol)served that trees in an unthrifty condition are
particularly subject to attack, and. iu all cases, care should be taken, by
drainagi'. cultivation and manuring, to induce a vigorous, healthy growth of
the trees.

Black (ioosKiuoiusv P>ori:k { Xiilnrritiri Aiianai^ii. Si:c.)' .'

This is a very uncounncju pest, and was found in tliis I'roviucc in young
gooseberry bushes imported from Oregon. So far as observed, one larva or
borer occurs iu each infested plant. The borer usually starts in from a
crotch in the branches, and works downward, apparently wintering in the
roots, then working upward iu mucli the same way as tlie Raspberry Cane
P.orer. pupating in a chamber hollowed out in the stem some inches above
the ground. The male lieetle is about -^ in.-h and the female about V- inch
in length. They are of a deep, dull black colour.

The illustrations given convey a good idea <if the insects, anil their manner
of working in the stems of the plants.

All of the infested plants were destroyed iu the instance mentioned, and
the same course sliould be followed in case the pest is foun<l anywhere else
in the Province.

154

Fig. 0.1. — Thp Bladi r.ooscl)pri-.v-li(inn
infested stem reduced one-tliird.

I.arva in stem— sliglitly enlarged.

155

iMroRTED Currant Borer (.TSflcria tii)iilifonirni).

( !■ ic

3-1.)

(1) grub; (2) pupa, both enlari;ed ; (S) perfect insect, natural size.

Ill the iu.iiii'iou.s stage of its existeiiee this iiiset-t is a small whitish
larva that burrows up and down the stems of currant and gooseberry bushes,
stunting the growth and rendering them unfruitful. It hatches from eggs
deposited singly ou the young stems near the Imds, early in suiinner. by a
clear-winged, wasp-like moth, with a bluish-black liody aiul three .yellow
Dands across the abdomen. The wings are transjiarent e.xcept at the borders,
where they are bro.wnish-black. The young larvaj gnaw through the stem
to tlie centre, where they feed ou the pith all summer, making a burrow
several inches in length. When full-grown the larvaj eat through the stem-
wall almost to the outside and then change to chrysalides. 'When these are
ready to transform, they burst through and the moths crawl out. 8o far
only one brood has been noticed in the year.

All dead and weak shoots of infested bushes should be cut off and burnt,
.iust as soon as leafing out shows where the attack is located, and every wilted
shoot seen at any time should be cut off below the point affected, and burnt.
Another preventive measure which has been found effective is to sprinkle
the bushes and the ground adjacent with a mixture of air-slalied lime and

156

carbolic acid, at the time wlien tlie iiareut motli is active, usually alii)\it the
micWle of May to tlie first weelc in June, varying somewliat with the locality.
One pint of carbolic acid to a bushel of lime.

IlASPBEKRY Cane Borer (Ohcrca hliiiuciila(a).

The adult of this insect is a slender-bodied black beetle, with a yellow
collar just behind the head. It appears early in summer, usually during
.Tune, and deposits eggs in the green canes of raspberries and blackberries.
The iiroi.-ess of oviposition is peculiar. The beetle makes two transverse rows
of punctures, about half an inch apart, in thecune; towards the tip and
midway between these she deposits the egg. The rows nf lauhtures make up
a kind of girdling, wiiich causes the tip of the cane to wither. A short time
after the egg is deposited it hatches into a small c.vlindrical larva, that bores
downwards through the pith. By autumn they have frecpiently reached the
bottom of the cane, where they change to pupa', and the following .June
emerge again as beetles. The larva is footless.

Soon after the canes are punctured by the beetle they wilt ; cousequeutly,
if they are e.xamiued about midsuumier. affected canes can easily be dis-
tinguished, and they should then be cut off below the lower ring of punctures
and burned. If the injury is noticed later, the whole cane should be pulled
up and destroyed, to be sure to get the larva.

Raspherry Root Borer (Bciiihlcin iiKirniiidhn .

It is quite di.stinct from tlie cane-borer, having in the larval state sixteen
legs, six of which are fully developed, the others not being very well deflued.
The parent moth is clear-winged, with a black body, prettily banded and
marked with yellow. The eggs are deposited in July on the leaves of the
raspberr.v, and the young larvse, when hatched, find their wa.y to the canes
and feed upon the pith in the interior, gradually working down to the root,
where they winter. In the following spring they work up again, usually
through a fresh cane, to a height of six inches or more above ground, and eat
the cane nearly through, in preparation for the exit of the future moth.
■\Vitliin tlie <-aue and near this prepared spot the change to chrysalides takes
place, and tliese. when the time approaches for the moth to escape, burst
through the outer skin of the canes, and the moths soon take their flight and
commence to la.v their egg.s, as previously stated.

Little can be done towards the destruction of this pest, other than
destroying the infested roots as soon as they are noticed. The application of
boiling water to infested roots is advised by a Califoruian writer, but applicable
only to very limited areas.

157

CHAPTER XII.— INSECTS ATTACKING ROOTS.

AVestern Ten-Lineo .Ttne Bug (Pohiiihiilld ilcrcniliiiriitd).

The larva of this insect, wliicli is a larse wiiiti' i;nili. is a liad pest on
nian.v plants, amongst wUich are strawljerries. In its larval stajie it attacks
the roots of plants, very soon killing them, by stripping off the bark from
woody plants and biting off tlie root below the crown of strawberries and
snch plants.

Dc-sciiiitioii.

The perfect beetle, like its pnitotype. the May Bug or .June or Dor Bug
of the East (Lachnostcnin fuscn. Frohli. has a disagreeable hal)it of coming
through ojien windows and buzzing al>c>ut. knocking themselves against walls
and ceilings, and SdUietimes against one's face, which it strikes with cou-
siilerable force. The l»eetle is about one inch and a ipiarter long, with a
tliidv round body, half an inch or more in diameter, of a liglit brown colour,
with eight white longitudinal stripes running the whole length of the wing
covers, and two short ones; the breast is covered with a lirownish down and
the abdomen has three transverse stripes. The larva is alxnit two inches
long, with a tliicU body and brown head.

As in the case of the Black Vine Weevil, a frequent change of the beds is
to be recommended as being the most efficacious remedy. It also resemliles
the last-named insect in its injurious habit, both in tlie larval ami perfect
stages. Naturally, on account of the nocturnal feeding habit i>f the beetle
and the underground habits of the larva, it is a diffii-ult insect to control.
Iteferring to the June Bug. Saunders says : —

•• It is very diflicult to reach the larvae underground with any remedy
other than digging for tliem and destroying them. Ihigs are very fond of
them, and, when turned into places where the grubs are abundant, will root
nil the ground and devour them in immense (luantities. Tliey are likewise
eaten by domestic fowls and insectivorous birds; crows especially are so
partial to them that they will often lie seen following the plough, so as to
pick out these choice morsels from the freshly-turned furrow.'"

\
■VN'hite GRuns ( Liicliiiostcnia fi(sca. Froli.)

Attack. — 'White Oruhs are the larva; of the May Beetles or .Tune Biig.s.
so called from their great abundance in May and .Tune, when they may be
found in large numbers flying around trees and bushes, showing particular
preference for certain kinds, as willows, oaks, ashes, plums, maples and
lilacs. The eggs are deposited in the ground, one to three inches below the
surface, and hatch in from ten to eighteen days. The larva> feed on roots
during the remainder of the season and burrow very deeply into the ground

158

as winter approaches, returning again tlie following spring and doing a groat
deal of harm hy eating the roots of grasses and many other kinds of plants,
particularly corn and jjotatoes, their Injuries being most uoticeable in the

Slightly enlarged.
)'. Dept. Agr.)

Bketi.i;. (Fig. .".T.I
ml beetle; (b) pupa: (c) larva (white grubl.
(Chittcnaen Bull. 19, V. S. Div. of Ent., U.

second year after sod has been ploughed down. It is claimed by Dr. S. A.
Forbes that a second winter and summer is passed as a larva and that the
grubs do not change to pupoe till June and July of the third season, the
perfect beetles issuing from the pupw two or three weelcs afterwards, but
passing the third winter in the pupal cells and emerging the following June.
Thus three full years are consumed from the time the eggs are laid until
the perfect beetles apiiear.

Remedies. — Unfortunately, there are no measures which can be depended
uiiou for the destruction of White Grubs in most crops; but as the eggs are
laid mainly in grass lands, land which has been in sod for several years should
not be planted to corn or potatoes the second year after breaking. The first
year the grass which is ploughed down, to a large measure, feeds any grubs
which may be in the ground; and. as pigs are particularly fond of the.se grubs,
a crop such as rape or turnips may be sown with advantage and the field
turned into a hog jiasture, when the pigs will not only feed on the crop, but
hunt out many of the grubs In the soil. It is claimed that these animals
will, in the course of a few weeks, completely clear a badly infested turf.
On account of the depth to which the grubs burrow before winter, these
crops should be fed off before the first frosts. Clover, it has been par-
ticularly no'ticed, is seldom attacked by White Grubs; therefore, this crop
becomes of special value for growing on land which It is intended to use for
corn or potatoes the following year. When, as is sometimes the case. White
Grubs appear in large numbers in meadows, this fact is manifested b.y the
dying of the grass in large patches. If, on examination, the grubs are
noticed, pigs should be at once turned in, and before autumn the patches
renovated with fresh seed.

Leaving land under grass for several years gives oiiportunities for White
Grubs to increase ; hence, a short rotation in wliich clover follows grass or is
grown at short intervals, will prevent the increase of these insects. In this
special rotation small grains should follow clover before corn or potatoes. The

159

collection of the perfect Iteetles by beating trees at night time has sometimes
lieen iiractised with advantage, and a tioeli of poultry following a plough in
infested fields, it is claimed, has done good work.

When Jlay Beetles attack fruit trees or are found abundantly on other
trees, spraying the foliage with arsenical poi.<!ons will destroy large numbers,
or. as they are much attracted by lights, the beetles may be killed in Umtern
traps by iilacing lanterns in large pans of water with coal oil on the surface.

"\Vhe)i White Grubs are found destroying lawns, some good may be done
by spraying the grass freely with kerosene emulsion ( Itemcdy 2i and washing
it in with water. — Fletcher.

Onion Maggot (AntlioiiiiiUi criitinnn or I'lKirhia (■riKiriiiii ) .
Cabbage Maggot [Aiitlioiiniia hidstiiar).

Attack. — Small white maggots which bore into the roots of radishes,
freshly set-out cabbages, and into the bulbs of onions, and sometimes al.so
iu.1ure the roots of beans and Indian corn.

The Cabbage or Radish Maggot, and the r)nion Maggot, whicli for all
practical puriwses may be treated of here as the same species, cause great
loss in crops of cauliflowers, early cabbages, turniiis, radishes and onions.
almost every season.

The maggots which are found attacking cabbages, radi.shes, cauliflowers
and turnips, and tho.se in onions, and in beans and corn, are very similar,
but the.T belong to three different specie.?. Pliorbia hransicir, Bouche, attacKing
lilants of the cabbage variety. Pliorbia ccparum, Meig., infesting onions, and
J'liorhia fusciceps, Zett., injuring beans and corn.

Corn sown during a cold, wet period, by which germination is unduly
delayed, is ver.v liable to be attacked by the Corn-seed JIaggot (.P. fusciceps).
In such cases it is well to wait for warm weather to re-sow and then push on
the crop with a light dressing of nitrate of soda, 200 lbs. to the acre.

The perfect flies of all these maggots are very similar to the ordinar.v
observer and may be described as slender flies, somewhat smaller than the
ordinary house fl.v. which fly about close to the ground and lay their white
eggs on the stems of the young plants. Here, after a few days, the maggots
hatch and work their wa.v down beneath the soil, where they lie close to the
root or burrow into it. tearing the tissues with their hook-like mandibles and
living on the sap, thus soon reducing the root or stem to a rotten mass.
When full grown, these maggots turn to reddish brown puparia in the soil
close to the roots. The exact number of broods of these maggots which may
be found in a season seems to be rather complicated by the overlapping of
broods, and the dela.v in issuing of some individuals of each brood; Imt
practically it ma.v be said that cabbage and radish maggots do by tar the
greatest amount of harm during the month of June and early in .July, and
in many years their injuries are slight after that period. With onions the
injury continues throughout the season and is most noticeable in June, August
and September. The injury to beans and Indian corn is only in spring, and,
as a rule, is confined to plants which have been weakened by the seeds being
planted too deeply or by lute frosts. However, in .seasons of excessive
abundance, cabbage an<l uninii ninggots may be found all through the growing
season, and cabbages and caulitlciwers are occasionally injured in autumn by
the maggots attacking the heads cjf the plants.

160

Remedies. — Up to the present time it cauuot Ije olaimed tliat any perfeetly
effieacions remedy lias been discovered for root maggots. In certain years
tliey seem to be so extremely abundant that even the best remedies merely
seem to iirolong the lives of the plants, and only a very small pr()i)ortion of a
crop can be saved. In ordinary years, however, much can be done to protect
crops liable to attack, and the following are the remedies which have given
the best results : —

For Onions. — White hellebore dusted aloiiii the rows once a week
from the time the young plauts appeared above the ground gave com-
paratively clean onions, very few being attacked. Fresh gas lime broadeasti'd
over oniou fields at the rate of two hundredweight to the acre had a similar
effect ; but, when the caustic lime came in contact with the young onions,
they were burnt out. A light dressing between the rows of onions of the
same material gave almost as good results as where it was distributed over
the whole field. When onions have begun to form their bulbs, the earth may
be hoed or brushed away right down to the roots, and in some years the
maggots do not penetrate the bulbs. As soon as the earth is hoed away in
garden practice, a dusting along the rows with white hellebore makes the
l^rotection more complete.

Dressings of salt. Paris green and plaster, and wood ashes have been
found useless in protecting onions from the attacks of root maggots.

For Cabbages. — (1.) Tarred Paper Disks. — Pieces of ordinary tarred
paper three inches in diameter, with a slit running to tne centre so as to
allow of their being placed around the stems of young cabbages and cauli-
flowers at the time of planting, and pressed down close to the ground, will
prevent to a large measure the flies from laying their eggs on plants so
protected, or will kill the young maggots.

C2.\ Insect Powder. — About half a tea-cupful of a decoction <if
pyrethrum insect powder (four ounces to a gallon of water), or i>f
white hellebore of the same strength, poured around the root oi each plant,
after drawing away the earth, right down to the roots will destroy an\'
maggots which may have started to work. The earth should be put back
again and the jilants well hilled up, when new rootlets will soon be formetl.
A light sprinkling of nitrate of soda, or some special fertilizer, will encourage a
quicli growth and much help the plants to overcome attack. Dressings of one
ounce to the square yard may be used for this purpose. Cabbage iilants
should be examined late in June to see If the maggots are at work. The
earlier the treatment with insect powder or white hellebore is applied the
more effective it will be. If the mixture is applied to the roots with a force
pump, although more licpiid is consumed, it has the advantage of dislodging
many of the maggots so that their injuries cease at once.

(.3.) Cheese-cloth Inclosures. — A very effective and practical means of
procuring early radishes, cabbages and cauliflowers, perfectly free from root
maggots, is by growing them beneath cheap frames made of light wood
covered with cheese-cloth. A convenient size for small beds is S feet long. 2
feet wide and 2 feet high. This frame can be made for about 23 cents, of one
and a lialf inch scpiare wood, nailed together at the corners, and with the

IGl

cheese-cloth tncked on the outside. In siK-h a t'nime five caiilirtiiwers and
two rows of radishes have been grown to perfection. The frame was l^ept ou
from the time the young plauts came up until the radishes were pulled.

Cauliflowers were sufficiently advanced to require no further protection
and the frames were removed about the first of August.

For Radishes. — The maggot which attacks the radish is the same species
as also attacks cabbages and turnips, the severity of attack on these different
crops being about lu the order in which they are named, so that in years of
light attack radishes will draw off Injury from the cabbages.

Injuries to turnips are seldom severe, and in most instances a crop shows
little sign of this attack in autumn, even in sea.sons when the maggots may
have lieen found in considerable numbers in the siiring.

(].) The Cook carlmlic wash, consisting of one quart of soft soap,
or one pound of hard soap, in a gallon of water, with half a pint of crude
carbolic acid added, and the whole boiled together for a few minutes, to make
the stock enuilsion. has proved over and over again an excellent remedy for
radish maggots. The stock emulsion can be kept in a closed vessel, so that
dust and rubbish will not fall into it, and, when required for use, one part of
this mixture, by measure, is added to fifty of water, and should be sprayed
directly upon the growing plants from the time they appear above the ground,
once a week until ready for the table.

■,2.) White hellebore, dusted along tlii> rows of radishes once a week from
the time they appear above the ground, has given good results in most years.

From two years' experience with the cheese-cloth c-overiugs, I have no
hesitation in recommending these to amateur gardeners, however small their
gardens may be. as a sure means of obtaining perfectly clean, as well as
early radishes and cauliflowers of the very best quality at a comparatively
light expense.

For Beans and Corn. — Injury to these crops in Canada is a rare occur-
ence. The only remedy whicli can lie suggested is to sow tlicsc crops in
good season in well prepared soil and not deeper than one or two inches. —
Fletcher.

AViHE-Wonxis {Larr<r of Click-Beetles:. ElatcihJir) .

(Fig. 58.)

Wireworms (7, 8, 9) ; pupa (lOi, enlarged; click beetles (5,i, natural size; (2, 3, 6)

enlarged. — Curtis.

162

Attack. — SleiKlei-. oyliudrical. yellowish or reddish-brown, tough and
shining grubs with flattened lieads and darli jaws. These gi-ubs have only
three pairs of legs on the three segments following the head, and a single
short, sucker-like foot in the middle of the last segment, beneath. When full-
grown they are about an inch long and only about 1-12 of an inch wide. With
these will be found many specimens in spring of about just half the size of
the larger ones. Wire-worms occur most frequently in low ground and attack
the roots of almo.st all plants, but particularly young wheat and corn just as
it is coming up. They also bore into the tubers of potatoes in autumn. This
injury is most frecpient on land which has been for several years in sod. and
the attack is most severe in the second season after the sod has been ploughed
down.

Wire-worms are the grubs of a large family of beetles known as click-
beetles, easily recognized by their power of snapping their necks with a click
with such force as to spring up into the air if the,y fall on their backs.
These beetles are many of them dark-brown in colour, of an elongated oval
form, about three times as long as broad, and tapering to the end of the body.
The eggs are laid in summer about the roots of grasses and weeds, and the
larvfe of most species take two years to come to full growth. They change to
pupffi inside cells in the ground In July, and to perfect beetles about three
weeks later, in August. Jlost of these beetles, like the Jlay Beetle, remain
iu their pupal cells until the following spring before emerging.

Remedies. — Agricultural methods are the only ones that have been of
much avail. The wire-worms which are injurious to the farmer are particu-
larly those which feed on the roots of grasses. When sod is ploughed down,
the larvae during the first year feed for the most part on the decaying grass
and its roots. Those in their second year of growth change to beetles in the
first year, and do little harm, as they have had plenty of food iu the decaying
sod without attacking the crop: but the young larvfe, which were only half-
grown when the sod was broken, attack the crop of the following year,
because there is nothing else on the land for them to eat. It has been found
that barley and rj'e are less attacked than any others of the small grains, and
also that clover is little injured. Those early maturing grains are, therefore,
better suited as a crop for the second season after sod, because the land can
be iiloughed immediately after they are harvested, and thus the pup.'e and the
freshly formed and still soft beetles are disturbed in their pupal cells, and
many of them destroyed. Clover may be sowed in spring with either of
these crops, and either ploughed down with the stubble in September or left
on the land until the following autumn, when the land should be ploughed as
soon as there is a good growth after the first cutting. A short rotation in
which land is not left in grass for more than two years, will, to a large
measure, prevent the ravages of wire-worms. I'rof. S. A. Forbes recommends
ploughing down sod in autumn and sowing to fall wheat or rye, with clover
on these in the spring, the clover to be left for two years and then followed
by corn or roots. Some farmers have obtained good results in clearing land
of wire-worms b.v ploughing twice iu the same autunm. the first time in August,
the land to be well harrowed a week later, and then cross-ploughed in
SeiJtember.

103

Extensive experiments made liy I'rof. Forlies, in Illini>is. and Prof. Slinger-
land, in New Yorl^, sliowed tlie nselessuess of many rei-ummended remedies,
sucli as coating seed grain of all kinds with poison, the surface application of
salt and other chemicals, and even of a clean fallow to starve the wire-worms
out. — Fletcher.

Experiments conducted liy Prof. "SI. V. Slingerlund. of Cornell University,
give the results of efforts to discover a practicahle method of preventing the
ravages of these iiests, and a study of the life history of several common
species, in Bulletin >io. 107. He says : " Both defensive and offensive measures
were used in our experiments. Thus we tried to protect seed from the
ravages of the wire-worms, and we also tried to destroy the insects in each
of three different stages of their existence — as wire-worm or larva, pupa, and
adult; no eggs were ohtained upon which to experiment." The general results
are succinctly as follows : That it Is not practicahle to iirotect seed by the use
of the various poisons and other means. That starvation by the growth of
supposed immune crops, such as buckwheat, mustard nn<l rape, was not
successful. That destruction by means of insecticides, suili as kerosene, crude
petroleum, poisoned dough and bisulphide of carlion. were useless against
wire-worms. That substances tliat also act as fertilizers, such as salt,
kainit, muriate of potash, lime, chloride of lime and gas lime, to be effective,
had to be used in such (luantities that plants were destroyed, and the expense
too great for practical imriioses. Of .starvation by clean fallow, he says:
■• It has been the general belief tiiat tlie wire-worms which infest our fields
coidd live but a short time in soil in whiili nn vegetation was allowed to
grow. No experiments were reconled. iKJWever, to show Imw long the worms
c(mld live in such soil.

"We kept several experiment cages in 'clean fallow' for nearly a year.
and more wire-worms remained alive (many of them passed through the
transformations to the beetle stage) in these cages than in similar cages In
which grass was kept growing. Therefore, we would not advise the farmer
to lose the use of his land for a season and the labour necessary to keep it
free from all vegetation, in the hope that he may thtis starve out the wire-
worms,"

" Our experiments on preventing the ravages of wire-worms by trapping
were carried on in 1888 and ISSO, Two methods were employed, trapping by
baits, and by lanterns,

"On trapping hit Unity.. — 'I'lils mctlmd has liecn discussed in detail in
Bulletins 3 and 33 of this Station, so that only the general results will be
given here. The baits, which consisted of sliced potatoes, wads of green
clover, and sweetened and luisweetened cornmeal dough, were placed under
boards in various p.-irts of a badly infested corn field. Instead of attracting
the wirc-W(irnis, as w.-is expected, their parents — the click l)eetles — came to
the baits in large numbers; the clover attracted liy far the larger number
— 65 per cent.

" It was found that the beetles were tlie most acti\i' .at niglit, and that
they seek their food cliietly liy running over the surface of the ground.

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" When it was found that they were so reaflily attracted to the baits.
Iiuisoned clover baits were used, with the result that most of the click-beetles
were destroyed, proving that they fed upon the baits and thus suggesting a
practical method of combating them. Where the insects are very numerous
over a limited area, many of the beetles can be killed with the expenditure
of very little labour in distributing these poisoned baits.

" On tvapiiing 1)11 lanterns. — A series of sis trap-lanterns were kept lighted
every night here on tlie I'niversity farm from Jlay 1st to October 1st, lS8t>.
During the whole five months only eighty click-beetles were captured. Thus
the method has no practical value in fighting wire-worms."

False Wire-Worms {lulus).

One species of this insect has been troublesome in the vicinity of Victoria,
doing considerable injury to potatoes, which it enters in large numbers, con-
suming the interior and forming a disagreeable, ill-smelling mass, so that the
tuber is rendered valueless. The particular variety alluded to is quite small,
about half an inch long, and of a grayish colour. Numbers of a larger variety
are to be found in damp woods during the summer, feeding ou decaying
vegetable matter. This species is aliout an inch and a half long, nearly black,
with yellow liands. The following description of the genus generally is given
by Treat:—

" Several worm-like creatures found in the soil are popularly called
wire-worms, which are not of the larvw of the snap-beetle, indeed, are not any
kind of a larva. These are now regarded as belonging to a sub-order of
insects, the ilyiinpnds. which includes centipedes, millipedes, etc. The most
common representatives of these belong to the genus lulus. They have
worm-like bodies, made up of numerous horny divisions, most of which bear
two pairs of legs, and there are two short feelers at the head. They are of a
blackish or dark-brown colour, and when disturbed, coil themselves into a
ring. The.v undergo no metamorphosis like the proper insects, from which
they are also distinguished by their numerous legs. Our species are from
an inch to an inch and a half long, but in tropical countries they reach si.K
and seven inches. ■ Many of them feed upon decayed vegetable and animal
matter, but some of them feed upon the roots of living plants. One of the
largest species (lulus multistnatus, WaLsh.) has been found in some localities
destructive to strawberry plants, carnations, and especially to lily-bulbs.
Potatoes have also been much injured by smaller species. Traps in the form
of potatoes, as mentioned under wire-worms, would be of service, or slices of
apples, carrots, potatoes, or parsnips, placed upon the beds and covered with
pieces of board, will catch many of these millipedes."

The trap mentioned Is as follows : —

'• In England, previous to planting the potato crop, potatoes, with a
stick thrust into them to mark the place, are buried here and there to serve
as traps; they are taken up at intervals, and any worms that may have
collected on them destroyed."

165

CHAPTER XIIL— WEEVILS.

Black Vim-; Wkevil [Olioih iiiiclnis .kiiIciiIiis. Fad.)

This beetle is proljably the most destructive iusect pest, luith iu its hirval
and iierfect stages, on strawberries, that we have in British Columbia. The
mature insect is brownish-black, about halt' an inch in length, with the long
snout characteristic of all weevils. The, larva is a small white grub, which
attacks the crowu of the roots and so kills the plant. Mr. Thos. Cunningham.
Inspector of Fruit Pests, recommends burning off the tops of the plants after
the crop has been gathered ; this has the effect of destroying the beetles
which shelter themselves amongst the leaves, and which they also attack.
Dr. Fletcher says : " The only remedy which can be suggested for this beetle.
as yet, is the planting of strawberries on new ground, and frequent renewal
of the beds, the worst injuries being done to old plants." JXr. W. T. Macouu.
the Horticulturist of the Central Experimental Farm, considers the single
crop method of growing strawberries the one which pays best, the fruit being
finer and the land being kept clean much more easily. Some varieties which
do not make runners freely might be left for two years.

Strawberry Weevil (.Intlionoiiiiis ftijiiKiliis. Say.)

(Fig. 5Sa.)
Tile habits of the strawberry weevil are interesting. It passes the winter
in the mature beetle form. and. just before the flowers of the strawberry
unfold, the Insects fly to the striiuberry beds .-ind may be found in large
numbers upon the flowering stems. ^Yhen the female lays her eggs she
punctures a closed bud, for which purpose she generally chooses the earliest
and largest. This is done with her sharp and slender beak, and the hole
penetrates to the centre of the bud. She then deposits a single egg, pushing
it down into the hole. Having done this, she crawls to the stem of the flower

IGC

and gnaws it nearly through, so that the bud hangs down and eventually
drops to the ground. Inside the cut off bud the young grub hatche.s and
passes tlirough all of its stages, the dead flower remaining closed around it
as a protection. When the grub is full-grown, it forms a brittle cocoon of
the debris, and in about a mimth from the time the egg is laid, the perfect
beetle eats its way out. The new generation of beetles nia.v frecpieutly lie
found at Ottawa in the latter half of July, and early in August. There is
only one brood of this beetle, as far as is Icnown, and, as all the beetles
disappear suddenly in the beginning of August, it is supposed that they go
into hibernation at that time, hiding away beneath moss or among bushes
and perhaps in woods, where they remain in a lethargic condition until the
following spring. The varieties of strawberries chosen by the females for
t'gglaying are always those which produce pollen in considerable quantities.
,iiid it is chiefly upon the pollen that the larvte feed. Varieties of straw-
ln-rries with entirely pistillate flowers are not attacked; consequentl.v. when
the strawberry weevil is abundant, growers will do well to plant pistillate
varieties as much as possible, and only enough jjlants of varieties wliich pro-
duce i)erfect flowers (which have both stamens and pistils) as will ensure
the proper fertilisation of i>ie fruit. The numbers will, to a large measure,
deijend upon the variet.v grown and the numlier of flowers produced. — Flctclici:
lieimii PJO.J.

Tea Wkevii, or Pea Bug (Bnicliiis iiisonim, Linn.)

AtliiPk. — A small, brownish-gray, very active beetle, one-fifth of an inch
long, with two conspicuous black spots on the end of the liody. which emerges
from seed pease in aulunni or in spring, leaving a small round hole.

The life history and habits of the pea weevil are well known. The egg is
laid on the outside of the young pod, and the grub, on hatching, eats its way
in and penetrates the neare.st pea. Here it remains until full-grown, consum-
ing the interior of the pea and passing through all its stages, from a white
fleshy grub to the pupa, and then to tjie perfect beetle. As a rule, the beetles
do not, under ordinary circumstances, leave the pease until these are sown
the following spring. Some of the beetles, however, in certain seasons, escape
from the pease, occasionally as earl.v as harvest time, or during autumn,
and pass the winter hidden away under rubbish, or aliout barns and other
buildings. On reviving in spring, they fly to the fields of growing pease.

107

sometimes long distaiu-es a\v;iy and for a tiuu- tVed (iii the foliasf of the pea-
plants. As soou as the youni; pods are formed, the females hiy their eggs
oil them. The beetles all become fully developed at the same time, which is
about the middle of August, and all. whether they winter outside the pease
or inside the grain die about the same time the following season, viz.: during
the month of June.

Loss by son-iiiy ^yccrillc(l Pcusc. — That .seed pease which have been bored
by weevils are very seriously injured. I have proved by actual experiments.
Weevilled small pease gave only from 13 to 20 per cent, of plants which bore
pods, and these were all weaker than plants from perfect seed. Large pease
gave a better percentage of from 16 to 2.S per cent. Therefore, weevilled
pease should not be used for seed if any other stock is obtainable. If. however,
this is impossible, much more set>d should be sown to the acre.
Remedies.

l'iiiiii(j<itioii. — Fumigation with bi.sulphide of carbon is :\ sure remedy.
iTor the treatment of small quantities of seed, ijarticularly liv farmers, an
ordinary coal oil barrel is very convenient. This will bold about five bushels,
or 300 pounds of seed, and may be treated with :! oumcs of liisulphide of
carbon which ma.v be poured right on to the pease. Care must be taken to
close up the top tightly. This is be.st done with a cap made specially for the
puriMse, but may also be done with fine sacks dampened and laid smoothly
on the top, over which boards are laid, with a considerable weight on them
to hold the covering ilown closel.v. The bisuljihide of carbon should be of the
best quality, which will vaporise without any residue, and the exposure
should be for 48 hours. Pease should be fnniigatoil as soon as possible after
harvest, but they may be treated at any time when the temperature is above
freezing. As the vapour of bisuliihide of carbon is very intlannuable. this
work should be done at a distance from other buildings and no light of any
kind must be brought near. Xo smoking must be allowed near the buildings
where the bisulphide of carbon is being used, ^\'hen large (luantities of
pease are to be treated at once, in speciallj- prepared houses, one pound of
bisulphide of carbon to every 100 liushels of seed, is the anioiuit regularly
used by large seed houses, as in these tightly constructed " bug houses "
there is less waste of the vapour during the necessary exposure of 4S hours.

Holding over seed. — Where only a few seed pease are used, a most reliable
remedy is the holding over of seed until the second year. Pease should
always be bagged up and the sacks tied at once after threshing. The weevils
are not able to eat their way through the bags, even when these are made of
pajier. All the weevils which emerge, either in autumn or the following
summer, will perish inside the bags, and the seed can be sown the following
.\-ear without danger; the sound seed will not be injured by being held over.
Seeds showing the hole from which weevils have emerged should be sorted
out before sowing.

Tieuting iritli coal oil. — A remedy which has been used by many farmers
with satisfaction, is to drench the seed about two weeks before sowing with
coal oil_ using about half a gallon to a barrel, or five bushels of seed.
Immediatel.v after putting on the oil, the jiease should be shovelled over and

1G8

over, so tluit all will be oiled, and the shovelling must be repeated every day
for four or five days. This, if properly done, will kill all the weevils in the
pease without injuring the seed.

ScaMinp seed. — Of the same nature, when pease are found at the time
of sowing to contain weevils, is scalding the seed. This may be done by
pouring them into scalding water and then either pouring the water straight
off them again, or cooling off immediately with cold water.
Recommendations.

The control of the pea weevil, I believe, is po-ssible. but this must be
done. I think, not by legislation or by giving up the cultivation of such an
important crop as pease, which we cannot well do without, but by persuading
everyone who sows pease to abstain from sowing any seed which contains
living weevils; when purchasing seed, to refuse determinedly to buy any
without an assurance that they have been treated, and further, even with
this, to examine for themselves to see that any contained weevils are really
dead. I would also point out that, from the experiment already cited of
growing pease from weevilled seed, such seed is only worth about one-quarter
as much as sound seed. To secure a supply of seed pease free from weevil
injury, it will be necessary for growers and farmers to handle their crop a
little differently than has been the usual practice. The injury is of an
exceptional nature, and exceptional measures must be taken to avoid loss.

There are, however, special features about this attack which renders
its control a simpler matter than is usually the case with injuries of an
equal magnitude. The pea weevil is not a native insect and has no native
food plant_ In which it could propagate, were there no cultivated pease.
Indeed, it is so restricted in its food habits that no other food plant is known
than the different cultivated varieties of true pease, belonging to the botanical
genus Pisiiiii. These pease will not live over the winter in our climate, if left
in the open field, at any rate, in any part of the country where the pea
weevil is known to breed, consequently, every seed pea sown for crop must,
at some time before it was sown, have been under the control of someone by
whom it could have been treated before sowing, to destroy the contained
weevil, if it had one. The remedy is effective, easy and cheap, is well known
and can be applied by anyone. If all growers would combine and do this^
the larger number of the weevils would be destroyed in a single year. This,
however, would not be sufficient, because a certain number of the insects
sometimes leave the pease during the autumn when the seed ripens, and this
sometimes before the pease are carried from the field. This fact is the one
great difficulty in arriving at a perfect remedy, but I do not believe that it
is insurmountable.

1. I suggest that all pease for seed should be treated before they are
sown, to kill the weevil, and that seeding should be done as early as ix)ssible,
so as to get the crop ripe enough for harvest earlier than is the usual custom.

2. The pea-growers should harvest their pease as much on the green side
as is safe, rather than, as is usually done now, when they are dead ripe, and
thresh and treat them themselves, or sell at once to grain buyers. This has
many advantages. Not only is the straw of very much higher iiuality for

1G9

feed, but the .seetl is heavier ami better for every purpose, for export, for
feed aud also for seed, because it is of higher germinating power, and further,
because the weevil at that time is much less advanced in growth, and conse-
quently has destroyed a much smaller proportion of the bulk of the seed.
Xhe average dates for pea harvesting are from July 20th to August 20th.

Experiment has shown that the weevil at all stages may be killed inside
the pea by fumigating the seed with bisulphide of carbon, consequently, if
growers wil harvest and thresh earlier than usual for a few years, and either
themselves treat their seed immediately or sell to the grain buyers, who for
their own sakes will do so, much good must surely result. When for any
reason pease cannot be treated at once or disposed of, they should be bagged
up and the sacks tied immediately, so a.s to prevent the escape of any weevils
which might emerge in the autumn. When the grain is required for feeding,
the pease should be ground as soon as they are dry enough, and to prevent
the meal from becoming musty the new pease should be mixed with some
old pease when grinding.

DifflcuUlcs to be met. — Sometimes pease ripen so unevenly that by reap-
ing early it is feared that the sample will be very uneven when thre.shed ;
but. should this be the ease, it simply means that the small and shrivelled
pease are blown out of the seed pease when they are cleaned and are not lost.
but can be used for feed. The greatest difficulty of all is with reg.-ird to the
pea.se which are shelled out in the field at the time of harvesting. This, how-
ever, will be to a great measure obviated by reaping early, as the seed will
not shell out nearly so much as when left till the regular time. The cleaning
up of pea fields, moreover, by turning in hogs is a generally recognized
practice, and the work is done thoroughly. Where hogs are not available,
poultry will do the same work, and, where neither of these can be used, the
land should be ploughed so deeply that the weevils cannot work their way
out when they leave the pease. I am aware that it is not the custom to
lilough uji pea fields for fall wheat, but simply to cultivate or disc them,
because the land is left in such excellent condition: but it must be remem-
bered that the loss from the pea weevil is now excessive, aud. if this small
change in method can be shown to be of great advantage, it surely is worth
a trial.

Another difficulty suggestett is that it would be hard to get all pease
threshed before the autumn emerging weevils escaped, on account of the
small number of threshing machines which would be available. In reply to
this, experience has shown that demand will alwa,ys produce supiily ; and I
feel sure that the implement makers will not lose such an o|iportunity of
pushing their business. The much higher price obtainable for the early
threshed pea.se. to say nothing of the enormous value of future croiis due to
controlling the weevil, will very soon repay to the farmer the initial expen.se.
Where, however, there is no possibility of getting a threshing machine. I
would draw the attention of growers to the old-fashioned method of treading
out the pease with horses. That this is advantageous is indicated by the
fact that some of the seed merchants pay a higher [irice for pease threshed
with horses. — Ftetcher.

170
Bean Weevil (llniclnix oliti-ctiix. Say.)

Attack. — Small lu'Ctlcs closely resemblinj; in shape and movement the
pea weevil, but only half its size, uamely, 1-lU of an inch long, oval in form,
with the head bent down and more or less concealed as seen from above, and
prolonged into a short, squarely-cut snout. Auteuuie distinctly joiuted, and
enlarging towards the tip: the first four and the last joints reddish. The
wing covers marked witli ten impressed and dotted longitudinal lines. The
whole body covered with short, .silky hairs. The lines on the wing covers are
broken up into pale, yellowish dashes and dark-brown spots. The tip of the
abdomen extends be.vond the wing covers and is of the same reddish tinge
as the tips of the antennm and the legs, but is covered more or less with
short, silky hairs and bears a central white line, but there is no apiiearance
of the two black .spot.s which are so conspicuous in the pea wee\il.

The life lii.story of the bean weevil differs in some important jioints from
that of the pea weevil. The eggs of both are laid upon the pods while these
are young and tender. On hatching, the young grub of the bean weevil eats
its way inside and penetrates one of the forming beans, several grubs entering
a single bean, each one forming for itself a distinct cell. They become full-
grown and change to pupse in the autumn, and a little later to the perfect
beetles. The date of emergence from the seed depends very much, as in the
ease of the pea^weevil, on the temperature in the autumn months; it may be
in the late autumn or not until the spring; wheu the seed lieans are stored
in a warm building, the beetles may emer.ge at any time through the winter.
One of the important differences between the life histories of the pea and
beau weevils is that, whereas in the case of the former the young grubs can
only enter the soft, green seeds, those of the bean wee\-il can propagate for
three or four generations in the dry stored seeds. This fact renders the
well known domestic remedy for the pea weevil of holding over the seed for
two years (luite ineffective in the case of the bean weevil; that is. if a bag
of pease infected with pea w-eevil were put away for t^\■o .vears, the pe,-i
weevils would emerge the first spring and die in the bag. But, in the ease
of a bag of beans infested by the bean weevil kept in the same way. the
beetles on emerging would at once set to work to lay eggs upon the beans.
The young grubs when hatched would penetrate the dry seeds and go through I
all their stages, and this breeding might be repeated as long as the supply of I
beans lasted. Curiously enough, the jiea weevil does not bore lioles through 1
the iinper or cotton bags in which infested seed has been stored, but in tlic

171

case of the bean weevil sueli bags are readily perforated and the beetles
eseape — frequently, when this happens in houses, as is sometimes the ease, to
the great cousternation of the inhabitants.

The bean weevil seems to be a cosmopolitan species, the original home of
which was iu Asia. It was probably introduced into America tlirough com-
merce and has beea the cause of considerable damage in various States of
the American Tuiou. It has been mentioned in the reports of several United
States entomologists, full articles being given by Professors Kiley, Popenoe
and Lintuer. There has been a great deal of discussion as to the proper
name of the species. The last decision seems to be that the beetle should be
called Bnichus ohtectiis of S.-\y. The bean \v(>evil has never been very
injurious in Canada.

The European Beau Weevil ( linirlm.i iKfiiiniiiiix. Sch. i is occasionally
imported in seed, but has never established itself as a pest.

Remedies. — As in the case of the pea weevil, the best remedy for this
insect Is the destruction of the weevils inside the beans as soon as possible
after the crop is ripe. Fuuiigation with bisulphide of carbon is the best
treatment in every way.

Wkkvii. ox Peach Ti!ei;s.

At Summerlaud. in ,\i>ril. :\Ir. .Tas. M. Sutherlaiicrs |.e.ich trees were
attacked by a weevil, which ate the leaves and strii>iHMl the bark from the
}-oung shoots. The following recommendation was made by .1. li. Anderson: —

'• 1 c.-mnot quite identify your weevil, but inasmuch as it works exactly
in the same manner as the New York Weevil i Ithiiccnix iiiiniJidrurcnah) . I
think you cannot do lietter than to foll.iw the directions given for the destruc-
tion of that insect.

"Treat describes the weevil mentioned as follows: 'This large snout-
beetle kills the twi.gs by .guawing off tlie tender bark, in the early part of
the season before the Inids have put out. and later in the .vear it destroys
the tender shoots which start out from old wood, by entirely devouring
them. It attacks, by preference, the tender growth of the api>le, though it
will also make free with that of the peach, plum and pear, and probalily of
other fruit, as well as of forest trees.

■"This beetle belongs to tlu» same family .-is does the I'liini Cin-culio: it
is distinguished from most of the other snout-lieetles by tlie untenn;e or
horns being straight instead of elliowed or tlail-shaped. as they are in the
common Plum Curculio, for instance."

"fYour pea weevil has decidedly elbowed antc>nnre."i

'•■The female, in depositing, lirst makes a longitudinal excav.-ition with
her jaws, eating npw.ards under tlie liark towards the end of the branch,
and afterwards turns round to thrust her egg into tlie exi-avation. The
larva hatching from the egg is of the nstial pale-yellow colour with a tawny
head. We have watched the whole operation fif deiiositing. ;uid returning to
the jinnctured twig a few days after the oiieration was ]ierformi'd_ have cut
out the young larva; but we do not yet know liow long a time the larva
needs to come to its growth, nor whethm- it uiideru'oes its transfru-mations
within the branch, or leav<'s it for this ]>ur|pose. to enter the ground; though
the former h.vpothesis is the most likely,"

172

•■ (I would therefore reLujiunieiid you to look earefully for tbe egg
excavations alluded to).

" ' The same methods of catching this beetle may be employed as with
the Plum Cureulio, which are as follows : —

"'The most effective method thus far discovered is to jar down the
insects and catch them on sheets. The tree should have a sudden jarring,
not a mere shaking. For this purpose it is a good plan to saw off a small
limb, leaving a stump a foot or less long, upon which to strike with a heavy
mallet; this avoids bruising the baric of the tree. To catch the insects, two
pieces of sheeting, each two yards long and a yard wide, may be stiffened
by means of small rods or sticks, one at each long side and one in the middle;
make the ends of these sticks sharp, and cut a notch at a short distance from
the end ; the points of the sticks may be pushed into the cloth, and the
notches will prevent that from slipping. A person can readily carry these
from tree to tree, and placing them on the ground, one each side of the trunk,
the tree is then to be jarred by a stroke of the mallet. The fallen insects
may be crushed between the fingers, or be placed in a vessel of water, upon
which there floats a small quantity of kerosene.'

" I am referring the insect to Dr. Fletcher, and in the meantime. I hope
that you will be able to keep the upper-hand, by following the directions
given. I should imagine that spraying with Paris green would have the
effect of destroying lai'ge numbers. The formula is 1 pound of Paris green,
1 pound of unslaked lime, and 160 gallons of water."

On referring specimens of the insect to Dr. Fletcher, he reported as
follows : —

" With regard to the weevil from Summerland, I think that your answer
to Mr. Sutherland will suit the occasion; but this is not a true weevil, but
an otiorhi/uchid. I receiveii a specimen, .some years ago, from Watson, of
Kelowna. but have niisiilaced it. and cannot recall the name just now. This
one has more the habits of its close all.v, the Gray Peach Weevil, which is
referred to in my reports for 1S93, p. 177, and 1S94, p. 198. Beating the
trees at night would probably be the best remedy. The attack would only
last a very short time. Mechanical tree protectors, or even a band of cotton
batting, might also answ'er the purpose."

Gk.\x.\by Weevil {CaUinilni iframtriu. L.)
Rice Weevil (C. Orij-d-, L.)

This beetle, as well as the two other insects mentioned in this short
article, has long been known as a serious enemy to stored grain. When
mature, the granary weevil is from an eighth to a sixth of an inch in length,
of a dark, shiny, mahogany-brown colour, with the head prolonged into a
slender snout. Some specimens are almost wholly black. Having no wings
beneath tlie hard wing-cases, it is unable to fly. The eggs are laid in minute
holes, which the female beetles bore into the grain with their slender beaks.
On hatching from the egg the young grub at once begins to feed on the
contents of the kernel, completes its growth and turns to a beetle inside
the same grain, which does not show any sign of injury until the beetle

173

emerges, when it is fdund that the greater iiart of tlie iiisiile has been con-
suiiu'd. In wheat ami other small cereals a single larva inhabits a grain,
but a kernel of corn furnishes food for several individuals. The mature
beetles also feed upon the grain, and live for a long time, so that in warm

(Fig. 01.)
(9l Uict? Wi'i'Vil ; |7) Common Granary Wvcvil.
places where grain is Icept in store for a length of time, the in.iur.v ma.v be
considerable. In the course of a single year, it has been estimated that one
pair of these weevils will produce 6,000 descendants, so it can be readil.v
seen that the.v are capable in a short time of doing much damage.

KicE 'Weevil {Cahiiulra onjzir, L. )
This insect differs somewhat iu size and general appearance from the
granary weevil. Unlike that species, it possesses fully-develoiied wings, has
two yellowish blotches on each wing-case, is slightly smaller and of a pale
brown colour. The life history of this insect is similar to that of the preced-
ing species, except that iu ver.v warm climates the beetles are often found in
fields away from any granary, and iu the extreme South and iu the Tropics
the females lay their eggs in standing grain. The rice weevil is often found
injuring stored grain in company with the granary weevil.

Angoumois Gr.\in JIoth (Ultotroya ccrcuUHn. (_)i,. )
In Canada the grain moth has never developed sutlicientl.v to be consid-
ered an important enemy of stored grain. In southern climates, however,
where it is very abundant, this insect is a bad pest. The moths fly from the
granaries to the field and lay their eggs upon the standing grain. The eggs,
or .vonng caterpillars are thus carried with the threshed grain into the
granary, where the.v develop and cause great loss. The moths, however,
have not so far been recorded as laying their eggs upon standing grain in
■Canada, and where damage has occurred, it has been to infested grain which
has been imported. The eggs are deposited in groups of from 15 to •_'•').
generally upon the under side of the grain or iu the crease of the kernel.
They are white at first, turning pink before hatching. The young caterpillar
is a minute creature, slender, and covered with long hair. When mature it
is two-fifths of an inch in length, and of a dirty white colour. As a rule

174

oi'-ly one larva piitprs each grain, but when corn is attacked, two or tlin-i-
larvii' may be found in a single Ivernel. After eoniiileting its growtli tlie
caterpillar spins a thin, silken cocoon, and within this changes to a brownisli
pupa; in a few days later the moth emerges. The perfect insect resembles
somewhat a clothes moth. The wings expand about half an inch, are of a
satiny-cream colour and bear a few dark spots on the fore wings, which are
narrow, pointed and fringed. The hind wings are darker and have much
wider fringes.

Remcilics. — When stored grain is found to lie infested by one of the
above three Insects, or, in fact, by any insects which are known to work iu
dry cereals, it is a simple matter to destroy them. After repeated experi-
ments, it has been found that the u.se of bisulphide of carbon will kill all the
Insects without any injury to the grain as to its wholesomeuess for food, or
as to its germinating (jnality for seed. Bisulphide of carbon is a colourless
liipiid with a very objectionable odour, which vaporises quickly at the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. A convenient method for treating
small quantities of infested grain, is to fill an ordinary coal oil barrel, which
will hold about five bushels of grain, and the quantity of bisulphide to use
is one ounce to every hundred pounds of seed. The bisulphide may be
poured right on to the grain or placed in a shallow receptacle, but care must
be taken to close up the top of the barrel tightly. This is best done with a
cap made specially for the purpose, but may also be done with flue sacks'
laid smoothly on the tup, over which boards are laid, with a considerable
weight on them to bold the covering down closely. When grain in bins is
being fumigated with bisulphide of carbon, the.se should be made as nearly
air-tight as possible. This may be done by pasting sheets of paper over the
outside, or by covering them with blankets or canvas. In tight bins the
amount of bisulphide to use is a pound to a pound and a half to the ton of
grain. Some entomologists claim that one pound of bisulphide to every 100
bushels of grain is sufficient to destroy all insects, even in open bins.
Infested grain should be subjected to the fumes of bisulphide of carbon for
at least 48 hours, but as the vapour is very inflammable, no light of any
kind must be brought near and no smoking must be allowed near the building
when this chemical is being used.

In Queensland it has been found that salt (1 quart dissolved in 2 gallons
of water) will prevent weevils from attacking grain wliicb has been sprinkled
with tills solution,— 'i'/(r Ciunididu Entoiiiolor/ist.

175

CHAPTER XIV.— SCALE INSECTS.

EuKOPEAX FiuiT ScAUi iAxiiiiUdtiis oxirt-iifDniiix) .

(Fig. 62.)

(HI Scales on twig: th) natural size; (c) immature stage: ('/i female; in male; (/)

and ((J) inside of scales. — Bull. Si, U. S. Uepartiiieiit of Ayriciiltiirc.

Thi.s insect was reported from Xaiiaiiiio ;is the San .lose Scale, which it
resembles very closely. The writer, <in lnstructi(iiis frmii the Hon. the Minister
of Agriculture, investigated the matter in company with the liev. G. W.
Taylor, and iH'onounced it to be the Euroiieau Ij'ruit Scale. This oiiinion was
afterwards confirmed by Dr. Fletcher. Drastic measures were adoiited, viz.,
the destruction of the affected trees by fire, since which it does not aiipear to
have spread. The following is taken from Prof. E. P. Felt's Bulletin No. 46:

"Description. — The general appearance of this species is similar to that of
the pernicious or San Jose scale. The sides of the scale are darU gray, while
the centre, which is nearly white, may be grayish or brown. The young apjiear
to have quite a habit of arranging them.selves at nearly e(iual distances from
one another. The white or brown portion of the adult scale may break away
and exijose the yellowish cast skin or exuviie. Some of the young are always
found among a mass of old scales, and when they are white, the gray of the
old scales is lightened considerably. Sometimes masses of this scale insect are
a dark gray, and then the young are usually grayish or brownish. The individ-
ual adult female scale may attain a diameter of nearly one-eighth of an inch.
It has a yellowish or orange nipple a little to one side of the centre, and the
gra.v i)art of the .scale is normally marked with black specks, and, when on a
rough tree, the edge of the scale is usually continuous with the outer layer of
the bark.

176

" Life History. — The winter Is passed by partly-grown individuals, whicU
become mature toward the last of June. This insect, like the pernicious scale,
is ovoviviparous; that is, gives birth to living young, which begin to appear
about the last of the mouth, and continue to emerge for several weeks. This
species produces but one generation in this latitude, and this restriction alone
makes it much less dangerous than the preceding form.

" Remedies. — Methods of value against the pernicious or San Jose scale.
should prove equally efCecfive with this species, and. as a rule, it will proliably
be found much easier to control."

The rE.\CH-TREE Bark-louse {Lccanium nifirofasciatiim. TERfi. : Lccaiiiiiin
pcrsicw, Fabr. )

(Fig. 62a.)
Arliilts at left, young at right.— Bi/H. 3Ji, V.

Vcpartmcnt of AgricuUur

It is found attached to the smooth bark of the peach twigs, frequently
beside a bud. or at the base of a twig, apiJearing as a black hemispherical
shell, about the size and shape of a split pea ; its surface is uneven, shining,
commonly showing a pale margin, and a stripe upon the middle. It feeds ujiou
the sap, piercing the bark with its xjroboscis, and imbibing the juices. When
mature, the removal of the scale discloses a multitude of eggs, which, in due
time, hatch, and the young larvfe scatter over the twigs, and. fastening them-
selves to the bark, become permanently located, and live the full term of tlieir
lives without changing their position, — Siaumiers.

Remedy. — The treatment recommended for the Pear-tree Bark-louse, by
Saunders, is applicable for this insect, viz. : Fortunately these insects are of
such a size that they are easily seen. They should be looked for during the
latter part of June, at which time the females will have attained their full
size, and when discovered should be promptly removed. The under side of
the limbs should also be well scrubbed with a brush dipped in some alkaline
solution.

171

Biiowx Ai'RiciiT Scale { Lccaiiiiiiii iiniiriiiarinin .
Tlie scale is boat-sliapL'tl. wUi'U matured sumowliat wriukli'd. The colour
is a shiny brown, darlier in the centre than at the edges. It hatches from
the eggs during May and June. The treatment advised for the Oyster Shell
Scale should be followed in dealiug with this pesr.

Woolly-maple Bark-loisp; {Piihinn

iiiiiinicriibilia).

(In, Oo )

This '■ soft scale " insects occurs in some districts of the I'rovince in con-
siderable numbers certain seasons, infesting majilc. willuw. ,uid alder trees. It
has also been reported as injuring gooseberry and currant bushes in the
Chilliwack District.

They usually attract attention in the spring, when white cottony masses
become numerous on twigs or leaves of infested plants, increasing in size until
they are a quarter of an inch or more in length, and only slightly less in
diameter, somewhat irregular in outline. The mass seems cottony, but is
really wax or gum. When this size is reached, it forms a bedding for innu-
merable, rusty-brown eggs, very small in size, which are laid by the female
insects under the brown " scale " which seems to form the head of the mass.
From these eggs minute, crawling larvre hatch, similar in colour to the eggs,
which spread in every direction over their host plant. In a day or two each
larva settles and inserts its bealc into a leaf or twig, sucks up the sap, and
c-ommences the formation of a small, flattened, oval scale — which gradually
increases in size. Most of these are females, but there are always some male
insects, and these come to maturity in the latter part of summer, appearing
as small, two-wiuged flies ; they mate with the females which remain under the
scales, and these, before the leaves fall, move to the twigs or branches, and
fasten themselves for the winter. They resume feeding in the spring, when
the sap begins to circulate, and then the egg masses are formed.

178

In dealing with these pests on cultivated plants, a judicious pruning or
thinning out should be the first step taken ; in winter the treatment advised
for the oyster-shell bark-louse is effective, and any that escape may be easily
destroyed in the early sunnner, when the young larvte emerge from the eggs,
by using either of sprays No. 2, C>, or 7, as directed. But it must be borne in
mind that, to be effective, tliis sunnner spraying must lie done before the
Insects have protected themselves with defensive scales.

Oyster-siiei.i. Bahk-loisio or Scale (JZ/yiWa-sp/.v iKuiKinini. Bokiciik.)

Al'PLE-TREE BARK-L0tT.SE.

This pest occurs in thr C.irni of minute scales, about one-sixth of an inch
long, of a brownish or grayish (dlour, closely resembling that of the hark of a
tree, and somewhat like the shell of an oyster in shape, adliering to the surface
of the bark, and placed irregularly, most of them lengthwise of the limb or
twig, with the smaller end upwards. In most instances the branches of apple
trees may be found literally covered and crowded with the.se scales; and
where thus so prevalent they seriously impair the health and vigour of the
tree, and sometimes cause its death.

Under each of these scales will be found masses of eggs varying in
number from fifteen or twenty to one hundred or more. These, during the
winter or early spring, will be found to be white in colour, but before lialching
they change to a .Yellowish hue, soon after which the .young insects apjiear.
This usually (ncurs lale in May or early in .7nni\ and if the weather is cool
the young lice will I'eniani several days under the scales before dispersing over
the tree. As it becomes warmer, they leave their shelter and ma.v be seen
roving about looking for suitable locations to which to attach themselves.
Their actual length being only about one hundredth of an inch, to the unaided
eye they appear as mere specks. When highly magnified they ai)pear as at 2. A
large proportion of them soon become fixed around the base of the side shoots
of the terminal twigs, where, inserting their tiny sharp beaks, they subsist
upon the sap of the tree. In a few days a fringe of delicate waxy threads
issues from tlieir bodies, as at ". Cradually the insect assumes the form

17!)

shown at 4; ."i anil (> present tlie larva' as nearly fnll-nniwn. and when iletached
t'nini the scale, het'ore the enil of the season the lonse has seereteil for itself
the scaly covering in which it lives and matnres. shown at T: S represents one
of the antenna" of the young lice; 1 shows the egy; highly uiagnided.

By the middle of August this female louse has hecome little less than a
bag of eggs, and the process of depositing these uow begins, the body of the
liarent shriukiug day by day, until finally, when this work is completed, it
becomes a mere atom at the narrow end of the scale, and is scareel.y noticeable.

The scales of the male louse are seldom seen: the.v are most frequently
found uiion the leaves, both on the ui^ier and under sides; they are smaller in
size than those of the female, and difl'erent also in shajie.

In the onliard and its innnediate neiglilmiirhood it may be s|ircad by being
cai-i-ied on the feet of birds, ov attac-ln'd to the larger inserts, or may be aided
by the wind in passing from tree to tree, while it is itself so brisk in its active
state that it can travel two or three inches in a minute, and hence might in
this way reach a point two or three rods distant before it wovild iierish.
Although this Insect essentially belongs to the a]iple tree, it is freiineiitly found
on the pear, and sometimes on the i)luin.

Apple trees should be examined during the winter months for this ]iest.
When present in large numbers on the trunks and main limbs, a good smiping
will remove man.v of them, and in-epare the way for eflective spraying or wash-
ing operations. The No, 1 spray is a good remedy to use ; two aiiplicatioiis are
necessary, and the mixture should be used (juite hot. Another very good apiili-
catiou to be used with a brush or swab is made with 1 It), of concentrated lye
to 2V2 gallons of water. Both these remedies, of course, can be used only
during the dorm.int se.nson. Still, it is .almost impossible to cle.ansc the trees
entirely in this way. especially the smaller branches, and hence the insect
shouhl be fought also at the time when the egg.s are hatching and the ,voung
lice crawling over the limbs, as then they are tender and easily killed. "With
this object in view, the time of hatching of the remn.ants left after the winter
work should be watched for. and while the young lice are active, before they
have secreted their protecting scales, the trees should be thoroughly sprayed
or washed with a solution of soft so.-ip and washing soda, or with either of
siirays 2. 0 or 7.

In exiierimeiiting for other pests, it was aciadently discovered by Mr,
W, T, Maiinin. Horticulturist. Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, that ordi-
nary whitewash made of good lime, iiainted on the trees, had the effect of dis-
solving the scales of the Oyster-shell bark-louse, s.i that they could be brushed
off. This remedy, whilst effectual where it can be apiilied with a brush, can-
not, of cour.se. be used on the small branches, which should bi> sprayed as
recommended above.

San .Jose Scale [.["pididl ii'i iifniiiidsiix).

The San .Tose Scale is the most destructive of all [tests in neglected
orchards. Nevertheless, by intelligent effort, it can be more easily controlled
than any other first-class orchard pest ; and when we come to realise that the
one annual winter application of the lime. sul|ihiir. salt spray, which is all that
is necess.ary to reduce its ravages to the minimum, is also one of the Itest
general " cleaning-up " sprays that has yet been devised, we sliuU. jierhaps, be

ISO

ready to exclaim with J. II. Hale, the veteran peach-grower of Couuecticiit
and Georgia, "Blessed be the Sau Jose Scale! It has compelled us to spray
with the lime, sulphur aud salt."

CC

rnl size: (&) bark as it appears

"f development, and young larva.

.^Vn'es, Division of Entomology,

(Fig. G6.)
Appearance of Scale on liark. (a) infrstrrl tivhr.

under hand-lens, sliowiing scales in \;niMn^ ^t
(L. 0. Howard and C. L. Marlatt. lUiU.liu \., :

U. tS. Ucjiui in:< III ,,i A.niriiliiire.)

One application of lime, sulphur and salt each winter will do more for the
neglected orchard than can lie done in any other wa.v by the same expenditure
of cash and energy. It not only destroys San Jose Scale, but it also destroys
the branch form of wooly-aphis, the eggs of the green-aphis, the pear-leaf
lilister-mite, the hibernating larvie of the prune twig-miner, probably the
liiliernating larva' of the bud-moth, together with most other insects
which may chance to he whitering upon the trees. It is also a good
fungicide. If applied in early winter, it is nearly or quite equal to Bordeaux
for the second application for apple-tree anthracuose ; applied to peach trees
.lust before the buds open in spring, it is a preventative of peach-leaf curl ; and
applied to apple trees under similar conditions it is a satisfactory substitute
for the application of Bordeaux, which is usuall.v recommended for that time.

With all its good qualities, however, the lime, sulphur, salt spray is not a
cure-all. It does not, so far as known, reduce the number of wormy apples in

181

an orchard, nor can it be used as a substitute for Bordeaux while the trees are
in foliage. It is a distinctly winter spray, and should be used, even in winter,
only upon deciduous trees.

The San Jose Scale is very largely responsible for the present enthusiastic
crnsade against the old neglected, moss-covered orchards. Everyone is pruning
and spraying. Why? To destroy the San .Jose Scale. Yet I find that a very
small percentage of our farmers know what this dreaded thing is which they
are so earnestly endeavouring to destroy. If any other spray than the lime,
sulphur and salt were being used, a reaction against all spraying would cer-
tainly follow the poor results of so much misdirected energy. By using the
lime, sulphur, salt spray beneficial results are almost certain to follow, whether
the scale be present or not. Xevertheless. everyone who grows trees or shrubs
should learn to know this destructive little pe.st and be prepared to combat
it, since it may at any time appear upon the ornamentals of the city lot as
well as the trees of the old home orchard. Dr. L. ( ). Howard records it upon
the following plants : —

Lixt of Food Phiiits.
Orchard Frcits. Brsii Fruits.

Pear, Kaspberry.

Peach, Gooseberry,

Apple, Grape,

Plum, Currant.

Cherry, Flowering Currant.

Rocky Mountain Dwarf Cherry.Black Currant.

Persimmon, Nit Pi..\.n-ts.

Quince, Almond,

Flowering Quince. Chestnut,

Small Fruits. Pecau,

Strawberry. Black Walnut.

English Walnut,
.Japan AValiiut.
2lisce!Uiiiroii.i Orniuiu iiliil I'Uiiits—Foirst iiinl S)i(iih- Trees.

Rose, English Willow,

Hawthorn, Golden Willow.

Spirea, Laurel-leaved Willow,

Cotoneaster, iNIilkweed,

Euonymus, Catalpa speeiosa,

English Huckleberry, Lombardy Poplar,

Linden, Carolina Poplar,

Acacia, Silver JIaple,

Elm, Cut-leaved Birch,

Osage Orange, Mountain Ash,

Alder, Japanese Quince,

Sumac, -Vctinidia.

Weeping Willow. Citrus trifoliata.

Red Dogwood, Snowball,

Juneberry, Loquat,

Laurel. Alvebia.

182

Iloir to Kiioir the .S'«/( Jimr Xralr.
rerliMps the woi-st feature of an ntt;Kk liy San Joso Scale is that,
owhij; to its small size and ineonspiiaious eolour it often remains unnotieed
until the tree has heen seriously injured or even killed. That the tree lacks
vigour may be recoj;ni/,e(l. l)ut the cause of its uiithriftiness is overlooked.
Xet it is not difficult to detect when laie really looks for it. In the early stages
of infestation a few scales may be found, usually clustered about the buds
of the preceding season's growth, or even on two-year-old wood. The mature
scales are grayish in colour, being usuallj', but not ahva.vs, somewhat lighter
than the bark to which the.v are so closely attached. The immature half-grown
scales, which may be found with the mature oih's. are at the present tin)e
somewhat darker in colour.

Kuitimnlniia. l\ S Itrinn-lllll'llt of AaiiruUtife.)

The mature females are nearly circular iu shape, are a|>proximately one-
sixteenth of an inch iu diameter, and each Is somewliat raised in the centre
to form a slight protulierance or niiMiU'. which is lighter in colour than the
rest of the scale. If this scale is carefully examined by means of a small
magnifier, several concentric circles ma.v be observed between the nipple and
the outside edge : and if it be carefnll.v raised with the point of a pin or a
knife, there will be revealed a minute bright yellow object, the Insect itself.

183

(Fig. 09.)

Adult femal

• hvU.

,■ lll'V,

Ic.i.m.nt nt eggs; (n), ventral vi

■\v. showing very long sucking

st^t:¥ :
fn largo

m:>\ I

late, sLowing characteristic or

lamentation of i-dge — greatl.v

. Hon

ml in

il <■. L. MnrhiU. Hiilhlin \n. :..

\r,r Kriies. niiixiull of

Hn t.

iinihxju. V. .S'. Diliiirtiiicilt uf A<l

uiiltinc.)

On badly infested iilaiits the yomis srnles settk
insert a be;ik into the harU. and as the.v increase
crowded and overhipiied and have tlie ajiiiearance
on tlie bark. Tlie natnral colour uf the bark is i.bsr

wlierever there is room to
in size tliey become much

of a gray, scurfy deposit
iiimI and the infested phxnt

appears as thouiib coated with Hue asli-coloured bran. If the thumb-nail or
other object is rubbed ovcv tliis scurfy covering, thereby crushius the Insects
beneath the scales, a moist or oiI.\' appearance is produced and numerous scales
will be overturned and man.v of the little yellow insects be revealed.

During the early stages of an attack, very few. if any. of the scales
will settle upon the leaves or fruit. Later both may be attacked. I'pon the
leaves especially of the prune and iieach, the youni; scales may be fomul on
both surfaces, and more particularly clustered aluuu' the midrib. Kach scale
produces a minute purple spot. I'pon purple prunes, red apples, etc.. the
scales appear only as miiuite gray s]ieiks. usually clustered about the cavities
jit either end ; but upon the yellow fruits, like pears, peaches, and the yellow

184

plums and apiiles, earli scale produrt'S a bright, nxldisli discoliniratiun. If
badly lufested, the fruit, particularly ot pears and apples, becomes unieh pitted,
distorted In shape, cracked and unmarketable.

For the benefit of fruit inspectors in particular, it .should be noted that
reddish discolourations upon yellow fruits are not always caused by San Jose
Scale. Upon yellow apples, and particularly upon peaches, ver.v similar spots
are produced by attacks of certain minute fungi. Hence, such spots should
not in themselves be taken as proof of infestation by the scale. This can be
determined definitely only by a careful examination, and tue actual detection
of the scale. The presence of such blotches may well arouse suspicion of the
presence of San Jose Scale, and should challenge a careful examination alike
by growers, buyers and inspector ; so also should the presence of dead and
shrivelled leaves upon the trees in mid-winter invite examiation, for although
their presence is not proof of the presence of the scale, it is evidence that the
vitality of the tree has been seriously impaired by some cau.se, and in regions
where San Jose Scale is prevalant that cause in a vast majorit.v of instances
is the scale.

Development of San Jose Scale.

On the approach of winter scales of various ages and sizes may be
found upon Infested trees. A very large proportion, especially of the immature
scales, usually perishes during the winter, but at the present writing, March
10, practically all are still alive. We ma.v expect, therefore, with normal con-
ditions for the remainder of the season, to witness a very decided increase
in scale infestation during the coming summer.

Developiin'nt of male insect: (tt.),
second molt (propupa stage)
greatl.v enlarged.

(L. 0. Ilouaril ami V. h. .
Entumuluun, i

ventral vdcw of larva after first molt: (6), same after
(<■) and ((/), true pupa, ventral and dorsal view, all

rintt. niillrliii \n. .1. X
H. Dni>"lment of Agr

culture.)

The nuile scales are not circular, but somewhat elongate. If one removes
one of the large circular scales the little yellow object thereby revealed is a
mature female. T'nder a moderate power of the microscope she proves to be

185

a neiuiy circular, yellow, sack-like body, with lone, slender, bristle-like motitli
parts. An examiuatiou of the male shows him to be more elongate, and to
possess the rudiments of legs, wings, eyes, antennas etc.

(£. 0. noic(

(Fig. 73.)

Adult male, greatly enlarged.
'. L. Mnrlatt, Bulletin No. S, Neic Series, Dirision of
'Oil, V. <S'. Department of Agriculture.)

The females live and die beneath their scales, never leaving them : but in
April the males molt for the last time, and soon thereafter emerge from under
their scales as minute, active creatures, with full.v-developed wings. After
mating the males die.

In Ma.v. possibly earlier, under favourable conditions, the females begin
to give birth to living young, and may continue to produce for six weeks or
longer. The young are minute, light orange-yellow, active creatures, with eyes,
bristle-liUe mouth parts, two antennte, or feelers, and six legs. After emerging
from under the protecting scale of the parent, each wanders over the surface
of bark, fruit or leaf until a suitable situation is found, when the legs aud
antenn.-e are folded beneath the body, the bristle-like beak is slowly worked
through the outer bark into the living tissues beneath, from which it draws
its sustenance. At any time during the summer months hundreds of these
little pests may be seen, even with the unaided eye. as they crawl about over
the bark or fruit of infested trees.

Even before the young insect has attached itself to the bark, the secretion
of the scale has begun. At first it consists only of a fluffy, white mass of fine,
waxy threads, which for the first day or so of its existence causes the young
San Jose Scale to appear as a minute, downy white speck upon the bark. As
these filaments become more abundant they become fused into a more and
more compact scale, aud assume a yellowish colour. Later the young scale-
insect molts several tmes during its growth and the fully-developed scale
is thus made up of fused wax filaments and the several molted skins.

186

Eadi female of the over-wiiiteriiis generalioii is raiialilc iiiidei- favouralile
couditioiis, of proiluciiig approximately one liuudred yoimg. In the enurse of
but one month these reach maturity and the females he^'in to jiroduce
another generation. There are thus produced some four or live generations
during the entire season. Under supposedly favourable conditions, single
females of the later generations have been observed to produce aiiproximately
<1(M) young. Basing their estimates upon breeding-cage observations. l>r.
Ih)\v;ird and Mr. Pergande have shown that it would be possible, under the
most favourable conditions, for the i)rogeuy of a single female to reach the
astonishing number of 3.210.080.4(10 individuals in a single season. Shouhl
each of these scales reach the largest size, one-tenth of an inch, and were they
all iilarcd silk" by side touching each other in all directions, there would be
enough of them to rover, approximate^', five acres of surface. It is almost
needless to add that in the intense struggle for e.xisteuce of organism with
organism, and with climate conditious, such an astonishing rate of multipli-
cation is not even approximated under natural conditions. Nevertheless.
when one realises the enormous rapidity with which this pest multiplies, it
is no longer a surprise that ciirclvsn work in s]iraying fails to give satis-
factory results. A few females here and there, upon very small portions
of the tree which have not been reached by the spray, may, during a single
.season, completely re-infest that tree. Satisfactory results are obtained onl.\-
by the most thorough work. Every square inch of surface of trunk, limbs,
branches and twigs should be thoroughly covered. By far the most connuou
c-inse of unsatisfactory results is the failure of those wlio s|a-ay to do
thonjugh work.

Iloir the Sim Jo.ic ScaJr Siinails.
Since the female scale is motionless, and permanently att.-uhed through-
out life to the branch on which it feeds, it is often asked Ik.w it is that the
San Jose Scale can spread from tree to tree, orchard to orcluird, and even
for greater distances? It is only during the first few hours of its existence
that one of these little pests can emigrate, and observation lias shown tli.it,
even then, it is incapable by its own efforts of getting mcire than .-i few feet at
most from the tree on whicli it was born. Itut binls anil Ikm's ,uid other
insects make good air-ships for the little cVeatur<'S. and no doubt many ,i
.vouug scale has crawled upon the foot of a bird or upon some larger insert
and thereon voyaged to the distant realm of another tree or orchard. No
doubt, also, strong gusts of wind often tear them loose from the bark on
which they are crawling and waft them to the branches of neighboring
trees. These are provisions of nature for distributing the species. Through
the channels of trade they are carried long distances. ev(>n from ciMitini'nt
to continent, uiion infested nursery stock, cuttings, etc.. and jiroliably t.. .1
lesser extent upon infested fruit. Buds aud scions carelessly taken from an
infested tree may transmit the pest to the orchard in which tliey are placed,
or may infest an entire block of trees in some nursery, and thence be
distributed to m.-my oriliar<ls. It is ;ilso probable that many are carried
about uiion the li;in(ls .-mil clothes of the men who prune tlii> trees or [lick
the fruit or otherwise work :iliout tlie orchards. — Orci/oii liiillctiii \ij. SS:
Ciinlti II.

187

The general distribution of the scale through Canada and the States
1ms been brought about by planting unfumigated nursery stdiU. I'rof. L. O.
Howard, of the United States Department of Agriculture, tells us that, in
spite of the wide dissemination of scaly fruit in this country, and to some
extent abroad, there is not a single autlienticated instance of the scale having
been estalilisbcd from sui-li material. — Fiuiii puiirr hi/ W'illiinii Jlciil.his. rnul
hcfoi-c Oiitinio Fiiiit-dniircr.s' Assuciiilidii. \(,rriiih,r. I'.lin.
How TO CoxTROL THE San .Jose Scale.
Tlif Sun Josr Sidle ii I'cnntiKciit Fin-ti>r in Fiidl-dioiiin;/.

The San .Jose Scale is so widely disseminated and has become so firmly
established in the iirincipal deciduous fruit regions of this countr.v that its
extermination is now in most cases out of the question. In the main, there-
fore, the San .Jose Scale must be recognised as a permanent factor, to be
regularly dealt with as are other insect evils or the fungous diseases of plants.

Exterminatiou is possible oulj- where the scale is detected at the very
outset on new or recentl.v planted nursery stock, or, at least. l)efore any
considerable chance of s|)rend has been afforded. It is true that liy the
greatest care in the intrcidnitidn of nursery stock the San .Tose Scale may
be kept out of districts now free from it for .vears. perhaps, and one is
warranted, tlierefore. in adopting every precaution to avoid introducing this
scale and even to attempt extermination wherever tlie conditions are reason-
ably favdurable. There is inily unc lertain mctlKid (if exterminating the
scale, and that is in digging up and burning all infested trees. This is an
heroic remedy and is advised only under the conditions of very recent intro-
duction of nurser.v stock — in other words, where the scale is discovered
within a few months after the purchase of the infested trees. If the scale
has passed .-m entire lireeding season in an orcln\rd. it will have spread
nnich nmre widely than an.v inspection will indicate .-luil. very likel.v. will
have g.-iined a tinithold mi wild and ornamental plants, other than fruit trees,
from wiiirli ii will ve-inlreduie itself into neighlionriug urc'iaii.s -t into
n( w ■ I ii.li'u's, liii\ve\->! Ihoi-'Uigh -iiaylia\e lee;: tii ■ .-iltenipls te erelic,,,' it.
'!'!:,■ Sun Jiisr Scn'r "in .'.'- Cu.i! . i,lir,'.

Wliib'. tliei'efere, ene Is nndeiibtedly justilied In asserting tli.-it the San
.Tese Scale is to lie a perniancMicy. it by no means fellows that the prolitable
growth of deciduous fruits is seriously menaced on this account. Tlie
experience in California, covering man.v years, has abundantly demonstrated
that this scale insect can be controlled, and the more recent experience in
the East points induliitably to the same conclnsio}i. In other words, by
proper reja-essive and remedial treatment, the \aln<' of wliicli has been
demonstrated by much iiractical exi>erience, an oi-cbard can be protected from
serious injury and kept in a gooil paying conditon. so far as inthienced by
the San .Tose Scale.

In view of tlie above, it is certainly \ery unwise and wasteful to dig up
and burn .a large pcu-ticai of an orchard because it is infested with this scale
in.sect. especially since the re-planted stock, even if clean wlien purchased,
would, with little doubt, be in the same condition of infestation in a very
short time.

188

One of the ni.-iiu (ibjects of this cii'cuhir, therefore, is to emphasise tlic
importance aud value of honest efforts to control this insect for the great
majority of districts where it has established itself, rather than efforts :it
extermination, which will prove successful rarely, at best, and will ahva.\s
be accompanied with great immediate loss. The other isrincipal object is i.>
designate, briefly the means of controlling this scale insect which experience
has shown to be of practical value.

The Lime and Sulphur ^Vash.

This is the hivariable remed.v for the San Jose Scale in California and
much of the Pacific Coast, and it is, under the conditions of climate obtaining
in that region, undoubtedly very effective. Early experience with this wash
in the East threw doubt on its efficiency as an insecticide under the climatic
conditions prevailing throughout the eastern half of the United States.
Some later experiments, however, have shown that wherever the weather
conditions happen to be very favourable, duplicating, in a measure, the con-
ditions on the Pacific Coast, this wash is effective In the East also. Unfor-
tunately, the weather conditions cannot be relied on, and, therefore, its use
in the East is not recommended. But if a considerable period (10 days or
two weeks, at least) of dry weather could be assured after the treatment, it
would probably give very satisfactory results when properly made and
apiilied. It is a winter application and is ajiplii'd in January or February.
or at any time prior to spring growth.

This wash is applied nearly every year, or as often as the San Jose
Scale develops in any cou.siderable numbers. It has the advantage of leaving
a limy coating on the trees, which acts as a deterrent to the young scale-lire.
and where it is not washed by rains retains its value as an insecticide coating
for some time, remaining in evidence ou the trees for several months. —
Circular Xo. 2, V. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology.

Orchards very hadly infested xvith Sail Josc Scale should he sprayed
tirii'r, once in fall or early icinter and again in spring before the buds open.
It is well nigh impossible to cover every portion of the tree at one spraying —
though that should by all means be the aim — hence, where orchards are
badly infested, it is advisable to spray twice each year until the scale is well
in control. Thorough application of lime-sulphur wash, covering the trees
from top to bottom, is necessary If good results are to be expected. Too often
orehardists spray their orchards without proper regard to thoroughness, and
the result is that they fail to get good results and then think the wash is
responsible. Lime-sulphur wash does not spread easily like oil emulsions.
and great care in spra.ying is necessary if good results are to be obtained.
On windy days it is almost Impossible to cover a tree on all sides with any
mixture and on such da.vs the lime-sulphur wash has its advantage, because
it is easy to see at a glance what portion of the trees has been covered.
The white coloured wash will show for itself. Frequently it becomes neces-
sary to spray one side of the trees one day and wait until the wind blows
from another direction before finishing the spraying.

AVhen spraying orchards to control the San Jose Scale, it is imperative
that all trees be sprayed. Not simply the trees that show infestation, but

189

every tree in the infested orcluini. It is f;ilse economy to sjirny only tlie trees
visil)ly infested. Frequently trees ni;iy be sliglitly infested, so sligUt as to be
overlooked by tbe avenige orcluirdist. If such trees are left without spray-
ing the scale may increase so rapidly during a single sunnuer that the trees
will be seriously injured before the following winter. — Iliillctiii \o. 21,
Ccorijid.

FAi.r. Si'KAVixc

Hcnrnil ^umuiinm unil Vniiclusioiis.

In the previous work upon this problem the results attending the applica-
tion of tlie sulphur washes were somewhat conflicting, since some of the
treatments caused serious injuries to the buds and blossoms, while others
in no manner affected the health of the trees. But as regards the insect! ■
cidal value of the treatments, all the experiments showed that applications
at this season were uniformly effective upon scale. The work indicated
that the injuries sustained by the trees were balam-ed by their increased
;()ur and fruitfulnes, due to the control of the scale. — Bidlitin Xo. 273,
yew Yorlc AgiicuUunil Exiicriincnial Station.

CONTENTS.

Chapter I. — Introilini iou 3

II. — Rpuifdics 0

III.— Beneficial Insects 20

IV. — Insect Pests of JIan and Animals, Di.seases of I'oulti'.v and

Treatment of Wounds 34

V. — Animal Pests 61

VI. — Pests and Diseases of Bees 67

VII.— Plant Diseases 72

VIII.— Apbides and Mites 102

IX.— Inserts Atlaeliini; Leaves and Twigs 114

X.— Inserts Attaekins Fruit 138

XL— Borers 140

XII. — Insects Attacking- Roots 157

XIIL— Weevils 16.")

XIV.— Scale Insects 17.5

INDEX.

Pahe.

AImii'I ion. contagious 5!!

Aiiifilli,., hutiiliiriii .-.11

./;,/,,■,., li,uil,)on„i.s I.V,

.Aninioniaral CopiM-r ( ':i|-lion:ili' I'l

Ainiiiiiiihilii hnlut,sa ;{;•

Aii/lioiiiiii rtiiaiiiiii 159

.1. hni.,^.i,„ 15!)

A nl Ik, IK, 1,1, IS .■<l,inalii.t 165

AiisoiMiiois (Jiuiii Motli 17;!

Auinial I'csls (jl

Anllinii-nose 1"! asp berry and Blaokl)prr.v .SS

Tomato !)4

Apple L'1 , 75

AiiIkUiiii.i fiisicipciiiiix H'.l

.1. ,li,i.si,lii(lr.s .-KP

Apliidcs .-ukI Jlites prj

.1/.///.V hm.-.-siir.r KM

.1. nniiiri.f 105

.1. mali 11)5

Aphis, Turnip and Cabbage • 104

Bean 105

Apple 105

Black Cherry lot!

Currant . . .' KHi

Mealey Plum 1(17

Hop 107

Woolly 110

Grain 113

Apple Tree Mildew 87

Powdery Mildew 88

Aphis 105

Leaf Roller, Lesser 131

„ Worm, Lesser 142

Fruit Miner 144

Fruit Borer 140

., Tree Borer, Bronze 153

Tree Bark Louse 17S

Scab 21, 73

Authracnose 21, 75

Canker 77

Apparatus 9

Arseniles 7

Arsenite of Lime with Soda 23

Arsenoid, Green 24

Arsenate of Lead 10

Arsenic 35

Aif/iircsthia conjugcUa 144

Asiiidiotns osirtrformis 175

.1. pcriiic-iosus 179

Bark Louse, Peach Tree 17G

Oyster Shell 178

Bacteriosis of Potatoes 91

liucilliin unlnnaceurum 91

ll,i,;il„s „,„,il,,,;,niK 79

Kim I. 1 1-1 1 lM-.r:m,. of Tomatoes 94

B.Mi.lh i:,| |,i.,.,.ts 26

]lii,il,ii III 1,1111 i/iiiata 156

Benzine 35

Bed Bug 50

M

194

Bpes, Posts aud Diseases of i 'T

Bee Moth <'''

„ Foul Bvood I ■'• '

„ riolde T 1

Bi'e, Starved Brood 71

Beetle Turnip Flea Hi;

Red-headed Flea 1 1 T

Blister Il~-

.. Hop Flea 1 i:i

Beau Aphis H i'>

., Weevil 170

Bitter Hot ^-

Black Vine AVe<'vil 1 i',r.

Black Ground Wasp •■:".

Hlackspot Canker T"|

Blaekherrv Anthraenose .SS

Blighl. Fire 7!>

„ Tear Leaf SI

Irish or Late of Potatoes 89

.. Early 91

Tomato 94

Strawberrv Leaf 95

liordeaux .Mixture 19

I'oisoned .", VJ, 19

Bot Fly, Plorse 41

Cattle 43

Borers 149

Borer, llound-hondeil 149

,. Flat-h.ad,-il 150

Peaeh Tre.. 150

Calif.irui:. I'.M.Ii Tree 151

Straw b^|■l■^ i 'i nwn 152

Bronz- A|.|.lr Tree 153

Black liuoscljcrry 153

Imported Currant 155

Raspberry Cane 150

Root 15(;

I-.Town Pot 82, 84

r.,,i<hn, /,;.«»•»»,. 16G

/;. ol,l,rlll.t 170

Buhach 17

ButterHv. White Cabbage 117

Bud aioth 136

Carbolic Acid 12, 2.T

Canvas Covers for Fumigation 25

Calosoma calidxm 33

Calomel 3.5

(\<irbon Disulphide "-

Cattle Tick 3.S

., Bot FIv 48, 44

„ Horn FIv 3S

„ Lice . 48

( "anker, Blackspot ' ■•

Apple aud Pear 7i

Cabbage Butierlly llj

., Aphis 104

Massot 159

Carnrh, rmiircum 130

Cun.o,,,,,.,, i,„„„w,ll„ 13S

(Uilundra fjranfiriii |j,-

C. oryzw 1 '!-

Celery. Rot of stored 101

Chiloi-oriin hiriilin rix 31

Clinisd/ia ociihitn 32

( 'holer.-i. poult i-y ■'3

195

I'AliK.

ClitTiy Slui.' 12()

Aphis lot;

Clinisobothris fcmorala ].")()

( 'ic.ida 127

Clothes Moths 4(!

Clisiorampa Americana 18.">

C. si/Ivatiia l;!(i

Copper Sulphate Solution 21

Carbonate Ammouiacal 21

Conservatories, fumigation ot 24

Cotton Seed Oil ','>'>

Coal Tar ;;ti

I'oyolos (U

( 'oUKars (U!

Ciillfliitlirklllll ll/rol,n-siri '.»4

Coillinn Molli IHS

CdiHilrarhrliis uvitiiplKir ]43

( 'cmtafiioiis Abortion .">!)

( 'rop-bonntl. Poultry 58

( 'roxvn Gall 72

( 'utworm liiou 33

variegated 122

iu grain 125

Currant Aphis 10(>

Worm, Imported 12S

Masgot 1 43

., Borer 155

Curculio 143

Cijlindrosporium padi M

DIctnina hepaticum 3(>

Diseases. Bees (17

Plants 72

I'oultry .53

Diamond-back Moth 132

lliplnsis tritici 112

1 )ouglas Mi.\ture for Poultry .54

1 ir\ Rot of Potatoes 93

Dust , 3G

i:i,il,ri,l<r IGl

h'liliimiispni-liim mariiUjIum 81

Kpiiauta 118

Epoch ni Canadensis 143

t'Jra n n is dcfoliaria 132

European Fruit Scale 175

Fxoascus deformans 86

l-'all Webworm 133

False Wireworms 104

Fire Blight 79

Fluke, Liver 36

Flies, House 46

Fleas 49

Flea Beetle, Turnip 11(5

„ Red-headed 117

Hop 119

Flat-headed Borer 150

Formalin 22

Foul Brood, Bees 69

Fruit Borer, Japanese 146

Pear 147

Fungicides 19

Fumigation 24

Fusicladium dendriticKin 73

F. pirn uni 73

Fusarium owijsporum 93

196

Page.

(iasolinp 35

Gastroph Hits tqui 41

(iad Fly 44

Gapes, Poultry 54

Gail, Crown or Root 12

of Linden 73

Glaosporium malicortwis 75

G. vciietum SS

(rlomcreUa riifo-mariilans SI!

(Jopliers (il

Gooseberry Mikiew Stj

Worm 12S

Borer, Black 1.53

Green Arsenokl lil

(ireenlioiisi's, FniulRalion of L'4

(iroiind S(inirrels (11

(Jrass, Diseases of IHI

Grain .Vpliis 11:;

Grasshoppers 114

ani/jlioliUHi /jniiiiniiv 14-2

Granary Weevil 172

(irain Moili. An^ouineis 173

Gnuunnsis 7N

(jijmiioiiinhii.s {iiiiKiidlrtilatiis 12S

Hwmatdhiu xi rruta 47

Hamatujiiniin i.iiri//i tenuis 4S

H. suis 4!l

Hadena ijcnislalrix 125

.4 . a ictiea 1 25

Harvest FIv 127

Ilellehiir,'. While. 17

HellelK.re Spniv IS

llrlicuhl ■ 1211

Jt i/iltofhlttiia tinihii/iiit ;>1

//. coH rciY/, H.V . .' .•!2

Iloverins Fly 32

Horse Bot Fly 41

House Flies H:

Horn Fly 47

Hopper-Dozer 115

Hop Flea Beetle 1 1'.i

Hop Aphis 1 1 17

Hydrocyanni(' Acid (jas 21

Hypoderma lincata 4.".

H. hovis It

Jlyaloptcrus pruni 1 n7

Hyphantria tcxtor 1.".3

Insects, lives of 1 1

„ attacking leaves and twins 114

fruit 13N

roots 1 5 1

Insect Pests of Man and Animals 34

Insect Powder 17

Insecticides 13. 34

lulsu IIM

Japanese Fruit Borer 14(1

June Bug, Western Ten IJin il 157

1 5S

Kerosene Emulsions 10, .55

I,adv).ir.ls 31. 32

I.:m .■ « in;;.., I FIv .32

La., r.il^- ...". 1.30

/,,n. nn, h.rrllcru 140

197

Lachnostcrna fusca 1'2 '

Leg Weakness, Poultry '-l

I.cat-curl, Peach ^'}

., Potatoes '■"

Leaf Roller, Oblique-Baufled ' j;' '

„ Lesser Apple 1 -jl

Lccanium nigrofasciatum j ^' ;

L. pcrsicw ' i'j

L. armeniacum 1 ' '^

Lime and Sulphur Wash I-;

Lime ;;' '

Limacida: j[-'.[

Limax agrcstis •• ^ --

Liver Fluke ■ • ■ '' '

Lice, Cattle, Hogs, Sheep ^^. f'

Lice, Human Beiufjs -j]

liice, Poultry •'•'

Locusts •• 11"^

Lye and Soap Wash 1"^

MacropJioma curvispora ^'•'

Maerosporium solaiii -'l

Magdalis ^nesctns ^-J"

May Beetle i\'^

Melophagiis oviinis ••;

Melanlophi-^ sprrfii^ • ■ ■ ■ ■_■ m

Mildew, Pow(l.ny -1. ^i- ^^

(JdOseb.Ti-y •'"ji:

Kose '^ '

Apple Tree ^i

Onions '^**J

Mites. I'oultrv •"'•;

Mites and Aphides 1"^

Mite, Pear-Leaf Blister IJ'-'

Mint Disease " '

Midge, Wheat II'-

Miner, Apple Fruit ^-^j

Mosquitoes ^■'

Moths. Clothes ^''

Moth. Winter ' •■"

Mottled T'nilier 1;;^

,, Diamond Back 1 ;;^

Tussock 1 •' '

Bud l-'<'

Mouldy Core ^-

Mouldv Uol •'^7

Maniliii fnirtifKiia ■'^-1

Mll^ri, tiomrDtirn -11)

.l/y.-H.« ccnisi T"'

.1/. rihU Tj'j

Mytiluspis pomoniiii ^ ' >

yectaria ditissima ' .',

y ectnrophora graiiaria 11'

ycmatus ventricosus 1 -^

Xephopteriix ru'hi::o)irlhi Hi

Nozzles for Spraying /^

Nursery Stock, Fumigation of -^

Oherca himactilafa 1;'''

(Edemasia concinna 1 -J^

Onion Maggot ] "''J

Rust or Mildew '•'•;

Oitsporia scaiies ''-

Orgyia antiqua 1-^^

Otiorhtinchug sulcattis l*?-''

Ox Bot Flv 44

Oyster Shell Bark Louse 1T7

198

• Paoe.

Paris Green 9

Spray IS

Paragrotis orhrogaslcr 12ij

Peach Leaf Curl 21, 80

Troc B rer 150

,, .. ,, Calitornia 151

„ Weevil 171

., „ Bark Louse 17G

Pea Weevil 1G(!

Pentilia ni isdia ;iO

Peronospiiia srldr'n!( iiiitna !).">

Pear Scnl) 73

„ <-'!inki'r A 77

., Leaf Bliglit SI

„ SlUR 12(1

„ Leaf Blister Mile ]0:f

.. Fruit Borer 147

I'lriilr,,,,,,, sainni 122

l-liill.,i,lli„rii ml, stalls SO

I'Inisiirinu run r, „iii 9G

l'hi/ll(ili,i,i riltalfi 110

l-hiit„,i1i,s iiiiri 103

]-Iion,il.,ii hiimiili 107

Pliurhiii ii/iaiiiiii ir)0

Pielile Brood, Bees 71

Pieris rnpw 117

Plant Diseases 72

Plum Aphis, Meal.v 107

Curculio 143

Phitclhi iiwrulij)ciiiiin 1,32

/'. fnivifiriirniii 1.32

PoisuMrcl ISdi-dcaux Mixlurc 12. 11>

PoH-ileiy .Mil. leu 21. NT. SS

Polas,siiuM .Sulphide 2.3

Poultr.v, Diseases of 34, ."i3

PocLospluera oxuaconthir 87

Potato, Irish or Late Blight SO

Early Blight 01

Leaf Curl 01

Bacteriosis 01

Seab !»2

Dry Rot 0,",

Wei 04

PolyphyUii decern tin en in 1,"i7

Psyllioijps pniirtiilulii. ] 10

Pumps for Sprayins ,S

Pulcx 40

Pucrinin niriilliir Ofi

Pyrethrum 17. .3(;

Quassia Cliips and Whale Oil Soap IG

Raccoons GG

Raspberry Anthracnose .' .SS

Saw Fly or Leaf Worm 127

Cane Borer l.^iG

Root 1,50

Itarhcla occidcntalis- 130

Remedies G, 0

Resin Wash 17

Red Water and Ticks 30

Red-h.'a.led Flea Be,.| I,. 117

Rfd Spi.l.T 102

Itfd-huuipcd ('aterpillar 134

i:i'<- We..vil 171

Roup 53

Root Gall 72

Paof.

Kuls ur riuMis, ^:r s^

i:.,s,. Afiiiic'w >>i

l^(ll■k^■ .Moiiiilaiii l.o.usi 1 H

l;,,l of Sl..iv,l (■.■I,.i-v Jtll

i;.,iin(l-h.:iil,.il lii.ivi- H'.l

Itiisl. ( liiioii '■>'>

Sdiii 1(1,1 rdinliilii nil

S,nnii,i„i,lr„ r./;7;o.w 1 ''1 '

N»„„«»,„ I'arilira l.M

., I'.lUltcM'S II-

S.:il.. Apiilc- ;iii(l IViir T:!

S<lii:<>iiriii<i hiiiUjcrn '1"

SrtfntHiiv itiarffiiiicoflis '•}[

Sr;ile Insects 1 J-'

Kuropean Fniit 1 J"|

,, I' each Tree 1 TtJ

Brown Apricot H J

Woolly-maple ] ""

„ Oyster-shell 1 T^^

San Jose -IT!'

Scluinliid rcn/.vi 1-2<1

s. Ruhi y^'t_

Slieep, Liver Fhike o'i

.. Tick 37

Shothole Fungus JSl

fiilotroga ccrealella 1 "•>

Skunks li'i

Slugs and Snails T-"

Slug, Pear and Cherry ._ T_'il

Smut in Grain !»7-101

Spraying Nozzles S

Siiliirrijilicca mors-uvir SG

.S'. jxiiiiiosu ST

N. mali ST

Splid II lla fraoarim 'M

Star\ed Brood Bees ■ Tl

St rawherry Leaf Blight 'J'l

( 'rowu Ptorer 1 -~»-

Weevil 1ii.">

Sulpliur ; 3<i

and I.rime Wash i'-?

Sulphide Potassium -3

Syrphus Fly 32

Slistcna frontalis IIT

Tachina Flv 3:!

Tar, Coal :in

Tctramichiis tclariiis Ii'-

Tcras 'miiiiitii KIT

Tent Caterpillar 13>.">

Forest ]3ii

Tliiijiccphalus aiintilutiis 'IS

Thrips ]:'.0

Tick, sheep 3T

„ cattle 38

and red water 3'.(

Tinea tapct^clla and others 40. 4T

Tillrtia I'iirirs 07

Tint/itidiir •. loO

Tnirtucira nccdanu ]3n

Tobaoi-o and soap wash IT

Tobacco 30

Tomato bacterial disease '.)4

disease 04

Trirhoilcctcs xialiiris 48

T. si)liarorci)haliis 49

200

' Page.

Turpentine, Oil of 36

Turnip B'lea Beetle 116

Aphis IM

Tussock Motli 134

Tyloderma fnrfuliitiiiii 152

Vstilaffo ciirho 98

Variegated Cut-worm 122

Vermin on Poultry ^<i

Wasp, Blaok (Jronml ■>'■>

AVarble Fly 4:!. 44

Web-worm. Fall V>.'>

Western Strawberry Crown-Boriu- J-)2

Western Ten-Liuefl June Bug ITiT

Weevils 165

Black Vine 105

„ Strawberry 165

Pea 166

Bean 170

on Peach Trees 171

( Iranary 171

llice 171

WliMlr Oil Soap anil Quassia I 'hips Ill

While Hellebore 17

AVheal Alidi;.- 112

White (inibs 157

Winter Moth 130

Wire-worms 161

False 104

Wounds, Treatment of 34. 56

Wolves 04

Woolly Aphis 110

Xylocriiis Agassi:il 153

VICTORIA, B. C. :

Pririlc.l l.y KiCHARD WOLKKSDKN, I.S.O., V. D., Printer to the Kind's .Most F.x-cellent .Majesty.
1909.

7 DAY USE

RETURN TO D£SK FROM WHICH BORROWED

This publication is due on the LAST DATE
stamped below.

BtC-^=:9rH5fifc:=>

PR 1 7 Ko™ B 'Kn General Library
,S-Aar.,J^:A\ oa University of California
(Br,39SRlO)4188 Berkeley

YD 14176'