/ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. VOLUME THE THIRD. (SYW SERIES.) JULY TO DECEMBEE, MDCCCXXXIX. LONDON : OFFICE, 24, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND. MAY BE HAD BY ORDER THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS. Pev- LONDON : \ <-> ^- 0 [ 2^ PRINTED BY JOSEPH ROGERSON, 24, NORFOLK-STREET, STRAND. INDEX TO THE THIRD VOLUME. (new series.) Absorption of nutriment by plants, 215 Agricultural cliemistry, 26 Agricultural intelligence, fairs, &c., 67, 147, 225, 307, 383, 467 Agricultural queries, 148, 160 Agricultural reports, 62, 143, 218, 304, 380, 462 Agricultural school in the county Fermanagh, 90 Agricultural societies, 33 — East Essex, 8 ; English, 56, 86, 114, 133, 234, 371, 317, 437 ; York- shire, 249, 251 ; Lincolnshire, 259; East Suffolk, 290 ; North- amptonshire, 297 ; Chelmsford and Essex, 324 ; Highland, 361; Liverpool, 374; Saffron Walden and Dunmow, 374 ; West Cumberland, 375 ; Not- tinghamshire, 375 ; Lancaster, 376 ; Northumberland, 376 ; Braintree and Bocking, 414 ; Saffron Walden, 422 ; Cork, 424 Agricultural societies, on the ad- vantages resulting from the es- tablishment of, 135 Agricultural statistics, 279 Agriculture, 19 Agriculture and commerce — their interests identical, 250 Agriculture, improvements in, 436 Agriculture in British North Ame. rica, 444 Agriculture of the South of Eng- land, notes on the, 91 Agriculture, on the use and abuse of certain terms when applied to, 169 Agriculture, practical improve- ments in, 408 America, British, historical and descriptive account of, 443 American cattle show, an, 261 Amputation of a horse's tongue, 59 Answers to queries on draining and cultivating a poor clay soil, 414 Apple, propagation of the, 35 Assessing of new plantations to the poor and other parochial rates, 86 Averages, imperial, 73, 153, 231, 312, 392, 472 Avery's rotatory steam engine, 60 Ayrshire, general agricultural as- sociation for 1839 — 376 Bedfordshire agricultural society, 376 Bees, honey, 5l Biddell's scarifier, — important ag- ricultural implement — plate, 171 Black, the worst colour for paint- ing wood-work in the open air, 429 Blacker, Mr., on the currency, 136 Blinkers, 257 Bones as a manure for turnips, 175 Bloomsbury, winner of the Derby, 1839—94 Bone dust, machine for depositing, 440 Bone manure, 57 Bones in the Desert, 355 Botanical society, royal, 51 Braintree and Bocking agricultural association, 414 British America — review, 198 Brutes, on humanity to, 23 Calf reeds, 273 Cattle, 53 Cattle, on feeding on boiled bar- ley, 440 Cattle, on the rearing and feeding of, 5 Cattle, sheep, &c., on the external conformation of, 95 Cattle, the present epidemic among, 264, 314, 451 Caution against planting certain vegetables too near vour beeary, 205 Challenge — the Sussex v. Short- horns, 85 Charles XII and Euclid running the deciding heat for the Don- caster St. Leger, 1839 — ■plate, 457 Chelmsford and Essex agricultural society — Witham district ploughing match, 324 Chelmsford Chronicle, letter to the Editor of the, 445 Clod and clay burning, 348 Comparison of speed, 299 Cork agricultural society, 124 Corn laws, the, 7, 449 Corn trade of Odessa, 19 Cottage allotments, 432 Cottesmore ploughing meeting, 373 County constabulary force, 430 Cow clubs, 459 Cows, on the gestation of, 321 Crediton ploughing match, 448 Crops, rotation and distribution of, 170 Cultivation of strawberries, 199 Currant, the, 443 Currency, the, 275 Customs and practice on entry, 188 Cypresses, remarkable, 458 Deanston frequent drain system, as distinguished from and com- pared with the furrow-draining .and deep ploughing of the Mid- land counties, 22 Deception, winner of the Oaks, lQo9— plate, 206 Defence of the small farmers of Ireland, 281, 330 Deformity in the roots of turnips, on, 298 Description of a long-horned bull, the property of R. Hortin, Esq., of Sherbourne — plate, 233 Description of a Devon bull, the property of Mr. Paull, of Comp- ton Pauncefoot, Somerset — plate, 393 Dibbling wheat, 191, 237 Distribution of landed property in Ireland, 270 Draining, on, 50, 58, 323 Draining, on the best means of encouraging, 446 Drill husbandry, and a scientific education to agriculturists, 2 Drugs, poisonous, on the use of, to prevent the smut in wheat, 438 Duke of Northumberland, a short- horn bull, the property of T. Bates, Esq., — pedigree and de- scription— plate, 156 East Essex agricultural society, 8 East Suffolk agricultural associa- tion, 290 Egyptian wheat, 263 IXJJKX. Elementary principles in tbe nia- nRji;ement of a farm, 2!yo Endive, 3'.> Enj^lish agricultural society, .')(>, »(■), 133,231, 271, :>17, 437 English agricultural society, to the committee of management o( the, 95 English agricultural society, and the veterinarv college, 101 English agricultural societj', first meeting at Oxford, 114 English agricultural society — poem on the first meeting of the, 174 Essay on wheel and swing plouglis, 160 Essay on the adv^antage of far- mer's clubs, with some account of the rules and regulations of the Harleston farmer's club, 394 Essay on stall-feeding cattle, 405 Establishment of an association on the continent, for conducting the sale of wool, "78 Facts and (jueries for apiarians, 187 Fallow, of the, 192 Fallow deer — a scene in Windsor Park— /)/«fe, 318 Farm manure, 238 Farming in Oxfordshire, 428 Farms, experimental, on tiie estab- lishment of, 417 Farmer's fire and life insurance and loan and annuity institu- tion, 314, 397 Farmer's progress. No. !,• — Pro- tection to hay and ripe corn, 316 Fattening of swine, 347 Fermanagh agricultural seminary, 437 Flemish husbandry, 200 Foot-rot in sheep, 61 Calloway (Scotland) in 17'.K), 437 Gardening operations for Julv, 68 ; for August, 148 ; for Sep- tember, 226 ; for IVovember, 38 j ; for December, 461 Gas tar as a manure, on the use of, 197 Gaucha plant, the, 4l7 Geology, economic — agriculture, 45 Grain, comparatire prices of, 73, 154, 232, 312, 392. 472 Grain, price of, and state of crops in Britain for 47 years, 360 Grain and flour, general importa- tion of, into Liverpool for 31 years, 455 Harvest song, 323 Hay and ripe corn, protection to, 316 Hereford cattle, a challenge, 263 Highland agricultural society, 3()1 Hillyanl, C., to Col. Cballoner, one of the committee of manage- ment of the English agricultural society, 180 llolkhaiu, the seat of the Jv.ul of Lf'icester, 21 Holland, iiow it was formed, 17 9 Hop intelligence, 220 llopn, prices of, 73, J 5 1,232,312, 392 Hops, tithe on, 434 Horse, longevity of the, 438 Horse power, 34 Horses, advantage of soiling, 20 Horses, advantages of clipi'ing, 429 Horses, shying in, 438 Important decision, 66 Imjiortant information to surveyors of liighwavs, 317 iinportaut to overseers and audi- tois, 93 Improved shaker, the. 91 Incubation, artificial — the ecca- leobion, 2r)<( Influence of railways upon agri- culture, on the, 260 Influenza in sheep, 181 Irrigation of carr or low land, on the, 329 Tones, John II. W hitmore, to the Kt. Hon. ]];\v\ Spencer, 175 Joy, Thomas, to tlie J'"/ditor of the Farmer's Magazine, 217 Lancaster agricultural societv, ;'7() Laud fallow, 32 Land, liigh price of, 376 Letter from U.K. to practical agri- culturists, 27 4 Letter to the tenants of Philip Pusey, Fsq., M. I', for Berk- shire, 105 Lime to land, on the application of, 16 Lime, on the efl'ect of, .)6 Lincolnshire agricultural society, 259. Lincolnshire Chronicle, to the edi- tor of the, 61 Linseed oil as food for cattle, what are the nutritive qualities of, 180 I-inseed oil as food for cattle, of the nutiitive qualities of, 300 Liquid leather, 36 Liverpool annual harvest circular letter, 455 Liverpool agricultural society, •374 Liverpool monthly report of corn, 301 Long Sutton agricultural associa- tion, 379 Lottery — plate, 17 Lough Neagh improvement, Mr. Gregory's report, 247 Machine for mowing and cutting- grass and grain, 167 Malt, the number of bushels charged with dut}', 197 IManure, 90. Manure, artificial, statement on the application of, 429 Manure, liquid, account of, o5o Manures and their application, on the diflerent kinds of, 185 Manures, night soil, 1 Manures, ou the use and abuse of, 82 i\Iarks Hall slipcp sale, 2()1 IMatch between J-^arl S|)Hiicpr and Mr. Selnies, award of tlie judges, 317. Method of preventing smut in whevit, 321 Milking, observations on, 89 Mode of feeding cattle in Mada- gascar, 66 ,M()orhand-p:m, 38, 92 Aloorcambe Hay, vegetative power of the sea satid in, 59 Mocrcanihe IV.iy, fiirllier indispu- table proofs of the extraordinary vegetative j)owur of the seu- snnd in, 89 Muriatic acid on cludk lands, on (he use of, 259 Night soil as a manure, on the use of, too, 173 Nitrate as a manure, 173, 453 Northamptonshire farming and grazing society, 297 Northumberland agricultural so- cietv, 376 Nottinghamshire agricultural as- sociation, 375 Observations on " A defence of the small farmers of Ireland," 298, 354 Origin of tlie improved shoit-horn, on the, 450 Origin of the word " farm," 169 Over-heated hav, 244 Pasture, on the management of, in regard to the destruction of mubci, 18-i Pastures, old, on tlie unprofitable- ness of, 14 Peasantry of England, the, 408 Peat land, on the improvement of, 271 Peat, prepared, 55, 93 Penrvlm's, Lord, poultry house, 419 Phrenology in birds, 198 Planters, a hint to, 411 Plants, structure and functions of, 265 Plants, carnivorous, 100 Ploughing matches extraordinary, 454 Ploughing match of the Gravesend and Rochester agricultural as- sociation, 435 Ploughs, two and four horse, on the use of, 436 Ploughs, on the draught ot, 315 Ploughs, on, 425 Potato market, 74, 392, 472 Pregnancy in the mare and tbe cow, detection of, 432 Prizes awarded at the Saffron Wal- den agricultural society, 422, Queries on the best system of feeding sheep in Norfolk with cut turnips, 324 Queries on draining and cultivat» ing a poor clay soil, 414 IXDEX. Ill Railways and the growth of corn, Jlaihvays v. turnpike roads, 104 llnpe, on the culture of, 'iBO llattle grass, 183 Keaping, extraordinary, iiS llecipe for tlie prevention of smut in wheat, .'>21 Red giant Goliaii rhubarb, 19 Ileinarlvs on the excretory powers of plants, 164 Rents, 184 Repeal of the duty on bricks used for draining land, 170 Report on the value of bone ma- nure, in com|)arison with ordi- nary farm-yard manure, I'.'O Result of an experiment on several varieties of wheat, 418 Review of the corn trade, 69, 149, 227, 308, 386,4(i8 Ribbling machine or grubber, de- scription of a, and recommenda- tion of a drill- harrow and roller for potato culture. 111 Rotations, the relative value of, 239 Rural economy abroad, 409 Saffron Walden and Dunmow agricultural society, 374 Sago as food for domesticated ani- mals, 102 Salt manure, 168, 270 _ Saltpetre as a manure, 146, 191, 208 Sap and honey-dew, on extrava- sation of, 439 Saxby cow club, 4(")1 Scotland since the end of tlie 17th century, on improvement on the state of, 87 Seed market, 73, 154,232,312, 392, 472 Shed-feeding, on, 413 Sheep, cases of depraved appetite, foot-rot, and the attack of the fly in, 420 Sheep, on crosses in, 419 Sheep, on rearing and feeding, 402 Sheep, new breed of, 152 Sheep sales, 377 Sheep, the oil in tlie wool of, 431 Sheep, on dipping, to destroy ticks, ice, 183 Sheep, unprecedented weight of, 199 Sheep, what breed of will return the largest profit 1 211 Slielter, as a mean of imi)rovcnient, 272 Short-horns, on the merits of, 421 Sliort-horns, sale of, the property J. Colling, Esi]., near Greta 13ridge, 300 Silver fir, tlie, 179 Smitlitield sliow, on the mode of selecting the judges of stock at the, 423 Smut in wheat, on preventing, 320 Smut in wheat, on the nyw pre- vention of, 17 4 Soda and saltpetre as manure, 258 Soil, on the cultivation of, 7j Soiling system,. on the, 112 Soils in the interior, on the variety of, probable formation of them — analj'sis of tiie poorer soils — I'e- claiming Iieaths, trenching — le- velling, mode of cultivation and gradual improvement, 41 Soot as a manure, lime, &c., on the use and abuse of, 98 Spencer's, Earl, siieep-shearing prizes, 44 Spring tillage, 10 Stock exhibited at tlie English agricultural show at Oxford, 127 Stock, sale of, at Castle Howard, 299 Subsoil ploughing, on, 412 Subsoil ploughing, on, the use of salt as a manure, iS:r., 441 Suggestions in favour of the sys- tematic collection of the statis- tics v)f agriculture, 288 Sunflower, cultivation of the, 178 Swedish turnips, on the culture and storing of, 4.)2 Swing and wheel ploughs, on the comparative jnerits of, 1 J6 Teak trees in England, 3,53 'J'hrashing machines, 423 Thomson's lectures on botany, on soils, manures, &c., extract from, 212 Thorough draining and subsoil ploughing, 160 Timber, adhesiveness of, 303 Tithe, commutatation of, important to landowners and farmers, 35 Tithe continued, 239. Trade of the United Kingdom, 37 Trees, grafting, for new varieties, 51 Trees, suitable soils for, 209 Turf, draining with, 421 Turnip culture, 459 Turnip fly, remedy for the, 68 'l'urni|)s — Qy. their wcigiit per acre '! 413 Turnpike roads, 27 1 'Turnpike roads in England and Wales, 44, 88, 163, 216, 245 Turnpike trusts, on the liability of, 84 Utility of the earth worm, 178 Utility of geese and cuddies, 423 Victoria level, 107 ^'ipers, mode of destroying, 08 Vitriol, on the use of, for prevent- ing smut in wheat, 244 \Vater-power, improvement in the ap])lication of, 427 \Veather and the crops, 223 \Vee\ils in granaries, to destroy, 1 90 West Cumberland agricultural cat- tle sIiow, 375 ^Vestern, Lord, to Earl Spencer, president of the English agri- cultural societ}', 101 Western's, Lord, system of drill- ing, 256, 426 \Vheat, on dibbling, 217, 237 Wheat, on the acceleration of the growth of, 262 Wheat, on pure and improved va- rieties, lately introduced into England, 398 Wheat, result of an experiment on several varieties of, 418 Wheat, steeping, 442 Wheat and other grain, on dib- bling, 2 16 Wheel and swing ploughs, essay on, 160 ^^'ool fairs — Lewes, 137; Thetford, 138; Barnard Castle, 142; Lei- cester, 142 ; Cupar, 142; In- verary, 142 Wool, improvement of, in India, 458 Wool markets, 73, 154, 232, 312, 392, 472 Woollen trade, report of, for the month of September, 378 Yearling heifer, description of, the property of J. Stevens, Esq., of Somerset — plate, 233 Yorkshire agricultural society, 249. 251 Youatt testimonial, 242 Printed by Joseph Uofjerson, 2i, Nert'ylk-strcet, Strand, London. -FI.AN IDESIG^TEB FOU A SMEEP FARM IW A HILEX COTO^THlf, employing on,- p7oiu/7i. A' »kflfh' oicupjfc/ with shetp A- a few caille Sshmate from£2.JO fo ZSOfl. ELEVATION; LENGTH 189 FEET YARD FOR SHEEP II piocIIery I HAY HOUSE \NOOL HOUSE LOFTED TO BE LOFTED "■■■»■■■■■ COW SHED CART SHED SHED J7 r /2 YARD FOR CATTLE & DUNC ICALF PENS SPARE HOUSE I HOUSE FOR , YOUNG CATTLE MM H TATOE HOUSE J Donaldson Rat- 1839. 20 30 40 Scule 20 .Feet tf* an Tnch JULY, 1839. No. 1.— Vol. III.] [Nkw Series. THE PLATE. (For Description, see Puge 17.) MANURES.— NIGHT SOIL. There cannot be more conclusive evidence of tlie inestimable value of a portable extraneous manure, capable of producing a good crop of turnips, upon poor land, than is afforded by the use of bones as a manure in certain soils. Thousands of acres are now under tillage and producing rich crops, which, but for the aid of bone manure, would have con- tinued to be mere rabbit warrens, or at most, sup- plying a miserable support to a few half-starved sheep. Bone manure is, however, limited in sup- ply and applicable to certain soils only ; any other manure, therefore, which not being too bulky or heavy, and hence costly in tiansport, which can be rendered at a moderate price, so as to meet the deficient supply of bones, and applicable to soils in which bones do not produce a beneficial effect, would be invaluable to the cultivators of poor tur- nip soils. It is well known that night-soil possesses the most efficacious qualities as a manure. It has long been used for that purpose in France and Belgium, and in China it is preserved and pre- pared with tlie greatest care. The offensive smell has hitherto besn the great obstacle which has prevented its use. The difficulty seems how- ever, at length to have been overcome; Messrs. Payen and Buren, celebrated chemists, in France, having succeeded in producing a powder, the mixture of which with night-soil, almost in- stantly frees it from the offensive smell. It after- wards undergoes further preparation, and when ready for use assumes the appearance of a fine OLD SERIES.} black mould, not in the smallest degree oflensive, and so dry and powdery, as to be capable of pass- ing through the drill, and deposited with the seed. A licence to use the French patent in this country has been taken out, and a manufactory of the article has been established in London. We last week inspected the works, and saw several thousand quarters of the manure in different stages of preparation. Tlie process of mixmg the powder with the night-soil was performed before several gentlemen who were present, and in the course of a few minutes the offensive smell was entirely re- moved. The efficiency of the manure has been most satisfactorily proved in France. A great many persons have already purchased some of it for the purpose of testing its effects, and we trust they will make the results of tiieir experiments public, for the benefit of the agricultural body. If the thousands of tons of this article, possessing the most powerful qualities as a manure, but now al- together lost in consequence of its offensiveness, can be rendered inoffensive, and therefore available, it will be a most important addition to our present means of production. A quantity sufficient for manuring two acres can be packed in a cask of the size of a sugar hogshead, at an expence of from 30s. to 21. per acre. The trouble and cost of a trial is trifling, we therefore hope that some prac- tical farmers in different parts of the country, will be induced to try it, in order that a fair opportu- nity may be afforded of testing its general value, and also of ascertaining whether its efiects vary on dif- ferent soils. B {No. 1.— FOL. XI. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. two, much valuable information and many important results nre lost. Too much stress therefore cannot he laid upon the n;(;)f)7/(/(;ce of a scientific education to the practical farmer, who ought to have an intimate knew- ledge of mechanics, and be versed in chemical agency, and animal economy, geology, botany and vegetable physiology. If these were more generally taught in schools, the character of the agriculturist would be raised, and he would be able to take that respectable station in society to which he is entitled. In a paper read before the statistical section of the last meeting of the British Association by L. Hind- marsh, Esq., of Alnwick, he speaks of the North- umberland farmers, as being skilful and shrewd prac- tical men, " wiiose skill is a collection of facts in their own experience, and that of their neighbours, applied in daily practice by shrewd minds, without Icnowing the principles which give to these facts all their efficiency and importance. Thus their range of vision is limited, the whole bearing of these facts is unseen, and important truths, which are involved in them are undiscovered. Here this want of a scientific education is felt by many excellent farmers." Now if this want be felt where the far- mers occupy farms from three to four thousand pounds a year, and are acknowledged to be of a su- ])eiior class, how much more is it wanted in many other parts ? The occupation of an agriculturist is, and I hope will always be considered, one of the most lionourable as well as the most interesting and deligiitful ; " not a tree, a leaf, a blossom, but con- tains a folio volume :" education only is wanting to render ir, the most intellectual and virtuous." " VVe hail the birds of Spring as the blessed mes- sengers of hope — the seed is scattered in faith — the harvest is reaped in joy — the rains descend, and we give thanks for the opening of those fountains, whose .source and whose seal is "above." This letter, I am aware is extending to an inconvenient length, but I must not neglect " Rusticus" who accuses me of the folly of " adopting a generalising principle which supposes success and benefit from every case of a similar application, overlooking as unworthy of no- tice, the difference of circumstances under which the application must be made, and on which the whole question hinges." How did " Rusticus" happen to overlook the qualifications contained in my paper which he criticises so unsparingly "! " In strong or stony laud where the drill is not so manageable, the practice of ribbing may be advantageously practised, that is by opening out a light furrow each way, then sowing the seed and covering it with the har- row. In many parts of Lancashire the soil is of a light description composed of either sand, or a mix- ture of sand and peat; these soils are very prolific in weeds, particularly the polygonnum (redshanks) and arenaria (sandwort), which would be cut up by the hoe most eftectually." In the endeavours of " Rusticus" to disparage the drill husbandry, he has the folowing observations, "Culmiferouscrops soon slioot up and exclude all culti- vation and the utmost that can be effected is a slight pulverization by scarifying and hoeing, and a check given to weeds that infect the lands, in defiance of the cleaning by green crops ; an opportunity is also afford- ed by pulling any tall weeds amongthe crops, and be- yond tliese trivial advantages, I never could per- ceive an}' benefit from drilling." Does " Rusticus" really estimate all these to be " trivial advantages?" I admit at once if they be trivial advantages, there would be a trivial advantage only in the adoption of the drill, notwithstanding the land is kept in a perfectly clean state for every crop. 1 return again to the Lancashire Agriculturist, to notice the most sensible and valuable of his remarks, his estimation of Mr. Blacker, in wliich I most cor- dially concur ; I am proud to say that I have the lionour and benefit of that gentleman's intimate ac- quaintance ; he deserves all that a grateful country can bestow, few men have benefited their country more than he has done ; he has poured prosperity and comfort into the poor man's cabin, and improved his moral and religious character; the beneficial re- sults of his labours in Ireland, are well worthy of imitation in England. I beg leave earnestly to re- commend the perusal and distribution of his pamphlet on small farms. I have before publicly stated that in consequence of Mr. Blacker's exertions, the Irish are excelling the English in agriculture. Books of this kind ought to be selected for distribution amongst farmers, particularly the rising generation, and agri- cultural societies would find advantage in i)ur- chasing and circulating this little manual, the profits of which are devoted to chviritable uses in Ire- land, entirely divested of party or politics.* I am happy to say Mr. Blacker has been invited to attend several of our Lancashire autumnal agricultural meetings, where I Jiope to meet the " Lancashire Agriculturist" and " Rusticus", in their real characters, not concealed under a fictitious title, inconsistent with that openness and honesty of purpose, characteristics of true agriculturists. In taking leave of them, I have to thank them for af- fording me another opportunity of stating my opi- nions on the great improvements of which agricul- ture is susceptible, which must be admitted to be a subject of great importance to mankind. The agri- culturist is the producer of food for the manufactu- rer and all other classes of society, and the more the land can be made to produce at tlie least cost, the more plentiful and cheap must the produce be. The very best farmers in the country are acknowledged to be those who are the best educated. It would be the interest of the manufacturer, having proved in his own department the advantage of scientific knowledge, to come forward liberally in support of agricultural societies, lectures, and libraries, for the dissemination of scientific and practical knowledge amongst agriculturists , there cannot be a doubt in the mind of any person of ordinary discernment and practically acquainted with agricultural subjects, unfettered by prejudice, that the produce of the land in this country would not only exceed the consuinptioii, but in consequence of greater economy and skill, it could be afforded at a price, remunerative to export, particularly that of cattle, sheep, and horses, for which, if even a small increased care were taken by the breeder, in place of the generally prevailing ne- glect, there would be a greatly increased demand from various parts of the world, even greater than could be supplied j the landlord would be in a better position than now, for decrease of price would be more than balanced by increase of produce ; but if rents should be reduced, which I do not believe, he would have the advantage of a reduction of price in all articles of consumption ; cheap food would have a tendency to reduce the price of labour and all other commodities. I know that the price of labour is principally governed by supply and demand, but it will be time enough to discuss this part of the question when there is a probability of the surplus labour being taken up. The progress of improvement is now in operation, for a very iew years ago, wheat, according to the evidence of the first farmers in the country, which evidence was given with the greatest sinceritj', could not be grown for less than 80s. a * Ridgeway is the publisher. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. quarter ; now the result of an improving system, the estimate is 55s. or even 50s. The improvements wliich have taken phice are as a drop of water in a bucket, in comparison to the adoption of drilling and hoeing, soiling cattle, proper attention to their breed, subsoil ploughing-, perfect drainage, the se- lection and improvement of seed and plants, manage- ment of manure, the economising of labour on me- chanical principles, and many other improvements that might be suggested. The foregoing remarks I venture to make, after forty years' close jittention to ■practical agric%titare, and after visiting most of the counties in Great Britain and Ireland in search of agricultural information. The result of my observa- tions, I again repeat, is, that agriculture is still in embryo, and that in most parts of the country, a most important reform is wanted in nearly every depart- ment, and that even in the best districts of Scotla)id, there is much room for improvement. I am confi- dent that the soil of this country under proper ma- nagement, without any further expenditure of capital than a better application ef the labour at present employed, and the surplus labour frequently unem- ployed, would produce more food than sufficient for a rapidly increasing population; and that the same energy, education, and skill, which has been ap- plied by the mauuficturer and mechanic, would enable the agriculturist to produce the same results. JONATHAN BINjSS. Lancaster, June 12. ON THE REARING AND FEEDING OF CATTLE. (original.) In our island, where the domestic animals enter so largely into the article of human food, a great part of the farmer's attention must be devoted to the rearing of them to the degree of perfection their ul- timate use requires ; for every labour bestowed on any kind of cultivation and every article the far- mer produces by the application of that labour tends to the same result — the production of food for man and beast. Before the introduction of green crops, a very imperfect system of rearing prevailed, from want of succulent food for winter; grass-fed ani- mals could only be brought to market, and if kept through winter they lost during that time the de- gree of condition they had acquired during summer, for hay and straw if used in profusion will not rear or feed the animals quickly and profitably. The cultivation of green crops has completely altered the whole system, and has introduced an entire re- volution, both in the cultivation of the land, and in the management of the domestic animals, a better and moi'e regular supply of lood has been obtained, and a vast addition to the number and quality of every article produced on the farm. An improvement in the supply of food carried along with it correspond- ing improvements in the animals themselves, and on no point of rural economy has more skill and exer- tion been shown, or more persevering industry ex- ercised, than we have witnessed by many breeders in this kingdom, in improving the qualities of the animals, by intermixing and engrafting the proper- ties of the one on the other, so as to develope and bring forth those qualities for the use of man. Our breeds of cattle are numerous, but the various crosses and remnants of old breeds need not be enumerated, and they may be reduced to the few breeds that are now most approved, and from which we may choose for an\r situation in the kingdom. For all rich soils and favoured situations, the Dur- ham breed, or short-horns are preferred, and the long-horns are still kept by many excellent cultiva- tors. The Herefords and short-horns seem nearly balanced in merits, if we may judge from the prizes awarded them. For inferior lauds we have the Devon lireed, not surpassed bv any cattle in the kingdom, and besides we have multitudes of non- descript animals, that do not fall under any class, but which are yet much used in all parts of the kingdom. In Scotland, where great numbers of cattle are reared and exported, the native breeds are three — the Ayrshire, which are evidently allied to the Yorkshire breed — the Galloways, or polled blacks, and the ^Vest Highland breed of horned black, shaggy haired aninuls, which are found, with some little variation, all over the Western and Northern Highlands of Scotland. Great numbers of these animals are fed in England ; and an opinion is entertained, and mv own experience goes far in support of it, that these mountain cattle pay more mone}^ per head and per acre, than anv of our fine breeds, after all the improvements that have been made. The cost of production is small, and the beef commands a higher price in the market. la bringing cattle forward to the state when they are disposed of to the consumer, farmers have adopted two methods ; some prefer to breed and feed on the farm, a number that the farm can support, and others to buy yearly a number they can afford to feed. The preference given to either of the two methods would seem to be, or should be, determined by locality and other circumstances, yet caprice and fancy would seem to do much, for it is hard to con- ceive how two farms adjoining each other should be suitable to different modes, except in the bare opinion of the farmer, or how tvvo breeds of animals can be most profitable in similar cases, except in opinion only. In many situations the difference to be observed between breeding and feeding, is most marked, and it is very fortunate that the diversity of opinion prevails in other places, for it affords a ready market for our mountain breeds, which, if the case was otherwise, migbt not be so profitable. In choosing a native breed, the farmer will be guided by the quality of the soil, the food he can produce, and by other circumstances, and much will depend on his own fancy ; but if he prefer to buy in rather than breed, it will be found that the Scotch polled and Vv'est Highland breed will pay more money than any other. A very general mistake is committed in not allowing them sufficient time on the land, in or- der to feed — not less than eighteen months should be allowed, or twelve in cases where they have been bought in good condition. Green crops being now known to us, which if duly cultivated will afford succulent food during winter, it is understood that no farmer neglects providing a sufficient quantit}^ if he wishes to rear and feed profitably, not only with regard to the profits of the animal itself, but to the manure raised for the future benefit of the farm. But notwithstanding the long acknowledged profits of these crops, and also of improved breeds of stock, we find great neglect prevail on both points ; for if we look into Smithfield, or any other market, we find the improved animals bear a small propor- tion to the others ; farmers yet j^ersist in breeding verv unthrifty animals, and for want of green crops they are bred and starved upon a system. In many cases, however, we find both breeding and feeding carried on systematically and profitably, with due attention to the profits expected i'rom the animal 6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. itself, from the attention and food bestowed, and iflso to the future benedts expected from tlje system. Cow-slieds should be provided with call-pens ad- joining-, under the same roof, where the calves are confined in separate apartments for one animal, and floored with boards, pierced with auger holes that they may lay dry and comfortable. "From these apartments they are brought twice or thrice a dav to be suckled, led by a bailer, and tied, when sucking, to a ropo extendino- ajono- the cow-ished. Sucking- is always to be preferred to nursing by the pail" when milk is exj)osed, much of the value is lost, the gaseous fluids go off by evaporation, and the ap- pearance of the calves nursed by the two methods is a sufficient decision. Suckling- is -attended with less trouble, and an experienced cowman will soon be able to judge of the proper cpiantity to be allowed them. From January to June is the proper time for ■weaning — early calves maintaining a di cided supe- riority, unless greater encouragement be afterwards afforded to the later ones. In situations where fat- tening for veal is found profitable, both weaning and fattening go on togetlier ; and even where cheese and butter aie nr.inufacturcd, all tlio three may be easily managed, by allotting a number of cows for suckling and a number to ba milked for the dairy. Calves fed for veal must not be restricted in tbe quantity of milk ; for weaning, they must be allowed such a quantity as will keep them always in a sleek and thriving- condition, without feeding them, for any fat produced at that time would bo lost. An ordi- nary cow will feed four calves for veal, or make veal of two, and wean three, much depending on the milky nature of the cow, and ou the quality of the pasture. The various substitutes for milk that have been puffed abroad among farmers have all proved an utter fallacy, only sujiplying the farmer with a few pounds of butter and cheese at the expence of the animal. 'J'hey never fail in producing- a laroe belly and offal, an infallible mark of degeneracy and bad keep, in any animal, and in no case have we baen yet able to improve upon what nature has pro- vided the mother with in nursing her offspring. Du- ring that time the mother should form tbe chief object of our attention. In the month of May, when the weather has become ■warm, and the young grass has sprung, the earliest c-alves will be turned out into a grass paddock of fine pasture, provided with water, -and shelter and C )nvenient to the homestead, and ■where they can be suckled twice a day. The cows' pasture should be adjacent if possible, and also well provided with ■water and shelter, and laid down or improved for the purpose. The paddock for the calves may con- sist of one or two acrts, and an orchard suits very well, the fruit trees affording shelter from the heat, and amusement in rubbing. A shelter shed is indis- pensible, with a dry well littered bottom, and may be so contrived, as to suit for lambing the ewes in the spring, which business will be concluded before the calves -are turned out. The ewes lying all night in tl'.e paddock, will bestow a good top dressing, ■which must be attended to by rolling. At the age of 16 weeks the calves will be ready to go to the pasture field, the quantity of milk havino- been gradually reduced as the calves learned to eat the grass. As they are removed from the paddock the next oldest ones are turned out from the calf-pens, and when the weaning season is near a close, as many of the latest c-alves as the paddock can main- t-ain may remain in it for the season, to ho near at hand for receiving- some better encouragement to raise them to nn etjuality with the oldest. I\'othino- more disfigures a herd of cuttle as to see tliem oi different sizes and qualitiei?, and colours, and in many cases of different breeds, shewing a great want of skill in the breeding and of care and attention in the nursing and rearing. After the weaning season is over, the milk for the remainder of the season may be applied to suckling for veal, or to making butter and cheese, as situation may direct. In places where these articles are the staple produce, the weaning of calves will be on a smaller scale; but on these farms some are weaned, to which the above observations w-ill equally ajjplv. When the calves are removed from tbe home pad- dock, the best pasture on the farm will be given them, well watered and sheltered if possible ; in many cases the lattermath of a hay crop answers well. When fields lie in jjcrraanent grass, a shed with a view to permanency maybe erected in each field at a very trifling cost, and mav be so contrived as to suit both cattle and sheep. Where the alternate sys- tem of farming prevails, a corner where the plough does not strike, may be got, and a very useful shel- ter erected. Cattle of an age should pasture to- gether, and the smaller the lots the better. By the end of October, the approach of cold weather will lender necessary the removal of the cattle to the home yard. Every farm is, or ought to be, provided with a number of yaids suited to its size and to the quality of the soil, the bottoms level with that of the shelter-shed raised above that of the yard, to throw the moisture outwards, that the cattle may lie dry ; cribs for holding the roots given to the cattle are ranged along tbe sub-division walls, and sometimes placed in the shelter-shed under cover ; the most approved are of a square shape, with a lat- ticed bottom, which allows all moisture to escape. Buildings of stone and lime have been erected along the walls, but they hold water and sludge very much; wood is cleaner, and where used the bottom planks should be perforated with lioles to discbarge the water. Troughs of stone, of wood, or of cast iron are placed across the division walls, so as to supply two yards ; and the water is convened in pipes from a pump, or supplied by hall cocks and pi])es from a cistern placed aloft for that purpose, in some house of the farmery, and to which the water is raised by a forc- ing valve in the yard pump. Turnips are now mostly given iu a cut state, and where straw is rank and abundant, it may be cut to shorter lengths, which will render it more manageable and easier of reduction. Into these yards properly furnished, the cattle are put in lots of ages and sizes, varying in number from 3 to 7 when feeding- ; young cattle may be kept in greater numbers. Most feeders now prefer the open yard to housing, though on turnip farms, a feeding house is very necessary where a few choice animals may be fattened, or a few inferior ones may be brought more quickly to perfection. Fresh straw should be put frequently into tbe racks, and cab- bages are a very proper article to begin the feeding of young stock for the first winter. These and tur- nip tops are given once, or better if twice a-day, and continued tiirough the winter — it they fail, po- tatoes and beet are given in moderate quantities, so as to keep the young animals in a sleek, and thriving condition, without any tendency to gorge them, or induce them to nauseate their food. They should always show a keen appetite, and seem able to eat more than is given. The yards are frequently litter- ed, thinly at a time, so as to keep them dry and comfortable, and also mix tbe manure jiroperly. The straw racks are shifted often that the straw may not lie dry around them, and the yards are of such a THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. size as will admit of tbe cattle treading, dunging, and watering on every part. A very common error prevails on this point, the yards are mucli too large, the straw lies dry and unmixed in many parts, and the good dung lies huddled together in tlie otlier places. Space suificient for the cattle to move about freely for air and exercise is quite enough, due regard being bad to warmth ia the shelter shed. An equal mistake with too much space lies in mak- ing the yards too small. In the month of ]May of each year tbe pasture fields will be ready for stocking, when the different sizes and ages will be arranged by the best judg- ment of the farmer. In October of each year, the cattle will be turned into the Ibld-yards and fed witii ample allowances of roots and straw, and with the yards kept dry and comfortable. As tbe cattle in- crease in age, the fewer numbers must be put toge- ther in one yard, and during the third and fourth winter thev will be fed off and sold. I have recom- mended all calves to suck the cow for veal or for weaning, and I now mention that the treatment of any animal during tbe first year of its growth gene- rally stamps its future distinction. If it be stinted iu the quantity or in the quality of the food, future pampering will not recover its lost growth, and if it be well fed during the first year, and attain a good size, indifferent treatment afterwards will have much less effect. If a calf be well suckled, great attention is necessary during the first winter that it receive such treatment as will carry it forward, and that it does not lose in that time what it gained the pre- vious summer. This result often happens from want of winter food of roots, for though hay and straw be in profusion, they never can sujiply tbe place of green crops. Cattle when feeding must have a full supply of food, but not to pall their appetites, which must al- ways be keen and in full action. The food pre- viously given tbeui should be clean eaten up or nearly so before any more be supplied, and the cribs regularly cleaned out and every filth removed. I'he first feed of cut turnips, potatoes, or beet is given bv break of day, and the last so long before darkness sets in as will allow time for the cattle to eat the whole during day light, as any accidents from hov- ing or choking have a better chance of being seen and remedied. A dry bed in the shelter shed and in any part of the yard during dry weather is in- dispensible. Opinions differ as to the most profitable age of feeding our best breeds of cattle. My own expe- rience agrees with the opinion expressed by Earl Spencer, ons'of our highest authorities, tbat tbe age of four years seems the most advantageous, as the most likely to secure the utmost weight of the ani- mal, and to avoid unnecessary expenditure in trving to obtain more bulk, and also tho loss by slaughter- ing at too early an age, before the animal had reached maturity. I have observed that a great part of our cattle are starved on system — they are grazed and gain something in summer and lose it in winter. The miserable appearance of young stock both in tbe yard and in the fields sufficiently support this opinion, and the case will not be mended till green crojis are more extensively cultivated. We know plants adapted I may say to almost every soil, and it only remains to cultivate them. In order to produce a thoroughly well fed and ri])o animal it must be gradually fed from the day of its birth, by good keeping which will keep the body in a thriving condition and full of juices, and :ilso ]iro- diice that mixture of fiit and lean so neccssarv 1o constitute beef of good tpiality. Hence arises tlie well furnished animal in the bands of tbe butcher, and from tbe starving system is owing the bad quality of much of our animal food, for unless the animal be well fattened and regularly, the lean is dry and wholly wanting in juices which can only be imparted by a ripe state. The one-half at least of our cattle in market are not fat, they are starved in early years, and then for a short time they are tied to a stake and gorged with food to produce an appearance quickly, and sold off to save expence, and hence arises the badly furnished animal in the bands of the butcher. An animal always in good condition is fattening gradually and profitably, the dung is of more value, and when the age of fat- tening off arrives, a small application of more food concludes the process. A greater number of cattle is often kept on a farm than it can maintain pro- fitably— an erroneous policy but very common. I have observed that where a farmer chooses partly or wholly to follow the buying system in place of breeding, it will be found that our small mountain breeds will pay more money than any other. In most cases too short a time is allowed them to feed, for tbe natural propensity to fatten has not been in them any way improved by breeding or keeping, and in that respect they differ from our new breeds. They are mostly fed very poorly in their youth, and when transported to rich pastures, fat cannot be laid instantly, but in course of time, if in fair condition, a year will be sufficient, but if bought in a lean state from droves, they should be on tbe ground for 18 months, fed tbe first winter on half tho full allow- ance of green food, well grazed tbe following sum- mer, and fed off the ensuing winter. This is gra- dual feeding and indispensibie if we wish for good beef. The age should be four or rather five years when slaughtered. Oil cake, bean, and barley meal, oats, and other articles have been used in the feeding of cattle, but experience has long since proved that if the farmer will only try to raise potatoes, beet, cab- bages, and turnips in quantity, he need no sub- stitute, except in case of a failure of tbe above crops. Straw alone is required for litter, and for the cattle to eat a little when inclined. J. D. THE CORN LAWS. Sir, — The recent drain of specie and pressure on tbe money market, to pay for the importations of foreign corn, evidently prove the injurious effects of the iate deficient harvest. All impartial observers must now be convinced of tbe fallacy of a free trade in corn, for it, with a partial failure in our harvest, such a prejudicial state of things does exist, what would it be if we became permanently dependent on other nations for an annual supply"! The amount we have been and are nov? paying to foreigners for wheat and flour in specie, is so much lost to the country, and cannot but have a very serious and injurious tendency. The supporters of a free trade iu corn imagined that it would lead to an in- creased export of our manufactured goods, when the diiti] was at its lowest point, but tiie reverse is the fact, as the sources Iroin whence a lar^e portion of tliis supply has been derived take so little from us in return. It is (tlear that the liigli prices of wheat and bread stull's abroad, consei|uent on the orders given for THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. English account, will tend rather to curtail the ex- port of our manufactured goods than cause a de- mand. It is not the foreign land-owner or farmer that is the great consumer of our manufactures, but the mass of a nation ; and if in Germany and Italy, &c. the lower orders, or mass, in conseciuenco of the higli price of provisions, cannot purchase clothing (so far as our trade with either stato is concerned,) the importation of wheat from thence prejudices this nation both ways. It causes, first, a drain of specie to pay for the wheat, and, secondly (by raising the price of provisions) renders the bulk of the inhabit- ants of the country in question unable to find money to pay for manufactured goods. Look, therefore, in any and every way to the circumstances of our becoming importers of corn, and we shall see the vast and great importance of a good harvest at home, and the ad- vantages of giving e eery protection and encouragement to our own agriculture. Another harvest like the last, witii similar im- portations of foreign corn, would lead to a commercial crisis in this country, by continuing the drain of the precious metals, instead of a desirable export of our manufactures in barter thereof, which can never take place. The prejudices against the corn laws are, in con- sequence, fast dying away. All impartial men must see that, while they give due protection to our agri- culturists in time of plenty, they aftbrd every en- couragement to importation to prevent a scarcity. The supporters of the proposed measure, to grind foreign corn in bond, seem also to waver in their opinions, which has induced Sir John Scale to aban- don his projected bill, which would, as expressed by the President of the Board of 'J'rade, have the effect of " doing away with the corn laws by a side wind," to which he would nover consent. It must, however, be admitted that holders of bonded corn are exposed to serious inconvenicncies at times, when unable to realize, as they cannot con- vert it into flour for exportation : a remedy to this could readily be found, without the least danger to the corn laws, or expence to the country. The object would, in a great measure, V)e obtained by simply permitting such corn to be ground in the Channel Islands, expressly for our West India Colo- nies. The flour so manufactured to be admitted direct, free of duty in British ships, which might then call for it in their way out from London, without be- ing obliged, as at present, to have such flour first Bent to a bonded port to be warehoused and re- shipped. In order to ])oint out the extraordinary encourage- ment and facilities given to foreigners in this im- portant branch of trade, it will be sufiicient to state that the Americans simply clear out their flour at any port in Nova Scotia, when it is there admitted free of duty in the British West India Islands. The Baltic millers and exporters send theirs in like manner for clearance to any port in the United Kingdom, when it is equally admitted free in our colonies, while a similar article, manufactured by British subjects iu the Channel Islands has thejoreign duty to pay. The effect of such a glaring impolicy is obvious, which is an injustice to the loyal and quiet people in those Islands, while it prevents, at the same time, the holders of corn iu bond from having it ground there at a trifling expence for exportation to our Colonies. A Friend to his Country. Guildford, June 4. EAST ESSEX AGIUCUr/rURAL SOCIETY. The first Summer Show of this Association took place on Wednesday, June 5th, in the Castle Bai- ley, Colchester. The show was, under all circum- stances, excellent, and the cattle (particularly the l)lough horses) were of first-rate description. A Durhatn bull, the property of Mr. W. 1". Ilobbs, of Marks Hall, attracted great notice, and was uni- versally admired for its beauty ; as was also a yearling Herefordshire bull, belonging to the same enterprising gentleman — both of which carried off the premiums, being single specimens. A IJown sheep, the ])roperty of Osgood Haiibury, Esq., shown as extra stock, was deservedly praised ; it was indeed a most ]ierfect specimen, and surpris- ingly fat. This animal, which had about a week previous to the exhibition been beautifully shorn, was stated by the most competent judges to have weighed 501bs. a quarter. There was also one of the same breed shown by i\Ir. John Hicks, of Wal- ton Hall, which was of nearly equal merit. Some milch cows, principally exti'a stock, were also very good : among these we must particularize one ex- hibited by iMr. E. I'arson, which carried olF a prize, and was sold for 2')!., without her calf. About three o'clock the exhibition was honoured by a visit from that distinguished and noble agri- culturalist. Lord Western ; but owing to severe indisposition his lordship \yas unable to remain long upon the ground, and after a short inspection retired. The Anglo-merino sheep sent by his lordship attracted great notice, and were univer- sally admired. Lord Rivers, Sir G. H. Smyth, Bart., I\I.P., C. G. Round, Esq.. M.P., and General Rebowwere also present. The judges of the stock having finished their business about two o'clock, the visitors were admitted to the exhibition ; but such were the numbers anxious to get in, that for about a quarter of an hour a most uncomfortable crowding near the entrance was kept up. The sheep-shearing was then commenced by ten men ■ — three boys being also allowed to try their skill. There was a very full attendance of the agricultu- rists of the neighbourhood, and gentlemen of the town, throughout the whole afternoon. The following is a copy of a challenge sent to Lord Western, by Mr. John Hicks, for the exhibi- tion of a Hogget Tup against one of his lordship's JMerinos : — .Head-street, Colchester, J U7ic '3rd, 1839. My Lord, — I have the honour to state, that a Mem- 'ber of the East Essex Agricultural Society will show a Hogget Down Tup of his own rearing, against one of your lordship's Hogget Blerino Tups of your own rear- ing, for five guineas, at Colchester, on the 5thinst. The wool not to be taken into consideration. I have the honour to be, my Lord, Your lordship's most obedient humble servant, SAMUEL TILLET, Acting Secretary, Lord Western. His lordship accepted the challenge ; but owing to a difference of opinion in the judges, it was withdrawn. THE DINNER took place at the Three Cups Hotel, Thomas White, Esq., President of the Society, in the chair. The company amounted to about 170. The Chairman, on the cloth being removed, proijosed " The health of her most gracious Ma- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 9 jesty, Queen Victoria ;" with the accustomed honours of three times three. (Cheers.) The Chairman then gave "The health of Queen Adelaide, and the rest of the Roj'al family." Drank with three times three cheers. • The Chairman said he rose to proijose the health of a gentleman to whom that tribute was due ; not only from the consideration of the high office he held in the county, but from the admira- ble and generous exertions he has always used, whenever called upon to lend his aid in promoting the welfare of the county, and particularly the in- terest of agriculture. (Great cheeriny.J t5ut if they looked at him in the private walks of life, they found him one of the most amiable, one of the most deserving, and one of the best of men. {Cheers.) He had done them the honour of din- ing with them to-day ; and he was sure they would all heartily respond to the toast, when he proposed " The health of the High Sheriff of the County." Drank with three times three cheers. The High Sheriff (J. F. Mills, Esq.) said he must have been most insensible, did he not feel himself more highly flattered than any language of his could suitably acknowledge, for the kind, com- plimentary, and honourable way in which his name had been received. {Cheers.) He was truly con- scious that he was not deserving the high honour which (if he might be allowed the expression) his friend had, in the exuberance of his kindness, proposed in a manner so gratifying to his feelings : but though he felt his unworthiness to receive it, still he was not insensible of the mark of respect which had been paid to him. With regard to the meeting which he then had the honour to address, he would assure them he felt a satisfaction beyond that he could express at meeting so numerous and respectable an assemblage. It liad often been his lot to attend many meetings, but it had never been with such pure and unmixed pleasure as that which he then felt. {Cheers.) 'i'he cause which they had met together to support, was, in his opinion, the cause of the best interests of society. It was (he might almost say) but till lately that its real worth had been duly appreciated. It was far from his wish to decry any of the other great interests of the country — the manufacturing and the commercial ; but he felt himself justified in the assertion, that though highly important and valuable, they were but secondary when put in comparison with that great and preponderating one — the landed interest. {Great cheering.) Whether they looked at the peasant — whether they looked at the tenant — whe- ther they looked at the tradesman — or whether they looked at the landlords and the aristocracy, they would find all were bound up with it ; that their very existence was involved in the prosperity of the agriculture of this country. (Hear, and cheers.) That interest, then, was deserving of their warmest support : and he was glad to see that in this small division of the county an association like this had been formed, which, although in its infancy, was nevertheless, a large, numerous, and highly respectable body. The battle had but recently been fought, and victory had declared itself on their side ; but on no consideration ought their energies to be relaxed, for they still had enemies, — formidable in wealth, influence, and persever- ance— to contend against. They had seen in too many instances that they would uphold their own interests, even though it should be to the detri- ment or the utter ruin of agriculture. The com- pany present were embarked in a good cause ; let them but support it as they had done that day, and the result was not to be apprehended. He would sincerely say to them " Go on and prosper." He must apologize for having given them that advice; but having been called upon to express his senti- ments, he would only add that they were those of his heart. (Cheers.) He would now di ink pros- perity to them all, and especially to the cause they had that day met to promote. (Great clieer- ing.) The Chairman said the next toast he had upon his list, was one of great interest. It was " The Bishop and Clergy of the Diocese," (Loud cheer- inff.) The Rev. E. H. Greene returned thanks. The Chairman said the next toast was "The health of the Mayor of Colchester," with many thanks to him and his fellow-townsmen for the warm support they had given the Association. (Cheers.) The Mayor begged to acknowledge the high compliment paid to him and the inhabitants of the town generally ; but he would not trespass upon their time further than to observe, that how- ever foreign his pursuits might be to the majority of those around him, yet still his best wishes were on their behalf. (Cheers.) And he was now, in saying that, expressing the sentiments of the bur- gesses of the town, over which he had been chosen to preside. They were most willing and ready to co-operate with them in advancing their interests, because they felt they were identified with them. He congratulated the town in being the centre of such an Association as they had met to support, and which he was confident would be productive of the happiest results, — and would strengthen the reciprocal feelings of regard between them as fellow-subjects and fellow-citizens. (Cheers.) The Chairman said the next toast he had the honour to propose, was one of peculiar interest and importance to all ; and there was not a gen- tleman present who would not do honour to it. He meant " Prosperity to the East Essex Agricul- tural Society." (Tremendous cheering) If they looked at the list of its patrons and supporters, they would find in it the names of gentlemen as distinguished in the science of agriculture as any in the kingdom. (Hear and cheers.) With such a list, then, how could it fail to prosper } and under such auspicious circumstances, they ought to put their shoulders to the wheel, and urge it forward. (Cheers.) There might (as that was the first meeting of the Association) be some de- ficiency in the arrangement ; if so, he was sure it would be overlooked, for it was an error of judg- ment, rather than of th3 will. There might also be some of the rules of the Society that required revising, when no doubt the Committee would meet on the first opportunity for that purpose. (Hear.) He would propose " Prosperity to the East Essex Agricultural Society," with three times three. The Chairman then said that the next toast he had to propose was "the health of the members of the county." {Immense applause.) He was sorry one of them (Sir John Tyrell) had been pre- vented from attending, having business that would not admit of postponement ; of course they would drink it with accustomed honours. {Drank with three times three cheers.) C. G. Round, Esq., said he would return his very humble but sincere thanks on his own behalf, and also on that of his honourable colleagues, for the compliment that had been paid them. He re- 10 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. gretted that ho was the only one present ; and would assure them Sir John Tyrrell would have been amongst them but for good reasons that pre- vented him from having that pleasure. For his own part he would say that he had made it his ])ariicular business to meet them that day, being desirous of witnessing their first show ; and there was no sacrifice he would not have made in order to do so. (Cheers.) Those were his feelings be- fore entering this town ; and his reward had been most ample — hi« expectation most fully gratified in seeing that most numerous and respectable as- sembly. He had also great satisfaction in afford- ing them acconmiodation for tlieir cattle sho\v ; but had had far greater pleasure in witnessing it ; and he thought it must at least have equalled, if not surpassed, their highest expectations. [Hear.) They had indeed made a most auspicious com- mencement. It was evident they had a most am- ple field before them if they chose but to cultivate it ; and it must be also evident, that if they did take pains to cultivate it, they would be crowned with unqualified success. (Cheers.) In that res- ])ect his humble assistance should not be wanting. He had great gratification in being ])rcsent among them ; and would most heartily drink to their health and prosperity. (Loial applause.) J. G. Recovv, Esq. pro[)Osed "the health of the Members for the 15orough." {Cheers.) IJe observed — Sir Henry Smyth was ])rcsent among them, and he gladly availed himself of that oppor- tunity of the first meeting of a new Association, to mention a circumstance respecting the honourable baronet, which would prove to them the unfeigned interest which he took in their welfare. (Cheers.) They were well aware that an Association was formed in this district, previous to tlie present one; but by some means or other it was unsuc- cessful. The first person to suggest that that So- ciety should be dissolved, and one u])on a more extended basis substituted, was Sir Henry Smyth. (Cheers.) He mentioned that circumstance, be- cause it was known to most, if not to all, that he was President of the first Association. (Great cheering.) If it had not been for his genuine and sincere attachment to the cause of agriculture, he might have experienced some unpleasant feelings in resigning a post which he had filled with so much honour to himself; but he allowed no such feelings to predominate. He had thought it his duty to state, that to Sir Henry Smyth they were indebted for one of the first moves in the forma- tion of the present association. {Great cheering.) But they knew his worth and appreciated it well ; and he need not therefore add they were all aware of the good feeling and warm support he had al- ways given to agriculture : they had all witnessed it, and were thankful for every opportunity of meeting him on neutral ground, to tender him their warmest thanks and most grateful acknow- ledgements. (Cheers.) There was not a person present that did not rejoice at meetings of that nature, in v.hich all their interests were blended ; and all their energies expended in promoting the great object they had in view. He would call upon them to drink that toast with three times three. (Drank ivith acclamations.) Sir G. H. Smyth rose amidst deafening cheers, and said, — Mr. Chairman and gentlemen, in rising to return you my most sincere thanks for the honour you have done me, I have but one feeling of regret, and that is that my honourable colleague is not here to participate in those feelings whicli now iiiliuence my breast. (Cheers.) I know he is deeply engaged in business, that precludes his at- tendance here to-day — in fact it was quite uncer- tain till last evening whether I myself should have that pleasure. Hut I was glad to find I could come ; and when I was on the road I felt I was coming home once more. (Loud cheers.) I was sure that if I had the honour to be brought before your notice (and I have been too, in the most handsome manner) that I should meet with a hearty reception from you. (Reneved cheers.) I was sure I sliould see many old faces. I saw as I came along the road that there had been some rain, and that the corn was looking better ; but I was still more gratified on going to the Castle Bailey to see our show of stock, and to meet there my Lord Western. (Cheers.) I say from the bot- tom of my heart I was glad to see him once more among us ; for he is a firm sujjporter of the farm- ing interest. He is a little enfeebled, but in good heart. 1 was al.-.o glad to meet my Lord Rivers, and many other old faces. In fact I had not greater pleasure in seeing them, than I had in wit- nessing so large and respectable an assembly, and you amongst them. (Cheers) ^Vhat my friend has said concerning me has really been coloured a little too highlj'. (Xo, no.) But being interested in agriculture, I was willing to suggest and accede to any ])ropositiou that would benefit the cause. I certainly did not expect to have seen the under- taking so well succeed at first. It seemed to me (considering the little time that has been given to get stock in order) to have been beyond the ex- pectations of all who witnessed it. But there was another feeling that prompted my attendance to- day, and it is one that must animate the heart of every father. It was the consideration that my best friend on my right had been selected by you as President of the Association, and Chairman at the Dinner to-day. (Cheers.) It would greatly have wounded ray feelings if he had not been well supi)orted by you ; but you have supported him, as he richly deserves. I do not now speak of his ])rivatc character, but as a farmer. (Great cheer- ing.) Though 1 know farmers now-a-days are apt to be a little conceited — a little headstrong — ■ and a little obstinate (loud laughter), yet I do not believe there is a better practical farmer living than my friend who is sitting near me. (Great cheering.) The Mayor has assured us of the warm co-operation of the inhabitants of Colchester, be- cause their interests are connected with Agricul- tural prosperity ; and tliat is one reason why we have the honour of his name amongst our sub- scribers. (Cheers.) I have always said, ever since the oldest amongst you were born (laughter) , that agriculture was the main support of the country. (Cheers.) I have often told you that the pride of England consists in a class of persons unknown in any other country — I mean the farmer and the yeoman. (Loud cheers.) I don't know whether any of you have travelled much, but I assure you I have seen an old woman and a donkey drawing a plough together. (Loud laughter.') The cattle of the French farmer is absolutely nothing ; that is the reason their agriculture is so depressed, and why we stand sujjerior to every nation in the world in the science of agriculture. (Great cheer- ing.) In my public capacity (and thanks to yon I have been in it many years), I have always sup- ported agriculture, not in any measured terms, but through thick and thin. (Great applause.) — Not from a desire for popularit)', but because in so do- ing I act as best becomes a statesman, and pro- mote the welfare of my country. (Renetved ap- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 11 plause.) I will not detain you longer ; but I must add, that I am happy in meeting- you here to-day. I am sure tho room won't be large enough for us next year (LaugJder) ; and it will be a subject for the consideration of the committee as to where we shall meet. But laying all joking aside, I do say, that I believe this day to be the beginning of a brilliant end. I am confident this Association will fast rise in importance, and will soon vie with all others in tiie county. (Cheers.) When we find the greatest public characters — the Duke of Bed- ford, my Lord Spencer, the Dnke of Buckingham, and others — dfsregarding politics and all such non- sense— {Laughter), I say when we see su(;h men as these — distinguished alike for talent and rank, promoting this cause, surely we cannot do better than join with them in the samegreat work. God bless you all. I thank you for drinking my health. The honourable baronet sat down amidst thunders of applause. " The Old English Gentleman," by the band. Song — " A Soldier's Gratitude," by Mr. Brovvn, of Woodhouse Farm. The High Sheriff proposed " The health of the President of the Society," Thos. White, Esq. {Great cheeriny.) He would fain avoid falling into the error (if error it m:ght be termed) of his honourable friends ; but example was contagious; and he could not neglect to ofler some remarks with reference to the gentleman whose name he had the honour to propose. They were called upon to consider the high character of their worthy chairman — now filling one of the most important offices of the Association — namely, that of its "resident. (Cheers.) They might view him as a country gentleman, residing and spending his money amongst his tenants ; and both by his pre- sence and example tending to preserve the good order, industry, and comfort of the pcasatitry around him. {Cheers.) That was the character of the gentleman who was the subject of the toast. It would have been slighting it had he not brought those points prominently before their notice. He was treading in the steps of his worthy relative (Sir Henry Smyth), and leading the life of a good English gentleman. He had, indeed, a proud day before him in presiding over such an assembly as the present ; and he was sure they vifould not be doing their duty did they not return him their thanks for his services that day. {Great cheering.) The Chairman begged to return his best thauL-s to the High Sheriff, for the flattering mention of his name ; and to the meeting, for their warm re- ception of it. At the same time he could not help regretting, both for their sakes and for the interest of tlie Society, that a person more competent to further its objects than himself had not been se- lected to fill the office to which he had been cbosen. ('A'o, no) He assured them ho felt the compli- ment as one of no ordinary character,, coming from so respectable an assembly on the occasion of their first meeting ; but he would yield to no man in a strong desire to support that Society, and agriculture in general. {Loud cheers.) He looked not merely to the great advantages arising from a competition in the show of stock, but in another point of view — as regarded the interest of the agricultural laboui'er. (Hear and cheers.) He trusted he should see them striving to obtain the prizes offered by the Societj' for meritorious con- duct. He was glad to see that o])portiinity for bringing them into notice, as an occasion rarely cccinred in which they cf)uld receive a public re- w^ard. (Cheers) From that system thej' might look for the happiest results. He considered this division peculiarly adapted for effecting improve- ment in agricultural science, being the largest breeding and grazing district in the county. But if they looked round it, they would see room for great improvement in the breed of stock. If they would have a proof of that, let them walk down the High street of Colchester during the market. (Cheers.) Let them put their shoulders to the wheel, and endeavour to produce stock equal, if not superior, to any in the country. It was now getting late, and time for the distribution of the prizes ; but before that was done, he would call upon the acting Secretary (Mr. Tillett) to read a letter which ho had received from Lord Western. It was as follows : — " Wirenhoe Park, Wednesday, June 5, 1839. " Sir, — I extremely regret that it is not in my power to have the pleasure and satisfaction of dining with the Agricultural Society, under your presidency this day, but my health is such that I cannot atteixd puhlic dinners with impunity : it is now several years that I have from necessity withdrawn from public engagements of this description ; and I dare not now depart from this prudential system I have so long persevered in. 1 am, Sir, your faithful servant, WESTERN. " To Thos. White, Esq." The Prizes were then read by the Secretary, as follows : — CATTLE. To the owner of the best bull of any age or breed, 5/.— Mr. W. Fisher Hobbs, Mark's Hall. To the owner of the best yearling bull, 2Z. — Ditto. To the owner of the best milch covf, of any age or breed, 31. — Ditto. To the owner of the second best ditto, 1/. 10s. — Mr. E. S. Parson, Stoke. To the owner of the best two-year-old heifer, 21. —yU: W. F. Hobbs. The judges highly commended a Suffolk cow, No. 3, in this class, belonging to Mr. E. S. Parson. Also a short-horned cow, witli her suckling- calf, 10 months old, the property of ]\Ir. IL Parson, Stoke. Also a short-horned cow, the property of Mr. \\. F. Hobbs. HORSES. To the owner of the best stallion, for the general purposes of agriculture, which has attended Colches- ter market during the season, 5/. — JNIr. John Hicks, Walton Hall. To the owner of the best brood mare, for the ge- neral purposes of agriculture, 31. — Ditto. To the owner of the best two-year-old colt or filly, for the general purposes of agriculture, 21. — No competition. To the owner of the best pair of plough horses or mares, shown in their plough harness, 21. — John Bawtree, Esq. The judges highly commended a pair of plough horses. No. 2 in this class, belonging to J. Bawtree, Esq. SWINE. To the owner and breeder of the bfst boar, of any breed, 2/. — Lord Western. To the owner and breeder of the best sow, of any breed, 1/. — John Bawtree, Esq. A boar, No. 5, in this class, belonging to Mr. W^. F. Hobbs, was highly commended. SHEEP. To the owner and breeder of the best pure down ram, of any age, 31. — No competition. 12 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. To the owner and breeder of tlie best shearling down ram, 2/. — Mr. John Hicks. To the owner and breeder of the best lonw-woolled ram, of any age, of any pure breed, 31. — Mr. W. F. Hobbs. To tbe owner and breeder of the best shearling- ditto, 2;.— Mr. VV. F. Ilobbs. To the owner and breeder of the best pon of four pure down ewe hogg-ets, 2Z. — T. White, jun., Esq. To the owner and breeder of tlie best pen of four long-woolled ewe hoggets, 2/.— Mr. W. F. Ilobbs. To the owner of the best pen of four hoggets, of the short-wool breed, 2^ — General Ilebow. I'o the owner of the best pen of four lioggets, of the long-wool breed, 2L — Mr. Thomas Cooper, Ard- leigh. To tbe owner of the best pen of four Pown ewes, with their lambs, 2/. — Mr. Daniel Green, Fing- ringhoe. To the owner of the best pen of four long-woolled ewes, with their lambs, 2/. — Mr. VV. F. Hobbs. The judges commended No. 2 in this class, belong- ing to T. White, jun., Jlsq., for quality of wool. Also No. 3 ot this class; but being out of their wool were disqualified from competing. Also Lord AVestern's Anglo-Merino hogget rams. Also five two-shear wethers of the Anglo-Merino breed, the property of Lord Western. Also five other two-shear wethers of the same breed, the property of Lord Wcitern. No. 8. A four-year-old wetlier of the South-down breed, the property of Osgood Hanbury, Esq., was very highly approved. Also two pens of three-year-old new Leicester ewes, tbe pro,5erty of T. L. Ewen, Esq. Also three hogget rams, the property of Thomas White, Esq. Also a hogget ram of the new Leicester breed, the property of Mr. W. F. Ilobbs. WOOL. For the best fleece of down wool, 1/. — General Ilebow. For the best fleece of long wool, 11. — Mr. W. F. Hobbs. For the best fleece of mixed wool, 1/. — Mr. Thos. Cooper. SHEEP SHEARERS. To the best sheeji shearer, 1/. 10s. — James Smith, recommended by John Bawtree, Esq. To the second best, 1/. — Henry Thorrington, re- commended by Thos. White, jun., Esq. To the third best, 10s. — Reuben Humphreys, re- commended by Mr. G. Lithgow. A reward of os. each was given to the three fol- lowiu"- boys for meritorious shearing: — William Warner, of Great Bromley ; James Smith, ditto ; and Samuel James, of Ardleigh. The unsuccessful competitors among the men had 2s. 6d. each. SHEPHERDS. To the shepherd who has reared the greatest num- ber of lambs, and saved the greatest number of ewes, from a flock of 100 and upwards, proportionably to the number of ewes, to be taken from the time of setting to tbe 1st of June, 2Z. — Thomas Denton, re- commended by Mr. H. Parson, Stoke, having reared 344 lambs from 260 ewes, with the loss of one ewi^. To the second best, 11. — William Ward, recom- mended by Mr. D. Green, having reared 708 lambs from 528 ewes, with the loss of 7 ewes — 140 of the ewes were shearlings, with their first lambs^ C. G. Round, Esq., said, they would shortly hear pi-oposed to them the health of the successful candidates for the prizes : but before that was done he would call their attention to a name that had been mentioned several times, lie meant that of Lord W^cstern. He bad already been intro- duced to their notice by Sir Henry Smyth, as the firm friend of the farmers. They had great plea- sure in seeing him this day at their exhibition; and, but for his infirmities, he would have stayed to dine with them. (Cheers.) When they looked at the Agricultiual world, they could only find two other distinguislied noblemen standing in the same rank with him as agriculturists — none who could be said to surpass him. (Hear.) His great desire was to reward practical effort and to meet competition ; for he had now a challenge that was open to all England to be decided at the English Agricultural Show : and above all, when they con- sidered the great efforts that nobleman had made to resist the attempt to repeal that which was their bulwark — the corn-law — he was sure they would be most anxious to offer every honour to his name that laid in their power. (Cheern.) Let tliem show their high sense of the support they received from that distinguished agriculturist, by drinking his health with three times three. (The toast \vas drank with great enthusiasm.) " Should auld acquaintance be forgot," by the Rand. Mr. LuNGLEY said, that having the honour per- sonally to know Lord Western, he could state hiui to be the first agriculturist in the county ; and as a landlord he was one of the best. (Cheer.i.) His wish was " to live and let live." It was not in his power to say all that was deserving of him ; hut this he would say, that there was not in the kingdom a more zealous supporter of the agricul- tural interest of the country. (Cheers.) J. Bawtree, Esq., one of the Vice Pi'esidents, proposed " the healths of the Patrons of the So- ciety." (Loud cheering.) In doing so he had great pleasure in remarking to the meeting, that they had on the list many whose praises had al- ready been sounded from different parts of the room ; but not in higher terms than they deserved. Time would net permit to dwell upon each, nor was he competent to do so ; but this he knew, that the countenance of many distinguished gen- tlemen could not but be of the first importance to the welfare of the Society. (Cheers.) The pa- tronage of the great and the noble were not alone sufficient : but when they saw rank and distinction co-operating with private worth and energy — then they were highly proud of the countenance of the great and honourable, by having their names as patrons. But there were one or two upon the list whose names had not been so particularly men- tioned as he could liave wished. There was Sir John Tyrell (cheers), who, in the upper part of the county, was looked upon as a distinguished breeder of cattle, and was a warm friend to agri- culture in the House of Commons. There was also another gentleman who had greatly interested himself in the formation of the Society ; and he had had much pleasure in seeing him riding in the field to view the exhibition of stock, and convers- ing with many gentlemen, who could bear testi- mony to his valuable services and great private worth — he referred to General Rebow. (Great cheering.) They felt much honoured by having him amongst their patrons : and he hoped he would long be spared to them. He felt he had undertaken an arduous task, as they would txcuse him going individually through the list — they were all honourable men and entitled to the warmest THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13 esteem. (Hear.) The last gentleman he woukl notice was the High Sheriff, who, though he was not now a large land holder, was nevertheless greatly interested in the prosperity of the associa- tion. Without lurthcr comment he would give " the health of the Patrons of the Society," with many thanks to them for the countenance with which they have favoured it. (Loud cheers.) Sir G. H. Smvtii. As one of the gentlemen who have just heen honoured as the patrons of this So- ciety, I rise to return you thanks both on my own and their behalf. (Cheers.) At the same time I beg to tell you, that somehow or other I don't like that word patron. (Laughter.) It sounds so much like superiority. Now, I do not feel myself in any way superior to you. For the fact is, who can he superior to a straightforward English far- mer ? (Great applause.) My aristocratic feeling is completely laid down on this occasion ; and that is the only objection I have to being styled one of the patrons of the Association. At the time I was speaking of the pleasure I experienced in meeting Lord Western and others at the exhi- bition, I quite forgot to mention one whom I had a great wish to allude to — I refer to my old and tried friend, General Rebow. This either shows the faithlessness of my memory, or is a proof of my unpardonable ingratitude. I applied to my friend the Mayor to assist my memory, but he could not do it. (Laughter.) I had a sincere wish to particularise General Rebow, and to ex- press my happiness in seeing him amongst us again, and I regret I had not done so before. I feel greatly honoured by presiding over this re- spectable Society, and shall always have great plcasui'e in doing so, as long as I remain with you. (Great cheering.) The Chairman then proposed " The health of the successful Candidates for the prizes of Stock." (Great cheering.) He was sure the display that da}^ must have been to their utmost wislies : and if they went on as prosperously as they had com- menced, their Society would soon be one of the most efficient in the county of Essex. (Loud cheers) From the first formation of the Associa- tion not more than five months had elapsed ; and if they went on as they had done during that time, they would have almost the whole county in the Society. (Cheers.) He would propose the healths of the successful candidates, with thanks to them for their show of cattle. He did not wish to parti- cularize any, but Mr. Fisher Hobbs had carried off a gi'cat many prizes ; and so had Mr. John Hicks (cheering) , besides several others. He hoped what had been seen to-day would stimulate others to compete, and do their best to excel in their pro- ductions, in order that next year there might be seen even better stock than had been exhibited at the present show. {Cheering.) Mr. W. F. HoBBS. — I rise to return thanks for the very marked compliment you have been pleased to pay us, and exceedingly regret that the task has not fallen upon a person more competent, suitably to acknowledge it, than myself. I was sorry to find there was not a more spirited competition in the show of stock to-day. 1 can attribute it to no reluctance or want of spirit on the part of the members composing this association ; but entirely to the short notice that has been allowed them in which to prepare their productions for the occasion. V {Hear, hear.) I did not expect my Durham bull would have been allowed to have carried off the prize uncontested, for Lord Western had sent in his certificate, announcing his intention to com- pete with me ; however, a few days since, his lord- ship, with his usual candour, told me mine was a superior animal to his Devon bull, and conse- quently gave up in my favour. (Cheers.) I am sorry that, from that circumstance, the society was prevented from seeing a most perfect specimen of the Devon breed ; but I agreed with his lordship that the Devon breed could not be put in compe- tition with the Durham. (Hear) I trust next year I shall not obtain the prize with the ease I have this day. I was told by the committee that they wished me to bring into the field as much stock as I was able ; and that they would bring all they could to show against me. I am sorry they did not act more fully to their proposition. I am one of those who think, that a person having gained prizes, should not return them to the society; but I cannot let this opportunity pass over without stating that I have great pleasure in presenting a donation of 5/. to be applied to the purposes of the association in prizes to meritorious labourers. {Great cheering.) Although we have given no rewards to them to-day, yet we are not unmindful of them ; for it was thought preferable (in order to lighten the day's business) to postpone them until the Christmas show. And when I tell you that CM. will then be distributed, I think you will agree with me that we have not forgotten that part of the agricultural community, which highly merits our esteem. (LoridcJieers) I have always been a warm advocate of agricultural pursuits; and I think meetings of this nature tend largely to disseminate that knowledge and those hints for our improvement in the science, v/hich we stand so much in need of. Although it must be acknowledged that within the last few years it has been much advanced, yet I think you will agree with me, when I assert that it has not kept equal pace with the manufacturing and commercial in- terests. (Hear, hear.) I attribute this mainly to the want of societies like the present to encourage our efforts. All must agree that there is yet much to be done— that there is great room for improve- ment in all its branches. As to the breed of stock there is room for improvement. I am sure the early maturity of the superior bred stock, and the small proportion of food which they consume, will more than repay the breeder for his trouble and expense at first. (Bear.) As relates to the land, there is much room for improvement. I think that by proper draining, and the use of the subsoil plough, the culture of the soil would be much benefited. As regards the corn and roots, there yet remains much to be done. There is, too, one circumstance to which I could allude, and will take this opportunity of doing so. There is a per- son living in this neighbourhood who has done this country and the science of agriculture an incalcu- lable service : I refer to Mr. Pettitt, who first suc- ceeded in producing the single-eared wheat, (great cheering) which if adopted throughout the king- dom, will give an increase in our produce of thou- sands of quarters. I think societies like these ought to be a focus for encouraging any new ex- periment in growing corn, and that a small sub- scription of 2s. 6d. each should be entered into, as a token of the high sense we entertain of his suc- cessful attempts to improve the practice of agri- culture. It is not for the value of the gift, but to express our thanks to him. {Applause.) In order to improve the cultivation of roots, turnips, and mangel wurzel, much has been done: but I think the conclusion to which we must arrive is, that they are very similar in their growth to crops of 14 THE FAllMEirS MAGAZINE. ajujles— some of which are foiwardcr in Novem- ber than others are in January. I cannot sit down without congratulating you on this first meeting of our Society, and I consider it is but the begin- ning of a very beneficial result. I thank you for the corapliment you have paid us. (Loud chcerhuj .) The Mayor then proposed the health of the Vice-Presidents of the Association. J. G. Rebow, Esq. returned thanks. Sir G. U. Smyth, in a highly complimentary speech, proposed the health of JohnBawtree, Esq., the trea- surer of the Association. J. Bawtree, Esq., returned thanks. The Chairman then proposed the health of the Judges of the Stock {Linul cheering,) Messrs. Rlat- son. Brooks, Ransom, and Birch. Mr. Matson returned thanks. G. Round, Esq., in a eulogistic speech, projiosed the health of T. L. Ewen, Esq., the Honorary Secre- tary of the Association. ( Drank loi^h three thnes three cheers.) Mr. Ewen returned thanks, and apologized for de- ficiencies in the discharge of his duties. He nas at present but little acquainted with the mode of con- ducting the business of an association, but he hoped to attend the meetings of other societies, where be might gather hints that would be serviceable to them in the office be had undertaken. After some other remarks, Mr, Ewen said that with regard to the sheep shown by Lord Western and INIr. Hicks, owing to the late hour at which the Judges came to decide upon this question, and not being able to agree, an umpire was called in, when it was subsequently ar- ranged that the challenge should be withdrawn. Mr. Hicks's tup, however, weighed 2^lbs. heavier than his Lordship's. Song — " Old England for ever shall weather the storm," by Mr. R.Tillett. The Chairman next proposed the health of the arrangers of the stock for the day— Messrs. J. G. Fenn, George Lithgow, D. Green, VV. F. Hobbs, and Robert Shearman. Mr. J. G. Fenn returned thanks, and assured the meeting that they felt gratification in rendering any assistance in their power to promote the objects of the society. (Cheers.) The Chairman then gave the health of the unsuc- cessful candidates. Mr. W, F. HoBBs proposed the health of IMr. S. Tillett, the Acting-Secretary of the Association. — (Great applause.) Mr. Tillett returned thanks, and said he more valued the compliment, coming as it did from one of the Committee, as they were the best judges whe- ther a secretary performed his duty properly. After some further remarks, Mr. Tillett said there was a statement which the Hon. Treasurer had omitted, but which he thought would be most interesting to the Association. It was that the Society at that time had 176 members, with a purse of 212/. to start with. (Great cheering.') He assured the Society of bis readiness to exert himself to the utmost for the pro- motion of the Society. J. G. Redow, Esq., then gave "Fox-hunting," which was drank with the most rapturous applause, and the company separated about half-past nine o'clock. The Committee for tfite Dinner were— Mr. Charles Whitaker, Boxted ; Mr. James Mason, Brightliug- sea ; and ]\Ir. Abraham Constable, Wormingford. The number of non-members who paid for admis- sion to view the stock, was 834, which, at 6d. each, amouQted to 202, 17s. ON THE UNPROFITABLENESS OF OLD PASTURES. Li tlie last number of the Farmer''s Magazine, I read an extract from the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, written by Mr. Boswidl, a gentleman farmer in .Scotland, in which he states, that after many years of expense, toil and troul)le, he had discovered the well known fact that permanent pastures, or old turfs and leys, instead of being a good tiling, are an erroneous thing, and an absurd tiling, and he might have added a most unprofitable thing, and at- tended with a ver}' great and a most serious national loss. Mr. Boswell acknowledges that he had wholly exhausted the lists of recipes for the recovery and improvement of old grass lands ; and that ho had found from experience, that such processes were merely a '' skimming" on the surface, an expenco jiroducing little or no effect, and that the radical cure is only to be found in cultivation, in manure, the jilough, the harrow and the roll. ibis fact must be obvious to any jierson who is open to conviction, and who is not blinded by prejudice and opinion — for upon these, only, can rest the supposed advantages of permanent grass lands. I fully agree with the writer, that no lands should lie in old turf, except marshes and flooded meadows, and hilly and steep situations where the plough cannot work, and that all other places should be cultivated by the most approved methods of arable farming. Projirietors may do as they like with their lawns and pleasure grounds, they often jiroduce little but mosses, and they are afraid to dig them, as it would destroy the fine sward of " musci", and continue top-dressing to produce grasses where none exist : and where one digging, manuring and sowing of some fresh seeds, would in the short space of four months, shows a sward, to use the words of Mr. Boswell, " that no Genoa velvet can surpass." But leaving such trifles as lawns and pleasure grounds to be managed as the utmost stretch of dogmatic ignorance may direct ; we must carrv our observations to the fields, those pleasure grounds whence are derived the sub- sistence and comforts of the humau race. To broach any opinion against the use of old turf will, as the writer observes, be reckoned a most heinous and an unpardonable transgression; but, notwithstanding the deeply rooted prejudices on the subject, I have ever been of opinion that the practice is founded and continued on erroneous principles, for both science and practice go entirely to overturn them. I read Mr. Boswell's paper with much pleasure, and now send you some observations on the subject. Our farmers "inherit" an opinion, that a part of every farm will pav most by lying in old turf, pro- ducing grasses or weeds as chance directs, and which is cut yearly and made into bay, and to which lands manur'> of any kind is seldom or never applied. The other part of the farm is ploughed and cropped constantly under the notion that constant cropping suits it best, and is most profitable. Now it is hard to conceive how two extremes so diametrically opposite can be adapted for similar situations: the one or the other must be a fallacy. This opinion of the impossibility of farming without old turf, and that grass lands if once broken up are utterly ruined and diminished in value and cannot be restored, has been bequeathed as a most valuable legacy from father to son — the landowner has adopted it — his ignorant and blundering agent has sanctioned it, because he knows no better, and it is carefully en- joined in leases that " grass lands must remain as they are," while the arable lands are left to the farmer's tender mercies to be scourged and cropped THE FARMER'S MAGAZlNfi. 1^ as he may choose. lu some few phices there are some clioicc pastures tliat are very profitable for a particular purpose — such as a low flat meadow of rich herbage, a cow's pasture near the homestead, and a paddock for a mare and foal and young horses. Beyond these, and these only cnn be got in certain situations, old grass lands are very unprofitable, and the present system constitutes the radical blunder of our practice. The bad effects that have been observed to result from ploughing up grass lands, according to current opinions, have been produced by the system of management — a farmer having got leave to break up a field, lie ploughs and sows crop after crop to get something from fresh land as he calls it, till it becomes impoverished and filled with weeds, and then be very gravely concludes that " breaking up does not answer," after he has pro- duced the effect by his own actions. A far greater part of our grass lands grow few true grasses, but are covered v.ith mosses, weeds and carices, and have been left to lie in that state after carrying corn crops till seed and labour were scarcely obtained. 'I'he great want is a rotation of fallowing crops, and of "rest," by pasturage, and of draining, which if necessary must precede every other operation, If we believe that cultivation improves the earth, our practice is diametrically opposite to that belief — for we cut and gather nature's produce, and bestow on a part of our lands, no artificial aid what- ever — if we believe tiiat produce or crops of any kind require encouragement for their growth, our practice is the very contrary in respect of grasses, for lands are purposely ex- hausted by corn crops, filled with weeds, and then grasses are expected to grow, and we are very gravely told the system pays best. I have been often surprised to see proprietors sowing seeds of grasses, top-dressing, harrowing and rolhng a sward ol " weeds" on good lands, from which four " corn crops" have been taken in succession — toiling like I\Ir. Boswell, to produce a renovated sward, but they toiled in vain — for tlie radical cure was wanting- — the condition of the land by cultivation and manuring, the thorough eradication of w-eeds, and a selection of fresh seeds. One fallowing would do more in one year, than they could do in twenty — the seeds sown were lost and killed by the weeds — but no reasoning can overturn the notion, that such a sward of " weeds," cannot be again obtained. The greater part of our grass lands will not produce a crop of hay, and the pasture consists of weeds and foggage, often very dangerous for sheep. Our best lands im- prove by lying at rest, and inferior soils get worse. Chemical analysis lias ascertained, that the ex- haustion of land by cropping, takes place, not in tlie constituents of the soil, but in the quantity of de- composable vegetable matter in the land, consisting of the decayed remains of organized bodies which have lived and died upon it. No farmer, scientific ot practical, ever thinks of denying the advantages of a fresh vegetable turf in the production of crops ; while in practice, he acts in direct opposition to that universally received and just opinion. By constant cropping, every particle of vegetable matter is dissipated, and no manure we can apply will sup- ply its place, for wc do not yet know of any mode of producing such a comminuted and finely blended mixture as is exhibited by the soil and these de- cayed remains. On grass lauds the herbage is in a state of continual decay, the accumulation of vegeta- ble matter has no opportunity of exciting any benefit in the production of other crops by cultivation and by change of plants; and if we believe in the theory of fecal exudation being hurtful to the same plants in succession, an additional proof is obtained against the system of permanent grass. 'I'he first mentioned fact, which no person doubts.would lead the farmers, as might be supposed, to produce in the land, by every known means, this vegetable freshness so essentially necessary to the growth of plants ; but in one case, he entirely dissipates it, and in the other produces it, and then systematically deprives liimselfof the benefits to be derived from it. The scientific ond practical fact that this vegetable fresh- ness is the prime agent of fertility, condemns the whole turf system, and the theory of fecal exudation also goes against, which though not confirmed is in a fair way of being so. But from whatever cause it may arise, we know that a change of plants is necessary, and that a great falling off takes place in a succession of the same plant. Iq opposition to this system of managing land, the alternate mode of cropping by one-balf arable and the other in grass has been long and successfully practised upon all our secondary and inferior soils. By this method the vegetable freshness is produced by the land being at rest for two, three, or four years in pasturage sown with grass seed sufficient to yield a close sward for pasture, nnd roots for future decom- ]iosition. For upwards of half a century, our north- ern cultivators have been aware of, and have availed themselves of the value of this fact — to produce and to use the decaying matter: and in the Survey of Northumberland, written upwards of 40 years ago, by Messrs. Bailey and CuUey, two of the most emi- nent cultivators this kingdom has ever produced, we find it stated, " that the turnip crop seldom suc- ceeded, unless it found the remains of a lea clod to vegetate in.'' One crop of oats only is allowed to intervene between the ploughing of a sward and sowing of turnips, which commences the process of decomposition, of which the turnip immediately de- rives the benefit. To this system is to he attributed the great success of the oat and turnip crops, and in fact of all the crops in North Britain, and from thus keeping the land fresh and in good condition for every crop that is sown. A very general opinion prevails among farmers, that a sward of grass cannot be produced — it is never produced at present cer- tainly, for the seeds are not sown — but from expe- rience 1 can affirm, that a good sward can be got from proper cultivation and a careful selection of seed, and that on all inferior soils more particularly, a cover of grass and a crop of oats accompany each other, and on light lands the crop of turnips also. On sands, the turnips should be sown without any corn crop being previously taken. The rot in sheep originates from the noxious plants growing on the old leys or wet bottoms. But, by draining, or by using an alternate rotation, and by renewing the grasses as soon as any decay appears, these lands are equally as safe as any in the kingdom. The failures that have been experienced in sow- ing grasses, both for permanent purposes and for alternation, always arise from want of perfect culti- vation, which is withheld on the score of expence. For if land be well manured and cultivated, and the plants grov.-n be duly arranged, the crops will sel- dom fail, at least very partially. The want of green crops for winter food, forms at present a great bar- rier to improvement, and this want arises in a great degree from so much land being allowed to be in an unproductive state. The crop of hay and tbe stinted pasture afforded by these old turfs never can com- pete with a green crop in feeding stock or in pro- ducing manure ; if they be got at less cost, tbe pro- fits are more than proportionally less, and the state of the laad after each crop is beyond ail comparison 16 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in favour of aUernntiou. Every farmer prefers clovers and young grasses for sheep, and there is no dissent on that point; and for cattle, experience has found them to be equally beneficial, and heavier and more valuable crops of hay are obtained. Our present imperfect knowledge of the actiop. of lime upon land leads to the conclusion that it acts most vigorously on soils which contain vegetable remains, and that upon arable land, constantly crop- ped, it produces little or no benefit. But the value of this Ibssil is by our turf system wholly lost, for the accumulated vegetable matter is locked up ; and upon arable lands no attention is paid to secure its operation in the way we may suppose to be the next in efficacy, viz., to apply putrescent manure as the vegetable matterand the lime together, and thus bring them into contact. The expence of labour incurred in the alternate system has been objected, but the inquiries of our agricultural committees settled that point, and the profits are well known to be greater. In vol. i. of British Husbandry, we read on the sub- ject of old grass and alternate farming, one of the most illogical conclusions ever sent forth to the world by "any writer on any subject. Ho expressly acknowledges that the alternate system is preferable as being more profitable, and then advises that at least one-fiftli of every farm remain in grass, because the former method requires more capital and skill. Now, grass lands require most capital, and the ex- pression as to skill conveys a compliment to the northern, and a slur on the southern cultivators, equally undeserved by either party. The author also tells us that the " capital" which flowed into the northern parts of the kingdom, and the education which existed there when the improvements com- menced some 70 years ago, aftbrded a better oppor- tunity of pushing' improvements than was enjoyed in South Britain, where the farmers were already settled in the homes and in the " habits" of their forefathers. Now, it is well known that the southern parts of our island are vastly richer than the northern, and we may very reasonably suppose that at the time of commencing the rapid improvements there, the people were equally bigoted and prejudiced, and settled in the homes and habits of their forefathers, as at the present day iu the southern counties ; but how they were able at that time to divest themselves of prejudice, which in other parts cannot be done at this dav, the autlior has forgot or is unable to inform us. To attribute it to capital and education is truly ridiculous, for who will believe that there existed or does exist in that remote part of the kingdom more capital or education than at present enjoyed by any part of England. The fact is, the author was writ- ino- on a subject on which he was prejudiced, or he would never have come to such a conclusion, as to acknowledge the superiority of one system and at the same time recommend another, when that system is equally applicable, and calculated to produce similar results. It is curious to observe the shifts and evasions when a fact presents itself — not to be denied, but very unpalatable to be confessed ; and it seems rather odd that any system should be dis- carded from want of " skill" to conduct it, when it is and has been so successfully conducted by others under similar circumstances and advantages. By science, by practice, by experience, by obser- vation, and by reason, our old turf system is equally condemned, as a great loss in point of national pro- duce, and our constant bickerings on the corn laws, and our useless inquiries, whether other nations can o-row corn for us, are both ludicrous and lamentable. We have seen the increase of produce from draining wet lands ; and if tliis and our other known means of improvement were put info action over all the improv- ed and improveable lands in the kingdom, corn laws would soon be a jest, and the result would teach us the absurdity of teazing our brains about such trifles, while the source and means of nearly doubling our national ])roduco opens ever}' moment to our view, and lies neglected at our feet. But after all our writing on the subject, we are really under the ne- cessity of recurring to the immortal discovery of Mr. Nicholls, for the benefit of Ireland, viz., " that tlie land must be cultivated to employ and feed the peo- ple, and the land-owners must lead the waj' ;" for, unless they who have both the means and the power to set the machine in motion, or some national con- cern take up the matter, experience has shown that we will puddle on as we have done — speaking plenty, but doing nothing — expressing great anxiety to make advances, but still clinging closelj' to the habits of our foref\ithers, and still reckoning them the best. On no point are our land-owners and farmers more tenacious than on that of old turfs, but in the o])inion I have now and long ago expressed, I am supported by some of the leading agriculturists of the last 50 years, and the superiority of the alternate system has been sufficiently verified. In order to correct our practice we must first correct our minds. AVe may starve generations while.writing and speak- ing, inquiring and deliberating, and labouring in the hopeless task of surmounting our prejudices — we must proceed at once, for the time will soon come when all our prejudices and inherited notions must give way, and snap before the advance of improved knowledge and acknowledged utility. J. D. ON THE APPLICATION OF LIME TO LAND. Sir — In different parts of the country, there are three different modes of applying; lime to the land : laying it hot from the kilu, iu small heaps, over the field, and spreading it when slaked ; laying it in one large heap in the middle of the field to slake, and then cart, or wheel, and spread ; the other way, which is ray plan, is evenly spreading the hot stones all over the field ; which when they have laid a day or two and se- parate, then harrow, or scuffle in — not plough as some do, and then have the lime at the bottom, instead of the top. I have my opinion why this is the best ; but I should much like to hear a scientific opinion on the subject, and explanation how the lime acts on the soil. In the hope that this may catch the attention of a reader of your publicatien, who possesses chemical kuowledge, and that he will be good enough to address you on the subject, I remain, yours, &c. C. HILLYARD. Thorpelands, near Northampton, June 15. I think it is worth the consideration of the English. Agricultural Society, whether a prize should not be offered for the best essay on the chemical operation of lime on land. To preserve hedge bills, scythes, sickles, and other steel instruments from rusting, wipe them quite dry, heat them sufficiently to melt common bees' wax, and then rub them over with it so as to cover the whole of the steel widi a thin coating. The wax completely ex- cluding the air, prevents any decomposition from taking place on the surface of the steel ; and when the instru- ment is wanted for use, the wax is readily removed by the application of heat.— Fra?j/(. Jour., vol. xxii., p. 359.) ^1 1s^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 17 LOTTERY. Tbe portrait of Lottery, from which tlie erabellisli- ment has been taken, was painted by Mr. F. C.Tur- ner, to which he has contrived to impart all that ani- mation the spirited business in which the animal appears engaged was calculated to inspire. Mr. Turner evidently possesses a practical knowledge of the subject which he has so legitimately delineated ; and while the genuine characteristic has been thus faithfully depicted, the fidelity of the likeness is un- deniable. Further, Mr. Turner has been fortunate in falling into the hands of an engraver, from whom his original has received the most ample justice ; Mr. Beckwith has been eminently successful, not only in copying the portrait of Lottery, but also in trans- ferring the vigourous character of the business, as well as in the utmost fidelity of detail. Lottery is the most extraordinary gelding that ever appeared in a flag race. He was bred bv Mr. Jackson of Whitecross, near Beverley, Yorkshire; from whom he was purchased by his present propri- etor, Mr. Elmore. He is by Lottery, dam by Wel- beck, grandam by Grog ; not thorough-bred ; six- teen hands high ; colour brown, without white. Tbe sire of this remarkable nag was one of the fleetest and most powerful racers that ever appeared on the course, but owing to his vicious disposition no re- liance could be placed on his performance ; the sub- ject under consideration is as good tempered as pos- sible. Mr. James Mason, who has ridden him in ten flag races, says, that he has never refused a fence nor put a ibot in a grip. He won eight of these races. When he started at St. Albans he was ill, and was pulled up ; he lost the race at Leamington, owing to a mistake in going on the wrong side of one of the flags when near home : as soon as Mason dis- covered the mistake, he turned his nag short round in the face of his horses, and jumped the rasping bullfinch back again, caught his horses on the post, and came within half a neck of winning ; had the goal been situated ten yards farther, he would have l)roved the winner bv a clear length. Lottery is tbe most generous animal in the world. Lottery is eight years old, and equal to thirteen stone with hounds. He is open to run any horse in the kingdom four miles over a fencing country for a thousand guineas. That the quality of Lottery is of the very first or- der, must be unequivocally admitted ; I never saw a nag take his fences more temperately or in prettier style; after clearing a jump, he drops into his step, goes in a very good form, and manifests superior speed. He is a complete snaffle bridle horse, a rare circumstance amongst hunters ('and Lottery must be classed as a hunter) ; there are very few horses in- deed which can be ridden well over a country in a snaffle, on account of the difficulty of holding them together, particularly over fallows and heavy ground; the circumstance of Lottery being unifornijy ridden in a snaffle indicates the delicacy of his mouth. Ma- son, as a rider in flag races, I am of opinion, has no superior ; his knees (the main hold) are always in the right place. Although the blood which runs in the veins of Lottery's dam is considered as not completely puri- fied from that of the " black mare," yet he presents the genuine characteristics in a manner that would lead the judgment astray, were it not for his well authenticated pedigree ; he possesses the legitimate perseverance, can go the pace, and of course can eat the requisite quantity of corn : if therefore we con- sider Lottery as approaching within a trifle of ac- knowledged thorough-bred, he may be said to form a striking proof of tbe erroueousness of that doctrine (^now nearly exploded) wliich denies to such nags the gift of leaping : the rei ark was common enough amongst sportsmen of the old school, that thorough- bred horses, or those nearly thorough-bred, never cleared their fences well ; and therefore they pre- ferred a brute with no pretensions to breeding on account of his superior jumping. I have more than once seen horses of this description jump well, but they were not quick at their fences. It is not diffi- cult to account for the origin of such a mistaken no- tion ; it very frequently happened (and the custom still continues) that thorough-breds after having been trained and raced perhaps for two or three seasons, quitted the course and were taken into the hunting field, where tliey necessarily appeared under every disadvantage. I'hey had been used to smooth turf, thrown forward in their gallops, taught to go as near tlie ground as possible, and had never been shewn a jump; in consequence, when they appeared with hounds, they did not raise their feet sufficiently in rough ground, and blundered into, instead of clear- ing, their jumps. But let the thorough-bred be taken to the hunting field, instead of being trained on the course, and it will be found that he will raise his feet much more actively than the baser breeds, and jump better also. The generality of our thorough-breds are not suf- ficiently bulky to carry welter weight ; nor by the present system of breeding are they likely to be im- proved in this respect. Nineteen out of every twenty of our thorongh-bred nags are produced with a view to the turf, and long before they have attained suffi- cient strength, are subjected to the very severs dis- cipline of the training stable ; and, in consequence, by far the greater part given way under that tension of tbe tendon, and general overstraining of the parts, and indeed of the system, against which nature in so many instances is unable to bear up. In whatever way the young animal may be affected, it can hardly be expected that he will thrive as well as if he had continued perfectly sound. Yet these diseased animals are turned into the breeding stud without hesitation, and in consequence the defects of the pro- genitors are very frequently communicated to the progeny. Our thorough-bred stock, generally speak- ing, is in a very unsound state, particularly as re- gards the fore legs. And perhaps it was lucky for the animal whose portrait embellishes this num- ber, that he was triflingly removed from genuine legitimacy on the maternal side, as on this ac- count he was less likely to inherit disease. If we look at the paternal side of the question, it will be found that Lottery was fortunate; his si: e would have a will of his own from early life, and testified an inclinotion on most, if not all, occasions to please himself. In his early training, he one morning re- fused his gallop, at least with tbe boy on his back, whom he threw, and took bis exercise in his own way, as some time elapsed before he was resecured. When he chose to run, he could beat all the horses of his day, but he was not always in the humour to ex- ; ert his power of speed ; hence his name, originally Tinker, was changed to Lottery ; he was a horse of very great power and very great speed, and left the course without a blemish. Indeed, after he had served as a stallion for one season, he was placed in the training stable a second time, and re-introduced to the course, upon which however he did not con- tinue for any great length of time, on account of his unruly temper. Such is the sire of Mr. Elmore's extraordinary flag racer. We perceive therefore that Lottery the younger, has descended from sound stock, that he has inherited the sterling qualities of hia sire, without imbibing his vicious disposition; C 18 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and that liis constitution is very Rooil, and liislegs excellent, is sufficiently testified by his performances. I have heard it remarked that liOtterv is rather J^ggy ; a similar remark might he applied to all the fleeter racers which have appeared in modern days or that ever did appear; witliout the requisite lengtli of legs, of the hind legs in particular, superior speed is impossible. Lottery is a horse that well endures, and well repays, the scrutiny of examination ; he (ills the eye of the beholder; he has the requisite depth of chest, the well placed oblique shoulder, for which his sire was remarkable, with all that posterior de- velopment whence the propelling power must neces- sarily he derived. So much interest is felt in flag racing at tlie pre- sent moment, so much is the system patronized by the superior classes of society, that annual ap])oint- ments are made after the manner of tlie regular turf meetings ; and to shew the attractiveness of such occurrences, we have only to turn our attention to the late Liverpool flag race, upon wliich occasion tlie grand stand (one of the largest in England, if not the very largest) was crowded to an overflow, and would have been thus crowded had it been capable of containing double the number of persons, as those who could not obtain accommodation in it outnum- bered the more fortunate of the holyday folks. The regular race meetings at Uverpool have not proved half so attractive, notwithstanding the number of events comprised in the list, and the superior value ofthe whole of them. The grand stand is tolerably lilled to witness the struggle for the Cup ; but ou the other days, a few only are scattered about its ex- cellent accommodations. Whence then does this superior attractiveness of ths flag race arise? since the view of the races on the course are much more plainly seen throughout tlian the struggles of the flag race. The problem is not very diflicult of solution. In the first place, the flag race dates its origin much more recently than the time of James I., when racing on the course as- sumed a systematic form, and has not become so fa- miliar as the latter ; but far superior to this minor circumstance is the combined association in the mind of the quality of the horse, the courage of the rider, the difficulty and danger ofthe undertaking. At the first blush of the case it might be supposed that the horses would not go eagerly, in a flag race, or at least take their fences freely, being destitute of tliat excitement inspired by hounds ; but when we consider the determined energy which the racer on tlie course evinces to pass his opponents, in general lit least, it is reasonable to suppose that a similar disposi^;'ou will be manifested in the flag race, as far as regar Is the running part of the business. There are instances certainly of racers, who " will not leave their horse.*," without tlie free application of the " persuaders ;" of tliis General Chasse, a superior animal and a successful racer, was a forcible illus- tration ; he was willing to keep his opponents com- pany, but would not leave them if he could avoid it. In the flag race, the nags .frequently refuse their jumps; this sometimes happens with hounds, but not nearly so often as in tbe flag race ; so that, if in the latter tbe quadrupedal competitors are sufficiently excited in the gallop to continue running energeti- cally against each other, they are not thus induced to face the fences : a horse, be it recollected, is fearful of falling at places which appear too large or too awkward; and it is certainly a remarkable trait in the character of Lottery that he has never refused a fence at which he has been put. When a horse per- ceives his rider is timid, and he is sure to discover it in a very short time, lie is very apt to refuse his fi'uces ; and when one liorse refuses, another is likely to follow his example. A wprd in favour of the system of i];\^ racing. Whatever may be thought of it by those who mea- sure matters with narrower compasses than those which I am disposed to apply to the present case, no person surely will deny that it is eminently cal- culated to encourage the production of a class of horses susceptible of more general and greater utility than any other kind ; for instance, such a horse as Lottery, capable of carrying thirteen stone up to the fleetest hounds in the kingdom, would have excelled for all the lighter kind of draught, uniting activity, strength, speed, and perseverance ; nor do I enter- tain the least doubt that the genuine blood may be, in duo course of time, got up to size and strength much superior to what has hitherto been produced, if proper means be pursued fur the purpose. I am decidedly of opinion that our thorough-breds are not exactly the Arabian of a larger size ; because, tlie pure stream being mingled, in the first instance, with the blood of " the black mare," we cannot be exactly certain that it has undergone complete puri- fication. If Arabia produce the best kind of horse to be found upon the surface of the globe, the bar- barians amongst whom these animals are found are not tlie best grooms in the world, nor vet the most enlightened physiologists. The Arabians pursue the system of breeding in and in to an injurious ex- tent, as may be perceived by their descriptions of their horses, their pedigrees, &c., and also by the appearance of many of those Eastern horses which have found their way into this country, particularly in the elongation of the pastern. Their mode of feeding, if the transmitted accounts be correct, and there is no reason to doubt them, is not calculated to jiromote the growth of the horse ; and indeed un- der every view of the case, the horse of Arabia is not likely to experience tbe least improvement in his native country ; the climate appears well suited to his constitution, to the production of those qua- lities for which he is distinguished ; but the well intended eff'orts of nature are not seconded and im- proved by art ; and therefore the Arabian horse amongst ignorant Arabians, is more likely to recede from his present state than to advance towards per- fection. i3ut, would it not be worth the trial in this country ? If Arabian mares as well as Arabian horses were procured and placed under English ma- nagement, might they not be improved in size, to a very considerable extent, without a deterioration of their acknowledged superior qualities 1 In order however to reach such a " consummation, so de- voutly to be wished," a different system must be pursued to that by which sheer ignorance has been so long and so thoughtlessly allowed to impede im- provement, particularly in regard to the brood mare. When consigned to the breeding stud, she becomes exposed to the boreal blast, and put upon short al- lowance ; after she has endured the injurious influ- ence of one single winter, she is scarcely recogniza- ble ! what a ditferent appearance she presents to the active, sprightly, vivacious animal before she left the course ! shrinking beneath the wintry wind, her system cannot fail to suff'er severely. Finally, in breeding (and in the treatment altogether) of blood nags, the climate whence the genuine animal origi- nated should be steadily kept in view. If the almost score liing heats of Arabia are found so well suited to his constitution, he must suffer when subjected to the influence of an atmosphere like that of the greater part of tbe year in this country, particularly ia wintert THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 19 AGRICULTURE. A gentleman accustomed to farminG: ia the Isle of El)', and also in the heavy uplands of Cambridgeshire, is opiniou that the following statement will be found tolerably correct as to produce and profit : — £ s. d. Plough, burn, clay, and sowwith cole-seed, ten acres of common fen land, at a cost of5^ per acre 50 0 0 Three years' rent, at 2?. lOs. per acre 75 0 0 Ploughing, harrowing, and drilling for se- cond crop, at 7s. per acre 3 10 0 Seed oats for the second ditto, at 20s. per quarter, five quarters 5 0 0 Ploughing, &c., for third crop, at 7s., 3/. 10s. ; 20 bushels of wheat, 7s. 6d., 7/. 10s 11 0 0 Weeding, reaping, harvesting, and thrash- ing, second and third crops, at 30s. per acre 30 0 0 Three years' expenditure. . 174 10 0 Produce of first year in grass and cole-seed, for sheep-feed, at 4Z 40 0 0 Oats of second year, ten qrs. per acre, at 20s. per qr 100 0 0 Wheat of third ditto, five qrs: per acre, at 2l. 16s. per qr 140 0 0 Straw and haulm of the last two years, at 1?. 10s. per acre 30 0 0 Three years' produce 310 0 0 Ditto expenditure 174 10 0 Profit of three years 135 10 0 Three years' rent of ten acres of upland, at 1/.5S, per acre 37 10 0 First year fallow, three ploughings, at 10s., 1/. 10s. per acre , 15 0 0 Ditto for ten loads of manure, at 10s., 5l. per acre 50 0 0 Seed wheat, first crop, at 7s. 6d. per bushel, two bashels per acre 7 10 0 Ploughing and drilling of ditto, at 12s. per acre 6 0 0 Seed barley, second crop, five qrs., at 21. perqr 10 0 0 Ploughing, drilling, &g., at 12s. per acre.. 6 0 0 Weeding, reaping, harvesting, and thrash- ing, for two crops, at 1^ 10s. per acre .. 30 0 0 Three years' expenditure. . l62 0 0 Sheep feed, of first year's fallow, at 2s. 6d. peracre 15 0 Second year's crop of wheat, three qrs. per acre, at 3L per qr 90 0 0 Three do. barley, four qrs., at 2Z. per qr. . . 80 0 0 Last two years' straw, haulm, &c., at 1/. 10s. peracre 30 0 0 Three year's produce 201 5 0 Ditto expenditure l62 0 0 Profit of three years 39 5 0 N.B. It is presumed that the lands in the above statement are tithe free, and that the parochial ex- penses are the same. EED GIANT GOLIAII RHUBARB. - In the market giirdens around London, a larpe species of rhu- barb is extensively cultivated, with wliicli the various excellent markets of tlie metropolis- are well supplied ; but beyond the range of a lew niiles, the particuhir kind to winch we would direct the aitcntioti of our furm- ing friends, is comparatively little known,— tht; s'e'ie- rality sf country gardens being disgraced with a root or two of (lock-like plants, with stalks no thicker than a fing'cr, fibres like whip-cord, and a flavour ! — Uh ! No wonder so few persons, thus possessed, should like rhu- barb-tarts ! No woadcr they disguise the taste with shrivelled apples jiist going out of season, or gooseber- ries just coming in ! The noble plant which we would recommend to every living being who owns a patch of garden-ground, is as far superior to the old-fashioned nauseous plant just mentioned, as our cultivated celery is superior to the rank wild weed of the same name growing by muddy ditches. One would be led to sup- pose, that, from the rarity of the giant rhubarb, it was difficult of cultivation, tender, and troublesome to man- age ; whereas it is as easily propagated as any other perennial vegetable ; is so hardy that no degree of frost which we have ever experienced, will injure it; and of all esculents for pies and pudding?, it is the most readily prepared. It is so prolific that half a dozen roots would keep a small family constantly supplied, during four months of the year ; that is, from the beginning or mid- dle of April (according to the forwardness or back- wardness of the season), until the beginning or middle of August. ^Ve have known instances of this, fruit must we style it ? being preferred to all others for the purpose of pastry, throughout the suminer, even where fruits of every kind abound. We have known stalks of the Red Goliah Rhubarb to measure six inches in cir- cumference and nearly two feet in length, so that only one of there has been required for a pudding : so deli- cate and sott, too, is its texture, that as soon as it arrives at the boiling point it becomes a fins pulp, and is already sufficiently cooked. As a garden production for cult- nary purposes, it is certainly invaluable ; being in per- fection precisely at that season when apples become tough and scarce, and before gooseberries have made their appearance. Its flavour is so delicate, that it ought not to be mixed with any other ingredient than sugar : and on no account should it ever be peeled. The Red Goliah Rhubarb may be propagated either by sowing the seeds or purchasing young roots of one year's growth, and planting them during the spring months in a good rich soil. In the former case, that is, if the seeds be sown, they are to be transplanted in a few weeks, and in the following year their stalks will be large enough to pull. If roots be obtained and planted in March, the plot will be available in a month or six weeks. No further care is requisite than to manure the bed in the autumn after the leaves have decayed. To those who are uncaccustomed to the plant which is the subject of our eulogium, it may be as well to mention, that the .stalks should never be cut from the bed, but wrenched sideways with a sudden twist, when the whole stalk comes away at its junction with the root, — r.ound, flat, clear, and white as milk. As soon as the growth becomes vigorous, each root sends up a flower-stalk, which will readily be distinguished from the leaf-stalk ; these must be pulled away, and only one left (if it be intended to procure seed), and this plant should be less used tiian the others, if at all, during the season. The leaves are enormous ; we have measured many that have been 4 feet long and SJ wide. The roots, too, are gi- gantic,— so large, that, in the course of three or four years, a single root when digged up, would fill a wheel- barrow : hence the plants require a wide space, say five feet apart every way. CORN-TRADE OF ODESSA.-Grain constitutes the mostimportant article in the exports of Odessa. The quantity exported every year is seldom less than one mil- lion tchetverts, (each ot vvliich is equal to sixty-eight of an English bushel.) From our intercourse with residents on the spot, we should say that all of tlieni arc of opi- nion tiiat this branch of tlir> trade with ICngland can be greatly increased, of course at the expense of the British farmer. After witnessing the wonderful fertility of the Ukraine, wc can understand wiih what reason the iv.er- cliants of Odessa assert that, where the fiirming in Ilussia improved a little, they would be able to feed Enplaud, even were lialf of our land turned into hunting-field?.^ Bremucr's Ricsia. c 2 20 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ADVANTAGE OF SOILING HORSES. With respect to tlic iiilvantag'es of soiliii!; horses nn green food, in llie yard or stable, it seems to be now g'e- nerally under.stood that, with proper manajfement, they <;an now be supported with ^■reat vig'or; its economy, however, must depend on the proportion whicli it bears to the price of dry food, and its convenience to tlic quantity in wiiich it can be spared for other cattle. It is a very old, though by no means a universal prac- tice,* and the experience of hundreds of farmers proves, that horses maintained in that manner for years have neither lost flesh nor strength sufficient for all farming purposes although there was no palpable saving of their work, and that, though afterwards placed on dry food during the winter, they continued in perfect health. It is an excellent plan to give some green food along with the corn and chaff", before the usual period of feeding on dry fodder : the change from dry to green, and again from green to dry food, should be gradual. In itscoin- niencement, the clover or tares sliould be cut, and mixed in small portions with straw, and a proportionate quantity of corn should be reduced. The green food is insensibly increased, until the corn is entirely omitted, and the quantity of green meat is supplied without li- mitation: it should, however, be cut over-night, and given only in small quantities gradually increased, to guard as much as possible from accidents, which may arise from its succulence by hoving. When horses are soiled, they never should get much at a time, a practice far too prevalent among servants. The summer feeding of horses was formerly confincil to pasturage ; but of late years the practice of soiling has become very general. The benefit of grazing con- sists in its requiring little attendance ; and being the most natural, and therefore the most healthful, it is pre- ferable for all young cattle which can be spared from constant labour, and on farms which contain a consider- able portion of rough pasture. But for horses at regu- lar work, these advantages are counterbalanced by the time lost in getting them up from the field ; the indis- position to labour which they acquire by being at large ; and the annoyance they suffer from heat and flies when turned out in the day-time. The value of their dung and xirine is also in a great measure destroyed by being scattered upon the surface of the ground, and exposed to exhalation from the sun and wind ; and there is much waste of ffrass, and injury done to the mellowness of the soil, if it be valuable land, by the treading of all heavy stock, but especially the horses. 'I'he utility of soiling consists in a more economical consumption of grass, whether natural or nitificial, than by grazing ; in the accumulation of manure, and in the quiet and coolness which the cattle enjoy under sheds, or in the stable, during mid-day, as well as their being always ready when wanted ; the only disadvantage is the expense of cutting and carrying home the grass, against which may be fairly set the increase of manure, if expense be really incurred ; but as, during summer, there is usually a long interval of rest between the morning and after- noon work, the carters can then cut the necessary quan- tity, which may be drawn to the homestead by one of the team horses, if there should not be a supernumerary one left for odd jobs. When, however, the economy of the practice is not the chief consideration, horses on summer work may be both grazed and soiled. They may be put on dry clover i n the middle of the day, between yokings, and turned out during the night into a well sheltered meadow or enclosure. In being kept under cover during the heat of the day, they will be sheltered from flies, and will feed more at ease ; and in being pastured out during the night, they will also have an opportunity of select- ing those grasses which act as condiments and are most agreeable to their palate. All animals like variety of g-rasses, selecting always what is most palatable, which they cannot do when soiled, particularly if fed on cut clover ©r tares. Exposure to the night air is also found * It is mentioned in a treatise on Agriculture, entitled Hartlib's Legacy,' so long ago as 1650, p. 245. to be highly favourable both to their health and appear- ance. The economy of soiling, wherever it can l>c conve- niently adopted, is, indeed, too generally a1 grains of pure lime, or 61 grains of carbonate of lime in the original spe- cimen. Whenever lime, in its pure or hot state, is ex- posed to the air, it has a very great tendency tore- turn to the original form of carbonate ; in undergo- ing which change, it first absorbs a large quantity of water, and then assumes the form of slacked lime, or, according to chemical nomenclature, has be- come a hydrate ; this hydrate, in its turn, rapidly absorbs carbonic acid from the air, and thus, in no long period, the burnt lime returns to its original condition, with the only difference, that whereas it was formerly in large stony masses, it is now in the state of a fine powder. When the lime is com- pletely slaked, and partially carbonated, it forms the substance termed m/W lime by farmers. Of these three conditions of lime, namely, the Jiot, the mild and the true carbonate, the first is possessed of by far the most energetic powers. The true carbonate of lime, in fact, differs com- pletely in its action from the others. We must, therefore, of necessity, treat of each separately. Hot Lime. — When any organic matter is mixed with hot lime, it undergoes putrefaction with much greater rapidity than when left to itself. The ex- act cazise of this is not well known ; but the im- mediate changes which the various substances un- dergo, especially in the case of vegetable matter, have been pretty accurately examined. Thus, for example, it has been proved, first, that u-oody fibre, yum, sugar, and many other vegetable mat- ters, are converted into Immic acid, with more or less rapidity, when kept in contact with hot lime, or any other chemical substance which jjossesses strong alkaline properties. Secondly, that this humic acid, when formed, unites with the lime, and generates a compound which is not very sol- uble in water, but is easily diffused through it. And, lastly, it has been proved that a very little lime is required to produce this compound with a large quantity of humic acid. For example, 28 grains of pure lime are capable of combining with no less than;')18§ gi-ains of this acid ; so that the lime in this compound amounts to little more than 8 per cent. To apply these facts, therefore, we may re- mark, that there is very little doubt, that changes similar to those above mentioned take place, when hot lime is applied to soil ; or, still more so in the case of lime composts. At the same time, it is exceedingly probable, that during the production of humate of lime* (the compound of lime and humic acid above mentioned), other compounds are formed, many of which are very possibly so- luble in water ; at least if we may judge by the appearance presented by vegetable matter, after it has been long exposed to the action of this or * I have continued to denominate this ncid, humic acid, although I iind that, latterly, especially in che- mical works, the ternt vlmir acid has been substi- tuted for it. I trust, however, that this will cause no confusion, as the difference is in the name onh\ 28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. any other alkaline matter. From these remarkf? it would aj)pear, that the most important ohjcct to be gained by the application of hot lime, is the decomposition of woody fibre, and the consequent fovm&tmn of humate of lime, and various soluble matters. IMiLD Lime does not act by any means so power- fully as the preceding compound ; in fact, it ap- pears to have no effect whatever upon woody fibre. On the other hand, however, it is capable of unit- ing with the humic acid existing in the soil, pre- cisely in the same manner as hot lime : on which account, Sir Humphrey Davy remarks, that mild lime is useful in preventing the too rapid decom- position of substances already dissolved ; the truth of which is evident, when we call to mind the well established fact, namely, that organic substances, which of themselves are extremely liable to de- composition, may be rendered much more perma- nent, nay, often perfectly so, by entering into cJiemical combination with any inorr/anic subntance. Pure carbonate of lime will be treated of under the head of chalk. So much for the pure chemistry of this most important manure. We must, however, now pro- ceed to uhat the majority of our readers will con- sider as by far the most interesting part of the subject, namely, the practical deductions to be drawn from the above remarks ; or, in other words, the manner in which practice is to be guided by the principles above laid down. First. — It is perfectly clear, that hot lime will be useful in all cases where there is an excess of un- decomposed vegetable fibre, as in peat-soils, moors, heaths, &c. ; in fact, in all places where the natural growth has not been interfered with for a great number of years ; from which it fol- lows, that hot lime will be a peculiarly useful ap- plication to old grass, which has lost heart from age, particularly if it is, at the same time, broken up for tillage. Spcondlij. — Sir Huniiihrey Davy has proved, that hot lime, whether solid or dissolved, is injurious to growing plants. For example, he states that he has frequently killed grass by waiering it with lime water. From this fact, therefore, it follows, that hot lime must be an extremely useful applica- tion where it is desired to free land of its sponta- neous growth ; as, for instance, in places over- grown with weeds. Thirdly. — Hot lime is extremely useful in purif j'- ing (if we may be allowed the expression) the ori- ginal herbage of moors, and other uncultivated grounds. The mode in which this is effected being somewhat interesting, we shall here say a few words upon the subject. It is generally allowed, that the finer grasses, &c., require richer food than those which are less valuable; and also that the same remark holds good, the lower we descend in the scale of vegetables : namely, that the lower the plant is, the more easily is it nourished by the contents of the atmosphere ; and hence the less de- pendent it is upon the soil for its subsistence ; the consequence of which is that when in the lapse of time, the soil of any spot becomes more and more exhausted, the most valuable and important grasses gradually die away, from the want of sufficient nourishment, and give place to those diminutive species, which so frequently constitute the herb- age of the almost barren moors ; these ngain, if moisture be present, give place, in their turn, to various mosses, &c., so that at last, unless the im- proving hand of man steps in to avert the doom, the spot will return to a state unfit for the support of any living plant, with the exception of those which derive most, if not all, their nourishment from the surrounding air. Should it be otherwise how different the result ! For instance, should //o/ lime be applied, from the looseness of their texture this destroyer first attacks the mosses and all other useless plants, and thus converts them into useful manure, which, by being washed into the soil by genial showers, revives the seeds of those plants which grew there ages previously, and, in a com- paratively short time, the lately unprofitable waste glows with the return of its pristine verdure. How beautifully many of my readers must have seen this exemplified, in the crops of white clover which so frequently a])pear, almost like magic, after the liming of some barren moor ! Fourthly. — Mild lime is a most useful applica- tion in all cases, where any of the above circum- stances occur in eM/^zjja/etZ land. For instance, if the lime is comparatively fresh, it is much safer to employ it in the mild form, when we desire to destroy weeds or other injurious plants, growing upon richly manured lands, which, from careless- ness or other such cause, have been allowed to become foul ; for, were the lime, in this instance, ajjplied in its caustic state, although it would un- questionably kill the weeds, still, their destruc- tion would be accompanied with a great unneces- sary loss of manure. Fifthly.— \t sometimes occurs, more particularly in garden ground, that the croj)s become rank, from the existence of a suberabundance of soluble manure, the evil eft'ects of which can almost al- ways be counteracted by a dressing of mild lime, which, by combining with the humic acid, ren- ders a large quantity of the organic matter much less prone to decomposition, and likewise, at the same time, less soluble ; humaie of lime, as before remarked, being by no means very soluble in watei'. It may very probably be asked here, how can it be advantageous to apply lime in any case to soil, since it tends to render soluble matters in- soluble, when it has all along been stated that the very reverse is the proper mode of preparing the food for plants ? An answer to this question must, therefore, of course, be requisite. It must be observed, in the first place, that we have al- ready stated that lime is useful chiefly in those cases where the organic matter is insuluble, be- cause it causes the formation of humate of lime and different soluble matters ; all we have to ac- count for therefore is, how humate of lime comes to be a useful manure 1 It may remembered that I stated in No. 2, of this series, that huuiic acid was of itself" quite insoluble in water ;" from the result, however, of some experiments published since that number was written, it appears that this statement is not strictly correct, for humic acid is soluble in water (more especially when newly formed), except under particular circumstances, so that it is extremely probable that the humic acid derived from the slow decomposition of humate of lime, will at the moment of its liberation, be ca- pable of dissolving in water, and thus of course become a useful manure. We shall now conclude our remarks upon lime with a few important cau- tions to be attended to in its application. Mr. Arthur Young remarks, that the best direc- tions for applying lime are those given by Mr. Craike of Arbigland, who advises, that the whole quantity of lime the farmer intends to apply to any field of moderate size, should be carted out and laid in a heap, at some spot where water can be obtain- ed with the greatest farility. The whole is next THfi FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 29 to be thoroughly slaked ; and immediately after it has coolefl, which will take place in a day or two, the liuic is to he rccartcd and spread over the surface of the land as equally as possible. Mr. Craike further remarks, that the more common method of laying down the lime in small heaps all over the field, and allowing it to slake by rain, is very erroneous ; for in this instance it is very lia- ble to get too much rain, which in place of merely slaking it, and thus reducing it to a fine powder, converts it into " running mortar," in which condition " it will neither spread easily, nor mix with the soil." On the same principle Mr. White observes, that both the lime and the soil should be perfectly dry at the time of application. The truth of these remarks could have been pre- dicted by scientific examination alone, and it is at all times pleasing to discover that the results of suc- cessful pi'actice directly correspond with the indi- cations of true theory. For example, there are many scientific objections to be made to the plan of laying the lime in small heaps all over the field in order to be slaked by the rain, in addition to the evident one, mentioned by Mr. Craike, namely, the formation of " running mortar." These are, 1st, that it exposes a far greater surface for the absorption of carbonic acid, which, as is evident from the remarks already made upon this subject, diminishes materially the effect of the lime. 2nd, It must necessarily be exposed for a much greater length of time, and consequently will most ])robably be entirely converted into carbonate of lime; or it must be spread upon the land during wet weather, which will of course render it far more difficult to incorporate properly with the soil. And lastly, its being slaked by rain-water is directly injurious, as it has been proved that there is a greater quantity of carbonic acid present in the air, during dull than in bright weather, which gas will of course be absorbed by the rain, and thus carried to the lime, so as to increase still more the chances of its becoming carbonated. On the other hand, however, it is evident that all these objections may be obviated by adopting the simple, and, if we look to the result, the much more economical method proposed by Mr. Craike. As to the period at which the lime should be applied, this must depend so much upon peculiar circumstances affecting each farmer differently, as convenience, leisure, &c., that it is impossible to fix the time so as to suit all persons. When, how- ever, a choice can be made, summer is by far the best season according to Mr. Young, the reason of which is obviously because it is the driest period of the year, and likewise, when hot lime is used to destroy weeds, they are generally in their great- est vigour at that time, and consequently are ca- pable of being destroyed more effectually. The quantit)'' of lime to be used is likewise a subject of considerable importance, but neverthe- less is one which is apt to be far too much ne- glected ; upon this subject Mr. A. Young is most explicit. " In common cases," says he, " the quantity should be guided by a chemical analysis of the soil;" and, beyond doubt, this is the only sure way of applying it with success. What, for instance, can be more absurd, than for a farmer to go on applying lime to his land, time after time, when perhaps his soil is already loaded with cal- careous matter ? It is a well established fact, that an excess of any of the earthy ingredients of soil exerts a most important influence over the plants which grow there : this is remarkably the case with the natural productions of all soils. To such an extent, in fact, does this hold true, that a good botanist will tell with great accuracy the chemical nature of the soil, by the plants which he finds growing upon it. If this, therefore, takes place naturally, where seeds of all kinds must be con- stantly deposited on every species of soil ; if, I repeat, nature thus arranges the plants according to the constitution of the soil, shall we deny that they have any effect upon cultivated plants ? Shall we presume to say that we can grow all kinds of plants equally upon every variety of soil ? most assuredly not. How, then, can that farmer expect to be successful, who, by constantly adding lime to soil already calcareous, at length increases this substance to such a degree that it is unfit for the support of any plants, except those which naturally prefer a soil of this description ? That the above statement is not a mere theoretical objection, is most distinctly proved by many facts. Who, for example, does not know that ivheat is an unprofi- table crop upon light soils ? Or, again, who would attempt to cultivate turnips upon strong clay ? Chemical analysis likewise of the plants themselves prove most distinctly the influence which the earthy constituents of soil exert over the saline composition of the ashes of these plants. Thus M. Saussure found, that 100 parts of the ashes of the common fir contained 43 parts of carbonate of lime when grown on a limestone hill, whereas the same quantity contained only 2!) parts when grown on granite ; and again, the ashes of the leaves of the Rhododendron ferruginetmi grown upon limestone contained 43^ per cent, of chalk, whereas it yield- ed IGf per cent, oniy of that substance when cul- tivated upon a granite soil. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the ^;roj;ort20w of the differ- ent constituents of the ashes of plants have the greatest influence upon the vigour and productive- ness of the plant itself, and I have no hesitation in saying that the culture of plants (more especially t\\e.garden culture of exotics) will never be brought to any thing like perfection until they have each and all been submitted to chemical examination ; the proportion of all their saline constituents accu- rately determined ; and the nature of the soil for each chosen upon these grounds. I leave it to those interested in such matters to decide, whether it would not be worth their while to take the re- quisite steps for the accomplishment of such an undertaking. On the other hand, however, a very large quan- tity of calcareous matter may naturally exist in soil, without rendering it unfit for the purposes of cultivation ; for instance, it is stated by Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, in the " British Farmer's Ma- gazine" for April 1837, that " the richest soils, on the banks of the Parnel, in Somersetshire, contain more than seventy per cent, of chalk !" But we are all well aware that there are many peculiarities in the cropping of calcareous soils which must bo attended to in order to insure success. Almost all soils, however, contain more or less of this substance, and it is remarked by Professor Low, that it " generally, though not always, exists in larger quantities in the better, than in the inferior soils." None of these remarks, nevertheless, by any means favour the employment of lime upon calcareous soil, in addition to which the plea of not being able to succeed without it, will be shewn to be untenable, when we are treating of the " Eco- nomy of "Manure :" consequently we may rest as- sured that Mr. i^oung's remark is perfectly true, namely that the quantity of lime must be judged by a chemical analysis of the soil. 30 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Lastlji, the farmer must always bear in mind that neitlier hot nor mild lime can act as a manure until it has become converted into carbonate or Jiumate, and consequently that the fertilizing ctl'ect of these substances are produced at the expense of the organic matter prcviovHly existinrj in the soil; so that although lime is directly useful by calling into activity otherwise inert matter, nevertheless it undoubtedly cxhausta the soil by so doing, and this of course should make the farmer cautious about rcpeutiug it too frequently ; and he must be particularly careful lest he mistake the diminution of the productive power of soil, caused by the too frequent application of lime, for a proof that more linieisre(iuired, as in this way there is nodonhtthat many agriculturists have as it were poisoned their fields, by the very means by which they had hoped to effect a cure. The two apparently opposite effects of lime must also be born in mind, namely, that although it increases the solubility of inert vegetable matter, still it renders much less soluble those parts of the organic constituents of soil •which have already become capable of solution. Cahijonate of Limk or Chalk. — This differs from limestone merely in its being of a much softer texture, and hence capable of being broken down with greater facility. In its action it differs en- tirely from the last substance ; thus, it has no ef- fect whatever upon inert vegetable fibre, and I should very much doubt whether it is in all cases capable of uniting with humic acid, so as to ren- der the soluble parts of the manure less prone to decomposition. Its action, however, is neverthe- less, most beneficial ; for example, it tends greatly to alter the texture of the soil to which it is ap- plied, and possesses likewise the very useful pro- perty of being retentive of water, without at the same time becoming adhesive ; consequently it can be used with the greatest advantage both to clays and sands, under certain circumstances. If, for example, you wish to open the texture of a clay, and render it more friable, but at the same time are not desirous of diminishing to any considera- ble extent its retentive powers, you cannot do bet- ter than apply chalk ; and again, if you arc anxi- ous to increase the absorbent power of a sand with- out at the same time adding to its tenacity, a good dressing of chalk will in most cases produce the desired effect. The advantages of chalk a? a top- dressing to meadows is far too well known to re- (juire any notice here. It is however by no means easy to understand its mode of action, except there were an actual want of that substance in the land previous to its application ; in which case, of course, the good effects would be explained upon the principle adhered to throughout all these ob- servations upon Agricultural Chemistry, namely, that we can never expect to be successful in the cultivation of any plant, unless we supply it with all the ingredients, whether organic or mineral, which it contains when growing in a state of na- ture, upou a soil of its own choosing, if we may so express it ; the importance of which remark in re- ference to chalk, will at once appear, when it is considered that scarcely a plant exists which does not contain more or less of this substance. As the total want of chalk, however, is a very rare occur- rence in soil, we must look to other modes of ac- tion, in order to explain the frequent beneficial effects which result from top-dressing grass with this substance; and I may herc])renuse, that this subject is one upon which extremely little is known at present, and consequently we can do little more than make a few conjectures regarding the various i)ossii)le modes of action ; these, never- theless, may be of use in directing the attention of those who should wish to examine the subject to certain points which they might otherwise be apt to overlook. It will be remembered, that, in enumerating the i various constituents of soil, in the first number of this series, I had occasion to mention iron as a constant ingredient of soil, although 1 at the same time observed that it seldom occurred in any con- siderable quantity in fertile soils. All my agricul- tural readers must be well acquainted with the fact, that, when this substance, by any means, be- comes soluble in water, it is most prejudicial to vegetation of all kinds. Now, it is extremely pro- bable that this fact will be found of great conse- quence in explaining some cases, at least, in which the beneficial effects of chalk have been observed. There is no practice more common (and I by no means wish to censure it) than the top-dressing of old pasture-land with farm-yard dung at the interval of a certain number of years ; but all ani- mal matters contain more or less sulphur, so that whenever these substances imdergo decomposi- tion, sulphuretted hi/drogcn is always one of the products. Now, it is well known to chemists that when svlphnretted hydrogen and oxide of iron (the form in which iron exists in soil) come into con- tact, a mutual decomposition takes place, and there results water, and sulphnret of iron. This compound, however, is of itself insoluble, so that were no further change to take place, no harm whatever would accrue from this chemical com- bination ; but unfortunately this is not the case, for the sulphuret of iron, by exposure of air, gra- dually undergoes an entire change, and is at length converted into a very soluble substance, namely, suljihntc of iron, or common copperas, or green vitriol as it is termed. In this manner, wc perceive that, in the progress of time, the appli- cation of farm-yard dung or any other animal ma* nures to soils rich in iron, renders this substance soluble, in which state, as before mentioned, it is exceedingly prejudicial to vegetables. How, then, is this to be remedied ? or how is it that this does not always take place ? In soils rich in calcareous matter, although the change does take place, it is of no consequence whatever, for so soon as the soluble sulphate of iron is formed, it is acted upon by the carbonate of lime, and the results are suU phate of lime or gypsum, and oxide of iron, or in other words the iron is restored to its original in- offensive state ; but where there is not suflicient lime in the soil, as, for instance, where there is a large quantity of iron, this substance must be ad- ded ; the form of chalk being of course preferable, as in this case no action upon the vegetable fibre of the soil will be required. AVhen such intricate and important chemical changes are constantly going on in the soil, and when it is considered that unless the remedy is at hand, the very /oof7 given to the plants carries 2>oiso7i with it, and, conse- quently, that unless checked by proper means many valuable pastures would be rendered useless, who will deny the importance of chemistry to the farmer ? or who will dare to say that practice alone acts more certainly, though more slowly than when aided by science ? Surely it must be evident to every thinking mind, that the practice of agriculture would be \ij)on a much surer basis, were all its votaries ac(iuaintcd with the principles upon which their art was founded. And if so, why is there such an apathy evinced by the sup- porters of this all-important art to the advance- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 31 ment and cultivation of its science ' To be sure, a slight stir of late has been made among some of the leading societies connected with agriculture, but witk wliat effect tv/io can telU and the reason of this is obvious — the majority of the agricultural population are by no means devoted to reading, and consequently, though all the agricultural soci- eties in Great Britain were to publish upon the subject, it would bo long ere the farmers be- came acquainted with the fact. To do good they must have the advantages of the science laid be- fore them practically, and this can be done only by the establishment of experimental farms under the direct superintendence of both a practical and a scientific farmer ; or by the formation of agricul- tural schools, in which the youth intended to fol- low such pursuits shall be properly instructed in the principles which should guide them in the ]u-osccution of their business. That some such decided step will be immediately taken by those capable of rendering its success a comparative cer- tainty, is the most ardent wish of the author of these papers. Marl. — This substance naturally comes under our consideration here, as it is generally allowed that marls are valuable in direct proportion to the quantity of calcareous matter which they contain. Tlie marls most common in England are the clay, stone and shell marls ; they are in general com- posed, similar to soil, of silica, alumina, carbo- nate of lime, and frequently oxide of iron, so that, in fact, they might be compared to cal- careous soils. The carbonate of lime varies from 20 to 80 per cent. One of the best clay marls quoted by Arthur Young was composed of carbo- nate of lime 40 per cent., alumina 50, silica 8 or 10, and a distinct trace of iron. The action of this substance is, of course, in the main similar to chalk, but the clay-marls are likewise very be- neficial in giving tenacity to loose sands. There are two or three points to be borne in mind with reference to the application of this substance, which we shall here mention. First, And this is of great importance, marls are often very injurious when applied to the soil im- mediately after they are dug ; whereas this effect is completely prevented by allowing them to re- main exposed to the air for a certain length of time, as, for example, by placing them in a heap and turning it frequently. I have never been able to find any attempt to explain this very curious fact, and I candidly confess that I do not know how to account for it. The fact, however, is uni- versally acknowledged, and the only probable plan of discovering the cause of the injurious effect, would be to subject specimens, wherein the evil was known to exist, to careful chemical analysis, and, in this manner, discover in what particular they differ from others which do not ])Ossess this injurious pi-operty. An investigation of this sort is, however, far too delicate to be performed by any person who does not possess a thorough know- ledge of chemistry, and I should therefore recom- mend the proprietors of marl-pits of this descrip- tion to employ a professional person to discover the cause of the injury, as in all probability such discovery would point out some means of cure, which would require much less time and trouble, — those invaluable commodities, — than the process by exposure above referred to. Secondly, The farmer must always bear in mind that marl acts merely on account of the carbonate of lime it contains, unless it is added for the ex- press purpose of altering the texture of the soil, as, for example, when applied to very light sands, in which case it will act beneficially, even although the land should not be in actual want of calcareous mat- ter. In this instance, however, pare clay would an- swer as well, and be more advantageous, inasmuch as the whole quantity carried will be of value, whereas if marl were used, about one-third of the quantity would consist of chalk, which, in this in- stance, would be of no value. On the other hand, nraid is of course fur inferior to chalk or lime for clay land ; this fact seems well known to farmers, as will be .•seen by the following rhymes, which oc- cur in a paper upon peat, published by the Rev. Dr. ^Valker in the Transactions of the Highland Society for 1803. lu speaking of the application of marl as a manure, he observes that the Lancashire farmer says, " If you marl sand, you may buy land, " If you marl moss, you shall have no moss, " If you marl clay, you ihrow all aivay.^' Lastly, When marl, or any other substance dug from below the surface of the ground, and used in large quantities, is applied, the farmer must always recollect that surface soil alone contains organic matter, and that fresh subsoil has the power of com- bining chemically with a considerable quantity of soluble manure, and rendering it much less decom - posable, so that unless the soil is rich in manure a t the time of application, the farmer must not expect to see any marked improvement immediately after he has applied the marl ; nor should he condemn the practice even although the first crop should be some- what inferior to those before the marl was used. Gypsum oh Suli'hate of Lime. — This substance more properly belongs to a class of manures, which are at present verj' little known among farmers, but which I trust will soon attract that degree of aticii- tion that they undoubtedly merit ; 1 mean those which the ingenious Mr. Grisenthwaite denominates specific manures, by which term is implied, that the substance in question does not act as organic manure, by supplying organized matter to the plant, nor as many mineral ones, by acting che- micallv upon the vegetable fibre of the soil ; but owe their beneficial effects to their power of supply- ing the plants with certain saline comhinalions which are essential to their perfection, and are for the most part peculiar to the plant itself, or, in other words, belong to a i'ew plants only. Upon this very inte- resting topic we have frequently had occasion to throw out a few hints, but have not hitherto made any express remarks, as we considered that they would be much more suited for this place. The subject being almost entirely new, is at present in a very imperfect state, and the subsequent remarks will serve merely to direct the farmer's attention to the point, and I sincerely hope they may be tlie means of inducing some one to follow out the work in the only way in which it can be achieved, namely, by chemical aualiisis. It has been proved by chemical analysis, that many plants, probably all, contain some saline substance peculiar to themselves, and consequently of great importance to the welfare of the plant. These salts are frequently of a kind which by no means con- stantly occur in soil, as for example, phosphate of lime, sulphate of lime, nitrate of potass, cSjC, and, of course, the ])lants which require these cannot be ex- pected to thrive under such circumstances, unless they are supj)lied artificially with the required sub- stance. It comes, therefore, to be a point of the greatest consequence to the farmer, that a very care- ful analysis should be made of all the cultivated 32 The FARMER'S MAGAZINE. plants, in order Unit, the exact constitution of tiie saline matter should be ascertained, and in this man- ner the farmer will be enabled, in many instances, to grow phmts in situations which probably could never before bo made to bear them profitably. P'or example, to apply this remark to the specific ma- nure now under consideration. Gqpsum has been the subject of several experiments, in order to as- certain its value as a manure, the results of which prove that it is often uset'ul for grasses, and always valuable for clover, saintfoin, luceni, and analogous leguminous plants. Now, these are the very plants whose saline matter contains abundance of sulphate of lime. Sir Ilumphiey Davy's remarks upon this subject are truly valuable. lie says, for example, that most grasses, especially mcaduw fo.v-tail, rncks- J'oot, and /iorin, contain gypsum ; and he observes that the application of this manure would probably be of great value in restoring lands which have been exhausted by frequent cbver crops and the like. The reason why this substance is not constantly required is, that most soils contain a little of it, but more es- pecially because all animal manures have a certain ])roportion of this substance, and therefore, culti- vated land seldom requires any to be added to it. On the other hand, however, it is well known that tliere are few crops so uncertain as the clover crop, and consequently it would be of great importance to ascertain how" fnr this failure may depend upon the want of sulphate of lime, as, of course, that could be prevented with the greatest ease. There is one point to be attended to with reference to the use of gypsum, namely, that it is apt to fail in some cases wliere a farmer would least expect it, namely in soils rich with animal rnaimrcs ; chemically, how- ever, this is just what wo should have been led to expect ; because, during the decomposition of ani- mal matters, carbonate of ammonia is produced, which reacts upon the snlpliate of lime, and produces sul- phate of ammonia and carbonate of lime, neither of •which are capable of supplying the jilace of gypsum as a specif c manure. It is stated that gypsum is par- ticularly useful when it is intended to cut the crops green, as it makes the plants renew their shoots much more vigorously than they otherwise do. LAND FALLOW. Fallow is a portion of land in whicli no seed is sown for a whsle year, in order that the soil may be left exposed to the influence of tlie atmosphere, the •weeds destroyed by repeated ploughings and har- rowings, and the fertility improved at a less expense of manure than it would be if a crop had been raised upon it. The practice of fallowing land is as old as the Ro- man Empire. It appears that wherever the Romans extended their conquests and planted colonies, they introduced this mode of restoring land to a certain degree of fertilit)^ when exhausted by hearing grain. The principle on which it was recommended was however erroneous. It was thought that the land grew tired of raising vegetable produce and required rest, and hence this rest was often all that consti- tuted the fallow, the tillage, which alone is the im- proving part of the process, being almost entirely- neglected. 'Where land was abundant and the po- pulation thin, it was no great loss to allow a consi- derahle portion of the land to remain unproductive; and it was cheaper to let land lie fallow during the course of a whole year, which gave ample leisure for every operation, than to accelerate the tillage and increase the manure upon it. But when land be- came of greater value with the increase of popula- tion, it is a serious loss if a great portion of the soil be thus left in an uniiroduclive state. Accordingly the attention of agriculturists has been turned to lessen the necessity of fallows, and to substitute some other means of restoring fertility. It is ac- knowledged by all experienced farmers that manure alone is not sufficient for this purpose. The ground must be tilled and noxious weeds destroyed ; and the onl)' efficacious mode of doing so is to stir the ground at the time when their seeds iTave vegetated, their roots liave made shoot, and before any new seed can ripen. But this is exactly the time when the corn is usuidly growing, and the land cannot be stirred to expose it to the heat of the sun and to dry the roots which are turned up. The only apparent remedy is therefore not to sow it during one sum- mer, and on this principle lands are usually fal- lowed. There is no difference of opinion respecting the manner of extirpating weeds by repeatedly jilough- ing and harrowing, but there is with respect to the influence of the heat of the sun upon the land. Some men are of opinion that light is the great purifier of tiie soil ; that it decomposes certain noxious par- ticles, which are the result of the formation of the seed, and which have been termed the excrements of j)lants. Physiologists agree that the roots draw the nutritive juices out of the soil, that they undergo a chemical change in the plant, and that there is an exudation also from the roots, which may be looked upon as the residuum of natural process. Do Can- dollc, llaspari,and other eminent physiologists have placed this point beyond controversy ; but not one has yet been able to collect these matters so as to an.dyze and compare them ; and the reasonings on the sub- ject have been merely conjectural. In particular soils and situations a scorching sun has a pernicious effect on the soil which is exposed to his rays ; and where it is shaded by a crop which covers it com- jdetely, it seems to have acquired fertility, whicli the exposed surface has not. But this is not suffi- cient to establish a general rule. Some soils which are of a wet nature are greatly improved by being as it were baked in a hot sun. Not only are the weeds destroyed by the abstraction of moisture, but the soil also becomes lighter and more friable. On sandy soils the reverse is the case, and on intermediate loams the effect well be more or less advantageous as they^ approach nearer to the clay oi' to the sand. In light sandy soils, then, it is possible that the only advantage of a naked fallow is to kill weeds, espe- cially the couch-grass Qriticiivis rijjens), which is apt io infest light soils ; and that the exposure to the sun in hot weather is not only no advantage, but probably detrimental. If, then, any means can be devised of clearing light lands from weeds without leaving them fallow for a whole summer, a great ad- vantage will be obtained. This has been effected completely by the cultivation of turnips and clover, which was first practised in the light soils of Ilan- ders, and afterwards introduced into the similar soils of Norfolk, from whence it has spread all over Great Britain, and is beginning to be adopted more gene- rally in Ireland. The advantage of the turnip cul- ture is so great on light lands, that it has been gra- dually extended through the diflerent gradations of loams, till it has reached the colder and stifter clays, on which it would at oae time have been thought absurd to attempt to raise this root. But this has been attended with an important benefit. It has made the cultivators of heavy soils turn their attention to the drying of their lands, by draining THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 33 and deep tillage, in order to make tliem capable of bearing turnips ; and altliough the extended culture of tiiis useful root is not what we should recommend for cold wet clays, we highly approve of all improve- ments which will make such lands capable of bearing good crops of turnips. Unless tlie turnips can be consumed by sheep on the spot, or b}' cattle near at hand, without injuring the land in taking off' the turnips and carting on the manure, there will be no great advantage in a crop of turnips ; and some other substitute must be found for the occasional fal- low before it can be altogether abandoned. On light lands the preparation for the turnips, the abundant manuring, and subsequent boeing, are as effectual in cleaning the land and bringing it into a fertile state as any complete fallow could ever be ; and the clover smothers and destroys the seed weeds which may have come up among the barlev or oats sown after the turnips. There are several ways in which the cultivation of light soils may be varied without ad- hering strictly to the Norfolk rotation, so as to in- troduce a greater variety of produce. Tares may be sown on the better sort of light lands after a good tillage given immediately after liarvest. If they are fed oft" or cut green in May or June, early turnips may be sown after them, which will be fit to feed off or draw for the cows in September ; in good time for ploughing up the land for wheat-sowing. In this case the land gets all the ploughing necessary to clean it completely, and exactly at the best time. Three ploughings may be given after the tares, if the land is not clean, and the turnips being well hand-boed and horse-hoed, the land will be per- fectly clean to receive the wheat-seed- Manure may be put on for the tares or the turnips ; and if these are fed off" with sheep, they will so enrich the soil that the next crop cannot fail to be abundant. By varying the management of light land according to circumstances, and with some judgment, many more profitable crops can be raised than by the common simple rotation, in which a fourth of the land is sown with turnips. If this crop fails, which is often the case where it recurs so often, the whole system is deranged, and the loss is very great. The introduc- tion of a greater variety of produce in the cultiva- tion of light lands, in imitation of the Flemish prac- tice, and the increase of stock in consequence, would be an important step in the improvement of British husbandry. On heavy soils it is often impossible to keep the land clear of weeds, in wet climates and unfavour- able seasons, without a complete fallow, and when this is the case it is best to do the thing eff"ectually. Upon cold wet soils, which should always first of all be well under-drained, no pains should be spared to keep the land perfectly clean : it should be exposed to the frost of two winters and the heat of one sum- mer and part of another. Only one crop is lost by this method, and if the land is properly worked, cleaned, and manured in autumn, it may be sown with barley or oats in the spring of the second year. The crop will be ample, and the subsequent pro- duce of clover equally so, and the land so clean, that with proper manuring, several crops may succeed, such as wheat, beans, oats, tares, without the necessity ©of another intervening fal- low. The advice we would impress on the minds of the cultivators is — avoid fallows if you can keep your land clean : but when you fallow, do it effectually, and improve the soil at the same time by chalk, lime, or marl, according to circumstances. Do not spare either ploughs or harrows in dry wea- ther. Lay the stitches high and dry before winter, and deepen the water-furrows well with the spade. By following these rules the stiffcst land may be brought into a good state of cultivation ; and the farmer will not find by the growth of weeds, docks, and thistles, that his labour and manure are thrown away, as is too often the case. Experience has fully proved that the air and the dews impart fertility to the soil, and that land which has been well fallowed and stirred requires less manure than it would otherwise do. Fallowing alone will not make up for want of manure, nor will manure be sufficient without ploughing and cleaning the land properly, nnd exposing it to the influence of the at- mosphere, especially in autumn and spring ; but a great saving of the one and the other may be effect- ed, by judiciously varying the' crops so as to admit of ploughing the land at different seasons of the year. It is asserted by some old-fashioned farmers that the plough alone is sufficient for all the purposes of fallowing. This is a great error, which leads to useless and unnecessary labour. We would almost say that ploughing the fallows is never necessary, except to enable the drags and harrows to stir the land. I'he first ploughing of the stubble cannot be too shallow, and the harrow should be set to work before the wet weather sets in. When the surface has become mellow and clean, the land may be ploughed deep, and the soil below should be brought up and exposed to the air and frost all the winter. In spring the drag should begin the work again be- fore the soil is hard, it may then be ploughed in narrow ridges right across the old stitches, or obliquely, and left for the influence of summer. The drags will level all these ridges when the manure is to be put on ; and this being ploughed the land is fit to receive the seed, if wheat is the crop intended. If it is left for barley, it must have another plough- ing in spring, and be well harrowed before the seed is sown, especially if this is done by the drilhng machine. The clover or grass-seeds may be sown immediately after, and the land lightly rolled. There is no danger of making it too fine in spring. With- out a fine tilth no good barley can be expected. — Penny Cyclopctdia. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. (from the mark lane express.) Being fully convinced that great good is derived from the stimulus to skill and exertion, created by the competition for prizes offered by Agricultural Societies, as well as from the interchange of opi- nions which takes place at those meetings; we always experience gratification in being enabled to lay before our readers reports of their pro- ceedings. We this day submit to our readers a report of the proceedings at the meeting of the Warwickshire Agricultural Society, and although the number of persons who attended it was not large, still we recognise in the list several zealous I'riends of Agricultural improvement, and some of the most spirited practical farmers in that county. It will be seen that Sir F. Lawley, Mr. Greaves, and Mr. Bennett, each called attention to the Eng- lish Agricultural Society, and a marked and well- merited compliment was paid to the President, Earl Spencer. We are glad to find that a con- viction of the utility of this Society is becoming very general, as scarcely an Agricultural meeting now 34 The faumer*s magazine. takes place without favourable allusion l)(.'ii)g made to the subject. The necessarily limited space of a ncwspa])er [irecludes tiie possibility of giving re- ports of (ill Agricultural Meetings, the utmost we can do, therefore, in many cases, is to briefly notice them. We have now before us a report of the proceedings at the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Coi'nwall Agricultural Society. Before we advert to the observations, made upon tliose sub- jects, which are the legitimate objects of discussion at such meetings, we cannot refrain from express- ing our regret that the harmony of tlie meeting should have been disturbed in the early part of the proceedings by the introduction of politics ; surely at this day occasions present themselves sufficiently often to enable persons to make known their sentiments upon any political topic without obtruding matters entirely irrelevant to the business of an Agricultural Meeting and thus marring the objects in view ! We hold a meeting of an Agricultural Society to be as purely scientific, if the term science can be correctly ap- plied to Agriculture, as the meetings of the llorli- cultural. Botanical, Geological, (ieographical. Statistical, or any other such like Societies ; and what would be the opinion entertained of the man who should attempt to introduce politics at tiie meetings of any of thfise Societies. We must con- fess that, in our opinion, misciiief frequently arises from an injudicious selection of toasts, given at Agricultural Meetings, and whicli, as it seems to us, after one or two which always stand at the liead of the list at public meetings, and to which no loyal subject, whatever may be iiis po- litical opinions upon particular subjects, can object, should be in accordance with the objects of such societies; aud if any occurrence should take place calculated to provoke unpleasant debate, it is far better to let it pass unnoticed than to enter upon a discussion which may endanger the existence of the Society. We make this remark in tlie hope of inducing members of Agricultural Societies to guard, as much as possible, against occurrences of this kind, and to exercise forbearance whenever they unfortunately do arise. After the ebullition which took place at the early part of the proceedings of the meeting of the Cornwall Agricultural Society had passedoff, the Chairman, E. Collins, Esq., made the following observations, upon a subject on which there exists considerable difference of opinion, but which has attracted the attention of, and is considered as one of great importance, by many leading and influential agriculturists. " I have long' wished to see established in this coun- try— it has struck me most forcibly that the yeomanry of this country are in want of a seminary for their sons. I was much amused some years ago, when [ was abroad, at a visit to a seminary kept by fll. Fellenbur;;'', in Switzerland. It was a seminary for tiie purpose of in- structing' young men in the science of agriculture ; and why agriculture should not be distinguished by the name of science, I am at a loss to coficeive (Hear, hear.) It is not generally so considered, I am aware, but it is that upon which the prosperity of a nation generally depends — of all nations witli the amount of population that this nation has. If agriculture once goes to decay there is an end to the prosperity of the country {Hear, hear). I wish to draw no invidious comparisons be- tween the classes of industrious society who contribute so much to the welfare of this country ; but at the same time I must say that agriculture is the mainstay of every kingdom. When a manufacture ccascj; to be lirofilaljle, tlic jicrson who employs his capital may go elsewhere — may go from Kngiand to Holland — may pro to Venice, if ^'cnice sliould again liecomc, as she was once, the emporium of trade. But farming cjipital, when once laid out is so bound up ia the land upon which it has been expended, that the person who has so expended his capital is compelled to reside there. He has no other pursuit ; he cannot re- move the stock and the other investments which he has made in the land, but he is naturally fixed to the soil. With these considerations, I tiiink that such a seminary should he established, not limited to this society, hut for tiie whole county of Cornwall. The plan I would wish to suggest would be this— and I should be most happy to contribute with any gentlemen who are not behind- hand with me in wishing to advance the interests of agriculture— to contribute towards placing: a person upon a farm of four or five hundred acres where the best system of farming may be pursued— where the best machinery may heexhibited, where the persons brought up there may do, not the most menial, but the most use- ful parts of agriculture— to handle the plough, to hoe turnips, and to be aware of what their men oujrht to do. (Hear, hear.) You may not be aware that in the military college at Sandhurst gentlemen of the higiicst fortune, who arc phiced there, serve in the seminary as common soldiers, having to clean their muskets and even their shoes. 'J'hey are thus able to lead their soldiers when they go into a field of battle with a perfect know- ledge of military tactics, and to bring the men into a proper stale of discipline. I tiirow out these few sug- g'estions merely that if any geBtleincn in other parts of the county are willing to join me in bringing a person of acknowledged system to teach farming, and if to teacli the mere accounts or book-keeping of a farm, I sliall be happy to join them, because I am afraid that many a farmer in tiiis country, if he were to be asked what such a particular crop cost him to put in and to take out, and was called upon to strike the balance, would find himself unable to do so." (Mitch laughter.) A proposition for establishing an AGPtlCUL- TURAL SCHOOL or COLLEGE connected with a MODEL FARM has recently been brought under the notice of several landed proprietors and practical farmers. Two meetings have been held in London, and the outlines of the plan discussed. The most prudent plan, as it seems to us, would be for all persons who enter- tain the same views as Mr. Collins, to unite their efforts in establishing one institution of the kind, in which the merits of the plan might be proved, and if found of value, others might be es- tablished in different parts of the country. HORSE POWER.— A horse of the Clydesdale breed has been employed during fourteen years by Sir C. Stuart jMentcath, in drawing coal waggons upon the bad made turnpike road in the county of Dumfries, from Ayrshire to Dumfries. His usual load of coal has been 35 cwt. in a common light road waggon of the weight of 13 cwt. in a stage of four miles, which he performs three times every day, or twelve miles in the course of 24 hours daily. He has never been known to lie down during the last eight years, except tw ice, when he was in a state of sickness. Sir C. S. M. employs several more horses to perform the same work, and to draw an equal load upon the same road daily. From the experience Sir C. S. M. has had in the use of animal power upon common roads, he is of opinion, that the most economi- cal mode of employing horses in draught, is to give every horse his own carriage, and that he should solely depend upon his own exertions in drawing the load, as it is well known that it is diflicult to find either man or beast equally willing or capable to make the same exertion, or to have the same spirit or motion, and at the same time never to exceed six miles on a stage, and to be performed twice daily. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE. The apple is propagated either by seeds, layers, cuttings, budding, grafting, or suckers, and each of these processes is so important in itself that to ex- hibit a sufficiently clear view of tliem it will be ne- cessary to consider them separately. Seeds. — For the reproduction of all plants that produce seeds, or rather of all plants that produce visible ones, the most usual process, and especially that pointed out by nature, is by sowing these seeds. It is also the mode by which new or improved va- rieties of plants or fruits are to be obtained. It must not, however, be understood that every plant or fruit so originated is improved in its condition by this process, for we find many very inferior varie- ties both of flowers and fruits so raised. We are as yet entirely ignorant of the cause which produces this tendency to change, for the better or the worse. Philosophers, says Mr. Lindley, are unacquainted with the reason wh}^ there should be any tendency to variation from the characters first stamped on any species by nature, but all know that this tendency does exist, and in a most remarkable degree, in many species. There is in all beings a disposition to deviate from their original nature when cultivated, or even in a wild state ; but this disposition is so strong in some, as to render them particularly well adapted to become subject to domestication ; for in- stance, the dog, the pigeon, and the barn-yard fowl, are cases in which this tendency is most strongly marked in animals, and domesticated fruits are a parallel case in the vegetable world. Without, then, vainly endeavouring, says the same high authority, to discover the cause of this dispo- sition to form varieties, let us take it as a naked fact, that the disposition exists. Cultivators increase this disposition chiefly in two ways, either by constantly selecting the finest existing varieties for seed, or by intermixing pollen and stigma of two varieties for the purpose of procuring something of an interme- diate nature. The ancients were unacquainted with either of these practices, and, consequently, their gardens contained few things which vrould now be deemed worthy of cultivation. The power of ob- taining cross-bred varieties at pleasure has only ex- isted since the discovery of the sexes in plants; but as it exerts a most extensive influence over altera- tions in the vegetable kingdom, it may be considered the most important controlling power which we possess. If this power, however, is left to the sim- ple operation of nature, although it would even in that case produce a change of condition to a certain extent, yet that change is seldom found to be suffi- ciently marked or certain to induce us to leave the matter to mere chance alone. No doubt but that many, if not most of our old and good apples have been thus accidently produced, but since the exist- ence of the sexual distinctions has been ascertained and scientifically understood, more 'certain and com- plete means have presented themselves for our guid- ance. Although the discovery of the sexes in plants is attributed to the great Swedish naturalist Lin- neeus, the founder oJ the sexual system of botany, the knowledge of this organization was known to some and hinted at by others of our own country- men before his day. The great Lord Bacon, who has been styled the Prophet of the Arts, suspected that it was possible to cross the breed of plants, and to produce kinds by art as novel as those which na- ture has sometimes produced by accident. The compounding or mixture of kinds in plants, says Lord Verulam, is not found out, whilst, neverthe- less, if it be possible, is more at command tbaa that of living creatures ; wherefore it were one of the most notable experiments, touching plants, to find out, for so you may have great variety of new fruits and flowers yet unknown. Grafting does it not; that mendeth the fruit, it doubleth the flowers, &c. but it hath not the power to make a new kind, for, he adds, the scion overruleth the stock. Professor Bradley, who wrote about the beginning of the last century, says distinctly, that this subject has been accomplished, but the exact method was not then clearly understood, as we find from his recommend- ing only the bringing together the branches of dif- ferent trees while in bloom. The means used in the process of artificial fecundating, the stigma, or female parts of the blossom of one flower with the pollen or male dust of another, have been beautifully described and explained by Knight and others. That eminent pomologist has obtained thousands of apple trees from seeds, many of which are of first-rate quality, by cutting out the stamens of the blossoms to be impregnated before their own pollen was ripe enough for the purpose, and afterwards when the stigma was mature, by introducing the pollen of the other parent, either by shaking the pollen of it over the flower containing the stigma only, by introducing the flower when deprived of its petals or coloured leaves, or by transferring the pollen upon the point of a camel hair pencil from one flower to the other ; by these means he prevented the possibility of the natural fecundation of the blossoms within itself, and thus greatly increased the chances of obtaining intermediate varieties by making use of two distinct parents. This process is called cross-impiegnation, and is in its nature highly curious. Mr. Lindley describes the action as follows : — Pollen (the male dust) consists of ex- tremely minute hollow balls or bodies, their cavity is filled with fluid, in which swim particles of a figure, varying from spherical to oblong, and having appa- rently spontaneous motion. The stigma (the female organ) is composed of very light tissue, the inter- cellular passages of which have a greater diameter than the moving particles of the pollen. When a grain of pollen comes in contact with the stigma it bursts and discharges its contents among light tissue upon which it has fallen. The moving particles descend through the tissue of the style, until one or sometimes more of them finds its way by routes spe- cially destined by nature for this service into a little opening in the integuments of thoi ovalum or young seed ; once deposited there, the particles swell, in- creases gradually in size, separates into radicle and cotyledons, and finally becomes the embryo, that part which is to give birth, when the seed is sown, to a new individual. Such being the mode in which the pollen influences the stigma and subsequently the seed, a practical consequence of great import- ance necessarily follows, viz., that in all cases of cross-fertilization the new variety will take chiefly after its poUenferns, or male parent, and that at the same time it will acquire some of the constitutional peculiarities of its mother. In making these expe- riments, it should be observed that particular atten- tion should be paid to the sorts operated upon, be- cause impregnation will never or very rarely take place between diflferent species, unless they are nearly related to each other, and we can state on the authority of Lindley, that the ofl'spring of the two distinct species is itself sterile, or if it possesses the power of multiplying itself by seed, its progeny returns back to one or the other of the parents. Hence it seldom or never has happened that domes- ticated fruits have had such an origin. We have no varieties raised between the apple and the pear, D 2 36 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. or tbo quince, and the pear or plum, and cherry or the gooseberry, and the currant. On the other hand new varieties obtained by the intermixture of the pre-existing varieties, are not less prolific ; but on the contrary, often more so than either of their parents. The kind of apples that it would fee advantageous to cross by artificial impregnation, appear to be those which have a great many qualities in common and some different qualities. Thus it would be proper to cross the golden pippins with other pippins, and even with some rennets _; but it would be improper to cross it with codlins or the larger growing kinds. The numerous varieties of pippins raised by Knight and others, have been obtained by following the above rule. It is no doubt true, that a small apple, say, for example, the golden pippin, crossed witli a much larger sort, will produce a variety sufficiently distinct from either ; but it is almost equally certain that the new variety will be of very inferior quality to either ; the qualities of both parents as Mr. Lou- don has very justly observed of so very opposite natures, being as it were rudely jumbled together in the offspring. Apple trees are annually raised in considerable numbers for the purpose of obtaining stocks whereon to graft other approved sorts ; this kind of stock is called free stock, and is the progeny of any kind of apple seed that may be most conve- niently obtained, at least such is the practice in the British nurseries. The Norman orchards pay more attention to the subject, of which notice will be taken in the article stocks. The seeds being ob- tained, they should be sown as soon after they are ripe as possible, that is in autumn. The soil should be rich and light, and the situation warm and dry. I'he usual precaution to guard them against the at- tack of mice during winter, should be taken. The autumn following, the young plants will be fit to transplant into nursery rows, if the object be to use ibera as free stocks, but if to obtain new varieties of fruit, then they should be planted out where they are to remain to produce their fruit, and for this purpose there can be no better situation, if upon a small scale, than the back part of a shrubbery where they will occupy but little space, and during their flowery season at least be extremely beautiful. If upon a large scale, it would be more advisable to plant them in the margin of young plantations or in hedge rows where the soil is good. William of Pitmaston, a successful cultivator of the apple, in- forms us (Horticultural Transactions, vol. 1, p. o33) that he has found such seedling apples as were al- lowed to retain their lateral or side shoots from the ground upwards, but so disposed that the foliage of the upper shoots may shade those under them as lit- tle as possible and removing only trifling shoots ; from observation made by him on the form and ap- pearance of the leaves of his seedling apple trees, he thought it possible by following the above mode to forward the peculiar organization of the foliage, ne- cessary to the formation of blossom beds. He in- forms us that he succeeded so far by this plan as to produce fruit from seedling apples at four, five, and six years, instead of eight, ten, or even fifteen years, which is the usual period for trees pruned to naked stems and treated in the usual manner. Other me- thods have been had recourse to with the view to accelerate the early productions of fruit from seed- ling trees. That practised by Mr. M'Donald of Dalkeith, appears to us worthy of notice. In 1808, he impregnated the blossem of the Nonpareil with the pollen of the golden pippin and Newtown pippin. From the best specimens of the fruit so produced, he selected the seeds which he sowed in pots, and planted them in a frame. The progeny, which con- sisted of eight or nine plants, he transplanted in 1809 into ojjcn ground. In 1811 , he selected a few of the strongest of these jdanls and put them singly into pots, in 1812, one of the phmts showed fruit buds, observing this, he took some twigs from the tree, and grafted them on a healthy wall tree, and in 1813 he had fruit. In 1816, his seedling trees produced several dozen of apples, and also those he bad grafted, which latter he observes were the largest. It is very difficult, and perhaps impossible, to judge from the appearance of the seedling trees which will be the best or come earliest into fruitful state. Some pretend to determine this from the ap- l)earance of tlie leaves, and therefore select at the age of two or three years, only such as have broad and roundish leaves, and throw away such as have narrow and pointed leaves. Mr. Knight appears to be undecided on this subject, for he observes, an esti- mate may be made of their good or bad qualities at the conclusion of the first summer by the resem- blance the leaves bear to the highly cultivated or wild kinds, and this he observes was remarked by the writers of the last century. The plants whose buds in the annual wood are full and prominent are usually more productive than those whose buds are small and shrunk into the bark, and furtiier he says, the width and thickness of the leaf generally indi- cate the size of the future ap])le, but will by no means convey any correct idea of the merits of the future fruit. AVhere these have the character of high cultivation, the qualities of the fruit will be far removed from those of the native species, but the apples may be insipid or highly flavoured, green, or deeply coloured, and of course well or ill calcu- lated to answer the purpose of the planter. An early blossom in the spring and an early change of colour in the autumnal leaf, would naturally be supposed to indicate a fruit of early maturity, but 1 have never been able to discover any criterion of this kind on which the smallest dependence may be placed. The eminent horticulturist just quoted has paid more than ordinary attention to the rearing of apple trees from seeds, not onlv with the view of obtaining new and improved varieties, but also as he thinks of per- petuating, even the best of the oldest and valuable sorts which he believes to be going rapidly into deca}', having outlived the natural term of their use- ful existence. In his Treatise on the apple and pear, and in various papers in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, Mr. Knight has endeavoured to substantiate his theory, but we believe that the generality of physiological writers, both in this coun- try and on the Continent, entertain very diff'ereut opinions on this subject. If the apple is now dete- riorated in merit from what it once was, which is a matter of extreme difficulty to determine, it may be attributed to one of the following causes, viz., that the trees are either in the last stage of decay from being perpetuated by grafting be3rond the natural period of their useful existence as asserted by Knight, or that the return of more genial summers as believed by William, Speechy,and others, will re- store to us from old trees as good fruit as heretofore. —The Orchard, by Charles M'hitosh, C. F. C. TI.S. Orr arid Co. LIQUID LEATHER.— A Dr. Bernland, of Larria, in Germany, is said to have discovered a method of making' leather out of certain refuse and waste animal substances. A manufactory of this nature has been es- tablished near Vienna. No part of the process is ex- plained, only it is said that the substance is at one time in a complete state of fluidity, and may then be cast into shoes, boots, and other articles of dress. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 37 TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. An Account of the Value of the Imports into, and of the Exports from, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, during each of the Three Years ending the 5th of January, 1339 ; calculated at the Official Rates of Valuation, and distinguishing the Amount of the Produce and Manufactures of the United Kingdom Exported from the Value of Foreign and Colonial Merchandise Exported ; also stating the Amount of the Produce and Manufactures of the United Kingdom exported therefrom, according to the Real or Declared Value thereof. Value of tlie Ira- ports into tlie United Kingilom, calculated at the Official Rates of Valuation. Value of Exptirts from the Uwited Kingdoirt, calculated at the official rates of valuation. Value of the Produce and Manufactures of the United Kinj- Years ending 5tli of Jjin. Produce and Jla- nufactures of the United Kingdom. Foreig-n and CoUmial Mer- chandise. Total Exports. dum exported therefvom, according to the real or de- clared yalue thereof. 1837 £ 57,230,968 54,737,301 61,268,320 £ 85,229,837 72,548,047 92,459,231 £ 12,391,712 13,233,622 12.711,318 £ 97,621,549 85,781,669 105,170,549 £ 53,293,979 1838 42,069,245 1839 50,060,970 "WILLIAM IRVING, Inspector-General of Imports and Exports. Inspector-General's-office, Custom-house, Loudon, March 23, 1839. NAVIGATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. NEW VESSELS BUILT. An Account of the Nviraber of Vessels, with the Amount of their Tonnage, that were Built and Registered in the several Ports of the British Empire in the Years ending the 5th of Jan., 1837, 1838, and 1839, respectively. United Kingdom Isles ofGuernsey,Jersey,& Man British Plantations Total Custom-house, London, March 22, 1839 Int he Years endu ig January 5, 1837. 1838. \ 1839. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. 1,089 58 343 Tonnage. 679 30 441 86,509 3,127 66,604 936 69 510 131,171 4,751 71,306 157,255 4,204 45,811 1,150 156,240 1,515 207,228 1,490 207,270 JOHN COVEY, Registrar-General of Shipping. VESSELS REGISTERED. An Account of the Number of Vessels, with the Amount of their Tonnage, and the Number of Men and Boys usually employed in Navigating the same, that belonged to the several Ports of the British Empire, on the 31st of December, 1836, 1837, and 1838, respectively. On the 31st of Dec, 1836. On the 31st of Dec, 183/. On the 31st ef Dec, 1838. United Kingdom Isles of (iuernsey, Jersey & Man. Britisli Plantations Vessels. Tons. 19,823 2,312,84S 565 36,903 5,432 442,897 Men. 138,136 3,995 28,50G Vessels. 19,936 600 5,501 Tons. Men. 2,296,22/ 139.2,32 37,294 4. 457,497 30.044 Vessels, 20,300 612 5,697 Tons. 2,383,484 37,275 469,842 Men. 143,007 4,350 31,226 Total....; 25,820 12.792,646 170,637 26.037 2,791.018 173,506 1126,609 2. 890.601 178,583 Custom-house, London, March 22, 1839. JOHN COVEY, Registrar-General of Shipping. VESSELS EMPLOYED IN THE FOREIGN TRADE. An Account of the Number of Vessels, with the Amount of their Tonnage, and the Number of Men and Boys employed in Navigating the same (including their repeated Voyages), that entered Inwards and cleared Out- wards at the several Ports of the Unittd Kingdom from and to Foreign Parts, during each of the Three Years ending January 5, 1839. SHIPPING ENTERED INWARDS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM FROM FOREIGN PARTS. Years ending Jan. 5, British and Irish Vessels. Foreign Vessels. 1 TotaL Vessels. Tons. Men. Vessels. Tons. Men. Vessels. Tons. Men. 1837 14,347 15,155 16,119 2,505,473 2,617,166 2,785,387 137,589 146,319 154,499 1 7,131 7,343 8,679 988,899 1,005,940 1,211,666 53,921 56,778 68,891 i 21,478 22,498 24,798 3,404,372 3,623,106 3,997,053 191,510 203,097 223,390 1838 1839 SHIPPING CLEARED OUTWARDS FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM TO FOREIGN PARTS. Years ending Jan. 5, 1837 1838 1839 British and Irish Vessels. Foreign Vessels. Vessels. 14,207 14,557 15,907 Tons. 2,531,577 2,547,227 2,876,236 Men. 144,295 148,632 162,763 Vessels. 7,048 7,461 8,520 Tons. 1,035,120 1,036,738 1,222,803 • Total. Men. Vessels. Tons. Men. 56,069 57,971 68,386 21,255 22,028 24,427 3,566,697 3,583,965 4,099,039 200,364 206,603 231,149 Custom-house, London, March 22, 1839. JOHN COVEY, Registrar- General of Shipping. 38 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. x\IOORBAND-PAN. The talk about the subsoil-plough has brought this substance more of late into notice than, periiaps, it ever before was. One of the great advantages re- presented to be derived from the use of the subsoil- plough, was the riddance of tliat subterranean nuisance, moorband-pun, whicii may, it is said, be '* shivered to pieces" by it. The substance that is to be so s'liivered by it, consists almost always of an indurated combination of clay, small stones, and iron in a particular state, situated either immediately, or at some distance, below the ])ath of the plough, and is nearly impervious to water. All indurated in- crustations, however, formed under the sole of tiie plough, are not monrhand-pan. In good alluvial loam, of greater depth than the plough-furrow, and rendered adhesive by pressure, an incrustation or firming of the subsoil, that is, the bottom upon which the plough moves, is frequently formed by the sole of the plough rubbing constantly on the soil at the same depth. This result of the action of the plough is not so likely to occur now that great and unequal depths of furrows are usually practised in cultivating land, as in former times, when the plough was usually made to skim under the surl'ace of the ground ; or where ploughs are still used, whose deptiis in j)enetrating tlie soil are regulated by mechanical contrivance. 'J'his encrusted earth can retain water, but its effects on soil and plants are more innocuous, compared to those of moorband- pan. Nevertheless, its disruption by deep-plough- ing is of benefit to the soil, and we have experienced it in very fine deep mould. Although pan is now much talked of, and its mis- chiefs deprcted in the most gloomy colours, yet, as we conceive from what is said, its nature is gene- rally not well understood. We are led to think this from the tenor of a letter lately addressed to the Newcastle Chronicle, by Mr. John Grev, of Dilston, whose talents as a speaker at agricultural meetings are well known to the agricultural community, and whose opinions are believed to be influential among farmers. In that letter, which was intended as an answer to some observations which the Marquis of Twceddale had made regarding the subsoil-plough, at the agricultural show at Wooler, in October last year, Mr. Grey states, that the subsoil-plough had been beneficially employed on a certain part of Mylnefield Plain, without previous draining, in breaking up moorband-pan, two specimens of which he had caused to be analyzed : the first of which contained, out of 120 parts, 34 of oxide of iron, 74 of silex, and 6 of alumina or clay and loss ; and the second, 43 parts of oxide of iron, 64 of silex, and 8 of alumine and loss ; and, on this analysis, he im- mediately adds his opinion of the nature of moor- band-pan, that " in general, it is unnecessary to ob- serve, that such a combination must be injurious to vegetation, and, therefore, pevnicunts if br might to the surface,'' &c. Now, this analysis of moorband-pan is of no value. It tells us, no doubt, the relative proportions of clav, .sand, and oxide of iron, in the substance that u'us injurious moorband-pan, but it does not tell us the state in which the iron existed before the pa7i was broken up ; and yet this is the only particular that is essential to be known to the determination of, by an analysis, whether its iron would be inotlensive or injurious to vegetation. The iron in the state in which it is represented in the analysis, would be tiuite innocuous, and, therefore, could injure veo-e- lation neither under nor above ground ; but it is re- presented in it in quite a diflerfnt state from what it was under ground, when it was committing it.9 injuries upon vegetation. The true state of the mat- ter is this : — Iron is only ijijurious to vegetation in a solvable state ; but oxide of iron is insoluble, and therefore inoffensive. It is present in all soils, even of the most fertile quality, in the shape of powder, and, indeed, gives the characteristic colours to all .soils, whether blue, green, yellow, red, brown, ©r black. There are three known states of the oxides of iron, — one the black, which is composed of 73 parts of iron and 27 of oxygen; a second, the pro- toxide, which contains only half the quantity of oxygen in the preceding ; and the third, or peroxide, which contains only 5'2 parts of iron and 48 of oxygen. The last is the highest state of oxidation of iron, and is called the red oxide, or vulgarly red rust, which rust, however, contains a proportion of carbonic acid. But the oxide of iron also combines with water ; does not dissolve in it, as common salt in water, but combines with it, and becomes what is termed a hydrate, which is defined by Proust to be a compound of solid body and water, still retaining the solid state. The reason that the oxide of iron com- bines with water, is of its great ailinity for oxygen ; it takes tho oxygen from the water, and leaves the hydrogen to escape, or make other combinations. Thus, when oxide of iron occurs in any sensible quantity in the soil or subsoil, and meets with water, it becomes a hydrate of iron. It meets the water that is brought to it in the soil on any impervious substance, such as clay, clay and stones, or even compact gravel ; and when it meets with water on any of these impervious substances, the action which is peculiar betwixt liquids and solids takes effect. Acting only at the points of contact, as far as llie mass of the iron is concerned, it is quite the same thing whether it be acted upon by a large or small quantity of water, since the points of contact, and, of course, the sphere of the liquid's activity, rau^t in both cases be the same ; but the combination al- ways takes place in determinate quantities. Hence, the more water is supplied to the hydrate, that is, the wetter the impervious subsoil is kept, the longer will the oxide of iron remain in the state of hydrate j and this consequence also arises from the foregoing circumstances, that, however small the supply of water may be, if it is just suflScient to cover the mass of iron, and be renewed as the action proceeds, the iron will be kept in that state. Mr. Grey's moorband-pan was thus a hydnite under the ground. But the hydrate of iron is a delicate hydrate, it easily parts with its water, when other substances, capable of affording it oxygen more readily, come within the sphere of its action. Hence it is easily affected by acid solutions, some of which may be placed in its way by the processes of cultivation, and all such combinations are injurious to vegeta- tioa. 'I'he water impregnated with the oxide of iron is injurious ; a weak solution of sulphuric acid with iron, that is, sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, is in- jurious to vegetation. Animal manures supply sul- phur to the soil, which, coming in contact with tlie hydrate, forms the 'sulphuret of iron, leaving the impregnated water of the hydrate to escape, and to do mischief; and though the sulphuret of iron is itself insoluble, and therefore inoffensive, yet oxygen decomposes it, and frees the sulphate of iron, which again becomes injurious to vegetation. Since, then, the oxide of iron, when it exists in the earth, is liable to be acted on by water, and ren- dered injurious to vegetation, the obvious remedy by higher oxidation is the entire and permanent re- moval of the water. This may be effected by drain- ing or subsoil-ploughing. Draining, there cannot THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 89 be a doubt, will remove the wate? effectually and permanently; and since this is the case, there can be, by no possibility, after draining, any hiidrate of iron in the soil or subsoil. Subsoil-ploughing alone may, no doubt, remove the water for a time ; but no man can give the assurance that it will lemove it permanently. It is not enough to say that the moorband-pan is " shivered to pieces" by the sub- soil-plough, and that the open subsoil nnde7' where it was, will preclude accumulation of water in fu- ture; for we would ask, How came the impervious crust to be at all formed above tiie said open subsoil ? The open subsoil should have been as ready then as now to convey away water ; at least there is nothing that can be produced for the opposite opinion that rests on experience or analogy in the matter. On the contrary, analogy would lead us to conclude that land subsides, and becomes more compact by the agency of water ; and hence, if water is allowed to pass freely through the subsoil-ploughed subsoil, and directed to no channel by which it can obviously make its permanent exit, analogy assures us, and ex- perience confirms the assurance, that the earth must subside, must become more compact, may again re- tain water ; and hence, the injuries of the moorband- pan may again be experienced. Since iron has so strong affinity for oxygen, and since all its oxides, as such, are inoifeusive, it is clear that the more completely it can be placed in a position to receive oxygen most easily, it will be the more easily oxidised or rendered inofiensive to ve- getation. Now, there can be no two opinions that it will receive oxygen most freely in contact with atmospheric air, and no where so freely as on the surface of tlie ground, certainly much more freelv there than under ground. Above ground, the hydrate of iron freely combines with oxygen, and becomes an oxide, most coratnonly a peroxide. Mr. Grey's moorband-pan was thus a -peroxide of mm, above ground. His analysis, therefore, was not ap- plied 10 moorband-pan, properly speaking, for the true composition of that substance is alumiue, silex, and hi/drate of iron, that is, a combination of the oxide of iron and water, which is soluble, and there- fore injurious to vegetation ; but to a combination of alumine, silex, and oxide of iron, which is insolu- ble, and therefore inoffensive to vegetation. This distinction in the state of the iron miiy appear to constitute a trifling difference in the eyes of a sub- soil-plougher, but to vegetation they constitute tlie important difference betwixt poison and inoff&nsive matter. How, then, should these facts direct us to free land, and keep it free, from the injuries oimoorbaiid- panl Decidedly to drain the land to free it of moisture, and deprive the hydrate of its water, and then to bring up the hydrate in contact with the at- mospheric air, and thereby render it for ever inno- cuous. A somewhat analogous change may be men- tioned with regard to lime. Limestone when burnt is deprived of its carbonic acid, in which state it has a strong afrinity for water, and beconies a hydrate, and which is the slate of quick lime ; but no sooner is it in that state than it possesses a strong affinity for carbonic acid, which it receives from the atmos- phere, and again becomes a carbonate of lime. In the quick state it is directly injurious to vegetation, in the state of carbonate it is inoffensive-. With re- gard to the moorbantl-pan, tlie above is just the theory and consequent practice of the Marquis of Tweeddale, on which Rlr. Grey comments ; but we think tliat we have made it plain that both are invul- nerable, and that both are founded on truly scientific principles. His Lordshij' brings up thu pan, and gives it all the advantages of the atmospheric air that is practicable, by comminuting it with rollers, and making it fit to mix intimately with the active soil, whicli, when it has undergone proper treatment with lime, manure, and green crops, there is no dan- ger of injuring young stock or anything else. In- deed such injury is physically impossible. Any instances that Mr. Grey may have seen to the con- trary must have been somehow ill-managed ; for if too tnuch poor clay devoid of organic matter, in pro- portion to the active soil, is hurriedly mixed with it, and then laid down to grass, and without previous thorough-draining, it would prove injurious from physical.independently of chemical causes ; because the mollifying influence of the air had not had time to take eflfect on it. But if land has been thorough- drained, deep ploughed, the pan brought up, broken, land well dunged, limed, green cropped with tur- nips, eaten off by sheep, followed by a crop of bar- ley, and then laid down to grass,— when land has been so treated, we will stake our existence that no injury can then possibly befal either plants or ani- mals.— Quiv'terly Joiirnal of AgriouUme) ENDIVE. — In order te have a very early crop, a sowing should be made about the third week in IMay : when sowing: takes place too early the plants are apt to run to seed, and when it is deferred too long' the pliints do net attain a sufficient g-rowth before they are set in the autumn. The Greencurled variety is the best for the earlier sowing's, I'rom the time the seed is first sown, occasional slight waterings must be g'iven when the weather is dry. Tiie plants should be kept per- fectly clear from weeds, and properly thinned out, so as not to grow up too fast and in a weakly state. When they are from four to six inches high, they are to be planted out in a rich, well-prepared bed or border, the plants for the early crop in as open a situation as possi- ble, and for the later the more southern and sheltered the belter, in order that the plants may better stand the severity of the winter. The grround being well prepared, the plants can be taken up from tlie seed bed with their roots as perfect as possible. Drills the depth of a hoe siiould be drawn across the bed or border (as the endive blanches with less trouble than it' inserted on a level surface) and the plants after having their roots and tops shortened, put in with a dibble twelve inches apart each way, and with a good wateriag they will soon strike root. Little more need be done till they have produced a new set of leaves, when the ground should be hoed over, aad the mould drawn out of the drills and levelled round the plants, which will accelerate their growth. It will also considerably forward tiiem for blanching which should be done as soon -as they have expanded a suffi- cient quantity of leaves for tying, the sooner this is done the better, as ihcy are very apt to start for seed at this early season, after wiiieh they are good for nothing-. Eor a succcssional and more permanent crop, seed of both the sorts should be sown towards the middle of June, and treated with reg'ard to water, Sec, in the same way as was advised for the first sowing. l"he same method if acted upon with all small seeds in the course of the summer will be found of essential service. As soon as the plants attain asuflicient grovvth proceed to transplant them exactly in the same nianHeras stated for the first, perhaps a few inches wider apart may be requisite, and if more than one row is required, always set the plants in the triangular or quincunc method, as they will have considerable more room to grow, and be less liable to rot in the course of blanching ; for this purpose as the season advance*, a dry day must be chosen, and as it will take about three weeks fiom the time of tying them until they are properly blanched tin- use, a judgment may be formed as to how many it will be necessary to tie up at a time. — Vegetable Cultivation, III) John Rogers. — Longman and Co. 40 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SPRING TILL/VGE. Although wheat generally suppoits the rigor of the winter, yet the uncertainty of llie temperature in our northern climate is such as sometimes to expose it to hazard. On the return of spring, it is therefore occasionally found in such a sickly state, as to afford n0 prospect of a crop ; this particularly occurs on poor soils lying in a low situation, which have not been sufficiently drained ; and it has thus become necessary to break up the land, in order to re-sow it with Lent corn. This however, sliould not be liastily done ; for after a few days of warm weather, the plants are frequently seen to shoot forth, and tiller with great luxuriance. Spring wheat has also been dibbled among the crops, and botli species have ripened at nearly the same time, ^vith such little difference in the quality, as to render the plan ad- visable. Strong adhesive clays also frequently become hide- bound after a wet winter ; in which case many i^irmers resort to the practice of harrowing the ground in spring, in order to loosen the surface, and others invariably resort to it when the crops are thin, with a view to encourage them to shoot out and till up the vacancies ; it has, however, been objected to by some intelligent men, as occasioning mildew, and others would dread the destruction of their crojis by the tearing up of the roots of the plants. The prac- tice is therefore by no means general in this country, and evidently can only be carried into execution with propriety on land which had been broad-cast ; but throughout many parts of Germany and Poland —with which countries the writer of this is intimate- ly acquainted, and in which he had during three years the occasional management, though only as amateur, of a fine arable farm, consisting of 900 acres— it is universal. There, on the first return of fine weather, the harrows are immediately passed freely over the wheat; so freely, indeed, that the whole field wears the appearance of having been newly sown, for the plants appear buried under the soil thus freshly stirred, and an ample top-dressing is thereby given to the crop. The crust formed upon the surface of the soil is thus broken, and the ground is rendered more pervious to the coronal root of the plants, which in u week or ten days spread and tiller with great strength. The operation is performed upon every kind of soil, but of course with harrows of a weight proportionate to the tena- city of the land, and not heavy enough to tear up many of the roots, though if a larger quantity be not destroyed it is considered immaterial ; and any far- mer who omits harrowing, is thought unpardonably negligent. It should be executed when the crop be- gins to re-vegetate ; which necessarily depends on the climate and the state of the season ; here it usually occurs, in good soils, some time in February and in those of a poorer kind, rather later. Atten- tion is requisite to this; for if the work be done while the plants are in an inactive state, they may be rotted, and if when they are too forward, their growth would be checked. It must also be observed that it should never be resorted to when the crop is root fallen ; for, in that case, the roller, and not the harrow, should be passed over the soil. Light soils are, in this country, now so generally drilled for wheat, that harrowing them would be in- judicious, because the implement would strip the land too much in some places, and in others would leave the plants untouched ; nor are soils of that de- scription subject to hecome hide-bound, us are heavy clays, and if very light, the stirring of the earth about their roots might have the effect of weakening their hold upon the ground. Land of that description is, however, not uncommonly sown with clover in the spring, and to the successful growth of that crop, the deposit of the seed upon a fresh ssurface is essential. It should, therefore, be hoed, instead of harrowed, and by passing the hoes between the rows of the drills, the earth will not be stirred about the plants so as to injure their roots. Most farmers however, object to the use of the horse-hoe in the performance of the operation upon wheat ; both from the great difficulty of so correctly guiding the implement as to prevent it, in some places, from cutting up the roots, and from the injury done by the treading of the horse. Thelatter objection is, indeed, not of much moment, for the work cannot be performed when the weather is wet ; there is, therefore, but little danger of poaching ; or, if the weight of the animal be thought too great, a donkey may be employed. It is, however, more usually performed by the hand- hoe ; but the process is tedioua, and very generally indifferently executed, for a great portion of the ground is left untouched, and many of the plants are always carelessly struck out. We have seen this partially — though certainly not effectually — reme- died, by the use of a hoe ; which being drawn regu- larly through the drills by a labourer, is more under his command than when drawn by a horse, besides its avoiding much of the poaching; and if he uses it carefully, no injury can be done to the plants. It can, however, only be used on land of the lightest kind, and not too raucii encumbered with weeds, or the labour might prove too severe, unless the num- ber of hoes were diminished ; and it is, of course, only applicable to drills at the same distance. By these operations — of harrowing and hoeing — the land is also in some measure cleansed of weeds, and they are not uufrequently allowed to supersede that of hand-weeding. This, however, is a most in- judicious saving ; for, in no other way than by plucking the weeds by hand, can they be got out from spots where they are close by the plants of wheat, and where they are consequently the most injurious to the crop. The process should therefore never be neglected, whatever may be the state of the land ; for it never can be so thoroughly clean as that weeds may not be found in the spring, and the farmer who does not take every means in his power to eradicate them, will, in the long-run^ find himself a loser. When the temperature of the season has occasion- ed the vegetation to he very forward, the winter sown crops of wheat, are, however, subject, on rich land, to become what farmers term winter-proud ; or sprout with such luxuriance in the early part of the spring, that the vigor of the plants is exhausted by the sudden growth of a great mass of straw, and the grain becomes proportionably unproductive. From the greater height to which the straw thus rises, and as well the weakness ofits stems, the crop is also more in danger of being lodged by storms, and is found to be generally more liable to mildew ; it is therefore, in such cases, very commonly eaten down by sheep, or, by some farmers, it is occasionally, though very rarely, mown. The progress of vegetation is thus checked, and the apparent danger is avoided, but it requires great circumspection and practical expe- rience to ascertain when it may be proper to adopt it ; for although the temperature of the season may have pushed the plants too forward, yet a change may immediately take place, and their having been thus weakened, will throw them too much back. If the plants tiller with such strength as to grow in thick tufts which cross each other, or that appear likely to become lodged, then it may be safely adopted j THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 41 otherwise it is better to leave tlie crop to its chance, •without meddling with it, and in no case should it be attempted unless the vegetation should he ex- tremely rank. The practice of feeding, though by far tbe most general, has been objected to, because the shetip prefer tlie tender blade in the heart of the plant, which ought to be preserved, and reject the coarse blades which ought to be taken off; but if adopted, such a number should be put upon the ground at once, as will eat the wheat down to the required distance promptly, and when removed, they shoukl not be again returned to the land. //' mown, the work should be very carefully performed, at such a distance from the surface of the land as not to touch the heart of the plant. — British Husbandry. OF THE VARIETY OF SOILS IN THE INTERIOR — PROBABLE FORMA- TION OF THEM — ANALYSIS OF THE POORER SANDS — RECLAIM- ING OF HEATHS— TRENCHING — LEVELLING— MODE OF CULTIVA- TION AND GRADUAL IMPROVE- MENT. There are few countries in which the soil varies so much as in Flanders, retaining at the same time a similarity of composition. The chief distinction is between the light sands and heavy loams. On digging to some depth in any part of the country, alternate layers of sand and loam, or clay, and sometimes peat, are found, disposed horizontally, but very Irregularly, and with rapid and sudden interchanges. According as the uppermost stratum is a silicious or argillaceous loam, so the soil takes its quality of light or heavy : and these are so intermixed, that every variety and gradation of soil may often be found in a field of a few acres. It appears probable that the rivers which dis- charge their waters into the sea through the coasts of Belgium and Holland have often changed their beds, as is always the case on a flat coast. The rivers and the tide, meeting, form sand-banks called bars, which frequently obstruct the current. New channels are then formed around them. The sand-bank is gradually covered with a deposition of mud, as in the formation of the polders : and this, at some future period, may have the sea-sand again accumulated over it, when the whole level of the river has risen, and all the old channels are filled up. Thus the land is raised, and the shores advance towards the sea. A simple inspection of all large rivers, where they discharge their waters into the sea, clearly shows this to be the natural progress by which the flats and deltas at their mouths are formed ; and this will naturally ac- count for the alternations of barren sand and rich loam, and every possible mixture of the two. The fertility of the polders and of some deep rich loams in the province of Flainhaidt and in a few spots in Flanders, has given rise to the notion that the fine crops generally observed through the whole of Belgium, are owing chiefly to a very su- perior quality in the soil. Travellers hastily pass- ing through the country and observing the abun- dant harvests, naturally adopt this opinion. But nothing is farther from the real fact. The rich parts of Flanders are but few in comparison to the l)oor, as an attentive examination and analysis of the soil will clearly show. The average fertility of the land in the provinces of East and West Flanders and Antwerp will be found much below that of our inland counties, leaving Essex and Kent out of the question. If a fair comparison were made, it should be with the poor light soils of Norfolk or Lincolnshire, where industry and the application of capital have overcome the na- tural poverty of the land, and made it highly pro- ductive. There are, no doubt, some very good lands in Flanders, besides the polders, but the greater part have been reclaimed from a state of barren heath and waste, and would soon return to their original state if neglected for a few years. But the indus- try and perseverance of the inhabitants are only the more conspicuous and praiseworthy, and make the inquiry into their mode of reclaiming barren heaths and fertilizing them the more interesting and instructive. The poorest soil is to be found in the province of Antwerp, the only province of the three where there are still to be found heaths of any extent. These are situated on the confines of the kingdom of Holland. The soil is a coarse silicious sand, containing a few particles of a black inflammable matter like peat, which gives the sand a greyish colour, from which it derives the name of grey sand ; such a sand, taken from the heath at Bras- chaet and analysed, contained, according to the " Dictionnaire Geographique,' in 48 ounces of the dried soil : — Oz. Drs. Grs. Coarse silicious sand 42 . . 2 . . 16 Fine sand mixed with peat . . 3 .. 5 .. 36 Combustible peat 2 .. 5 ..19 Small fibres of roots — . . 2 . . 10 Loss — .. — .. 29 This sand is evidently quite barren in its nature, and it is only by incorporating it with clay or loam, which is frequently found in the subsoil, that it can be made to retain sufficient moisture to keep up vegetation. Water runs through it as through a filtering stone, and sinks till it meets an impervious subsoil, where it necessarily stag- nates. But when mixed with a loamy subsoil by deep trenching, it becomes capable of retaining moisture ; and by means of manure a scanty ve- getation is forced. The roots of hardy plants being once established, the soil gradually improves, and in a few years, by incessant labour and per- severance, it becomes somewhat fertilized. There is another kind of sandy soil which is also found in the heaths, but which is of a better qua- lity. It is called soft, or sweet, yellow sand. It is of a finer texture, and contains some oxide of iron, which gives it the yellow colour. It is said to consist of Oz. Drs. Grs. Loose yellow silicious sand. 36 .. -i . . 28 Finer sand mixed with clay . 4 . . 3 . . 39 Fine alumina 6 .. 6 .. 48 Loss . . . . 1 , . 5 48 This sand is much superior to the grey, and with moderate manuring will produce rye, flax, clover, potatoes, oats, and with good management, even wheat. The next in order ascending towards rich soils, is the sand found in the Waes district of East Flanders. Of this Mr. RadclifFe has given an 42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. analysis?. It was tall.— Journal of the Statistical Society of London. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 45 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY— AGRICUL- TURE. From a Report on the Geology of Cormvall and Devon. Bv H. T. De la Beciie, F.R.S., &c. It can scarcely escape the most casual observer that the fertility of the district varies most mate- rially, and that very striking contrasts in the pro- ductive character of the soil present themselves to his attention in different parts of it. If he will take a geological map in his hand and compare this variation in fertility with the colours marked upon it, he will scarcely fail to find that there is an evi- dent connexion between the greater or less productiveness he may have noticed, and the areas differently tinted in the map. Those who examine more minutely into the subject will soon perceive that this coincidence extends very gene- rally to the boundary lines of the various colours, so that if the scale of the map be sufficiently large, the relative fertility may, in some cases, be traced even across fields, portions of them being far more productive than others. In endeavouring to estimate the relative amount of fertility that may be due to the decomposition of the subsoil rocks, it is essential that due atten- tion be paid to local conditions as regards aspect, height above the sea, and other necessary circum- stances, otherwise many erroneous conclusions maybe drawn, especially in a country like that we are now noticing, in which so many places are exposed to the influence of the sea winds, and where heights vary considerably. Wc should ne- cessarily expect that sheltered situations with a good southern aspect would be those in which, all otber things being equal, we should find the capa- bility of any given soil best exhibited ; and that hence, by comparing localities as nearly alike in this res])ect as we can find them, we may be the better able to observe any differences which may arise in soils from the mineral structure of the subjacent rocks. Fortunately there arc many short valleys on the southern coasts of Devon and Cornwall, the com- ponent parts of which do not so materially vary in latitude as to render their temperature on that ac- count to any very important extent different, where the general atmospheric conditions are so nearly similar, that the relative fertility of the soils in them may be fairly appreciated, due allowance being made for the greater prevalence of cloud as we proceed westward, viewing the district as a whole. At Lyme Regis we have a lias val- ley, and at Sidmouth one formed of red marl and sandstone, both bounded by hills of green sand, and both much strewed over in places by flint and chert-gravel. The superior fertility of the Sidmouth valley is readily seen, though of the two it is most exposed to the northerly winds. Independently of the decomposed lias being less favourable to general cultivation, though it is com- monly valuable for grass land, the geological con- ditions of the two valleys are such that, while the rain-water, which percolates through the green sand on the tops of the bounding hills, is allowed to pass through the red sandstones in the valley of Sidmouth, being thrown out only bj' the marls, the lias in the valley of Lyme throws it out alto- gether, producing land-slips and much wet ground. If we compare the short valleys, with a southern exposure, of Lamorna Cove (on the west of Pen- zance), in granite, of Chyandowcr (near the same town,) in greenstone and slate, of Kennack Cove (Lizard), in serpentine, of Pendowa(near Veryan), in ordinary schistose grauwacke, of Polpcrro, chiefly in variegated clay slate, and several others in different varieties of grauwacke, with each other and with those of Sidmouth and Lyme Regis, we can scarcely doubt that their relative fertilitj% and their power of growing particular kinds of plants to advantage, greatly depends upon their sub-soil rocks. That shelter from the prevalent sea winds, which strike so many parts of the coasts of Cornwall and Devon with great force, is important to the vege- tation of the district, will be amply testified by the bent and stunted character of such trees as can be made to grow exposed to their influence, and by the fine appearance of those which flourish freely when defended from them, even when they closely approach the sea, as at Newlyn, near Penzance, at JMount Edgecumbe, near Plymouth, and at Dart- mouth. It will be observed, in the continuation of the same range of rocks, that, while the portions which are exposed to these i)ievalcnt sea winds will scarcely support the growth of more than a few bent and stunted shrubs, the sheltered parts are covered by vegetation in proportion to the fer- tility of the rocks of the locality.* Let, for in- stance, the vegetation on the mica slate and chlo- rite rocks of the Molt, at the entrance of the Kingsbridge estuary, be compared with that on the continuation of the same rocks in the Sewer valley, opposite the Ham Stone, and we shall find flourishing gardens overhanging the sea in the former situation, orange and lemon trees growing in the open air, with little shelter during the win- ter, though the Molt is exposed to the south-east ; while in the latter, trees and shrubs are completely cut up where exposed to the south and south-west winds. For similar reasons, fine woods clothe the coast near Clovelly, in North Devon, though its aspect is northern ; while the continuation of the same beds of the carbonaceous series, near Hart- land Pier, will scarcely support the growth of a tree when exposed to the western winds. So also the Culbone woods, near Porlock, which rise gra- dually from the shore, and flourish, with a northern aspect, would be speedily swept away, or be con- torted and stunted in their growth, if exposed to the full force of the same winds. Though from the want of friction, beyond that which they receive from the surface of the sea, the prevalent sea winds act most severely on the coast vegetation exposed to them, preventing that growth which adjacent sheltered spots show the decomposition of the same rocks to be capable of supporting, their influence is not confined to the coasts, but extends inland in proportion to dis- tance from the sea and height above it. Many a * Mr. Worgan, in his General View of the Agri- culture of Cornwall (1811), p. 47, calls the attention of farmers to the value of the tamarisk for fences in situations t'xpos.5d to the brunt of the sea winds, where scarcely another shrub will grow in the hedges. VVe Jiave observed good fences of this plant on the south, near Landewdnack (in the Lizard dis- trict^, and around Harlyn House, near Trevose Head, on the north. Hence it is probable that it might, notwithstanding- this plant suffers from frost, be successfully cultivated along a large portion of the coasts of Cornwall. As it is, this useful tree is sparingly found. It is probable, also, that it would thrive along the southern shores of Devon, as it grows fairly in some gardens close to the sea at Lyme Regis. 46 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. valley, therefore, in a given range ol rocks, is com- paratively fertile; while the high grounds, in the same range, make a poor return for the labours of the agriculturist. The chalk of the district is seldom exposed on the surface, and therefore contributes little, by decomposition, to the superjacent soil ; hence we lind no area of importance presenting the marked agricultural character of the chalk portions of the adjacent counties on the eastward. The chalk and green san-,1 are, indeed, generally so completely covered by the tfravels which we have previously noticed, that those parts, represented in the maps as composed of these rocks, afford a very common agricultural character, and cannot on the whole be considered fertile. Downs of heath and furze are very common upon these gravels ; and those portions cultivated as arable land abound in flints and fragments of chert. The gravels also frequently contain much clayey matter inter- mingled with them, so that water does not readily I>crcolate through them, and black peaty soils are often observed. In places where marls, probably the remains of the plastic clayey beds, are found near the surface, the agricultural character of the land above the chalk and green sand is much im- proved, and the country more fertile. In those situations in the Black Downs, where the gravels have not descended thickly spread over the sides of the hills upon the red marls, or lias, beneath the green sand, the contrast offered between the agricultural condition of the country, upon the one and the other, is remarkably striking; indeed a well-marked line of heath and common nearly co- incides with the division between the two rocks. Haldon Hills also aflford good examples of the con- trast between the vegetation upon the green sands, with their gravel covering, and upon the rocks be- neath them. When the agricultural character of the lias is compared with that of the red marl and sandstone adjoining it, a very striking- general superiority is observed in the latter. Good opportunities for ob- serving this circumstance are afforded by the Vale of Taunton, where both rocks occur under similar general conditions as to climate. It will be seen also in the neighbourhood of Bridgewatcr, in that of Watchet, and near Uphill and Worle, in the vi- cinity af Wcston-super-ftlare, on the north, and in the valley of the Axe on the south. Excellent grass-land is often seen on the lias, as also many good orchards ; but in general the ai-able land upon it seems not very remarkable for abundant pro- duce. Oaks, as might be expected, often grow well, particularly upon the marly or clayey parts. Taken as a whole the area occupied by the red sandstone series is one of considerable fertility, especially when imcovcred by transported gravels. The red marls, with their higher variegated parts adjoining the lias, would appear very ifavourable for the growth of apples ; and the cider obtained from their range is commonlj' found to be very excellent, when sufficient attention is paid to the mode of making — an attention not so common as could be desired. The cider obtained from the red and variegated marls of the V^ale of Taunton, and that made in the valleys of the Otter, the Coly, the Yart, and the Axe, where they cut into the same beds, and the surface is fairly clear of gravel, may be taken as examples of this circumstance. In many places, also, where beds of red marl are in- termingled with the sandstones and conglomerates of the other parts of the series, or the latter con- tain much marly matter, the same fact will be ob- served. Some of the best lands in Somerset and Devon are upon the red sandstone series ; and the general rich ajjpearance of the vegetation it bears, more particularly where the soil is directly based upon it, so that its component parts have been superficially decomposed to form the chief part of such soil, is one of the marked features of the country. No doubt as these component ])arts vary so does the fertility ; but there are few soils of any great extent, composed really of decomposed por- tions of the red sandstone series, which are not rich in general products. Their different porosity certainly causes minor variations, some of the marly grounds being inclined to be wet, while some of the sandstone grounds are too dry. The upper beds are most disposed to be wet and clayey, while of the too great porosity of subsoil rock, the localities are more scattered. Taken as a whole, the contrast between the fer- tility of the soil on the beds of the red sandstone series, and that on the rocks ujjou which it rests, is marked and striking, and much in favour of the former. As the country formed of this series generally occupies a lower position than that composed of these subjacent rocks, it may be said that it is more sheltered, and that often this con- trast is deceptive, the lower and less exposed por- tions of ground deriving the usual advantages from position. If, however, we take the country be- tween Tiverton and Bradninch, where beds of tVie red sandstone are ming:led on the surface with those of the carbonaceous series, at equal heights and under similar general conditions as to climate, or that near Cadbury and Stokeleigh Poraeroy, where the former occupy the highest ground, their superior fetility is not the less marked. Kit be said that this is not a fair comparison, inasmuch as the beds of the carbonaceous series are generally far from affording a good soil, we may take the country between Totnes, Torbay, Babbacombe Bay, and Newton Bushel], where the red sandstone series is intermingled, under similar conditions as to height and climate, with grauwacke slates and limestone ; and except trappean rocks occur among the latter, the same circumstance will be observ- able. The soil on the carbonaceous series generally is far from good, though here and there more fer- tile spots may be found, as in some places near Bidcford, Tiverton, and a few other localities, par- ticularly where the beds are red. In those situa- tions, also, where trappean rocks are mingled with them, as near Launceston, Milton Abbot, and Ta- vistock, on the west, and nearBridford, Christow, Ashton, andTrusham on the eastof Dartmoor, their condition seems often much improved, the wash of the decomposed parts of these trappean rocks often passing over them. The country between Launces- ton, Hartland, and Okehampton, is among the most dreary and barren in the district, a poor yellow clay being a very common product of the decom- posed shales and sandstones there found, for the grains of the sandstone are frequently cemented by matter which thus decomposes. The land, moreover, is generally high, and down succeeds down in monotonous succession. The country im- proves in appearance in the range of these rocks to the eastward ; still, however, as a whole, its ge- neral character is not fertile, as a journey from Barnstaple to Tiverton will readily show. Oaks flourish well upon these rocks in several situations, and might probably be successfully raised in many valleys now almost uncultivated. From the very variable mineralogical character THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 47 of the giauwacke we might anticipate tlic very great difference observable in tlic country occupied by that rock, every due allowance being made for the varied meteorological conditions to which it is exposed according to locality. On the north, the hard sandstones of the Foreland, and those extending from the Plangman Hills to Croydon Hill, on the south of Dunster, form such high land, that, for that reason alone, we should not expect much successful cultivation ; but in the lower and more sheltered situations little fertility is observable ; indeed, there are few among these sandstone beds which would be readily decomposed at their exposed surfaces. The agricultural cha- racter of the calciferous band of schistose rocks extending from Ilfracombe and Combe Martin, by Exford, to Nettlecombe, near Monksilver, is much superior to the last, and very fair land may be seen in the less elevated and sheltered situations. The next band of grauwacke, ranging from the coast between Ilfracombe and Bull Point, on the south of the last, is again less fertile ; while that which succeeds it in the ascending series, and which is chiefly composed of fine argillaceous slate, is generally not much inferior, being, how- ever, liable to form a clayey soil where the natural drainage is not good. The next band, principally formed of sandstones, and ranging from the coast, at Morte Bay and Baggy Point, to Heydon and Main Downs, near 'Wiveliscombc, presents gene- rally a poor soil ; while the band above it, extend- ing from the vicinity of Barnstaple, by Dulverton and Raddington, to Bathealton, and which is often calciferous, is frequently fairly fertile. On the south, the differences of soil, from varia- tions in the mineral structure of the grauwacke and its associated trappean rocks, is still more re- markable ; and we may here observe that the latter rocks, which are chiefly compounds of hornblende and felspar, afford the most fertile soils of any in the district, when their decomposition has taken place to any sufficient depth ; so much so, that when much disintegrated, they are sometimes worked as marl-pits for manure, and the land thus treated is always found to be greatly benefited. The trappean ash, particularly when mingled with calcareous matter, which is sometimes the case, affords a remaxkablyfine soil.* Limestone occurs in sufficient abundance in the vicinity of Torbay, Newton Bushell, and Plj'mouth^ to afford an agri- cultural character. The land upon it is generally considered good, but it is frequently light, and, from the hardness of the subjacent rock (though its surface is often broken into fragments fronr atmospheric causes), liable to be washed away in exposed situations. In this respect it agrees with the carboniferous limestone on the north of the district, near Weston-super-Mare and Uphill, as might be expected from the similarity of their mineral composition. The range of the red and variegated slaty beds of the grauwacke may, upon * The trappean rocks in Devon and Cornwall are very commonly known by the name of dunstone, the harder being not unfrequentlv termed iron or ire stone, particularly in the latter county. Much of the vesi- cular trap and trappean ash is known ushoneycombdun, especially in Devon, and land upon it is always highly esteemed by the farmer. Mr. Worgan (View of the Agriculture of Cornwall, p. 10) observes that wherever the dun, or ironstone, is met with in Corn- wall, " it is deemed a fortunate circumstance, being a certain indication of the fertility of the incumbent soil." the whole, be consii!eicd as among the most pro- ductive of that scries in Cornwall and Devon, and very frequently much barley is successfully grown upon it. Thus, much barley, often malted, is ex- ported from Kingsbridge and Padstow, grown upon the red and variegated slates of the country adjoin- ing those places. The red slates, particularly when they contain some calcareous matter, are fa- vourable also to the growth of apples, as upon the banks of the Dart and Fowey. As in the north, in those localities where the sandstones prevail, there is less fertility than where slates occur. According to the general mineral composition of the latter is also their character of heavy or light ; those most approaching to clay slates being liable, where the drainage is imper- fect, to become clayey. They generally support a fine growth of oak, as is well seen in the nu- merous sheltered valleys of southern Cornwall and Devon. The band of grauA-acke, including the associated limestones and trappean rocks, which ranges from Ashburton, Newton Bushell, and Tor- bay , between the granite of Dartmoor and the mica slates of Marlborough and Chivelstone, to Ply- mouth, and thence along the southern shores of Cornwall by the Looes, Fowey, Veryan, and Fal- mouth, to the northern part of the Lizard district, may be considered, upon the whole, the most fer- tile part of the Cornish and South Devon grau- wacke, especially the more eastern part between the Tamar, Torbay, and Newton Bushell. Other minor areas, no doubt, afford equally good land ; as, for instance, the vicinity of Penzance, a tract the superior fertility of which has been pointed out by Dr. Paris and correctly referred by him to the decomposition of the greenstone rocks which there abound. He states that, when he wrote (1818), a belt of land around that town, of 1000 acres, produced an annual rent of 10,000^.* The mining districts have often a very barren aspect, independently of the destruction of vege- tation produced by mining operations on the sur- face. VV^e have frequently found the ground covered, in such situations, by a thin bed of quartz fragments, composed apparently of the parts of those minor veins which often abundantly traverse such countries in different places. It would appear as if, during the decomposition of the general surface by meteoric influences, and the removal of the finer particles of the slates by rains, these fragments had gradually accumulated on the surface, rendering it even less fertile than it would otherwise be.f * Observations on the Geological Structure of Cornwall, with a view to trace its connection with and influence upon its Agricultural Econora}', and to establish a rational System of Improvement by the scientific application of Mineral Manure. — Trans. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. i. p. l88. t Quartz is commonly known by the name of spar in western Cornwall, and as ivhite-acre in eastern Cornwall and part of Devon. Mr. Worgan, noticing the loose quartz fragments of various sizes dispersed over the surface in many parts of Cornwall, and that it may be sometimes profitable to remove them, states, that " Mr. James, of St, Agnes, cleared a large field of spar, by screening the whole mass of spar and earth, as deep as the yellow substratum, in the same manner as masons screen the earth for their mortar ; and the experiment answered well, although it cost 40/. per acre : the land was afterwards let for SI. per acre, and the stones were purchased to make a road." (View of the Agriculture of Cornwall, p. 11.) 48 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Judging from the Lizard, the soil on the serpen- tine is far from fertile, frequently retaining the water on its surfncc, so that swamps and marshy places are common. Even on the slopes of the hills, where the natural drainage is good, little can be said for its agricultural qualities, though we have here and there seen some fair grass land, and better corn crops than might, at first sight, be an- ticipated. As is well known, the serpentine of the Lizard offers a marked example of a particular plant, the Erica vaf/ans, a very beautiful heath, iceeping to the soil upon it, so that the boundary of the serpentine against the other rocks may be fairly traced by its aid ; indeed this plant is rarely found beyond it. The general barren character of the serpentine of the Lizard contrasts very forcibly with the soil on the adjoining diallage rock and sienite, among the most fei'tile, if not the most fertile, of the lands in the district. As Dr. Paris observes, " the lands between the church (of fit. Kcverne) and Covcrack Cove constitute one of the most extraordinary districts in the kingdom, pre- senting a rare combination of rudeness and fer- tility; gigantic boulders of sienite (and diallagc rock), lying scattered in all directions, and yet, in point of luxuriant fruitfulness, this country may be denominated the garden of Cornwall."* It affords, indeed, a good example of the unequal decomposition of a rock, so that while it is suffi- ciently disintegrated in jjlaccs that pits may be formed, and the decomposed rock taken away for manure, in others, hard blocks arc scattered over the ground or rise in tors through it ; and it also exhibits an instance of the fertility of a soil chiefly derived from the decomposition of hornblende, or diallagc, and felspar, the crystallization being large grained. The hornblende slate and rock of the Lizard is also extremely fertile, contrasting strikingly with the serpentine, which it bounds in many jjjaces, and through which it, indeed, rises in small patches in one or two localities, so that it is necessary not to confound the more abundant vegetation upon it with a growth upon the serpentine. Some land near Lizard town, upon hornblende slate was, after being enclosed, not manured for several years, though frequently cropped with barley and wheat; so fertile is the soil upon that rock. No doubt, from the mild temperature of the Lizard district, where snow is rarely seen to rest upon the ground, vegetation may possess advantages upon a given rock, which it would not have in colder parts of Cornwall or Devon ; but as at the same time it is much exposed to sea winds, which often sweep over it with great fury, and as the slates, greenstones, hornblende rocks, diallagc rock and sienite, serpentine and talcomicaccous rocks, are all exposed to the same conditions, the contrast afforded by the varied fertility upon these mineral compounds is highly instructive, and illustrative of the fact, that soils do, all other things being equal, mainly depend on their subjacent rocks for their agricultural character. + * Trans. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. i. p. 189. t Speaking of the fertility of some lands in Mul- lioii and other places near the Lizard, Dr. Borlase notices that in his time barley had been sown, and that " in nine weeks commonly, oftentimes sooner, they hare had it again in jthe sack, fit for market. This quick return," he continues, " is not owing- to any particular sort of barlev, but to the soil and situation, and a kindly warm season, the nights in the summer-time on the sea-coasts being seldom or Dr. Paris has pointed out that the relative fer- tility of the granitic soil of Cornwall would appear greatly to depend upon the abundance and casily- decomposible character of the felspar in the sub- jacent rock ; and he has also remarked that the relative proportion of mica would seem to have an appreciable effect upon such soils, tending to ren- der them poor, while the iron in some may be- come an useful element in them.* Our own observations would tend to confirm this view, due allowances being made for exposure to atmos- pheric influences. These would, however, seem very considerably to influence the agricultural character of the granitic, or (/rmoani soils, as they are generally termed. For instance, we have been unable to detect any appreciable difference between much of the granite on the high land of Dartmoor and that in the Scilly Islands, in places where both were well decomposed. In the Scilly Islands par- ticularly in St. Mary's, there is much yroivan land which is fairly fertile, producing good crops of po- tatoes, wheat, barley, and grass, while Dartmoor is merely covered by heath and coarse grass, and peat is abundant. In one case we have islands in the Atlantic of small relative height, and upon which it is rare to see snow ; while in the other there is an extensive area in the interior, varying from 1,400 to 2,000 feet above the sea, on which fogs are frequent, and snow often falls and lests before it is seen on the lower grounds. The coun- try arounci -Moreton Harapstead, several hundred feet lower than the mass of Dartmoor, of which it is the geological continuation, being composed of a portion of the same mass of granite, forms a striking contrast as to fertility with the high land on tlie west of it. The grass land is generally good, tolerable crops of barley are obtained from it, and the potatoes grown are very highly esteemed and readily purchased at the Exeter market, one to which the products of many fertile lands are brought ; yet the general character of the granite round Moreton Hampstead, and of that upon much of the adjoining high land of Dartmoor, is mine- ralogically the same. Judging from Devon and Cornwall, there arc few soils which are more affected by relative ele- vation above the level of the sea, in the climate there found, than the growan, or granitic soils. No doubt there may be some variation in the mi- neralogical character of the subjacent granites, and, consequently, of their relative productiveness ; but, nevertheless, there is a very constant and prevailing kind of granite which readily decom- poses, forming a large part, with the exception, probably, of that in the Hensborough boss, to be found in the whole of them, between the relative fertility of the soil above which, according to lo- cality, very useful comparisons may be instituted. Dr. Boase has indeed already remarked that the fertility of the granitic groups of Cornwall gra- dually increases as they diminish in elevation, ^: an observation which may very properly be extended to Devonshire. The granitic, or growan soil, is one which frequently requires rain, of which, however, there is no want generally in the district, and the grass grown upon it is considered good for feeding cattle. Under fair conditions as to ever cold." — Natural History of Cornwall, (1758), p. 87. * Trans. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. i. pp. 173, 174. t Growan is the Cornish name for gravel. X Trans. Geol. Society of Cornwall, vol.iv. p. 365. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 49 heigljt and exposure, it is very commonly cele- brated for producing good potatoes.* Barley and oats arc chiefly cultivated upon it where employed for arable land, wheat being rarely a successful crop, except in a few situations, among which St. Mary's, Scilly, and land in the parishes of Burian, Sennen, and St. Leven, in the Land's End district, are the most remarkable. f Oaks, ash, and syca- mores, grow well upon the growan soils in shel- tered situations, and where sufRcicnt attention is paid ; of which the grounds of Trcbartha Hall, near North Hill, afford as good an example as any we can select. Peat is very common upon the granitic soils, more especially where the land rises high. Dart- moor produces a large quantity of this substance, which is much employed as common fuel in the country adjoining it. It has been cou.sidered that, at the junction of the granite and slates in Cornwall, the soil is con- siderably improved by the mixture of the decom- posed portions of each rock ; and Dr. Paris states that this ftct is very observable in many places, more particularly pointing out the superior fertility of this kind of junction at Trengwainton, near Penzance, from Chyoon to Mousehole (famous for producing two crops of potatoes in the year), in the vicinity of Penryn, at St. JVHchael's INIount, and at Pendarves. This may no doubt be true in many cases, but it is far from being a general fact. In- deed we can readily perceive that the benefit of such a mixture must depend upon the mineralo- gical character of both rocks at their junction ; now as these vary materially, so we should con- aider would be the agricultural value of the effect produced. Those parts of the Hensborough or St. Austell granite wliich contain much schorl, as a large portion of the western side does, is far from fertile, and the altered slate rocks in contact with them are often sterile, as maybe seen on Fatwork Hill. The like may be seen on Castle-an-Dinas and Belovely Beacon. A large proportion of the skirts of Dartmoor is. poor land, especially those parts which come into contact with the carbonaceous series. In those situations where the decomposed drift from the trappean rocks has mingled with the soil, as near Tavistock, Okehampton, Bridford, Cristow, and Henuock, the soil is much improved, and being close to the granite, so that the disin- tegrated portions of the latter are occasionally washed down and mingled with it at the same * Mr. Worgan observes that "if Cornwall does not grow wheat enough for its inhabitants, it cer- tainly has the merit of supplying other counties with large quantities of potatoes." He further re- marks that, not only are many thousand bushels an- nually sent to Plymouth and Portsmouth, but that (in 1808) some ship-loads were exported to London, Much of this produce is grown upon the growan soils, and the export would appear as considerable as ever. Indeed large quantities are now forwarded to London by the Dublin steamers which touch at Falmouth, and early potatoes are thus introduced abundantly into the London market. The vicinity of Penzance contributes largely to this early produce, chiefly there grown, however, upon the greenstone soils. t Mr. Worgan states that from 40 to 45 Win- chester bushels of red wheat, per Cornish acre, have been raised upon the lands of these three last-men- tioned parishes, the Cornish being larger than the common statute acre, in the proportion of about six to five, time, the opinion above noticed might appear to be more borne out in those situations than it really is. As the granite is more constant in its raine- ralogical character than the rocks which come in contact with it, and generally become more or less altered, often a sufficient reason in itself for their decomposed portions to be more fertile than they might otherwise be, probably the benefit that may be derived from any mixture of the growan and schistose soils mainly depends upon the mineral composition of the slates near their junction with the granite. The alluvial lands, though generally fertile, vary as might be expected, according to the mineralo- gical composition of the rocks from which they have been chieffy derived, as may be seen by com- paring the flat lands bordering the rivers in nu- merous places. Let, for example, the alluvial land on the banks of the Culm, traversing red marl and sandstone, bo compared with that between Sheep- wash and Monks Okehampton on the banks of the Torridge, flowing among the carbonaceous series, or with many among the granitic districts, and there will be little difficulty in perceiving the su- perior fertility of the former. Numerous com- pounds would appear to be effected, in some places producing better soils than each rock separately affords ; of this, probably, the alluvial lands among the limestones and slates of the grauwacke may often be taken as examples. Wherever the rivers have held their courses amid easily decom- posed trappean rocks, the usual grauwacke com- pounds appear much improved. Indeed by care- fully considering the rocks traversed by the rivers, and the kind of finer sedimentary matter likely to be borne down during floods, adding the relative amount of soil, in which there is already much ani- mal and vegetable matter, that may be transported at the same time, and a fair average estimate may be formed of the relative agricultural value of al- luvial lands. At the heads of estuaries much allu- vial matter is necessarily accumulated, offering a more uniform character than it would otherwise do from the deposit of estuary mud in such situa- tions, nevertheless presenting differences in the drier places according to the kind of sedimentary matter borne down by the rivers which respectively flow into them. The Bridgewater and Worle levels can scarcely be considered alluvial in the ordinary acceptation of the term, since a large part of them would appear regular detrital deposits upon the bottom of an estuary in which creatures usually inhabiting such situations lived and died, as they have done in many rocks. These levels support considerable numbers of fine cattle, and portions of them supply large quantities of cheese, generally known as Chedder cheese, to Cornwall, Devon, and South Wales. As connected with the economic geology of the district, we must not omit to notice the sea and blown sand which is extensively employed as ma- nure in different parts of it. It is partly now- thrown up and partly an accumulation at various points when the relative levels of the sea and land were different from those we now find, the land having been apparently raised. It was employed, as now, for agricultural purposes, 23() years since, as appears by Carew's Survey of Cornwall (1602)» Mr. Worgan, in 1811, estimated the expense in- curred for the whole county in landcairiage for this sand at upwards of 30,000/. per annum.* Dr. * View of the Agriculture of Cornwall, p. 128. Borlase cites a letter in the Philosophical Transact 50 tliE FAilMEIl'S MAGAZlNJi. Paris states it, to have been ascertained, tliat 4,000 horse-loads have been taken from Bude in one day.* Not only is it carried from that place by the Bude and Launceston canal, with its branch extending to Holsworthy, the chief commerce on which is the conveyance of this sand, but it is con- veyed over land abundantly in carts, so that a con- siderable portion of the adjoining portions of Corn- wall and Devon are suj)plic(l with it from Bude. A good road has been constructed to Trebarwith Sands, on the coast near Camelford, purposely for conveying the sand there found into the interior. Large quantities of sand are obtained upon the Dunbar in Padstovv harbour, employing constantly about eighty men in several barges. The amount of sand taken from this harbour was estimated in 1836 at about 100,000 tons per annum, f a large proportion of which was transported into the in- terior from Wade Bridge by the Bodmin railway, and its branch, up the Camel, to Wineford. Not- withstanding the constant addition of sand tlirown by the sea upon the Dunbar, this large demand appears to cause its decrease; and we were assured by competent persons that it had lost from six to eight feet in height within the last half century. Independently of the sand conveyed inland by means of the river, large quantities of sand are also taken away by means of carts, horses, and donkeys, from the sand hills opposite Padstow. Sand for agricultural purposes ii5 also obtained in numerous bays and creeks on the north coast of Cornwall from Trevose Head to the Land's End, and is esteemed in proportion to the shelly matter it contains. Of the few places whence sand is carried on the south of Cornwall, that from Fal- mouth harbour, composed of little else than corals, shells, and their fragments, is most esteemed. If we consider that Padstow harbour furnishes one- fourth of the sand employed for agricultural pur- poses in Cornwall and Devon, and estimate the ton as containing about fourteen cubic feet, we should have 5,600,000 cubic feet of sand, chiefly composed of comminuted sea-shells, annually con- veyed from the coast, and spread over the land in the interior as mineral manure. If we take the produce of Padstow harbour as only a fifth, then we should have 7,000,000 cubic feet thus distri- buted. As may be readily conceived, numerous local causes tend to diminish or increase the value of the sands along the coast; generally speaking, the harder the coast and the less the detritus that can be worn from it, the greater the proportion of the comminuted shells in a given portion of sand. The easier also the streams or rivers flowing towards the shelly sands can deposit the sandy detritus they may bring down in floods before they reach the tions of April, 1675, in which the carriage of sand is estimated at 32,000/. per annum (Nat. Hist, of Corn- wall, p. 48). Taking this sum and that given by Mr. Worgan as fairly accurate, and as Borlase did uot ofeject to a similar charge for the carriage of sand in his time, it would appear that it had remained nearly the same for about 140 years. * Trans. Geol. Society of Cornwall, vol. i. p. 193. t According to ]Mr. Worgan, the quantity of sand taken from Padstow harbour, in 1811, was 54,000 cart loads. Probably the facility afforded by the Wade Bridge and Bodmin railway may have con- siderably increased the consumption of this mineral manure, independently of the general improvement in the agriculture of the country, within twenty-life year$« shelly banks, the finer the sand. Wc have found the sands, considered worth removal for agricul- tural purposes, to vary from 40 to 70 per cent, in their calcareous contents. Dr. Paris states tiiat the samples of sand usually employed, and which he examined, contained from 60 to 64 per cent, of carbonate of lime. Probably this may be taken as a fair average proportion. The same author suggests that, though unquestionably the beneflcial effects of this mineral manure depend on the pre- sence of the calcareous matter, the sea salt with which it is impregnated contributes materially to its fertilizing powers ; citing as a fact, bearing strongly in favour of this opinion, that the farmers send several miles to the harbour of Padstow for the sand which is drifted close to them.* The farmers certainly seem to prefer the sand which the tide has just left, and wliich must consequently contain much saline matter. It often also then contains fragments of sea-weed, and occasionally fresh animal matter derived from dead marine creatures, among which nrc the tenants of micro- scepic shells still little decomposed in them. ON DRAINING. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sin, — In your leading article of the 3rd inst. you in- vite tiie attention of your readers to an extract from the Quarlevhj Journal of Agriculture, on furrow draining, where some of the advantages of furrow drains put in with the declination of the land for up and down) in preference to cross drains, are pointed out ; but in as far as regards economy, I think the principal advantage between the two plans is left unnoticed, viz., that by placing the drains up and down the field, only one half the number is required to produce an equal effect to that put in across the field, provided the land is subsoil ploughed acr.tss these drains to the depth of fifteen or eighteen inches. For example,— Suppose drains are placed eighteen feet apart, up and down the field, the greatest distance that water can have to run after falling between the drains is nine feet, but if the drains are across, the water that falls on the lower side of the one, must run to the one immediately belew, a distance of eighteen feet. I observe in another part of your paper an instance of drains put in at an angle across the field, this 1 should consider a still worse system as the water woald have farther to run before getting into a drain. Where stones are used for filling the drains there is no risk of the run of water injuring the drain*, as the small stones allow the water only to filter through ; should the drains be very long and collect too mach water, an additional main drain will prevent aay accident. In a field that I drained last year there was a rise in a small part of it that caused the drains to run across tlie declination of the land, and I have since observed that the crop (wheat) is a good deal thinner in that, than in any other part of the field. I can account for it in no other way but by its being more damp, thereby causing the plants to be thrown out by the frost. In well drained land I should consider furrows of very little consequence were it not for facilitating the work.— I am Sir, year obedient, &c., R. S. Aberdeeiuhire, June 8. * Trans. CJeol. Society of Cornwall, p. 194. Bor- lase has observed that the salter the sand the better it was for agricultural purposes. — (Nat. HiBt. Corn- wall, p. 82.) •' Blown sand," he says, " which has been long exposed to the air, is good for little, its salts are so wasted by wind and rain." — (lb, 83.) Tll£ FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 61 HONEY BEES. On Wednesday se'nnight a Public Lecture was de- livered ia the Guildimll, Hereford, by Mr. Thomas Nutt, whose management of Bees has been so successful. After an introductory essay on the natural history of the honey bee, the lecturer exhibited an apiary con- structed in accordance with his plan, and also a com- mon cottage hive. He said tliat he was open to convic- tion, and if the opponents to his system would shew one of more simplicity and equal efficacy, he promised to be- come an early convert. He then went on te show that so far from there beisg a necessity for destroying a colony of bees in order to take the honey, such crut4 practice was positively bad economy. Th? past season , had been particularly unfavourable to bees ; the neigh- bourhood of this city bore testimony of this fact, but tl>e loss of so many hives was to be attributed more to the bad management of the apiarian than to the unfavour- ablcness of the weather. He would endeavour to show from his personal experience, an easy and honourable way to obtain the treasure of the bees, without eitiier destroying them or their works. Mr. Nutt then de- scribed the impossibility of procuring pure honey from the cottage hive, even with the destruction of the bees ; he then minutely explained the mode of managing his own or collateral hive, which by means of ventilation could be made to yield large quantities of the purest honey, swarming be prevented, and the lives of the bees preserved in vigorous health. He then exhibited two portions of honey, which were results of his system ; and certainly they were most beautiful specimens ; one was in the natural state in a bell glass, just as it had been deposited there by the industrious and wonder-working bee ; the honey was as white as the driven snow, and its ramifications on the surface of the interior of the glass, were peculiarly elegant ; the other portion was liquefied honey in a small glass jar, and was also equally white. Mr. Nutt then went on to state that the average quan- tity of honey taken at his own apiary in Lincolnshire in the two last years was 801bs. — honey of the purest kind, untainted by the operations of the Queen Bee, and un- soiled by the barbarous plan of smothering the pro- ducers— honey as pure and transparent as crystal — honey of which specimens were before his audience at that moment. Now the poortst cottager could manage bis collateral hives ; and when he said they would pro- duce these stores of sweets, which had hitherto sold at 25. per lb., here was certainly a source of comparative wealth to the cottager ; for, taking the weight of honey every year at 80 lbs., which is much less than it ought to be with good management, in an average of years, here was a return of 8/. per annum, the rent of a good cot- tage and garden ! He would carry his calculation a little further. There are, according to the Parliamentary returns, 847,957 agricultural families in England and Wales. Now, if each family had only one of the colla- teral hives, and obtained 80 lbs. of honey each, there would be an annual production of 67,806,506 lbs., or 30,270 tons of the purest sweet in the world, equivalent in money to the enormous sum of 1,695,000/. Mr. Nutt concluded by stating that his system was based upon an experience of twenty-one years ; that he had stocked many of Kis collateral boxes in this city and neighbourhood, and that, therefbr>;, the public would soon have the means ©f testing its value by experience, which he doubted not would be as successful in this county as it had been in other counties ; all he stipu- lated for was that the directions of management, as clearly laid down in his work, should be faithfully fol- lowed, and he was quite confident that the result would be most satisfactory success. ROYAL BOTANICAL SOCIETY.— This society gave its first co7ive>'5a3ioHe,onlstof June, atits rooms, in Pall-mall, which was very numerously and fashionably attended. The rooms were thrown open to the public at two o'clock, and, in the course of the afternoon, amongst other distinguished visitors, were the Prince of Oude, the Duke and Duchess of Richmond, the Duke of Norfolk, the Earls of Albemarle, Rosebery, Dart- moath, and Stanhope ; the Countesses of Dartmouth, Stanhope, Salamis, &c. ; the Bishop of Durham, Sir Francis Burdett and Miss Burdett Coutts, Sir George Staunton, Bart.; H.W.Hope, Esq., M.P., &c. The show of flowers was very extensive, including specimens of medicinal and dietetic plants from the gardens of the Apothecaries' Company, at Chelsea, and Messrs. Lod- diges, of Hackney ; and several valuable plants from the gardens of the society, Sir George Staunton, Bart., &c. ; and, amongst other tropical plants, were the green and black tea, the caoutchouc and tamarind trees, with several palms in good perfection. The department of medical botany, under the arrangement of Dr. Sigmond, exhibited a very fine collection of the most prominent drugs of the materia medica, from Mr. Battley's, and the museum of the Medico-Botanical Society. There was a valuable collection of botanical works, and extensive herbaria, and a collection of nearly 1,000 drawings of Mexican plants, drawn, by order of Napoleon, for the Empress Josephine, and deposited by Mr. Dickson, the Mexican consul. The other depart- ment of the exhibition was devoted to the illustration of various works of art, in which the piinciples of bo- tanical science have been applied to utility or ornamen- tal embellishment and design. The cultivation and improvement of taste is intended to form one of the principal objects in the operations of the society, and the collection of specimens was very numerous. Amongst the most promineat were specimens ot wood used for dyeing, ship-building, cabinet-making, ve- neering, &c. ; figured silks and poplins, paper liang- ings, Dresden and biscuit china, papier mache, artificial stone. Sec, in every susceptible style of botanical illus- tration, as well as illustrations of the various processes of the manufacture of caoutchouc, flax, &c. There were also various photogenic drawings, which exhibited the valuable applicability of this system to plants ; and what excited great admiration, were some valuable vases of artificial flowers, made from the natural fea- thers of birds, by Mrs. Randolph. The company seemed nighly geatified with the successful result of the first exhibition. GRAFTING TREES FOR NEW VARIETIES. — Every proprietor of a landed estate is either a planter, or possesses trees already planted. If he is in the former case, he will learn from this work to combine beauty with utility, by planting, in the outer margin of his natural woods or artificial plantations, and along the open ridges in them, and in the hedgerows of his lanes and public roads, trees which are at once highly ornamental and more or less useful, in some cases, perhaps, even more useful, than the common indigenous trees for which they are substituted. If, on the other hand, his estate is already fully planted, he will learn, from this work, how he may beautify his plantations by a mode which never yet has been applied, in a gene- ral way, to forest trees, viz., by heading down large trees of common species, and grafting on them foreign species of the same genus. This is a common practice in orchards of fruits ; and why it should not be so in parks, and pleasure grounds, along the margins of woods, and in the trees of hedgerows, no other reason can be assigned than that it has not hitherto been ge- nerally thought of. Hawthorn hedges are common everywhere ; and there are between twenty and thirty beautiful species and varieties of thorn in our nurse- ries which might be grafted on them. Why should not proprietors of wealth and taste desire their gardeners to graft some of the rare and beautiful sorts of tree thorns on the common hawthorn bushes, at intervals, so as to form standard trees, in such of their hedges as border public roads ? And why should not the scarlet oak and the scarlet acer be grafted, on the common species of these genera, along the margins of woods and plantations ? Such improvements the more strongly recommend themselves, because to many they would involve no extra expense, and in every case the effect would be almost immediate.— Louc^on's Abor. et Fruti- cetum Britannicum. E 2 62 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. NEW BREED OF SHEEP. TO THE EDITOn 01 IIIK IMARK LANE EXPRESS. Felix Hall, June 10, 1839. My DEAii Loud Spenced, — Feeling- an increased confidence in the opinion 1 fully expressed to your lordship last winter, of (he practicability of raising a new and highly valuable breed of sheep by crossing British long wool sheep with the pure i\Ierino, I am naturally anxious to prove that that opinion is well founded. The wethnrs 1 exhibited at the Christmas show I think will be allowed to linve substantiated niv case as farasthe production of a few individuals of my new breed could do so ; but I am aware that your lordship and tiie public may not unnaturally be- lieve they wore mere casualties happily found amongst a large number ; to obviate such apprehen« sions, I have determined to exhibit at the Oxford Mectingin Jul}-, a very large proportion of my little flock, rams and ewes, and wethers. In the middle of September of 1Q36, I put to the ram eighty of my Anglo Merino ewes, heiii>^ m.l J possessed at that time and had from them in February 1837, about eighty lambs, of which about forty were males ; now of these forty I undertake to exhibit twenty wethers which were of course two j'ears old last February, as extra stock ; and I also challenge any breeder of South Dow7i, or of «/ii/ other sheep carrii'm^ a fleece of short ivool, to show an equal number of tliat same age against them ; or if any competitor objects to so large a number I will confine it to ten or even five ; one condition 1 wish to make, viz. : that size shall noljmss for value. — On the essential points of the leg, loin, and bosom, and general symmetrii and qmiUtij, it will be conceded to me that the value of any animal de- pends.— I do not however mean to say that any di- minutive breed of sheep should be allowed to com- pete with a more marketable size, as ten, eleven, or twelve stones, Smithfield weight ; mine will average at least eleven stone, which is certainly large enough for market. It will strike your lordship, no doubt, that drawing from a flock of only eightv eAres, in fact taking half the number of the wethers bred in one year to compete with persons drawing from the produce of perhaps 800 ewes, places me at a fearful disadvantage, and I have endeavoured to hit upon some means by which the contest might be rendered more fair, I have not however yet succeeded, and I am therefore compelled to throw down the gauntlet upon these unequal terms, only limiting m}' oppo- nent to draw from a flock belonging to one single person. The sheep I shall produce have averaged six pounds the fleece, which shall be shown with them,* and which are of the finest combing wool, I should think more valuable even than the pure Me- rino, unless of the German Electoral. Believing that the value of the sheep cannot be properly decided till they are slaughtered and the carcass examined, I propose, indeed I make it a condition, that each party should select and kill five of the number shown, that they may be seen and compared together b}' the judges before they make their final award ; and in * I do not mean to make it a condition that my com- petitor should produce the fleeces of the sheep he shows, neither do I niean that the judges should be influenced in their decision by any possible superiority of my wool, but it would be more satisfactory to see the fleeces of the sheep opposed to mine, as many sheep carrying the appearance of South Down certainly are not short or fine wool sheep. case of anybody competing against me with five only, those five must be slaughtered. The sum I propose to stake upon this occasion is twenty guineas, not less, nor more than fifty. I am, my dear Lord Spencer, Faithfully yours, 6cc., WESTERN. Note. — Ten of the twenty wethers exhibited were grazed for the butcher in the common way, and were actually sold the 31st of May witli iheir coals ofl^, but I took them back for this show ; they had no corn, till my mangel Avurzel being finishrd, about the first of May a little was given to keep them up, till the butcher ishould lake Ihem away, and wliich has been since con- tinued ; the other ten were fed higher for exhibition ; of the remaining twenty a few were reserved for rams, n few slaughtered for home consumption and a few sold in a mixed lot of twenty, of old, barren, and dimi- nutive ewes, the whole lot with their coals ofl" fetching 43?. each. TO LORD WESTERN. Weston Turville, Bucks, June "iOlh. My Lord, — In your letter addressed to Lord Spencer, and inserted in the Mark Lane Express of the 17th. inst., your Lordship has thrown down the gauntlet before ihe breeders of South Down sheep to compete with you at the Oxford Meeting in July next in the exhibition of two years old wethers as extra stock. I am comparatively a young farmer, and not until within a very few years a breeder of South Down sheep ; nevertheless, I am vain enough to imagine that I have some sheep of that breed which will not be disgraeed by a competition with your Lordships Anglo Merino's; and I am, therefore, induced to take up the gauntlet and enter tlie lists with you, if your I-ordship will condescend to do so. I much regret that I shall not be able to exhibit more than five two years old wethers, having pre- vious to your Lordship's challenge sold the reniainder to a butcher. I agree to the conditions, thatsiie shall not pass for value, and that upon leg, loin, and bosom, connected with general symmetry and quality, the value of the animal depentls. My ewe flock in num- ber is 200, and having as I said before sold oft" nearly all the wethers of that ago, yeur Lordship will not be placed at the fearful disadvantage you contem- plate. I consent to the condition that the five be slaughtered and compared before the judges malie their final award. The stake I assent to, is twenty guineas. 'Ihe average weight of floece is about six pounds, but I regret that I cannot produce them as they are packed with the restof my clip, and I could not select them from the bulk. Having responded to your Lordship's challenge, I trust that I may not be considered either presuming, or arrogant if I offer to exhibit ten Shearling Wethers of the South Down breed against ten of jour Lord- ships shearling Anglo Merino Wethers as extra stock : the conditions, stake &c. being precisely the same as the foregoing. As I am anxious to forward the interest of the English Agricultural Society as much as lies in my power, it is my intention to send to the Oxford Meeting three or four South Down Wethers of the age of three years, as extra stock, which arc all I have left of that age, and which are open to compete with the same number of your Lordship's Anglo Merinos of the same age : conditions &:c. being the same as the foregoing. The stake I propose is five or ten guineas. Waiting your Lordship's reply, I beg to subscribe myself, Your obedient, humble servant, WILLIAM HAYWARD. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 53 OF CATTLE. The number of beasts fed on a farm of which the whole is arable land, is surprising to those who are not acquainted with the mode in which the food is prepared for the cattle. A beast for every three acres of land is a common proportion, and in very small occupations where much spade husbandry is used, the proportion is still greater. 'J'o give an idea of the system, it is necessary to reflect, that in every farm a fifth, at least, of the land is sown with turnips immediately after harvest. These turnips are not such as are sometimes sown in England under the name of stubble turnips, in tlie end of August or in September, and give but a poor produce during the winter and early in spring, but they are of a quick growing sort, and are sown in succession from Jul)', after the colza and winter barley are reaped, to August, after the rye, as we have described in the eighth chapter. They are already of a good size in September and October, when they are stored in cel- lars for winter use. Besides turnips, a considerable quantity of potatoes are raised, more than is required for the use of the family, and these are generally con- sumed by the cattle. Carrots which have been sown in spring either alone or amongst the barley, flax, or colza, complete the winter's provision. These roots are chopped up together in a tub, and some bean- meal, rye-meal, or buckwheat-meal is added ; boiling water is poured over this and allowed to cool ; or the whole is boiled together in a copper when fuel is not too scarce. Of this mixture which they call brassin, two pails full are given milk-warm, morning and evening, to each cow, and this is their food during the whole winter with a little wheat or barley-straw. Hay is only given in a few districts, where the pas- tures are extensive, as about Furnes and Dixmude, but never in that unbounded quantity in which the cows eat it in England. Very little hay is made i.i any other district, and that only clover hay, which is reserved for the horses when they work hard. Near the towns or large villages, where there are brewers, grains are added to the other ingredients of the bras- sin, and they greatly increase the milk. The same food is given in greater quantity, and with more meal in it, or sometimes with bruised lin- seed cake, to fatten cows or oxen. The profit on these, when thus fed, is not considerable, and much under that of the grazier who fats them in rich pas- tures on grass alone : but the manure produced by their dung and urine is the great object in view : especially where it cannot be procured in sufiicient quantities from the towns, owing to the want of water-carriage and the badness of the roads. A moderately sized ox will eat three baskets of turnips daily, which is the average produce of about the one hundred and fiftieth part of an acre; ten beasts will therefore consume the produce of an acre in fifteen days, or of about ten acres in five months : two acres of potatoes and one of carrots will enable the farmer to feed three or four beasts more, by mixing them with the turnips. Some farmers cut all the straw which is given to the cattle into chaft', and mix it with the brassin; it is thus supposed to go much farther than when eaten from the crib : but as mastication causes the saliva to flow, and greatly promotes diges- tion, it seems probable that there is an advantage in allowing the cattle to shew some dry straw. A great number of cews and oxen are fattened in the distilleries on the refuse wash, and many faruiers prefer selling their cows, when they have had four or five calves, without attempting to fatten them, and rearing young heifers in tlieir place, thus keeping up their stock of milch cows. After comparing the ac- counts given in a variety of places and situations of the average quantity of milk which a cow gives when fed in the stall, the result is, that it greatly exceeds that of our best dairy farms, and the quantity of but- ter made from a given quantity of milk is also greater ; an ordinary cow fed on young clover will give at three milkings, for the first three months after calv- ing, from fifteen to eighteen quarts per day, which will produce 1^ lb. of butter, that is nearly 9 lbs. of butter per week. Where the number of cows is great, the average is much less, because when there are only two or three cows, a deficiency in one of them is immediately noticed ; tiie cow is got rid of, and a better one purchased. In a great number, there are always a few inferior cows, and a lower average is the consequence. It appears astonishing that the occupier of only ten or twelve acres of light arable land should be able to maintain four or five cows, but the fact is notorious in the Waes country. The cows are the principal object of attention : — the butter which is sold weekly pays the outgoings of the farm : the buttermilk feeds the family and tiie pigs : the bread is boiled in it for soup : it is eaten with potatoes instead of butter: it is made into hasty pudding with buckwheat flour : it is the meat and drink of all ; and as long as the cows give plenty of milk there is no want in the house. A falling-olf of the milk is immediately noticed, and the food of the cows is increased, or changed till the usual quantity is obtained. But something is also due to the care- ful selection of the animals. The best cows come from Holland, especially from Eriesland ; they are brought over the frontiers in great numbers and sold in calf to the Flemish dealers. The principal market for them is Malines. Good-sized cows sell for as much as they usually do in our country fairs, that is from 8/. to 121. each with a calf, or when just about to calve, which is generally in May. If the calf is a female she is reared ; a bull-calf is sold immediately, or fatted for the butcher. There are too few fine bulla kept amongst the small farmers in Flanders to keep up a good breed. There is also a predilection for large heavy animals, from the idea that a large beast is more profitable when fat than a small one ; a notion which our Essex and Norfolk farmers who fat the small Scotch oxen, will not readily allow. When a bull-calf is reared, the largest and strongest in the limbs is usually preferred, even with inferior sym- metry, and the produce is coarse, as may be naturally expected. Some very good bulls have been intro- duced of late years from various countries, and a fine short-horn bull brought from England is now, or was lately, in the possession of Count d'Hane, at Loven- dighem near Ghent, which will at least serve as a specimen of an improved form. The same gentle- man has procured cows from Switzerland and Hol- stein, the latter a very fine short-horned breed : and under the fostering care of the Belgian government, which pays great attention to every thing by which the prosperity of agriculture can be promoted, a taste for improved forms in the domestic animals cannot fail to be produced. The establishment of a veterinary and agricultural college at Brussels on an extended scale, will soon diffuse around true notions with respect to the breeding of cattle, whether milch cows, or oxen for the butchers, two things which are quite distinct, and in some measure imcompatible. In the mean time the Dutch cows are the best and eagerly sought after. The oxen preferred for feeding, are those which have been worked in the Campine: in Bra- bant and Namur they are still sometimes used for the plough instead of horses. At the distilleries they take all sorts of cows, often without sufficient discri- mination, and on the rich wash they :dl get flesh in 54 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. some reasonable time ; but few experiments aremade to show wbat breeds lutten at the least expense, or n-ive the greatest profit. If this were done frequent- ly, they would remain no doubt as to the form which fattens most readily. The cattle are kept on brassin and cut straw till May, when they are turned into the pastures, if there are any. But in all the upland farms where the land is mostly arable, the food is cut for them and carried into the stalls. This consists of winter barley, or vetches and clover, cl:iefly the latter. At first, whew the clover is very younp^, it is given spa- ringly, and if all the turnips are consumed, boiled po- tatoes with a little hay are considered as a useful cor- rective ; for clover, given injudiciously, causes tlie cows to heave.* By the time the clover is in bloom it is their only food. Clover is not supposed to give the milk or butter any bad taste, as many think in England ; altliough nothing gives so fine and rich a flavouras natural meadows. The buttermade when the cows eat clover does not keep so well when salted; but tiiereis so great a demand for it in the numerous towns and villages, that there is never any difficulty in disposing of it in a fresh state, that is, moderately salted ; for as soon as the butter is made a considerable portion of salt is always added. In the large dairies about Fumes and Dixmude, the milk is set in shallow pans on a cool brick floor in the dairy house, and skimmed, as is the case in England : the cream alone is churned three times a week. A barrel churn is comraonl}' used which will churn 40 or 50 lbs. at a time. It is sometimes turned by hand, but this is rather hard work, a horse mill is frequently erected to turn it. The butter, as soon as it is taken out of the churn, is well washed and worked with a cool hand, or a kind of spatula or flat spoon, till all the milk is washed out. It is imme- diately salted and put into casks which contain about IJ cwt. If the quantity made at once is not suffi- cient to fill the cask, it is pressed down, and the sur- face left smooth ; some salt is dissolved in water, till it is nearly saturated, and this is poured on the butter so as to cover it an inch deep : a linen cloth is then inserted, and laid smoothly over the butter, to exclude all air ; and this is kept down by a round board with a weight upon it : when more butter is added the cloth is removed, the brine poured off, and the new portion added is pressed close to the other. Thus no streak is observable in the place where the different churnings join. The butter made in sum- mer, when the cows feed in the rich pastures, is of a fine golden colour, and to those who do not dislike a little saltness, it is much better when a week or fort- night old, than when fresh churned, and not salted. It keeps perfectly well for a twelvemonth or more. The casks are made of clean white wood and are * Mr. Van Aelbroek gives a very curious remedy for cattle which are hoven by eating younir clover too gree- dily. It is as follows :— An ounce of horsehair is held over the fire with the tongs, and singed till it forms a crisp round ball, which when cold is well covered witli butter, so that it may easily be passed into the gullet of the hoven bea:>t. There it sticks, and causes such an irritation, that in a few minutes the animal vomits, and this continues till the stomach is emptied of its contents, and the cow is saved ; we have never tried it, but give' it on the above respectable authority; should it be effi- cacious it is a most simple and valuable remedy, which is always at hand. It is at all events worth trying, where the more certain remedy, by inserting a leathern tube into the stomach, is not at hand. But no farmer who has cattle should ever be without this useful instrument, and we would strongly recommend it to the notice of' those who have never used it. prepared by well scouring witb brine and rubbing the inside with salt. It is of consequence that they be well made and air tight. Dixmude is the great market for this butter, which is exported in con- siderable quantities : much of it goes to Ostend, where it is shipped, and a considerable portion, as we observed before, comes to England as Dutch butter. In most of the smaller farms the whole milk, after having stood twelve hours in shallow pans, is poured into a deep vat where it is left to get slightly acid, It is then churned in a large upright churn, and treated exactly as described as above. It is allowed that the butter churned from the cream is preferable; but the use of buttermilk is so general, and it ia thought so much more wholesome than skimmed milk that the old method i? preferred, iu spite of the greater labour required to churn the whole milk. 'I'he churning is generally done by a horse, where the number of cows exceeds four or five; sometimes, as in Holland, a dog walks in a wheel, which turns the machinery by which the plunger is moved up and down. There is little or no cheese made in Flanders, ex- cept some skimmed-milk cheese for family use, in those districts where the cream alone is churned. The cheese consumed is chiefly of Dutch manufac- ture. In the fattening of cattle the'same food is used as is given to the milch cows, with the addition of bean- meal, rye-meal, or oats. An ox kept stalled up for six or eight months and well fed, will double his original weight, and pay well for the food he has con- sumed : but the principal advantage to the farmer is the increase of the liquid manure is his cistern, and of dung in Lis yard. liach ox is reckoned to produce as much of both kinds together as will manure two acres of land. When a cow appears to increase in flesh at the expense of her milk, it is a common prac- tice to feed her well, milking her as long as she gives a tolerable quantity ; and not allowing her to take the bull. Her milk gradually dries up, and by that time she is so forward in flesh as to be soon fit to be killed : the improvement in her flesh fully compen- sates for the loss of her milk. There are some far- mers who purchase yoTingcows in full milk, keeping ten or twelve of them whom they treat as mentioned above, and as soon as one is fat she is replaced by another. If they have skill to select the breeds which fatten most readily, they make a good profit by the milk and the sale of the cow when fat. Abundant food is indispensable for this purpose : the white sugar-beet and the mangel wurzel are found very good in this case : for milch cows, however, they are thought too fattening. Very large cows and oxen are fiUted in the neigh- bourhood of Ghent. They are kept stalled longer than usual, sometimes twelveor fourteen months, and are then very fat, especially those which are fed in the distilleries. The fatting of calves is not so generally attended to in Belgium as in some parts of England ; but the method is worthy of notice. In the cow-house there are several narrow boxes parallel to the wall, about two feet wide, six or seven feet long, and three feet high; the door is in the end. Sometimes there is a door at both ends, which is most convenient to clean out the box. In this a calf is placed, so that he can get up and lie down, but he cannot turn round to lick himself. He is fed three times a day with new milk, and where they are curious iu veal as near Ghent, white wheaten bread is boiled in milk, with two or three eggs beat up in it : and this mess is given milk-warm to the calf at noon: salt and chalk are THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 65 also given in small quantities. The veal thus pio- duceil is extremely tender and white ; and in seven or eight weeks a calf is as fat as is recjuired. A greater price is paid for this veal ; and the farmei-'s wife who pays due attention to her calves, finds the additional trouble and expense well repaid. Yearling- calves are often fatted and killed, but the meat is neither veal nor beef; and it would probably be found more profitable to keep them another year, in good store order, and then fatten them oft". It is generall}'^ those who show an early dispo- sition to increase in flesh that are faUed so early, but for the same reason they would pay much better for the food they consume, if they were kept till they were two years old, and then fatted oft'. A some- what similar practice formerly existed in Norfolk ; cows were turned out to grass with their calves ; be- tween the milk which the calf sucked and the grass, he grew fat as well as the cow, and they were sold oft' together. The flesh of these calves was called heefin, but the practice is now much less common than it was when more of the country remained in pasture. When calves are intended to be reared to keep up the stock of cows, they are treated, for a week or a fortnight, in the same way as if they were to be fat- ted. The milk is then gradually diminished and water mixed with it; pulverized oil-cake is some- times given, and the calves are not placed in narrow boxes, as when they are fatting, but have more liberty; and as soon as they are strong enough, they are allowed to run about in a small inclosure or or- chard, which tends to develop their limbs and keep them in good health. They soon begin to pick clo- ver ; and when they are about three or four months old, they are fed on the brassin and whatever the cows eat. The young bulls not intended to be kept as such, are castrated at twelve months old, and the heifers go to the bull at eighteen months or two years. It is customary for a farmer who has sheep, to keep a bull for the use of the parish, in return for which he has the liberty of pasturing his sheep on the stubbles and uncultivated spots over the whole parish. In consequence of the subdivision of the land, and the small extent of the farms in Flanders, no considerable number of sheep can be kept by an)"- individual: the great advantage of folding on light soils is therefore much limited. There are flocks which consist, of the sheep of several occujiiers in a parish, and which are led about the sides of roads and lanes to pick up a scanty herbage, under the care of a common shepherd, whose dogs are so well trained, that the sheep feed along the sides of corn- fields and even clover, without being permitted to trespass upon them, although there is no fence of any kind to keep them off. When sheep are fed on the remnants of the clover which has been cut two or three times, lines are sometimes drawn with a plough to divide a field into portions to be fed oflP successively. The dogs keep moving along these lines, and not a sheep dares to pass over thera. Thus all the advantage of hurdling is obtained at a cheap rate, and the land is manured equally and re- gularly. A small fold may occasionally be seen in which the sheep are shut up very closely packed during the nights in summer ; but in general they are brought into the stable allotted to them in the farm-yard, and remain there till the dew is oft' the ground. They have straw for litter and green clover for food in summer ; in winter they have straw, buy, and some turnips ; but these last are mostly reserved for liie cows. The sheep wljeu of a piopin- age are mostly I'atted on corn, and in a very few instances ewes are also kept on extra food for the sake of their lambs, which are fatted for the butcher. Lamb is very seldom eaten, except as a great luxury, and is only found at the tables of the nobility and the resi- dent English : we only met with one farmer who kept owes for this purpose, but he finds it very pro- fitable, being nearly the only person to whom the butchers can apply for a fat lamb early in the season. We shall have occasion to give some further details of this farm. The indigenous breed of sheep is large and coarse, without horns and with long falling ears. The wool is not long nor of a fine quality, and in nothing is there more room for improvement than in the breed of this useful animal. There is a very small breed from the Ardennes, which is like our forest sheep ; the flesh is very well flavoured, and the wool is finer than that of the common breed, but in very small quantity ; but this breed is not well suited to the mode of feeding in common practice, and the far- mers like to have a large carcase to sell, which brings in more money. Some fine Leicester and Cotswold sheep, and some South Downs, have been imported by the government and dispersed through the coun- try, but they are mostly confined to the farms of gentlemen, who keep them more as a curiosity than for profit. The Cotswold crossed with the Leicester is a large sheep with a long heavy fleece, and is likely to do well in Belgium. A rnm of this breed, which was sent over to Belgium in 1834, gave a fleece the next year which weighed upwards of 201bs. The wool was sorted and combed, at Tour» nay, and 9 lbs. of very fine long wool was the result, besides some good common wool. It was exhibited in the Museum at Brussels in 1835 as a great curi- osity. The breed is in the hands of an individual who is likely to keep it pure, and has ample means of raising a good flock. In Flanders it would be almost impossible, with the present system of agri- culture, to introduce our sheep-farming system ; but in other parts of Belgium, where the farms are larger, there is no doubt but the raising turnips to be fed oflf by sheep folded on them, would be highly advantageous to the land, and that a good profit might be made by the improvement of the wool and carcase. — Flemisli Husbandry, PREPARED PEAT.— A specimen of this article was brought last week from a district near Edinburgh, by Thomas P. Kennedy, Esq., a gentleman who has taken a deep interest in agricultural improvement. The manner in which this peat is prepared is by introduc- ing the rude material into a kind of mill, called a pug- mill, by which the woody fibres are completely com- minuted. It is then moulded with the hand in the same way as bricks, and, whea the weather is favour- able, dried in the usual way by exposure to the air. la wet weather it is dried in a kiln constructed for the purpose. In drying, owing to the effects of the mill, the particles, being small, approach each other more closely than in the ordinary process observed in this country, and form themselves into a solid and compact mass ; and the chief advantages of this plan are facility of transport, convenience of storing, and a much greater heat produced in combustion. — Derry Journal. COMMUTATION OF TITHE.— IMPORTANT TO LANDOWNERS AND FARMERS.— The Tithe Commissioners have determined that any party refusing a surveyor to go over his estate, or not giving him the necessary information, such as the quantity of cattle kept, &c., so as to render an adjournment necessary to ascertain these particulars, will be saddled tcilh alt (he coats of the mtetiny. 56 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. We beg the attention of our readers to the subjoined general regulations for the Oxford Show, on the 17tli July. It should be particular- ly observed by persons intending to exhibit stock, that the certificates in the form printed, and signed in the manner directed, must be sent in to tlie Secretary before the 1st July. The Sweep- stakes, of which there are now 21, will close on the 1st July. Persons intending to exhibit imple- ments, seeds, roots, &c., must give notice, and send in a description to the Secretary before the loth July ; and persons who wish to avail them- selves of the sale by auction which will take place on the day after the Show, sho\ild give notice to the Secretary before the 1st July, and furnish a description of the cattle to be sold. A Corre- spondent writes, " I perceive by the anr.ounce- ment in your Journal last week, that dinner tickets will be reserved for members who have entered their names in the books, up to the 1st July. It was my intention to have sent in my name as a Sub- scriber, but as I cannot be elected until after the 1st of July, and as I understand tlie demand for tickets willbe very great, what chance liave I, or other per- sons similarly situated, of procuring tickets for the dinner ?" We are enabled to state, for the satis- faction of our Correspondent, and for the infor- mation of any oilier person who may be similarly situated, that a reserve of tickets will be made to meet the emergency, and that no person who may become a jNIember of the Society before the 17th July, need be apprehensive of disappointment in procuring a dinner ticket. GENERAL REGULATIONS. Show Yard, in Mr. Pinfold's Pasture Ground, Holywell. No stock can be admitted for exhibition unless the necessary certificates, in the form prescribed, and signed by the exhibitor in the manner directed, be delivered to the Secretary, or sent post paid, so as to reach the So- ciety's rooms, 5, Cavendish-square, on or before the 1st of July. Non-subscribers to pay five shillings for every head or lot of live stock before obtaining- a ticket of per- mission to bring their cattle into the show yard . Persons intending to exhibit extra stock must give notice to the Secretary on or before the 1st of July. No stock will be admitted into the show yard before seven o'clock in the morning, nor later than nine o'clock on Monday evening, nor before four indijh Square, and at the Star Hotel, Oxford, for the insertion of names of members of the society disirous of engaging tickets for the dinner, and will be kept open until the first of July. Tickets will be reserved forsuchapplicantsat Oxford. Lodgings, &c. Registers will be kept at the bars of the Star and Angel Hotels, Oxford, to enter par- ticulars of lodgings, &iC. offered for the occasion ; and all persons having rooms, stables, or coach-houses to let, or requiring such accommodalion, are requested to ap- ply to Mr. Griifith, at these hotels. N.B. On Tuesday the 16th, trials of agricultural im- plements will take place, and the prize essays will be read in the Town Hall, open to all subscribers to the society. ON THE EFFECT OF LIME. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — In June «f last year there appeared in your pa- per, a lelterfrom Mr. Thos. Blundell, M.D., of W^isbech, in aaswer to some remarks I had previously made, in which he stated, that he was thoroughly acquainted with the operation of the diiferent kinds of lime according to the relative quantities used, and of bones in the different states of preparation. I quote his own words. Farmer's Magazine, June, 1838, page 400: — "J. D. has to be informed that agricultural chemists are now perfectly agreed as to what constitutes the active energetic fer- tilizing principle of bone manure, throughout the dif- ferent stages of its decomposition, whether in its fresh or green state, or in that in which it exists after the extrac- tion of its fat and other animal matter , and although Sir H. Davy has shown how lime and magnesian lime act, according to the relative quantity used, in pro- ducing luxuriance of growth, or coroparative sterility, still J. D.'s short-sightedness will not admit of his car- rying his views so far, as to ascertain on what soils chemistry will teach to apply lime as a manure of the highest value." And again — " and I make little doubt but that I should to a great extent, if not altogether, succeed in explaining, and that too, satisfactorily, the operation of ' lime,' and also some other of those saline manures, of which it is the basis, to the purposes of agriculture, even to carry conviction to the mind of J. D., for I can assure him that the principle ef the ac- tion of bone dust is to the chemist now no longer oc- cult." Twelve months have now elapsed since this informa- tion was promised, and none has yet appeared. I have been induced to notice the delay, and to recal it to the memory of your learned correspondent, as the English Agricultural Society have circulated most important Queries on the use of lime, in order to elicit information on that point of modern agriculture, on which beyond all others the most vague uncertainty prevails. I have THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 57 had much experience in tlie use of lime, magnesian and otiiers, on ditferent joils, and in the use of bones, green and fermented, calcined, powdered, and crushed, and I am still anxious for further information ; and with that view I have waited patiently, but in vain, lor a year past. No person doubts that a chemist can give us most cor- rectly the names, and the quantity of tlie component parts of any soil, limestone, or bone ; but the grand question is, " caa they, from the result of tkat analysi:*, tell us how or in what quantity, to apply the manures to the soil, so as to produce a greater result than yet known at equal cost, an equal result at less cost, or a greater result at an equally profitable cost?" Without this in- formatioH, the telling the farmers the names of the com- ponent parts, is of no use whatever. I am of opinion that magnesiaa limes are not hurtful on any soils, ap- plied in equal quantities as other limes, and that the supposed noxious quality rests on vague supposition. Any manure applied in overwhelming doses will prove hurtful as well as lime ; putrescent manure will render land incapable of bringing gi'ain to maturity. In case the promised information sliould have escaped tha memory of your learned correspondent, or in the event of his not having seen the information wished for on the subject of lime, I have used the liberty of re- minding him, as the least particle of improved know- ledge muit be very acceptable. Yours, &c., J/(«ell,1839. J. D. BONE MANURE. (from a treatise BV J. GRAHAM.) The question has likewise been asked, whether bones are to be prefei red in their raw state for manure, or after they have been boiled for the grease, which subjects tliem to a partial fbrmentation in the henp whilst drying? This latter is the character of the bones produced in London. From the report of the " Doncaster Association," it will bo seen, that in all cases they were found equal ; but the general tenor of the answers received was decidedly in favour of those that had undergone this partial decomposition, ihey being considered to be more readily acted upon by the roots of vegetables. The preceding experiments fully substantiate this point, showing that it is by fermentation alone the nutritious parts of the bone are yielded, also that when the cartilage is once softened by this partial operation in bulk, fermentation the more readily re- commences when they are thinly spread on the land. It is also confirmed by the modern practice of sub- mitting them, in their ground state, to a still farther fermentation, by mixing them with an equal quantity of earth and leaving them in this state for some days; the whole is then drilled in together. This plan economises the consumption of bones, from a wider and more equal distribution taking place. Bones in a raw state are, on the contrary, very slow of decomposition. It is difficult to get them into any df gree of fermentation ; consequently they can- not but yield their nutritious parts very slowly. When unboiled, they all contain grease in a greater or less quantity. It is well known that fat will re- main a considerable time in the ground without undergoing any very material change, and bones from which the grease has not been extracted are defended irom decomposition by the fatty and oleaginous mat- ter they contain ; should they even prove eventuallv beneficial to the land, yet to the crop for which they are used as a dressing, it is of the greatest import- ance, that they should yield immediate nutriment, and in sufficient quantity, so that the young plants may become vigorous, and grow rapidly beyond that stage in which they are liable to be invaded and de- stroyed by some of the insect tribe ; and also that they may so far cover the ground, that it will retain sufficient moisture for their after progress. Another great point of superiority in London bones, is that of their being very nearly free from any admixture of field or perished bones, which are fre- quently found in large quantities amongst those that are imported into this country ; sometimes whole cargoes are entirely of this description. In these, the whole of their gelatine, and nearly the whole of their cartilage, is destroyed by long exposure to the weather, and a large proportion of their cellular or soft parts entirely worn away. It must be obvious, that bones of this description are already deprived of one great source of nutriment (the cartilage and gela- tin) ; and as these afford tlie substances v.-hich induce a decomposition of the phosphate of lime, it neces- sarily follows that their value as a manure is very much deteriorated. Large quantities of this descrij)- tion are imported into IIull, and bought indiscrimi- nately for grinding ; it is probable, that the partial failures of the bone manure that have occurred, and mentioned in the report of the Doncasfer Associa- tion, may have been occasioned by this circumstance. On the character of soils on which bone manure may be used with advantage, but little need be said, as the far larger praportion of this country is of that description, the only exceptions being land of a very wet or heavy nature ; and even these exceptions are not admitted by some of the Scotch agriculturists, who have reported favourably upon this head.* Upon sour or peat lands the eflect of bone manure has frequently been extraordinary. Under this class may be ranked low lying marshes and meadows, which produce only coarse plants of the carex,jun- cas, &c. &c., and also high situations, and moors, covered with heaths. These lauds are remarkable for the quantity of decayed vegetable matter in their composition, and yet in their natural state are quite unproductive; this is entirely to be attributed to the quantity of free ajid they contain. Analysisf has shovrn this to consist of the phosphoric and acetic acids. Here, there is present in the soil tlie very means of decomposition for the phosphate of lime in bones, of which a very large proportion would im- mediately be acted upon, besides the advantage of taking so much acidity from the land. This accounts for the very great effect produced upon this descrip- tion of soils. Upon all light and sandy lands the effect has been great, even when applied to the most barren heaths. On this description of soil, homestall manure cannot be employed, as it would render still lighter, land that is already too much so, and which, in a wet sea- son, would be washed through the soil before a crop could possibly reap any benefit from it. On light sandy lands, it is of the utmost importance to obtain a good crop of turnips, the feeding off of which by sheep, helps in a very great degree to give consisten- cy to such land, by the continual treading with their feet, besides the advantage of the additional manure deposited by this means. On the whole of the lands comprising the clialk and limestone formations, with very few exceptions, bone manure may be used with decided advantage. These formations extend through Kent, Surrey, Sus- sex, Hampshire, Bedfordshiie, Hertfordshire, part of Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and most of the northern counties. On these formations, the greater part of theland may be described as a sandy loam, ahliough * Report of the Doncaster Association, j). 34. t Thomson's Chemistry, Vols, v., p. 327.- 68 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. some parts consist of a very lieavy clay, intermixed with large quantities of flint, and sometimes chalk. The lauds on the plastic clay foinialion, are chiefly of a free or light character, with the exception of some districts that are of a close retentive nature ; but the far larger proportion consist of that descrip- tion upon which bone manure would be extremely beneficial. This formation also comprises a large portion of the counties surrounding the metropolis ; its greatest breadth will be found in Essex, passing from Waltham Cross, towards Chelmsford, through Braintree and Plalsled, and so into Safiblk. Nearly the whole of this tract is a free sandy loam, without any calcareous earth in its composition; this circum- stance adds greatly to the value of bone manure for this district, yielding as it does that earth in its de- composition. Jt will also be found highly beneficial to the land in the immediate neighbourhood of Lon- don, as an alternative, on which in many instances an exorbitant quantity of the dung from the cow- yards of the metropolis is used. Notwithstanding the facilities of obtaining this and other manures in any quantity, the use of bone manure is rapidly ex- tending. In this neighbourhood, and more especially in Essex, every trial confirms its reputation, and the farmer is not only highly gratified with its results as a manure, but finds in its use a considerable point of econemy. ON DRAINING, TO THE EDITOn OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Tna recent number of your valuable Journal I perceived an extract of a letter from Sir James Graham, Bart., M.P., " On the Deanston frequent Drain System as distinguished from, and compared with the furrow draining and deep ploughing of the midland counties of England ;" and on which I beg to offer a few cursory remarks. The worthy Baronet after alluding to the subsoil plough invented by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, and the comparative merits of the Scotch and English sys- tems of drainage, states that, " in England a jiortion of the subsoil is raised at once to the top: at Deans- ton the subsoil, though broken, is not raised :" and then proceeds to put the important question, " When land is cftectually underdrained, which is the right treatment of the subsoil V Sir James subsequently states that, " some of the greatest authorities in East Lothian differ from Mr. Smith, and lean to the Eng- lish practice. In the first furrow for green crop after draining, by two ploughs following each other, which is equivalent ,to trench ploughing, they go down to the depth of twelve or fourteen inches, and bring up a certain quantity of virgin soil." Now, Sir, assuming that draining is certainly the first and most important step in husbandry — for till the redundancy of moisture is removed, all attempts at successful cropping will prove abortive — it is, however, a matter of little importance, whether the land is drained with tiles or stones, providing the respective operations are done in an effective man- ner. Where the common plough can be used to advantage, and enabled to go down from ten to four- teen inches in depth, as is the case in a great part of East Lothian and Roxburghshire, as well as in several other counties of Scotland, and where the substratum consists chiefly of a hazle loam, or other friable substances of a good quality', trench plough- ing may on the whole be considered most advan- tageous. But in Perthshire, where Mr. Smith re- sides, and in the merge lands of Berwickshire, as well as in the greater part of Ayrshire, and other parts of Scotland, the tenacity of the subsoil ren- ders the commingling of it with the surface soil a most pernicious system, till the former has been re- lieved from superfluous moisture, and afterwards mellowed by atmospheric influence. There are not a few systems of husbandry wbicli prove of the utmost pai amount imj)ortance in one part of the country, the adaptation of which would not, in another i>art under a difl:erent soil and cli- mate, be attended with any beneficial results ; hence the impropriety of attempting the universal applica- tion of any system, without a general knowledge of all the varieties of soil. Sir James Graham takes (he credit of slating, " tliat deep ]ilougliing and furrow diaining have been practised in England fer half a century," which I doubt not is the case; but with all deference to the English farmers, they are, on the whole, more defective in eradicating the noxious weeds which infest their fields, than the Scotch farmers are. Scotland, indeed, owes much of late years of its ad- vancement in agricultural science, and in other branches of rural economy, to its local agricultural societies, of which England is wofuUy deficient. And it may also be truly remarked, that the agricul- tural interest owes a debt of gratitude to Mr. Smith, of Deanston, for his invention of the subsoil plough, as well as for his zealous exertions in the cause of agriculture in general. But having more than once in difterent fields seen in active operation, compara- tive trials of Mr. Smith's plough along wita several others, I am decidedly of opinion, that Mr. John Tennent, farmer in Shields, near Ayr, has improved upon ftlr. Smith's plough, for in Mr. I's. plough the spur is dispensed with, and a double-feathered sock (share) substituted in place of a single-feathered one, and by which means the draught of at least one horse is saved. Both the subsoil ploughs more par- ticularly alluded to, are preceded with a plough throwing out a large open furrow of the active soil. Mr. Tennent has invented a wooden plough for that purpose, and of neatly the same construction as the old Scotch plough, but much wider below, and which, for the sake of distinction, shall be termed the com- mon plough. The cost of Mr. Tennent's subsoil plough is 41. 10s., and the common plough SI, ; and they can be worked to the depth of fourteen inches between them, with two good horses in each when the soil and subsoil consist of a medium tenacity, and with three horses in each, to that depth in the most obdurate clays. Such ploughs only require to be better known to become of more general use, as they are in the power of every farmer to purchase, who can muster three horses. It must, however, be admitted, that in some instances it may be proper to go to the depth practised by INIr. Smith, but it be- comes a tenant to look to his balance shpet, so as not to put himself to any expense farther than he is likely to be amply repaid during the currency of his lease. Proprietors not unfrequently, although with the most laudable intentions, by way of showing to their tenants what is generally styled pattern farming, make use on their Holm farm of some unwieldy or perhaps lumbering implement, drawn it may be by six or eight horses, the consequences of which are, that in figurative language, they make the cure worse than the disease ; for in the first place, few can incur the outlay of such expensive operations, and on the other hand, still fewer will part with their cash under such dubious circumstances. After various experiments in the cultivation of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 59 tbe soil in different localities, and acting upon the liypothesis tbat subsoil ploughing may be of much practical utility in one part of a field, and dispensible in another, I have since Micliaelmas last (the period of my entry to this farm) subsoiled fifteen acres of my green crop break, the substratum of which being impervious to water, and with the remaining fifty-five Imperial I have gone down twelve inches at once with threo horses abreast, in Mr. Tennent's common plough, the subsoil of the latter consisting of a good hazel loam of excellent quality, with an open bottom, and much superior to the upper surface, which had hitherto been ploughed not above five inclies in depth, and worn out by over cropping. In all of these cases one plough will go over an acre of land per day. Subsoil ploughing is by many considered as an inno- vation in tiiis quarter, but an intelligent neighbour of mine, Mr. Rodger, in Penkilu, has subsoiled 25 acres this year, and I doubt not that the system will soon become as general, where necessary, as in any other county in Scotland. If you consider the foregoing remarks wortliy of notice, their insertion will confer a favour on, Sir, Your very obdt. humble servant, JAS. WALDIE. Mill Isle, Garlieston, June 22. THE VEGETATIVE POWER OF THE SEA SAND IN MORECAMBE BAY. TO THE EDITOR OF THE LANCASTER GUARDIAN. Sir, — For the information of your correspon- dent, S. S., I beg to state that the sea sand on •which the experiment was tried, mentioned in my letter of the 28(;h ult., was carted out of More- cambe Bay, on the 18th of October last, where it had but a few hours previously been covered over many feet in depth by the tidal water, and imme- diately placed in pits or beds (carefully lined at the sides and bottoms with slates) prepared for its reception, and was then at once sown with common meadow hay seeds, without any manure OR ADMIXTURE OF ANY KIND, AND OF COURSE HAV- ING ALL THE SALINE MATTER REMAINING IN IT. So careful was I that no extraneous matter should become by any means mixed with the sea sand, or that anything should be done to call in question the fairness of the experiment, that 1 would not even allow the sea sand to be thrown down upon the ground, but caused the whole to be taken in wheelbarrows from the carts into the pits ; the sole intention being to obtain true results, the only fair object, in fact, of any practical experi- ment. On the 29th November the hay seeds had vege- tated, and were already grown to the height of about one inch. On the 29th ult. (seven and a half months from the sowing of the seeds), as you would see by the specimens then sent to you, and as mentioned in my letter of that date, the stems of the several grasses had reached the very consi- derable height of from 12| to 16^ inches. Lately, however, they have been so rapidly advancing in growth, that I must beg leave again to forward to you two specimens (fair samples of the rest). The first is the Avena Elatior, or tall oat grass, three feet two inches high; the second is the Lolium Perenne, or common rye grass, two feet five inches in height ; both, as you will perceive, are far ad- vanced into seed, but apparently were still daily increasing in length. The wheat in the same beds of sea sand so sown without manure is now two feet six inches high, barley two feet one inch high, beans (in full flower) two feet high, and peas about seventeen inches in height, the peas and beans having been sown without manure about six or eight weeks ago. As no one can fail to perceive the local advan- tage, to say nothing of the national importance of converting the fifty-two thousand acres of waste land in Morecambe Bay into land producing grass, grain, and pulse; so these experiments may, perhaps, be of some consequence, so far at least as showing that all that is really required to pro- duce so wonderful a metamorphosis is merely the effectual exclusion of the sea from the Bay by em- bankment ; the very means used (but on a scale larger far in Holland) by the Dutch to protect the immense tracts of reclaimed land — towns, villages, and millions of human beings — from the inroads of the sea ; the embankments on the coast of the North Sea being of an enormous height and strength, and no less than from 500 to 700 miles in length ; very many of them having no other defence on the outer slope next the sea than a cover or thatch of straw or reeds ! I am. Sir, your obedient servant, Cark, June 17, 1839. J. S. P.S. — The sea sand of Morecambe Bay contains about twenty per cent, of calcareous matter, one- fifth of the whole, chiefly composed of very finely pounded sea shells, quite visible even with the naked eye ; and if we reckon the sand in the Bay to be about, on an average, fifteen feet in depth, the length and breadth of the Bay averaging, perhaps, eleven miles by eight, we shall have in this one bay of the county of Lancaster not less than 272,588,800 cubic yards of organic remains I " the wreck of matter, and the crush of worlds" — and may we not here see one cause at least of the extraordinary vegetative power of the sea sand .' AMPUTATION OF A HORSE'S TONGUE.— On the 15th ultimo, a valuable horse, aged five years, the property of i\lr. Duncan, Golspie Inn, met with an accident which lacerated the tongue so severely that it protruded upwards of six inches from the left side of the mouth. The portion of the tongue thus exposed to view, the animal had lost all power to draw back into its mouth, and was thus rendered unable either to eat or drink any thing-. In this state he was supported three days by pouring thick gruel into the opposite side of the mouth, when amputation was recommended by Mr. Tindall. V. S., as the only means of saving the animal's life. This proposal meeting the approbation of the owner, the operation was immediately performed. The disunion was effected at the praenum, or precisely at the point which separates the base of the tongue from the free portion of it. As soon as the hermorrage was ar- rested a pailful of gruel was offered him ; he immediately plunged his head half way up to the eyes, and by suck- ing a very little at a time he contrived to empty the ves- sel. A bran mash was then g'ven him, which he attacked with avidity, and seized a portion of it between his lips, while he seenied astonished that he could do no more with it. But as the wound in the mouth began to heal he contrived to convey it to the throat by gathering several small portions between the lips and pressing them against the bottom of the manger until it was pushed into the back part of the mouth and swallowed. At the expiration of three weeks the wound in the mouth healed up ; he is now fed and worked in the same manner as the other horses, and is in perfect health.— /(uenjess Courier. 60 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AVERY'S ROTATORY STEAM- ENGINE, AS USED FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES. The wonderful simplicity of this engine led us to feel an interest in it from the first ; and those made upon this plan with various improvements, hy Mr. Riithven of this city, have been noticed more than once in our columns. Our last notice was about a year ago. Wr. Ruthven had one then working (and has it still) in his workshop, turning several latVies, moving a tilt-hammer and plaining machine, driving a grindstone, &:c. Like many others we were extremely incredulous as to the posver of the machine when its structure was first explained to us. Our incredulity was removed in part when we saw it in operation in his shop. We were then satisfied that it was caj)able of doing a certain amount of work but the task it was put to was not of that precise and definite kind to con- vince us that it could be profitable in any circum- stances. On Saturday week, we had the pleasure of seeing it at work in this neighbourhood, on the farm of Mr. Allan at Pilton, and in a manner fairly calculated to test its i)owers. The engine is one of siv horse jmwer, according to the usual method of computation. The radius of the revolving arm is two feet ; the length of the two arms, of course, four feet ; and they make fully 3000 revolutions in a minute. The cast iron box in which they revolve is five feet in diameter, and about six inches wide externally; and this box, with the two revolving arms within it, actually constitutes the whole machine, except the boiler, and the pump which supplies the boiler with water. Theengine has neither beam, piston, parallel-motion apparatus, crank, nor valve. It could be put with ease into a parlour bookcase ! The boiler is a cylinder two feet in diameter, and ten feet lonj. There are two small cylinders of twelve inches diameter connected with it, filled with water, but no steam is formed in them. Their use is to economize fuel. They may be considered as enlarged proportion of the pipe which conveys water to the boiler, passed through the lower and horizontal j)art of the flue, that the waste heat of the fire may be profitably employed in warming the water before it gets into the boiler. A polished iron cylinder, nine inches long and five in diameter, is attached to the axis of the revolv- ing arms, and a broad leather belt passing from it to a wheel, four feet in diameter, conveys the motion to the thrashing-mill. The motion of the arms, which constitutes the moving power, is produced by the re-action of steam, rushing from two apertures about a quarter of an inch wide, in the opposite sides of the arms, and at their outer extremities. The engine is worked with a pressure of four or five atmospheres. Its price including boiler and pump, with the belt and wheel for communication motion to the thrashing-mill, is about 120/. We are thus particular, because many will have forgot and some will not have seen the details we formerly gave. We saw the fire lighted, the motion commence, and the operation of thrashing and winnowing proceed for a considerable time. The engine has been two months in Mr. Allan's ])ossession. He has been using it every week, and has already thrashed upwards of 200 bolls of grain with it. It has given him complete satisfaction ; and the following is his account of its performance : — " Mr. Ruthven's engine thrashes from eii-ht to ten bolls (four to five qrs.) of grain per hour, with a consumption of less than a hundred weight of coals. It is besides easily kept and managed, and there is a great saving of grease, lu addition to the thrashing-mill, it drives two sets of extra fanners, a humbling machine, and two sets of elevators." I\Ir. Allan informed us that it required five horses to work the same thrashing-machine before he procured INlr. Ruthven's engine ; and neither the extra fanners, elevators, nor huinbling- machine were then attached to it. With this ad-, dition, he reckons that the engine ("of six com- puted horse power) does the work of seven or eight horses. With the apparatus in its present state, he is able, not only to thrash, but to winnow, clean and send off to market, fifty bolls of grain in six hours, with a great saving in manual labour. We may add, for the information of persons at a distance, that Mr. Allan is one of the most exten- sive and intelligent farmers in the county. Professor Low, with Mr. Finnic of Swanston, an agriculturist of known ability, tested the per- formance of the engine some weeks ago, in the most careful manner. They brought an expe- rienced person with them to feed the thrashing machine, witnessed all the parts of the operation, and had the coals weighed at tlie beginning, and the grain measured at the termination of an hour's work. It would be improper in us to an- ticipate their observations, which will no doubt be published in due time, but we believe we may safely say, that they will confirm, in all res- pects, the account of the engine's performance we have given on Mr. Allan's authority. Books on the steam-engine of the common con- struction tell us how many pounds it will lift one foot high, with a certain quantity of coals. But results in this form are incapable of being brought into comparison with those which we have given. We must therefore leave it to farmers who use Watt's engines to say whether 4i quarters of grain, thrashed and cleaned in one hour by an engine costing 120/. with a consumption of 100 pounds of coals, is, or is not, good work. The performance, we humbly think, is at all events sufficient to prove, that the principle on which the engine is constructed is not a fallacy, as some of our men of science have rashly asserted. After Mr. Allan had agreed to set aside his horse-power machinery, and take this engine, he was assured from so many quarters that it would prove a failure, and bring ridicule upon him, that his resolution was shaken, and he was almost driven to countermand his order. He now con- gratulates himself on having persevered in his purpose, and not only made an advantageous change, but contributed something to remove prejudicies which were calculated to deprive the public of the use of a meritorious invention. We have a feeling akin to Mr. Allan's. We are proud of having been, perhaps, the very first to surrender our scepticism to the evidence of facts, and avow and publish a favourable opinion of this engine. For some purposes it will, no doubt, be inferior to the piston engine, but for others, there is no improbability in supposing that it may be found decidedly superior. We think, for instance, that if applied to locomotives or steam-boats, its direct method of producing a rotatory motion promises to economize power to some extent, and to pro- duce a great diminution in the chances of breakage, to say nothing- of the saving in first cost, which would probably be two-thirds. The thing is at least worthy of a trial. — Scotsman, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 61 THE EXCHANGES. " The exchanges are against us," and " bullion is being exported," are terms at this moment in constant use, with the meaning of which some per- sons are quite conversant, whilst on the other hand there are very many who do not understand the practical operation connected with the export of Bullion, which occasions the lluctuation of the exciianges. It is not our intention to enter into an enquiry of the causes which have operated to ren- der the exciianges unfavorable to this country, but merely to describe in clear and familiar terms the practical working of the operation. As the inter- change of the precious metals is most extensive between Paris and London, and as the value of the sovereign on the Continent is usually regulated by its wortli in France, wo will put the following case, in order to exemplify the operation. Sup- pose a merchant has to remit 5,000/. to Paris, for whicli he takes a bill at three months' date, at the exchange of 25f. 45c. per pound ster- ling 127,250f. Oc. The bill on its arrival in Paris is discounted at 4 per cent, per an- num, being 1 per cent, for three months 1 ,272 50 Yielding in cash in Paris 125,978 50 If, on the other hand, he sends 5,000 sovereigns, tlicy produce at the par of 25.21 126,050 0 To wiiich is to be added the pre- sent prem, on gold in Paris of lOf. per l,000f., or 1 percent. , 1,260 50 127,310 50 And from which is to be deducted the expence of transit, which may be estimated at 72 percent. 636 50 Yielding in cash in Paris. , 126,674 0 Tlius leaving him a gainer of about 700f., or of nearly 28/., by having sent over sovereigns instead of a bill of exchange. The larger the amount operated upon, the less would be the ratio of the expense of transport, and on a sum of 40,000/. to 50,000/. it would not exceed one-third per cent, instead of one-half. Hence it is manifest that so long as the price of gold on the continent affords a premium or profit for exportation, tiie export will continue ; on the other hand, if by the adoption of any measures, or by the course of trade, the price of gold should be so reduced as to leave no profit for export, the de- mand here will cause it to return, and the ex- changes will be righted. place, and shown at Peterborough market a few Saturdays back, wliich, for shape, length, and quality of wool, &c. it is only justice to l\Ir, Dawson to state the opinion of competent judges was they could not be excelled ; and as about 80 will be shown at Peterborough October Fair for public competition, we shall then have an op- portunity of procuring what has been so long wanted in this neighbourhood. — 1 remain yours, &c. Thorney, June 6. JOHN PERKINS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE LIN- COLN CHRONICLE. Sin, — Knowing the extensive circulation your valua- ble paper has in the grazmg districts, and the interest I feel for my brother breeders, I hope I shall not be taking a liberty in noticing, with your kind permission, the rams bred by Mr. X)awson of Inglhorpe, near your FOOT ROT IN SHEEP. The ulceration of the foot-rot will not long exist without tbe additional annoyance of the fly. Maggots will multiply on every part of the surface and burrow in all directions. To this, as may readily be supposed, will be added a great deal of constitutional disturbance. A degree of inflam- matory fever is produced. The animal for awhile shifts about upon its knees, but at length the powers of nature fail, and it dies from pain, irrita- tion, and want. This is a dreadful account, and yet after all the disease is more manageable than could well be imagined, if it is attacked in its earliest stage and treated with proper decision. It will seldom be necessary, or indeed, proper, to adopt any means for the purpose of abating inflammation before the radical mode of cure is adopted. Poultices and emollients will only weaken the parts, and cause the fungous granulations to increase with ten-fold rapidity. The foot must be carefully examined and every portion of loose and detached horn pared oft', even though the greater part, or almost the whole of the hoof maybe taken away. The horn once separated from the parts beneath will never again unite with them, but become a foreign body, and a source of pain, inflammation, and fungous sproutings. This, then, is the first and fundamental thing — every jmrlion of horn that is in the slightest degree separated from the parts beneath must be cut away. A small, slimy, curved-pointed knife, or a small drawing knife, will be the best instrument to effect this. If there are any fungous granulations (proud flesh) they must be cut down with the knife, or a pair of sharp, curved scissors, unless they are ex- ceedingly minute, and in that case the caustic about to be mentioned will destroy them. The whole foot must be thoroughly cleaned, although it may occupy no little time, and inflict consider- able pain on the animal. The after expenditure of time, and the suffering of the patient, wdl be ma- terially diminished by this decisive measure. The foot should then be washed with a solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of powder to a gallon of water. This will remove the offensive smell and tendency to rotting of the flesh, and mortification, which are the too frequent attendants on foot-rot. The muriate or butyr of antimony must then be resorted to, and by means of a small stick, with a little tow tied round one of its extremities, applied to every raw place — lightly where the surface has a healthy appearance, and more severely where fungous granulations have been cut oft', or where small granulations are springing up. There is no application equal to this ; it is effectual as a superficial caustic, and it so readily combines with the fluids belonging to the part to which it is applied, that it quickly be- comes diluted, comparatively powerless, and is in- capable of producing any deep or corroding mis^ 62 THE FAHMEll'S MAGAZINE. chief. So far as these foot cases arc concerned it supersedes every other application. The change of colour in tho part will accurately show to what portions it has been applied, and what effect has been produced. If the foot has been in a manner stripped of its horn, and especially if a considerable portion of the sole has been removed, it may be advisable to wrap a little clean tow round the foot, and to bind it tightly down with tape, the sheep being removed to a straw yard, or to some enclosed place, or to a drier pasture. This last provision is absolutely necessary when the sheep is again turned out, for if the foot is exposed to the original cause of dis- ease, the evil will return under an aggravated form. The foot should be dressed every day, each new separation of horn removed, and every portion of fungus submitted to the action of the caustic, with a degree of severity proportioned to the necessity of the case. The new horn should be likewise examined. If it appears to be healthy and tole- rably firm, nothing should be done to it, but if it is soft and spongy the caustic must be lightly ap- plied. The sooner the bandage can be removed, and the sheep turned into some upland or tho- roughly dry pasture, the better will it be for the foot and the health of the animal generally. The worst cases of foot-rot will readily yield to this mode of treatment, provided the bone has not been exposed, and there are no hollows running either into the joints or deep-seated parts of the foot, or of the pasterns above. All superficial mischief will be readily repaired, and more speedily than could have been thought possible ; but there is always a considerable degree of uncer- tainty when, the horn being removed, the ulcera- tions are found to be deep, and certain sinuses or openings betray the existence of greater mischief within the foot. The case will, at all events, oc- cupy a considerable time, and give no little degree of trouble, and it will be for the owner to consider whether he had not better destroy the sheep, if he is in tolerable condition, than to run the risk of its piningaway, and ultimately sinking under long- continued and increasing suffering. Though the cure of this disease is not difficult, yet it is attended with a great deal of trouble ; and in proportion to the number of sheep affected and the magnitude of the flock, so is the owner's anxiety increased. We would therefore repeat that '^prevention is better than cure," and that when sheep are placed upon low, soft, or damp ground, they should often be examined so as to ascertain whether the hoof is unnaturally length- ening, or any parts of the horn of the hoof folding in upon the sole, in which case the toe should be pared to its proper shape, and the folds carefully cut away. If these first and easy precautions arc not attended to, the owner has no one but himself to blame for his subsequent trouble and loss. Wc shall again take the subject into consideration, and satisfactorily prove that the foot-rot is infectious, in which case every person who values his flock will see ihc great necessity of preventing \.hQ diisQixsG, rather than in curing it after his land has become poisoned with the matter exuding from a diseased foot. R. B. AGRICULTURA^L REPORTS. DURHAM. The weather has been exceedingly variable since the date of our last report ; the first week in IMay was everything the farmer could possibly wish for, but it was succeeded by as cold, dry, and ungenial weather as ever fell to our lot to experience ; the 13th of May we had a very intense frost, and the following day a very heavy fall of snow and which continued and lay upon the ground the greatest part of the day ; since then and up to the loth instant, the weather has been very dry and with a piercing, cold, easterly wind, which has had the effect of keeping vegetation ex- tremely backward, and pastures afforded a very scanty allowance for all kinds of stock. Clover has thinned off very much upon all strong soils, and seeds will now turn out a very light crop. But on the 14th we had a copious rain which has produced a most agreeable change on vegetation, and it is with grati- fication we observe that we have not seen the wheat crop so promising since 1834, indeed, in many in- stances, from its dark and gross colour, indicate too much abundance, consequently there is always a dis- position to disease, and is liable to be lodged at too early a period of its growth ; but in the higher and later districts, and where bad, frosted seed has been used a very different and opposite picture presents itself; it looks sickly and thin upon the ground, and certainly is quite the reverse of cheering to the far- mer who has the misfortune to occupy those situa- tions, and it affords us great pleasure in having to congratulate the country upon, the favourable appear- ance of the wheat crop in general. Barley has met with a decided check from the dry, wintry-like wea- ther, and as far as we have had an opportunity of judging, it will prove a light crop ; a smaller breadth of barley has been sown from a supposition that wheat woald prove a more remunerative crop. The oats are short but healthy, and should we have genial and showery weather at the time of shooting it will be attended with beneficial results. Beans, peas, and tares are promising, and have withstood the se- vere drought better than could be anticipated ; this may be fairly attributed to the highly satisfactory and pulverized state of the land when sown. Pota- toes have come up well and look healthy, and we hear of no failures whatever. Where good turnip husbandry is practised, the Swedish variety look as well as could be wished for and are quite fit for hoe- ing. The welcome and long wished for rain has put the land in the best possible condition for the recep- tion of the White Globe and the later varieties. The long and most severe drought has been exceedingly favourable for the cleansing and preparing turnip land and fallows ; agricultural operations are in a ferward state ; many commenced sheep shearing too soon, it was cruel to deprive the poor animals of their winter coats in such weather, besides is is produc- tive of a considerable loss in weight of wool and also of mutton. The wool trade is rather flat at pre- sent. Our markets have been scantily supplied with beef and mutton, beef 8s. per stone, mutton, clipped, 7d., rough, 8d.to Sjd. per lb. Notwithstanding the extreme shortness of keep lean stock have maintained T1I£ tAHMfeR'S MAGAZINE. 63 tbeir high price, wg are apprehensive thegrazier will not be remunerated this summer. 'J'lic wheat markets have ratlier a tendency to recede in price, the stock of wheat in the farmers' hands was never less at this season, but we are well supplied with foreign. Oats are upon the adrance, with a short supply, from so many and large works that are going on in this county cause very great consumption in this ar- ticle. Labouring men from 3s. to 3s. 6d. per day, masons and joiners from 283. to 30s. per week. — June 18th, LEICESTERSHIRE. The extremely cold and unseasonable weather through tlie whole of JNIay retarded vegetation in its usual course, and that month wore rather the aspect of March than its own mild and genial character. When we consider that the wind blew keenly for sixteen days out of the thirty-one from the east or uorth-east, and only eight from the south, south-west, or west, and the remainder north, or north-west, and nearly without rain excepting very cold showers on the night of the 9th, and morning of the 10th, after this drought combined with storms of sleet, hail, and snow, it is not surprising that the whole face of the vegetable world presented a stunted appearance at the close of the month. Notwithstanding this un- usual severe state of the weather, the wheat crops in this county improved much during Slay. The plant was much destroyed by the ravages of slug, wire- worm, and grub, in some situations in the early part of the year ; they have recovered during the last month in an extraordinary manner, and where in March scarcely any plant appeared to be left, now look well, though thin, but the colour very good. Those sown after tares, or on a summer fallow, have suffered less from the above cause than the clover ley or bean stubble wheats. From the present ap- pearance we may anticipate an average crop in this county. The line and bountiful rain which fell on the 14th inst. had an instantaneous effect upon the crops both of grain and grass. The wheat was be- ginning to feel the effects of the long drought on light soils, but barley and all spring crops would have suffered materially had the rain been deferred for a short time longer. Some barleys on light thin soils have been checked from this cause, still they promise a fair crop, and others on good soils will un- doubtedly be heavy. The same remark applies to oats. Beans are at present short, but look healthy, and are now growing rapidly, with appearance of a good bloom. Tares are generally an average crop, though not ready to cut so early by fourteen days as in genial seasons. Wheat has receded 6s. a quarter in price, it being now sold at 74s., barley, 40s., oals, 28s., beans, 44s. The graziers have complained of their best feeding pastures being very short of grass, and the breeder of cattle and sheep has almost de- spaired, from the continued drought and low tem- peiature, that his poor lands would not yield herbage sufficient to support his young stock. This is not to be wondered at when we consider the ungenial weather we had for nearly the whole of JMay, and up to the fifth of the present month. On the first four days the wind was harsh and cold from east or north east, from the 4th to the 13th it was much milder, and wind south or south-west, yet the grass grew but slowly from the lack of moisture, still it did not go back. On the 13th the wind went suddenly into the northeast, and continued in that quarter till the 18th ; but on the 14th we had that glorious rain which truly replenished the earth, and a wonderful change took place in its appearance in the space of twelve hours, in fact it appeared (o have thrown open the prison doors of vegetation and set every herb and plant free. Through this seasonable bounty of providence every thing must now flourish which the sun and rain of heaven nourishes. The grazier has no longer to complain of his bare pastures, or the rearers of stock on the inferior grass lands have rea- son to despair. Though the pastures have been scanty of herbage still sheep have done well, except- ing where too heavily stocked, and the young cattle have been generally healthy but low of flesh. Though the rain has been what every body could wish, still it has been so long delayed the grasses and produce of the meadows must fall light before the scythe, they cannot recover so as to yield an average crop. Fodder will in all probability be scarce and dear, and the farmer should exert himself to get every acre of land he can sown with turnips, either Swede or common, to eke out his hay in the ensuing winter. The long dry season has been par- ticularly favourable to the preparing of land for the turnip crop, and where they are not well cleared it is the fault of the farmer; and there is no excuse for him if it is not in excellent order to receive the seed. The principal time for sowing in this county, is from the 12th to the 24th for Swedes, and some time later for the common varieties. Some have bten sown earlier on strong lands and have failed, others on favourable spots have been successful, but very i'ew were sown before the 14tii in either situation. On the 17th they went in beautifully, especially where the manure had bean spread and plowed in for fourteen or sixteen days, much better than where it had to be carted on the land after the rain on the 14tb ; but this applies to the lighter soils which are not ridged. Some Swedes, sown on the 13th, were coming up on the 19th, and there is every prospect of a crop of turnips generally if they escape their enemies, the fly, caterpillar, and wire-worm. But the second destructive is of minor consequence to the others, as a dozen ducks a fortnight old will secure from their ravages (if put among the turnips, and properly tended when the insect makes its first ap- pearance) half as many acres. But can any of ycur nu- merous readers inform us what will prevent or destroy theother morefoimidableenemy 1 if he can he will be rendering an important service to the agriculturist, and the community in general. The mangel wurzel crop has been nearly a failure from the drought in Slay, excepting a few favourable situations and the best soils ; but where the seed was not previously soaked and put on heavy land the plant has not yet appeared, and if it now comes will be too late to make a crop. Potatoes promise to be good on light and rich soils but they are backwards, and in some in- stances have been attacked with dry rot. Some peo- ple are now resetting. I trust this is the case in only partial and few situations, and I hope we may expect a fair average crop. Notwithstanding the cold and backward spring store beasts have been fetching high prices at our fairs and markets, and sheep have been dear. Lamb hogs from 40s. to 50s., some even 60s. Beef and mutton have made a fair price, say from 6d. to 6^d. per lb. for good quality, but even this rate holds out no good prospect to the grazier consi- dering the high price of his stores. Sheep-shearing is nearly concluded, except in cold situations, and the quality of the wool is good. Trade is rather flat in this article, and but little will be done before our great wool fair, which will be held on the 4th July, in the Agricultural' Society's yard, at the Bell Hotel, Leicester, when it is expected a large quantity will be pitched, and the prices calculated upon are from 35s. to 403, per tod.— May 19. 64 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE VICINITY OF BRISTOL. The nitdille of June presents at all times a very im- l)ortnnti)crio(l of llie year in reference to the prospect of genei'nl fertility. The cliaracter of the first portion of vegetation is by that lime (Jecidcd, and many of the risks to which the crops of this country are exposed have then passed away, leaving' either luxuriance uninjured or partially or totally destroyed. The characteristic of the last winter was wet and boisterous weather, with little frost; this was succeeded by a Sprinpr, in which dry and cold preponderated, and iil the latter portion of it some most ung-enial frosts succeeded a week of bril- liant weather, in which vegetation, for that period, ad- vanced with very great rai)idiiy. The commencement of the present month still exhibited the country in a com- ])a''ativcly backward state, with less than ordinary pro- mise of CT0])5 of ffrnss for hay, more especially for a district so generally early as this is in the operation of hay-making', in a lew instances, where the grass was appro-aching' premature ripeness, mowinjr commenced before the recent rain, but with very inadequate crops. 'J'he beneficial rain which h;is fallen in the present month (which is generally our drieU) hnscauseda cessation of mowing, and given a prospect of greater abundance by a most important stimulus to vegetation. Wheat |)ro- gressed very favourably through the dry weather in May, where the land was in good cultivation, and has done so generally since ; the crops on the land now look parti- cularly well, and although this is hy no means decisive of ultimate productiveness, yet it is at j)resent cheering, and the price is already moderated ; good bread has now been parclii-ised under contract for the next three Diontiis at C.'id. tiie 4 lb. loaf. Early sown barky vege- tated well, and pregni'ssed continuously through the dry weather in May— the advantag.-, of early sowing was this year strikingly manifested. Oats and beans arc not much grown in this vicinity. Potatoes, which had sprouted early, were cut off by i'ro?t— but this took place in common with the early shoots of many of the forest trees, and although this cutting o(F is to a certain extent injurious, yet the benefit of early planting with this crop also has a tendency to render even the evil only a com- parative one. The 5U))ply of beef in the market is now becoming more limited. Mutton and laml) are plenti- ful, large supplies of store sheep arrived here from Ire- land to aid in filling our spacious and commodious market-place, and to be spread over the adjacent counties. The demand for labour still continues good in almost every department, and the proceedings of the neighbourhood are generally active and prosperous. — June 14. niising in other parts, and should the present pros- pects be realised by a prolific maturity, it is probable that for tlie year succeedinrj the oiisuin^ harvest, England will not be drained of it3 cash to enrich foreigners by the purchase of their corn. — June 20. LYNN. We Lave much pleasure in stating tliat the wheat crops in this vicinity have now assumed a most pro- mising appe-arance. Throughout the greater part of the spring, notwithstanding the ungenial state of the weather, and the consequent backwardness of vege- tation in general, still the wheat, for the most part, looked well, and, if not forward, looked sound and healthy. The chief deficiency was here and there a thinness of plant, which probably was occasioned partly by the frost and partly b}' the wire -worm and other insects. However, this disadvantage is now for the most part overcome, and we think we may say upon the whole that the present wheat crop pro- mises to be more than an average one. It is now, in many places, rapidly shooting the ear, and in an- other week or two this process will become general. Though it is impossible to predict with certainty, at this period of the year, wliat will be the ultimate re- sult of the wheat crop, as blights, mildew, or an un- favourable harvest may singly or collectively inter- vene, yet from present appearances we think there is every reason to augur favourably of the growing crop ja this neighbourhood, and should it be equally pro- OXFORDSHIRE. Our report having been delayed until this late period, wo are enabled to state the vast improvement the crojis of corn and grass have made since we have been favoured with such a change in tJje weather to what we experienced during the preceding months, and even down to the beginning of the present month of June; for althougli we had two or three warm days in the early part of May, during which vegetation (and in an especial manner the wheats) made an astenishing progress, and our liopes were correspondingly elated, yet such are the vicissitudes we are subject to in this very variable climate, that our fond expectations were soon dashed by the wind suddenly coming round to the east and north- east (from whence it had blown for so many months), and these accompanied by sharp frosts ^ilmost every night proved a sad check to vegetation. Wc have to record the ground being covered with snow on the 11th of May, but not so deep as in some counties. The prospect at this period was gloomy, and light crops of corn and grass anticipated. The sharp frosty nights being followed by sunny days and brisk east winds, was more than vegetation could bear, consequently it was in a languishing state— the red clover about noon having the appearance of that which had been mown a day or two. Happily a wonderful improvement has taken place ; and where the plant is not defective, from loss of plant by re- petition, or otherwise, the crop falls heavy, and much better in (juality than last season, when it proved to be too big in the stem, consequently too coarse for sheep to do well upon it. Some few seeds have been carted, but in general mowing is just commencing, and the weather inclined to be showery, but highly favourable to the Swedes, which appear likely to stand ; a large breadth was this season planted earlier than usual. Our wheat is just coming into ear, being some days earlier than we expected, and in common with Berks and elsewhere, is found much the best plant, where put in on the back of clover or seeds, that after fallow or vetches having almost uni- versally lost plant to a great degree. It is too soon to speak of the fl)', although we have heard of their having been observed in some places. Barley and oats now bid fair to produce a good crop. Beans were much checked by the cold winds and frost, and began blossoming near the ground, but they are now going on well. Peas are a luxuriant crop. Shearing is now prett)' well over, and both growers -and fac- tors appear " to be resting on their oar," for we have heard of no sales of late, therefore are unable to quote present prices. We, however, are of opinion that of the last year's crop very little remains in the farmers' hands. Our corn markets for the last week or two have been stationary, and appear likely to continue so, except we should have ungenial wea- ther for the next fortnight, during the critical period of the blooming. Store stock have commanded high prices, and beef and mutton have sold at fair prices ; but lambs have not fattened equal to former years, be the feed ever so good, which we attribute to the excessive cold nights we have so long experienced. Labourers are well employed, and the Chartists among us still and quiet. — June 23, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 65 DEVON. (from the EXETER FLYING POST.) la our last report we drew a comparisea between the spring of 1838, and that of the present year, as far as it had then progressed, the result being decidedly in favour of the latter ; and rejoice to think we are still enabled, in this respect, to repeat our congratulations. Since that time, however, in this county we have ex- perienced weather unusually severe for the season, and such as in an agricultural point of view placed our prospects in jeopardy. The month of May, always as- sociated in our minds with feelings of gratitude and of joy, was ushered in by weather that caused all nature to burst forth into new life, but how soon the scene changed 1 On the 9th of that month, the wind blow- ing from the East and North quarters, was piercingly cold ; and continuing in these directions through seve- ral following days, the high grounds in this county, as well as many parts of the face of the less elevated coun- try were covered with snow. The ice was of conside- rable thickness, and storms of hail and of sleet were frequent. Vegetation, consequently, received a great check, and the apple and other fruits ; the early pota- toes, and several descriptions of garden productions, sustained irreparable injury. Notwithstanding, how- ever, the severity of this visitation, the wheats con- tinued to progress, and to a great extent preserve the healthy appearance they in April had put on. The bar- ley also, acclimatizing itself as it does in so many pa- rallels of latitude, bore it well ; as did, likewise, the oats. Under such circumstances, however, it was for- tunate that all descriptions of grain, as well as pulse in field culture, were very backward in this county. A state of things so ungeuial as this was succeeded by several days of fair weather, (the maximum of the ther- mometer attaining a range as high as 66,) and this by timely showers. Both cattle and sheep have done well, and the supplies at market have been abundant ; as also that for these good prices have been obtained. The supplies of grain of our own growth, have continued moderate, with prices good, and, for wheat and oats, tolerably steady since our last report. Fine malting barley, however, appears scarce, and has been much sought after at advanced prices. The season for col- lecting bark has been generally favourable, and for this article fair prices have been obtained. At the time we ■write, with the exception of the apple crop, the pros- pects are generally very good. With respect to that fruit, at no time this season has there been much reason to reckon upon an abundance, nj any trees not having recovered from the pernicious influences of last year. And now, though some cider appears likely to be made from a few orchards and scattered trees here and there, it does not seem probable there will be any quantity for the market, and the price of cider has advanced ac- cordingly. The hay harvest is begun under very fa- vourable auspices, and the burden is generally spoken of as being heavy. The harvest for grain, however, must be late in this county, and with us, the critical period of the wheat shooting into ear, is yet to a great extent to be passed. There has been no want of labour, and the population, notwithstanding the unceasing efforts that have been made to act upon them by un- worthy and corrupt influences, are contented and happy. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JUNE. Previously to abeut the 10th of this month, the crops of wheat, in all parts of England, did not ex- hibit that promising appearance, either as relates to this colour or growth, as has been generally noticed in most favourable corresponding periods of the year — the former being, particularly on poor soils, of a sickly hue : the latter unusually stunted. Hew- ever, the roots of the wheat plants, on examination, were found to be well grown, wide spreading, and to have thrown out a greater number of strong shoots thau often before witnessed. In these respects, the accounts which reached us, from the whole of our corn growing counties, were not at variance in scarcely a single instance. But we do not mean to as- sert that failures liave not occurred, still they have, doubtless, been fewer than scarcely ever before re- membered. Since the above mentioned period, the weather has been all that the most industrious farmer could possibly have desired or anticipated — we hav- ing been favoured with some line refreshing rains which, aided by warm intervenient sunshine, have worked wonders in the vegetable creation : indeed the impetus given to the growing corn has been al- most without parallel in any former season. Although the harvest will, possibly, be what is termed a late one, still it is not considered, from present appear- ances, that it will be so backward as that of last year. Nothing can be more promising than the bar- ley, oats, beans and peas now rapidly approaching maturity, yet the oats appear to have suffered some- what from the grub : but these are casualties expe- rienced, invariably, in a greater or less degree, in the months of May and June. In some parts of Essex, Kent, and Lincolnshire, the wire-worm has been committing extensive ravages upon the young wheat : but the rapidity of the growth has formed a strong barrier to any general devastation. Haymaking was partially commenced on the 20th, since which time numerous stacks of well made hay have sprung up throughout the kingdom. The crop will, it is supposed, prove a heavy one, especially in those parts situated in the immediate vicinity of the metropolis. There appears to be a good promise for most kinds of fruit in Herefordshire, Devonshire and Kent, ow- ing to which cider is selling at greatly depressed rates. All out-door farm labours are well in their place. Depastured fattening stock have fared extremely well, whilst the supply of green fodder has been very plentiful and good. Turnips and potatoes have come up well, and pro- mise abundantly ; yet the former have suffered con- siderably from the fly, but we are happy to say not to that extent as to endanger the crop. From Scotland, we have intimation of the crops looking very promising. It is admitted on all hands, that the stocks of wheat, in the granaries and on farms, are fast diminishing, and that the dealers are short of stock ; nevertheless, it is considered that prices cannot rise much beyond those at present ob- tained, at least whilst the present prospects continue. On the borders, wheat is rapidly coming into ear, and some portion of it will have fallen beneath the sickle, ere another fortnight has elapsed. All the principal grain markets have been scantily supplied with every description of grain, yet the trade has been in a sluggish state, at drooping currencies. In Ireland, the early sown barley does not appear so favourable as could be desired, the plants having become somewhat spindly ; but the crops of wheat, oats, beans and peas are going on favourably. In some parts, oats (on account of the available supply, since the exports have been very extensive to Eng- land, from the commencement of the year not being so extensive as in some former seasons) are com- manding high prices, and the shipments are on the decrease. Very little has beeii passing in wheat and barley. The growth of potatoes is fully antici- pated to be great. In most of our markets for the sale of agricultural produce the trade has been tolerably firm, but not to say — if we make some trifling exceptions — brisk, and no material variation Las taken place in the quo-, tations. 66 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Tlio laniliinj^ season of our great flock districts, has been broui^lit to a successful conclusion. We vcn;ret to state, that llie l)0]i bine in most of tlie plantations in I'^ast and JMid Kent is much in- fested with the fly — as man)' as thirty of these de- structive creatures having been seen upon one leaf, in some of the grounds. Honey dew is likewise ap- parent ; yet the bines have made surprising progress of late. As yet, but little speculation, owing to the uncertain state of the produce of the forthcoming picliing, has taken place in the duty. Notwithstanding that most kinds of fat stock are selling, at the present time, at somewhat higher rates tliaa tliose noted at the same period last year, several complaints have been made to us, by the Norfolk graziers, of the prices obtained for beef in Smithfield being by no means remunerative. At first, our readers will, it is conceived, consider such a state- ment erroneous ; but, on exaniining all the facts bear- ing on the case, it will be found tliat it has some foundation in trutii. Tiie principal ground of com- plaint is that the Norfolk beasts do not, as formerly, jiroduce the highest range of currency established in the above market — it being only the Scots received by steam vessels, from Scotland, which command the currencies. Before the use of steamers, it was the usual practice for the Scotch farmers and others in- terested in the breeding of catile, to dispose of their lean beasts to dealers fronr the north of J.ugland, wiio travelled into Scotland for that express purpose : now, however, scarcely any, comparatively speaking, are thus to be j)rocured, and even those fe^y are sold at exorbitantly high prices. The great facilities now offered for the conveyance of live stock from almost any part of North Britain to London are so adaiirnble, tliat both beasts and sheep from that quarter, come to band in a by far more excellent condition tiian those which travel on foot from Norfolk. Hence arises, in a great measure, the advantage wliich the Scotch breeders have over those residing in almost any part of England : still we doubt not the time will arrive when there will be less unequal competi- tion, bv most ©four ])rincipal owners of cattle being enabled to send their su])plies to the metropolis per railway — which mode will be found decidedly more advantageous than that at present adopted in sending by drift ; still that system cannot prevent the so much complained of scarcity of store stock, received into our grazing districts from Scotland. The following is our usual monthly statement of the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle Market, since the date of our last report. The number of beasts offering has been 10,422; of sheep and lambs, 119,436; of calves, 1,157 ; and of pigs, 2,560 ; whilst the prices have ranged as follows, viz. : — Beef, from 2s. 6d. to 4s. lOd. ; mutton, 3s. 6d. to 5s. ; lamb, 4s. lOd. to 6s. 4d.; veal, 4s. to 5s.; and pork, 3s. lOd. to 5s. per 81bs. to sink the offals. About 2,100 of the Scots, homebreds and runts, forming the above supplies, have been derived from Norfolk; 500 Scots, runts and homebreds, from Suffolk ; 350 Scots and runts, from Essex ; 300 Devons, Scots, runts and homebreds, from Cam- bridgeshire; 780 short-horns, from Lincolnshire; 5U0 short-horns, from Leicestershire ; i:50 short- horns and runts, from Northamptonshire ; 1,000 Herefords, from Herefordshire ; 900 Devons and runts, from Devonshire; 50 Devons and Herefords, from Hamp&hire ; 570 oxen, runts, Devons, Scots, and Irish beasts, from Warwickshire and Oxford- shire; 20 runts, from Pembrokeshire; 400 horned and polled Scots, together with 700 sheep, by sea, from Aberdeen and Perth ; 190 oxen, runts and Devons, from Sussex ; 70 cows and runts, from Surrey; 95 cows, runts, Scots and Devons, from Kent. The remainder of the bullock supplies was chiefly derived from the immediate neighbourhood of the metropolis. Yery few of the above animals have been beneath the middle quality. A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold iu Smithfield Cattle Market, on Monday, June 25, 1838, and Moaday, June 24, 1839. At per Qlhs. to si)ik the offals. June 25, 1828. June 21. 1839. s. d. s. d. s. d. a. d. Coarse & inferior Beasts 2 0to2 2 .. 2 8 to 2 10 Second quality do 2 4 2 6.. 3 0 3 4 Prime large Oxen 28 34. .38 42 Prime Scots, &c 3 8 40. .44 48 Coarse & inferior Sheep 30 3 4. .34 36 Second quality do 3 6 3 10 . 3 8 3 10 Prime coarse wooUcd do. 40 42. .42 46 Prime Southdown do. . 4 2 4 4.48 50 Lambs 410 6 0.. 5 2 6 4 Large coarse Calves ..4 0 4 6.. 4 0 4 6 Prime small ditto 4 8 5 10 .. 4 8 5 10 Large Hogs 3 10 4 0 .. 3 10 4 6 Neat small Porkers .,4 2 4 8.. 4 8 5 10 STTPPLIES. June 25. 1838. June 21. 1839. Beasts 3,104 2,602 Sheep and Lambs 23,220 27,420 Calves 250 270 Pigs 420 507 By the above comparison, it appears, that the supply of Monday, June 25, 1838, embraced 502 Beasts, more, 4,200 Sheep and Lambs, 20 Calves, and 87 Tigs less, than that of Monday, June 24, 1839. A considerable falling off has taken place in the receipts of slaughtered meat, from Scotland and all parts of England, up to Newgate and Leaden hall Markets, yet they have been, on the whole, moderate for the season, viz., 200 carcasses of beef; 3,800 do. of mutton ; 300 do. of lamb ; 900 do. of veal ; and 1,900 do. of pork, some portion of which has arrived, owing to the prevailing warm weather, quite unsaleable. LMPORTANT DECISION.— It has been decided at a County Petty Sessions, held at Salisbury, that the practice of employing aged men, iustead of able bodied labourers, to repair the roads, with the view of lessen- ing the amount coiatributed to the support of the poor, and thereby, in fact, increasing the way-rate, is illegal, and that an order on a farmer to contribute an unrea- sonable sum, charged to him, in common with the other inhabitants, for highway repairs, could not be sustained. The case in question was an appeal entered against the way-rate, by Mr. \V. Humby, farmer, of West Ham- ham, near Salisbury. In the course of the proceedings it was stated that the total annual sum charged upoa the parish for way -rates amounted to 92?., whilst the whole parish could be kept in repair for 25Z. a-year. MODE OF FEEDING CATTLE IN MAD A- GASCAR. — The provision is sometimes placed in a kind of rack, but it is also placed so high that the animal is compelled to stand, the whole time of feeding, in a position that forces the chief weight of its body on its hind legs. Whether this custom originated in accident or design, is uncertain, but it is universal, and is sup- posed to aid in fattening the animal better than our European mode of allowing them to stand on a level floor. Sometimes animals arc fed in this manner for three or four years, and attain an enormous size. — EUis^s History of Madagascar, vol, 1, p. 48, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 67 AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. APPLEBY FAIR— Monday was devoted to the sale of sheep, the show of which was larger by about 3,000 head than it has been for several years. Superior stock was in g'ood demand, and went off readily at re- munerating' prices ; and it was only the ivailings that hung long in the market, to impart something like an appearance of business to the last day's transactions. Half-bred hogs varied from 26s. to 32s. per head ; Che- viot wedder hogs sold generally at 28s. each ; and black-faced from 14s. to 16s. 6d. Gimmers varied greatly according to quality, and ranged, it may be said, from 14s to 203, 6d. The latter handsome price was paid for a lot from Kirkcudbrightshire, which formed the pride of the market, and mustered very nearly 200 strong. Any decline of price that occurred was con- fined to black-faced stock, which, on an average, may have been 2s. per head lower than last year ; while for Cheviots and other park kinds for feeding off, the ad- vance was considerable. Of black cattle the supply was also ku'gcr than usual ; goodly bullocks sold re- markably well, and the same remark applies to heifers. For a lot of three«years-old Galloways, the best in the market, the figure agreed on was 11/. 15s. per liead ; and there were top heifers that brought the long price of 11 Z. 10s. Highlanders were also in good demand, at prices varying from 8/. to 10/. 10s. I'wo-years-old queys rated from 6/. to 7/, 10s. ; and farrow cows from 6/. to 9/. Of the inferior stock shown it was believed a portion would remain unsold. RENFREW FAIR.— The attendance was not nu- merous. There was a large supply of milch cows. In- ferior sold from 7/. to 10/. Mr. Thomas Robertson, Capley, and Mr. Alexander Dunlop, Stewarton, had both large lots. Prices, ordinary quality, from 71. to 10/. Superior from 11/. to 15/. There was a consider- able number of farrow cows in the market, but there was not much demand for them. Upon the whole it was a very dull market. LANGHOLM FAIR-STATE OF CROPS, &c. ■ — The Rlay fair was held on the 11th inst. The cattle shown were generally speaking, not of first rate quality ; this deficiency was owing no doubt to the severe win- ter, the scarcity of fodder, and the long continuance of drought which made the pastures exceedingly bare. The demand for cattle was in consequence brisk, and the limited supply sold off readily at good ymces. One- year-old stirks were sold from 21. 10s. to 4/. 10s. ; two- year-old do., from about 5/. to 61. 10s. ; milk cows, ac- cording to quality, varied in prices from 7/. to 11/. lis. The late cold weather in May retarded vegetation of all kinds in tiiis district very much. The season, though airy and cold, was favourable for preparing the turnip land, and the winning of the peats in the high districts of the country. Since the rain began to fall crops of every description have greatly improved ; yet warm and genial weather, with balmy showers, are still greatly needed. CRIEFF TURRET MARKET.-This being our principal summer fair, was well attended. In the cattle market, however, the supply was far below the usual quantity, there being only about 120 head of cattle in the park. The seasonable rain which fell in the morn- ing seemed to infuse new life into the transactions, and had the effect of rising the prices from six to seven per cent. Good fat, which was scarce, was much inquired after, and sold readily from 7s. to 7s. 3d. per stone. There were a few two-year-olds, which sold from 4/. to 5/, lOs. per head. Milch cows were in good request, and brought from 8/. to 10/. each. The market was what is termed a brisk one, the whole being nearly sold off by one o'clock. TRINITY MUIR FAIR.-This great market com- menced on Wednesday with the sale of sheep, the show of which was fair, aud the demand being brisk, the market was cleared early at high prices. Thursday, there was a fine show of cattle, although not more than an average. Dealing was remarkably brisk ; and all sorts of beasts found purchasers at high prices. Best fat, 9s., inferior, 7s. to 7s. 6d. per Dutch stone, sinking offals. Prime two-year-old stots sold at from 9/. to 10/. ; three-year-olds at from 10/. to 17/. ; and drove cattle from 10/. to 15/. The market, on the whole, was excellent, and very few beasts left unsold. The best lot of three-year-old stots, twelve in number, belonged to Mr. IMustard of Fithie, and brought about 22/. per head. The best lot of drove cattle, about 200, belonged to Mr. Farquharson, Alford, and brought from 10/. t» 12/. per head. MELROSE FAIR.— There was a good supply ot>. grazing cattle, and, being a good demand, almost all were sold. Good two-year-olds brought from 9/. lo 12/. ; year-olds from 4/. 10s. to 6/. 10s. There were a great number of milch cows, which were nearly all disposed of at from 8/. to 12/. At TAUNTON FAIR there was a large supply of bullocks of all descriptions. The trade was languid throughout the day, and what was disposed of was at reduced prices, as compared with those at Tiverton Fair or our last Great Market. There was a much larger supply of fat beef than was expected, which met a sluggish sale at reduced prices. The supply of sheep was very large, which met a dull sale and at prices rather lower. The horse fair was numerously supplied with very indifferent horses. There were a few good nags and cart horses which fetched good prices, but the far greater portion was of indifferent character. At OSWESTRY FAIR cattle of every grade sold well, and met with steady sale. Fat cattle may be quoted at 6d. to 6:jd., and " half-meated" ones were worth 6d. per lb. Sheep were eagerly bought up at 6Jd. A large show of pigs sold well. There was a great number of horses, but of inferior kind ; clever animals obtained good prices. At BRIDGNORTH FAIR aattle and sheep sold well. Fat cows obtained 6|d. to 7d. per lb. ; cows with, calves were in demand ; and store beasts improved ia prices. Prime fat sheep obtained 7d., and those of in- ferior quality 6d. to 6|d. per lb. Wool 15d. to 17d; per lb. YORK FORTNIGHT FAIR.— There was a fair supply of Fat Beasts, which were well sold up, making from 7s. to 7s. 6d. per stone. Of Lean Beasts there was a good show, and part business doing. There was only a thin supply of Fat Sheep, which were readily disposed of, at from 6d. to 6M. per lb. There was a fair supply of Lambs, which were pretty well sold up, making from 7d. to 7^d. per lb. BOROUGHBRIDGE BARNABY FAIR.— This fair commenced this week, but Friday and Saturday would be the principal days. Up to Thursday night, there was a good attendance of respectable buyers, but good horses were scarce, and readily purchased— there being no want of spirit or money. BRADFORD SUMMER FAIR.— The show of cattle was below an average. Calves and Milch Cows were in tolerable demand at late prices, whilst cattle for " laying eff" fetched more money. In the afternoon a large quantity of Irish cattle came into the town, but met with only dull sale. The horse fair was superior to any that has been known for many years. A large number of heavy draught horses, of a superior description, were exhibited, and several were sold at high prices. Hack- neys were few in number and inferior in quality. THORNE FAIR, June 18.— There was a nume- rous attendance of purchasers, and the show of stock was good ; those of a fat description, however, were rather deficient, and averaged Irom 7s. 6d. to 8s. per stone. The supply of lean stock was considerable, and fetched high prices. Of sheep the supply was rather small, and unequal to the demand. There was a great number of horses shown, but they were of an inferior description, and difficult of sale. At CHEPSTOW FAIR on Saturday last, there was a short supply of wools, a thin attendance of buyers, 6'S THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and sulcs on the wliolc, dull ; prices from IGs. to 18i. j)er stone of 131bs. At IMonniouth, on Tuesday, tlierc was a larger supply of this article than usual ; prices varied from 15d. to W^d. per lb., some few prime lots realised 17d., and others, very inferior, were sold as low as Is. GARDENING OPERATIONS FOR JULY. For the management of pines, melons, and cucum- bers, see the article in last month's number. The vinery must still have plenty of air in dry weather, while any fruit remains to be cut ; slight fires should be made in cloudy days to dry up the moisture. The fruit should be frequently looked over, and all damp berries cat out to prevent decay. As soon as the crop is gathered, the engine must again be put in motion, and applied with sufiicient vigour to dislodge insects and to clean the foliage of dust. The borders should also have liberal supplies of water which should be continued until the leaves begin to drop. In the peach-house also as soon as the fruit is ga- thered, the engine must be applied with force if the trees are at all aflected with red spider, the borders too should have a plentiful supply of water. The sashes may be removed and applied to some other purpose, or they may be laid upln a shed, or some other dry place, till wanted. Attend to stove plants, remove some of the more hardy sorts to the green-house, shift, train, and prune, as the state of the plants may require, and destroy all kinds of insects. The green-house being now filled with hardy stove plants and tender annuals, must have plentiful supplies of air and water; remove all decayed leaves and attend to general neatness. Continue to propagate as directed in a former paper. Plants in pots out of doors, will now require abundant sup- plies of water and frequent syringings over head to refresh their foliage. Transplant late sown annuals, and shade and water in dry weather. About tlie end of the month, plant box edgings, cut evergreen hedges of all kinds, and prune such evergi-eens as require it ; let dahlias be staked and properly secured as they advance, and see to the staking of all other plants requiring support. Continue piping and laying carnations and pinks, and attend to the more choice sorts in pots ; fre- quently stir the surface of the mould, tie up the flower stalks neatly as they extend, and thin out the buds if fine flowers are required. Take up bulbous roots as they die down, and dry them &c., as advised last month. About the beginning, or towards the middle of the month is a good time to commence the operation of budding such sorts of fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs as are propagated in this way. AVhere the summer pruning of wall fruit trees has not been performed let it be attended to without farther delay, otherwise the fruit will be small, and of very inferior flavour. The crops should now be thinned out, the number left on each tree must be decided by the size, strength, and general health of the plant. Water should be abundantly administered to both root and branch until the fruit begin to ripen. Look sharply after insects, slugs, wasps° &c. All useless shoots on vines should be displaced and the wood required for nest year carefully nailed Take advantage of showery weather to plant out cauliflowers, brocolies, Brussels sprouts, savoys, borecole, endive, leeks and celery. Sow a few peas and IMazagan and kidney beans for a late crop, carrots for drawing in October and JS may be imported before the conclusion of the harvest. Unless, however, our farmers hold a much greater quantity of wheat than they now appear to do, the markets of censumption will be but moderately supplied during the remain- der of the corn season, two-thirds of which have cer- tainly not yet passed away ; and should any reports arise during that period unfavourable to the coming crop, the prospects of the country, already drained too deeply of the precious metals, will be anything but cheering. The attention of the legislature should be more extensively directed to agricultural pursuits than it has been now for many vears, for the subject is of the deepest importance. We hourly hear com- plaints made of the redundancy of the population, and annually are grants of money voted and plans formed for their transportation to the colonies. Many valuable men and i'amilies, with their property, avail themselves of these circumstances, go to the colonies, and become useless to the mother country ; whereas, was the same amount of money applied to the cultivation of waste lands at home, and to the extension of our most valuable fisheries, emplojmient in great abundance might be found for them in their own country, and their labour would add to her in- ternal wealth and strength. That Englishmen should bo sent to cultivate the wilds of America, whilst there is plenty of land at home nearly in a state of nature, is as perfect a paradox as can be well conceived ; and it is truly a matter of general sur- prise, that amongst all the plans for applying an effectual remedy to the unsatisfactory state of society, more particularly in Ireland, the cultivation of her morasses, and of the banks of her lakes and rivers, is scarcely ever alluded to by the representatives of her people in the Imperial Parliament ; for in this man- ner, and at little expence to the public, employment of the most valuable description may be found for her surplus population, without resorting to the heavy charges of emigration. Within a few years, under some system of this sort, and at a very small and very temporary advance of public money, the quantity and quality of agricultural produce maybe very con- siderably increased, and great national advantages would soon afterwards follow. A late harvest then would not cause so many fears as we find now ex- pressed respecting the critical state in which the empire mav be placed during the next autumnal months, should the weather become unfavourable for Siscuring the crops. During the whole of June, liowever, most genial rains have fallen, and they have been attended by that degree of warmth which the state of the growing plants of every description so much required. The irajirovement in the appear- ance of the fields is latterly, therefore, very visible ; indeed, it resembles the work of the magician more than anything else, and increases the hopes of the agriculturist, that, should matters continue as fa- vourable as they appear to be at the present moment, he may still gather an average crop of wheat. The spring crops have suffered in a greater pro- portion by the inclemency of the weather than the winter wheats did, but the very favourable change in the weather which has occurred since the end of May has been attended by results equallj' favourable as those which have been visibly made in the coming- wheat crop. The barley plants have, no doubt, suf- fered in a very material degree, but they are now assuming the appearance of health, and a continua- tion of the present favourable season may yet render this crop a productive one. The old barle3's are now nearly exhausted, but the season for their consump- tion by the malt trade has also passed away, and ])rices therefore remain rather at nominal quotations than otherwise. They were remunerating to the barley grower during the whole of last season, for the deficient state of the wheat crop last harvest rendered the consumption of a considerable quantity of barley necessary for mealing purposes, and this circumstance tended to maintain the very favourable prices which were paid for it during the whole of the malting season. When the new barley crop comes into the market for sale, it will, however, very probably again command fair prices, for the stocks of malt and of spirits now on hand are not so large as they would have been had the value of their raw material been more moderate than it was during the whole of last vear. These fair prospects should not, however, induce those who are interested in the growth and in the consumption of barley from per- severing in their eflbrts for obtaining from the legis- lature a very considerable remission in the amount of duties now chargeable on malt and on English made spirits. To remit one-third part, at least, of the former would be a general advantage, and would at the same time very considerably improve the pub- lic revenue. It would increase the consumption of barley used in brewing by 3,000,000 qrs. annually, and it would draw rents and labourage from lands at present in an absolute state of uselessness, to the value of as many millions sterling. It would be of the utmost importance to the cultivators of bar- ley, in as far as it would open additional markets for their produce, without adding the slightest expense to the great body of consumers ; the additional value 72 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of barley cultivation would, in every probaLility, be more tban equal to tbe expense, wbich an increased consumption would render necessary, and thousands of families would thus be enabled to consume the old Englisli beverage of beer, the use of which their slender means at present entirely deprive them of ; the land proprietors would gain a large addition to their present annual incomes, and the 'i'reasury also would receive its fall share of the universal bene- fit, which would arise from this equitable reduction in the rates of high duty at present payable on that article of absolute necessity, called malt. Barley, un- der the present system, pays upwards of one (juarter of the national public expenditure, which amount is certainly not so deeply complained of, as is the man- ner in which it is imposed. That malt may continue to pay into the treasury six millions sterling annually is by no means inconsistent with the increase of the quantity now actually in consumption to nine millions of quarters, nor would the increase in the consump- tion of home made spirits, which mightbe occasioned bv the reduction of tlie home made spirit duty in England from 7s. 6d. to 4s. (k\. per gallon, reduce, in any manner, the six millions sterling now annually received into the Treasury on British made spirits. That lower duties would add to the quantity of ar- dent spirits now actually consumed throughout the United Kingdom, cannot he established on any au- thority whatever. The quantity of wholesome home- made duty-paid spirits might be doubled, but this would be done entirely at the expense of smuggling, a trade which heretofore has supplied, and continues to supply, very little short of half the spirits consumed in England, without placing one pound into her Ma- jesty's treasury. This illicit trade is, at the present moment, one of the chief sources from whence crime springs, and to put it down effectually, cannot be done, excepting by the reduction of duty to that standard, which would render the profits of smug- gling not equal to the punishment attending its de- tection. Low duties in Scotland and in Ireland bave, within these few years past, nearly doubled the amount of duties paid on spirits in both these countries into the Treasury, and have been the cause of the perfect suppression of smuggling, and in England similar causes would very naturally be productive of similar effects. It is, therefore, in every respect necessary that the duties now imposed on manufactured barley should be materially reduced, as much for the sake of public morality, as for the benefit of agriculture, for the increase of the revenue, and fertile real interests of the community at large. Since the beginning of the present year, the sup- plies of oats have been fully equal to the demand for them, in all the great markets of consumption, and moderate, although at the same time remunerating prices have been tbe consequence. The favourable working of the corn laws in Ireland, bave almost solely contributed to this most beneficial eitect. The preference which the Irish farmers have received in nil the British oat markets of consumption over those of foreign nations, has encouraged them to apply all their energies to the cultivation of oats, and the consequence has been as we have stated above ; they have amply supplied our wants, and the money which we have paid for their produce, is again in active circulation amongst the industrious classes. whatever may be their denominations. Under tbe patronage of these laws more grain of all descriptions has again been sown there this season, than has been done in any preceding year. The unfavourable state of the weather till lately, produced consequences however, equally injurious to vegetation in Ireland, as those were which we bave experienced in Great Britain, and as yet it cannot be ascertained whether any actual damage has been done. The genial rains however, which fell during the month of June, have, at all events, operated most favourably in the gene- ral appearances of the crops there, certainly not less so than they have done in this part of the ein- pire ; the oats in particular, are rapidly coming for- ward, and have already assumed a luxuriant aspect ; there is therefore, at all events, the prospect of an- other good crop of oats in particular in Ireland, and as our growth of this article in England and in Scot- land falls away annually, and is not now nearly equal to our home consumption, it is more than probable that a portion of our wealth will be again expended in that part of our empire for oats during the next corn season, and not be unprofitably remitted to fo- reign nations for supplies of them, wbich would have been absolutely necessary, had the cultivation of Ire- land not been very properly encouraged by the corn laws under the protection of which the cultivation of wheat and barley in that fine country must in a few years, be as successfully prosecuted as is, at the present time, that of oats. In Lincolnshire, Cam- bridge, Scotland, and other districts, in which oats were formerly cultivated very extensively, circum- stances have, for some years past, turned the atten- tion of farmers to tbe growth of wheat and of other articles of agricultural produce, more valuable than oats, and consequently the appearance of the latter article in Great Britain, whether it be favourable or the contrary is not of much importance in a national point of view. The favourable change in the wea- ther, we may however mention, has given them too, a favourable appearance, and induces a general ex- pectation that for the breadth sown with them the produce may be abundant, should the autumn not be less fine than has been the month of June. We have frequently had occasion to state that all foreign corn markets, which have egress to the sea are regulated in the value of agricultural produce there chiefly by the prices obtained for the same ar- ticles in London. This, at tbe present time, however, is not exactly the state of the corn markets abroad, for, in addition to London prices, no inconsiderable degree of speculation on the probable rates of the British corn duties has been already entered into ; at Hamburg, for instance, we find, that fine heavy red wheat.i are held for prices which will be upwards of 50s. per qr. free on board, and which could only have been purchased for this market on the calcula- tion of the wheat duty being considerably lower tban it is at the present moment. In the Baltic ports, calculations of the same nature, but not certainly to the same extent, have also been made, and these cir- cumstances clearly prove that a fixed duty would be paid by all who purchase grain abroad for our mar- ket, and that like freight and other expenses, it would, on all occasions, be included in the original cost abroad of all speculations of this description, intended for our consumption. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. n CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE, Per Qr. Per Qr. Wheat, Essex & Kent ..red.. 64 66 68 white . ./O 74 76 S-iffolk& Norfolk,, .. 64 65 do... 70 72 Irish ,, .. 54 58 do.... 62 64 Old, red 68 70 do,., 76 78 RvE old 40 42 new.... 44 46 BARr.EV, Grinding 31 36 MaltiHg 40 42 Chevalier 42 44 Iriiib 32 34 Bere... — 30 Malt Suffolk &N«rtolk 66 67 nro\vn..56 Oo Kingston & \V.ire 66 68 Chevalier 6S 70 OAT3,Yorkshire&LiBeelnsh,feed 27 28 Potatoe..29 30 Yo'ighall& Cork black .. 26 27 Cork,whitc26 27 Dublin 25 27 Westport — 28 CloHmel 28 29 Liinericli28 30 liondonderrv 26 27 Sligo. ..26 27 Newry....'. 23 30 Galway 23 24 Watertord, white 25 27 Black.. 26 27 Scotch Feed 2D 30 Potatoe 30 32 Beans, Tick — 38 SinalHO 42 44 Peas, C'rey 34 36 maple.. 34 38 White 38 42 boilers., 42 44 Seeb, Rape 32/ 36/.. Irish 25/ per last English Red Clover, fine 64 70 80 96s percwt. White 66 70 80 903 Mustard, White. 123 14s. .brown 21s 22s per bush. Tares. .32 36 old 30 34. .new 60 — s per qr. Flour, Town-made 60 —. .Suffolk . .59 52 per sk of Stockton &Norfolk50 52.. Irish fines 52 53 280 Ih. Foreign Grain and Flour in Etvul, Wheat, Dantzic 60 70 Hamburg 60 64 Baiiley 30 32 Oats Potatoe 20 — feed 15 to 16 Beans 30 — Peas 24 27 Flour, American perbrl. 40 42 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Week ending May 10th .. 17th .. 24tU . . 31st .. J une 7th . , 14th ., At{;rregateAverr.gt rif the six weeks which regul.ites the duty Duties payable in London till Wed-| nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Outports till the arrival of the Mail of that day from Loiidiin l>o. on gf.uu from Brilisli pnssessisns out of Europe .. Wheat. 70 6 71 2 70 8 70 5 69 7 69 2 Barleyi Oatsl Rye.BcanslPeas. 39 8 39 1 39 0 38 7 38 10 39 1 24 11141 5 38 8 25 ski 5:39 0 25 10 41 9 38 9 26 4 40 5 39 8 26 4|43 11 39 11 26 7,41 4 39 10 70 3 ! 39 0 3 4 19 3 0 6 0 38 5 38 1 38 4 38 7 39 7 38 10 38 8 8 O'll 0 12 6 i 3 0 3 0 3 0 Foreign Flour, 6s. 5d, per 1961bs, British Possessions, do. 3d. per 1961bB. COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES AVERiVGES from the by the Imp. Quarter, j corresponding Gazette from the Gazette, of I Friday last, June 21, j 1839. j s. d. Wheat 69 2 'Wheat Barley 39 l' Barley Oats 26 7 1 Oats 22 7 Rye 41 4iRYE 35 9 Beans 39 10 [ Beans 37 7 Peas 38 10 j Peas 35 8 ia the last year, Friday Juae 22, 1838. 8. d. 65 6 30 11 SEED MARKET. June 24. Little or no alteratioa has taken place in the value of any desciiptioa of Seeds since our last. To- day there was a steady retail inquiry for most articles from the Corn chandlers at about pre- vious rates. New turnip seed may now soon be ex- pected at market, which will probably cause prices to decline. In Linseed and Rapeseed there was not much passing, and the value of each remained unvaried. Cakes of both kinds as last quoted. CLevER Enfflish, red..43 66 85 white 48 G2 per cwt."l Dutch — — _ _ jg German J .^ «. .„ ca l3 French T^ '^ ^^ ^* f g American — — — — ' r' Trefoil 12 25 J Rapeseed, English .^34 .£36 foreign .£28 .^£30 per last. Linseed, English sowing.. — — — — per qr Baltic — —crushing 38 40 Mediter.& Odessa— — 40 44 ,, Henipsecd, small .'54 36 large 38 42 Coriander, new 18 20 fine 20 21 percwt. Mustard, brown ),.,.,_ white 10 13 per bushel new ]^^ ^' 8 12 Turnip Seed, new Swedes 22 25 other st3.28 36 „ Rye Grass, English 30 42 Scotch 18 40 ,, Tares, Winter 6s Od to 6s 6d Canary, new 73 7G Carawtiy — — 49 51 extra 52 Linseed Cakes, foreign... 8/. to 8/. 5s. per ton, Rapeseed «lo. do 5/. 10s. to 6/. PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, June 24, PRKSENT PRICES, Kent Pockets, 1838 4 4 0 to 4 IS 0 Ditto choice, do , 5 12 0 — 8 8 0 East Kent pockets, do 4 15 0 — 9 (I 0 Suss?x do do 3 15 0 — 4 0 0 Kent bags do 4 10 0 — 6 0 0 EastKentdo. do 4 10 0 — 8 0 0 lS37s 3 8 0 — 315 0 1836-3 2 0 0 — 2 16 0 WOOIa MARKETS. BRITISH. June 24. A brisk demand for skin wool and middle sorts of fleece wool, for flannels, sprancr up last week; and a pretty considerable quantity of business was transacted in those sorts at an advance of O^d. a pound upon the prices of some days previous. Blanket wool also, the trade for which seemed to have died quite away, has been in active request once more ; and has realized hig-her prices than could have been reasonably expected. Other sorts remain in about the same state, relative to demand, as tliey have been in for some time. That there should have been so much healthy acti- vity in the trade durini? a Bank of England-money- mavket-pressure, must strike with great surprise every one who considers tlie matter ; but the secret of the wiiole is that the trade generally is in a healthy state, for overtrading', by either dealers or manufucturers, has not been the order of the day, and the consequence is that the slightest improvement in the northern markets is felt immediately in the soutli, and a trade with Ame- rica is only wanted to produce general liveliness and prosperity in the wool business. With reference to the present season of the year when the clip of wool is taking place, we would consider our responsibility as public advisers of the farmers, and would moreover congratulate them on their ability to watch for the most profitable time for selling their wool, and would promise them that it shall be our endeavour to keep them acquainted with the ever-varying state of the wool market, and, if in the coming year, specula- tion should be indulged and raise wool to a high price, to do as we have done in former years, namely, to warn 74 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. them not to keep their wool when they are able to ob- tain prices high and profitable. Perib, 8. d. s. d. Down Teirjrs 1 7tel 8 Half-bred Hogs 0 0 0 0 Ewes and Wethers 1 3J 1 4 BlaiiketWool 0 10 15 Flannel do 11 15 SkinConibin^ 1 U 1 4 EXETER. — With respect to this article, and in refer- ence to this market, we have nothing,' to report beyond what we have stated for the last fortnight, namely, liiat it i* stagnant, — the dealers, it is true, ofler 9jd. per 11j. for Yolic Wool, but few indeed are disposed to part with their stocks on these terras. If we look around, how- ever, as, under such circumstances, we conceive it a duty we owe the agricultural public to do, we have cir- cumstances mucii more cheering and encouraging to state. Within the last few day* then, and in this neigh- bourhood, a fine lot of ten packs of Yolk Wool has been purchased by a manufacturer, for one hundred guineas, or ten pence halfpenny per lb. 'J'liat there has been dulness in the trade is undeniable, but this does not seem to show, and to hear it must give pleasure to all classes of persons, that there are, at least, symptoms of a better state of things, and it may l)e hoped that prices will progress accordingly. Washed Wools arc — Knott Wool, 12.id. to 13d.; Dorset Horn, 13id.to 14d. per lb. Sorts — Shorts :— Coarse and Short Coarse, 8d.; Broad Head, 9d, ; lied and Pinions, 9^d. to 9:?d. ; Kent Head, lOd.; Fine Head, lid. ; Cornisii Green, ll|d. to 12d. ; Matching, 12d. per lb.--Stripes~ Cornish Stripe, 14d. to 14\A. ; North Devon Stripe, 14|d. to Uid. per lb. Fell Wools,— Long fine Fells, 13d.; Short do., 12d.; and ordinary parcels of Skin Wool, lOd.to lid. per lb. TopsUfd.to 18d.; Comb- ing Super, 19^d. to 20^d, per lb. WAKEFIELD.— There is nothing essentially to re- port of the state of this market to last week, except that some of the staplers evince a greater disposition to quit than of late, prices, as far as we can learn, are unaltered. NORTHALLERTON.— Hogs sold from 15d. to 16d., hog and ewe I5d. to 14^., ewe 12d. to 13|d., Scotch 6d. to 7d. per lb. RIPON. — There was a moderate show of Wool, but a scarcity of buyers ; few sales were effected and those at lower prices. The price varied in proportion to the quantities of ewes and hogs in each clip from 13d. to 15jd. per lb. YORK.— The market to-day has been exceedingly well supplied with Wool, and the attendance of buyers ■was very numerous. Prices are a little in favour of buyers, and the business done was extensive at the fol- lowing prices: hog I6d,, hog and ewe 14d. and 15d. to 15jd., ewe, 12^d. to 13§d. per lb. LEEDS, June 21. — Sales of combing wool have con- tinued dull during the present week, and prices may be quoted a shade lower. Clothing sorts of naiddle quality are scarce and sell rather more freely at late prices. The manufacturers still confine their purchases to such kinds of wool only as they want for immediate use. DUBLIN, Wool Crane, 25 Ushers Quay.— There has been a very large supply of wool exposed for sale on the 20th inst., when nearly the entire sold freely at a shade higher than our last week's quotations. Wool. — A large quantity was brought to market since our last, most of which met a ready sale, and in several instances a slight advance was obtained over our last quotations, particularly for fine haired parcels well hoy- ged. Ewes and wethers, 20?. to 21s.; mixed lots, 21s. to 22s.; hogs, 22s. 3d. to 22s. 9d. An'oiheu Repout. — There was a good supply of wool at market this morning, which was bought freely, principally by speculators for the French trade ; the English manufacturers are not buying, the price being too high for their present use and being of opinion that it will be lower. Ewes, 20s. 6d. to 20s. i9d.; all wethers, 21s.; mixed Iots,21s. to 22s,; hogget, 22s. 6d. to 23?. LIVERPOOL, June 22. Scotch.— la consequence of the Bank of England having raised the rate of interest the trade has suffered considerable restriction. Business has throughout the week been exceedingly limited and there is every pro- bability of a continued stagnation. We continue our last quotations, which must be considered as nominal ; though prices have unquestionably a downward ten- dency. Per Steneot 241b». s. d. s. d. Laid II i(:lilaiid Wool, from .... 11 OtoU 3 Wliite do. do Laid Crossed do 12 0 12 C Wniilicd do, do 13 0 14 0 LaidChi'viot, do 14 6 15 G Washeddo, do li) 0 21 0 White do. do 28 0 30 0 Import this week 87 bags. Previously this year 3,092 do. Total 3,179 FoiiEiGN, — The greatest dulness and inactivity exist in the Foreign Wool Rlarket, all descriptions are much de|)ressed, but no decided quotations can be given at present, there are no visible symptoms of improvement. Arrivals this week, 137 bales ; previously this year, 34,4b 1 bales— total, 34,.'398 bales. FOREIGN. Junk 24. The demand for superior German wool is active, at fully previous rates ; but a few sales of the secondary kinds of Colonial wools have been effected, at a reduc- tion of Id, per lb. on the currencies noted in our last report. IMPORTS OF WOOL.— Quantity of wool entered at Hull for Home Consumption, during the week ending June 13. From Hamburgh 157,608 lbs. From Rotteidam 13,508 From Petersburg 92,7*0 From Odessa , 26,880 Total 291,079 Wool on which the Home Consumption Duties have been paid at London, Liverpool, Briitol, and Hull, during the last week: — WOOL. Spanish, /yonf/on lb. Australian, do lb. Other Sorts, do lb. Liverpool lb. Bristol lb. Hall lb. This Year, Same time previous to in the last week. last Year. 895.204 972,712 1,956,399 1,658,575 5,834,829 5,218,029 4,514,237 4,115.774 23.3(10 4,000 5,597,291 5,829.321 THE WOOL TRADE, London, June 20.— The wool trade, like almost every other branch of com- merce at the present moment, is very dull. The im- ports in the week ending to-day have amounted to 1700 balef , of which 461 were from Hobart Town, 273 from Australia, 226 from the Cape of Good Hope, 341 from Russia, 62 from Spain, and the rest from Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the East Indies. POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK, WATER-SIDE, June 24. The liberal supply of Potatoes as reported in our last has been succeeded during the week by the annexed arrivasi, viz., from Devonsliire 571 tens, Scotland 276, Guernsey 145, Y'orkshire 70, Kent 10, Wisbeach 40, making a total of 1,112 tons, a large supply for the sea- son, which is now nearly terminated. Sales for good samples (especially late Devons) has been steady through the past week, and is likely to continue till the season is finished. York Reds . Devons .... Scotch Reds Per Ton. 90s to WOs — sto 90s , .70s to SOs Per Ton. Guernsey Blues bOs Wisbeach 70s Kent Wliites /Os THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. AUGUST, 1839. No. 2.— Vol. III.] [New Series. THE PLATE. Our first plate, — from a painting by W. H. Davis, Animal Painter to the Queen Dowager, and engraved by Beckwith, — represents cattle crossing a brook, the most conspicuous amongst which is a short-horned bull, the property of J. King, Esq., of Ormsby Abbey, Lincolnshire, and purchased by him when a calf from W. Cropper, Esq., of Laceby, and was named " Ormsby." Ormsby was got by Young Midas, dam by Barmpton ; lation ; g. g. d. by Young Favourite. Youns; Midas was grandam, Constel- ,..^ . .o bred by Mr. Wiley, of Bransby, near York, and got by Old Midas, which can be seen in the Herd Book, No. 435; Barmpton, No. 54; Constellation, No. 163; Young Favourite, No. 254. Ormsby has got as much good stock as any bull in the county. ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. Sir, — We shall now, as originally contemplated, follow up the observations contained in our last letter, by taking into our consideration that part of the subject which embraces the cultivation of the soil. This subject is so comprehensive in its nature, and admits of so many nice distinctions, that our limits will not permit us to enter so fully into the dift'crent details connected with it, as its Import- ance would demand ; neither do we consider our- selves altogether adequate for minutely resolving the complicated questions relating to the most efficient mode of improving our cultivation. To be satisfied, however, that the proper cultivation of the soil should [form thc'basis of every agricultu- ral improvement, we have only to reflect upon the great increase of produce which is now raised in certain districts compared to what was formerly grown, and we shall find that this increase has al- most altogether proceeded from the introduction of a more judicious system of cultivation. Indeed on n)any lands the produce has been more than doubled within these very few years, and on those soils which were formerly considered compara- tively useless, may now be witnessed most splendid crops : and this improvement has been produced not by any intricate operation, but by means at once simple and rational, viz., by in- creasing the depth of active soil. The attention of agriculturists has been until lately principally OLD SERIES.'} directed to the cultivation of a few inches of the surface soil only, and although we are aware that frequent attempts had been made in various dis- tricts, by means of the trench plough, to remedy this defect, yet such exertions very rarely proved successful, especially on retentive soils, until Mr. Smith of Deanston preceded deep working by his system of thorough drainage. It was the want of thorough drainage which formerly rendered deep working or trench plough- ing a hazardous and dangerous operation, especi- ally on those heavy clay lands with a close sub- soil ; and although we are aware that the frequent drain system was pursued by several agriculturists in the Carses, Lothians, and Ayrshire, before Mr. Smith put it in practice, yet we deny that the principles upon which thorough drainage and deep working are founded, were either understood or practised until Mr. Smith practically exemplified and proved the utility of the system upon his farm of Deanston, about fifteen years since. Mr. Smith since that period has not only made his improve* ments patent to the public, but he has also used his utmost endeavours to disseminate the knowledge of their utility amongst agriculturists ; and the ad- vantages of the system, for the purpose of ameli- orating those heavy clay soils, are so apparent, that the discovery of Mr. Smith has, as it were, created a new era in the cultivation of these 'lands. To enable us however the better to comprehend the merits of what may in truth be styled Mr. Smith's system of thorough drainage and deep G [No. 2.— VOL. XL 76 THfi ^AtlMfiR'S MAGAZINE. working, we shall briefly notice a few of those substances of which the soil is principally com- posed. The three principal primitive eartlis are sand, clay, and lime. These are frequently in a state of minute division forming impalpable mat- ter ; and they occur also in the form of sand, gravel, and rubble. When sand constitutes the whole of any soil, it is incapable of retaining moisture, and of course incapable of supporting the growth of plants. Clay on the contrary has a strong attraction for moisture, but when unmixed with sand is barren and unfruitful. Soil that is formed of pure carbonate of lime is like pure clay and sand, barren and incapable of supporting ve- getable life. It would therefore appear before a soil can be fertile that it must have the power of imbibing, retaining, and giving out to plants, a proper degree of moisture. " Water," says Stew- art, " is necessary to the growth of plants. It is essential to the juices or extract of vegetable mat- ter which they contain, and unless the soil by means of commutation be fitted to retain the quantity of water requisite to produce those juices, the addition of manure will be useless. JManure is ineifectual towards vegetation, until it becomes soluble in water ; and it would even remain use- less in astate of solution if it so absorbed the water as entirely to exclude the air ; for in that case the fibres or mouths of the plants would be unable to perform their functions, and they would soon drop off by decay." Kirwan observes, " where rain to the depth of twenty-six inches falls per annum, the j)roportion of the three primitive earths to form a fertile soil, should be 5(5 per cent, of sand, 14 of clay, and 30 of calcareous matter." The merit of these proportions consist in the soil being so composed as to have it in its power to supply a sufficiency of moisture to the plants, and at the same time maintain that mechanical ar- rangement throughout all its parts, so that no in- terruption be given to a ready escape of all super- fluous moisture, and a free circulatian of the atmospheric air. It will however be found that a very great part of the soil of Great Britain is com- posed of very different proportions to that which would seem to constitute a fertile soil. Indeed the soil of many districts consists almost wholly of clay, and consequently their cultivation has hither- to been rendered a matter of extreme uncertainty, from the mechanical arrangement being so liable to be disorganized by an excess of either wet or drought, the pulverization in either case being completely destroyed. The property which all soils inherently possess of alternate expansion and con- traction, according to their comparative state of wetness or dryness, is also of service to explain the theory of pulverization. Indeed were it not for this property it would be altogether impossible to prepare our heavy clay soils for the reception of the seed. Fallows no doubt are of use, but they are only of use in virtue of it. In a favourable season, for example, with plenty of sunshine and moderate showers, clay fallows can be reduced to a very fine state of pulverization, because the con- tractibility and expansibility of the soil are then in powerful operation, and the processes of nature and of art mutually act and re-act upon one an- other. In extreme seasons again, whether wet or dry, pulverization naturally does not take place, and therefore summer fallows always must be, in this country at least, uncertain and temporary. It was however, until very lately the only alternative known to the most experienced agriculturist, and the only means employed by him for renovating and reducing strong soils to a state of friability. It will therefore require little argument on our part to show that when a soil is so constituted as to require a blank summer fallow every fourth year or so, to restore it to a jjroper mechanical arrangement, that it must prove not only expen- sive, but comparatively speaking, very unprofit- able; and such being the fact we must again recur to the system of thorough drainage and deep work- ing, as tending materially to remedy this defect. From what has already been presented to the pub- lic by Mr. Smith and several other individuals, in commendation of the system, and its utility in re- ducing even the most obdurate clay soils to a per- manent state of pulverization, so as almost to pre- clude the necessity of vacant fallowing altogether, it would be superfluous for us to go into all the details belonging to the subject. We shall there- fore content ourselves with merely noticing a few of those errors which have crept into the practice of individuals while endeavouring to carry out the system as recommended by Mr. Smith, and we cannot help remarking that there are many who have certainly bestowed very little consideration upon that gentleman's instructions, or have formed an erroneous opinion regarding the principles upon which the system is founded. Much misconcep- tion certainly prevails respecting the term tho- rough drainage, if we may be allowed to judge from the practice of many individuals while en- deavouring to obtain thorough dryness. It would appear from the comparative shallowness and uni- formity of depth at which many of their drains on the frequent system is formed, that they believed the composition of the soil was uniform to an in- definite depth, and that relieving the soil from the water which falls on |its surface in the shape of rain, was all that was required to obtain the end in view, whereas nothing could be more erroneous, for unless the stratas of gravel, 6cc., which lie at various depths from the surface be cut and al- lowed to empty themselves, the work can never be complete, and thorough dryness cannot be ex- pected. We admit there are many fields the composition of whose subsoil are of a retentive and uniform nature, where to go beyond a certain depth would be only to incur unnecessary expense, but there are others whose composition is very different, where the stratas of clay and gravel are some- times found alternately, and at other times mixed in various ways; hence the necessity of ascertain- ing beforehand not only the composition of the subsoil, but the positions in which the stratas lie from the surface, as a little reflection will then enable the agriculturist to adopt the most judi- cious method of laying off" his drains. To enable the farmer to do this correctly, it will however be necessary to dig pits from five to seven feet deep in diffei'ent parts of the field, the expense of which will be amply rewarded from the perfect know- ledge which he will thus obtain respecting the nature of the subsoil, as the size of the drains, whether as respects their depth or wideness, will depend much upon this particular. If the subsoil is strong and retentive clay and extends to a depth of three or four feet, and stones are to be the material used, then the entire depth of the drain would require to be from thirty-six to thirty-seven inches, that is, seventeen to eighteen inches to he filled with stones, leaving eighteen to twenty in- ches for cultivation. If, however, tiles are to be the material used, four to five inches less depth will be sufficient, but under no circumstances THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 77 would we recommend the use of tiles unless rest- ing upon soles, and sLx inches at least of small stones or son^e other porous material he placed on the top of them. Care should also be taken that due attention be bestowed upon the preparation and character of the material of which drain tiles are to be composed so as to ensure their perma- nency. This depth of drain we consider as appli- cable to the above description of soil, but in those sorts where stratas of gravel, &c. prevail, which is of very frequent occurrence, it will in many in- stances be necessary to extend the depth of every third or fourth drain to three and four feet, and sometimes more, according to circumstances, for unless this is attended to, thorough dryness will not be obtained, as those fissures which are pro- duced in the subsoil by thorough drainage will not take place to the extent required, until those strata arc completely emptied of all superfluous moisture. It may indeed be supposed that the short space between the drains would secure perfect and uni- form dryness, and the force of this remark we would at'once admit, provided those stratas inva- riably shelved to the surface ; but so long as they remain embedded a few inches below the reach of the drains, we need not expect a beneficial result. Under these circumstances the advantage of mak- ing a few of the drains deeper than the rest will be apparent, as abed of clay resting upon a bed of gravel full of water must always keep the land in a damp state, and retard the formation of tho?e fissures which are essential to the gradual amelio- I'ation of the soil, and forms the essence of tho- rough drain.nge. It will also be obvious that when these gravelly strata are cut, the deep drains will have the power of drying a gi-eater extent of sur- face, from the circumstance of the gravelly sub- stratum being now rendered dry, instead of being as formerly a receptacle for the superfluous moist- ure, and as a consequence the subsoil will now rest upon a dry and porous bottom. It nmst be observed, however, that the system of thorough drainage however perfect, is not ren- dered complete until the operation of subsoil ploughing is accomplished. Many farmers, we are aware, consider their task finished when they have completed the drainage to their satisfaction, whereas it is merely a part of the system and only a means toward an end, and subsoil ploughing will in most instances be found indispensable to its perfect completion. When rain water falls on the surface all that is superfluous naturally sinks to the bottom of the furrow, or in other words, to the subsoil, and if the latter is retentive the water will there remain stagnant, hence the necessity of stirring the sub- soil to prevent the water meeting with any inter- ruption until it arrive at what may be denominated the second surface, from whence it will percolate, seeking the loweft level, until it reach the drains. It has been thought, and said indeed, that those fissures consequent upon thorough drainage will prove sufficient for this purpose, but it must be only under very peculiar circumstances that this necessary operation of subsoil ploughing can be dispensed with, besides it is trusting to an uncer- tainty which may cause much disappointment and loss ; for in these damp clay soils the lower strata or subsoil is so far removed from and impervious to the direct influence of the sun and air, that un- less these fissures are superinduced by the aid of the subsoil plough, a considerable time may elapse before they naturally take place, at all events, and under all circumstances, this operation expedites amelioration to a very great degree when it is judiciously performed. It may however be re- marked that there are many thousand miles of drains executed on the close system which will not admit of this operation on account of being filled up to within ten and twelve inches of the surface; but those individuals have unquestionably formed a most erroneous estimate of the importance of deep working and have thus deprived themselves of the advantages to be derived from its adoption, for in our opinion thorough draining of itself however beneficial, is not more important than deep working, and it is only by adopting the for- mer that we are enabled to execute the latter ope- ration with safety; and when we have thus in- creased the depth of the cultivated portion of the earth's surface, no definite limits can be assigned to the productive powers of the soil. It is neces- sary however to use the subsoil plough with cau- tion and to perform the operation judiciously. Many individuals subsoil their ground when it is in a soft pliant condition, so that in place of breaking the soil in pieces, the plough is merely dragged through it, thereby doing harm instead of good, anl in fact preventing the water more effec- tually from reaching the drains than previously, by creating, as it were, circles or cups for holding it. This injudicious use of the subsoil plough has tended very materially to prejudice the minds of many agriculturists against it, whereas their own ignorance was the cause of all the evil. We would therefore recommend all those who intend using the subsoil plough to examine minutely into the state of their subsoil before commencing opera- tions, and upon no account to persevere unless there is a prospect of the plough leaving in its course openings for the escape of the water, for they may rest assured that the desired ameliora- tion can be only obtained by a judicious applica- tion of the instrument. We may also remark that much misconception prevails with respect to sub- soil and trench ploughing ; these two operations being often confounded together without making any distinction between them, whereas no two operations are more distinct or more different in their immediate results. In confirmation of this opinion we have only to refer to the practice and experience of Mr. Smith. That gentleman being well aware of the compact nature of the subsoil on Deanston farm, was led to devise some means whereby he might be enabled to break it up or stir it, so that the water might readily descend and make its way toward the drains. The principal obstacle which presented itself against the accom- plishment of this object was the barren nature and general poverty of the subsoil. Mr. Smith was aware that he could not bring this to the sur- face with the trench plough without endangering the fertility of the whole mass for perhaps many years to come, and hence the idea of subploughing first occurred to him, by which means the subsoil would be stirred without bringing as much to the surface as could in any shape endanger the ferti- lity of the active soil. He thus attained the end he had in view. The atmospheric air was enabled to act freely on the subsoil, and the rain water passing through the surface soil carried along with it a certain portion of enriching matter which was imparted to the barren under soil. He was thus enabled gradually to extend the depth of his ac- tive soil from a few inches to a depth of fourteen or fifteen, and what was formerly barren subsoil now constitutes three-fifths of the active soil on 78 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Deanston farm. It would thcicfoic appear that those w ho made an outcry against the system as hringiiig up a pernicious suhsoil to the siirfnce, &c., are not aware that the suhsoil plough was in- vented purely to prevent such an occurrence, and that Mr. Smith did not use the trench plough, or increase his depth of active soil until he was con- vinced that he could do so with safety. Therefore when increasing the depth of the plough furrow, or active soil, much care and judgment is required to prevent such a quantity of the subsoil being brought to the surface as will in any way endanger the fertility of the whole. Subsoils, for instance, that have a considerable portion of sand or gravel in their composition may be deepened more expeditiously than clay soils, and it would perhaps be advisable, especially where strong clay or till prevails, not to exceed in depth above half an inch or so at each ploughing, until the desired depth is obtained, say from ten to twelve inches. Much however will depend upon the composi- tion of the soil, the situation, the state of the wea- ther when the operation is performed, and upon the quantity of manure which the farmer may have at his command, for it is natural to suppose that the active soil will be in some degree deteri- orated by bringing up a quantity of poor subsoil, and will therefore require a greater supply of ma- nure in the first instance than otherwise, — but however abundant the application of vegetable or animal manure, lime is no less necessary in the majority of cases for the ])urpose of correcting any acidity which that portion of the subsoil may have imparted to the former active soil. We have stated ten to twelve inches as being all that is re- quired for the active farrow, but we believe that if sufficient manure could be obtained, and the mechanical arrangement of the soil were such as to admit of a free circulation of the atmospheric air, that tlie productive powers of every soil, ex- cepting pure sand, would be increased by stirring it to the depth of two or three feet. It would at all events he advisable after the lapse of five or seven years, when the land has been thoroughly drained and subsoiled in the manner above de- scribed, to have it trench ploughed to the depth of fourteen to sixteen inches, and this operation should be regularly performed eveiy six or seven years, but if the subsoil is constituted wholly of till or clay, we would certainly recommend more caution, and rather prefer subsuiling, more especially if manure is not over plenty ; indeed if an extra supply of manure is not at command subsoiling should always be preferred to trench jjlonghing. The importance of deep cultivation will be more apparent if we consider the nature and habits of plants. Wheat, for instance, and almost ever kind of vegetable will strike their fibres in search of nourishment to such a depth that it is difficult to determine how far they will penetrate when not opposed by any impenetrable or pernicious quality in the under soil. That sicken- ing or exhausting effect produced by a too frequent repetition of the same kind of crop, will also be diminished, for whether this arises from some element in the soil necessary to the growth of the plant being exhausted, or, as has been supposed, from the excrement or some pernicious substance which is produced by the plants themselves, the deepening of the soil will in cither case counteract to a certain extent, the bad effects produced by a too frequent repetition of the same kind of crop, and this will be more apparent according to the depth operated upon. In accordance with the foregoing observations on deep jjloughing, the propriety of proceeding with this operation early, or immediately after harvest, will i)e apparent, so that the soil intended for spring culture may re- ceive the benefit of those alternate changes in the weather, which are so necessary to its perfect pulverization ; for in this case the application of a grubber in the spring will be found an excellent substitute for the plough, and all that is necessary for preparing the ground to receive the seed. This stirring of the ground instead of jdoughing it possesses many advantages, as we not only dis- pense with a very precarious operation on clay soils when the spring proves wet, but we also preserve that nice mechanical arrangement which has been produced by the alternate frosts and thaws throughout the winter, and what is no less valuable, the exposure of newly ploughed land in a drj' spring is completely avoided. \Veare aware indeed that it was impossible before the system of thorough drainage was introduced, to maintain, for any length of time at least, clay soils in a fine state of pulverization, from the circumstance of the rain water not escaping readily, owing to the re- tentive nature of the subsoil. In consequence of this peculiarity, the more finely clay soils were pulverised, the more readily did they run together into a compact body, hence the origin of clods or compact pieces of soil being formed, which were however in their turn necessary for preserving a certain openness in undrained land, but had such land been thoroughly drained, these clods might have been wholly dispensed with, and the matter contained in them rendered subservient to the advancement of vegetation, for it must be obvious that land will possess the power of i)roductivcness to a much greater degree when a fine pulveriza- tion can be maintained throughout all its parts, than when a considerable portion of what should really constitute the active soil, is lying as it were in a state of inactivity in the shape of clods. In- deed every practical agriculturist must be aware that land resting upon a retentive subsoil becomes often consolidated to such an extent, from the ac- tion of the winter's snow and rain, that frequent ploughings are necessary to bring it to a proper state of culture ; not only so, but should the spring prove moderately wet, instead of the frost prov- ing beneficial, the whole is often converted into one compact unmanageable mass, so that not un- frequontly all attempts arc in vain to prepare such lands for green crop, until the proper season is past. We have thus briefly noticed a few of the ad- vantages which the agricultural community would derive from thorough drainage and deep working; and however imperfectly we may have entered into the details, j'et we trust enough has been stated to convince the most sceptical of the import- ance of the measure. By no other mode, indeed, could the soil be so effectually, economically, and permanently improved, and at the same time its ])roductiveness imraeasureably increased, as by that which we have pointed out; for not only are the chances of a good and early seed time thereby secured, and the many evils consequent upon a late and variable climate, in a great measure neu- tralized, but a state of high pulverization will be l)roduced and maintained, and a free circulation of the atmospheric air admitted to the roots of the plants, and permanently kept up throughout the most minute particles of the soil. It must also be observed, that highly piUverized soils withstand THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 79 the effects of drought much better than tho?e in a different condition, and although from the nature of the process, a greater supply of manure is re- quired in the first instance, yet such land will ul- timately require less than what was formerly found necessary, and less seed and less labour will also be the consequence of the adoption of this system. We may now be i)ermitted to advert shortly to the position in which the drains should be placed, as there lias been a great divorsity of opinion on this point ever since Rlr. Smith's system was adopted. It is contended by many individuals that the drains should, under all circumstances, run in the same direction as the ridges, and even in the case of a sloping bank, that tliey should be carried right up the steep. Others, however, na- turally suppose that they will prove more effectual were they jjlaced in a slanting direction ; while some again contend that it is a matter of no con- sequence on which way they are placed, provided they are put close enough, and thorough dryness is obtained. It might natuially be supposed that this subject would not admit of a difference of opinion, as the natural inclination of the water would prove a sure guide for the placing of the drains, for as water invariably inclines to take the lowest level, the placing of them opposed to that inclination would to a certainty prove most effectual. It is however argued on the other hand, that drains running in a slanting direction across a steep, cut the stratas or layers of subsoil trans- versely, and as the stratification generally lies in sheets at an angle to the surface, that the water passing in or between the stratas immediately be- low the bottom of one drain nearly comes to the surface before reaching the next lower drain ; but as water seeks the lowest level in all directions, if the strata be cut longitudinally, by a drain directed down the steep, the bottom of which cuts ea«h stratum to the same distance from the surface, the water will therefore flow into the drain at the in- tersecting point of each sheet or layer on a level with the bottom of the drains, leaving one uniform depth of dry soil. This reasoning is no douI)t very plausible, and would be precisely what would take place with respect to the water contained in these stratas or layers, provided they lay in such regular order as is here described. This however is not generally the case, for in that sort of ground which most requires draining, a coating of clay or some other letentive material, will be found to prevail to a considerable depth, and few or none of those shelvings towards the surface is discern- ible ; but even supposing these stratas were fre- quent, and that they came regularly to the surface, still the short space between the drains and the angle at which they are placed, say about forty- five degrees, would render it impossible for any water to escape them ; besides if the soil is thoroughly stirred to the depth of fifteen or sixteen inches, the rain water which falls on the earth's surface must penetrate downwards until it arrives at the unstirred subsoil, from whence it will seek the lowest level toward the drains, thus leaving a uniform depth of fifteen or sixteen inches which the water can never ascend so long as the drains remain efficient. It therefore requires little inge- nuity to draw a distinction betwixt the two sys- tems, for we have only to consider whether a line of drain running parallel to the natural fall of the water, or one as nearly across its natural inclina- tion as circumstances will permit, would afford the readiest escape for the water ; and with regard to that portion which might issue from these stra> tas, it is natural to suppose that it would also seek the lowest level along the surface of the unstirred sub'^oil, until it found its way into the drains. We have already observed that the chief advantage of thorough drainage consists in its enabling us to maintain a permanent mechanical arrangement in the soil ; but to effect this every facility should be afforded for the superabundant moisture to make its escape. Now we have shown that the water which falls on the surface percolates to the bottom of the stirred ground, and from thence moves along the top of the unstirred or second surface, until it reaches the drains; therefore if the drains are directed in such a manner as to intercept the natural fall of the water, and the ground subsoil right across them, it must be obvious that the track of the subsoil plough will be as nearly as possible in accordance with the natural inclina- tion of the water, thereby affording the greatest facility for its exit to the drains. We are aware that those who advocate for running the drains right up the steep also propose subsoiling across them ; but they assei't that those fissures which take place in the subsoil consequent upon thorough drainage, will form sufficient channels for the wa- ter getting to the drains, now we have no hesita- tion in allowing that those fissures are produced, and that they do afford a passage for the water to the drains, but we at the same time insist that if they are produced by running the drains up the steep, they will be equally perceptible and efficient, if not more so, when the drains are placed in a slanting direction. We have been thus particular, feeling satisfied that in a measure sa important, and attended with so much outlay, any light that can be thrown upon the subject, so as to diminish the expense, will prove of great benefit to the agricultural comm. unity, and we do not speak un- advisedly when we say (hat a saving of fifteen or twenty per cent, will be effected by placing the drains diagonally instead of running them tight up the steep, and the end in view — thorough dryness — equally attained. This view of the mat- ter, we consider, will apply generally to almost all those descriptions of soils and situations where ridges can be safely dispensed with ; but as there is seldom a general rule without an exception, we would say that on all those lands where the ridges have been much raised towards the centre, and particularly on those strong adhesive clay soils, which from their nature will not admit of their surface being made level, that there will be no alternative but to place the drains in the furrows. Indeed previous to Mr. Smith's discovery, it was the invariable practice to place all these small drains in the furrows, and we would still adhere to this system, especially when the ridges are much rounded, as it will then be aquestion of eco- nomy, even although the ground is intended to be levelled, whether to place them in the furrows or across, but, unless under the peculiar circum- stances which we have stated, we would prefer, wherever the soil is of such a nature as to admit of the surface being levelled, to give the drains a slanting direction. And we would here observe, that the surface should be made as perfect a level as possible whenever circumstances will permit, sothat the rain water may descend directly down- wards through the stirred subsoil as it falls on the surface, every inch of surface in that case having only to vent what falls upon it, whereas if in addition to the natural slope of the ground an artificial slope is maintained on each ridge, it is 80 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. natural to siipi)ose that the water which falls, especially in the time of heavy floods, would have a greater tendency to flow on the surface, and saturate in its course a uiuch greater extent of ground, than it' all had been made level; hence the importance of having a uniform surface ou those lands which have been thoroughly drained and subsoiled. There is, however, another reason assigned by many farmers for giving a preference to running the drains up the steep instead of a slantir.g direction, and this is by a refeience to former experience, where the cross drains on the old system had proved of little benefit compared to the furrow drainage. It must be obvious, however, that a line of drains placed at a distance of 40 or 50 yards from each other, could never under the most favourable cir- cumstances produce the same effect as those ])laced on the close system, and it was never contemplated when these kind of drains were constructed that they would produce liiis result. Indeed, the principles of these drains were altogether different from the sur- face drains, and were comparativelv useless either for receiving the superfluous moisture that fell on the surface or ameliorating the soil, f r the water had such a distance to travel that the space betwixt the drains was often completely saturated, and when the subsoil was close and retentive the water accu- mulated to such a degree as not only to slack the whole mass but even to run on the surface. The unseemly appearance also, which a sloping bank, partially drained, often presents after a heavy fall of rain, succeeded by drought, may have had its influ- ence in creating amongst agriculturists a prejudice against cross draining. We need not, however, enter farther into this sub- ject, as every well established rule in agriculture has hitherto been derived from practical experience, and ultimately been matured by careful observation, skill, and enterprize. If, however, we reflect upon the great length of time that the attention of man- kind has been directed to agricultural pursuits it must appear matter of no small astonishment to fiad so much diflference of opinion, ignorance and preju- dice prevailing amongst them respecting the essen- tial principles upon which the cultivation of the soil should be regulated so as to be subservient to the full develoj)ment of the vegetable kingdom, more especially when we consider that those laws which regulate the vegetable economy are strictly uniform, and that the habits and tendencies of plants are nei- ther variable nor uncertain. We have already stated that we consider thorough drainage should form the basis of every agricultural improvement, and this has been clearly demonstrated in the practice of Mr. Smith upon Deanstou farm, whose principle of cultivation has been attended with the most beneficial results. If it is difficult to account, however, for the great deficiency of know- ledge displayed by agriculturists throughout the country respecting the essential principles of their profession, it is no less difficult to assign a reason for the apathy and indifterence which the great ma- jority of proprietors have shewn in respect to the manner in which they have interested themselves ia Mr. Smith's valuable system of thorough drainage. It is true we have many instances on record where valuable discoveries were made which ultimately led to important results, but for a time remainecl ne- glected by the public, still it will be found that this neglect either arose from some doubts respecting the practical utility of the measure, or from the intricacy in which the discovery was involved. In this in- stance, however, there are no obstacles which can be brought forward as an excuse for that general negligence displayed by the proprietary regarding thoroiigli drainage, for it is now fifteen years since Mr. Smith exemplified in practice the advantages to be derived from the system ; and since that period to the present time he has not only allowed the pub- lic to inspect his improvements upon Deanston farm but has taken every means in his power to promul- gate amongst the agricultural community the bene- fits that would result from the general adoption of the system. This indifterence and negligence is therefore the more remarkable, especially when we consider the rapidity with which any new invention or improvement is carried into execution by the ma- nufacturing class ; although we at the same time must confess, that it gives us a just idea of the com- parative degree of enterprize displayed by these two influential classes — the landed and manufacturing. We are, indeed, aware of several proprietors, both in England and Scotland, who have exerted them- selves, and laid out their capital freely in these im- provements ; but we speak advisedly when we say, from the imperfect manner in which the work of thorough drainage and deep working has in many instances been executed, that it must prove at the best but of temporary advantage, for unless the sys- tem is thoroughly understood, and carried forward in all its details, the expectations formed of its be- neficial eftects can never be fully realized. The general apathy which is displayed by such a great body of proprietors, all highly educated and intelli- gent gentlemen, towards their individual interests, together with that of the community at large, in ma- nifesting no desire to carry this valuable improve- ment into effect, is the more remarkable, but it may probably arise from the fact that almost every im- provement in agriculture has hitherto originated and been carried into practice by the skill and enterprise of the tenantry alone, and, perhaps, under ordinary circumstances it may be prudent not to check or di- minish this enterprise by any direct interference on the part of the landlords. But in a case of this na- ture and magnitude it is important to draw a marked distiuction, for whether we consider the great amount of capital required, or the permanency of the im- provement, we can have no hesitation in affirming that the outlay belongs to the landlord. Indeed, a very little reflection will make it evident that the proprietors have a much greater interest in the pro- per execution of this improvement than the tenantry, for if the work is not performed in a perfect and effi- cient manner, the amelioration of the soil is not ob- tained to the extent required, nor the permanency of the undertaking secured. Although the practicability of permanently ame- liorating the most obdurate clay soils by means of thorough drainage has now been established and proved beyond a doubt ; still from the imperfect manner in which four-fifths of the drains have been executed, we can have no hesitation in saying, that they will prove but of temporary duration. But let the proprietary direct their attention, and weigh well the circumstances in which many a tenant is placed. We will suppose, for instance, that a tenant is fully impressed with the importance of having his clay soils ameliorated, but cannot prevail on his landlord to co-operate with him in the undertaking. If the tenant, therefore, embarks in this arduous work without the assistance of the proprietor, he will very naturally prefer the most economical method, although the advantages be but tempsrary, provided he se- cures the immediate benefit. Experience has, indeed, shewn us that the work of thorough drainage, even although imperfectly ex THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 81 ecuted, vi-IU to a certain extent ameliorate tlie soil ; but as might Lave been anticipated, the effects pro- duced have not only proved of short duration, but the advantages arising from the operation is nearly counterbalanced by the trouble and expense incurred. This imperfect manner of executing the work ren- ders it also necessary to renew the drains frequently, so that on the renewal of each lease the same proce- dure may again require to be followed without much benefit to either landlord or tenant, whereas had the proprietor stepped forward and co-operated with the tenant in the first instance, either by advancing the necessary funds or modifying the rent in such a manner as to meet the contingency, tlien the work might have been performed in the most perfect man- ner,— the amelioration of the soil secured to the ful- lest extent, and the permanency of the whole pro- ceedings completely established. We admit that the expence will be one-third to two-fifths more in the one case than in the other ; but then it must be evi- dent that the land will be permanently improved and its value increased, and therefore the tenant will be enabled to afford a higher rental. Another important advantage is also gained by the landlord coming forward and relieving the tenant from this heavy outlay; for, instead of having his exertions cramped at the very commencement, and his capital as it were locked up for a consider- able time, he would at once be enabled to enter freely into the successful execution of the remaining part of the work, such as sub-soiling, trench-ploughing, and procuring extra supplies of manure, which, to- gether with the carriage of the material for the drains, forms no inconsiderable item of the undertaking. While we thus endeavour to point out the share which we believe the landlords should perform of this work, we would not advise them to advance the necessary funds for this purpose to the tenantry, without appointing some person to see that the ope- ration is judiciously performed in all its details. The active superintendance of the agent will therefore be necessary, although direct interference in ordinary circumstances is to be avoided, yet on this occasion it is absolutely necessary that the interest of the landlord be attended to, for upon the permanency of the undertaking does his chance of remuneration ul- timately depend. In order, however, that the per- manency of the whole line of drainage may be more effectually secured, we would also recommend that the parallel drains should bo intersected right across by drains of larger dimensions, say at least six inches deeper, and that they should be placed at the dis- tance of 50 or 60 yards from each other ; a chart of the whole drains should then be correctly taken, so that at any future period, however remote, if any of the drains show symptoms of giving way, it may only be necessary to refer to the chart, and run ano- ther drain in the space betwixt tlie former intersect- ing ones. It will thus be obvious, that if the work of thorough drainage is performed in a perfect man- ner at first, and the material with which the drains are filled be of an imperishable nature, that no heavy outlay will ever afterwards be required to maintain the amelioration of the soil, and secure the perma- nency of the whole line of drainage. It will now appear from these remarks, that, al- though the importance of thorough drainage and deep working have been practically demonstrated to the public ior a period of fifteen years, that much misapprehension still prevails amongst agriculturists respecting the principles upon which the system is founded. This will naturally lead us to reflect upon the seemingly inadequate means employed by our agricultural associations for the purpose of dissemi- nating the knowledge and illustrating the advantages of new improvements amongst their members, for it is notorious that Mr. Smith persevered in perfecting his system of thorough drainage for a period of eight to ten years, in which period he had subjected ene field after another to the operation, until he had gone over all the farm of Deanston, extending to two hundred acres, without receiving any encourage- ment or assistance from any agricultural society whatever. Mr. Smith, however, was enabled to judge of the success and importance of his system, and his liberal mind at once suggested tlie incalcu- lable advantages which the community would derive from such a measure being generally adopted through- out the country. He therefore used every means in the powei' of a private individual to disseminate the knowledge of his system, and its national import- ance was clearly and distinctly set forth in a pam- phlet. It, however, can scarcely be credited, in a country abounding with agricultural associations, constituted professedly for the purpose of examining into the merits and disseminating the knowledge of every new improvement, that they would have permitted such a novel, interesting, and important operation to have been conducted on such an extensive scale by a private individual for the space of eight or ten years, without making themselves thoroughly con- versant with the nature and merits of the undertak- ing ; yet, such is the fact, and what is still more to be regretted, no adequate means have up to this mo- ment been employed by any of the agricultural asso- ciations to instruct the agricultural community with regard to the details of the system^ and the principles upon which the whole operation is founded. Indeed no stronger evidence is required, to show the utter inefficiency of these associations, as at present con- stituted, for the purpose of forwarding any new im- provement, than that which he have adduced. It is impossible to estimate the amount of capital already expended in thorough drainage, which will thus be, in a great measure, thrown away, from the imperfect manner in which the drains have been executed, but we do not consider that it can be less than from two to three hundred thousand pounds ; and what is still worse, this baneful course will in all probability be pursued for a great length of time, unless some other means are employed to afford practical illustrations and instruction to the agricultural community re- garding the system which should be pursued in fol- lowing out any new improvement. We would not say, indeed, that Mr. Smith's views, with respect to thorough drainage and deep working, would have been anticipated by a public experimen- tal institution, but this we may rely upon, that the system would, long ere now, have undergone the test of experiment, and the result fully detailed and disseminated throughout the country. Ih proof of this, we have only to refer to the prompt and determined measures adopted by the Board of Agriculture, when Mr. Elkington's system of drainage was first discovered. The Board, in- deed, was hardly established, when applications were made from various parts of the country entreat- ing them to direct their attention to the peculiar circumstances of this case, and the measures then adopted by the Board are well known to the agricul- tural community. It is not, however, for the purpose of extolling Mr. Elkington's system that we have thus referred to it, but rather as a proof to show how naturally public attention is directed to any public institution which is deemed likely to afford assistance and in- struction. 82 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The Board of Agriculture, as constituted, proved efficient, and it might Lave been of preat advantage to the agricultural improvement of this country had it never been dissolved ; but few will deny, had the adjunct of an experimental farm been added to its other important undeitakings, that its influence and example would have proved a source of never-fail- ing- benefit to the agricultural community. Such improvements as Mr. Smith's would have become familiar to the managers of the establishment before twelve months had expired, and in the course of five or six years the most distant county would have been in possession of all the practical details belonging to the system, whereas under the present circumstances every one is allowed to feel his way in the dark, at a sacrifice of both time and capital, without much improvement in agricultural know- ledge. A national institution, however, on the sys- tem we have been advocating, would soon remedy this evil, for from the nature of its proceedings, and the experimental tests continually instituted, it would daily be improving in agricultural knowledge, and arriving at more just and correct conclusions regarding every detail connected with the economy and improvement of agriculture. It would, indeed, be too much to expect that in the course of fifteen years or so, thorough drainage would have been completed throughout the country, but we do not hesitate to say, that enough would have been accom- plished to have rendered this country at the present time independent of supplies of corn from abroad. Not only so, but being under the necessity of search- ing over the whole world for the necessary supply of bread corn, we might have had an overplus, and even been in such a situation as to dispose of a portion of our own growth. We therefore affirm that, even supposing an insti- tution of the nature proposed were to afford no other benefits to the agricultural community than correct information respecting the fundamental principles of thorough drainage and deep working, that it would amply repay the government of this country to give not only their countenance but support to such an institution. A Scotch FAnjiER. ON THE USE AND ABUSE OF MANURES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. If the following observations should appear to you to be calculated to excite a more vigilant attention to the important subject to which they are directed, youwill, perhaps, afford them a place in your valuable periodical. In the actual situation of this country, with a rai)idly increasing population, and a consequent increasing demand for food, it becomes an object of paramount importance, that science and in- dustry should unite, to give the utmost stimulus to the productiveness of our native soil, and by securing profit to the farmer, through the means of more abundant crops, at a lower comparative rate of expense, to remove the obloquy and dis- content that must ever attend restrictions upon importation, acting upon a deficient supply of the indispensable necessaries of life. When we compare the astonishing improvements which have marked the progress of almost every branch of manufacture during the last half century, with the comparatively slow advance of agriculture during the same period, we are natu- rally inclined to enquire into the cause of the dis- ]!arity. Tiic reason commonly a^^signed is, that experiments in agriculture, require a much longer time for their completion than those in other arts, and that results are so much under the influence of causes, over which we have no controul. Ad- mitting the full force of this argument, it is very far from being sufficient to account for the ob- served effect. A more adequate cause will perhaps be found, in the neglect of those sciences in the education of the farmer, which are calculated to throw lights upon the operations of nature, which it is his daily business to direct and controul ; while the superior education of the manufacturer lays open to him the resources of science, and enables and disposes him to seize with avidity every new discovery in the agencies of nature which he can enlist in his service. The more enlightened class of farmers are become duly sensible of this, and happily for the future pros- pects of agriculture, the defect is about to be supplied by the establishment of rural colleges for the education of youth in those branches of science, which are best calculated to impart the power of knowledge to the labours of the husbandman. I have indulged in these preliminary remarks, not for the purpose of making invidious com- j)arisons, but from a desire that arts so essential to each other's prosperity should move with equal step in the march of improvement; and more particularly with the view of pointing out one path, by which agriculture must seek to regain her proper relative position. Of the different sciences which might be brought to bear with powerful effect upon the improvement of agriculture, there is none perhaps so impor- tant as chemistry, particularly in its adaptation to the management and application of manures already known, and to the discovery of those which have not yet been adopted. Though Sir H. Davy, many years ago, published a series of able and luminous lectures on Agri- cultural Chemistry, and illustrated the importance of that science as a necessary branch of a farmer's education ; there are very few practical men who have read his book, or profited by his suggestions and advice. Throughout extensive districts, almost every farm-yard, and every field will bear out this remark. The most dreadful waste may be observed, either from total neglect, or from excessive fermentation of manure. Millions of loads of fertilizing matter from these causes may be said to vanish annually, verifying, in almost a literal sense, the proverb, that riches make themselves wings and fly away. If gases were visible, fwhich they may he said to be to the eyes of the chemist) and their properties were fully understood by the farmer ; did he know that those minute atoms of which he suffers so large a portion to escape, are real and powerful manure, and in that state which fits them to become the food of plants, and at the same time understood how to prevent their escape and make them available, such waste would certainly not take place ; and many hundred thousand quarters of grain, would by this means, be added to the yearly prodnce of the kingdom. It is not the farmer only who suffers by this neglect or eversight, but the whole of the body of consumers, must, in consequence, pay a higher price for food, and the poor to that extent must suffer want. Farm-yard dung should not be suffered to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ferment, further than to rentier it manageable and capable of being conveniently buried in the soil, or spread upon the surface of grass land. In the former case, the decomposing substances would be detained by the attractive influence of the im- paljjable matter of the soil, and preserved for the coming crop; and in the latter, the soluble parts would be washed into the ground, and the straw which was not drawn in by the worms, might be raked oft' and returned to the yard. This last ob- servation applies particularly to stable dung, whicli should if possible be applied fresh, as it abounds with soluble and highly fertilizing par- ticles, which would be dissipated by even a slight degree of fermentation. One obvious method of preventing waste by ex- cessive fermentation in cases where the ap[)lica- tion of manure must necessarily be deferred, is, to mix the dung with marl or clay, and this is com- monly practised, by which means the earths unite with the decomposing matter of the dung and pre- vents its escape, thus forming a true and proper compost. Clay and the earthy carbonates have a chemical affinity for those substances which ai'e capable of assuming organic forms or fitted to enter into the composition of plants, and thus, by a beautiful economy of nature, decaying substances of both vegetable and animal origin are stored up, as it were, in the soil in which they have been pro- duced, or aitificially placed, aud become the food of new systems of vegetable life. It is, therefore, upon the due proportion of these earths, and par- ticularly of clay with sand, that the fertility of soils depends. Those which contain too little clay and other finely divided matter soon become exhausted of manure from ^\ant of the power of retention, and those which contain too large a portion are sterile for want of a freer admission of air to the roots of plants. Clay and marl, therefore, are excellent pre- servers of manure or the food of plants, and on that account are valuable agents in compost and particularly in the preservation of those highly concentrated manures of animal origin which are prone to rapid decay, and would otherwise soon be dissipated and lost. But from want of a correct knowledge of the nature of the action of the earths upon manures, the formation of compost is seldom properly con- ducted, and it is, therefore, not an unusual practice with farmers to mix quick lime with the earth and dung by which a large portion of the carbon is actually destroyed or rather rendered useless for the purpose of manure. If the farmer knew that for every hundred weight of lime which he puts to his fermenting dung he loses twentj'-fourth of of valuable manure, which he demonstrably does, he would surely discontinue so wasteful an appli- cation. Practices equally dark and erroneous were formerly prevalent in the laboratory of the chemist, but they have long since been corrected by the light of science. The urine of animals and the water soaking through the dung of farm-yards, both powerful manures, are often equally suffered to run to waste, and the annual aggregate loss sustained in this way, if it could be exhibited, would appear enor- mous. Lime is often excessively and wastefully em- ployed on some soils, and altogether omitted in others, when a moderate quantity would be bene- ficial, from a want of the knowledge of its chemical properties aud action. The use of caustic lime is strictly chemical, as by its affinity for cai'bonic mat- ter, it serves to break down the redundant and in- ert vegetable matter in the soil and to i ender a por- tion of it soluble in water, and thus fit for the food of idants. It also destroys the eggs and larvrc of in- sects, and decomposes the salts of iron, which often abound in soils and prove injurious to vegetation, and when the lime regains its mild state it becomes a valuable constituent in those soils in which it is naturally deficient. But where none of these reasons for its applica- tion exist, it may prove highly injurious by de- stroying soluble manures, and magnesian lime is particularly injurious, as by its weak affinity for carbonic acid gas, it remains a long time in a caustic state and becomes a poison to the plants it was intended to benefit. There is a still greater waste and neglect of tha means of fertility than any of those above men- tioned in the too general disregard of the refuse and feculence of large cities and towns, which, in- stead of being a source of perpetual annoyance, polluting the water we use, and the air we breathe, might, by the resources of chemistry, be rendered perfectly inoffensive and made to contribute largely to the productiveness of the soil. If a Cliinese were informed of our neglect of this great means of fertility, and that we often complained of the scarcity and dearness of food, he would naturally say that we deserved to be poisoned and to starve. In China the pressure of population upon the means of subsistence dictates the most rigid eco- nomy, and the farmers and gardeners are exceed- ingly careful in preserving from waste |every fer- tilizing substance and particularly that most powerful of all manures night soil. Drill or row husbandry is universal, and the lightest soils are rendered productive by the application of concen- trated manures, which are often brought from an immense distance. The same necessity which occasions so much care of manure and sedulous cultivation in China is beginning to produce a corresponding effect in England, and drill husbandry and the application of light and forcing manures are rapidly extending. The farm-yard is found inadequate to the supply of manure for the distant fields, and folding, where it is practised, is seldom equal to the demands of the land ; necessity, therefore, has enforced the l)recepts of reason and the practice of the Chinese, and thousands of acres which were once considered worthless land are now rendered fertile by the effect of the drill, which delivers manure with the seed. The manures commonly used for this pur- Ijose are becoming every year more scarce, but we have no right to complain of a deficiency while we neglect the use of night soil which has hitherto been applied in this country only to a very limited extent. This manure, like all others which admits of being drilled with the seed, is better adapted to light soils than bulky dung, both on account of the facility of carriage to remote and hilly ground and that farm-yard dung renders such lands too loose. Night soil applied to turnips (it has been proved) forces them forward nmch faster tlian an equal quantity of bone manure, which might be expected from the fact that the whole of its sub- stance is resolvable into proximate principles ca- pable of solution in water and of becoming the food of plants. In France two eminent chemists, Messrs. Payen and Buran, having devoted their attention to the means of rendering- this manure available, dis- covered a composition which instantly destroyed 84 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the offensive odour of the night soil and preserved it from wasting by suspending chemical action without impairing its fertilizing power. It is noN prepared on a most extensive scale near Paris and in other parts of France, and has been introduced into England by Mr. Poittevin*, to whom the pro- cess was communicated by the above gentleman. It is said to be much cheaper than any other manure from the abundance of the materials of which it is made, and, as it is suitable to every kind of crop, and may either be drilled with the seed or sown broad-cast, it must pi-ove equally valuable to the farmer, the market-gardener, and the floi"ist. Thus, by the aid which agriculture derives from chemistry, refuse, the most noxious and offensive in the category of nuisances, is rendered an unob- jectionable agent in the development and increase of beautiful forms and nutritious substances ; ex- hibiting a strilfing, is to obtain the largest weight per acre of nutritious grass. Trefoil is frequestly sown in the south as a mowing crop. This is decidedly bad management. Trefoil never grows very H 92 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tall, the stems are small and weak, and thus pine away when cut, leaving' a very poor weight per acre, when compared wiih what migiit be obtained by usinjj a mixture of red clover and rye gra*s. The former besides, will not admit of bein j tied in bundles, called in Yorkshire "ruckles" but is merely laid on the (ground, and turned with rakes in the most slovenly manner, exposed to the rain and dried in the sun, until a very considerable portion of its nutritious qua- lities are dissipated. The nortliern practice is, to roll a bundia together the size of a sheaf of corn, and tic a small piece round the head, setting- it upright, by which means the ■water escapes from it, and no more surface is ex- posed to the sun than is absolutely necessary to cause it to dry. In nearly every field sown with artificial grasses the traveller perceives many heads of barley, an indication that the practice prevails, of allowing the barley to re- main until it is over ripe. There is a medium in the cutting- of barley, it will not bear the rear-cutting which wheat will admit of, but if permitted to stand until it manifests a disposition to " neck" or tlie head separate from the straw, the sample becomes flinty and deteriorated in value. That this is the case there can be no doubt, besides the unsightliness of barley growing in a clover lea, and the thus constant repetition of barley upon the soil, in a greater or less degree unfits it in the return of the rotation ; no plant succeeding on a soil constantly growing it. The actual loss too of over ripe cutting is considerable, and the finest heads being ripe first, the best part of the sample is wasted. The turnip cultivation of the soutli is decidedly bad, indeed but few are grown, compared with what should be. It is a never to be forgotten axiom in turnip cultivation, that the manure of whatever kind, should be in immediate contact with the seed to allow the root to derive all the benefit from it. Contrary to tliis, we see in most cases, the greatest portion of the manure exposed to the sun and air, and thus deprived of its useful qualities, while very little is incorporated with the soil. Now whatever system be employed, the manure must be buried, or they had better return to the old fallow. It is merely useless thus to talk of the difficulty of getting turnips, when such palpable waste of the produce of turnips is in existence. Improvement of the soil. — This affords a wide field for investigation and enquiry, and if pursued, would far exceed the limits prescribed to this paper ; a single allusion shall suflice. There is in' Hertfordshire a chalk formation, some part of it is slightly elevated, and growing unserviceable grass, or stunted weeds and corn ; the other laying lower with a greater depth of soil, and consequently growing better crops. AViiy is not the upland portion of it waving with rich corn ? growing luxuriant turnips, and feeding numerous flocks? Because it is "hungry" sterile, barren. It is. But why is it not made fertile when you have the elenients of fertility within reach ? The grass, &c. is growing amongst cltalk,a.nd imbibing only what it affords. A supply of animal matter is here decidedly indicated, and it is offered in the portable shape of bone manure. That manure on a similar soil, at an equal elevation, has made a rich section of country as any in England, and added perhaps millions to the national wealth. It is no rash experiment. Agricultural ex- perience proves the accuracy of chemical deduction, while chemistry unfolds the rationality of scientific agriculture. Other districts doubtless admit of similar improvements, and if due attention be paid to the elements of improvement in the immediate district of a sterile soil, they may generally be detected. Tiius marl often exists beneath peat or sand, making the soil worthless by its impervious character as a subsoil, which if brought to the surface, and the land properly under-drained, will produce crops truly astenishing. And when once a good crop is obtained, all the farmer has to do, is to adopt a rotation which will maintain the soil by trifling additions of extraneous manures in a constantly improving state. The Stock and Improvements.— Oa this hsad the writer will say httlc. Better slock might be reared than such as we see in the majority of instances, but there are good breeders, and of them first-rate animals may be obtained to improve a slock. 'J"he wool is not ot the first-rate quality, and considering the climate, and advantages, the blame must attach to the farmers. The writer said to a south-county farmer "I wonder you have not b'itter sheep." The answer was charac- teristic. " If we had better sheep, they would be stolen." Upon the whole, there is room for improve- ment, before the agriculture of the south of England will equal that of the north, and even in the latter place, the improvements made within the last ten years have been almost incredible, and there is every proba- bility, that owing to the enquiry spirit which is abroad, and the encouragement given to improvement, the ad- vance of the last ten years, will be exceeded by those in the next. Thorpfiekl, near Thirsk, Yorkshire, June 22. ON MOORBAND PAN. In The Farmer's Magazine for July I read an article on moorband pan, extracted from The Quarterly Journal of Agriculliire.occasioned by a letter written by iNlr.Grey, of Dilston, in Northumberland, in answer to the observa- tions made by the Marquis of Twceddale on subsoil and trench ploughing, at an agricultural meeting held at Wooler, in October last. This kingdom contains no better judge than Mr. Grey in practical and statistical agrieulture, and the principle he advanced in that letter yet remains unhurt. It is well known to practical men, that if a part of certain subsoils be turned up, a damage will ensue for several yea»s, until the action of repeated workings and manurings dissipate the noxious quality. The moorband pan now meniioned, abounds in many parts of the kingdom, and is differently constituted ; but in all, the incrustation denies a passage to the water downwards, which floats on the surface — injures vege- tation by superabundant mowture — and in dry weather, leaves the plants to languish and die. 'I'his pan often lies over a porous under stratum, which upon the pan being broken would receive the water, but in many cases I have seen the stratum below as impenetrable as the pan itself, and if the i)an was broken, would deny any further passage to tlie water from above. Both cases would no doubt be much improved by draining and subsoil ploughing, and the present controversy seems to be about the method of effecting the improve- ment. Lord Tweeddalc had turned up part ef the subsoil, and had found no damage to ensue from mixing it with the soil itself, and seems, in consequence, to have drawn the inference that the same result would follow any- where from a similar application. Mr. Grey observed that tiie result depended on the quality of the substance turned up, and that subsoil ploughing by moving and not turning up the under strata, would remove the cause of the damage that had followed in such cases. Ex- perience bears out this observation of Mr. Grey to the fullest extent, and Lord Tweeddale would find himself most miserably mistaken in applying his principle under different circumstances. His Lordship, like many others who adopt a principle, generalizes much too far upon it, without knowing or considering the combination of different circumstances under which the application must be made, and on which the whole matter hinges. Breaking the pan by subsoil ploughing and loosening the land below it, would take down the water, and gra- dually remove the noxious quality. Mr. Grey had the pan analyzed, and found a large proportion of oxide of iron, denoting it to be hurtful to vegetation, as this pan of various constitutions and also various subsoils, where no ferruginous incrustation visibly existed, have been found^ when turned up to be mixed with the upper soil. The writer of the article in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, recommends as a preventive of any damage from turning up a moorband pan, or any sub- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 93 soil whatever, " thoroug'h draining', deep ploughing', the pan broug-ht up and broken, land well dunged^ limed, green cropped with turnips, eaten off by sheep, cropped with barley, and seeded ;" and then stakes his existence, that on land so treated, no damage can happen either from physical or chemical causes. In this cata- logue he has enumerated all the means of improvement whicli our present knowledge enables us to apply, and the quality must be most noxious and obstinate that would not give way before such powerful applications, continued for four or five years, and at a very great cost. If such expensive applications be necessary to remove the noxious quality, it confirms, in place of weakening Mr. Grey's observation, to move the subsoil and let it remain unturned up till mollified by the admission of the air from the newly created porosity, and the subtrac- tion of water by draining where it may be necessary. The application of such expensive processes goes far to make us believe that those persons who use them, must be suspicious of some latent noxious quality ; and the sum and substance of the whole article amount to nothing more, than that overwhelming doses of dung and lime, and of other applications, will destroy any noxious qualities thatmay exist in the subsoil turned up. The use of extra processes after turning up the subsoil shows that damage is apprehended, and must be guarded against. The expense of draining, of deep ploughing, manuring, and liming in one year, is such as wilt deter many persons from turning up subsoil, since the writer acknowledges they are necessary. He think'^ any damage Mv. Grey may have seen, must have arisen from mismanagement; but, I apprehend that to turn up a subsoil and then submit it to the ordinary means of cultivation, was the fair test of the noxious quality ; for, to turn it up, and then apply such extra processes as recommended by the writer, would only be a confession that a noxious quality existed, and must have additional measures applied to effect its removal, and prevent the damage apprehended. The writer has forgot that many such soils are unfit for turnips, and for being trodden by sheep. It is true that the moorband pan contains hydrate of iron, consisting of a solid body and water, and the writer hence infers that upon the water being removed the hy- drate would become an oxide, and consequently be in- nocuous. But many things that are scientifically true arc not practically true, the bare statement does not show us that such would infallibly be the case, but if the hydrate be hurtful and require extra processes to remove the noxious quality, no advantage is derived from bringing it to the surface beyond ullowing it to reiriain below till mollified by the air and by draining. To support his theory the writer draws upon analogy and quotes the case oflime, where the hydrate is directly injurious to vegetation, and the carbonate is not hurt- ful. But it is not an established fact that a hydrate of lime is hurtful to vegetation, for no time has been fixed at which lime ceases to be a hydrate. Lime when burnt becomes a caustic, absorbs water, and becomes a hy- drate ; after being exposed a "determinate" time it crumbles down and imbibes carbonic acid, the water of the hydrate is expelled, the fixed air takes its place and the lime becomes a carbonate or mild lime. No time of exposure has ever been fixed to mark the period of transition from a hydrate to a carbonate, and during my practice 1 have applied it on the third day from the kiln when it was probably a hydrate, and with great advan- tage. It may be said that the lime would be a car- bonate before the plants of green crops came in contact with it, but it may be said on the other hand that it would be a carbonate also before it came in contact with the roots of the plants, from which the inference has been drawn that hydrate of lime is hurtful, if such con- clusions be deduced from regular experiment or only rest on supposition. There are many very noxious subsoils which contain neither hydrate or oxide of iron, and which it would be very hurtful to have turned up ; there are many on the other hand where turning up would be attended with much advantage, so that every such application must be directed by the circumstances of the case. In cases where thorough draining has been executed no advan- tage would be derived by turning up the subsoil, for the water would not remain to form a hydrate, and the noxious quaUty would be expelled by the crust being broken and made porous. In case of subsoil ploughing without draining the water would sink below the pan and would be beyond the reach of vegetation, and though from the natural consolidation that would take place a renewal of ploughing might be necessary sooner than in the case of draining, and yet it is evident that much advan- tage would acrue from it. With the exception of allu- vial soils and good honest clays and loams possessing a depth of upper stratum, it must be evident to practical men that the allowing the subsoil, whether moorband pan or not, to lie for a time after being moved before bringing it to to the top must be the safest proceeding, unless such ultimate advantages can be shown as will warrant the expensive processes recommended in the article above mentioned. J. D. June 20. IMPORTANT TO OVERSEERS AND AUDI- TORS. — A diversity of opinion among Union auditors, and a consequent want of uniformity in practice, hav- ing prevailed in different unions as to allowing expenses necessarily incurred by overseers in discharge of their ofBcial duties, the following communication to the Doncaster board of guardians, from the secretary to the poor-law commissioners, on that subject (which is of course applicable to all other unions) will be interest- ing and important to most of our readers : — " Sir, — the poor-law commissioners have had under their conside- ration your letter on the subject of allowance of over- seers' expences by auditors of unions formed under the provisions of the poor-law amendment act. Upon this subject the commissioners have to point out to you, that when an overseer is put to unavoidable charges in performing the duties of his ofRee, the law allows of his being reimbursed those expences out of the poor rates. Thus, where an overseer in the exercise of his office is required to travel to a distance from his parish and is under the necessity of hiring a conveyance, the expence being unavoidable may, as far as it is reason- able, be allowed him. But tlie csmmissioners would observe, that the law does not allow of any compensa- tion for the personal exertion of an overseer, or for loss of time ; nor does it allow of a fiixed charge in lieu of the actual expences incurred on the occasion. The commissioners cannot undertake to enumerate the par- ticular occasions or duties in performing which charges of this nature might be allowed the ovsrseers ; the general rule above expressed will g overn each of these cases — in applying which the auditor will bear in mind, 1st, that there was a reasonable necessity for incurring expence ; 2d, that the sum charged is reasonable, or such as the occasion justifies ; and 3d, when the charge relates to travelling expences, that such expences can only be reimbursed when incurred in travelling beyond the limits of the parish or district for which the over- seer is appointed." PREPARED PEAT.— A specimen of this article ■was brought last week from a district near Edinburgh, by Thomas P. Kennedy, Esq., a gentleman who has taken a deep interest in agricultural improvement. The manner in which this peat is prepared is by intro- ducing the rude material into a kind of mill called pag-mill, by which the woody fibres are completely commiuated. It is then moulded with the hand in the same way as bricks, and, when the weather is favour- able, dried in the usual way by exposure to the air. lu wet weather it is dried in a kiln constructed for the purpose. In drying, owing to the effects of the mill, the particles being small approach each other more closely than in the ordinary process in this country, and formed themselves into a solid and compact mass ; and the chief advantages of this plan are, facility of transport, convenience of storing, and a much greater heat produced in combustion. H 2 94 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. BLOOMSBURY, WiNNiiu or Tfit Dkiiby, 1839. Bloorasbury is a bay colt, fifteen Ijaiids three inclies bigh; by JMulatto, dam Arcot Lass, by Andiossiui, her dam by Ciamlington, out of Hayorken, by Stride — Little England's dam, by Javelin, Sister to Toby, by Highflyer. While the front of Blooms- bury 's head, and his nostrils in particular, manifest liis Arabian paternity, it is too thick in the lower part, and is therefore heavy rather than handsome : neck light, shoulders finely formed, jiresenting the genuine obliquity, and thus allowing the free action of the fore legs ; his withers high and somewhat pointed, very ualike those of Ecli])se and many other superior horses ; brisket deep and capacious ; ribs deep forward, tapering finely oft" and leaving tlie requisite space between the last and the hip , arms remarkably long ; pasterns rather longer than usual ; bis toes inclining outwards ; (juarters widely spread and well let down ; gaskins muscular and powerful. Joints remarkably large. If therefore we contemplate the conformation ef Bloorasbury in regard to pro- gressive motion, we perceive that his brisket is as well calculated for the purpose, relatively^, as possi- ble, dropping low, and being sufficiently capacious for the free action of the viscera ; his loins being loose affords suflicient freedom for the bringing well up of the bind legs, and imparting a large stride ; while his powerful quarters and posterior parts, whence the propelling power must be necessarily de- rived, are calculated for the purpose in a very supe- rior manner. His large joints indicate a corres- ponding development of tendon ; but as the horse dons not attain maturity till he has reached his' seventh year, the tendon of Bloomsbury, only half that age, does not appear in proportion to his joints. Had his debut, like that of Eclipse, been delayed till he had become of five years old, he would have been re- markable for power and speed — not equal in these respects to Eclipse, because his conformation is infe- rior to that of this justly celebrated horse, and power and speed are entirely the result of conformation. Bloomsbury is an overgrown colt, and therefore has not the strength to bring his hind less so forward every stride as will be the case when he has attained matuiity, and for which Eclipse was more remarkable than any racer that was ever se^n. But is Blooms- bury likely " to train en" till he reach maturity 7 Most assuredly not, if he is to race as often as ap- pearances seem to indicate. His constitution is no doubt very good, and he has been forced, by feeding and the system of the training stable, into what may be called a state of precocious maturity, or a year in advance of his real age; but experience abundantly proves that very few young racers are able to come out often and continue to train on, those which are overgrown being the more likoly to give way under such unreasonably oft repeated and overstraining exertions. Highly raised pointed withers, such as those of Bloomsbury, are frequently accompanied by tender feet. This promising young racer is named for the Ascot Cup, for which he will have to carry, as winner of the Derby of the present year, 8lbs. ex- tra, a circumstance which cannot fail to operate fear- fully against him, should he start for this prize, which is evidently the intention of his owner. His allotted weight for the Goodwood Cup, as a three years old, is 7st. 41b., to which if 81b. extra be added, the amount is 7st 121b.— 91b. less than he carried for the Derby, but nevertheless 8lb. more than his competi- tors, as far at least as age is concerned. Bloomsbury is a very fine colt, but it would appear as if he were doomed to the fate of Eli;;, to be run completely out of racing form in one season. The artist (V. C. Turner) has been eminently suc- cessful not only in the delineation of IHoomsbury, but also in imparting tijose characteristics by wliioli -he is distinguished ; while, it must bo admitted, that tjjo engraver (Beckwith) has executed bis task with a degree of vigor and fidelity which renders nothing more desirable. THE IMPROVED SHAKER. A few weeks since, we stated that Mr. Robert Sliennan, farmer, Lairdlaugh, parish of Kirkpatrick- Durham, in the Stewartr)' of Kirkcudbright, had invented a shaker for his ihrasliing-mill, on u new j)rinciplo, and which had been deemed by competent judges a decided improvement on the one at present generally in use. The invention, ever since it was made known to the public, has excited no small degree of attention, judging from the number of farmers and millwrights who have visited it — several of them residing at the distance of upwards of fifty miles, and who, aftei a strict examination, expressed themselves in its favour ; and we understand that jNIr. Shennan has forwarded an account of it to the Highland Society, which, we have little doubt, will also regard it a« worthy of recommendation, and even perhaps mark their sense of its importance by conferring some mark of respect on its worthy author. The following description of the shaker has been kindly furnished us by Mr. Shennan himself: — " My shaker is an instrument of the same width as the machine, and about 4J feet long. The sides which run from tiie machine outward are i boards, about 4 inches deep, with a fiat bar across at each end to which the bottom, which is parallel rods, is nailed. The rods are j inch thick, ^ apart (but I think they would do closer), and about an inch deep. The end of the shaker is attached to tlie machine by hinges, and the straw is thrown on it by the rake. The other end is suspended by wooden rods from a spindle of inch iron cranked at each CHd— 1;J inches giving the shaker 2i inches of throw. The shaker has a small bolt on each side, which runs into a hole in the rods by which the shaker is connected with the crank. I h.ive several holes in the rods, by which I g-ive more or less declivity. Tliat which I mostly use is about 1 foot in 3. The bolts are about 1 foot from the extreme end. The motion is raised from the spur wheel by a pinion on a shall, on which also there is a pulley, and another on the end of the crank spindle, turned with a rope over them, giving about the same motion as fanners require (the fanners are driven from the same shaft.) The bottom of the rake might be taken out and the shaker introduced, in wliich case room might be saved ; and in many cases the shaker might be driven by a pinion on the crank spindle attached to the spur wheel. Should there not be room for the shaker between the rake and fanners, a small rake, just sufficient to relieve the drum of the straw, with a little more motion, might do. By putting a close bottom on the sh^kker, 2 or 2ij inches below the rods, the grain would run into fanners with almost no hopper. " My siiaker works most pleasantly and efficiently, though I have no doubt but it may be improved. But I am confident I have found out tlie principle ; for the shaker can be made longer, giving the straw more time — the crank can be enlarged, giving it more shake— or more motion can be given, wliich will shake it oftener.'* — Dumfries Tim?s, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 95 TO THE COMMITTEE OF MANAGE- MENT OF THE ENGLISH AGRI- CULTURAL SOCIETY. Gentlemen, — The challenge of Lord Western and its acceptance by Mr. Hayward, has no doubt fallen under your observation; but whichever may be the victorious party, the grand secret of all breeding and feeding will be still undecided by the result, viz. : — " which is the most profitable breed of sheep, in pro- portion to the food consumed ?" 'J'he sheep of his lordship and his opponent are to be nearly thirty months old, an age at which they most certainly ought to be in the highest perfection, butis not early maturity, and consequsntly a quick return to the grazier, the primary object? The weight his lordship mentions (eleven stone Sniithfield weight) is commonly attainable by fourteen months old tegs, of the half-bred Cotswold and Down, therefore the question occurs, if, in fourteen months we can make eleven stone of good mutton,* why should we so far waste time, and delay the return of capital, by occupying thirty months in the same task? I take it for granted, the grand aim of the English Agricultural Society is to bring to light a sys- tem, which shall return to the cultivator tke greatest per centage for the capital employed,— first and foremost in this system must ever stand, the breeding and feeding of sheep. I submit, therefore, with all deference, that it behoves the society to try the experiment what sort of sheep will come earliest to maturity, and in proportion to food consumed, yield the greatest return to the feeder. The result of such an experiment, properly con- ducted, would be far more satisfactory than the issue of contests for superiority between individuals, inasmuch as all the different sorts would have the same looking after, would be fed on the same soil, (a most important point) and have precisely the same quantity of food; by this method the capacity of the sheep to thrive would be fairly tried, whereas individual competition more often gives us proof of the tact of certain feeders, and the superiority of one soil over another, in the furnishing ef nutritious food, and as a matter of course the best carcass of mutton, if there be any nature or breed in the animal depastured. 1 therefore respectfully offer the following proposal for the consideration of the committee, leaving to your discretion any alterations for the better securing the ob- ject in view. — I engage there shall be produced from my flock, originating in the Cotswold and Down, (but which I think of distinguishing by the name of" Middle Sheep,") twenty- five or fifty wether lambs, which shall have been yeaned after the 1st of February, 1840, to be grass fed only, and purchased by the society on the 18th of July following, to be grazed out, side by side with an equal number of as many other breeds as shall be deemed expedient to try with them, each lot to be kept separate ; all faod to be measured and weighed, and all shorn on the first of May following, and sold on the same market day. I only require these conditions in respect to the manner of feeding, viz. — that every lot shall move from field to field simultaneously, to be al- ways on arable land, and under no excuse of bad wea- ther, &c. to be moved ofl^. Uader these circumstances, it will be apparent, the capabilities of difterent breeds will be put to the test. I have particularly insisted on the sheep being strictly kept on arable land only, because I think it of the first importance to ascertain which breed will consume to the most advantage green crops, the spending of which OH the land producing them, is the very life of good hus- bandry. There is no doubt that Leicesters, Cotswolds, Devons, Lincolns, &c., &c., will thrive exceedingly well on ricii * It is not contended that young mutton is equal in flavour to old, but that if, as is now the prevailing cuas- tom, mutton is to be killed young, it is desirable to ascer- tain what description is ripest at an early age, and bears the best proportion of fat and lean. herbage, with the downy bed of a luxuriant pasture to lay on, but it is by no means so certain they will equal the "Middle Sheep" where the constitution has to stand tha trial of cold, wet and^dirt ; and I would submit to the Society whether it is not the interest of the agri- culturists of England to adopt and cherish that breed which will flourish beyond their fellows on a system of cultivation absolutely indispensable to three-fourths of the arable land of this kingdom. I hope to have the pleasure of exhibiting a pen of seventeen months old shearling ewes, and a sheep of this " middle breed," at the Oxford Meeting, as extra stock, and a shearling ram, in class ten, all grass-fed only. 1 am perfectly aware of the prodigies of fat there to be encountered, but my aim is, to find out the most ■profit- able sheep ; numbers in proportion to acres, quality and quantity of woel,and capacity for arriving at early ma- turity, all to be taken into account. With the anxious wish that you may be induced to adopt some such mode as the one above suggested, for determining this much disputed yet all-important point, 1 subscribe myself. Gentlemen, Yours respectfully, J.T.TWi'NAM. Whitchurch, Hants, June 27, 1839. ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION OF CATTLE, SHEEP, &o. BY MR. sp.vnnow. {From the Veterinarian.) We are all aware of the great improvement which, of late years, has taken place in the various breeds of neat cattle, sheep, swine, &c., in this counlry. The primiteval inhabitants of the world had no other wealth than their sheep and cattle, and their flocks were numerous and valuable. The riches of the father, and the dowry of the bride, wore calculated by the hundreds or thousands of oxen and sheep, and camels and asses : such, indeed, are the dowries of the present day in Arabia and the north of Africa. The principal riches of the Greeks and Romans were of a similar character; and, in turning- over the pages of history, whether sacred or profane, we learn that pastoral avocations were by no means in- compatible with the possession of the highest dig- nities. In modern times, many invaluable improvements in the breeding and the fattening of live stock have resulted from the labours of enlightened individuals. The names of Bedford and of Bakewell — of Leicester and of Spencer — will ever be connected with the progress of agricultural and national wealth. It is to us, and to agriculturists generally, an in- teresting inquiry, whether the diseases of cattle have decreased with the increasing knowledge of the me- thod of improving their respective breeds. 'I'he answer, I fear, must be in the negative. Then will follow the important inquiry, or, rather, the answer has been already given, " Has veterinary science kept pace with the rapid march of agriculture? Gen- tlemen, it behoves us carefully and anxiously to as- certain the cause of this. We must trace a portion, and a great portion of it, to the neglect of that divi- sion of our art which is most connected with the in- terests of the farmer ; and it is, in a great measure, or altogether in consequence of this, thvit the empiric is not yet eradicated froni the country. But this will soon be difl'ereut. We can road the signs of the 96 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. times, and see close at hand a noble expansion of veterinary instruction amontj veterinary pujjil.s. I can look around me now and see many of my fellow- students, wl)oso talejits and love of their noble pro- fession will blot out the memory of those pests who ilourished only because we were not always compe- tent to the discharge of the duties required of us. There is growing- among those who stand highest in our ranks a determination to become masters of every branch of thc-ir profession; and here the best thanks of us all are due to Mr. Youatt, who first — who alone — has grappled with tlii.s stigma on our art, and written, scientifically and fully, on the diseases of caltle and sheep. The character and the causes of the diseases of cattle not haying been hitherto taught in this coun- try, wo need not be surjirised that the external con- formation of our domrs'.icated animals has been so little spoken of. Some, perhaps, may ask, Of what consequence is their conformation to us? I reply, that it is of tlie greatest conseciuence. In my opi- nion, in order to be fully acquainted with the prin- cij)les of health and disease — in order to be enabled to secure the one and to remove the other, the vete- rinary surgeon should surpass in the knowledge of this every one who has to do with live stock, whether it is the horse, the ox, the sheep, or the swine. How is this knowledge to be acquired 1 By prac- tice, assisted by a competent acquaintance with the anatomy and the functions of tiie different parla of these animals. This, pursued with proper industry, will make us perfectly masters of this most important science. I am told that so much im]>ortance is attached to this by Professor Dick, of Edinburgh, that it is usual with him to take a certain number of his jiupils into the cattle market, and point out to them the external beauties and defects of the various animals — a plan of which I cordially approve, and which does liira the highest credit. Ere we enter more directly into our subject, the following table of the characters of the diflerent breeds may not be unacceptable. CATTLE. BREED. HORNS. fOLOliR. SKIN'. SIZE AND SHAPE. MILK. QUALITY OF MEAT, CONSTITU- TION. WIIEEE FOUND. Devonshire Medium Red with a Thin, but Good size. Quantity Good Good Devonshire, length and light dun silky when fine bono, and quality and almost bent up- muzzle,and handled short car- every county wards ring round cass Hereford Ditto the eye Red, with white faces Thin and fine hair Large size, small bone Quantity small, but rich Good Good Herefordshire Sussex Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Good Good Sussex and Kent Short-Horn Short lied and white mixed Rather thin Large Quantify large Improved Ccc( All parts par- ticularly the London Dai- ries Lancashire Very long Various Thick and long hair Large size Small quantity Good Good Lancashire, Leicester- shire, and Warwickshire Gallowa3's None Black and Rather Large size. INIedium, Excel- Good Galloway and brindled thick and long hair and well shaped but rich lent Norfolk. The Duke of Nor- folk fattens a great many Suffolk None Generally Thinner RIedium Good in Middling Very fail Suffolk and Duns dun than above size quality and Norfolk Highland Medium Black, Thick Small, and quantity Small, but Excel- Good The High- size brindled, or dun well shaped rich lent lands Welsh Rather long Black ge- Thick Rather Ditto Excel- Good Wales and and thick nerally small lent South of England SHEEP. Leicester Lincolnshire South Down Norfolk Merino White faces and legs Ditto Greyish faces and legs Black faces and legs White faces and legs Long and fine Long, but not so fine Middling short and fine Short, and middling fine Very fine Very fat and large Large and fat Excellent Good Inferior quality THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 97 Having offered thus much as introductory to the main question, I proceed now to consider " the ex- ternal conformation of the ox, cow, and sheep." To hecome a good judge or purchaser of domestic animals, it is essentially necessary that we should be well acquainted witli their external conformation, 'J'heoretical knowledge may be useful, but practice alone will make us perfect. It is also requisite that we should be conversant with the various breeds of oxen ; for no particular breed can be selected as the standard of beauty or perfection, each being valua- ble in its kind, and each locality having its particular breed. To those who would wish to acquire a per- fect knowledge of each particular breed, I would recommend the highly valuable works on " Cattle," and " Sheep," by Mr. Youatt. For the sake of perspicuity, I will suppose the ani- mal to be divided into the " fore-hand" or " quar- ter," the " trunk' or " body," and the " hind- quarter." The forehand comprises the head, neck, breast, and fore extremities. The body contains the back, loins, sides, flanks, and udder. The hind-quarters comprehend the hips, thighs, and twist. Bourgc4at, to whom we are indebted for a treatise on the external conformation of the horse, com- mences his instructions with the following important observations : " There are no individuals, in any species of ani- mals, free from deformities more or less apparent or essential, and in greater or lesser number. The science of external conformation consists in dis- tinguishing the natural or accidental good or bad qualities — those which add to or diminish from his use and value. The consideration of individual form and relative structure and dimensions naturally lead to a view of the structure as a whole — as one entire and inseparable piece — the harmony of whose pro- portions, their unity and their beauty, constituting the sum of its serviceableuess and worth. Beauty and Utility go hand in hand. For instance, in the body are to be considered the back, and in that its situation and conformation. In the loins, their length and breadth. In the sides, their depth and extent. In the belly, its volume and its form. In the twist, its volume and condition. In the flankS; their spread. With respect to " beauty of form," there is no one who does not assume to himself the right of judging of it, but very few who possess the power, perhaps, to do so. The decision must be founded upon a knowledge of certain established rules and demonstra- tions, whence are derived " the la^vs of beauty." What appears beautiful to one, may be deformity in the estimation of another ; and even that which is really and truly beautiful, according to the ac- knowledged laws of science, may have no charm in the estimation of the uninstructed mind. The first division of the frame is classed under the term fore-iiand or fore-quauter. The head should be small ; the face long from be- tween the eyes to the muzzle, tapering towards the nose. Across the frontal bone it should be broad, and wide also at the nostrils ; but the muzzle itself should be fine and small. The occipital bone should be flat and strong, but the character of the horns will depend upon the breed. The ears should be large, and should stand a little erect, and thin. A full, clear, and prominent eye is an essential point. It is a mark of good breeding, and it tells of the health of the animal. The expression of the eye is a most im- portant point in the ox, the cow, and the sheep. A heavy and dull eye shows a bad and slow feeder, a watchful and suspicious eye, shewing much of its white, is a sign of a fretful disposition, which is in- compatible with quick and profitable feeding. A calm, complacent expression of the eye and counte- nance is indicative of a quiet contented character, and much flesh and fat will soon accumulate on such a beast. The Week should be light, tapering from the front of the shoulder, with a gradual rise to the head. The neck, liowever, should be in proportion to the other parts of the animal, although I should prefer a short neck to a long one. The Shoulders should be rather broad across ; for if these parts are properly covered, the other and prime ones maybe safely considered to be ripe. The arm should be of a proportional size, and not too fleshy. The legs should be short rather than long, and cleanly made. They should be placed where they appear most easily to bear the weight of the body ; and they should stand wide asunder, so as to give capacity to that most important part of the ani- mal frame — the thorax. On the form and size of The Chest depend the soundness, strength, and health of the animal. A capacious chest will afford room to well-expanded lungs ; and in proportion to their expansion will they convert a given quantity of blood into a vital arterial fluid, and contribute to the nourishment of the frame. In order to have a capacious chest, \^e must have depth, i. e. from the anterior dorsal vertebra to the sternum ; but with this we must also have propor- tionate width. I have already observed, that in pro- portion as the fore extremities stand wide, we shall have rotundity of chest, and a predisposition to ac- cumulate flesh and fat. The female with such a chest may not, perhaps, give so much milk j but the milch cow will be hereafter considered. Of the Body or Carcass it has been lately and truly asserted, that the nearer a section of it, whether taken longitudinally, vertically, transversely, or ho- rizontally, approaches to a parallelogram, the greater quantity of flesh will it carry within the same ad- measurement. Then, in order that this form of a parallelogram may be obtained, it is necessary that the Back shall be straight from the top of the shoulder to the tail — the Ribs should approach nearly to a cir- cular ibrm, the last rib terminating near the hip — the Loins should belong and wide — the F/anAs should be deep and wide, not having that drooping of the belly which is seen in most cows. The Hind Quarters next require consideration. They comprise the hips, pelvis, thighs, and twist. The Flips should be round and well covered with muscle and fat. The Peliis should be large, espe- cially in the female, in order that she may be able to bring forth her young with less difficulty. The size of the pelvis is chiefly indicated by the width of the hips, andtiie breadth of the twist. I'he breadth of tlie Loin is always in proportion to that of the chest and pelvis. The Thighs should be well developed from the hips to the lower part of the thigh. The Twist (what an anatomist would term the perinajum) should be well made and wide — the seam in the middle being well filled, so that the whole may form nearly a plane. The Tail should be rather thick at the top, the lower part gradually becoming thin, in- dicating a strong spine and a heavy weiglier. The Legs should be clean and straight, and the Hocks fine boned, and a little inclining inward. In all domesticated animals the Hide or Skin forms one of the best criteria by which we can estimate 98 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tlieir fattening properties. The touch is said to be good or bad, fine or liarsh. When it feels soft and silky, it is a proof of a tendency in tbc animal to take on meat. A thick firm skin, which is generally covered by a thickset, hard, short hair, always bandies bard, and indicates a bad feeder. A beast having a perfect loiich, will have a thick loose skin, floating, as it were, on a layer of soft fat, yielding to the smallest pressure, and springing back towards the finger like a piece of soft thick chamois leather. Such a skin will usually be covered with an abundance of glossy hair, feeling- like a bed of moss, and hence the very appropriate term, a mossy skin. This mode of judging of the thriftiness of tlje ox by the hide, can only be acquired by careful and long practice; but when it is accpiired, it affords a suffi- cient means of judging (^ the feeding qualities of that ox, while the desirable projjerties of symmetri- cal form, fine bono, good disposition, and purity of blood, are the usual accompaniments of tliis mellow feeling. It may be useful to pause for a moment, and look back on the path which we have trodden. I will suppose an ox possessing seme good points, in fact, in good condition, and of a pleasing form, placed before a person who was not a judge of cattle. He ■would admire the beauty of the animal's shape, the glossiness of the skin, the mildness of the counte- nance, and the roundness and plumpness of every limb. No man but he who liad been regularly initiated into the mysteries of the cattle breeder could go an inch farther. He could not tell what feeding or what care had been bestowed to bring bim to this condition, nor what must be farther ex- pended uponbim. He could not tell by the expres- .sion of the eye, whether the animal were in good or bad health, or was a quiet or uncertain feeder ; nor by the colour of his skin whetiier he was of a pure or ■cross breed, nor by the feeling of that skin whether be had arrived at perfect maturity; — nor would he believe that all these things were as plain to another man as the sun at noon day. I will reverse tl)e case. 1 will place before him a store, a lean ox, ho would be totally at a loss to decide either on bis pre- sent or his future condition. To him it may, pro- bably, appear a poor unthrifty animal ; while a cattle breeder would tell him that there was every point that he could desire, and that in less than a twelve- month he would nearly double his present weioht. Placing out of the question accident and disease, he who is well acquainted with the points of cattle can speak of the future almost as surely as of the pre- sent. I have referred to the essential points of the fat ox, — what are those which will enable us to judge of a lean one ? We can, to a coasiderable extent, ex- amine the osseous structure of such an one. Is he made np of a mass of thick round bones 1 — he will be a slow feeder, and will scarcely pay for his keep. Are the bones small in proportion to the bulk of flesh — the bead and face fine and clean— a clear eye — a large ear— a light neck— a well-formed chest— the fore and the hind legs clean— the joints small — the skin thick but elastic? — these are the main points; aad if they aie easily discoverable there will be no fea^- with regard to the future thriftiness of the beast. Sheep, whether they are fat or lean, may as cer- tainly be judged of by the same rules. If the head is clean and well set on — the eye clear and promi- nent— the bones small — the ears large, thin, and pricked up — the hair of the face and legs short and thick, and the feeling of the skin the same as in the ox, there are sufficient indications of a propensity to take on fat. I consider, however, that the neck of the sheep should be moderately thick, for 1 have found that it indicates the presence of plenty of mus- cle, and where we want it — along the whole course of the spine. Many of tlie observations with regard to the con- formation of oxen and sheep are applicable to swine. They should have broad straight backs, round chests, thin hair, thin skin, small tails, pricked ears, small and fine bones, and well-turned shoulders and hams. These rules, gentlemen, are not founded on mere arbitary assumptions — they are the result of expe- rience of the best breeders and graziers, and the ve- terinary surgeon sliould be as able to draw certain conclusions from certain facts as any of them. I am perfectly assured that this will, at no distant pe- riod, form a part, and a most important one too, of the education of the veterinary )3upil. It is time for me to close this l-^ssay : I would, bowever, beg to be permitted to make one or two observations on the points oi' dniry cows. Tlie princi- pal points of good cow-stock, are a long and rather small head — a bright ese— the chops thin — the horns small — the neck rather thin than fleshy, and u good dewlap, 'i'he breast needs not to be so wide as in the ox, but it should not bo too narrow — a tolerably full spine — tho portion of the chest beneath the sljoulders deep, yet with that bairel-like form of carcass w-hick has been so strongly advocated. She should be well-formed across the hips, with good loins, but the thighs should be thin ; and, above every thing beside, the elasticity of tlie skin should be that which is so highly valued in other cattle. 'I'he most essentivd point in tlie dairy-cow is that of the tiickle or ndder. It should be capacious — of e(iual size before and behind, or, if there is any dif- ference, fuller before, and the teats of a moderate size. ON THE USE AND ABUSE OF SOOT AS A MANURE, LIME, &c. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sin, — In No 4, vol. II., of your magazine, (April last) there is an article on soot, by a Mr. Alex. Main, which, it appears, was first published in the Qnarterty Journal of Agriculture. If the writer of the article had seen as much as I have seen of the bad effects of soot, he would never have troubled himself with inventing a machine for sowing it. If he continue the use of it for ten years, he will change his tune from a lively air to a very melancholy oUi-, and perhaps get a box on the ear by his master, (as I see be is a factor^ for not minding his flats and sharps better when he first began to practice music. Soot is a stimulant, and, like most stimulants, de- ceptive in its effects. All glory at the first, but gloom or death in the end. They are very useful in some cases both to land and to the animal frame, but they should be resorted to with caution, and seldom repeated in either case. If INIr. Main con- tinues annually to use soot upon bis land, it will have the same effect upon it as whiskey would have upon his labourers if he allowed them nothing but whiskey to live on. The men would work like devils tor a day or two ; but, if the}'^ were not put upon roast /lee/' again, they would soon begin to flag in their exertions, and, in the end, death would be the consequence. So upon land soot will work wonders for several years, and it is surprising to see bow soon it effects a change ; but I repeat, that THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 99 frequent applications of it will ruin the land ; make it completely barren; and, to restore it, will require years of good management with frequent ap- plications of good dung-, or a dressing of marl. The comparisons between the effects of soot on land, and ardent spirits on man, will carry throughout, with only one exception ; land may be restored by time and care to fertility, but a broken constitution can never be restored. I have known very good land sooted till neither soot or the best dung had any effect at all upon it ; I mean one dressing of dung of thirty tons per statute acre. In a neigbbouring township to this a great part of the land has been dressed with soot till little more than one-third of a crop can be got; and now, when the mischief is done, the tenants are forbid 'he use of it. A good farmer will not often have a sickly crop, but there are cases of this nature with thebest of management, and, in sucli cases, soot will answer a good purpose as a top dressing. Milch cows are not fond of either hay or pasture where soot has been applied. From an experiment I once saw, I believe, that soot from a gentleman's kitchen chimney has a different effect on land, than that from other chimnies, but whether this was because it was aristocracic scot or had re- ceived some enriching quality from the beef and inuttoii which had been roasted under the chim- ney, I cannot pretend to say, but shall leave every man to form his own opinion. So much for soot JVIr. Editor, and now for a word or two on lime. In the 5th No. vol. II., (JMay) of your magazine, there is an article on lime copied from the Ayr Adveri'ner, Some of the writer's remarks on the application of lime are very good according to my own practice, but others do not agree with it. He goes little out of the way to give a pretty deep cut at gentlemen's factors, and I am quite certain they deserve it. I am quite aware that lime produces the best effects, in the least time, when applied to a fallow, whether for potatoes, turnips, or wheat. But I never saw any loss, except loss of time, by ap- plying it to grass land. This I have proved over and over again. I have a held now under my care of seventy acres which, five years ago, would not feed either sheep or cow fat. It will now feed either fat, and the change has been brought about by a top dressing of lime, or a compost of lime and soil. A little has been done with bone manure. This part is now the best. The next best is that part dressed with lime alone. The compost was the quickest in operating, but is not so good as the other part at tills time. I attribute this to having less lime upon the acre, because it was considered less would answer in a compost, and for a few years it will do. He talks of lime being in an effete state, and being then of less value for land. VVhen applied to grass land, I always found it act as well when in the same state as oatmeal ; that is, neither too quick or too damp. I went over a piece of moor land, some time ago, on a part of which, a few years before, had had u quantity of old lime from buildings spread upon it. The effects which it had produced was most sur- prising, and yet this lime must have been in that state, what the above writer calls dead. Lime acts upon land like medicine on a sick man. It makes it healthy and fit to carry any crop. Any vegetable manure after a dose of lime will produce a better effi'Ct, that is, if the land has not been dressed with lime too often. It is well known that lime will not answer if applied repeatedly on the sameland without vegetable manure. To do so is just as foolish as a man attempting to live on medicine because he had been put in good health by taking it. In the last number of your magazine, (June) at page 438, there is an article " on the comparative value of the turnip and potato crops." This is a very foolish article, and is a very unfair statement. All depends upon situation and other circumstances, whether turnips or potatoes will return the most profit to the farmer. The writer does not say whether the turnips are Swedish or common ones. I suppose the former, as he ca'culates on making 20/. per Irish acre, by cattle feeding. When every thing goes on well, this will be the case ; but some- times, I may say frequently, there are considerable drawbacks upon cattle feeding. There is buying in and selling out, and the risk of cattle while feed- ing, all these chances may go against the farmer. The comparison will also depend on the farmer being near a good market for potatoes. He states the potatoes to average only Is. per bushel in the market. In South Lancashire we average one season with another, 18d. per bushel. The value of the manure raised from turnip feeding is most ex- travagantly over-rated. 8/. per acre is far nearer the mark than 16/. In this calculation ho has evidently never considered the hay and straw con- sumed by the cattle, while consuming the turnip. With the same land, and the same quantity of dung, and the same management which will raise 40 tons of Swedish turnips upon an Irish acre, 500 bushels of potatoes may be raised, but we will say 450 bushels. I have, myself, raised, more than once or twice, 800 bushels to the Irish acre. Without loaning unduly to either side of the question, the account will stand as follows ; — £ s. d. 40 tons of turnips. 20 0 0 Valueofdung 8 0 0 28 0 0 Deduct seed 0 5 0 27 15 0 £ s. d. 450 bushels of potatoes at I8d 3:> 15 0 JJeduct price of seed 2 8 0 31 7 0 Difference in favour of potatoes 3 12 0 Now, although potatoes are a more profitable crop in South Lancashire, this is no argument for proving that they are so everywhere. In fact I know thev are not so. It is the situation which will make the difference either way. I have known many farmers go wrong altogether, particularly when removing to a new situation, by not properly considering the ad- vantages and disadvantages of cultivating different crops in the situation they were in. Tliis has almost invariably been the case with Scotchmen who have come into Lancashire to teach us how to farm. I am. Sir, Your, &c., A LANCAsninE Firmer. Near Waryingtoii, June 24. EARL SPENCER'S PRIZE of Five Sovereigns to the person who sliall mow half an acre of grass in tlie most workmanlike manner witiiin tlie time of two hours, was contested for by twenty-two competitors, on Friday, the 28lli of June, at his Lordsliip's farm at Brampton, near NortJiampton. Tlie Judgrs awarded the prize to William Ilaynes, of Byfield, Northampton- shire. I'lio day was so exceedingly wet, that the num- ber of spectators to witness this interesting scene was not so g-reat as in former years. 100 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE USE OF NIGHT SOIL AS A MANURE. Sm, — With yourself I have long- indulged a hope that some person would have given you and the public the result of their experiments with this ma- nure, and I little expected it would have remained for one so inexperienced as myself in agricultural affairs, to be the first to do so, — for my experience has been limited as to time and the extent of my farming- operations. However, I am much gratifietl to see the rapid improvement going- on in a pursuit which has afforded me for some iew years the great- est pleasure, and with a feeling- tliat it is a duty to his country that every man should give to tJie public and to his neighbour the benefit of such successful experiments or improvements as he may be enabled to make, I now obtrude myself on your notice, and will proceed to the subject of my letter ; and tliat it may be scanned impartially, and tested only by its own merits (if it have any), I would premise tliat I am in no way interested or concerned with any per- sons advertising such manure for sale. To the point then. Some years ago I broke up a quantity of Down land, a long distance from iiome, and without buildings on the spot; I conceived it, therefore, desirable that I sliould employ some ex- traneous manure, which should be liglit and portable, in aid of the sheep-fold. Knowing the value tlie Chinese attach to night soil as a manure, and its successful a]iplication on the Continent, I was led to make trial of it. A considerable quantity was obtained and deposited in a iield at a distance, where it was frequently turned, and -all rubbish thrown aside; after exposure to the air, sun, frost, iScc, it became like a fine dark mould, ,free from smell, suf- ficiently pulverised to be screened, and fit for the drill ; in some cases a small quantity of lime was added, but otherwise it underwent no otiier prei)ara- tion. It may be asked or expected that I should state at aviiat trice it was obtained. I bought it of tno men, who agreed to provide me with it, by the cart-load, but as I would leave both master and man to make the best bargain they can, I refrain from Slating more than that to me it has been a cheaper manure than anything I could procure for the same purpose. My first trial of it was last year on the Down land before mentioned ; the soil, a thin red clay on flint; an eight-acre piece was drilled with Swedish turnips, and about forty bushels of the manure to an acre; the effect was evident immediately on the turnips coming up, for the difference in the growth on the headlands, and where one turn of the drill was with- out manure, was most remarkable; the result was a very heavy crop of turnips. I cannot speak of the handsome size of the bulbs, as the sort wns bad and rapy ; but the experiment was considered a very successful one. This year a crop of oats has suc- ceeded the Swedes; the land having been folded, the dry weather and wireworm were at first against them ; they have altered much since the late heavy rains, and I am of opinion that their improved con- dition is in some measure attributable to the manure of last season. This year 1 have an eight acre piece of wheat on some of the same land, drilled in with the same quantity of the manure ; it promises exceedingly well, aad is altogether better and more even throughout than any crop I have seen on similar land, in fact, superior to my wheat on deep clay land in the vale. J have also ten acres of Swedish turnips, drilled with the same quantity of manure (forty bushels to the acre). Here I may make a similar remark of them as I did of those of last year, tliat in some spots the delivery of tiie manure is irregular, and hencs the powerful effect of it is very visible, for where it has been properly applied, to use the words of the hoers, " the turnips are as large as cabbage leaves, but where tliere is none they are not larger than primroses." This defect in the delivery of the manure, I have observed, whether it has been turned out with cups, as in the Suffolk drill, or by tumblers. Ashes or this numure, if a little damp, will adhere to tlie cui)s or tumblers, and the delivery is for a while impeded : it would be desir-able on this ac- count to keep such manures as are intended for drilling under cover; but more effectunlly to remedy this defect, if some ditlcrent mode of making the tumblers could be devised it would be well ; the best which suggests itself to me is to make them similar to an undershot water wheel, having a space between what would represent the float of the water wheel and the axle — tliis, I conceive, would effec- tu-ally prevent their choking up. In conclusion I may add, tliat I agree with you that bone dust is limited in tiuantitu, and I suspect in many cases is bad in quality ; whilst every sca- venger, many public companies, every town and village could supply a large quantity of valuable manure, which till recently has been useless. I hope these remarks may be entitled to attention. And now, Mr. Editor, having spun a long yarn on a diiiii subject, 1 t;ike my leave, merely remark- ing that as you wished to excite inquiry or informa- tion on it, I hope it may lead to more practical re- sults under abler hands. I am, Mr. Editor, yours, QUIS? .. Dndd's Ileail, Saliaburu Plain, CARNIVOROUS PLANTS.-Of all the instances of sensibility in plants, the most remarkable is that of the Venus's fly-trap. It has a large dilated foot-stalk and leaf formed of two lobes fixed by a middle rib, with some thorny processes or protuberances, an ar- rang-ement to g-ive it irritability. Nature provides a honey-like secreiion which attracts tlie flies and insects to feed upon, and by stepping- on them, the leaves close, and the insect is enti-apped. JNIr. Knigrht first ascer- tained that this plant could be fed on filaments of raw beef, but the general complaint is, that it will not live long in this country, from the want of a supply of its proper f^ood. The lecturer was the first to discover that the sensibility resided in the thorns, and not in the mid- dle rib, where it was formerly supposed to belong. Alter flics, or any other insects, are entrapped, the leaves remain closed several days, when the insect may be seen struggling within. The process will go on till both lobes of the leaf are collapsed and straight, and the teeth locked, until, at last, it will re-open, when the insect will be seen crushed, every particle of fluid being absorbed, so that the fly may be blown out at almost the first breath of wind. There is another plant allied to it in geographical distribution, which when kept in a green house entraps beetles, flies, and other insects. At the bottom of the flower is a saccharine liquid, to which the insect goes, but cannot return, as he is arrested by what are not inaptly compared to files of bayonets. The lecturer made a series of experiments on these plants, which had been in his possession for upwards of 12 years, by feeding them with filaments of beef and mutton, and they were at last merely destroyed by acci- dent. Another plant, a native of our own country, the Droseua roturdifolia, or sundew of our marshes, pos- sesses apparatus of an analogous organic character, bearing a viscid fluid, and a multitude of hairs, which have the effect of catching insects, whereon to feed the plant, — Professor Johnson's Lecture. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 101 TO THE EARL SPENCER, PRESIDENT OF THE ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, AND TO THE GENTLEMEN OF THE COMMITTEE OF MANAGE- MENT. Felix Hall, JuneUlh. My Lord and Gentlemen, — The anxiety I feel for the satisfactory results of our meeting- on the 17th of July, at Oxford, will I trust be some apology for my presuming to ofier some suggestions relative to the most diflicult of all our labours, viz. — the decision of the various prizes amongst the numerous competi- tors for the premiums offered ; I address myself now chiefly to those applicable to live stock, and in the first instance more particularly to sheep, and this question of course resolves itself into the selection of judges. I very much incline to the opinion of the expediency, if not the necessity, of remuneration to them for their travelling expenses and loss of time ; I do not think that our exhibitions of stock will con- tinue long or effective, unless we cin command and insure the attendance of adequate judges, drawn from various parts of the kingdom. It is impossible not to be aware that the jealousy to which all mankind are liable is felt as well by the breeders of animals as by other people ; and if they have not their pre- judices, thev have in difi'erent parts of the country, their predilections and tastes, and their special favour- itism of particular character, and particular points of merit : thus if all the judges came from any limit- ed district, they probably would lay too much stress upon those characteristics which tliey have been in the habit of considering as primary qualities. I am therefore of opinion that thecourtof judges (if Imay so express myself) should be drawn from different districts. The Leicester sheep have been established now, and are cultivated by persons of as great skill and eminence as breeders, in various counties of England, as in Leicestershire. It is not necessary to point out those counties ; suffice it to say, that I think we should have a judge from those several counties in which these flocks prevail. This same observation applies even more strongly to the South vDown sheep, which are certainly to be found of equal value in many counties as in Sussex, though there may be considerable variation in their general characters. I entertain an opinion which atfirstmay seem preposterous, but upon furtlier consideration I think will be found not to be so ; it is, that justice ■would be more effectually administered by the selec- tion of judges of the short wool sheep from amongst breeders of the long, and vice versa. The grand re- quisites in all animals are precisely the same ; the same features which determine merit must be looked for in all. It appears to me that not much stress is laid upon wool, perhaps not so much as ouglit to be, but to determine the value of that article, a wool mer- chant or wool stapler should be called in. Asa grower of short or fine wool, and a candidate for premiums, I certainly should prefer the growers of long wool as judges, but it is obvious that my case is rather peculiar, aiming as I do at arivalship with the long established and highly valuable South Down sheep, still less of superseding them, and that I con- sider in determining the merit of the individuals that may be exhibited, the question of superior title to be generally cultivated, is not at all involved; but I think there is room in the country for such a variety as I am endeavouring to produce, and I am decidedly of opinion that an admixture of the IMerino Ram with the long wool ewes, would make a valuable breed : that the Meriuo sheep hare qualities the public are not aware of, and I exhibit individuals in justifica- tion of this opinion. As respects neat cattle, I do not see why short- horn breeders should not be judges of Ilerefords, and Hereford of short-horn, and both of Devon ; a a move difficult task devolves upon the judges at the Smithfield show, who are to fix the crown of merit on one, over all the individuals of the different kinds shown in competition ; as for instance laat year the gold medal was awarded to Mr. Hillyard, for his little Devon ox. I have again to apologize for venturing to offer these suggestions, and indeed for the intrusion so long upon your time, snd have the honor to be, Your faithful and obedient servant, WESTERN. THE ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SO- CIETY AND THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. (from the veterinarian.) We can at length announce to our readers — and we doit vyith a degree of exultation in which they will fully participate — that the work of reformation has commenced in the southorn veterinary school. During a considerable proportion of the season now drawing to a close, both the Professors have been seriously indisposed, and totally unable to discharge the duties of their respective situations ; and it cannot now be said that the health of either of them is perfectly re-established. Week after week passed away, and not a lecture of any description was given in the theatre ; nor would there have been one demonstration in the dissecting room, and, worse than all, the clinical instructions of the yard and the stable would have altogether ceased, had not Blr, Spooner fortunately resided close to the College, and, at the request of Mr. Sewell, devoted the whole of his time to the anatomical instruction of the pupils, and the treatment of the patients. The present class owes to Mr. Spooner the deepest debt of gratitude for the promptness with which he under- took, and the talent with which he executed, the laborious task. in the mean time various interviews had taken place between a zealous and influential member of the English Agricultural Society and certain of the Governors of the Veterinary College ; and the subject of the extension of the instruction of the pupil to the anatomy and pathology of all our domesticated animals, or, in other words, the placing of the College in that position, with respect to the agricul- turist, which its founder had intended, but which, by some strange fatality, had been neglected and forgotten, was discussed. There seemed to be but one feeling — veterinary instruction was originally designed to be communicated in all its branches, and should in future be so. The opposition — artful, virulent, deadly — which in one quarter had been made to this, ceased when it appeared to be alto- gether fruitless ; and although certain minor de- tails may yet remain to be discussed — and in our next Journal we shall, probably, be able to speak satisfactorily of them all — it is arranged that instruc- tions shall henceforth be given to the pupils on the Anatomy and Diseases of all our more valuable domesticated animals. In order that this shall be perfectly carried out, a third Professor has been added to the College. 102 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. Coleman retains the title of " Professor :" be will treat of the Pathology of the Horse ; and the general superintendence of the institution will real with him. Mr. Sewell will be " the Deputy Pro- fessor ;" and, in addition to the duties which lie has hitherto dischiuged, lectures will be required from him on the pathology of the new classes of patients. In addition to the former duties of the Demonstr.itor, "the Assistant Professor" (Mr. Spooner has been appointed to that situation) will give a series of Lectures on the Anatomy and Physiology of the new Patients : and, in case of the illness of either of the other Professors, will occupy his chair, and lecture for hiui as long as may be necessary. Stalls are. without dela)', to be erected for tbo reception of the bovine patients, and folds for the sheep, and sties for the pigs. From the com- mencement of the session in November next, the new era is to take its date. In our next number we shall, doubtless, have more to say. In the mean time, we heartily con- gratulate every welUwisher to our profession on the prospect which is opening before us. Y, SAGO AS FOOD FOR DOMESTICATED ANIMALS. (From the Quuvtevly Jmiynal of Agriculture.) Sago, as our readers are no doubt well aware, has, for some time past, been given as food to the animals usually reared on a farm, particularly horses and calves. We have hitherto refrained noticing the use of sago at all, until it shall have been ascertained by experiment, that it constituted an economical as well as a wholesome food for domesticated animals. In such a work as this we think it more consonant with the interests of good husbandry, to retain a prudent silence on untried though recommended practices, than excite hopes in regard to ihem which may never be realised. The wholesonieness of sago as food was never doubted, for it has long been administered to the human subject in infancy and sickness, but its economy in any instance, in feeding live stock, was very pi-oblematical. Experience, however, has decided in its favour, in reference to animals in both respects; and henceforward it will, no doubt, constitute a staple article of food on all farms that rear young stock. From its emollient and nutritive properties, we should consider it ad- mirably adapted for calves while on milk; for cows, sometime before and after calving ; for young horses in winter, instead of much dry corn, or none at all, as is too frequently practised ; and for young pet lambs, whose mothers have either died or forsaken them, in which events, a serious encroachment is apt to he made on the milk in- tended for the calves. We entertain doubts of its economy in supporting draught horses and fatten- ing cattle, seeing that a very large quantity must be required for those purposes. We should like to see a set of well conducted experiments under- taken in these respects by some intelligent farmers. Sago seems peculiarly well adapted to horses for fast work, and for sporting dogs, since it is found to leave the wind unaffected ; and with regard to fowls, the whole class of them might be rendered by it, much more white in flesh and delicate for the table, than the food usually allowed them on farms. Sago is most commonly used in a gelatinous state, and it is easily reduced to that state by boil- ing water. There is is a proper method, however, of making it into a jelly, not by pouring water on it, but by sprinkling it amongst water. The me- thod is simply this : To two imperial gallons of hoiliaf/ water in any vessel, take li ])Oundsof sago, and add it by degrees to the water ; let one person springle the sago, and another keep the mass con- stantly astir; add an ounce of salt, and let the jelly stand till cold, when it is fit for use, and any pro- portion can be taken of it for the purpose required. It has been found, however, that the jellied state is too soft food for horses on fast work ; and the nearer, it seoms, it can he administered in its or- dinary state the better for them. For this purpose it is given in lumps made up with water, or given in the dry state; hut, of course, water is offered for drink, as in the case of feding on oats. As the horse is the most important animal, we shall take his treatment first into consideration, and, in show- ing the effect? of sago on his constitution when employed at fast work, we cannot do better than communicate to our readers, an account of some interesting experiments made on this subject by Mx'. Thomas Ritchie, veterinary surgeon in this city, with which he is kind enough to furnish us. These experiments certainly tend to inspire confi- dence in sago as a wholesome and hard food for horses urged to high speeds. " Being of ojiinion," says J\Ir. Ritchchie, " that fen- or none of those whom I have frequently heard speaking of sago, for and against it, as a food for horses, had ever adopted a proper method of ascer- taining the real value of the article, I purchased, about two months ago, a horse for the express pur- pose of exptrimenting on that species of food. lie is eight years old, between fourteen and fifteen hands high, stoutly formed, of sound constitution, and chestnut colour. His pulse, when I got him, ave- raged thirfy-five in a minute, during rest; and his respiration eight ; and these have never varied much except when the animal has been put to exertion. Previous to his coming into my possession, he had been kept on corn and hay, and wa^ in good condi- tion. He was several times trotted five miles within half an hour, at as uniform a pace as possible. His pulse, at the end of that distance, averaged sixty- seven, and his respirations forty-two ; and there was slight perspiration about the breast, and the fore part of the thighs. The perspiration could not, of course be numbered, weighed or measured; but it was so carefully attended to, that any difference afterwards might be easily ascertained. " The pony was then put upon sago feeding, which consisted of jelly made of three pounds of sago, stirred into about two gallons of boiling water, and given in equal parts at morning, noon, and night. When he had been a iew days on this feeding, with regular exercise, he was again trotted, and carefully attended to as before. There was little difference on the pulse, or respiration ; but the perspiration was sensibly more profuse ; and the trials were repeated frequently with the same effects. " I then, as I had from the first intended, gave him the sago in an almost dry state, having only moistened it with about four ounces of warm water to each pouad of sago, that it might be the more easily masticated ; and after a few days he was again subjected to trial-trotting, when he was found to have completely regained his former fine condition, and even to have improved upon it. He trotted with great spirit; the respiration was comparatively tran- quil, and the perspiration scarcely sensible. I then THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 103 Ejave him alternately moistened sago and sago jelly, ibrseveral successive days, and the efFects were always the same as before ; that is tjje spirit and endurance incrcasiiif^ with the moistened sago, and decreasing with the jell)'. " In corroboration of tliis very important fact, which I think I have ascertained with great cer- tainty, I now directed my attention to the circum- stance, that the stomach of the horse does not seem to be intended to retain water at all. In evidence of this, I shall state a case, which I helieve 1 gave to tlie Highland and Agricultural Society, in a prize essaj', some time ago, and which is peculiarly appli- cable to the present subject. I was called to attend a horse, some years ago, which had an opening tlirougli the lower part of the belly, and into the small gut, vv'ithin about twelve inches of the large gut, and more than twenty yards from the stomach, by tiie course of the intestinal canal. Whenever a pailful of water was given, the greater part of it could be received into the pail again from the hole in tlie belly, within a few minutes after it had been taken in by the mouth ; thus showing how quickly water jiasses to a great distance from the stomach to where it is lodged in the great intestines.* Besides this evidence of the quickness with which water passes through the stomach, may be mentioned tlie fact, that the healthy stomach of the horse is never found to contain any flow of water, when opened; the contents are moist, but that is all. VVithia ten minutes after a draught of water, it would be impossible to tell, by opening the stomach, whe> ther or not the horse had recently taken water ; tlie food there would be just as moist as without it. I liiive frequently made the experiment and found no difference. AU food before it is swallowed, is suffi- ciently moistened by the fluid of the mouth. After that, it receives the natural fluids of the stomach, and these seem to be suflicient for all the ])urposes of digestion. It is evident that water, in the healtliy state of the stomach, has merely a passage from the recipient to the expellent orifice, but no lodgment there; nor does it pass through the contents of the stomach, but past them. It seems, then, that the healthy stomach of the horse does not retain water in the sensible form, and that when it is compelled to retain it, in union with food, the effect is to debi- litate the animal. In proof of this, let us consider green grass, which contains a large quantity of watery fluid, as is evinced by the great quantity of urine which the horse stales when using it, although he drinks but little. We find that it tends greatly to produce perspiration, and is not compatible with strength and endurance. But if the moisture be evaporated out of the grass, as when given in the form of hay, tlie animal can endure double the exertion, even though the original weight of it be fully made up by giving water by itself. Water passes quickly through the stomach, and does not remain there, either to dilute the gastric fluid or otherwise inter- fere with the process of digestion or respiration. * By the way, I may tell veterinary practitioners, that an aperture of this kind, which they will readily know from any other, and which is produced by sup- puration, in the case of umbiUcal heruin, may be shut up at once with perfect safety, first, by mechanical means, and then by adhesive inflammation, as there is no danger of fluid, or other matter, escaping from the bowel into the cavity of the abdomen ; a fact wilh which I was not acquainted, till after the death of the horse because I had never before heard of such a case. The bowel adheres to the skin, so as to prevent all danger that might be supposed to arise from the sudden B'autting of the aperture. Every experienced man knows this, and the case is quite analogous to that of soft sago jelly. But sago in a dry, or nearly in a dry state, is far from being soft. It is the hardest food I know of. I use the terms liard and snj't as applied by stablemen. By hard food, I mean that food which tends to promote high condition, that is, muscular strength and en- durance. Sago then, I aflirm, to be the hardest food that we have, and at its present price, it is cheaper than corn. I have only further to add, that sago seems to be so very free from all tendency to fer- mentation, that it may be given in large quantities, when high condition is wanted. I have given it to nearly the entire exclusion of hay ; and never could observe the slightest symptoms of flatulency or in- digestion. It consists too, almost entirely of nutri- tive mutter, without any refuse, as shewn by chemi- cal analysis ; and is, therefore, peculiarly adapted to hunters and racers ; and by its use, a great addition may be made to their strength and powers of en- durance, without danger of producing that over ex- citement of the system whicli frequently arises from an inordinate quantity of oats. I mean, however, that the sago should be added to an ordinary quan- tity of corn, perhaps two, throe, or four pounds of sago a-day ; but the experience of each particular case will speedily suggest the proper quantity to be used. I have tried this mode of feeding on ray little horse, and find that he has acquired a very unusual degree of strength and spirit." As a drink for a horse, after a severe run or burst in the field, sago-gruel, consisting of about a pound of jelly, completely dissolved in two or three gallons of warm water, is found to be siipe- perior to any other kind of drink. For cows, as we conceive, the jelly should be given dissolved in water, in the shape of drink. We suppose that it has not yet been ascertained, whether sago is more conducive to the fattening or milking property ; we conceive to the former. It is probable, that the flavour of milk will be im- proved by sago, imparting to it most probably a kernelly taste ; though it is not correct to slate that turnips always impart an unpleasant flavour to milk ; as turnips, deprived of the rind, are quite inoffensive to milk, and particularly, if a small quantity of the solution of saltpetre is poured into the milk on being brought into the dairy. Sago-jelly, mixed with new milk, in the propor- tion which linseed porridge, or lythax, as it is termed in Berwickshire, is used, must form an ex- cellent food for calves. The astringency of the fecula being more favourable to the healthy action of the bowels than the lythax. For dogs it is said to constitute a desirable food. Oatmeal, of itself, is a costive and heating food for dogs ; and when dogs arc in either state, their nose is liable to be in fault. The quantity and method of administering sago to dogs is found to be this : — Take half a pound boiled to a jelly, and pour it over biscuit, [bread, or potatoes, previously soaked, in milk so much the better, to form a broth or jelly to these substances. This quantity is enough for one greyhound, and upon it he stands his work better than when fed on meat, and he will have neither mange, humours, nor smell. All dogs, whether in kennel or at large, should have, at will, an ample supply of pure water. To pigs, sago should be administered in the shape of drink, from two to three pounds being given to each pig once a-day ; and the jelly given to fowls should be in warm balls, mixed up with barleymeal. Sago is a grattful food to the human stomacb. 104 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. It is of easy digestion, as evinced by the remarkable experiments ofT)r. Beaumont on Alexis Martin, a French Canadian, the operations of whose stomach was permanently laid open to view through an orifice occasioned by a gunshat wound. Sago is the starch obtained from the spongy medullary matter contained in the young shoots of several species of palm, which flourish to great- est perfection in some of the spice islands of the Indian Archipelago, rapidly attaining a height of 30 feet, and 18 to 22 inches in diameter. " The palm is cut into pieces of five or six feet in length, the woody part is cut off on one side, ex- posing the pith lying, as it were, in the bottom of a canoe. Cold water is poured in, and the pith well stirred, by which means the starch is separated from the fibrous part, and passes through with the water, when the whole is thrown on a searce. The sago, thus separated, is allowed to settle, the water is poured off, and when it is half dry, it is granulated by being forced through a kind of funnel. It is said to acquire its grey colour, while dried in an arliJicUil heal"* " Within tliese few years, hower, a process has been invented by the Chinese for refining sago, so as to give it a fine pearly lustre ; and the sago so cured, is in the highest estimation in all the European markets. * * * It is sent from the island where it is grown to Singapore, where it is granulated and bleached by the Chinese. The export trade to Eu- rope and India is now principally confined to that settlement. ''t In subjecting pellets of sago to microscopic ob- servation, after having been immersed in water for some hours, M. Ilaspail arrived at the conclu- sion, from the phenomena developed, that they must have been subjected to heat in the prepara- tion. The grains of fecula are burst by the water, and their surface much torn. " Under this superficial layer," adds M. Ilaspail, " the grain that iiave not been burnt, exhibit either wilbin them, or on a point of their surface, a granul- ation or excresence, which is remarked on all the varieties of fecula, when they have been subinilted for an instant to the action of heat, after being tnoittened in water. In the centre of the pellets, on the other hand, the grains are all entire and unaltered. * * * By treating the fecula of the potato in the same way, we may obtain sago so much resembling that which is imported, that I am led to believe that much of the sago of commerce is mostly of this kind. The adul- teration of drugs is so frequent, that I cannot sup- pose that one so easy as this would be neglected."* The consumption of sago increased from 1339 cwt. in 1822, to 385!) cwt. in 18j2. The price of common sago varies in bond from 12s. to 1/.; while pearl sago fetches from 15s. to 35s. a cwt. ; the price being liable to much fluctuation. § The price which Mr. Baildon, the chemist of this city, at present asks for sago, suited to the feeding of stock, in quantities not less than one cwt., is 22s. per cwt. Pearl sago has lately been used as an ingredient in house-hold bread, in the proportion of one of sago to three of wheaten flour. The bread is pala- table, wholesome, and keepable, but not more so than good wheaten bread. The reduction of price * Thomson's Chemistry, vol. iv. p. 708. t MacCuUoch's Commercial Diet. t Organic Chemistry, p. 113. j MacCuUoch's Commercial Diet. it effects is only a halfpenny per pound. At the present time, during the high price of wheat, sago bread may find customers ; but whenever the price of wheat again falls, which will most likely be the case after harvest, it will no more be thought of. Soda bread had a name for a time, and eo will sago; because " novelty is pleasing." RAILWAYS VERSUS TURNPIKE ROADS. TO THE EDITOn OF THE MAHK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — It would be an unnecessary occupation of your valuable pages to enter on a lengthened refutation of the erroneous conceptions of your correspondent " A Member of the Society of Land Agents and Surveyors," inserted in your weekly Journal of the 27th ult., upon his advocating the propriety of rating railways for the lepairs of turnpike roads, as the propositiou then made conuot have been duly considered with reference to the exi«tiug laws for highways, with the lateral branches, of the two distinct and separate facts, viz. — Parish Roads, and their auxiliaries, Turnpike Trusts. On the propriety of rating railroads to the mainte-- nance and repairs of the original highways, or parish roads, as inserted in your Journal of 20tli ult., no ap- parent doubt exists on the equity of the measure, and the legality to assess all such portions of railway that pass through each and every parish iu its continuous line, whether now in progress, or hereafter completed ; taking the present or future assessment on a value to be ascertained by mutual arrangement with the direc- tors, or by resort to a surveyor's valuation, by order at special sessions, such power to make an assessment appearing to be indubitable, and even compulsory on the parish surveyors, for the relief of the general payers to the repairs of the highways, parish roads approxi- mating to railroads being subjected to considerable in- crease of wear and tear, by the traffic on them with the supplies for such unlertakings. With respect to turnpike trusts, the existing powers either special in the separate acts of the legislature to each trust, or the provisions of the general Turnpike Act 3 & 4 Geo. IV., c. 128, are so conclusive for their own safety, as needs no question for the exercise of such powers to place or erect toll-bars or gates, at every outlet from the main trunk or line, that may lead to all and every station of the railway (not within 100 yards of a fixed toll-gate). With such authority it would appearquiteunnecessarytopetitionparliamentfor more exteesive, and it may be judged unconstitutional means, as suggested by your correspondent ; It would be to create an imperium in imperio. As this subject embraces a very vital interest among the agricultural classes, I cannot omit a congratulatory feeling, as honourable to all parties, and particularly to the members of the English Agricultural Society, that their President, His Grace the Duke of Richmond, should be selected by the government to form the lead- ing member of the commission so lately issued " for inquiring into the present state of the turnpike trusts of England and Wales," and having such able coad- jutors in the prosecution of the task they have under- taken, no doubt remains but that their labours will be productive of salutary recommendations for relief of the landed interest, by whom the greater portion of the burthen of tolls is borne, for the transit of the produce of the soil, and thereby occasioning additional capital before such production be brought to a market. A Member of the English Agri- cultural Society, June2i, 1839. THE FARMEH^S MAGAZINE. 105 A LETTER TO THE TENANTS OF PHILIP PUSEY, ESQ., M.P. FOR BERKSHIRE. Gentlemen, — From my connection with j'Oii and with your landlord, I have taken the liherty of presenting to your notice the substance of many conversations which I have had with you, on the necessity of agricultural improvements — on the absolute necessity of adopting the best and most efficient means of cultivating your land, and of managing all your farming operations. It is my intention in this letter to lay before you some observations on the mode of culture which you adopt, and I wish you to go along with me, and let us enter into a thorough examination of the whole economy of your establishment — the cultivation of your arable land — and the mode you have so long practised of converting your crops into money ; and see whether the system you have so long practised be the best for such a soil, or whether there may not be a better one, that will produce a much greater return for the expense of cultivation, and a more profitable way of convert- ing your green crops than the one which you at present adopt. But unless we go about this examination with a desire to get at the truth, and endeavour to divest our minds of all our prejudices, and all our pre- viously acquired opinions, and lay our minds open to conviction, we shall be sure to fail in our object. That the most profitable sj'stem of culture is that which will produce the greatest per cent, on the money laid out in cultivation, while the land is yearly increasing in its productive powers, is a truth which none will attempt to deny : we shall therefore take this as a rule to guide us in our inquiry. The rotation which you adopt is called the Nor- folk or four-field course ; the first year wheat, after one year clover made into hay ; the second year is turnips after the wheat, most of your dung- is laid on for this crop, but part of the field intended for turnip is sown in September, with winter vetches or rye, or white and yellow clover sown amongst the wheat, and these crops arc fed off by sheep in April, May, and June, after which the land is sown to winter turnips, there is also a part some- times sown to white peas, and when they are har- vested the land is sown with turnip seed ; the third year the whole is in barley, with clover seed; and the fourth year the whole is in clovei', which is made into hay : this I believe is the system of culture which you strictly adhere to. Now, before we examine the several members of this course of cropping, let us see how the eco- nomy of your live stock goes on, they consist wholly of a flock of sheep, and these principally of breeding ewes, (I believe there are very few of you that ever fatten any of your ewes or lambs for the butcher,) and that you dispose of your lambs and old ewes in summer or autumn, and that the price you get for them, with the price of the wool from your ewes, is the amount of money }'ou yearly receive from your sheep ; this is all the re- turn they make for the whole of the food they con- sume in twelve months. The only other stock you have is working horses, some of 3'ou may breed a colt to keep up his team, others have some cows for the use of the family. These remarks are not intended to appli/ to the dairy farms. All your live stock may therefore be said to be your working horses and your flock of sheep, and all the return they make you is the value of your lambs, old ewes, and the wool from your ewes, besides the value of the manure from the sheep when folded on your turnips, or on your land for wheat either before or after it is sown. The whole of your wheat, and barley, and peas you take to market, and the price you get for these, with what we have before mentioned as the return from your live stock, make up the total amount of return from your farm. From this system it is evident that the several crops come round in rotation once in every four years, this quick repetition of the same crop, on the same ground, is the greatest objection to the Norfolk system. It has been found that land soon gets tix'ed of any particular crop when repeated in so short a period. The first member of the course that fails is the clover, which is by no means so sure or produc- tive a crop now as it used to be, it is very fre- quently a failing crop, dying when it comes up or blighting ofi' in the spring or early part of the summer, indeed the land seems to be so completely tired of it, that we can scarcely ever see a good crop of clover : a remedy for this evil has been attempted on your stronger land, by dividing the clover field into two, and taking a crop of beans or peas over one half of it, and clover on the other half, so that if these crops be taken on the alter- nate sides of the field, that which was beans last turn comes in course for clover next turn, so that it will be eight years before either the clover or the beans come round on the same ground ; this is a great improvement so far as the crop goes, and it will remedy the evil, and I have no doubt but an increased crop of clover will be the result; but it must be remembered, that by this change one- fourth part of the green crop as food for sheep is given up, and this fourth part is added to the corn producing crop, not to he consumed on the farm, hut to he sold and carried off the land. This is an evil equal in magnitude to the failure of the clover crop : thus a fourth part of the food for sheep is gone, and with it, of course, the means of returning the manure it icotild have produced to the soil, for the reproduction of food for stock. That which we have already noticed as to the failure of the clover crop also takes place with the turnip, which is of much more consequence to you ; how often do we see the turnips to be a failing crop, indeed how seldom do we see a good crop of turnips on the fine turnip soil of which your farms consist ? This failure is we think partly owing to the same cause as that of the clover — the too frequent repetition of them on the same land. If the crops were further apart, say six or eight years, we have no doubt that the crops would not only be more certain but also more abundant. About the first of this century the turnip crops in Norfolk began to fail, great complaints were heard in every quarter, that the turnips instead of producing large bulbs as tbey used to do, pro- duced roots like fingers and toes, without any bulbs, and much was written on the cause of the failure, and on the remedy, but every remedy fail- ed, till some one by claying a field a second time, (that is putting on a 100 cubic yards of clay or chalk marl to the acre,) found that, after this, the sandy soil. Laving a much greater degree of tena- city or adhesiveness than before, produced good crops of turnips, as well as good crops of clover, barley, and wheat. When I mentioned to some of you this mode of recruiting your land which is tired of turnips, (and Avhich is still continued in the sandy parts of Nor^ 106 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. folk and Suffolk, of claying tlicir land every eight years,) you expressed your ap])roval of the plan, and stated, " ^Vc have no doubt of it, for if we take any earth from the sides of the field or road, and put it on our land in course for turnips, we arc sure to see turnips where the earth was laid if there be any in the field." Now there is scarcely a field, particularly in Charney, but what has ac- cumulations of earth at the end of the old ridges, left by the turning of the plough, and it would be an advantage to the field to have these accumula- tions removed, and it would be of great use if carted over the field, or if mixed with the dung, and forty or fifty cart loads of such a mixture put on the acre would be sure to secure a good crop of turnips ; besides this, there are the sides of the field, the road sides, and the sides of the ditches would furnish as much matter as would give a covering to the whole of your arable land, and there is clay within a mile 1 think of any field on the estate ; a covering of which would produce as good an effect on the sands of Berks as it docs on those of Norfolk and Suffolk. But in some instances there may be another causeforthe complete failure ofthe turnip crop, in- deed I have seen very good reasons for believing it. Before we attempt the cultivation of any plant, it is quite necessary for us to be well acquainted with the nature and habits of the plant, and the mode of culture which suits it, to be able to cul- tivate the plant with success. If the nature and the habits of the turnip, and the kind of culture necessary for the development of its natural character be unknown, or neglected, we shall very seldom succeed in producing good crops, but if we know something of the nature and habits of the plant, and attend strictly to the mode of culture necessary, under every circum- stance, we shall seldom fail in producing good crops. The turnip seed and the habits of the young plant is in every way like those of the wild mus- tard and charlock, which is to be seen growing ill the spring very abundantly and luxuriously on land which has been pulverized or reduced to a very fine tilth, and is so injurious to early sown bar- ley, or oats, or spring sown wheat on some soils, l)ut these plants very seldom grow on the same field, if the land he left in a rough, or cloddy state, or not finely pulverized; here then is a key to the production of these plants, hence the necessity of having the land well pulverized m the early part nflhe spring, and then to keep it so for the perfect development of the turnip plants, whose habits in the early stages of its growth, we think are in every respect like those of the wild mustard and charlock. "We think, therefore, to secure a good crop of turnips, the land must be early reduced to a fine tilth, and when in this fine pulverized state, it must also be kept moist, for a fine pulverized soil, re- cently made so by mechanical means, is dry and without moisture in it to vegetate the seed, this is universally the case with land (however light and sandy it may be) which is ploughed the first time for turnips in the spring, and we have seen the first ploughing given to turnip land in the month of May, and the result was, what was predicted, a complete failure of the whole crop of turnips. Here let us stop for a little, and try if we can ascertain the amount of loss sustained by the fail- ure of the turnip crop, for this is a most important question, and it is right that we should have a clear view of it, for it is universally believed by every turnij) farmer, that if they get a good crop of turnips, there is no fear of good crojis during the remainder of the course, and this we believe to be the case. But before we can ascertain what los?j we sus- tain from not having a good crop of turnips, it will be necessary for us to know the value of such a cro]) : well then, a good crop of turnips may be reckoned at 20 tons of bulbs per acre, and it has been ascertained by many experiments on a large scale, that sheep when fattening on turnips, will consume as great a weight of turnips per day as the quarter weight of their mutton, that is, if a sheep weighs 80 pounds of mutton when dead, the same shcc]) will Viave consumed about 20 pounds of turnips per day while fattening, if no other food was given to it, and if it had as many as it could eat: fattening cattle consume about the same quantity in jiroportion to their weight ; thus, if an ox weighs when dead 8 cwt. of beef, it will while fattening have consumed about 2 cwt. of turnips per day, if no other food was given to it, and if it had as many turnips as it could consume. From the above facts, we find that an acre of turnips weighing 20 tons, will keep in a fattening state 12; sheep weighing 20 pounds per (juarter, six months, from the 20th day of October till the 20th day of April, but if the sheep are kept in a store state, the same acre of turnips may keep 16 sheep for the same period. Now from the above facts let us see what loss we sustain from not producing a good crop of turnips. The increased value of the 12t sheep which an acre of turnips will keep for six months, in a fattening state, we cannot reckon at less than 13s. per head, this is after the rate of Gd. per week per head, or 1 6 store at 10s. per head £8 2 fi There is also the loss of the manure, which the sheep would have made from the consumption of 20 tons of turnips, this must be equal to 15 tons at .^s. per ton, or if we take the opinion which farm- ers have of the value of the fold, which is, that 200 sheep will, during the night, in a week, go over an acre, and that this is worth 1/. 10s., this folding will be equal to o25 sheep for a week both niyht and day, instead of 200 sheep at night only, after this rate the manure would he worth 4/. l')s. instead of what we have put it at 3 15 0 The complete failure of the turnip crop, and the want of the manure which the consumption of the crop would have left on the land, must tend to shorten the crop of barley which follows, we shall put this loss at only six bushels per acre, which at 4s. yer bushel is 1 4 0 Again, your crop of clover, if from no other cause, would from this alone be deficient in quantity, and this wa may put at 0 10 0 The wheat crop must also feel the loss arising from the failure of the turnips, the effects of which continue to accumu- late as we approach the end of the course, and this we think may be equal to four bushels per acre, which at 7s. per bushel is 1 8 0 £14 ly q THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 107 Thus a clear loss of HI. IDs. 6(1. per acre, is the result of a failure in our crop of turnips. But although we have now come to the end of our course, with a loss of 11/. 19s. 6d. per acre, during the course of four years, yet the evil does not terminate here, for it cannot be expected that the land will be in so good a state for the pro- duction of a crop of turnips now, as it would have been, had a good crop of turnips been produced on it four years ago, and by their consumption on the land leaving such a quantity of manure of the most excellent kind. There is, therefore, not such a prospect of your getting a good crop of turnips now as you had four years ago when you failed. The evil is therefore perpetuated, and a diminution of the productive powers of the land is the result, (trtd all this evil has arisen from your failing to pro- dace a good crop of turnips. Most of the land you occupy is an excellent barley soil, and your mode of culture and time of sowing is, in my opinion, in every respect what it ought to be, and it almost universally ensures a good crop ; by early sowing, the ground is covered with the leaves of the plants early in the spring, and this prevents the sun from having such an effect on it as it would have had, if it had been sown in ]May. The barley crop is therefore a more certain crop than any other which you cultivate. Wheat is always sown after your clover, and also after beans, where they are introduced into the clover break, but some of your land is natu- rally so soft and loose, and in many cases weak — I do think that wheat once in four years is too often for such soft land, although that portion of the property which is strong enough might produce a crop of wheat every other year, under good cul- ture, without any diminution of crop or injury to the land. The plan which you adopt to give an artificial firmness to the land sown to wheat, when there is naturally a deficiency of adhesive .matter in the soil, by the press, drill, the trampling of sheep, and folding of your sheep on it, shows that you can find the means of accomplishing the end you wish, when you think it is for your interest to do so, and as it has long been considered by farmers that the ivheat crop nhould pay the 7'ent, no means arc left untried by you to increase the quantity of wheat per acre, knowing that every bushel of it goes to the market, and is returned to you in the shape of money ; but there is one part of the ma- nagement of your wheat crop which I am not sure you are right in ; that is the folding of your sheep on your wheat after it is sown, I do not mean the trampling of your land by sheep to firm it, but the folding of the sheep at night, this is for the express object of leaving the dung of the fold to enrich the land, and as you think to secure a better crop, this is the object you have in view from this practice. I thinli the effect produced frequently tends to give an unhealthy luxuriance to the straw without making it productive in corn : the straw gets soft and weak and frequently falls down, not from its length nor from the weight of corn in the ear, but from the softness and weak- ness of the straw. My opinion is that no animal manure should be put on your land for a corn crop, it should be in such heart as to produce a good crop of wheat from the effects of the manure put on the land to produce your turnips and other green crops, and from their consumption on the land by sheep ; and if the clover were all con- sumed by sheep on the ground instead of being made into hay, the crops of wheat would be greatly increased, and the land would be much firmer, and the straw would be bright and much stronger. But let us again return to the turnip crop. It is evident to you, that the increasing evil which you sustain from the loss of the turnip crop must he stopped, or there is no knowing where it will end. I think a remedy would have been found before this if you had been in the habit of disposing of your turnips in the market, at, say 1.5s. a ton, (in- stead of consuming them by sheep,) for then the actual money value of the crop would have come into your calculation, and into your pockets in a direct line from the turnip field, and not through the circuitous line, first from the wool, theri from your ewes and lambs, then from your barley crop, and last from your wheat crop. But I said that the greatest objection to the four course system is the quick repetition of the same crop on the same land. I would> therefore, endeavour to put before you a plan whereby each, kind of crop of green food for sheep or other stock, shall be at a greater distance than four years, without disturbing the present arrangement of your fields, so far as they regard your barley and wheat crop. First, then, we shall begin with the land after the crop of wheat has been harvested, which in your present course comes in for turnips. I would therefore advise you to divide the field into two equal parts, on one of these parts I would advise you to have the common globe turnip, the Swedish turnip, and cabbage in equal parts, as these are all of the same class of plants, and their nature and habits are nearly the same ; on the other half of this field I would advise you to plant raangel wur- zel, potatoes, and carrots, these plants being very different in their nature and habits from the turnips ; when this field, therefore, comes round in the course of four years, these crops should be transposed : the turnips, Swedes, and cabbage should be sown on that pai't which produced the mangel wurzel, potatoes, and carrots, and these on that part of the field which produced the turnips, Swedes, and cabbage, so that by this ar- rangement, these crops would only come round on the same land once in eight years. All the ma- nure that you can by any means procure should be put on the crop of turnips, &c., which follow the wheat crop, and even bone dust should not be withheld from the turnips, Swedes, cabbage, and mangel wurzel. As we have seen the loss which you sustain from the failure in the turnip crop, to be equal to 15/. per aci'c, let me suggest to you a mode of culture which I think will produce a good crop, equal to what we have mentioned, if not considerably more ; but it must be remembered, that all the operations of ploughing, dragging, harrowing, putting on the manure, covering it, sowing the seed, and hoeing must be executed not only in a proper manner but also in a proper time. The land intended for turnips, or other green crop, must be ploughed the first time in autumn, at least before Christmas, imd that with a very deep furrow ; and if the subsoil plough follows, loosening the bottom of the furrow to the depth of sixteen inches from the surface, so much the bet- ter : this ploughing to remain for the frost to pul- verize it during the winter. In February or March it should be i)loughed across, and soon afterwards dragged and harrowed to get out any weeds that may be in it, and then the land should be left smooth to keep in the moisture. It may be gone I 108 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. over with the Finlayson's harrow, as often as ne- cessary to destroy the annual weeds and keep the land loose. All the manure 3'ou have should he put on the land before the second ploughing, if it is long un- fermented sfraii> yard dnny, as it will then get better rotted and incorporated with the soil, but if your dung be well rotted, it should be put into drills or what you call trenches ; but, in doing this, much injury will be sustained if the work is not gone about quickly, so as to prevent the ma- nure and soil from gettivy dry during the operation. In making the one-bout drills (or trenches as you call them) — carting and spreading the manure in the drills — splitting them so as to cover the ma- nure, and sowing the seed, — all these several operations must be simultaneously performed, that is, the whole of these operations must be gone about at the same time, and all the drills that are made to receive the manure must be dunged, the dung spread and covered, and the seed sown before the evening, so as to preserve the moisture of the manure and the moisture of the soil from evapo- rating if left till to-morrow, which moisture it is absolutely necessary to retain to vegetate the seed, the crop frequently fails from lettinj^ the land re' main for a day after it is ploughed before the seed is sown. The advantage of bone dust in turnip husbandry ■which you have seen to be so great, will naturally induce you never to sow any without giving fif- teen or twenty bushels of it per acre, even although you have dung to go over the whole breadth of your turnip break. The advantage of sowing turnips early, is as great as that of sowing barley early, on your light sandy land. I would therefore advise you to sow your turnips much earlier than you have been in the habit of doing. Swedes should be finished by the first of May, and the common turnip by the tenth of June at farthest, if we expect a large crop ; " to sow early and to drill turnips is to put in for a fair chance of doubling the worth of the crop," is the opinion of a practical farmer. If you follow the plan which I have laid down, I think there will be less complaints of the failure of your turnip crop. The whole of the field after these crops to be sown to barley, as you do now ; but after the bar- Icy, instead of sowing the whole to clover as you do at present, I would again divide the field into two equal parts as I advised with the turnips, and on the half which was in turnips, Swedes, and cabbage, I would sow broad clover seed ; but on the other half, I would, after the barley is har- vested, have the land ploughed, and sow it to win- ter vetches and Italian rye-grass together, which would furnish the earliest and the finest food for your stock in the spring, after the mangel, pota- toes, and carrots are consumed. The clover field being thus divided, that part of it which produced clover this year would produce winter vetches and Italian rye-grass the next time it came round ; and that part which produced vetches and Italian rye-grass, would produce clo- ver : these, of course, would only come round on the same land once in eight years, as in the turnip field, but the barley and wheat would come round once in four years. This arrangement, we think, would cure the evil arising from the quick succes- sion of the green crops on the same ground* We shall now look into the mode you adopt to consume your straw. Those of you that have not dairies, have no cows or other beasts except your working horses, a flock of sheep, and a few pigs, so that your wheal and barley straw is thrown out into the court-yard, to be trodden under the feet of your horses and turned over by your pigs till it receives a certain degree of wetness, and then it is taken out into the field where it is intended to be used, and thrown up in a heap to lie till the time arrives when it is to be put on the land : this is the only preparation you give to your dung, and the only animal manure mixed with the straw is the dung and urine of your working horses and pigs. There is either a want ot knowledge of this part of the farming business, or an apathy and indiflfcr- ence about the matter, out of which you should rouse yourselves. The real value of manure to a farm seems not to have entered your head, for had you a right idea of its value, one would have thought that you would be more anxious about its increase, and more careful of it, so as to prevent it from running to waste, for we have seen dung hills on the road side with the rich liquid manure running out of them into the ditch or sinking into the rock — we have also seen them covered with docks, nettles, and every kind of weed; and we have seen a stream of water, in wet weather, from the yard, carrying off all the most valuable parts of the ma- nure, without any attempt being made to stop it, or to mix it with the earth, 6cc. ; this is a very common case over all the country. It would be difficult to calculate how much is lost yearly throughout the country by inattention to this sub- ject ; perhaps a quarter, if not one-third, or even a half of the value of all the dung is thus allowed to go to waste, thus exhausting the soil by negli- gence, instead of increasing its productiveness by attention to the subject. The old maxim that " muck is the mother o^ gold," conveys a truth which you really seem to have lost sight of, but which I hope you will be more familiar with for the time to come, as it is for your own pecuniary advantage, for without manure we seldom succeed in producing good crops of any kind, and with a liberal supply of it of a good quality, properly applied, we can pro- duce the most luxuriant crops of every kind, you should therefore use every means in your power to increase its quantity and improve its quality, and make every exertion to pioduce the largest quantity per acre of those crops which by their consumption with sheep on the land, or with stock in the house or yard, will return the greatest quantity of so valuable an article. The manure from your sti-aw-yard, as we have before stated, is merely straw in a state of decom- position, there is little or no animal dung amongst it, but some of you have told me " that you think it is much better for your land than the dung of animals." Let us consider the point, well then, the manure which you prefer consists wholly of rotten straw, which is a light, loose, porous, sub- stance, with no adhesiveness or tenacious pro- perty in it, to make it stick together, so that when it is dry, it is like so much chaff, and when it is mixed with the soil it must make it more light and porous than before, and tend to make it, and keep it loose, and open, for the drought to have a greater effect upon it. The dung of horses par- takes in a great measure of the same nature, it is of a dry light warm nature, in summer w'hen it gets dry it seems to be a mass of bruised strawey matter, you might almost from its appearance de- tect the kind of food of the animal which produced THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 109 it, it is so light, that you might kick it about with your foot without soiling your shoe. The dung of the ox or cow, and of all animals that chew the cud, is very different in its nature, there is no vestige of the nature of the food which the ani- mals consume to be seen in their dung, it is amass of a close adhesive cold excrement, in summer it drys into a hard compact substance, very unlike the dung of the horse or of rotten straw. From the light and sandy nature of your land, we have seen that you very properly use artificial means to press it together with the press drill and the roller, and to trample it with the sheep to harden it, and to make it firmer, knowing from experience, that if tbis were not done there would be much less certainty of a good crop ; but a light, loose, friable substance mixed with your light land would have a tendency to make it more light and porous ihan it was before, and a tenacious adhesive substance of the nature of clay being mixed with your light soil, would have the effect of making it more tenacious and firmer than be- fore it was applied : your light strawey dung will therefore have the effect of making your light sandy land more light and porous, tending to let the drought into the land when it is mixed with it, but the dung from ruminating animals well mixed with the soil has a contrary effect, it tends to make it closer and firmer, and thereby enables it to resist the drought better ; you will therefore perceive that the notion which some of you have got about your rotten straw being the best sort of dung for your light laiid is quite erroneous, and this strawey dung may be one of the principal causes of the failure of your turnip crop, the evil effects of which we have already considered. But let it be remembered, that although long strawey unfer- mented dung may be of little advantage to loose soft sandy land, compared with well rotted animal manure, yet upon strong adhesive clay such as that of Bedlam and Hanney farms, the strawey dung will be most advantageous, as it will tend to make and keep the tenacious clayey soils of these farms loose, friable, and porous. From what has been said on this subject, I think you will sec the propriety of preparing the ma- nure for your turnip crop, so as to get it well rotten, and well mixed with some heavy earth or clayey matter. I would therefore advise that you should, every week or two, clear out all your dung from your yards, &c., and lay it in heaps either near the yard or in the field where it is to be used, and have it mixed with earth, first making a layer of earth about six inches thick, then a layer of dung about six inches thick upon it, and repeat this four or five times, covering the edges of the dung with earth, and when it has remained in this state for some time it will ferment, but not vio- lently, when it has been in a state of fermenta- tion for some weeks, turn the whole over, care- fully mixing the earth and the dung as perfectly as you can, and form it into a heap in the form of a potato pit, or like the roof of a house ; after it has remained in this state for some time, it will again heat, but not so much as at first, and when it begins to cool it ought again to be turned over ; this second fermentation and turning will have di- vided and blended the earth and the dung together, so that it will have the appearance of a dark rich earthy substance, this will form an excellent com- post to put into the drills for turnips, but the oftener these compost heaps are turned over the better prepared they will be for your light sandy soil, and you will have a much greater certainty of a crop of 20 or 25 tons of turnips per acre, after a dressing of 20 or 25 loads of this compost, than you now have after 20 or 25 loads of rotten straw. We were next to consider the state of your live stock ; these we have before observed to consist of a ffock of sheep besides your working horses, and this is the state of the matter on all the arable farms, except those of you who have dairy farms also. Well then, this flock of sheep is what you call a working flock, that is, in some seasons of the year they work very hard all day to get their belly full, and in the evening they are driven to a fallow field to be in the fold all night, that they may leave the dung on the land for the next crop. I cannot think that this is the best kind of stock, or the most profitable vvay of managing them on such farms as you occupy. I cannot see the advantage of forcing a flock of sheep — ewes and lambs— to wander all the day long, day after day, over all the poor pasture land on your farm, to pick up what food they can get, and then to be shut up at night on some portion of the arable land, to deposit the result of their hard day's earnings, this I think is realy " robbing Peter to pay Paul." The only acknowledged object of your flock of sheep is the value of the fold, to enable you to raise good crops of barley and wheat, " without the fold, sir, we cannot expect to get a crop of corn on this land." Let us see if we can- not find a better reason for having a flock of sheep, than merely to make them work hard, and live hard all day, and then force them to lie on plough- ed land for tea hours at night, that they may empty themselves at night to please us. Suppose then, that instead of the hard working sheep, you should have a flock of sheep of an im- proved kind of Southdown, like those of Messrs. Twynham, of Whitchurch, in Hampshire ; these I am told are not only excellent feeders, but good folders ; well then, let our object be not only to breed, but to fatten for the butchers all the stock that we breed, and that our flock of sheep should also be folded on our arable land, that the full value of the fold may be given for the production of our corn crops ; keeping these objects in view, let us, in the first place, have always a sufficient quantity of nutritious food for them, and all the other stock which we keep, for every day in the year, we should carefully avoid giving our flock any more trouble than is necessary, we should therefore always fold them on the ground which produced the crop they are consuming, and give it to them/resA and /re*/* every day : thus, while they are consuming turnips, &c., in the autumn, winter, and spring, if our turnips are 20 tons or more per acre, then we should carry one half the crop off the ground, either to be consumed by other kinds of stock in the straw-yard or by sheep on another part of the field, where the whole of the crop of mangel wurzel, potatoes, and carrots were taken off", so as to give the whole field the same advantage of the dung, and the trampling of sheep in the fold, but by no means to drive the sheep to be shut up at night in a fold or ground where there is no food for them, and for no other object but for them to carry their dung, to save us the trouble of carting their food to the place where we wish the advantages of the fold to be applied. The expence of carting the turnips, and of cutting them where we wish to fold the sheep, is a much more reasonable mode, and, in my opi- nion, a much more profitable one than the one I 2 110 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. which is at present adopted, hecause the sheep improves more when they are allowed to feed and rest when they like. In spring, summer, and autumn, we should pro- ceed in the same way with our winter vetches, Italian rye-grass, clover, &c., folding our sheep on tliem, giving them a fresh piece every day, and never allow them to run all over the field, but when you add the length of a hurdle of fresh food to them at one end of their fold, take off the length of a hurdle from the fold at the other end : thus they will gradually proceed over the whole field, and the end at which they began first may be ready for them again by the time they have finished at the other end. But part of the winter vetches, Italian rye-grass, and clover should be cut and carted to the cattle and other stock in the straw yard and house. I am fully convinced that an arable farmer cannot make the most of his crops, unless he has oxen or other beasts to consume the greatest part of his straw, and convert it into manure. I would there- fore advise you to keep, according to the extent of your farm, some breeding cows, and to r(!ar up so many calves, and keep them till you fatten them off at three or four years old for the butcher, you can easily do all this if you succeed in producing '20 or 2.) tons of turnips, Ike. per acre on the fourth part of the farm, of which I have not the least doubt, if you set about the work in right earnest ; this will, in the winter and early part of the spring, give you at least double the quantity of such food as you have had for these many years past, of course you will be able to spare nearly half of these for your beasts in the yard, but if you should not have sutficient tur- nips for them, oil cake is a good substitute; and in the summer you will have anether fourth part of your farm j)roducing clover, vetches, and Italian rye-grass, and if half of tins was cut and carted to your straw-yard to your beasts, there would be food for them in the summer months ; and be assured, that tlie larger the quantity of food you can raise for your stock, and the greater quantity of stock you keep in the house or yard, so much the greater quan- tity of manure of a richer quality will be produced, and this additional quantity of manure being put on the land for green crops, will again produce an in- crease of these, and this increased produce will ap- pear in every crop of the course. Larger crops of barley and wheat of a better quality will follow as a natural consequence. By adopting this mode, I think you woidd be able to get more corn to take to market, and receive a much greater return for your stock than you do at present. Indeed I think it quite possible for you to keep as much stock on your farm as will produce as great a return as you now receive from your corn crop, without diminishing your crop of corn. We have now come to the last thing which we have to consider, that is the agriculturarimplements, and the expences of your horse-power, which vou require to use them. The kind of horses you use is the heav)', dull, slow animal, like the wago-on or London dray horse, the natural pace of these animals is about a mile in the hour ; of these heavy, powerful horses you universally put three to the plough which you use, but then such a plough ; the most clumsy, lumpiest, antiquated implement in the kingdom, with two wheels and a carriage to carry the end of the beam of the plough which rises up at an angle of about tliirty degrees to the horizon, with a wooden mould board of from four to five long, and this is the plough that most of you use, with I believe only a single exception, and it is generally used in the Vale of the Whiti; Horse. • • t • Such is the overpowering effect of habit and cus- tom, that although you have had an example for many years at Buckland, within a mile of you, of a man and two active horses with a light plough doing more work in a day than you can with your three heavy horses, a man, and a boy on the same light land, yet you still drag on this unwield)' machine, without even calculating the additional expence you are at in ploughing your land, which the Buckland farmers save. I must say that, from the natural slowness of your horses, I have never seen them plough an acre a daj', while I have seen a man and two horses, with a light plough, in Lincoln, Norfolk, and Suffolk, plough an acre and a half with the greatest ease dailv, and in the fens of Lincolnshire two acies a day is frequently performed. But the mode in which vou work your horses is not the best in my opinion, they start to work in the morning and finish their day's work before they come home ; that is, they take eight hours at a spell, and when the man and boy are eating their dinners the horses stand in idleness and hunger, waiting till they have finish- ed ; would it not be much better to take two apells a day of four hours each, and make the horses go briskly while they are at work in the morning, and then come home and rest for two hours in the middle of the day, and the horses get something to eat, and then take them back and work them other four hours, this would b.^ making it more easy' for the horses, by dividing the time and doing more work ])er day ; hut these heavy horses are not .so fit for doing light (juick work, as active horses that have some blood in them, and it would be well for you to form the design of gradually getting out of them, and of the plough and your heavy carts also, and to get light ploughs — swing filoiiglis, not wheel plouglis, and light carts, &c., so that you may be able to cul- tivate your land at a much less expense than you do it at present, for, if it be true that an acre and a half of your light land can be ploughed by a man and two horses in a day, while you at present are scarcely able to plough one acre a day with three horses, a man, and a boy, it is evident to me that you might by the change which I propose, save one-half of the expence of ploughing your land, and the saving in every other work would be after the same rate. I have placed my ideas on your mode of farming before you, that you may have it in your power, whenever you think proper, seriously to consider the value of any statement which I have made : if you are convinced that they are right, you will of course adopt them, but reject any which you believe not to be applicable to the peculiar circumstances under which you and your farms are placed. I am, gentlemen, your most obedient servaut, JOHN MORTON. Chester Hill, Jan. 18, 1838. The park of C. T. Towers, Esq., of Weald Hall, Essex, is greatly infiested by vipers. No less than nine sheep have been destroyed by them lately, and not a year passes without considerable loss — cattle and even horses fitlling a prey to their venom. The application oi new hartshorn will generally be found a certain remedy when applied immediately, but it most frequently happens that so much time elapses before the mischief is discovered, that the remedy comes too late. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ill DESCRIPTION OF A RIBBING MA- CHINE OR GRUBBER ; AND RE- COMMENDATION OF A DRILL- HARROW AND ROLLER FOR PO- TATO CULTURE. BY MR. JAMES ANDERSON, MONEYMORE, IRELAND. Mr. Anderson details the necessity that induced him to adopt this form of ribbing machine, in the following words : — " In the spring of 1832, I farmed Almoudale, south approach. Park, the property of the Earl of Buchan. The Park consists of about forty acres, the greater part of which was lying in the winter furrow after a grain crop. The winter of 1831 had been wet, and the land, being naturally soft, had become so smooth, as to make it appear incapable of afford- ing.sufficient cover for the seed in the ordinary way by the harrow. Knowing, from experience, lliut spring- ploughing is hurtful to such laud, I resolved upon ribbing it. The usual method of ribbing land is with the small plough, and one horse ; but liavino- so great an extent of field to execute, I was led to the consideration of some mode of ribbing that should be more expeditious than with the small plough. I, in consequence, had a ribbing machine constructed , the model of which I now submit to the Highland' and AgriculturalSocietyof Scotland, which exceeded in efficacy my most sanguine expectations. When the field was sown, a single turn of the harrows was sufficient to cover the seed in the most complete manner." The machine here alluded to by Sir. Anderson was made of wood, somewhat of the form of some of the older grubbers, and is represented in the annexed cuts, Fig. I. being a geometrical plan. and Fig, 2. an elevation of the machine. It is almost unnecessary to say, that it might perhapj with greater utility be made of iron. The body of the machine. A, is six feet three inches wide, and two feet long over all ; a slightly curved beam, B, projects forward, to which the draft is applied ; the beam is supported laterally by the two iron stays, C, C, and vertically, to render the action more steady, by the wheel D, attached by a spear passing through a mortice in the beam, by which it can be adjusted. A pair of wheels, E, E, turn upon axles bolted on the front bar of the body serving to regulate the depth of working; and a pair of handles or stilts, F, project back- wards, by which the ploughman guides the im- plement. The tines or coulters, G, seven in number, are inserted one in each of the longi- tudinal bars of the body, A, A, where they are secured by means of a wedge. The coulters are simply chisel pointed, but they are each armed with a flaunch of stout sheet-iron, shaped into the form of a double mould-board, and riveted to the coulter about four inches above its sole. As these little mould-boards are not required to turn over a sod, their form is not of that nice importance as in the case of the plough. The implement is drawn by a pair of horses. The importance of the operation of ribbing is perhaps not appreciated to the extent which it deserves for some particular classes of soils, such as are of a soft friable texture, as also clayey soils when they have been long ploughed. It may therefore be not unimportant to suggest, that the common grubber can at any time be converted into an efficient ribbing machine, by changing its common tines for a set carrying each a pair of small mould-boards. iMr. Anderson in the same paper points out the 112 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. advantages of a tlrill-liaiTOw, and drill-roller for the culture of the potato. He recommends the harrow to be of a triangular shape. The fore tines, taking the top of tlie drill, should he very short, that the young shoots may be left undisturbed, and the hintl tines are about sixteen inches apart. The roller is of a length to extend over two drills, and is grooved transversely round to give it the shape of the drills. In cases where weather or other circumstances have prevented heavy land being so well pulverized as might be wished, previous to planting the potato, Mr. Anderson has succeeded in giving fineness to the soil by first passing the roller overthe drills, then the harrows, and, if necessary, by repeating the operations. Models of these implements have been deposited in the Society's Museum. — Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. ON THE SOILING SYSTEM. (from the IRISH farmer's AND GARDENER'S MAGAZINF.) Gentlemen, — At this season, when summer green crops may yet be sown, it seems not unsuit- able to revive the discussion of the " soiling sys- tem," which subject, I apprehend, can scarcely be too much agitated. If, as its advocates assert, it offers to the judi- cious and careful husbandman a mine of hitherto neglected or undiscovered treasure, — if it, indeed, possess the magic power of diffusing unwonted fertility around his dwelling — filling his pockets with hard cash, and rendering easy and comfort- able the man who was before " sore tested" to make both ends meet — if, in short, it deserve the praises bestowed upon it by some, it is right that others should be induced, by constant discussion of its merits and demerits, to give the subject at least a calm and dispassionate investigation. If, on the other hand, a man who under certain circumstances adopts it, and continues to per- suade himself that he finds his account in so doing, deserves to be despised by " practical men" as a " dandy farmer, and wild theorist," &c. &c. — then it is highly desirable that the system should be fairly exploded, and its dupes, if such there be, set free from the bondage of delusion. Believing this to be the proper view of the pre- sent state of this " vexata quKstio," I venture to trouble you with the following account of an experiment tried by myself last year, if, indeed, an experiment it might be called, whicii was in a great measure forced upon me by circumstances. Having no idea whatever of publication at the time, I regret that I cannot supply all the facts of the case with the accuracy which is desirable in such matters, but still the general outline to which I propose confining myself will not, I am satisfied, deviate materially from the truth, and may throw some light on the subject under consideration. In May, 1838, my stock consisted of the follow- ing:— 4 Milch cows, 2 Brood mares, 1 Dry ditto, 1 Two-year-old filly, 1 Dry Kerry ditto, 1 Donkey. 3 Yearlings, Thirteen head, big and little as they were ; and to support this stock I had about equal to two Irish acres of good pasture, and, at most, one-half an Irish acre of green crops, grown in a kitchen gar- den, consisting of clover. Lucerne, flat Dutch cabbage, mangel wurzel leaves, and to this must be added the refuse of the other parts of the garden, which contained on the whole 1^ acres Irish, con- sisting of prunings of fruit and raspberry trees, early ])ntato tops, succulent weeds, &c., which were gjiven from time to time to the dry stock. I cannot say how much of each of the above-named crops I had grown, but I think there was nearly an equality among them. They were all very well manured and cultivated, and far exceeded, I must admit, in luxuriance of growth, any of the same kind which I had before seen. The red clover had been top-dressed with soot, and was a heavy crop by the 14th of May, on which day I commenced cutting it ; and from that day the operation went on without interruption until the 1st of October — and had I not then have left my residence it might have been continued for another month. The four milch cows and one yearling were kept during the day in a pen, roughly put up, in a shady corner of the pasture, into which they were turned at night ; the others were kept in a separate yard, and only let out daily to water ; the mares and filly re- mained in the house— they were all littered with fresh sea-sand. 1 should add, that about one ton of straw was consumed, mixed with the artificial grasses, the bad effects of which it entirely coun- teracted, and I therefore strongly recommend it, especially with red clover; it may he given with advantage in the proportion of a third, by bulk, shaken up with a fork through the soil. The mares also got hay occasionally, and consumed in the time j)robably half a ton, all which we shall pre- sently take into account. Such was the plan pur- sued, and 1 now give you the result : I shall, in the first place, state the gross profit as follows : — 2 tubs of butter sold £-1 I.t 0 Calfsold.., 15 0 Calf sold fat 2 2 0 Calf weaned, valued 2 10 0 Dung sold 2.5 0 0 Keep of dry cow 1^ months 2 5 0 Keep of Kerry ditto 12 6 Keep of three yearlings ditto, say 2 0 0 2 brood mares 3 0 0 Filly and donkey 1 10 0 £44 19 6 which, with 4 J months' milk and butter for the . house, would come to at least 50/. in round num- bers, as the gross profit of 2| acres of land ; from which, if we deduct GL, the utmost which the pas- ture could be rated at for grazing for the time, we should have 44Z. as the profit of half an acre of green crop. From this, of course, all expense of litter, attendance, and cultivation, are to be taken; but these, for want of particular accounts at the time, I can only supply vaguely. The cost of the litter and cartage to the spot I can ascertain, it being as nearly as possible 10/. 10s. — the green crops being all cultivated by the spade and being richly manured, and I am sure your intelligent readers will easily satisfy themselves as to the ut- most which it could possibly cost to meet in that way half an acre of ground. My own impression is, that I could do it any day, as I did then, for 10/., even supposing that I bought the manure — of course, much cheaper with manure made at home — so that deducting from the above 44/., 20/. 10s. for expenses, we still have a produce of 23/. 10s.; and after all the consideration and attention which I have bestowed upon it, I am now fully satisfied, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 113 that, treated as mine were, a net profit of 40/. per acre might be realisefl by a judicious application of the green crops which it would produce to the soiling of cattle in the summer season. You will observe, that I reduce the odd 3/. 10s., to allow for the hay and straw which I mentioned above. Admitting, then, that these statements are in the main correct, I think it is established that a sufficient remuneration at the present time may be had from pursuing this plan, to satisfy the cupi- dity even of those who care nothing for appear- ances, provided they are sure of making profit. But the main advantage — that for which I would most earnestly contend — is, that at the cheapest possible rate, at a season when the days are long and food and litter abundant (I mean every other litter but straw), the farmer can be laying up, by a gradual and easy process, a heap of the most in- valuable manui-e, applicable to all his purposes, and the amount of which, I venture to say, will surprise every one upon a first trial. As for the dung before stated to have been sold for 25/., I beg to assure you, that had I not been leaving the neighbourhood in which it was made, I would not have sold it for 40/.; and lam fully convinced, that with the same supply of food, and the same expence for litter and attendance, I should always make in the time (if convenient either to sea sand, rabbit sand, or turf mould) a dunghill richly worth that sum. Such is the general outline which it occuri'ed to me might prove useful to those who are disposed to inquire and experimentalise on this subject. I shall probably be induced to prepare more accu- rate details of my proceedings in the same place during the ensuing season. 1 shall conclude by a few observations suggested by the experience which I have now had with respect to the most advisable course. In the first place, I think that nothing is more important than a variety of food, either as a change from time to time, or even from meal to meal, as this seems to me very conducive to the health of the cattle and the flow of their milk. Lucerne is difficult of cultivation, from its impatience of weeds, but will well repay the expense of cleaning and manure. Red clover is invaluable, as it cleans itself, and if well treated, gives a most abundant return. A good deal of food is obtained from the leaves of the mangel wurzel, and their roots come into play at the end of the season, when the grasses are failing, and prevents the necessity of turning out the cattle too soon : but the sheet anchor of the soiling system is the flat Dutch cabbage. — Give it only plenty of dung, and earth up the plants well, and from the time that the large under leaves begin to meet across the rows, at which time you may begin to gather them daily for the cattle, until about November, it is quite astonish- ing how much food they will produce on a small space of ground. A certain number only should be stripped in this way, as it hinders their head- ing, and runs them up to a considerable height ; so that in October the best thing to be done with them is, to pull them up by the roots, and give them, stalks and all, to the cows. The stalks will probably at this time be three feet high, and the cows will eat them to six or eight inches from the root, which root will act as an eflectual safe- guard against their swallowing the stork and choking themselves — an event likely enough to occur if it had been cut off". A patch of flat Dutch should be left untouched, to be used green in No- vember, and to be succeeded by the mangel wurzel roots. In this way, I conceive the soiling system may be kept up from (in ordinary cases) early in June to the end of November, or even longer,— much, of course, depending on weather and other circumstances. I shall add a few more " last words" in answer to the objections which I have usually heard made to the adoption of this mode of feeding. I have heard it described Cof course by one who had not, and would not try it) as " a very good way of making dung, and destroying cattle ;" and to this I answer, that in every case which I have seen (and they have been many, besides this one which I have now communicated), it has beea admitted by those who watched its ])rogress atten- tively, that cattle in a shady yard, housed, perhaps — if this cannot be had, during the heat of the day, and well soiled — will thrive just as well as those which are at large, to say nothing more, and with this my own judgment fully coincides ; it is, in fact, an objection founded on ignorance and prejudice. It is also objected to on the score of expense, and if it be expensive, that is, if it lead the farmer into any outlay of time or money, which is not likely to be repaid with interest, then, doubtless, it ought not to be recommended. Now, I think we may presume, that the expense of cart- ing to a given point a certain quantity of inert matter, to be tised as litter, will repay itself, and induce the fact, that, at this moment, it is actuallt/ done by every farmer who has it at command, our only difference being as to the time and mode of its application ; and as to the attendance which, the beasts require in the way of feeding, it admits of calculation by the head or acre : a man will cut and carry home clover enough for six or eight head of cattle in a_/i??« minutes; and, in my own case, an old woman, with a wheel-barrow, fed nine head, old and young with ease ; she picked the leaves herself (and they were the principal food) , but the clover and Lucerne were mown for her. On this point, I thinkj any one who makes the trial will conclude with me, that the cost of attend- ance is a mere trifle : the cartage of litter would cost something ; but, I would ask, can you expect to make a large dunghill for nothing ? Thirdly, it is objected to as requiring litter which, in sum- mer, is not to be had. As I before mentioned, sea sand, rabbit sand, or turf mould, will answer every purpose, and when trodden down and mncJced by the cattle, turn out very enriching manure. In all these cases, however, I should strongly recom- mend an occasional layer of yellow clay being laid upon the yard, especially if the manure is intended iov light land; when none of these can be had, I should strain every nerve to reserve as much straw as possible for the purpose ; and, at all events, I should keep the cattle clean with fresh earth taken from head lands, road sides, &c.— and ex- cellent manure, 1 doubt not, might be made in that way — so that I cannot conceive a situation in which soiling should be abandoned for no better reason than a want of litter. I have spun out these remarks to a much greater length than I at first intended, so that I shall only add, that having persuaded myself that soiling is the " Euncka" of Agriculture, I hope what I have written may draw further attention to this import- ant subject, — And am, gentlemen. Your very obedient servant, SCRUTATOR. 114 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The first Meeting- of tlie Englisli Agricultural So- ciety, announced to take place in Oxford, has been looked forward to with the deepest interest and the most earnest anticipations. That interest increased ns the momentous day approached, and the result Las realized all the expectations that had been form- ed. During the whole of Sunday and Monday the roads in the neighbourhood of Oxford were in a state of unusual bustle from the number of vans and other vehicles conveying the cattle, 6ic. to the place of exhibition. The chief poition of stock reached the show-yard on Monday, July 15, and by eight o'clock on Tuesday morning all the pens were occupied. The Judges immediately after proceeded to inspect the stock which had been entered for competition. — In the mean time Oxford was filling very fast witli per- sons from all parts of the empire. Amongst the company we noticed — Earl Spencer, President of the Society ; tbe Duke of Richmond, Lord Moreton, Lord Sandon, M.P., Lord Folkestone, Lord Bridport, M.P., Lord Ray- leigh, Lord C. Russell, i\LP., Earl of Jersey, Lord "Worsley, M.P., Lord St. John, Lord Norreys. M.P., Sir E. KnatchbuU, Bart., M.P., SirThos. D. Acland, Bart., M.P., Sir R. Price, Bart., jM.P., Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P., Sir R. P. Jodrell, Bart., Sir J. John- ston, Bart., Sir C. Menteith, Bart., Sir C. Morgan, Bart., Sir H. Hoskyns, Bart., Sir H. Verney, Bart., M.P., Sir F. A. Mackenzie, Bart., Mr. Webster, (American Senator,) JMr. Stephenson (American Mi- nister,) Le Chevalier Bunsen (late Prussian Ambas- sador at Rome,) T.G.Bucknell Estcourt, Esq.,M.P., H.T.Hope, Esq., M.P., W. Mount, Esq., Wilson Patten, Esq., M.P., E. S.Cavley, Es(i., M.P.. R. Pal- mer, Esq., M.P., Captain Berkeley, M.P., R. M. Milnes, M.P., P. Pusev, Esq., M.P., H, Handley, Esq., M.P., W Miles, Esq., M.P., R. Hornsby, Esq., Joseph Cripps, Esq., ALP., G. Wilbrabam, Esq., M.P., J. Neeld, Esq., M.P., E. Buller, Esq., M.P., A. Goddard, Esq., E. Maclean, Esq., M.P., James Swann, Esq., W. H. Ashburst, Esq., W. H. Ash- hurst, jun. Esq., — Addington,Esq., — Beaucbamp, Esq., R. Throckmorton, Esq., J, H. Langston, Esq., G. Hitchings, Esq., T. G. Gonne, Esq., W. Birkett, Esq., T. T.Morland, Esq., W. Wyndham, Esq., — Horock, Esq., W. F. Wratislaw, Esq., H. Boys, Esq., Thomas Wells, Esq., T. Raymond Barker, Esq., Hayraond Barker, Esq., G. R. Barker, Esq., W. F. Hobbs, Esq., S. Grantham, Esq., R. B. Hervey, Esq., Hon. Mr. Edwards, H. Hall, Esq., Charles Peers, Esq., V,\ H. Jones, Esq., G. Agar, Esq., B. Hall, Esq., Rev. W. Faithful, J. f Hervey, Esq., — "Wickham, sen. Esq., — Wickham, jun., Esq., R. W. Baker,, Esq., J. Peel, Esq., \V. Peel, Esq., Rev. G. Gunning, Rev. W. Isham, Rev. Mr. Happ, Rev. Mr. Davis, Rev. Dr. Buckland, Rev. J. M. Nelson, the Rev. G. Nelson, Rev. M. Clougb. Rev. Mr. Buckston, Rev. H. Sitwell, Rev. T. Harward, Rev. L. Penoyre, Rev. T. Lewes, Hev. Mr. Price, Major Moor," Colonel Clialoner, Colonel Scudamore, Colonel Mac Lean, Captain Jeffreys, George Worrall, Esq., C. Wren Hoskyns, Esq., James Phillips, Esq., Hon. Captain Spencer, M.P., Marcellus Newton, Esq., O. Hanbury, Esq., T. Bates, Esq., R. A. Slaney, Esq., M.P., — Inkes, Esq., Bisshopp, sen., Esq., — Bissbopp, jun., Esq., Lee Lee, Esq., Thomas Chapman, Esq., Austin South- gate, Esq., Colonel H. Austin, T. Fuller Maitland, Esq., G. W. Etall, Esq., Thomas Cooper Landford, Esq., John Walker, Esq., J. T. Barnard, Esq., R. Twyueham, Est]., W. S. Blackslone, Esq., M.P., H.Peyton, Esq., Lord Dillon, W. G. Huytor, Esq., M.P., Colonel Short, C. Curtios, Esc]., Earl of llchester. Earl Bathurst, Earl of Abingdon, Lord I^ifford, Lord Galway, Lord ilatherton, J^ord Car- rlngton. Lord Braybrooko, Lord Churchill, M. De Van de Weyer (Dutch Ambassador), Earl of Ox- ford, R. Stewart, Esq., M.P., More O'Farrell, Esq., M.P., Lord Zetland, Earl of Devon, Lord Strad- broke. Earl Talbot, Marquis of Downsbire, Lord Villiers, M.P., Gaily Knight, Esq., M.P., J. W . Childers, Esq., ftLP., J. Cotes, Esq., George Warry, Esq., Sir F. Lawley. Bart., R. Etwall, Esq., M.P., R. Weyland, Esc]., John Wells, Esq., J. Buckley, Esq., Messrs. Umbers, Mr. Robins, Mr. Anderson, Mr. Fuskv, J. Jellicoe, Esq., Messrs. J. and W. Pur- ser, Colonel North, T.Bigg, Esq., — Webber, Esq,, Mr. Stokes, Rev. W. Pusey, W. Nicholson, Esq., (from Ireland), W. Long, i'2sq.. Lord Newborough, W. Kingsmill, Esq., W. S. Dugdale, Esq., M.P.. W. B. Higgins, Esq., Captain Scott, Rev. W. Glais- ter, W. II. Sheppard, Esq., John Overman, Esq., James Overman, Esii., Mr. Bryant, Mr. Hudson, Mr. Edward Beck, J. Ellman, Esq., 3Ir. C. Kendle, Mr. W. Loft, T.W. Cartwright, Esq., A. Hammond, Esq., G. Webb Plall, Esq., Professor Lowe, Rev. Dr, Plumptre, the \'ice-Cbancellor, Dr. Macbride, Dr. Marsham, Rev. Dr.Symons, Rev. Dr. Fox, Rev. Dr. Cotton, Rev. Dr. Bliss, the Mayor, and many of the leading gentry of this and the adjoining counties. It having been made known that the prize essays would be read in the Town Hall on Tuesday, that spot became an object of interest, and for a considerable time previous to theopeningof the doors a large num- ber of persons had assembled, all eager to obtam ad- mission. At two o'clock the Hall was opened, and in a few minutes all the most advantageous seats were occupied. Earl Spencer soon after entered the Hall, and on taking his seat was loudly cheered. His Lordship then announced that tbe object of their meeting was to read the essays, to which prizes had been awarded. His Lordship commenced by observing that tbe first prize of twenty sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, had been awarded to Colonel Le Couteur, of Jersey, for bis accountof the most approved varieties of wheat that had been introduced into England. , The first description referred to, was that known by the name of the Hoary White or Velveteen ; a species which it was believed was formerly well- known in Kent, where, however, it had been lost. He had taken the precaution of submitting this seed to many washings, for the purpose of drawing off any of the fungus tribe that might be attached to it, and having steeped it in brine of such gravity as would float an egg or a potato, it was submitted to another washing in lime. The land had been pre- viously well manured with dung, and prepared with the ashes of sea- weed, tbe soil being an argillaceous cystus, and lime being used where the iron required to be neutralised. This wheat is well calculated to stand the wet, and did not appear to be at all affected in several neighbouring plantations ; the seed was sown on 29tb January 1836, at two bushels per acre, and tbe crop was reaped on l6th August. It is not subject to degenerate, and if a little care is bestowed prospers well, the only objection to it being that from the wet it is apt to obtain the rust, but in heavy gales it is not broken. It obtains a height of three to four feet according to the soil, and the average produce to the acre was forty-eight im ■ perial bushels, of sixty-two pounds each. This pro- duced of the finest flour 2,402 pounds ; 126 pounds of pollard, and 416 pounds of bran. The value of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 115 the products of an acre, was stated as forty-eight bushels of wheat at 8s. — 19/. 4s., and value of straw 5/. 8s. 9d„ making- a total of 24/. I2s. 9d. The charges were estimated as rent 5/. 12s. 6d., tithe 8s. t!d., cropping 8s., seed 16s., sowing 2s., harrowing- with a bush Is., hoeing 6s., reaping- 8s., carting and carrying Iris., and the interest of money invested 10s., making a total of 91. (3s., and leaving a profit per acre of 15/. 6s. 9d. The next variety was the Jersey Dantzic, but known in various counties of England and in Scotland under different names. It was prepared and sown in the same manner as the last, but was not near so hardy, although it would probably succeed better in any other part of Great Britain than the north of Scotland. This wheat had a smooth chaff, and was not li-able to fungus ; it ripuns a week earlier than the last, and in the course of five years' experiments did not at all degenerate. The straw is firm and very useful for bonnet-making, but in a wet season ths wheat is very subject to rust. Tiie produce of one acre was forty-three and a half bushels, witli 130 pounds of chaff', and 4,681 pounds of straw. The bread is of a light nature, but becomes firm and dry in forty-eight hours, eighteen pounds of flour making by absorption a loaf of twenty-five and three quarters pounds weight. The value per acre of the grain is 17/. 8s., and of the straw 5/. 12s. Cd., whilst the charges are but 9/. 6s., leaving therefore a profit of 12/. 14s. 6d. Tke third description sown was the Whittingion, the grain of which was light, firm and plump, being first sown in drills three inches apart, and with three bushels to the acre, potatoes having been sown in the field the preceding year, subsequently to which it had been dressed with lime and kelp ashes. The wheat was twenty-nine days in coming up, but afforded a very abundant crop, although the straw is very long, being generally six feet, and not unfre- quently seven feet in height. It is hardy, but the straw is eaten by the sheep, and although it ripens a week or ten days later tlian the Dantzic, it is not liable to degenerate. The produce per acre was thirty-three imperial bushels, with 483 pounds of chaff, and 7,786 pounds of straw, the latter being more productive than in any other species but one, but the straw is not useful for thatching. There were obtained from the produce of one acre, l,4ol pounds of flour, 477 pounds of bran, and forty-seven pounds of pollard ; the bread made from it is dark, but it keeps well for some days. The receipts per acre are, for the value of flour 13/. 4s., and for straw 9/. 73. 6d., making a total of 22/. lis. 6d,, whilst the charges are but 10/. Os. 6d., leaving a profit of 12/. lis. The fourth variety noticed was the Tulavem Belle Vne, some seed of which was sown on 3rd February 1838, on a light rich loamy soil, at three bushels to an acre, in drills ; and it may be re- marked that the seed being large, an extra quantity was required. This wheat grows well in Scotland, !)nd may therefore be pronounced hardy ; it is pos- sessed of early habits, appearing above the ground in twenty-five days ; it was cropped a week sooner that the Whittington, although this was sown a month before it ; it does not degenerate nor lose its properties by fecundation, and is no more subject to disease than the generality of white wheats. The straw is much used by the Itali-dn bonnet-makers, but is liable to be knocked down by the wind, on account of the weight of the ear. The produce was fifty-two imperial bushels to the acre, or 3,172 pounds of grain, 282 pounds of chaft", and .5,480 pounds of straw ; of the former there were 2,485 pounds of flour, thirty-eight pounds of pollard, and 588 pounds of bran. This wheat makes a fine white bread, and the returns per acre were 26/. Is. 6d., which, deducting the charges of 10/. Os. 6d., left a profit of 16^. Is. These experiments were made with all the nicety that circumstances would allow, no other crops were allowed to interfere with them, 'i'he author had also mode other experiments with different kinds of wheat, amongst which was the Golden Drop, of great productive value ; Hicklin's Prolific, a coarse grain ; Brown's Prolific, which grows well where it suits the soil and cdimate, but deteriorates when planted on a red soil ; Gale's Hampshire, and the Essex lied, two good qualities, and the Sussex wheat, ^all of which, however, re- quired fresh experiments before anything satisfactory could be adduced. The noble chairman next called upon JMr. Hand- ley, M.P., to read his paper, for which a prize of ten sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, had been awarded for the best account of the compara- tive advantages of Wheel and Swing Ploughs. 'I'hat gentleman first gave a description of the various difficulties which he had to encounter in the progress of his investigation from the great predilection to old usages, and then stated that his own experiments had been made on every variety of soil, both clay, limestone, and sandy loam, on ridge and fallow, and alike with skilful and unskilful workmen. In diffe- rent soils and localities different ploughs were used, in whose favour little could be advanced except from predilection. He observed that the plough was a simple wfedge, working horizontally, which cleft the soil and gave it an angle which it exposed up- wards to the atmosphere. It had been said that tlie wheel ploughs had to encounter great resistance, but the track of the wheels was obviously of less draught than that of a sledge, as was evident from the very small impression which these leave on passing over the ground. On the other hand a much greater pressure was required in the sowing ploughs from the man in command, in order to enable him to keep their pace. Under his directions a series of experi- ments had been made by Messrs. Ransom, of Ipswich, with various ploughs, on a stubble field with a sandy soil, the furrows being six inches deep and ten inches wide. He had employed a dyna- mometer as the test, the index ef which had been examined every few yards, from which the medium was taken, the inclination and declination of the ground being very little, and such as could not be taken into account. With a Rutland Plough the weight was 1 cwt. 3 qrs. and 22 lbs., and the draught 2 cwt. 1 qr. and 22 lbs.; with a Bedford Plough, the weight 1 cwt. 3 qrs. 26lhs., and the draught 2 cwt. 3 qrs. 241bs.; with a Lincolnshire Swing Plough, the weight 1 cwt. and 181bs., and the draught 3 cwt. : and in another of the weight of 1 cwt. 1 qr. and 41bs., the draught was 3 cwt. and lllbs. ; with a Suffolk Swing, the weight being- 1 cwt. 2 qrs, and 18lbs., the draught was 2 cwt. 3 qrs. and 6lbs. ; and in the last experiment, with a Suftblk Wheel Plough, whilst the weight was 2 cwt. 2 qrs. 181bs., the draught was but 2 cwt. and 31bs. So far from wanting more power in the use of the wheel plough, it was proved by these experiments that less was required. A strong argument had been adduced agaipst the wheel ploughs, that they would make bad ploughmen, but this the author successfully rebutted, by showing that whilst a boy was as valua- ble in its use at ten pence a day as a man was at the other with two shillings a day, that the furrows were as good, and made with greater mathematical pre- cision. The advantages lie contended could not be estimated too highly, although in many parts of the country, and particularly in Scotland, the wheel 116 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. plouglj had fallen into disrepute, on account of the supposed friction of the wheels. In draught, how- ever, or where the fields were dry, it was found that the wheel plough was good where the swing plougli was not, and in the VV^olds of Yorkshire and many other parts of the country it would he found prefer- able, from the better purchase which it afforded. The cost of expense was perhaps in favour of the swing plough, but this was of little moment when the superior advantage of the wheel plough was taken into consideration. It was, however, found that certain localities were favourable to different plans, of which it was scarcely possible by any argu- ment to divest them. The next jirize essay was from Mr. Richard Hopper, of Nottingham, being " the best account of the advantages of drawing turnips fiom the land, and consuming them in houses or yards," to which ten sovereigns, or a j)iece of plate of tliat value, was awarded. The writer prefaced his paper by alluding to the great destruction of crops in general, and of turnips in particular, by the modes adopted of taking them off the soil. If the " broad cast" plan of sow- ing is adopted, tliere is no plan of drawing which would not be more injurious than in the drill sys- tem ; but even in the former, if proper attention were paid, not so much loss would occur as is generally the case. He would recommend the ridge thus sown, to be divided longitudinally, and placing the turnips in heaps of two loads on the furrows, along which they ought to be carted ; aud this plan would be suitable either for light or heavy soils. In regard to the drawing and carrying on drilled land, he would recommend that the ridges bo 27 inches apart, which would admit the wheels of the cart and the horses without injury, and be adapted as well for horse hoe- ing. He next directed attention to the best mode of supplying the loss of manure arising by the turnips not being consumed on the land, and in this pointed out the wav in which the new manures, such as birds' soil, bone dust, red dust, &c., acted, and how their superiority was accounted for in connexion with drill husbandry. Wheat, barley, and turnips may be drilled along with the manure itself, which coming into immediate contact with the seed, be- comes part of their future elements, and is not par- tially dissipated like manure, as it is conimonly ap- plied. Proper precautions ought to be adopted with finely pulverised manures, for by heat they soon evaporate and lose their virtues ; he would recom- mend the drill which was immediately followed by a roller attached to it, and thus the seed and manure were covered by the soil almost instantaneously, and prevented from being operated on by external influ- ences. The dropping of manures by animals in the fields was irregular, and much of their virtue lost. He would not abolish altogether the feeding of stock on the land, but would suggest the bringing home of onehalf, and subject the animals to different treat- ment, which brought him to the next point to be considered, " the comparative progress of stock in fattening or thriving, when consuming drawn turnips or those still on the land." A variety of food was natural, and by experience was found to be advanta- geous in the rearing of animals, to which might be added attention to the changes of the season, and protection from the weather. The black cattle of the North, hardy from the climate to which they belong, could not be put on the same food as the Hereford, or the more delicate of our Southern breeds. As to the comparative quantity and quality of the manure in either of the above modes, he believed that, taking everything into account, it was decidedly more ad- vantageous in regard to neat stock, drawing and consuming in houses ; but when applied to sheep, he thought that only one half should be drawn. A saving of manure would take place from the circum- stance, tliat when dropped on the soil it was irregu- lar, and by exposure to the weather its nourishing properties were in a great measure lost. There was a prejudice against using manure fresh from the yard ; but Sir Humphry Davy has shewn tiiat the process of fermentation was pernicious only when carried on above ground, and salutary when carried on underneath. Tlie quantity of common manure required for an acre was ten or twelve cart loads, and tlie sowing and rolliug ought to be accomplished on the sanio day. — Earl Spencer next stated that there were two papers which were not prize essaj's that would be read to the meeting. The first was from Mr. Childers, M.P., on " Shed-feeding sheep," whicli was read by Mr. Ilandley, M.P. The writer commenced by observing that he had considered that the fiittening of sheep could be better accomplished in winter in a yard upon turni]»s than in the fields. For the purpose of experiment he had constructed a shed to contain a score, boarded at a height of 18 inches above the ground, and the planks being three- eighths of an inch apart, so as to prevent the danger of the foot rot. Into this he introduced a score of hogs, weighing 183 stone lOlbs., whilst at tlie same lime he placed in afield another score, weighing 18i stone lOlbs., which at the first were fed equally upon turnips, linseed, meal, and barley. The weight as just stated was on tho 21st of Jacuary ; on February 1st those in the shed weighed 20.5 stone, and in the field 191 stone 8lbs. ; on 1st March, in the shed, 215 stone lOlbs., and the field 208 stone 81bs. ; and on 1st April, in the shed, 239 stone 91bs., and the field 220 stone ISlbs. The total increase in weight was with the sheep in the shed, 5(5 stone 61bs., and thoso in tho field :i6 stone 8lbs., so that the advantage was decidedly in favour of the former. The sheep were of the Leicester breed, and every attention was paid to their cleanliness. Earl Spencer next read a paper deduced from his own observations on the period of gestation in cows, made from 7(34 individuals. Seme curious remarks were elicited, in which, contrary to opinions formerly expressed, he gave the opinion that it was 284, and not 270 days. GRAND DINNER AT THE STAR HOTEL. On Tuesday afternoon upwards of 360, embracing most ef the leading nobility and gent?y who had arrived in Oxford, sat down to an excellent dinner, provided by Mr. Griffith, in the large room at the Star Hotel. The Noble Chairman commenced proceedings by proposing " Th« Queen ;" afterwards the " Queen Dowiiger and the rest of the Royal Family. Due honour having been paid to these toasts, his Lordship rose and said that the next teast which he wished to give was " Success to the English Agri- cultural Society." (Loud cheers.) His Lonnsnip stated that it was not necessary for him on the present occasion to enter upon the claims and merits of the Society. They were all aware of them, and they required no argument from him to express how deserving the Society was of all the encouragement and support they could give it — one great object of their meeting was the communication to each other the knowledge they possessed. His Lordship begged to state that if any gentleman had anything to communicate this would be the fittest and the best opportunity, for although they were met, not as a small party, still it was smaller than THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 117 he anticipated would assemble to-morrow. He (bis Lordship) was perfectly aware that there were a great many topics upon which the minds of f\irmers were much unsettled. In diiferent parts of the coun- try difl'erent systems of ag-riculture were adopted, and meetings like this, when experienced men from all parts were present, he considered to be the best for deciding which system was the most advan- tageous to pursue. It was not, therefore, too much to expect that those who came from distant parts would give them the benefit of their wisdom and ex- perience. He (the Chairman) confessed that even during his stay in Oxford he had received some in- formation which, although it might not tend much to the advancement of agriculture, he would men- tion. He alluded to the use made of twitch grass, ■which he found bad been applied here to great ad- vantage, for a gentleman in the neighbourhood (ftlr. Swann) bad succeeded in making paper, such as he held in his hand, from materials, two-thirds of which were twitch grass. He (his Lordship) did not think that the encouragement of twitch would be an advantage to agriculturists, still he felt obliged to gentlemen who favoured bim with the result of their observation and experiments. He (his Lord- ship) was satisfied that the farmers had great diffi- culties to contend with, and that they were not in the habit of addressing assemblies, or writing in publications, for the best farmers found it more difficult to communicate their views to others than to correct their own mode of agriculture. He hoped the Society would take this course — to reject all anonymous communications, and that, if there were parties who did not wish to see all their contribu- tions in print, that the Society should avail itself of all that was valuable and useful, and give the name of its informants. The object of the Society was to get the farmers together, and to disseminate, as much as possible, all information relating to agricul- ture. He (his Lordship) would not detain them longer, but would give " Prosperity to the English Agricultural Society." (Drunk with loud cheers.} The Duke of Richmond said that, as he had the honour to be appointed President for the next meeting of the Society, he trusted that the company would not consider bim presuming too much when he asked them to drink tlio health of that nobleman, Lord Spencer, who had been mainly instrumental in the formation of the Society. (Cheers.J He (the Duke of Richmond) had the honour to second the propo- sition made by the npble Lord, and the manner in which it was received induced him to think that the Society would receive that support, more particularly from tiie farmers, which it needed. He had reason to believe from the support it had already received, and from the interest manifested by the large num- ber who were looking on at the trial of implements in the morning, that it was truly an English Institu- tion, and one calculated to promote their best in- terests. The noble Chairman had stated what were the advantages to be derived from such a society, and he fully admitted them, but there was one of more importance than all — that it would give the landholder and the landlord an opportunity of meet- ing together — not to discuss party or political mat- ters, but subjects of interest to both, and to part better friends than when they met — (Cheers.) These were the principles he conceived of the English Agricultural Society, and he trusted that all would endeavour to carry them out. He would not detain them longer, but would give the health of " the noble Chairman," who was never happier than when he had the opportunity of meeting his brother farmers and forwarding their interests. (Drank with loud cheering.) Earl Spencer begged to return thanks for the ho- nour the company had conferred on him in drinking his health. It was perfectly true that he was the person who proposed the formation of the Society, but he was bound to admit that in carrying it into effect he had the assistance of, and was much in- debted to, two friends, his Grace the Duke of Rich- mond and Mr. Handley. (Cheers.) He was quite aware that it would be impossible to succeed with- out the assistance and cordial co-operation of the farmers, and he rejoiced to find that they had warmly given it their support. With respect to himself he would merely observe, that agriculture was a pur- suit in which he took the greatest delight, and be was most anxious to do all in his power to promote the views of the Society, believing as he did that it would materially improve agriculture generally. In conclusion, bis lordship begged to observe, that though his office of President terminated with the present meeting, still that no exertions should be wanting on iiis part at all times to forward their views and interests. His lordship sat down amid loud cheering. The Chairman then said that he was quite sure they would feel with him that the next toast they should drink should be the University of Oxford. (Cheers.) The members of the Society bad been received with the greatest hospitality, and everything had been done to carry into effect the objects and intention of their meeting. In giving " Prosperity to the University of Oxford'" he should associate with it the name of an illustrious individual, " the Duke of Wellington" — (loud cheers) — which he was sure not one present could refuse to do honour to. The noble chairman then gave " The Chancellor, and prosperity to the University of Oxford." The Rev. Dr. Buckland said he rose with much reluctance, and felt that he was intruding himself on the notice of the meeting, particularly as the re- presentative of the University, T. B. Estcourt, Esq., M.P., was present. It was, however, with his con- sent and at his request that hp responded to the toast which had been so kindly given by the Chair- man and so warmly received by the company. It would ill become him to enter into the merits of the Noble Chanceller of the University, and there was little need to do so, for the annals of England and the history of the world would be the record of bis acts and his achievements. (Loud cheers.) He (Dr. B.) could only presume to return his humble and grateful acknowledgments for the high honour which had been paid to the University. The Chairman said that they had drank pros- perity to the University, but there was a particular portion of it that they were much indebted to on the present occasion. He alluded to the Rev. the Provost and Fellows of Queen's College (loud cheers), who had acted with the greatest kindness and the utmost liberality towards the Society. They had submitted to all the annoyances and inconve- nience attendant on giving up the use of their Quad- rangle, and the erection of so large a building as the dining hall. They had afforded every accommoda- tion in their power, and by their means alone the Society have been enabled to furnish for its members a spacious and a splendid dining hall. The toast was one which he was sure would be responded to with every approbation. (A most enthusiastic burst of applause followed the announcement of this toast. ) The Rev. W. Nelson said he regretted that the task of acknowledging the toast which had been so 118 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cordially received had not fallen on an abler member of (ijutten's Collpgu llian liimself. The use of tlie Quadrangle had been fiecly given to the Agriculturnl Society ; and ho was sure when he intimated to the Provost and Ft-llows the high honour which liad been paid them, they would feel highly gratified ; and still more so when they heard the opinion which tlie Society had expressed relative to the accommo- dation they had afl'orded. (Cheers.) The Chairman said that the way in whicli the So- ciety had been received in this city made it impera- tive on tlieir part to return their acknowledgments to the Mayor and Corporation of tlio City for the great assistance which they had rendered them. They were under great obligations to the Corpora- tion for the very excellent arrangements they liad made, more particularly witli regard to the police force. In short, tliey had done everything in their power to promote the success of the meeting, and he hoped that all present would do justice to the toast, " The Mayor and Corporation of the City of Oxford." (Loud clicevs.) Mr. Alderman Tawnev said that, in the absence of the Mayor, the duty of acknowledging the toast devolved upon him ; and thougii it was painful to him to make a speech, still it was a gratification to liave the opportunity of stating, as he did, on behalf of the Mayor and Corpsration, how much pleasure they had derived in forwarding tlie views of the So- ciety, The Noble Chairman had asked for informa- tion from all who could give it, and he fMr. T.) hoped that it would not be considered a puff if he told them that paper was made from the spent hops from their brewery. (laughter.) It had been very much doubted whether malt and hops were used in beer (laughter), but though it might seem like a pufi', the circumstance he had mentioned would show that there was a little occasionally on their premises. (Loud laughter.) In conclusion, he begged to re- turn thanks ob behalf of the Mayor and Corporation, and to assure the company that for whatever they had done for the Society, they had been amply re- paid by the pleasure it gave them. (Loud clieen.) The Chairman said he had stated at the onset of the meeting that one advantage which he expected from the Society would be the dissemination of use- ful information, and of such discoveries as might be made, whether in England or abroad. There were gentlemen present from foreign parts, and he, there- fore, begged to propose " The health of Chevalier Bunsen and the Foreign Agriculturists present. (Loud cheers.') Chevalier Bunsen said he rose, on behalf of his countrymen and himself, to return thanks for the high honour which had been paid them on the pre- sent occasion. He (Chevalier B.) had had the ha- nour to assist at many public dinners, but none at which he had seen such great unanimity prevailing as it was gratifying to him to witness on the present occasion. It was indeed a pleasurable sight to see peers, men of science, public men of all descriptions, and farmers, all uniting in that social manner, all actuated by the same feeling and the same motive, to promote the prosperity of their common country, the prosperity of which must be ardently wished for not only by every Englishman, but by every lover sf humanity. (Loud cheers.) The Chairman proposed the health of a gentle- man, who had been most zealous in the cause of the Society, " Mr. Shaw, the Secretary." (Drank with three times three, and much cheering. The Chairman then said that one of the chief ob- jects of the Society was to procure information, and to associate science with agriculture. There was one science most intimately combined with it, and that was geology. They had the honour to be fa- voured with the company of the I'rofessior of Geology, and it was highly gratifying to know that he had enrolled himself a member. By combining science with agriculture, they would be enabled to ascertain what improvements could be made in soil, and felt assured that Dr. Buckland would give all the infor- mation jn his power, which from time to time he might think would be useful to the Society. Dr. Bi'cki.Axi) returned thanks iu a long and elo- quent speech, in which he showed the close connec- tion between Geology and Agriculture, and what advantages wei"e derivable from a study of the former. Tlie CiiAinjiAN proposed in a very appropriate manner, " The Labouring Classes of this country." He then gave " Success to the Highland Society of Agriculture." Sir C. MoNTF.iTH, Bart., returned thanks. The Chairman said that he wished to give the health of" the Dukts of Richmond" who was chosen President of the Society for the next year. He should not say much in proposing the toast, for liis frieud, the Duke, sat next to him and precluded it. It was, however, (juite unnecessary, for his merits were known and appreciated. The Duke was loudly cheered on rising, and said, that though he could not plead that he was unaccus- tomed to public speaking, yet witli sincerity he could say he felt himselfunable to express to the farmers of England how sensible he was of their kindness, which upon every occasion it had been his good fortune to meet at their hands. He felt highly grati- fied with tlie expression of their kindness and for the flattering manner in which his name had been re- ceived. In the county in which he was most known he thought he could say without vanity that he was looked on as a British farmer ; but when he rose to address a large meeting like the present, of fanners brought together from every part of the empire, he could not but feel that he was addressing them as a stranger. As a farmer, he would say it was their duty to support the manufacturing and commercial interests; — (cheers) — but at the same time not to forget that branch of industry, agriculture. (Loud cheers.) In early life he (the Duke of Richmond) was not brought up a farmer, for duty called him to tako up arms, and stand up for the defence of their rights and liberties ; and, therefore, if he did not know so much about agriculture as tliey could wish he trusted they would excuse it, for the reason he had assigned. The establishment of the Agricultu- ral Society would tend very materially to the im- provement of Agriculture by bringing science to its aid, whicli would confer a great and lasting benefit on all classes of her Majesty's subjects. The advan- tages would not be restricted, but would be for the benefit of all. With respect to labourers, he was aware they had to undergo great privations, and he was one who was desirous to see enforced that precept " the labourer is worthy of his hire," If they wished to get good labourers, they ought to consider their circumstances and pay them aa they deserved. (Loud cheers.) He (his Grace) would take the op- portunity of stating what had been the result of the Agricultural Association in West Sussex, He re- joiced to say that it had succeeded in the highest de- gree, and one of their principles was to reward meritorious labourers. One good feature in the So- ciety was that it always invited the successful can- didates to dine at the table. He fhis Grace) merely threw out the hint that influential men might follow the example. He was sensible how deeply the 90 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 119 labourers, wbo dined at the Sussex Meeting, felt the honour in being allowed to dine with the landlords and landholders. He intreated of them if they forgot all the rest he bad to say to remember this one thing, — that it was to the interest of all to link to- gether all classes of society. (Loud cheers.) His Grace concluded by inviting all to attend at the nest meeting, when he assured them ho would do all that be could to promote the cause of agriculture, though he could not hope to fill the office of President with the ability shown by his predecessor, Lord Spencer. ilis Grace sat down amid immense cheering, after giving "The Agricultural Labourers." The Chairman then left and the company dispersed. THE DINNER. The grand dinnei' took place on Wednesday after- noon in the quadrangle of Queen's College, which the Provost and Fellows had very kindly permitted to be made use of. A spacious building was erected for the occasion, capable of accommodaiing 'JoOO persons, and the arrangements, whicli were under- taken by Messrs. Hudson and Matthew, were com- modious in the extreme, and creditable in the highest degree to those gentlemen. At three o'clock the doors were opened for the admission of the company, and a tremendous struggle to obtain entrance was kept up for an hour. At four o'clock the noble Chairman entered the dining hall, and took his seat, and at this moment the building presented a most imposing and interesting sight, the seats rising one above the other, giving it the appearance of a vast amphitheatre. The windows on each side the quad- rangle were occupied by ladies, whose presence and whose looks gave additional interest and brilliancy to the scene, Grace was said by the Rev. the Pro- vost of Queen's college. The dinner was provided by Mr. Griffith of the Star and Angel Hotels, and, considering the magni- tude of the company, was remarkably well served up. The arrangements throughout were excellent, and reflected the highest credit on all connected with the conducting of this vast undertaking. Among the company at the high table wo noticed the Earl of Devon, the Rev. the Vice-Chancellcr, the American Minister (JMr. Webster,^ Earl of II- chester. Earl Bathurst, the Provost of Worcester college, Lord Sandon, Chevalier Bunson, Lord Lif- ford. Lord Galway, Lord Folkestone, Lord Hather- ton, Lord Carrington, Lord Braybroke, Lord Brid- port, the Master of University college, Dr. Mac- bride, (Principal of Magdalen hall,) Lord Strad- brooke. Lord Chichester, Earl of Lincoln, Dr. Buck- land, Dr. Plumptre, Lord Norreys, Major Weyland, II. Sheen, Esq. Mayor, D. Maclean, Esq. M.P., Professor Lowe, J.H. Langston, Esq. &c. &c. At the conclusion of the dinner the Chairman stated he should give the health of "The Queen," with three times three, which he was sure would be responded to without dissent. — The toast was drank ■with unanimous applause. The next toast given was " The health of the Queen Dowager and the rest of the Royal Family in Eng- land," which was drank with great applause. The Chaiiiman then stated that the next toast which it was his duty to give was one which he would wish to say a few words upon, and lie could assure the gentlemen present that tliey need not ap- prehend a very long speech, because undoubtedly in addressing sucli an assembly as the present, it would be extremely difficult and tedious so to do. But, gentlemen, (said his Lordship^ I feel the greatest satisfaction (and greater satisfaction than I am able to express) at seeing such an assembly before me of the farmers and those interested in the agriculture of this country. {Cheers.} 1 feel the very great honour that I am placed in of being your Chairman; but it has been for many years of my life my earnest desire that a Society should be formed embracing the whole of this country, for the purpose of promoting agriculture, and for promoting improvement in the cultivation of the soil throughout the kingdom of England. (Cheers.) But, gentlemen, there appeared to be great difficulties in the way of it. I was ap- prehensive myself it might have failed. I endea- voured to ascertain, before I came to this meeting, whether we should have the real support of the farmers of England in the establishment of our in- stitution. (Cheers.) But, gentlemen, ths question is no longer in doubt, when I see before my eyes such an assemblage as the present, and which I have no hesitation in saying proves we have fully suc- ceeded. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, I do not look to the exhibition of the stock this morning, though I am prepared to say it was a very good one ; yet if any of you came here expecting to find this the very best which England could produce, I do not pretend to tell you that more might not have been ex- pected, both in quality and quantity; but you have seen the exhibition, in which there were a great number of adiuirable animals. (Cheers.) You have seen the animals which have been brought from distant parts of the country. Competitors have met for that purpose, and, what is of greater importance, you have seen iarmers from all parts of the United Kingdom — (cheers)— hroaght together to communi- cate to one another the knowledge they possess. Gentlemen, the object which our Society has in view is principally the cultivation of the soil, and not the exhibition of live stock, though we must have them in order to bring assemblies of this kind to- gether. I say then with confidence, that this meet- ing has been and hitherto will be successful, because we have been the means of bringing together such an assemblage as the present. (Tremendous cheering.) In conclusion, gentlemen, it will not be necessary for me to urge you to drink the toast I now propose, and I will, therefore, no longer detain you, but will at once propose *' Success to the English AgricuU tural Society." Tremendous cheering, and the toast was drank unanimously with three times three. Tiie Duke of Richmond, upon rising to acknow- ledge the toast, was greeted with vociferous ap- plause, and spoke as follows : — Gentlemen, in the midst of those to whom we, the Members of the Agri- cultural Society, are most indebted, I find the name of a Nobleman holding a high and honourable station in this University — a still higher and more peaceable position, if possible, in the estimation of his fellow- men. Gentlemen, we must all of us feel most obliged to the University of Oxford for their kindness in re- ceiving us here to-day, and in making every possible arrangement for our comfort. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, the nobleman I allude to holds a high station in the estimation of his fellow countrymen for his great im- portant military achievements — those achievements when he led the British army to constant, and, per- mit me to add, never-failing victory. (Immense cheer~ ing.) 1 beg now, gentlemen, to propose, with three times three, the "health of his Grace the Chancellor of the University, the Duke of Wellington." (Loud and continued cheering.) The toast was then drank. The Vice-Chancellor of Oxford then rose, and addressed the meeting : — It devolves upon the hum- ble individual whom you see before you to return thanks on this occasion for the greatest man of the age. (Chiers.) In the office which tho Duke of 120 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Wellington did this University, I will say, the honour to accept iit their hands, we looked for the individual who would reflect upon us the greatest honour and credit. (Cheers.) The manner in which you have now received the toast proposed to you by his Grace the Duke of Richmond is proof to us that you sympathise entirely with the feelings which have actuated our choice. (Che-ers.) lu the office which I have the honour to hold under his Grace the I3uke of Wellington, I esteem it one of the most gratifying circumstances connected with it, that it hrings me occasionally into correspondence with that great man, and occasionally also into personal intercourse with him ; but upon no occasion have I felt so gra- tified as in its having devolved upon me to return you thanks in his name at the present meeting of the Agricultural Society of England. Gentlemen, when it was made known in this University that Oxford was selected as the spot for the first meeting of this Society, of course it brought the principles and ob- jects of tliat Society particularly under our consider- ation. We rejoiced — the more we considered the more we rejoiced — that we had been selected for that compliment. (Cheers.) We feel that this Society is truly English in its character, national in its compre- hensiveness, beneficial without any alloy, as we con- sider, in its objects and principles. Gentlemen, with these feelings, what were we likely to do hut to exert ourselves to the utmost of our humble means to provide for your reception and accommodation. (Loud and contimied cheering.) Gentlemen, I will nlso add, that though hitherto we have been de- ficient in a Professorship in Agriculture, in two years from this time there will be established and put into activity a Professorship of Agriculture. ( Tremendous clieei-lng.) Gentlemen, I am greatly obliged to you for the kindness with which you have listened to me, and I am only sorry that it has not been in my power to do justice to the eminent toast for which I have been called upon to return thanks, hut I felt it became me to say as little as nia}' be upon such a toast, for I am sure his health will be better responded to in the hearts of us all than by any appeal of mine to your feelings to drink so dis- tinguished a toast. — Loud cheering accompanied the drinking of the toast. Sir James Graham, in rising to propose the next toast, of the " President of the English Agricultural Society," said, he felt great pleasure in having heard the sentiments of his Noble Friends who had pre- ceded him, and he quite cencurred in the advice that had been given by his Grace the Duke of Richmond in urging upon this assembly to avoid that fatal bane, politics, in the objects of this Society, as it would be destructive to the interests of this infant Society, and that he cordially adopted the sentiments. We, said Sir James Graham, have drank the health of a mighty warrior and a distinguished statesman; — (cheers) — but although we can never forget the tro- phy of the conqueror, can we forget the pains, the sorrows, the misery and bloodshed that follow in the train of successful warfare I In this happy country, where the arts of peace are successfully followed, these miseries we are strangers to, and we can peacefully pursue the first of all sciences, that of agriculture. (Cheers.) I shall now, gentlemen, pro- pose the health of an English Nobleman, whose boast it is, that he is the patron of agriculture and the friend of the farmer ;—( loud cheers) — and permit me, gentlemen, to observe to you, that the greatest honour is due to him who improves his native soil, — who can double the grain, which is the staflF and support of man ; — to him who irrigates the thirsty land, who scatters plenty through the land, and who gives to the labourer bis just reward for his toil and labour ; — he, I say, most adorns his Creator, iu the short sjjace of life which is allotted to him, who adds to the comfort of his fellow creatures. In all ages and ot all times, as the Vice-Chancellor has observed to you, has he been regarded as the father of the peo- ple and as the benefactor of mankind. (Cheers.) I should hold myself as unworthy if I could be guilty of flattery ; but I have known the Noble Lord who to-day presides over us — 1 have known him in every variety of circumstances ; and perhaps — and I am sure you will excuse the partiality of a friend when I say, that I glory in this opportunity of vouching for the purity of his patriotism, and for his morals and his life — for his simplicity of manners; and, gentlemen, I do not believe there could have been any honour which he could estimate so highly as the honour of presiding over this assembly. (Cheers.) Let me ask, is there any man in the United Emjiire who has not heard of Lord Althorpl (Cheers) We meet here from every part of the United Kingdom, and the report which we have all heard of the Noble President, in this instance, has lessened truth ; and I know, gentlemen, you will make these ancient walls resound with the compliments due to him, and I therefore call upon you, in flowing bumpers, to drink his health, with three times three. Tlie health of the President of the English Agri- cultural Society was then drunk with vociferous ap- plause. ' The President returned thanks as follows: — Gen- tlemen, Sir James Graham has told you no more than truth, when he has told you that he believes there is no honour in this country which I should, I think, estimate so high as that of presiding over your So- ciety. Gentlemen, you are engaged with me in the same pursuit; I believe that pursuit to be eminently useful for the couHtry; and I know those engaged in It are a class of men over whom it is an honour to preside, and with whom it is a satisfaction to act. ( Loud cheers.) This being the case, I assure you there is no post in which I was ever placed in which I have felt more honour than to-day in being consi- dered at the head of the farmers of this country. (Continued cheering.) Gentlemen, I don't think, in addressing such a meeting as this, that I am pre- suming when I say, that is the situation in which I have been placed during the last year. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, whatever endeavour I have the power of making, whatever exertion it is within my power to effect, those endeavours and those exertions shall alwa3's be readily and heartily made, either in public meetings or private pursuits, in promoting the suc- cess and prosperity of the agriculture of this coun- try. (Cheers.) I do it of my own taste and for my own satisfaction, but I do it the more earnestly be- cause I think it will be beneficial to the interests of this country. (Cheers.) It will he beneficial to the people of this country to improve the science of agriculture in the mode in which we are endeavour- ing, from the highest to the lowest of the people of England, and we are doing them a benefit from be- ing engaged with you in such a pursuit, and I do feel highly honoured from the position in which you have placed me ; but when I state to you the feeling of honour, I have, I must say, other reasons for gra- tification from the manner in which my health has been proposed, and in the mode in which it has been received. The mode in which it has been proposed I must take the honour of a friend for the kindness of his expression towards me; and gentlemen, I thank you most cordially for the mode in which you have received it. I will not detain you longer, but return you roy best thanks for the honour and ex- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 121 pression of feeling which you Iiave done me. ( Cheers. ) The PitEsiCENT again addressed tlie meeting; as follows : — " Gentlemen, a Foreigner engaged as the representative of his Sovereign is present, and does us the honour of giving us his company. I, there- fore, beg leave to propose to you, which I am sure you will do cordially and with pleasure, the health of " The Foreign Minister" who has honoured us with his company this day. (Cheers.) — The toast was drank with great applause. The Chevalier Bunsen, on rising to return thanks, said — " Gentlemen, 1 feel perfectly unable to ex- press the feelings that occupy me at this moment, when quite unexpectedly the Noble Lord who pre- sides at this great meeting has done me the honour of naming me as one who, in a foreign country, has the honour of representing a King and an ally of England. Although I am in this great country a simple and humble individual, I feel myself happy in being able to say it is in my heart, and has been there for many years — (cheers) — that I feel in ray heart respect and a cordial affection for this great empire and the numerous gentlemen whom I now see around me. I will not, gentlemen, trespass at length upon your time and attention, but allow me to say that, as a farmer, the Noble Lord who presides has mentioned in my native country in Germany, and particularly in Prussia, meet- ings have been held for the same purposes, though not on so large a scale, and I am happy to say not only by the nation, to which I have the honour to belong, but by the Government, and by the King in person, who have thought in not only a duty but one of the most agreeable of their privileges to at- tend to tliose improvements, which regard the culti- vation of the soil. (Loud cheers,) We know, gen- tlemen, that agriculture is the true basis of the wealth, and the standard of a country ; we know no- body has greater rights than those who till the ground. At a time when my country was in great danger, and overrun by those enemies, and the conquest over whom has been so powerfully described by the Noble Lord who has spoken before me ; at that time when the Government in my country made an appeal, it was then that those who tilled the ground left their peaceful occupations in order to fight and die for their country. (Lotid cheering.) I shall always feel it as a most gratifying trait in our history, that there were many of my own countrymen, I am happy to say many of my friends, fought with you, and that great Captain of the age (cheers.) And why did we fight together'! For the benefit of those peaceable occu- pations— those beneficial occupations which are the the great objects of this meeting ; and therefore, gen- tlemen, when I see this great and imposing assem- blage before me, I cannot help thinking the time will come that there will be not only a general feeling of friendship, but a friendly intercourse in every thing, in particular which belongs to the improvement of this most honourable and noble occupation, agricul- ture! (Cheering.) I cannot, gentlemen, better re- turn thanks for the great honour you have done me than in saying, in wishing for peace, I w'ish for the prosperity of this empire; and I think it is the object of Providence in making this kingdom so powerful, in order that it might maintain the peace of the world. (Tremendous cheering.} The President, in proposing the next toast, the High Steward of Oxford, said, the toast I have now to propose to you is the health of one of the high oflicers of this University, a nobleman whom I am happy to say is present this day, and who, from that circumstance, I am led to conclude is anxieus to promote the prosperity of this Institution. I will not, therefore, gentlemen, detain you longer, but shall at once propose the health of " the Earl of Devon, the High Steward of the University of Oxford." ( Great cheering.) The toast was then drank with three times three. The Earl of Devon — Gentlemen, I am well aware that I owe the high compliment which you have just now paid to me, from my connection with this Uni- versity ; individually I have, indeed, little claim to the notice of agriculturists. IMy pursuits have been, as my friends around me are aware, in other fields ; but there is no one, little experienced as I am, and with little advantage from practical knowledge, I say there is no one who feels more strongly the paramount importance of the support to it which this Society is calculated to give. (Loud cheei-ing.) Gentlemen, it is perhaps somewhat singular, that the first occasion upon which, as High Steward of the University of Oxford, I find myself mingling with a large society at a public dinner within its walls, it is in support of agriculture rather than any of those meetings which havo a more immediate connection with the direct business of the University ; but, gentlemen, let no one imagine that the pursuits of agriculture are either inconsistent or uncongenial with the pursuits and tastes which are cultivated within the walls of this and of her sister University, Cambridge. It is the object and the business of these establishments to endue the minds of English gentlemen with those tastes, and those habits, and that knowledge, which shall not only enable them to fill their posts with honour as public men, but shall give to them the best and afford to them the most rational amusement and employment in the retire- ment of private life. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, in such portions of that retirement as they are enabled to enjoy, in addition to that pleasure which a well cul- tivated mind will always enjoy from a classical Uni- versity education, every individual will find a healthy occupation in attention to the pursuits of agriculture — (cheers) — and the knowledge which he will acquire, and the advantage which he will gain, by mingling* in societies such as these, will tend among the Eng- lish gentry to complete that character for which the best foundation is laid in the Universities, for that noble character, an English country gentleman ! (Cheers.) Perhaps, gentlemen, there is no one more able to appreciate the advantageswhich arise to agri- culture from the establishment of a Society such as this, than one who came from the county to which I have the honour to be connected. I am not ashamed to saj that a few years ago the agriculture of Devon- shire was pointed at as exhibiting every fault which bad farming could exhibit; but I am prepared to say, thanks to the establishments of societies like this — thanks to the growing attention which has been every where paid to the science of agriculture, that we are fast wiping oflf that stain ; and such of )'ou as have now the opportunity of witnessing the improvements we are making, will, I think, believe me for saying we are not standing still, but profiting from the example set us, and improving our conduct in that respect. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, it has been one of the characteristic advantages of this meeting to-day that every speech you have heard has been, till the present, to the point, and has not been too long : I will not fall into that error now, which I compliment the absence of in others, and I, therefore, will not trespass further than by saving, that I trust that little as I have, individually, claim to your no tice, I may be permitted to hope, without personal vanity or laying under the charge of egotism, that from circumstances which attend every field in which 122 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cattlo aie, and so long as tliis Society lasts, and a taste for tlie impiovoment of cattle, that so long will the name of Devon be received with satisfaction. (^Lond cheers.) The PuESU>KNT then rose and said — ■" Gentlemen, you Lave already acknowledged the obligations we are under for the hospitality and kindness with which we have been received by this University ; but there is one portion of that tfniversity to which we are under still greater obligations than any other, and that is to the present Provost and Fellows ot the College in which we are now assembled. ( Cheers.) Gentlemen, I believe wp are able to make ourselves tolerably well heard, and I do not believe that such a meeting as tliis in any other situation in which it could have been placed would have given us that advantage ; therefore to the Provost and Fellows of this College, for having given us the power to make known to one another our sentiments, we wish to express our grateful thanks. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, this is no mean sacrifice on their part, for it is not a little sacrifice that such a party as this should be as- sembled in any man's house. (Laughter.) Gentle- men, the kindness with whicli they have received us leads me to think, and it is I am sure (|uite unneces- sary for me to use any argument to induce you to drink their liealths, and'I believe it was said of a great arcliitect when asked where he would wish to be bu- ried, he said " look around at my works, tliat is my monument ;" so, gentlemen, I say now look around you, and let that be your reason foi expressing your gratitude to the Provost and Fellows of Queen's College. (Loud checrinf^, uiid the toast was drank ^inaninwiisly, with three times three.) Dr. Fox, the Provost of Queen's College, said — Gentlemen, I assure you for tiie very handsome manner with which you have drank my healiii, and the Fellows of this College, I return you my sincere thanks, and I can assure you, my Lords and Gentle- men, in the most perfect sincerity, that it affords the highest gratification to the Principals and Members of this University that we are enabled to return you thanks for the honour conferred upon us. TJie ob- ject of this meeting, as has been so ably urged, is of tlie highest possible importance, namely, for the agri- cultural welfare of England, and it is needless for me to enlarge upon the subject, it having been already so much better done than I could possibly hope to do ; and I shall therefore, gentlemen, return you our sincere thanks, and conclude by observing that we are happy at seeing you within the walls of Queen's College. (Loud cheering.) The President then rose and said — I have, gen- tlemen, already proposed to you the health of a fo- reigner who is employed by his Sovereign, in a public capacity ; but, gentlemen, we have yet the honour and advantage of having present with us other foreigners, who are not employed in any public capacity, but have come liere to see a meeting of the English farmers — a meeting such as I am happy to say they see at present, and at such advantage, I believe, they never saw before, but which I hope they will often see again. (Loud cheers.) Gentle- men, among tliese foreigners there is one gentleman, a most distinguished man, from the United States of America — a most distinguished man from that great country, whicli we are obliged, legally speaking, to call foreigners, but who are our brothers in blood. (Cheers.) It is gratifying to me to know, this gen- tleman is present at this meeting, and able to witness what a meeting of farmers in England can be, that he may be able to report to his fellow-citizens, the manner in which we and all classes of England are united in promoting these pursuits. Gentlemen, I shall therefore propose " The healtli of Mr. Webster and other distinguished strangers." (Jjondchccrivg.) — The toast was then drank with the accustomed honours. Mr. Webster, on returning thanks, said — The notice which the Noble F>arl at the head of the table has been kind enough to take of me, and the friendly sentiments which he has expressed towards the country to wiiich I belong, commands from me, my Lords and Gentlemen, some acknowledgment. Allow me then to begin by saying how satisfied and gratified I have been in having it in my power to pass one day amid the proprietors and cultivators, the farmers of England — Old England ! (Loud and re- hemeitt cheers.) Gentlemen, that England of which I have been reading and conversing all my life, and which I have now fer once the pleasure of seeing. Let me say in the next place, if I can say it, how mucli I liave been jileased and gratified in the exhibition of one product, or branch of product, in that agricul- ture, for which England is so distinguished. — (Cheers.) Gentlemen, whensoever persons con- nected in the same pursuits are assembled together, we cannot but look at them with respect and re- gard, for I confess at once that I am more than ordi- narily moved upon all occasions, when I see before mo a great assembly of those whose interests, whose hopes, and whose objects and pursuits are connected on cither continent with the cultivation of the soil. (Cheers.) Whatever else may be done to adorn or enrich societ}', that wliicii tends to the comfort of the great mass of mankind should be always regarded as the great foundation of national regard. (Cheers.) Gen- tlemen, I need not say that the agriculture of Eng- land is the instructor of agriculture to all the world, for the science here is better understood as an art ; it is here better practised as a great interest (clieersj ; and it is here as highly estimated as in any part of the Globe. The importance of agriculture to a nation is obvious to every one ; but that perhaps does not strike every one, which is certainly true, that the agriculture of England, and the animal productions of England, have a great influence over the civilization of the whole world. (Cheers.) The interests of the United States are so connected and blended with those of this country, that it is the fact that the fear or even tlie prospect of a short crop in England deranges the business transactions of us all in America, and it is natural that such should be the case in those nations who look to the occurrence of a short crop in England as an occasion for disposing profitably of their sur- plus ; but the fact is beyond that — it touches beyond that, inasmuch as England, and the capital of Eng- land are, as every body knows, the centre of the ope- rations of the whole earth. (Vehement applause.) As it is there the great exchanges between nations are concluded, which fact no one knows better than the Noble Earl who to-day presides at the head of this table. (Cheers.) It is for this reason, if there is a frost in England 15 days later than usual, or an un- seasonable drought, or ten days cold, instead of dry and warm, that every Exchange in Europe, and every Exchange in America, feels the consequence. (Loud cheering.) Gentlemen, I must not pursue these re- marks. (Cries of " go o?(," " go on.') Allow me, gentlemen, then to say that I entertain not the slight- est doubt of the great benefit to agriculture which will result from this Society, for is it not obvious to the most common observer that those who ciiiltivate the soil have not necessarily the same intercourse and facility of daily communication and expression of opinion, as the commercial man. (Cheers.) Those who pursue commerce, and those who pursue the manufacturing objects of life naturally congregate THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 123 together and liave instantaneous communication witli one anolher; tJiere eacli man's exj)erience and each man's opinion are readily communicated to every other man — sympathies, feelings, and opinions, are instantaneously circulated like electricity, if E may be permitted so to say ; but how is it with the cultivators of the soil, separated from each other, and each man attentive to his own acres, with only occasional oj)- portunities of communicating with each other ^ (Loud cheers.) Gentlemen engaged in commercial and other pursuits have their guilds and their halls, where they can communicate every thing ; but, if such things are so essentially necessary for them, how much more desirable is it that agriculturists should have some positive institution which, at least annually, shall brin^ together the representatives of a great body. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, in the country to which I belong Societies, on a small scale like the present, exist in many parts, and they have been found to be highly beneficial and advantageous — they give lewards for specimens of fine animals, and the improvement of implements of husbandry which may tend to facilitate the art of agriculture and which were not before known ; and they turn their atten- tion to every thing which tends to improve tlie state of the farmer, and I may add, among other means of advancing his condition, that they have imported largely to America from the best breeds of animals in England [loud cheering), and from the gentleman who has been so fortunate to take so many prizes to- day, from his stock on the banks of the Ohio and its tributary streams, I have seen fine animals raised which have been su])plied from his farms in York- shire and Northamptonshire. [Clteers.) But, apart from this subject, allow me to make a short response to the kind sentiments which have been expressed by the noble lord who presides, of the people of the United States, as kindred in blood vrith the people of England. (Applause.) Gentlemen, I am an American ; I was borne on that great continent, and am wedded to the fortunes of my country, for weal or for woe ; of course there is no other region of the earth which I can call my country ; but, gentlemen, I know and am jiroud to know what blood flows in these veins. (Loud cheering.) I am happy to stand here to-day and to be able to say that although my ancestors, for several generations, lie buried beneath the soil of the western continent, there has been the time when mine and your ancestors dwelt in the same cities and villages (cheers), cultivated adjacent fields, and worked together to build up that great structure of civil polity which has made England what she is. Allow me to say, my lords and gentlemen, that when I was about to embark for England some friends asked me what I was going to England for — to be sure I came for ho object of business, public or private— but I told them I was coming to see the elder branch of my family'. (Immense cheering.) 1 told them that I was coming to see my distant relations (a laugh) — that I claimed kindred with the old Saxon race. With regard to whatis important, the peace of the world — the prosperity of the world — the progress of knowledge and the diffusion of the sacred light of Christianity — what, I would ask, is more important than concord between Englishmen on this side of the Atlantic and the descendants of England on the other. (Cheers.) Some little grounds of dissension there have between the two countries, but I trust they have passed away, for I am sure the age we live in does not expect that England and America are to have controversies again, for we live now in an age when nations as well as indi- viduals are subject to a moral responsibility. (Loud cheering.) Neither Governroenc or peo- ple, thank God for it, can trifle with the general sense of the civilized world ; and 1 am sure that civilized world will hold us responsible if, without plain and apparent reason gohig deep into the inde- pendence of nations, and the great interests of na- tions, if any controversy between your country and mine should ever have anything but an amicable ad- justment. Gentlemen, I will venture to say that each country has intelligence enough to understand all that belongs to its just rights, and is not deficient to maintain those just rights ; and that if any con- troversy between England and America were pushed to the extreme of force, neither party would have or could have any singular advantage over the other, except what it could find in the justness of its cause, and the approbation of its countrymen. Gentlemen, 1 have taken up time — ("goon! gooti!") — upon this occasion which has called us together ; I repeat the gratification I experience in passing such a day, and I shall conclude with the most cordial ex- pression of my wishes for the prosperity and welfare of the Agricultural Society of England. (Loud cheering.) Sir Edw, Knatcubull now rose and addressed the meeting, but we regret that from the great dis- tance he was from us, that we were unable to collect more from him than that he called upon the gentle- men present to drink to the " health of the Lord Lieutenant," eulogising his conduct, and lamenting that his advanced age made it impossible that the Lord-Lieutenant could attend to return thanks. The President now rose and said —In addition, gentlemen, to the obligations we are under to the particular college under -whose roof we are now as« sembled, we have also derived great assistance from the Mayor and Corporation of this town, and I there- fore feel it unnecessary to detain you further than simply proposing " The health of the Mayor and Corporation." The Mayor, R. Sheen, Esq., briefly returned thanks. Lord MoEETON proposed " the successful compe- titors in the prizes for cattle." The Rev. R. Smythies returned thanks and said. My Lord Spencer and Gentlemen, — in rising to re- turn thanks for the favour you have done the suc- cessful competitors for the cattle prizes, T cannot refrain from expressing my unfeigned gratification at finding my name included in this list. I have frequently obtained prizes for cattle at various agri- cultural meetings, but no prize I ever obtained af- forded me half the pleasure that I have experienced from the one I have gained to-day. On the present occasion 1 have had to contend on a more extended arena, the prize I have obtained being open to all England, and to all kinds of breeds, the battle has been fought and I have gained the victory. It has been said by one of the cleverest writers of any age, when speaking of agriculture, that there was no pursuit more worthy of a gentleman, and I consider it a subject of high congratulation, that some of the most distinguished noblemen of the present day hold the same opinion as Cicero. I have no hesita- tion in asserting that it is mainly to the energy and zeal of the noble Lord in the chair, and that of the noble Duke who is to succeed him in that office, the formation and establishment of this Society is to be attributed ; a society from which the happiest results may be anticipated, not only to the agricultural in- terest, but to the community at large. No man can have passed through our manufacturing districts without being convinced of the urgent necessity which exists for increasing the productions of our soil to the utmost, in order to meet the augmented K 124 THE FARMfill'S MAGAZINE. demand for food occasioned by tbis constantly in- creasing population ; as 1 believe it is now admitted, even by tbe most zealous advocates of free trade, that it is wiser to raise tbis supply from our own land and our own labour, tban to render ourselves dependent for it upon foreigners. I bave no doubt, my Lord, tbat when the sunshine of scisnce shall, through the influence of this Society, have shed its invigorating rays upon practical agriculture, we shall be able to supply the manufacturing popula- tion with provisions at such n price as shall enable them to compete with all the world, and at the same time leave the tenant farmer of England in a state of prosperity and independence, and his landlord in afiiuence. I will not, my Lord, be guilty of such bad taste as to detain the splendid assemblage, which I have the honour of addressing, with any further observations of mine, but will only crave permission to be allowed to express my most earnest wishes for the welfare and happiness of my brother farmers, and to return once more my most cordial thanks for tbe distinguished honour you have conferred on the successful candidates for the cattle prizes by drink- ing their healths. Mr. IIandlev next read the list containing the award of prizes to the successful competitors in sheep. The Marquis of DowNsriinE proposed " The health of the successful competitors in tbe prizes for sheep." It was with the greatest satisfaction that he proposed that toast. (Cheers.) He appeared, upon that occasion, new in the harness ; but he had not hesitated in coming forward when called upon, because he felt that it became every man who be- longed to that country to endeavour, to the best of his means, to discharge his duty towards his fellows. Entertaining such a feeling, he would appeal to the Noble Earl, who presided over them that day, whe- ther he could feel other than the highest gratifica- tion, or acted upon by the strongest emotions, when he saw such an assembly as that before him, whe- ther they looked at it as being held in this seminary of learning, or as a meeting of men of sound and firm principles] (Loud cheers.) Having had the honour of acting, too, as steward on that occasion, he had felt additional gratification. (Cheers.) Tbe meeting felt a deep obligation to his Lordship for the ability he had displayed at that meeting. Society felt that it was their duty to support the agriculturists of the country, (hear, hear, hear,) and it was therefore, that he felt the greatest satisfaction when he had heard the Vice-Chancellor announce the intention of the University to establish a Professorship of Agri- culture. (Loud c/jeers.^ Such aprocecding would have the effect of giving such an impetus to the future exertions of the Society as would tend to produce the greatest benefit. (Loud and long-continued chetring.) They bad assembled upon tbat occasion for the sole object of affording a benefit to agriculture, and for the general advantage of the farmers of the kingdom, with the firm determination never to allow a ])oliti- cal sentiment to enter into their discussions, (much cheering) but to direct their attention, undiminished by any other consideration than that of the improve- ment and the cultivation of the soil, and the improve- ment also of cattle and stock. If such a Society were calculated to increase the interest of agricul- ture, and of the landed interest of England in gene- ral, he could not but consider that it would ultimately prove of the greatest advantage to the agriculturists of Irelaiid. (Much cheering.) The toast was then drank with much applause, and three times three. Mr. Grantham returned thanks and said,— My Lords and Gentleman, I rise under no small embarass- ment to return you my thanks for the honour you have done me iu drinking my health, more especi- ally for the very handsome manner in which it has been proposed by the Noble Lord, and received by my friends. It is no uncommon thing, gentlemen, for me to receive prize:?, and I say it without fear of contradiction, that I have received more from the Smithfield Club for South Down sheep than any other person, but I am more proud for the honor of the county in which I live to have the first prize awarded to me, at this first large and grand meeting, and I am ashamed for the honour of the county of Kent, after so much boasting from Mr. Boys, to see such a wretched production shown here to-day; and am willing now to show four rams from one to four years old for 100 guineas, with any man in England of his own breeding. Mr. Handlev then read the list, and the awards of prizes, and the names of the successful competi- tors in horses and pigs, and proposed the healths of those gentlemen. The toast was drank with much cheering, and three times three. Lord SxRADnnoKE returned thanks. Sir RoEEitT Price then proposed " The Judges of the Show." Lord Talbot returned thanks. Lord Sandox felt confident, in offering the toast which he was about to propose to the notice of the meeting, he should find little necessity, when be announced its purport, to call for their attention. The toast which be had the honour to propose was, "Agriculture, INIanufactures, and Commerce." (Loud cheers.) He was sure that all who heard him were perfectly aware that tbe interests of the on© were entwined with the interests of the other, how if the one flourished the other was maintained, how if the one decayed ruin visited tlie other. (Loud cheers.) He could wish that he possessed the eloquence of their distinguished visitor from tbe United States, (renewed cheers,) he should then be enabled to do the ample justice which the subject called for. What, he would ask, had made the manufactures of the country so valuable, other than the success of its agriculture ? He had no other claim to the right of addressing them on that occasion than that of repre- senting one of the greatest commercial communities in that great empire. (Loud cheers.) He could as- sure the meeting that in that community agriculture would find as much support as in any other part of the kingdom, (lienewed cheers.) The people of Liverpool were perfectly aware how much their in- terest depended on the flourishing state of agricul- ture : they were well aware what their losses would be were agriculture not to be in a flourishing condi- tion. (Hear^ hear.) He trusted that the farmers of the country would go and taste the hospitality of that town. (Loud cheers.) Its means of easy access by railway and other sources from every part of the country make it a spot to reach which few, if any, diflSculties presented themselves. (Cheers.) The farmers might rest assured that if they went to Liver- pool they would meet with all that sincerity of hos- pitality with which the community could receive them. (Immense cheering.) The Noble Lord ccncluded by proposing "Agriculture, Manufac- tures, and Commerce," which was drank with loud cheers. Sir Thomas Acland, in rising to propose th health of Dr. Bucklaud, said, that he welcomed the toast proposed by his noble friend Lord Sandon, repre- senting as he (Lord Sandon) did, the greatest com- mercial port in this kingdom, and therefore in the world, not disconnecting, by parentage, with the im- provement of the land, as showing that the pursuits of the different interests of tbis country were conducive THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 125 to the good of all, anil that in promoting agriculture we were not merelj' advancing that in which we were specially interested, but promoting the great ends of manufacture and commerce. (Loud cheering.) But however these liberal branches of English enterprise were linked by the bond of interest, there was one ele- ment necessary to cement the union, that was science. The object of a Society like this was not merely a cattle show, nor merely the promotion of good will and har- mony among those engaged in a common pursuit, but the concentration of the experience of practical men in all parts of England. {Renewed cheering.) Agricul- ture is a science of experience it is true, and necessarily of local experience, but if local experience meant merely the confined maxims of a single neighbourhood, expe- rience itself would be wsrth little ; but this Society gave to each individual the advantage of comparing his own with the experience of every one else. (Cheers.) And though he (Sir Thomas) could lay no claim to the title of a practical farmer, and would not profess to speak at large of a science of which he knew but little, he was most grateful to those who had assigned to him in his share of the duties of the day, to propose the health of a gentleman whose friendship he had long valued, who had done so much for a science in this University, and in the world at large, he meant Dr. Buckland, the President of the Geological Society, (loud cheers) of a science which had been almost called into existence during the last thirty years, and which, while it made them acquainted with every variety of soil of which the earth was composed, taught them at the same time that in this very variety lay the secret of their riches, if only they knew by enlarged experience how to turn the capacities of each to the best advan- tage. It had been the earnest recommendation of Lord Spencer and the Duke of Richmond, that these meet- ings should have the effect of drawing the attention of the agriculturists most extensively to scientific prin- ciples, on which the success of their operations really depended, and he hoped that recommendation would be cordially followed. (Hear, hear.) One word he must be allowed to say for his own native county. He re- gretted that though the west of England had no cause to be ashamed of its share in the day's show, no cattle had been sent by the great breeders in the north of Devon. He was authorised to say, that they had not been at all aware of the extent of the competition, or of the scale of the meeting. He rejoiced to see how well Somerset had acquitted itself in its contribution of specimens of that noble breed ; but his friends in Devon had attended ; they had seen, and they had been pleased ; they would now return home, and he would be bound to undertake for them, that for one head of stock this year, there would be a score next year. {Loud cheers.) So much he might say about his own parish matters ; but he might be excused on the pre- sent occasion for saying something for the West, as they boasted the houour of having Dr. Buckland for a native of Devon. He however, was not one to undervalue local attachments — he did not think they narrowed the heart, but rather sowed the seeds of a wider and more enlarged view of the interests of others. And if proof of this were wanting, he would appeal to the generous sentiments uttered by their distinguished guest, Mr. Webster, the echo of whose voice had been welcomed acros? the Atlantic before his arrival here {immense cheers), who professing a decided attachment to his own native country, had told them plainly, that with the prosperity of this country, the welfare of both con- tinents, of the whole worM, were intimately bound up. That gentleman had spoken as an acute observer, as one of large experience. He had uttered many sentiments which did him honour, and he (Sir Thomas) assured him as an Englishman and a country gentleman, they had found a response in the heart of every one present (Hear, hear.) He rejoiced therefore, to think that in assisting, however humbly, to raise the cultivation of the soil to the greatest perfection, though he might be advancing the interest of the class to which he belong- ed, he did not do so to the exclusion of any other, but ia direct furtherance of the welfare of the whole com- munity, not of this country but of every other. {Much cheering. He called on those present to join to the practical experience of the farmer the enlarged and sys- tematic knowledge of the philosopher, though obtained by the labours of the study and the cloister, and called on the learned professor to repeat to the large party now assembled the excellent advice which he had given within twenty-four hours, on the connexion between geology and agriculture. (Cheers.) And should the learned professor desire any particular topic of illustra- tion, he ("Sir Thomas) would take the liberty of asking his opinion of the subject and merits of bone manure, and of the subsoil plough, for he believed he had men- tioned the history of the one, of several years standing ; and, if he might be allowed to use a rather strong me- taphor, he had been in the habit of ploughing pretty deep with the other. Rev. Dr. Buckland. — It has not unfrequently be- come my duty to address large assemblies like the pre- sent on various subjects connected with scientific en- quiry, for the promotion of wliich large bodies of Englishmen have been assembled in various portions of tlie United Kingdom ; but on no occasion was it ever my lot to anticipate such magnificent results from large bodies of Englishmen as those I now dare anticipate as the certain consequences of inquiries that may result from the present meeting. I feel tiiat I owe to the situa- tion which I have the honour to hold as the President of a large body of scientific individuals in this country, who constitute the Geological Society of London, the opportunity I now have ot addressing you. And I shall rejoice, if it be possible, to avail myself of an occasion like the present to produce that union of our efforts to- wards the study of the structure of the earth which the objects of agriculture ought to beget. It has been the reproach of this country, not in agriculture only, but in many other departments, that it has been left to the public spirit of individuals, at their own expense, and by their own labour, to bring forward some of the most important discoveries that have enriched the nation ; there is one individual here present to whom the nation has for twenty-five years been deeply indebted, and whom it has but sparingly and illiberally rewarded — tiiat individual, who is called the father of English Geology, and who is a considerable proficient in Eng- ligh agriculture — Mr. William Smith, on whom this University has conferred the honour of a Doctor's De- gree, was the first who proposed to the agricultural and scientific men of England a map of their own soil, show- ing to every farmer how, at his own door, he may find the materials with which he may permanently improve the nature of the soil from which he draws his subsist" ence. (Cheers.) At the meeting of the British Associa- tion held last year, at Newcastle, the anxiety of assisting in the cultivation of agriculture was strengly felt and expressed. I felt that agriculture was in itself a subject of sufficient magnitude to occupy a distinct Society, and the multitude of individuals I now see around me has abundantly shown the justice of that opinion. The first result that can arise, in my humble opinion, from such an Association is that of a Committee selected from yourselves, with one selected from the Geological So- ciety, for the purpose of co-operating in the improve- ment of agriculture. (Cheers.) We all have to deal with one common parent, the earth; it is our business as Geologists to consider the history of its origin and the causes of its present condition, and it is your business to operate on the surface and extract from it the abundant riches with which Providence has stored it ; from such a combination we may anticipate results the most splendid. The time will not permit me to enter into any details such as those which, by the indulgence of the meeting, I had the honour of addressing to you yester- day. But I will repeat what I then stated, that there is a work by Mr. John IMorton, on Soils — a small volume infinitely valuable to agriculture— in which you will find the elements! of agriculture, as far as they depend on Geology, set forth with mucli judgment, not only in a scientific but in a practical manner. The book I com- mend to your most serious consideration ; and to those gentlemen who themselves are anxious to become per^ K 2 126 THE I'AlliMER'S MAGAZINE. feet in tlie science of a!,'riculturc, I dare say tliat it is impossible lor llicm to become agricullurists until they liitTc first become students in (ieology. 1 thank you for the attention with wiiich you have been pleased to listen to my observations, and beg, in return for the compliments you have paid me, to drink all your good liealths, (Cheers.) 'J'he CnAinMAN then proposed " Mr. Pusey, and success to the English Agricultural Journal." J\lr. Pusey returned thanks. The Chmuman then said that lie should not address thcin at any length in stating to the meeting the merits of the toast which he was about to submit to tliem. They were all sufficiently aware of the obligations the Society were under to their Secretary, I\Ir. Shaw. (Loud cheers.) lie would now, therefore, only tell them that if the utmost exertions of a man had at any time been required, wlicthtr those exertions resulted in ])crsonal inconvenience or otherwise, Mr. Siiaw had at no time scrupled in giving that assistance to the Society. (Clieers.) lie would, therefore, at once conclude by proposing that they should drink "The health of Mr. Shaw." — The toust was then drank with three times three amidst loud applause. ]\Ir. Siiaw, on rising to return thanks, was received with enthusiastic cheering; he said— My Lord Spen- cer and gentlemen — if our noble President who pre- sides over you with so much honour to him«elf and advantage to you— if the other distinguished indivi- duals who have addressed you this evening, have felt it necssjary to express in such warm and glowing language their thanks for themarks of approbation which you have bestowed upon them, and which you have now been pleased to confer on me, you may, gentlemen, readily imagine what feelings actuate my breast, when, conscious of my own unworthiness. (Cries of " Nn, vo!") I rise to return thanks for this distinguished mark of your approbation. Gentlemen, associated with you from my earliest years, and, from circumstances, thrown into daily connexion with the farmers of England, it would be strange indeed if my feelings were not warmed towards them. I was proud of the first meeting held for the establishment of this Society — 1 was proud when I was appointed to fill the office of Secretary, (cheers,) — but I am still more proud when T see this day. (Hear, hear.) The only drawback on the pride I en- tertain in having filled the office, is the knowledge of the imperfect manner in which I have discharged the duties of that office. (A^o, no, no.) But gentlemen, when you sit in judgment wpon the performance of those duties, I pray you to bear in mind that it is no small matter of detail to bring into operation an Agricultural Society of this magnitude, born as it were in a day. (Cheers.) If I may be permitted to speak allegorically, I would say I was for a very long period before the establishment of the Society, engaged in drain- ing, and subsoiling, and preparing the land for the reception of the seed : the noble Lord at the head of the table, and the noble Duke who is now about to succeed him, aided by your worthy Vice President IMr. Handley, sowed the seed. Gentlemen, behold the firjt crop ! The management is about to pass into other and more scientific hands — may the new system be more produc- tive than the old — may each successive crop be more bountiful than the preceding one, and may you my Lords— may you all long live to enjoy the profits. Lord Zetland proposed " The Committee of Ma- nagement." The toast was drunk with loud cheers. Mr. VV. MiLiis.M.P., returned thanks, and proposed " The Local Committee at Oxford." Mr. A ill unsT returned thanks, but as in the case of several of the other speakers was not heard by oar re- porter. The CiiAinMAN said that the next toast he should have the honour of proposing was " The Highland So- ciety,"— the society which had set them so good an ex- ample, a nexample which he trusted they would follow, and he hoped with improvement. (Cheeis.) The toast was drunk with loud applau»e. Professor Lowe returned thanks .—lie felt that there was not a member of that society who would not i;\Uc a warm interest in the success of the important insti- tution which had been so happily established in England. Experience of the working of such associations had shown the many important uses to which they might be applied as the means of eliciting and diffusing useful knowledge, of correcting the prejudices of liabit, and teaching agriculturists to act in concert ; and when he considered the many eminent individaals who supported this institution, he could not but regard it as calculated to prove an efficient instrument for promoting the ngri- cidtural improvement of the British Islands. Their first steps had been cautious and wise. They had avail- ed themselves, in a certain degree of the experience of the kindred institution in Scotland— experience acquired during the long period of CO years. They paid to that society the highest compliment which could be paid to it, when they adopted any part of the plan of its con- stitution. And further, the history of that society might present them with subjects of interesting reflec- tion. Of the 60 years during which it had been in existence, more than 40 passed away before it was able to place itself in full unison with the feelings of prac- tical farmers, and it is only within a period thus com- paratively recent and brief that it had been enabled to work with the etficiency which it now exercised. This might teach even thesi the necessity of perseverance — might show that it was only by the force of public opinion that they could work with effect, and that with- out the confidence and favour of the practical farmers of the country, the labours of even so distinguished a body as this might be without avail in the rich and beautiful country which was to be the appropriate sphere of their important labours. The Chairman said the toast he was about to have the honour of i)roposing to them was one which, if he were to follow the bent of his own feelings, he should dilate upon at some considerable length. He was about to propose the health of " The Uukc of Richmond." ( Tremendous cheering.) With regard to his own friend- ship for the noble Uuke, although it might not i)rob- ably by some persons, be called of long standing, it had been a plant of quick growth, which the more he had associated with him, the more had that growth in- creased. (Loud cheering.) lie was happy in basing the opportunity of saying, that the noble Duke had kindly promised to take upon himself the office of Presi- dent for the next year, (loud and long continued cheer- ing,) and he felt fully satisfied, that in the hands of the noble Duke, the cause, and the interest of the farmers, and of the society, would be greatly advanced. (Loud cheering.) The Duke of Richmond on presenting himself was very warmly greeted. He said he felt considerable difliculty in rising to address the meeting on that occa- sion, because he was well satisfied that the manner in which they had received the propssal of his noble friend was far more than any merits which he possessed called fsr. (Cheers, and cries of " no, ?io.) In coming for- ward as the successor of his noble friend in the office of President of the ensuing anniversary, he did not so with a view of obtaining' any temporary popularity, but be- cause he had considered it to be of importance, that an individual who by birth was placed in the station of life in which he was, should come forward with a view of serving his country. (Loud cheering.) It was that feeling and that feeling alone, which had actuated him in consenting to accept the oflice of President, (immense cheering,) and he had come to that resolution with a de- termination of deing his duty as far as he possibly could. He was not friendly to pledges, but on the present oc- casion they might rely, that having accepted the office, he would do'tlie utmost he could to carry out the'objects of the society. After some further remarks, the noble Duke apologised for not addressing them at greater length, and expressed a fear that he had not been suffi- ciently audible in consequence of his having received a bullet wound in his breast, on the plains of Waterloo, (liear, and loud clieers,) a circumstance which rendered it impossible for him to exert his voice to any great ex- tent, (Cheers.) The noble Duke concluded by pro- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 127 posing' as a toast, " The Agricultural I-abourer." The toast was drank with loud applause, and tliree times three clieers. The meeting shortly after broke up. The following: appropriate Song, Nvritten for the occa- sion by the Head of a College, in Oxford, we give witii much pleasure:— Says the Freshman " what means Tliis gay ticket for Queen's, 'I'he bearer adrait for ten shillings?" By Jove, T will go, As the caution is low. And enter a student most willing. Here's the fleece and the fork, To show " wealth comes by work," And behind are the sacks full of grain ; Here's the two-handled plough, And the wide-bosomed cow, The glory of pasture and plain. Here's the scythe and the rake, That your hay you may make, Whilst the sun shines aloft in the sky ; Here's the sickle and flail. That of bread and of ale, Will produce an abundant supply. CHORUS. So here's to the cow, And the two-handled plough. And here's to the fleece and the fork ; IVIay we never complain, With abundance of grain. And the wealth of the world for our work. STOCK EXHIBITED AT THE SHOW. CLASS I. SHORT-HORNS. To the owner of the hcst Bull, 30 sovereigns. 1. Mr. John Cooling, of Lower Winchenden, Bucks, short-liorned bull, aged 5 years and 3 months, bred by Mr. Drake, of Shardeloes. 2. Mr. Carrington, 3 un., of the Abbey, Great Miwen- den, Bucks, an improved short-horned bull, aged not more than 7 years, bred by Mr. Robert Baker, of Cot- tesmore, Rutlandshire. 3. I\Ir. George Carrington,jun., of the Abbey, Great Missenden, Bucks, an improved short-horned bull, aged 4 years and 9 months, bred by the late Rev. H. Jierry. 4. Mr. J. H. Langston, of Sarsden, Oxon, short- horned bull, aged 3 years and 11 months, bred by Mr. Rose, of Colham, near Newark, Notts. 5. Mr. Thomas Bates, of Kirkleavington, near Yarm, Yorkshire, short-horned bull, aged 3 years and 9 months, bred by Mr. T. Bates.— Phize. 6. Mr. W. M. Warner, of Thomley, Oxon, short- horned bull, aged -5 years. Mr. Matthew Young, of Begbroke, Oxon, short- horned bull, aged 3 years and 3 months. To the owner of the best Cow in Milk, 20 sovereigns. 7. Mr. Carrington, jun., of the Abbey, Great Missen- den, Bucks, improved short-horned cow, aged 7 years, bred by Mr. Crawley, M.P., of Stockwood Park, Luton, Beds. 8. Mr. J. H. Langston, of Sarsden, Oxon, short- horned cow, aged 5 years and 6 months, bred by Mr. Rose, of Cotham, near Newark, Notts. 9. Mr. Thos. Bates, of Kirkleavington, Yorkshire, short-horned cow, aged 4 years and 8 months, bred by Mr. T. Bates. — Prize. 10. Mr. R. W. Baker, of Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, short-horned cow, aged 11 years. To the oioner of the best in-calf Heifer, not exceeding 3 years old, 15 sovereigns. 11. INIr. R. W.Baker, of Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, short-horned in-calf heifer, aged 2 years and 7 months. 12. Mr. Thomas Bates, of Kirkleavington, Yorkshire, short-horned in-calf heifer, aged 1 year and 11 months, bred by Mr. T. Bates. — Prize. 13. Mr. John Cooling, of Lower Winchenden, Bucks, short-horned in-calf heifer, aged 2 years and 2 months. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer, 10 sovs. 14. Mr. R. W. Baker, of Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, short-horned yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 11 months. 15. Mr. 'Thomas Bates, of Kirkleavington, Yorkshire, short-horned yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 10 months, bred by JNIr. T. Bates. — Prize. 16. Mr. G. Davey, of Dorchester, Oxon, short- horned yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 7 months. 17. Mr. G. Carrington, jun., of tha Abbey, Great Missenden, Buck^, improved short-horned yearling heifer, aged under 14 months, bred by JMr. G. Carring- ton, jun. 18. Mr. J. H. Langston, of Sarsden, Oxon, short- horned yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 9 months, bred by Mr. J. II. Langston. 19. Sir George Philips, Bart., of Weston House, Warwickshire, sliort-horned yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 11 months. 20. Mr. Wm. Warner, of Thomley, Oxon, pure Dur- ham yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 9 months. 21. Sir Charles Morgan, Bart., of Tredegar, Mon- mouthshire, pure short-horned yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 8 months. 22. The Marquis of Exeter, of Burghley Park, North- amptonshire, short-horned yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 5 months. To the owner of the best Ball Calf, 10 sovereigns. 23. The JMarquis of Exeter, of Burghley Park, North- amptonshire, short-horned bull calf, aged 7 months. — Prize. 24. Mr. T. M. Goodlake, of Wadley House, Berks, pure Durham bull calf, aged 10 months, bred by Lord jNIoreton. 25. Mr. Carrington, jun., of the Abbey, Great Mis- senden, Bucks, improved short-horned bull calf, aged 3 months, bred by Mr. Carrington, jun. 26. Mr. J. Beasley, of Chapel Brampton, Northamp- tonshire, improved short-horned bull calf, aged 3 months, bred by Mr. J. Beasley. CLASS II. HEREFORDS. To the owner of the best Bull, 30 sovereigns. 27. Mr. R. White, of Zeals, Wilts, Hereford aged 5 years and 6 months, bred by Mr. R. White. 28. Mr. William Gibbs, of Lineham, Oxon, Hereford bull, aged 8 years and 5 months, bred by Mr. Walker, of Burton, Worcestershire. 29. The Duke of Bedford, of W^oburn Abbey, Beds, Hereford bull, aged 1 year and 8 months. 30. Mr. Thos. Jefli'ries, jun., of the Grove, Hereford- shire, Hereford bull, aged 3 years and 10 months. — Prize. 31. Mr. J. Nichols, ef Thornhill, Gloucestershire, Hereford bull, aged 7 years and 1 month. 32. JMr. W. Hewer, of Northleach, Gloucestershire, Hereford bull, aged 2 yeai-s and 7 months. To the owner of the best Cow in Milk, 15 sovereigns. 33. Mr. D. Unthank, of Tottenham Park, Wilts, Hereford cow, aged 6 years. 34. The Rev. J. R. Smythies, of Lynch Court, Here- ford, Hereford cow, aged 7 years and 6 months. 35. Mr. J. Hewer, of Hampton Lodge, Hereford, Hereford cow, aged 6 years and 4 months. 36. Mr. T. R. Barker, of Fairford Park, Gloucester- shire, Hereford cow. aged 8 years and 3 months. 37. Mr. James Walker, of Northleach, Gloucester- shire, Hereford cow, aged 6 yeare and 6 months. — Prize. 38. air. W. Hewer, of Northleach, Gloucestershire, Hereford cow, aged 3 years and 4 months. To the owner of the best in-calf Heifer, not exceeding 3 years old, 15 sovereigns, 39. Mr. W. Hewer, of Northleach, Gloucestershire, Hereford in-calf heifer, aged 2 years and 4 months. 128 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 40. Mi'.J. Tlewer, of IIumptsiiLoil^e, Hercford-iliir^, Hereford in-calf li^il'er, nf^fd 2 ycnrs ami 3 inonllis. 41. 'I'lie Rev.. I. ]{. ,Srnytliics,of r.yHcli Court, Here- fordshire, Hereford iii-caif lieiler, ag-ed '2 years and 7 iiionlhs. 42. IMr. E. West, of I.iulefroom, lIcrefor.Miire. Hereford in-ealf lieir..r, aged 2 years and 7 nionliis, l)ied by Mr. K. West.— I'in/r.. A3. Mr. ,T. Nicliol*;, of 'I'liornliill, (Jloneestersliire, Iferefonl in-calf heifer, agvd 2 years and II months, bred by Mr,. I. Nichols. To tlie owner tif the best Y curling lleifc, 10 xovs. 44. Mr. J. Ilc-wer.of Hampton J/jdg-e, llereforcUhirc, Hereford yearling' hcifei', aged 1 year and tj month.v, Lred by Mr. .T. Hewer. — Pui/.k. 45. Air. J. Walker, of Hurton, Worccster-sliire, Here- ford yearling- iieifer, aged 1 year and 8 month.s, bred by I\Ir. J. Walker. 46. The Huke of Bedford, of Woburn Abbey, TBeds, Hereford yearling' heifer, ag-ed 1 year and 5 nionihs. To the owner of the best Bull Calf, 10 sovereigns. 47. The Rev. J. R. Smythies, of Lynch Court, Here- fordshire, Hereford bull calf, aijed 8 months. 48. Mr. J. Walker, of Burton, Worcestershire, Here- ford bull calf, aged 8 months, bred by Mr. J. Walker. ■ — Paizr. 49. Mr. I). Unthank, of Tottenham Park, Wilts, Hereford bull calf, aged 3 months. 50. Mr. W, Hewer, of Northlcaeh, Gloucestershire, Hereford bull calf, agod 6 months. CLASS IH. DEVONS. To the owner of the best Bull, 30 sovereigns. 51. The Earl of Macclesfield, of Shirburn Castle, Oxon, Devon bull, aged 6 years, bred by the late Mr. (i. Talbot, of Temple Guiting, Gloucestershire. 51. Lord Western, of Felix Hall, Essex, Devon bull, aged 6 years and 3 months, bred by Lord Western. 52. Mr. M. Paul.of Compton Pauncefoot, Somerset- sliire, Devon bull, aged 3 years and 2 months, bred by the late Mr. W. Davy, of Elitlon, North Moulton, De- vonshire.—Pnirr,. 54. Mr. W. Peters, of South Petherton, Somerset- shire, Devon bull, aged 5 years and 6 months. To the owner of the best Cojo in MUk, 15 sovereigns. 55. The Earl of Macclesfield, of Shirburn Castle, Oxon, Devon cow, aged 6 years and 6 months, bred by the Earl of Macclesfield. 56. ]\Ir. J. W. Peters, of South Petherton, Somerset- shire, North Devon cow, aged 9 years and 6 months. — Prize. 57. Mr. M. Paull, of Compton Pauncefoot, Somer- set, Devon cow, aged 7 years and 5 months, bred by Mr. M. Paull. 58. Mr. R. Bemon, of Donnington, Gloucestershire, Devon cow, aged 6 years, bred by Mr. Turner, near Exeter. 59. Mr. R. Bemon, of Donnington, Gloucestershire, Devon cow, aged 3 years and 6 months, bred by the late Mr. Talbot, Temple Guiting, Gloucestershire. 2'o the owner of the best in-calf Heifer, not exceeding 3 years old, 15 sovereigns. 60. Mr. M. Paull, of Compton Pauncefoot, Somer- set, Devon in-calf heifer, aged 2 years 3 months, bred by Mr. M. Paull.— Prize. 6L The Earl of Macclesfield, of Shirburn Castle, Oxon, Devon in-calf heifer, aged 2 years and 6 months, bred by the Earl of Macclesfield. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer, 10 sovs. 62. The Earl of Macclesfield, of Shirburn Castle, Oxon, Devon yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 4 months, bred by the Earl of Macclesfield. 63. Mr. M. Paull, of Compton Pauncefoot, Somer- setshire, Devon yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 5 months, bred by Mr. Paull. — Prize. To the owner of the best Bull Calf, 10 sovereigns. 64. Mr. M. Paull, of Compton Pauncefoot, Somer- setshire, Devon bull calf, aged 6 months, bred by Mr. M. Paull.— PnizE. 6'). 'I'lie Earl of Macclesfield, of Shirburn Castle, Oxon, Devon bull calf, aged 8 months, bred by the Earl of Macclesfield. CLASS IV. Cattle of any Breed or Cross. 67. Mr. R. Harris, of Snowswiek, Berks, cross- breed bull, a-ied 4 yeats and 4 months. G8. '{"he Rev. W. iMilli, of Shellingford, Berks, cross- breed bull, aged 1 year and 5 months, bred bv the Rev. W.Mills. 69. JMr. J, M. D. Dundas, of Barton Court, Berks, Alderney bull, agefl 2 years and 5 months. 70. Mr. J. Rutland, of West lirle, Sussex, pure Sus- sex bull, aged 2 years and 4 months. 71. M. R. Horlin, of Sherbourne, Warwickshire, pure long-horned bull, aged 4 years and 2 months, bred by Mr.R. Hortin.— Prize. 72. Sir Charles Hulse, Bart., of Breamore, HanU, Guernsey and Isle of Skye cross bull, aged 1 year and 8 months. COWS. 73. Mr. C. Poulton, of Loushill, Wilts, mixed breed cow, aged 6 years and 4 months, bred by Mr. C. Poul- ton. 74. Sir Charles Hulse, Bart., of Breamore, Hants, Guernsey and Isle of Skye cross cow, aged 6 years and 6 months. 75. IMr. G. Ferris, of Shrivenham, Berks, Hereford and short-horned cow, aged 4 years and 7 months. 76. Mr. J. Pulland, of West Firle, Sussex, pure Sus- sex cow, aged 5 years and 4 months.— Prize. 77. Mr. W. Cother, of Middle Aston, Oxon, Here- ford and Durham cow, aged 6 years and 6 months, bred by Lord Sherborne, of Sherborne Park, Gloucestershire. To tlie owner of the best Yearling Heifer, 10 sovs. 78. Mt. B. Morland, of Abingdon, Berks, cross- horned Alderney short- hoi'ned yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 2 inontlu, bred by Mr. JNlorland. 79. Mr. Cother, of Middle Aston, Oxon, Hereford and Durham yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 6 months. 80. Mr. T. .Stephens, of Whitelackington, Somerset- shire, Hereford and Devon yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 5 months. — Prize. 81. Mr. Lichfield, of Golden, Oxon, mixed half- horned yearling heifer, aged 1 year and 3 months. Bull Calves. 82. Mr. C. Lichfield, of Colder, Oxon, mixed half- horned bull calf, aged 11 months. 83. Mr. Cother, of Middle Aston, Oxon, Herelbrd and Durham bull calf, aged 18 weeks. — Prize. CLASS V. To the owner of the best Cow in Milk, which shall, in the opinion of the Judges, be best calculated for Dairy purposes, 15 sovereigns. The Rev. J. R. Smythies, of Lynch Court, Hereford, Hereford cow, aged 9 year* and 6 months. — Pni?.E. Mr. C. Lichfield, of Colder, Oxon, Hereford cow, aged 5 years and 5 months. Mr. Joseph Badcock, of Pyrton, Durham cow, aged 14 years and 2 months. — Second Prize. Mr. Carrington, jun., of the Abbey, Great IMissenden, Bucks, Hereford cow, aged 7 years, bred by Blr. Baker, of Cottismore, Rutlandshire. Mr. Carrington, jun., of the Abbey, Great Missenden, Bucks, Hereford cow, aged 7 years. Mr- J. H. Jones, of Chastleton, Oxon, Hereford cow, aged 12 years, bred by Mr. Green, of Odstone. CLASS VI. OXEN. Mr. R. Rowland, of Creslow, Bucks, 5 Hereford oxen — three oxen aged 5 years and 4 months, and two 4 years and 4 montlis ; bred by, and purchased of, Mr. J. Jones, of Lower Braiiiton, Herefordshire.— Prize. Mr. W. Trinder, of Wantage, Berks, 5 North Devon THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 129 oxen, bred by the late Mr. Talbot, of Temple Guiting-, Gloucestershire, purchased of Mr. Wood, of Norlh- leach. — Prize. CLASS VIT. To the owner of the best Carl Stallion, 20 i«vereigns, Mr. T. Freeman, of Henham, Suffolk, cart stallion, ag-ed 8 years. — Prize. Mr. J. Darvell, of Little London, Bucks, cart stallion, aged 10 years. jMr. W. Polhill, of Eyford, Gloucestershii-e, cart stal- lion, aged 4 years. Mr. Curtis, of Basingstoke, Hants, cart stallion, aged 8 years. Mr. T. Saunders, of Ilanbury, Worcestershire, cart stalHon, aged 7 years, bred by the late Colonel Warne- ford, of Warueford Place, Wilts. Mr. E. B. Washbourne, of Newbury, Beiks, cart stallion, aged 5 years.* Mr. E. B. Washbourne, of Newbury, Berks, cart stallion, aged 7 years. Mr.T. Crisp, of Gedgrave, Suffolk, Suffolk cart stal- lion, aged 4 years and 3 months. Mt. J. Nalder, of Northmoor, Oxon, Young Cham- pion, cart stallion, aged 6 year.--. Mr. Jackman, of Crendon, Bucks, cart stallion, aged 5 years. To theowner of the best Cart Mare and Foal, 10 sovereigns. Mr. E. West, of Littlefroom, Herefordshire, cart mare and foal ; the sire of the foal belonging to Mr. Bythirte, of Stoke Lyne. Mr. J. H. W. Jonis, of Chessleton, Oxon, cart mare and foal; the sire of the foal belonged to Mr. Polhill, of Eyford. JMr. T. R. Barker, of Hambleden, Bucks, cart mare and foal. Mv. J. Osborne, of Chilton, Bucks, cart mare and foul ; the sire of tlie foal belonging to J. Darvell, of Little London, Bucks. — Prize. Mr. W. Clarke, of Crookham, Berks, cart mare and colt ; the sire of foal belonging to Mr. Washbourne, late of Cholsey Farm, Berks. Mr. J. Nalder, of Northmoor, Ox®n, cart mare and foal ; the sire of the foal was Young Champion, Mr. Nalder's stallion. To the owner of the best Stallion for breeding Hunters, Carriage Horses, or Roadsters, which shall have served Mares during the season of 1839, at a price not ex- cecding 31, each, 30 sovereigns. Mr. W. Wyndham, of Denton, Wilts, stallion, aged 17 years. JMr. W. Golborne, of Witcham, Cambridgeshire, stallion, aged 2 years. The Earl of Stradbroke, of Henham Hall, Suffolk, stallion, aged 9 years. Mr. R. Curtis, of Basingstoke, Hants, stallion, aged 9 years. The Rev. J. R. Smythies, of Lynch Court, Hereford, stallion, aged 6 years. Mr. Ridge, of Whittlebury, Northamptonshire, stallion. Mr. S. M. Goodlake, of Wadley House, Berks, stal- lion, aged 16 years. Mr. Townsend, of Adderbury, Oxon, stallion, aged 7 years. [The Judges did not consider any of these to merit a Prize.] CLASS VIII.-LEICESTERS. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram, 30 sovereigns. Earl Spencer, of Althorp, Northamptonshire, shear- ling Leicester ram, aged 69 weeks and 1 day. Mr. S. Bennett, of Ridgmont, Beds, shearling pure Leicester ram. — First Prize 30 sovereigns. Mr. T. Umbers, of Wappenbury, WarvTickshire, * A mistal<« was made as to the age of the two hor-cs exhiliited by Mr. Washbourne, the dark brown lior^e being seven years old, and thp brown one but fire ; the diirk brown was stated as five, the other as seven. shearling Leicester ram, aged 17 months, bred by Mr. T. Umbers. Mr. J. Beasley, of Chapel Brampton, Northamp- tonshire, shearling new Leicester ram, bred by Mr. J. Beasley. Mr. J. Inskip, Marstan, Beds, shearling Leicester ram. — Second Prizk 10 sovereigns. Mr. J. Littlewood, of Armthorpe, Yorkshire, shear- ling Leicester ram. Mr. J. Jellicoe, of Bighterton, Staffordshire, shear- ling new Leicester ram. Mr. J. Earl, of Earl's Barton, Northamptonshire, shearling, pure Leicester ram. Mr. H. Robbins, of Bishop's Lashbrook, Warwick- shire, shearling pure Leicester ram, aged 16 months, bred by Mr. H. Robbins. Mr. W. Salisbury, of Doodou, Warwickshire, shear- linj- pure Leicester ram. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age, 30 sovs. Mr. J. W. Hobbs, of Markshall, Essex, new Leicester ram, aged 3 years, bred by Mr. W. J. Hobbs. JMr. W. J. Hobbs, of Markshall, Essex, new Leicester ram, aged 2 years, bred by Mr. W.J. Hobbs. JMr. \V. J. Hobbs, of Markshall, Essex, new Leicester ram, aged 2 years, bred by Mr. W. J. Hobbs. Mr. W..T. Hobbs, of Markshall, Essex, new Leicester ram, aged 4 years, bred by Mr. Bryant, of Tytchley, Northamptonshire. Mr. J. Beasley, of Chapel Brampton, Northampton- shire, new Leicester ram, aged 4 years, bred by Mr. J. Beasley. Mr. H. Robbins, of Bishop's Laskbrook, Warwick- shire, pure Leicester ram, aged 40 months, bred by J\Ir. H. Robbins. Mr. H. Robbins, of Bishop's Tashbrook, Warwick- shire, pure Leicester ram, aged 28 months, bred by Mr, H. Robbins, and 1 ditto, ditto. Earl Spencer, of Althorp, Northamptonshire, Leices- ter ram, aged 4 years and 19 weeks. Mr. J. Golborae, of Witcham, Cambridgeshire, Leicester ram, aged 2 years. Mr. S. Bennett, of Ridgmont, Beds, pure Leicester ram, aged 3 years. JVIr. J. Jellicoe, of Bighterton, Staffordshire, new Leicester ram, aged 3 years and 4 months. IMr. W. Umbers, Jan., of Wappenbury, Warwick- shire, new Leicester ram, aged 3 years, bred by Mr. W. Umbers, jun. Mr. J. Earl, of Earl's Barton, Northamptonshire, pure Leicester ram, aged 3 years.— Prize. Mr. T. Inskip, of Marston, Beds, Leicester ram, aged 4 years. Mr. W. Salisbury, of Doodon, Warwickshire, pure Leicester ram, a^'ed 5J years. To the owner of the best pen of 5 Ewes with their Lambs, 10 sovereigns. Mr. R. Archer, of Sachbrook, Warwickshire, 5 Lei- cester ewes and larabs.— Prize. Earl Spencer, of Althorp, Northamptonshire, 5 Lei- cester ewes and lambs. To the owner of the best pen of 5 Shearling Ewes, 10 sqvs. Mr. R. Hickson, of Houghton, Lincolnshire, 5 shear- ling Leicester ewes. Mr. T. Umbers, of Wappenbury, Warwickshire, 5 shearling Leicester ewes, bred by Mr. T. Umbers. — Prize. Mr. R. H. Horlin, of Sherbourne, Warwickshire, 5 shearling pure Leicester ewes. CLASS IX. — SouTiiDowv or other Siiort-woolled Sheep. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram, 30 sovereigns. Mr. T. Ellman,Beddingham, Sussex, shearling South- down ram. Mr. R. Newton, Britwell Prior, Oxon, Shearling Southdown ram. Lord Western, Felix Hall, Essex, shearling Ang'o- Merino ram. 130 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. J. Ilarri?, Ilinton, Berks, shearling Southdown ram.— Prizk of 10 sovcrei.i^ns. Mr. 'J'. Crisp, Gedyravc, Suffulk, shearling Si)ulh- dovvn ram. Mr. J. Webb, I'abraham, Cambritlj,^esliire, shearling Southdown ram. Mr. J. Maton, Collingbourna, \ViIts,shearling South- down ram. Mr. T. T. Drake, Shardeloes, Bucks, shearling South- down ram. Mr. S. Grantham, Stoneiiouse, Sussex, shearling Southdown ram. — Puizu 30 sovereigns. Mr. II. Boys, Waldcrsham, Kent, shearling South- down ram. 3\) the owner of lite best Ham of any other age, 30 sovs. Mr. H.Boys, Waldersham, Kent, Southdown ram- age 5 years, bred by Mr. H. Boys. Mr. S. Grantham, Stoneham, Sussex, Soutlidown ram —age 3 years. Mr. S. Grantham, Stoneham, Sussex, Southdown ram — age 2 years. Mr. S. Grantham, Stoneham, Sussex, Southdown ram — age 4 years. Mr. T. T. Drake, Shardeloes, Bncks, Southdown ram — age 2 years and 5 months. Mr. J. Webb, Babrnham, (Cambridgeshire', South- down ram — age 2 years. Mr. T. R. Barker, Fairford Park, Gloucestershire, Southdown ram — age 8 years. Mr.T. Ellman, Beddingham, Sussex, Southdown ram — age 3 years. Mr. J. Maton, CoUingbourn, Wilts, Southdown ram — age 3 years and 5 months. Mr. J. Ellman, Glynde, Sussex, Southdown ram — age 4 years. Mr. J. Ellman, Glynde, Sussex, Southdown ram — age 5 years. Mr. W. Hayward, Weston Turville, Bucks, South- down ram— age 4 years. Mr. T. Crisp, Gedgrave. Suffolk, Southdown ram — aged 2 years. — Piuze of 30 sovereigns. Lord Western, Felix Hall, Essex, Anglo-Merino ram, aged six years, bred by Lord Western. Mr. T. Taylor, Brightwell, Berks, improved Berk- shire ram, aged 29 months, bred by ]\Ir. W. Taylor. To the owner of the best pen of 5 Eives lohh their Lambs 10 sovereigns. Mr. J. R. Barker, of Fairford Park, Gloucestershire, 5 Southdown ewes and lambs. Mr. J, Maton, of CoUingbourn, Wilts, 5 Southdown ewes and lambs, bred from the Duke of Richmond's and Mr. Ellman's rams. — Prize. To the owner of ihe best pen «»/ 5 Shearling ewes 10 sovereigns, Mr. J. Webb, of Babraham, Cambridgeshire, 5 shearling Southdown ewes. Mr. A Annesley, of Bletchington, Oxon, 5 shearling Southdown ewes. Mr. J. JMaton, of CoUingbourn, Wilts, 5 shearling Southdown ewes. — Prize. Mr. W. J. Dodd, of Ipsden, Oxon, 5 shearling Southdown ewes. Mr. H. A. Dorrien, of Lavant House, Sussex, 5 shearling Merino ewes, aged 18 months. Mr. W. Humfrey, of Boxford, Berks, 5 shearling Down ewes. Mr. J. R. Barker, of Fairford Park, Gloucestei-shire, 5 shearling Southdown ewes, bred by Mr. J. R. Barker. CLASS X. — Long woolled Sheep. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram 30 sovereigns. Mr. Dawson, Ingthorp, Rutland, shearling Leicester ram. Mr. W. Hewer, Northleach, Gloucestershire, shear- ling Cotswold ram. Mr. R. M. Pearce, of JMill Farm, Oxen, shearling Cotsweld and Leicester ram. Rlr. W. Slater, of Stratlon, Gloucestei-^hire, shearling improved Cotswold r.-im.— Piu/,i. oi 10 S()\ i.ui;k;n.s. RJr. C f-arge, of Broadvvell,0n order that the Judges might then proceed to the per- formance of their duties. The Judges met Earl Spencer and the Committee in the yard at 7 o'clock on that morning, and received their final appoint- ments and instructions, but it was not, however, until after one o'clock, that matters were arranged so that they could proceed to business. The ac- tivity and exertions of the Stewards of the yard were deserving of the highest commendation, but it was found impracticable to complete the arrange- ments in the short space of time which had been anticipated, a difficulty which can only be reme- died by requiiing all the cattle, except the stal- lions and bulls, to be placed in the yard on the evening preceding the day appointed for the Judges to inspect the animals. The first object of atten- tion oil that day, Tuesday, was a trial of Imple- ments in a ploughed field adjoining tiie show- yard ; a great number of spectators attended, but the number of Implements was not so large as was expected. Much improvement may, we tliink,be made in the arrangement of this department, upon which we shall offer a few suggestions on a future occasion. At two o'clock Earl Spencer proceeded to the Town Hall, where it had been announced that the Essays of the successful com- petitors for the Prizes offered by the Society, as well as some other interesting papers would be read. The awards of the Judges had previously been opened by the Committee, and the result de- clared as follows : — 1. For the best account of the advantapres of drawing- turnips from the land, and consuming them in houses or yards, 10 sovereijj'ns, to Mr. Richard Hopper, of Nottingham. 2. For the best essay on the comparative advantages of wheel and swing ploughs, 10 sovereigns, to H. Ilandley, Esq., M. P. 3. For the best account of the most improved varie- ties of wheat hitherto introduced into England, 20 sove- reigns to Colonel Le Couteur. 4. For the best account of rural economy abroad, the Society's Gold Medal and 25 sovei-eigns. 5. For thebest account of liquid manure, 10 sovereigns to C. W. Johnson, Esq., of Gray's Inn, London. 6. For the best mode ef making compost heaps, 10 sovereigns to Jas. Dixon, Esq., Plathersham Lodge, near Oakham, Lane. The first, second, and third of these Essays were read. Two other papers, one from Earl Spencer, " On the Gestation of Cows," and another from Mr. Childers " On Shed-feeding Sheep," were also read . The hall was fully attended, and the auditory paid great attention, and were highly pleased with this first attempt to communicate information, in this mannei', made at an agricultural meeting. Tiiese proceedings continued until nearly the hour of dinner, which afterwards took place at the Star Hotel, and which was attended by upwards of 300 of the most influential persons in the neigh- bourhood of and then visiting Oxford. The num- ber not being so great the entertainment was more agreeable than on the following day. We regret much that we are not enabled to give a full report of the speech of Dr. Buckland, with which, as we are informed, the company were highly gratified . At seven o'clock on Wednesday morning the awards of the Judges having been affixed to the respective animals, the cattle-yard was opened for the admission of visitors at 2s. 6d. each, to be continued until twelve o'clock that day. Five thousand tickets had been provided, but this num- ber was exhausted long before the hour of twelve. Hundreds v^ere congregated at the gate seeking admission, and were then admitted upon payment of money, without tickets. The same result took place, vvhen persons were admitted with shilling tickets after 12 o'clock ; and in the afternoon se- veral Members of the Committee were engaged for many hours in taking money at the gate. Very nearly 1,200/. was taken from visitors to the show-yard ; and, notwithstanding that several thousand persons must have been present in the yard at one time, yet so ample was the space, and so excellent the arrangements, that not the slightest inconvenience was experienced either in examining the animals or inspecting the imple- ments. Ticketsforthedinnerwere issued to members of tiie Society on Tuesday, and were reserved for subscribers up to two o'clock on Wednesday, after which the few remaining were distributed indiscii- minalely to non-subscribers. The utmost anxiety 134 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. was evinced by tion-subscribeis to oblain tickets, and many who came from a very great distance could not obtain them. Tiie number of tickets provided were calculated with the greatest preci- sion to fill tlie room, and not one more was is- sued than it would contain. Tiie appearance of the room when occupied by 2,.'iOO persons, seated at dinner, was exceedingly imposing. We are not aware of any occasion in which so large a number of persons sat down to dinner in one room ; well might the noble President ob- serve, " It was no small matter to have such a dinner party in a man's house ;" but of this we are quite certain, that with the exception of a trifling interruption or two, we have seen many parties of not one-tenth tiie number, mucli more noisy. Although the exhibition of stock was not as nu- merous as had been expected, yet the quality of some was very superior. The animals shewn by Mr. Bates were universally admired, as excellent specimens of the short-horn breed ; and Mr. Paul's Devons excited general admiration. The sale of stock on Thursday was numerously attended ; the stork fetched high prices. The 2 years and 3 months old Devon heifer, belonging to Mr. Paull, which won the prize, fetched 140/.; a Hereford bull-calf, belonging to the Rev. J. R. Smythies, fetched GO/. ; a cart-stallion, tlie pro- perty of Mr. Polhill, Eyford, Gloucestershire, fetched 110/.; and other stock in proportion. The total produce of the sale was 1,923/. 14s. We have given elsewhere, a list of all the cattle exhibited and the prizes awarded. We here sub- join a list of the prizes only. JUDGES, Class 1.— Rlr. T. Charge, ftlr. W. Smith, and Mr. J. Hall. Class 2.— Earl Talbot, Mr. J. Ashdown, Mr. W. Warner. Class 3.— Mr. W. Wyndham, Mr. E. Pester, Mr. W. Umbers. Class 4.— Mr. W. F. Paley. Mr. T. Charge, Mr. J. Asiidown. Class 5. — Mr. Stokes, Mr. C. Bennett, and Mr. W. Smith. Class 6.— Mr. W. Wiley, Mr. Short, Mr. W. Pratt. Class?.— Lord Moreton, Sir F. Lawley, Bart., Mr. Quarterman. Class 8.— Sir F. Lawley, Bart., Mr. Wiley, JMr. T. Chapman. Class 9.— Mr. T. Weall, Mr. T. Northeast, Mr. H. Overman. Class 10.— Mr. Clark, Mr. R. Martin, Mr. Edmonds. Class IL— Mr. Dodd, ftlr. Salter, and Mr. Stokes. Implements. — Mr. H. Ilandley, M.P., Mr. Parkes, Mr. Morton. CATTLE PRIZES. Class I. Short Horns,— l. Best bull, 30/.; Mr. T. Bates, Kirlcleavington, Yorkshire. 2. Best cow ia milk, 15/. ; Mr. Bates, ditto. 3. Best iu-calf heifer, not exceeding three years old, 15/.; Mr. Bates. 4. Best yearling heifer, 10/. ; M»\ Bates. 5. Best bull- calf, 10/. ; the Marquis of Exeter, Burleigh Park. Class IL Herefords. — l. Best bull, 30/. ; T. Jef- ferys, jun., Esq., of the Grove, Herefordshire. 2. Best •ow in milk, 15/.; Mr. Walker, of Northleach. 3. Best L n calf heifer, Eot exceeding three years old, 15/. ; Mr. E. West, Little Herefordshire. 4. Best yearling heifer, 10/,; Mr, J. Hewer, of Hampton Lodge, Hereford- shire. 5. Best bull calf, 10/, ; Mr, J. Walker, Burton, Worcestershire. Class III, Devons.— -l. Best bull, so/. ; Mr. Paul, of Compton Pauncefoot, Somerset. 2. Best cow in milk, 15/.; M.J, B. Peters, of South Petherton, Somerset, 3, Best in-calf heifer, not exceeding three years old, 15/. ; Mr, Paul. 4, Best yearling heifer, 10/.; Mr. Paul. 5, Best bull calf, 10/. ; Mr, Paul. This class excited great attention fromthe purity and beauty of the animals. Class IV, Cattle of any breed or cross, — 1. Best bull, 30/,; Mr. R, Hortin, Sherbourne, War- wickshire, for a pure long-horned bull. 2, Best cow in milk, 15/. ; Mr. J, Putland, West Firle, Sussex, for a pure Sussex cow. Best Yearling Heifer, 10/. ; Mr. J. Stephens, White Lackington, Somerset, Hereford and Devon Heifer, 3, BestbuUcalf, 10/. ; Mr.Cother, of Middle Acton, for a cross between the Hereford aud Durham. Class V. Cattle for dairy purposes. — 1, Best cow in milk, which shall, in the opinion of the judges, be best calculated for dairy purposes, 15/. ; Rev. J, R, Smythies, Lynch Court, 2, Second-best cow, 10/. ; Mr, J, Badcock, of Pyrton,a Durham Cow. Class VI, Oxen. — l. The five oxen, bought since the 1st September, 1838, likely ti) weigh more than 70 stone at Christmas, 1839, which, in the opinion of the judges, will pay best for grazing, 20/, ; Mr. J. Row- land, of Creslow, Bucks, for his Hereford oxen. 2. The fiveoxea, bought since the 1st of September, 18.JS, notlikely to exceed 70 stone weight at Christmas, 1839, subject to the same condition as the last, 20/. ; Mr. W. Trinder, of Wantage, Berkshire, for his Devon oxen. Class VII. Horses.— 1. Best Cart stallion, 20/, ; Mr. T, Freeman of Ilenham, Suflolk, 2, Best cart mare and foal, 10/,; Mr, J, Osborne, Chilton, Bucks. Stallions for breeding hunters, no prize awarded. Class A'lll. LEicusTEns. — I, Be*t shearling ram, 30/,; Mr. S. Bennett, of llidgemont, Bedfordsiiire, second br.st ditto, 10/, ; Mr. Inskip,Marston, Bedford- shire. 2. Best rana of any other age, 30/. ; Mr. Earl, of Earls Barton, Northamptonshire. 3. Be»t pen ©f five ewes with their lambs, 10/. ; I\Ir. R, Archer, Tach- brook, Warwickshire. 4, Best pen of five sliearling ewes, 10/., Mr. T. Umbers, Wappenbury, Warwick- shire. Clas3 IX. South Downs, or other short-woolled sn EEP, — I, Best shearling ram , 30/,, ]Mr, S. G ranlham , of Stoneham, Sussex. ; second best ditto, 10/., Mr, J, Harris, Ilinton, Berkshire. 2, Be.«t ram of any other age, 30/., Mr. T, Crisp, Gedgrave, Suffolk. 3, Best pen of five ewes with their lumbs, 10/., ]\Ir. J. Maton, Collingbourne. 4. Best pen of five shearling ewes, 10/., Mr. J. Maton. Class X. Long-woollcd sweep. — 1. Best shear- ling ram, 30/., Mr. C. Large, of Broadwell, Oxford- shire; second best ditto, 10/., Mr. W. Slatter, Stratton. Gloucestershire. 2. Best ram of any age, 30/., Mr. Large. 3, Best pen of five ewes with their lambs, 10/., Mr, J. Hewer, Cotswold ewes and lambs. 4. Best pen of five shearling ewes, Oxfordshire breed, 10/., Mr. Class *XI. Pigs.— 1; Best boar. 10/., Mr. S. Le- fffivre, Lleckfield House, Hants. 2. Best sow, 51. Mr. Carrington, Missenden, Bucks. 3. Best pen of 3 pigs of the same litter, above 4 and under 9 months old, to Mr. R. Sraallbones, Hordley, near Woodstock, 10/. Class XII. Extra stock. Implements, roots, AND seeds. — 5/. to Mr. J. S. Langslon for a short- horned cow five years old ; 5/. to Mr. S. Druce, of Ensham, for his 4 years and 4 months old Hereford ox; 10/. to Mr. J. Pinfold, proprietor of the exhibition ground for a 5 years old Hereford ox ; 5/. to Mr. Pratt, of Spilsbury, Oxon, for three fifteen months old long- woolled wethers ; 5/. to the Duke of Norfolk for his three two shear wethers, 3/.. Mr. Davies, of Chelsea, animal painter to Queen Adelaide, attended at Oxford, to lake por- traits of the best animals, for the Proprietors of " The Farmer's Magazine." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 135 ON THE AIWANTAGES RESULTING FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE NORWICH MERCURY. Sir, — The perusal of your account in last Saturday's Mercury of the meeting of the West Norfolk Agricul- tural Association, reminds rae of my former futile en- deavours through the same channel, to prevail on the farmers of East Norfolk to establish a similar associa- tion for that district. Perseverance in the most un- promising attempts is frequently rewarded by success ; and if you, Sir, will again favour me with a small space in your next publication, I will once more endeavour to call the attention of those who should take the lead in such matters, to the advantages which would result from the establishment of a large Agricultural Asso- ciation at Norwich, which might embrace all that part of the county not included in the West Norfolk Asso- ciation. The legitimate objects of such a society, viz. im- provement in the cultivation of our farms, and in the breeding and fattening of stock, obtained through the emulation excited by premiums offered for the be*t til- lage of arable land, the best management of pasture, or for the exhibition of the purest bred and handsonnest animals, are so well known, that it would be a waste of time to descant on them ; were it not for the ob- vious impolicy of devoting, as is generally the case, so great a proportion of the funds to rewards in the latter class, viz. the exhibition of stock instead of the former — the improved cultivation of the land. The latter I think should be the chief end in view, and with a large association liberally supported, it is easy of attainment. Rewards for the greatest quantity and best executed draining, by the occupier of a heavy land farm — for artificial manure profitably applied to light soils — for the greatest quantity of manure made under cover, or of land sub-soiled, both of course proportionate to the size of the farm^for the best management of pasture land — for the best method of keeping up fences, a part of practical farming for which Norfolk is not much celebrated— for essays on the above or other branches of husbandry — in all these matters, and numerous others, an emulation might be soon excited which would be of immediate advantage to the occupiers competing, and of ultimate benefit to the oicners, who ought to be the principal supporters of such associations. And in the premiums for stock, I would devote the greater part of the funds allowed for that purpose, to rewards for the breeding rather than the feeding of animals. — Not only is there generally less difficulty in deciding on the merits of pure breeding and symmetry, but in the best fed animals, whatever may be due to the grazier for his selection and management, yet, as early ma- turity must always be one of the leading points of ex- cellence, and as that will depend almost entirely on the breeding, a great share in the merit of the fattest ox, sheep, or pig, is justly due to the breeder of it ; and a second prize, where the funds allow of it, should be given to Lira, whether theexhibitor or not, a plan wisely pursued at the Smithfield Club. But there are other advantages in Agricultural As- sociations scarcely less valuable, and amongst them may be stated, the opportunities which they afford of bringing together the owners and occupiers of land on subjects equally interesting to both. I am not alluding to the discussion of agricultural subjects, which I think cannot be attempted with success at such meetings — they occur too seldom, and the time which can be spared from the necessary business after dinner, is too limited to admit of it ; such matters will be wisely left to the more humble but not less valuable farmers' clubs springing up in many districts. But the bringing to- gether persons in different classes of life, yet having the same interest, must be productive of benefit, and this leads me to the only objection I have ever heard raised against the establishment of an East Norfolk Agricultural Association ; viz. that there is in this part of the county such a numerous body of landowners, which is so equally divided in its political views, and that in the maintaining those views so much rancour has been and always is displayed, that no chance exists of obtaining the mutual influence of both parties in favour of the same object. Sir, I consider what has been mooted as an objection, is rather an argument in favour of such an association. Would it be no benefit for Whig and Tory Landlords to meet together on a neutral field where their only contention should be, that of conferring the greatest benefits on a cause pe- culiarly their own, and where the mutual combination for the same object would tend to smooth some of the asperities engendered by political feelings. But it is useless enlarging further on the benefits to be derived from Agricultural Associations in general, or from the one I am advocating in particular, unless I shall be told that Norfolk, the far-famed Agricultu- ral County of Norfolk, is too far advanced in the science and practice of agriculture to need such a stimulu*. I am fully aware that a district celebrated for good farm- ing cannot be expected to derive from such associations equal benefits with one notorious for the reverse, but has not part of Scotland through the stimulus excited by the West Highland Society already overtaken Nor- folk, and may she not in a few years " go a-head" if we shall refuse to benefit by the opportunities within our reach ? I believe much of the apathy displayed on such matters in this county arises from the high opinion it entertains of its own proficiency in agriculture, which opinion has been fostered and maintained by the character always given of it by other counties ; a cha- racter which has long been justly due to it, and which it may still deservedly keep if it be not now above pro- fiting by the information to be obtained and the stimu- lus always excited by well conducted agricultural as- sociations. Even if Norfolk farmers have nothing to learn, it follows that they must have much to impart ; and in such a case it would I conceive be no more than their duty to do this for the benefit of less scientific districts. The means are easy ; let a good association be immediately established ; let it put itself in com- munication with the English Agricultural Society, which promises to be of the greatest benefit to agri- culture, not only for the large sums it will be enabled to give in rewards for essays and in prizes for stock, but because it will collect information from the best farmed districts in this kingdom or even from the continent, and disseminate them in those parts of this country, compared with which Norfolk is indeed a garden. Were such a plan put in execution in East Norfolk, I have no doubt we should discover, that although we might impart largely, we should yet find some informa- tion we could receive with advantage. I am quite sure, Sir, that I am not advocating an impracticable thing ; let but the landlords take it up, and the tenantry will speedily join them ; many of the citizens, too, would I have no doubt patronize such an association by their subscriptions. They cannot feel indifferent to the success of any society which would tend to an increased growth of corn and meat ; and which would cause large sums of money to be spent in their city. Another advantage the citizens might look forward to ; remove but the apathy which now distin- guishes East Norfolk from the rest of the kingdom on agricultural affairs, and I have no doubt the result would be seen in a great increase of subscribers from this district to the English Agricultural Society. That body might then be induced to hold one of its annual meetings at Norwich ; and let any one make himself acquainted with the preparations going on at Oxford for its first annual show on the 17th July, and they will be fully satisfied of the immense sums of money which will be spent in that city, and of the benefits •which the farmers in that neighbourhood will derive from having the best stock and the best implements in the kingdom, brought within reach of a morning's ride, 136 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I must apologise to ynu, Sir, for the lengtli which my letter has reached, but the subject must be my ex- cuse. I always have, and always sliall, till the cause be removed, feel the deepest regret that East Norfolk, where there is the fairest field, should be almost the only district ia which there i« no association like that I am advocating. Trusting that my appeal will not be received with in- difference, I am, Sir, Your obliged and humble servant, RUSTICUS. June 25. P.S.— Every week adds a long list of names to the English Agricultural Society ; on Wednesday last 79 new subscribers were elected ! How many of them were from Norfolk ? MR. BLACKER ON THE CURRENCY. Wo have lately been favoured with the perusal of a pamphlet entitled " The Evils inseparable from a Mixed Currency," (for which see our advertising column), from the pen of Mr. Blacker, who is al- ready favourably known to our readers by his agri- cultural writings and reports which from time to time have been noticed in this Paper. In the subject of the present work, agriculture, commerce, and manu- facture are all equally interested, for they must all equally suffer from the violent transitions to which our present monetary system is liable. It is now apprehended the Bank Directors will further raise their rate of discount to 6 per cent., and if so, lOOi. in that case will produce the same return that 1501. would have done but a few weeks since at 4 per cent. Mr. Blacker argues that the prices of commodities must always depend, not only on their abundance or scarcity in the market, but also on the abundance or scarcity of money to purchase them ; and with such variations in the circulating medium how can steady prices be expected. Such changes make agriculture, commerce, and manufac- ture worse than the hazard table, J'or it is gambling without being able to calculate the cliances. From the modo of arguing by consecutive propositions adopted by Mr. B., it is not possible to give a just idea of his reasoning by any extracts within the limits of a newspaper ; but, we may shortly state in regard to one particular, for the information of our readers, that Mr. B. asserts, in direct opposition to the exist- ing state of things, that the circulating medinni ought always to be exactly in proportion to the extent of the transactions carried on through its instnimentality, and which, he argues, it would always continue to be, if the issues from the Bank were solely confined to the discount of commercial paper, instead of being in- creased or diminished by dealings in the funds, or in Exchequer Bills, in order to serve the interests of the holders of Bank Stock, which are often at variance with the interests of the community. As the means of correcting this evil, Mr. B. suggests, that Na- tional Commissioners directly accountable to Parlia- ment should be appointed to issue a national paper that should not be redeemable in gold, and that this paper should be made a legal tender in Great Britain and all its dependencies — the immense profit on which should go to the benefit of the nation in the reduction of taxation, and goes on to show the danger of hnv- itigthe prosperity of British commerce and manufac- tures continue subject to the financial operations of other States, as proved in the late monetary crisis in the United Slates ; and also the further danger in case of a war, that a run might be created on tlio Bank for the express purpose of forcing the Direc- tors to contract their issues, and injure, thereby, the resources and revenues of the empire. 'J'he boldness and novelty of these discussions may, perliaj)s, startle a little the cautious reader, but whoever attempts to set aside the arguments advanced, will, perhaps, find it no easy matter to do so. The conclusion Mr. R. arrives at is, that no more paper would be issued than the wants of tlie country in ordinanj times re- quired, because the National Commissioners would have no private interest to induce them to do so, and that in extraordinary circumstances, as at present, when there is a drain of gold to pay for corn impor- tations, there would be no necessity to contract the circulation, as the national notes are not made con- vertible ; therefore every thing internally would go on without feeling any of the inconvenience no«v ex- perinced : the importation of wheat would no doubt raise temporarily the Exchange, until the bonus thus offered would induce an export of our manufac- tures, and the demand thus occasioned would give wages to the operatives to enable them to buy bread even at the high price it might rise to, until a favour- able harvest should remove the necessity for further import, and rest)re the commerce of the country to its natural state, and tlie exchanges to their cus- tomary level. This offers a strong contrast to the present state of things, when the required supply of capital is cut off by the want of discount — when the manufactories are idle from the want of money, and the people are suffering from the want of employment, and no sign of any immediate remedy by profitable export. It would, as we have already stated, be impossi- ble to enter fully, in a newspaper, into the discussion which such momentous considerations admit of, but we trust we have said enough to interest our readers in perusing and judging for themselves of the merits or demerits of the pamphlet we have alluded to, and shall only add, we are much mistaken if the argu- ments and illustrations laid before the public therein shall not eventuallii be found to exercise a decided influence on the opinions of mercantile men with re- gard to the subjects brought under their considera- tion. In the mean time we venture to call the atten- tion of our cotemjioraiies to the discussion of this question, which is involved in Mr. B.'s reasonings, namely, whether the issue of paper if confined entirely to the discount of commercial bills, would not always regulate itself in conformity with what the existing demands of the community required, — and whether the great cause of derangement in the currency has not always arisen from the forced ex- tension and diminution of the circulation by the deal- ings of the Directors of the Bank in the funds, in Exchequer Bills, and other securities uncon- nected with commerce and manufactures. Mr. B.'s arguments are very strong upon this branch of his subject, and we are not a little anxious to see how the matter will be taken up by the writers of the City- Articles in ihe Times, Morning Herald, and Morning Chronicle. To us it appears from the perusal of Mr. B.'s pamphlet, that the public are at present by no means aware how much they are interested in thesebank- ing operations, and if Mr. B. is right in bis opinions, and his pamphlet should only have the effect of drawing more general attention to this particular subject, he will have rendered a most important service to the best interests of the empire, and with- out at present pledging ourselves to any decided opinion, we shall await with considerable anxiety to see what turn the discussion may take, being fully impressed with the belief that a more important question could not be submitted to public considera* tion, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13? WOOL FAIRS. LEWES WOOL FAIR. The Annual Wool Fair was held at the County Hall, on Saturday, July 20th. About 160 gentle- men sat down to dinner at three o'clock, the Earl of Chichester in the chair, supported by C. C. Cavendish, Esq., General Trevor, Colonel Elwood, J. Ellman, Esq., H. 131ackman,Esq., G. Molineux, Esq., H. Boys, Esq., &c., &c. The cloth having been removed, and the usual loyal toasts given. The Chairman proposed the health of the Noble Lord Lieutenant of the county, the Duke of Richmond, who, he regretted, was unavoidably absent on this occasion. This toast was drunk with great applause. The Chaiuman next proposed " Success to the Lewes Wool Fair." He should not, he said, trouble the company with any long observations upon the subject of the wool market; but leave that for gentlemen who were more conversant than himself with what was going on. But h3 could not help congratulating his hearers on what hehoped might be considered a satisfactory state of the market. It was reported that there was a brisk demand, especially for short wool, and he hoped that they would realize decent prices. One great advantage was that agriculture had been much more successful in this year than in preced- ing years. The best course on such occasions as this was to make them meetings of business ; for the more encouragement thei-e was given to buyers the more likely they would be to realize the meaning of the toast he had risen to pro- pose. His Lordship then proposed the health of Mi\ Legge and the wool buyers present. Mr. Legge, in returning thanks, said he trusted they had met under favourable circumstances. As regarded the state of the market, his friend Elking- ton, who had had more experience than himself, would doubtless be able to give a better account of it than he could. Mr. Elkington said he knew nothing which could give particular satisfaction to the company present. Mr. John Ellman having been called upon by the chairman, said he was sorry it was not in his power to offer any more information than that which was contained in the public prints. On ac- count of the pressure in the money market prices had been low, as it revived it might naturally be expected that prices would be better in projjortion. At Thetford m ool sold from 30s. to 40s. their tods, (17d. to 22d. per lb.) and he would now offer his wool to Mr. Legge at the same price he oflfered it last year, viz. Is. lOd. per lb. Mr. Legge refused. He would ask Mr. Ell- man what Lord Leicester's wool had fetched. Mr. Ellman said he had no objection to read a letter he had received from Norfolk. It was from an eminent agriculturist whose information might be depended upon. It stated that at Thetford there was a good attendance of growers and buy- ers, amongst the latter of whom however, a pre- arranged understanding existed. Lord Leices- ter's wool sold at 36s. and 47s„ that of Sir W. Folkes at the same, the Luke of Kichmond's and others at 50s. and 40s. Prices may be quoted at for ewe 36s. to 40s., hoggets, 46s. to 47s. per tod of 281bs. The Chairman said this information corres- ponded with what he had heard. He understood that the Duke of Bedford's wool had been sold at 42s., and that at Thetford one gentleman had sold at 44s. Mr. Elkington said it should be remembered that the Duke of Bedford's was all hogget wool. Lord Leicester's was also well managed, as was that of Sir W. Folkes. Some of the wool at Thet- ford fetched 363. and 47s. They sold their wool there at distinct prices, the hogget and the ewe, instead of selling altogether as in this country, where he dared to say they were not perhaps over particular about the proportion. Taking all things into considerations he thought 16§d. or 17d. a fair price for the usual average of ewes and hoggets. Mr. John King said, in comparing the Norfolk wool with ours, the whole truth ought to be spo- ken. It was well known that the ewe wool in Sussex was much superior. {Hear.) Mr. Ell:man said it appeared that the Earl of Leicester's wool had sold at 36s. and 47s. Now the Earl's sheep were highly crossed with the Hampshire, which were here thought much infe- rior to the Sussex ; and at least he thought it would be better to take the prices from that which they claimed kindred with. The Chairman said he had it on good authority that the Duke of Bedford got 42s. for both ewes and hoggets. Mr. Legge said, at Chelmsford, the staplers had bought at a price which they imagined would not turn out to be too dear ; but immediately after the Bank altered the rate of discount, and they found out that they had been mistaken. Besides the pressure in the money market, the northern districts were almost in a state of insurrection. From these and other causes there was a depres- sion in the market, and vast quantities of wool were now on hand in Yorkshire and elsewhere. It was for them to judge, whether under the cir- cumstances they would sell their wool or not. All through this year wools had been fetching a gi'eater price than would allow the manufacturers to pay themselves. I\Ir. Ellman had offered his wool at a price which he would not have thought of, if he had been acquainted with the state of the market. He would now offer JMr. Ellman 50s. a tod — refused. Mr. T. Baker oflered 436 fleeces, half hogget, at 48s. a tod. Mr. Legge offered 17d. — refused. The Chairman said he understood there was a gentleman in the room, a considerable manufac- turer, in the north of England— Mr. Aldron ; and he begged to propose his health. Mr. Aldron, in returning thanks, said he per- fectly agreed with the remarks made by Mr. Legge on the state of the market for wool and manufac- tured goods. There had been a fair demand ; but our gold was now in better request than our goods in foreign countries. The Chairman then gave the health of the County Members. Mr. Cavendish returned thanks. Mr. HoDsoN then offered 880fleeces — 225 of them tegs, at 48s. and 47s. Mr. Legge offered 46s. — refused. The Chairman said he had great pleasure in 138 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. proposing tlic health of General 'IVcvor, and kuc- ccss to the offer wliich he was no doubt about to niiikc of his wool. General Trkvok in acknowledging the toast, said he was the holder of a new article. His wool was neither ewe nor hogget, but all old wether. He now offered it to Mr. Leggc at 17d. per lb. — accepted. The Chairman next gave the health of IMr. Hod- son, who returned thanks. JMr. Blaker offered to Mr. Godlee at 47s. — re- fused. Mr. T. Hurst, of Eastbourne, offered his wool consisting of 47 i ewe, and 401 teg fleeces at 48s. Mr. Lbgge offered 47s. — refused. Col. Ellwood offered 10.1 ewe fleeces at ]7d. to Mr. Legge. — refused. An offer from Mr. T. Cooper of hjs stock (about one-third hogget) at ]8d., was also refused by Mr. Legge, who offered however, 47s. The Chairman then proposed Mr. Blacknian's health. Air. Bi-ACKMAN said, alluding to the immediate subject in hand, he must remind them that he urged the growers last year to sell their wool, and it appeared that he had not done so under an erro- neous impression. Mr. B. then alluded to Mr. Legge's account of the state of the market. First, he said, there was the tremendous pressure of the money market ; then there was the awful state of the manufacturing districts ; and lastly the extra- ordinary condition of the crops. He trusted that the complaints of the times would be laid aside, and that they would at once come to business. Looking at the papers he had imagined that they might have got 18d. a 11). However, to stir the market, he was willing to take 17^d. Mr. Legge refused, and offered 17d., which was not accepted. The Chairman then proceeded to read tlje awards of Messrs. Elkington, Legge, and Brazier, who had been appointed judges to decide between the competitors for premiums for the best fleeces, given by H. Boys, Ksq., of Waldershare, being the amount of a prize gained by him at the last \Vest Firle Cattle Show. The awards were as follow : — 3/. to the Duke of Richmond for the best ram fleece weighing 71b. 9 oz. ; 21. to Mr. R. Boys for the second best, weighing 4jlbs. The Judges stated that the latter though much lighter was of excellent quality and well managed. The second fleece sent by the Duke of Richmond was also reported to be very fine, and well managed. Messrs. J. Ellman, Putland, J. Drewitt, and J. Turner were the unsuccessful candidates. Mr. Boys, on his health being proposed, de- scribed the manner in which these prizes had been originated, and then proceeded to pass a just cu- logium on the character of the late IMr. John Ellman. To that eminent agriculturist they might almost say they were indebted for every fleece sent out of the county ; and he trusted that at some future time a monument would be erected to his me- mory as a beacon and remembrance to posterity. (Cheers.) The healths of the successful candidates were then drunk. JMr. Rushbridger returned thanks for the Duke of Richmond. Mr. Boys, in ac- knowledging the toast, said the only merit he could boast of was being possessed of a lamb of Mr. Putland's superior breed. He would show the animal against any, at Firle this year. The healths of the Judges having been given, Mr. Elkington returned thanks. Some of the fleeces were not, he said, washed so well as others. '1 his was an important point to be attendcil to. Mr. R. Boys said he had had washed the prize fleece with soft soap in a tub. Mv. John Ellman said with all deference he did not think that was a fair way of washing a sheep. Mr. Legge said it ought to be known that as to quality the fleece of Mr. Boys was decidedly the best of the lot, and if it had not been washed with soap would have weisjhed a pound more. Mr. Cavendish proposed the health of the Noble Chairman, which on the suggestion of Mr. T. Blaker was drunk with three times three hearty cheers. The Chairman said it was with him a matter of taste as well as duty to seek every opportunity of meeting his agricultural friends. And, if only as the means of bringing landlord and tenant toge- ther, such meetings and associations were of most beneficial effect ; and he had always thought that this benefit was enh.anced when other persons were present. It was not only to obtain a ready Tnarket for their produce, but it was a source of great improvement when they met parties who were engaged in different modes of life, and who were said to have different interests from theirs ; for, they would find, the more they met together, that instead of being different interests they were identical. (Cheers.) His Lordship then referred to the Oxford ftleeting which, he said, was an oc- casion of the greatest importance, and would, he believed, give a great stimulus to the industry of farmers, not only by enabling them to inspect the best specimens of cattle and farming, but moreover by bringing to the assistance of agriculture the science of the most gifted persons in the country. At that meeting not only was there an immense assemblage of influential and talented persons, but m^n of the highest scientific attainments showed that they were ready to make those attainments available to the interests of agriculture. {Hear, hear.) Several most eminent men had addressed the meeting, especially the professor of Geology, who pointed out the great benefit which arose from the application of that science to agriculture ; and the result of the meeting was that a professor- ship of agriculture had been established at the Universit}'. His Lordship concluded by express- ing a hope that on future occasions the business and attendance at the Lewes Wool Fair would increase. Gen. Trevor having proposed the health of Lord Viscount Gage, which was received with loud applause, the meeting shortly after broke up. During the afternoon 3Ir. ArkcoU, of Langley, sold 700 fleeces (300 hoggets) to Mr. Legge at 47s. Among the buyers present were IMessrs. Legse, Elkington, Brazier, Smith, Wallis, Goodlee, White Adams, Breach, &c. There seemed to be a pretty general disposition among the growers to hold their wool. Very few sales were effected at the fair, and we beard but of few private deals. THETFORD WOOL PAIR. This fair was held at Thelford on Friday, July 12, in a marquee pitched, as usual, in the paddock behind ftlr. Gill's house. There were about 225 persons present at the dinner. Sir William Folkes officiated as President, being supported on his TlllL FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 139 right by Sir Charles Clarke, W. Birch. Esq., T. R. Buckworth, Esq., and B. Caldwell, Esq. ; on his left by A Hammond, Esq., T. Coldham, Esq., H. S. Patric'ge, Esq., and J. Gwilt, Esq. Amongst the growers present were Messrs. Adams, S. and H. Abbott, Bryant, Bullen, Blyth, Buck, Bidwell, Bates, E. I5eck, AV. Beck, Cobon, Cook, Coo])cr, Denton, D?vey, Etheridge, Edwards, Fuller, Flower, Freeman, Fyson, Gayford, Griffin, Garn- ham, Hudson, Hobbs, Johnson, J. and H. Kins^, Kendle, Kersey, Lugar, Laiikester, Long.Muskett, Mathew, Maine, Manning, Overman, F. Paine, J. D. Paine, Phillii)s, Rodwell, jun. Read, Rogers, Reed, Rose, Robinson, Shillito, Simpson, Sergeant, Sewell, Stedman, Saul, Sparham, Tingay, Tyrell, Utting, Woodward, Webb, Youngman,&c. Amongst the buyers, Messrs. Fisoii, Gardiner, Jcftery, Mumford, Head, Baldry, Sheppard, Pymar, Bloom- field, Burch, Moyse, Churchyard, Best, Rlann, &c. The cloth being removed, the Chairman gave the health of " the Queen" — " the Queen Dowager, and the rest of the Royal Family." The CiiAiRAiAN said that to the nobleman whose health he was about to ])ropose they were indebted for the pleasure of meeting annually at Thetford : to the Earl of Leicester alone they owed the esta- hlisbmeiit of the fair; he (the noble earl) con- sidered that it would be desirable that the wool growers and buyers should meet together — that the one might receive the best prices for his com- modity— and the other should offer such prices as could be afforded. As long as the Earl of Leicester had been able to attend, he believed he had neve- missed a single fair ; and he was snre that on ac- count of his great age and infirmities he would be excused from giving his attendance henceforth. He (the Chairman) had pleasure in informing the company that the noble earl, though feeble, was in the enjoyment of good health, He needed not to enlarge on his merits, for all were well aware of his m?ny e:;cellent qualities, and of the obliga- tions which the county of Norfolk owed to him. He would give the health of the " Earl of Lei- cester" \\lth three times three and one cheer more. Mr. H. Abbott said that he was an humble in- di\ldual, and he knew that there were many present who were more competent than himself to acknowledge the toast in beha'f of the noble earl : but he would say that no man could possess a greater feeling of good will and affection towards another than he did towards the Earl of Leicester. If that nobleman was not present, the company well knew that his heart was with them, and he himself would say to the last hour of his life, what he bad often said before, that it was not only a happiness to live near him, but a real blessing to live under him. {Cheers.} The Chairman next pi-oposed " Prosperity to the Thetford Wool Fair." A. Hamond, Esq. begged to propose the health of the honourable bai'onet who had that day taken the office of Chairman. There did not exist a more useful member of society, a better magis- trate, a firmer friend to the agricultural interests of the country, or a man possessing more e.i:- cellent qualities than the hon. Baronet, whose health he would give. Sir W. FoLKES returned thanks. He did not he said, force himself into the chair, but Lord Leicester wrote to him requesting him to occupy it, and he did not like to refuse him, however conscious he might be of his inability to perform the duties incumbent on that situation ; it had moreover always been his determination, and ever would be, to occupy anysituation which his .Viends might consider liim equal to, and through the medium of which he might make himself useful to his neighbours and the county in general. The Chairman said that, as they were met to- gether for business, he thought it would be best at once to go to work. He wished he could con- gratulate the gentlemen around him on more fa\ourable circumstances as regarded the wool trade. It would be admitted by all present that it would be most unreasonable to ask such prices for wool as were obtained last year, for the manufacturers could not afford to give so much now. He had endeavoured to gain some informa- tion as to the condition of the manufacturers and the demand for wool, and he was sorry to be obliged to state that the manufacturing trade was not brisk. The state of monetary affairs had much influence in lowering the prices ; all must be aware that a great deal of wool in this country was bought with borrowed money, and, of course, it would make a difference whether a man had to give 3-J- or ^ per cent, interest on the amount borrowed. This however was only his individual opinion, and he begged that those present would not be guided by him. He considered it a great object, if that fair was to continue, that some samples of wool should be sold, and he had a com- mission from Lord Leicester to offer his wool at such prices as he thought would be given. Lord Leicester, in establishing the fair, wished to make it a place of business; he wished to sell his wool, and he would offer it at a much less price than he asked last year, but, at the same time, the noble earl was unwilling and so was he fthe Chairman) that the prices he asked should be considered as fix- ing the prices to be asked at the meeting. It was not necessary to describe Lord Leicester's wool ; they were well aware that it was of excellent quality, and he (the Chairman) believed it was better than was grown by any other person in the county. {Cries of "No, no.'") — at any rate it was as good. {Laughter.) They might laugh, but he had a duty to perform towards his lordship, and to try to get as much money as he could for his wool. There were about 160 tods of hog, and 130 of ewe wool. He would offer it to Mr. Middleton, who bought his lordship's wool last year, the hogget at 47s. and the ewe at 36s. Mr. Middleton accepted it. The Chairman said he would now offer his own wool. ]Mr. Waller, who bought of him last year, not being present he would offer his wool to Mr. Middleton, and as his lordship's wool was not so very superior {a Icmgh) , and as he himself had a good flock of Southdowns, he would offer his wool to Mr. Middleton, at the same price as Lord Leicester's. Mr. Middleton accepted it. The Chairman begged to propose the health of " Sir Charles Clarke." He knew not whether he was a good farmer or a bad one, but all were aware that he was a most benevolent man. Sir Charles Clarke returned thanks. He had, he said, left the laborious, but at the same time, the pleasing occupation of endeavouring as much, as laid in his power, in the metropolis of this country, to diminish the sufferings of his fellow creatures, and as far as was allowed to mortals, ta carry into effect the intentions of Providence to lengthen life. lie now came amongst them in the character of a British farmer, and he rejoiced in assuming that character. He was proud to say that there was no station which he might occupy in life more gratifying to him than that of being I. 140 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. considered a farmer in the coun'i,/ of Norfolk. JWit let it not be forgotten at that meeting of agri- culturists, that the science of agriculture, and the science of grazing (for they might he considered sciences^ owed much — very much indeed — to members of the profession to which he had the honour to belong. To an illustrious member of that profession (the immortal Harvey) they owed the greatest discovery which was ever made, that of the circi'lation of the blood ; to Dr. Parry, of Bath, they were indebted for some very valuable observations respecting the growth and qualities of woo! ; to John Hunter they owed the history of the free market; to Sir Everard Ilumc they owed that which perhaps affected the sportsman more than the agriculturist — an ex[)lanatory history of what used to he called the New Pheasant ; it might be considered a trifling matter, but still he hail made some philosophical observations on what might be called a mule bird. Pie l)rought these instances before them to shew that the members of his profession were awake on all subjects which tended to benefit mankind, and in- crease the value and extent of sciences in genera'. He concluded by again thanking them for the kindness he had received at their hands. Mr. MusKETT said that in offering the Duke of Norfolk's wool, he wished, before fixing a price for it, to be allowed to make one or two observa- tions explanatory of the reasons why he should ask a higher price than had been obtained by Lord Leicester. lie agreed with what their worthy Chairman had stated as to the monetary system ; at the same time he had reason to believe that they would have a shorter supply of German wool than they had had for a great number of years. He believed also that they would have a shorter supply from New South Wales ; he had a son in the Custom House there, and he stated to him that such worM be the case. Independent of this, he thought there would be a very great demand for wool. He would offer the Duke's wool to Rlr. Head ; he would not say it was better than Norfolk wool, but he might say it was the best in Suffolk. (Cries of " No, no.") There were 70 tods of hog, and 130 of fat and flock wool ; the prices for the hog 50s. and for the fat and flock wool 40s. jNlr. Head accepted it. Mr. Musket T next offered his own wool to Mr. Head at the same price as the Duke's. Declined. Mr. Stedman oflered his to Mr. Pymar at the same price as Mr. Muskett's. Declined. Mr. Head accepted it. The Chairman proposed "the better health of Mr. Fison." Mr. C. FisoN, on behr'f of his brother, acknowledged the toast. The CiiAiiiMAN proposed the health of an ex- perienced and practical Agi'icr'turist, " Mr. ilamond." Mr. Hamond returned thanks; he was glad to find that several lots of wool had been sold and accepted in a spirited manner. Last year he had the honour of filling the chair, and by this time of the day but little business was done ; in fact thei-e •was '' much cry and little wool." He that day an- ticipated a very difterent result — he expected that a great deal of wool would be transferred from the granaries of the growers to those of the wool- staplers. He supposed that last year he some how or other was unlucky enongh to create an un- favourable impression in the minds of the buyers, for not one had been to look at his wool— and having taken considerable pains with the wool and the sheep, he was almost heart broken. {A laugh.) He would oflcr his wool to Mv. Middlcton, who had been a spirited buyer, but he must bid higher for it than he did for his landlord's. He was anxious to sell, because many gentlemen came from a great distance to the fair— he wanted to see that fair made a market for competition ; they used to have but few buyers in the county of Nor- folk ; now he was happy to say there were a great many. Money was at present a scarce article, and wlien money was scarce wool was low. The matter now laid in a nutshell and the question was — is the collector to speculate, or is the farmer ? If the farmer did not choose to specv'ate, let the collector buy at a price by which he could get a fair profit. He, for one,jwished the buyer tj get at least Is. a tod by his wool, and he did not think that he ought to get much more. He would offer it to Mr. Middlcton ; there were 70 tods, about half hog and half hr'f-bred, and 10 tods of down ewe — the hog at .")0s., the ewe at 40s. Declined. Mr. Hamonu said he thought it would be a good plan to put his wool up by auction, and he thought he should go upon that plan, if Mr. Beck would put it up. Mr. Hf.ck said that not having given notice to the E.vcise he could not accept the order; he thought however that the suggestion was a good one, and he would, if he were allowed, offer his services next year not only to Mr. Hamond, but also to any gent'emen who might accept them. Mr. Hamond ])roposed the healths of " The Yorkshire and stranger wool buyers. The Chairman proposed the healths of "Messrs. Head and Middleton, and the wool buyers of Nor- folk and Suffolk." Mr. Head returned thanks, and said he might be incomprehensible, but he would say that if he sent out agents to buy wool he would take care that they shouhl take up their purchases. (Hear.) Mr. ]\IiDDLETON also returned thanks. Mr. Blvtu oflered his wool to Mr. Baldry— 200 tods of half bred, 35 of down, and 75 of down and owe, at 40s. for the ewe, and 18s. for the hog wool. Declined. iMr. Fison also declined it. Mr. Beck offered his wool to Mr. Fison — the hog at 50s. the ewe at 40s. — Mr. Fison offered 4.5s. and 35s. which Mr. Beck declined. Mr. Fison ad- mitted that he considered Mr. Beck's wool not in- ferior in quality to that which had been sold hitherto. Mr. Read (Bridgham) offered his ewe wool to Mr. Mann at SSs. Mr. Mann wished to know to what market he could take it to make a profit upon it at that price ? How could he even get the Is. a tod, which it had been said the buyers ought to get? He would give 35s. for it. Refused. IMr. Read then offered it to any gentleman in the room at 38s. to be packed within a month, and the money in the scales. He woidd offer it to Mr. BaMry at that price. Mr. Baldry declined it. Mr. Read afterwards sold it to Rlr. Mann at 3(;s. Mr. Freeman offered his wool to Mr. Beales at 48s. and at 38s. Mr. Beales offered 45s. and 35s. and Mr. Freeman would abate Is. per tod. Mr. Beales bought the wool at 46s. and 363. Mr. RonwELL, Jun. offered his father's wool to Mr. Pymar at 40s. and 50s. Declined. Mr. Head accepted it. The Chairman proposed the health of Mr. Birch of Wretham. Mr. Birch returned thanks. ]\Ir. Simpson (V/yken Hall) offered his wool to Mr. Head at 50s. and 40s. Mr. Head then ex- pressed his opinion that the Duke of Norfolk's THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 141 wool was 6d. a lb. and Mr. Stedman's 3d. alb. better than any other wool he could buy. Mr. H. Overman offered his to l\jr. Fison at 50s. and 40s. Declined. Mr. Gardiner also declined it. Sir C. Clarke offered his to Mr. Middleton at 47s. Declined. Mr. Hudson accepted it, Air. Saul offered Lord Beruer's wotd to Rlr. Pyinar, at 40s. and 50s. Declined. He tijen offered it to Mr. Head, who said that if it answer- ed the description which JMr. Pymar had given of it, he would take it. The Chairman proposed the health of Mr. Cold- ham, of Anmer. Mr. CoLDMAM returned thanks, and offered his wool to IMr. Gardiner at 50s. and 40s. Mr. Gar- diner said he would give him 45s. and 35s. Re- fused. Mr. Wrightup offered his wool to Mr. Fison at 38s. and 48s. Declined. The Chairman proposed the health of JMr. Buckworth. Mr. Buckworth returned thanks. Offered his wool all ewe to Mr. Jeffery, at 3(is. Declined. Mr. Woods offered to Rlr. Mumfoid his clip, at 48s. and 38s. Mr. Mumford offered him 45s. and 35. Refused. Sir C. Clarke proposed the health of Lady Leicester. The Chairman proposed the health of Mr. Partridge. Mr. Partridge returned thanks, and offered his wool to Mr. Fison at 48s. and 38s. Declined. Mr. Milne proposed the health of the Duke of Norfolk. Mr. M uskett acknowledged the toast. He was sure, he observed, that there was no individual in the kingdom, who valued more than the Noble Duke did, the interests of agriculture, or who had passed a life more devoted to it. He could not help thinking that if something like wool halls could be established at different places in Norfolk and Suffolk (say Lynn, Bury, Thetford, and other towns), where wool could be stored and could be examined by the buyers, more business would be done. He knew from experience that the York- shire buyers made the objection that if they sent down men for three months into these counties, they went to the best wool growers, and the answer was " We cannot give you the wool, for it is promised." Mr. Read CBridgham) said, if wool halls were established, the Duke of Norfolk would not get such high prices for his wool as the Norfolk far- mers would. The Chairman proposed the health of Mr. Caldwell. Mr. Caldwell returned thanks. Mr. S. Gavford offered to Mr. Head at 48s. and 38s. Declined. Lord Albemarle's wool was sold to Mr. Head a 50s. and 40s. The Chairman said that it appeared that there was but little chance of more being done ; he would therefoie drink to their " next merry meet- ing,'' which he hoped would be held under more prosperous circumstances. SUFFOLK WOOL FAIR.-On Tuesday, July 9, the Suffolk Annual Wool Fair, was held at the White Horse Inn, Ipswich. About 80 gentlemen sat down to an excellent dinner, provided tor tlie occasion by Rlr. Brookes. Sir W. F. F. Middleton, in the absence of the Earl of Stradbroke, occupied the ch?'-, and W!"s sunportcd on his right by Joshua Rodwell, Esq., and J.'jos?elyn,jun., Esq., and on the left by R. Shuldliam, Esq., and John Pretyman, Esq., of Ramsholt. Among tiie " buyeis" we noticeil filessrs. Alexander and Son ; Mr. Bu'ch, Tuddenham ; and Mes?vs. Revansaml Son, Yoxloid. Among the growers were Mr. J. Edwards, Woodliall ; Mr. Hm-wood, Polstead ; Mr. GoshuII, Bentley ; iMr. J. Brool<, Wenham : Mr. J. Stubbin, RaydoH ; ftlr. Sallows, lladleigh; Mr. Cook, Kirton ; Mr. Buylev, Brsimford ; INIr. Geo. Cobbold, Trimley ; Mr. J. Cobbold, N acton ; Rlr. Jas. Lay, Bentley ; Rlr. H. Collins, Westlcton ; ftlr. D. Gentry, Cliattisliam ; Rlr. T.Crisp, Gedgrave ; Rlr. Callin, Butley Abb(?y ; Rlr. T. VVolton, Newborne ; Rlr. Jon. Waspe, Gosford Hall; Rlr. G. RIorgan, Bramford; Rlr. J. Ranson, Sproughton ; Rlr. F. Huyle, Leiston, &c., &c.— Not a single tod of Wool was sold, the buyers all contending that the growers expected such prices as could net, without danger, be given. The growers held the con- trary opinion, and the consequence was, that no business whatever was done in the room. The Chairman offered Rlr. Burch his wool at 3Bs. for ewe, and 48s. forliog- gett. — Rlr. Birch declined. Rlr. Jo?h, Rodwell offered Mr, Alexandar half hogget and half ewe fall Down) at 42s. together.— Rlr. Alexander said he could not give in fairness more than 38s. 'J his Rlr. Rodwell refused. Rlr. C. Welton offered Rlr. Arcedeckne's wool to Rlr. Burch at 48s. and 38s.— Rlr. Burch decUned, but would give 34s. and 45s,— The offer was not taken. Rlr. Har- vvood, for Sir Robert Harland, Bart., offered Rlr. Alex- ander his wool at 33?. and 48s.— Rlr. Alexander de- clined. These were almost the only offers made. In the course of the evening a resolution was put from the chair, electing a committee for the purpose of ascertaining the fair value of wool, on all future occasions, before the fair commenced. This committee, being all wool growers, the buyers say that they fear the labours of the committee will not tend to satisfy the buyers. The com- pany broke up very early. At Epping Fair on Friday last, 7715 fleeces were shewn, and about 4900 disposed of, the average for ewe wool being ISJd., and for hog- gett 18id.; the highest price announced for the latter was \9M. per lb. ILSLEY, July 3.— At the wool fair held this day there were about 2,000 tods pitched in the bulk, besides a vast number of samples ; there were plenty of buyers, and a large portion was sold at about 3s. per tod less than last year's price. Teg wool sold at from 41s. to 43s. per tod, and ewe wool at from 34s. to 36s., and mixed wool about one-third teg, at from 3Ss. to 39s. per tod. The dinner was well attended in the barn, and some excellent speeches were delivered. W. H. Hart- ley, Esq., of Bucklebury, and Mr. James Palmer, were the chairman and deputy, who presided with credit and applause ; the former gentleman, who is a young and amiable man, and who has large estates in the county, performed the office of chairman to the satisfaction and delight of all present, and the two silver cups were ex- hibited at the table which were to be awarded to the largest purchasers— namely, one of the value of twenty guineas, purchased by subscription ; and the other of the value of ten guineas, presented by that excellent noble- man the Marquis of Dowushire, who has always been happy in promoting the cause of the occupier of the soil. F.Villebois, Esq., and Mr.JohnMathews,of Compton, were appointed stewards for the year ensuing, and there is not a doubt hut Ilsley wool fair will continue to pros- per, surrounded as the place isby extensive downs,where such large and numerous flocks of sheep are bred and kept ; for whei e will the purchasers resort but to the place where the commodity they want is produced ? It was not ascertained who were entitled to the cups when we left the fair. PERTH SHEEP AND WOOL FAIR.— There was not much business done — the depression in the wool markets in the south, inducing the dealers to ask a greater reduction from last year's prices than the growers were inclined to submit to. There were several wool staplers and agents from Lan- cashire and Yorkshire present ; but the chief business done was with the wool manufacturers from various L 2 142 THE TARMEll'S MAGAZINE. districts in Scotland, whose transactions were grtatlj' confined to the wool of the black-fnced sheep, or to crosses of that stock. For these latter, it will be seen, fully Is. a-stone was got above the price of the same at Invernes?, the quality of that grown in this county and the neighbouiing districts being fully e(iuivalent to the differenee in price. On this occasion the first sheep market was held in connection with the wool fair, but, as was to be expected, the stock shewn was chieHy of the finer crosses of the Cheviots and Leices- ters from the low country farms. Among these a few lots of Mr. Watson of Keillor's, and Captain Hunter of Auehterarder, were particularly distinguished. The former was offered 6d. per lb. for '200 cross-bred hogs ; and a lot of the same of Captain Hunter's brought 30s. a-head. Several high-bred Leicester rams of Mr. Watson's brought 2y/. a-head, and the greater part of those exhibited were hired for the sea.ion at from lOZ. to Ibl. each. The following may l.e stated to be the prices of the wool sold — per stone of 24lbs. : — Leices- ter bred ewes and hog:gs, 30s, to :!4s. ; Highland white, ]2s. tol4s.; Laid-Highland, t)s. to 10s.; Cheviots, unwashed, 14s. to 169. ; do. washed, 18s. to 20s. A superior lot of Leicester brought 35s., and another of Highland-Laid, 10s. 6d. DUNSE LAMB AND WOOL FAIR.-At Dunse fair, there was an unusually large show of lambs, •v\hich met wilh slow sale at from Is. to Is. (id. per head below the rates obtained at Yetholm. The best lots of bred lambs brought from 21s. to 22s. per head, while half bred lambs sold at from 14s. to iGs, In the wool market little business was done till towards the close of the day ; several large clips were disposed of at prices varying from 4s. to 5s. per stone below those of last year. Parcels of entire bog wool sold at about 36s, per stone, while those consisting of a mixture of hog and ewe, sold at from 30s. to 33s. At NORTHAMPTON WOOL FAIR there were quite as many samples as usual consisting of five fleeces of each sort — that is, of tegs, ewes and we- thers. There were also quite as many, or probably more, wool-buycj's than usual, but they declared the wool trade was in so uncertain a state, that they did not think it prudent to purchase largely at the grower's prices. The following lots were sold : — By Mr. Brooke, Potterton,of Boughton,484 fleeces, (258 tegs), 38s. per tod ; Mr. Hiilyard, of Thorpelands, 140 fleeces (50 tegs), 36s. (these lots to Mr. Mawby, of Bourne, Lincolnshiie,); Mx. R. Rogers, of Cooknoe, 2[)7 fleeces (165 tegs) 38s. ; Mr, Joseph Weston, Brixworth, 360 fleeces, (157 tegs), 36s, 6d, ; j\Ir. Battams, Hardings- tou, 120 fleeces, (40 tegs), 37s., (these three lots to M r, Padmore of Northampton) ; Mr. Charles Ivens of Cranfield, 350 fleeces, (155 tegs), 36s,; Mr, Wm. Callis, 299 fleeces, (172 tegs), 37s.. (to Mr. D. Jliggins, of Cranfoi-d) ; IMr, Saml. Pell, Ecton Lodge, 909 fleeces, (349 tegs), 36s. 6d. ; Mr. Harris, 390 fleeces, (150 tegs), 35s., (the two lots to Mr. Waters, Holcot). The ordinary was at the Angel Hotel. Be- tween SO and 90 persons sat down to dinner, C. Hill- yard, of Thorpelands, in the chair. The spacious new room was, after dinner, completely filled. The chair- man used his best endeavours to promote sales, but found the majority of the wcol-staplers were little dis- posed to purchase. Many more lots would most likely ha\e been sold, had the growers sent their samples without seeing which the wool-staplers were not likely to become purchasers. Although in a county like this, where so much wool is produced, the sale may be deemed very small, still the fair is of great use, every ■wool-grower in the county, after it has taken place, knowing pretty nearly the value of his wool, of which many would be at this time ignorant had there been no fair. Many persons regretted not having sent samples and have determined to send them another, and several declared they would provide themselves with packs, and scud their bulk to the fair, — Northampton Mcrcunj. BARNARD CASTLE WOOL FAIR,— The first wool fair, toll free, Avas held on WeJnesday, the lOlh TODS. Hargreaves 929 Viccars 346 ,Iuly, at ]$arnanl Cn^llc-. Tiie day being very wet, many farmers were prevented from bringing- their wool to market, so thv.t the supply wa-^ scanty. INlany buyers from various parts of llie county of JJarham and the JVorlh Riding of Yorkshire were present, and all the samples exposed, wilh the exceiition of four fleece*, were sold. JScolch wool averaged 6d. per lb., and country wool, Is. to Is. Id. per lb. Entirely on account of the weather, it was rather an nnfayourable com- mencement, but there is every probability of the next fair, which will be held on the 7lh of the ensuinij mon'li, being well attended. LEICESTER WOOL FAIR,— Two hundred differ- ent lot'^ of wool were pitched. At the earlier part of the day little business was done but towards evening the sale became biisk, and ^he greatest portion of the pitch changed hands. The prices ranged from 34s. to 363. 6d. The following are the number of fleeces : — 12,326 Ewes j 3,261 Wether 12,574 Hogs I 5C3 Sheets The three prizes given by the Hon. H. W. Wilson, were awarded, as in the previous year, to Mr. Benja- min Simpkin, of Hoby, and as will be seen from the following list of buyers, Messrs. Ilargreaves won the premium as the largest purchasers of wool pitched in the fair. TODS. Hcnrv RobiHSon , . . . 223 Mottiam 182 Higginson 326 1 Whetstone 151 Jacques 297 | And several others not exceeding 100 tods each. At about four o'clock, upwards of one hundred gen- tlemen adjourned to the large room of the Bell Inn, and sat down to an excellent dinner. The Hon. II. W. Wilson, the founder of the Wool Fair presided, supported by Sir F. G. Fowkc, Bart,; Col. Cheney, John Clarke, W. Dc Capel Brooke, Esqrs, and most of the distinguished agriculturists of the country, CUPAR WOOL FAIR,— The first long-projected wool fair took place on Thursday week, and was very numerously attended both by buyers and seller.-.. A'ery little business wa>, however, transacted in tiie forenoon, and those who were ignorant of the stapler's social practice of post-prandial purcha-scs were not a little disheartened. Eu.sintss was, however, opened wilh much spirit afterwards, and, before the final dispersal of the meeting, we believe almost every fleece was disposed of. One gentleman sold no fewer than 1,400, and another 1,000 fleeces, the top prices for which were 1/, lOs.; the averages were as follow : — Best half-bred hog wool, IGd. to Ib'.jd.per imp. lb.; Cheviot hog, do., 16d.; half-bred ewe hog do., 14d. to 144d.; all ewe do., IS^d.; cross hog do., 9d. to lOd.; black-faced wedder do., 8d.; do. ewe do., 7d. INVERARY WOOL FAIR.— This annual leading market for Argyleshire, was held at the capital of the county — the unequalled Inverary, ia as far as wood, water, and mountain scenery go— on the 19th current. Attendance numerous from strath and glen, including many buyers from a distance. About 350,000 sheep are fed within the district, which number divided by five, leaves upwards upwards of 70,000 stones of wool to be disposed of ; but as there are other markets and travelling buyers, so great a quantity cannot always be affered. Business upon the whole satisfactory, and prices equal to those of Inverness. Black-faced laid sold at 10s. per 24 lbs., and 3d. more declined for supe- rior lots. Black-faced wether lambs sold at 10/. per clad score, and thus fell a trifle from last year. Ewe wed- der lambs, 10s. 9d. each. No cheviots of consequence kept in the district. Black-faced wedders from 20s, to 24s, ; ewes ditto from 10s. ts 12s. 6d, The ordinary at Mr. W^alker's, as usual, excellent, but little time for convivial enjoyment. At the Fortwilliam market, held two days previous, wedders up nearly a shilling on the prices current at Inverness. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 143 AGRICULTUR/IL REPORTS GENKRAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JULY. In taking- into consideration, the stuto of the at- iHospIieric temperature, wliicli has prevailed during this month, in England, it is a matter of much gra- t'fication to find lliat it has been quite as fine and seasonable as could liave been desired ; whilst, com- paring it witii that noticed at the corresponding \n\- riod last year, we are decidedly of opinion tluit it has proved unusually vegetative. From the date of our last report up lo tlje piesent time, we have been favoured, o'most daily (if, indeed, those few occa- sions on which thunder storms, accompanied with heavy rains, were experienced, thereby laying a small poktion of the soil, in low situations, under water for a few days) with warm sunshine, which has produced a most beneficiiil and delightful eflect upon the whole range of the vegetable creation. The growth of all kinds of corn, but more par- ticularly of wheat, has been uniformly steady ; but we conceive had such been the case in June, that the forthcoming harvest, in some situations, vi-ould have proved better, both as respects qua- lity and yield, than will, possibly, bo gathered — since the impetus given to the crops, by the almost unprecedented rapid transition from cold to almost summer heat, was so great, as to induce some agri- culturists (although the land, in most of onr great corn growing counties, was announced as tolerably free from the wire worm, red maggots, &c.) to ima- gine, from the fact of the growth being by far too rapid to admit of the attainment of true perfection, without considerable danger arising of their being- beaten down and lodged by any gales of wind which might arise, at tliis, in eve.y respect, most impor- tant and critical season, not only to those imme- diately engaged in the cultivation of the soil, but, likewise, the community at large. Many patches of poor land, in our western districts, plainl)' indicate a deficiency of plant ; but, throughout the whole of Suffolk, Essex, and Kent, the growth of wheat and barley is remarkably fine, in which latter quaiters, the number of acres under oat cultivation is sm.dler than almost ever recollected. There is in vogue, an old adage which says that, " All seasons are of importance to the farmer." That such is the case, no reasonable person will be inclined to doubt, but we never recollect a periodi- cal one like the jiresent regarded by all classes, whether actual consumers, or growers, with such in- tense and, it may be safely added, almost universal anxiety as is the case at this moment. Should the harvest, now so closely at hand — it being expected to commence, in some parts of Devonshire in about a fortnight — prove as abundant as could be desired, the fearful forebodings so freely indulged in, for some months past, will speedily pass into oblivion, and the consequences attendant on last year's de- creased yield, soon recovered. If, on the contrary, it be found deficient, the pecuniary resources of this great nation will have another very severe trial to undergo — upwards of six millions of money, in hard cash (which ought legitimately to have been still in circulation amongst our own industrious classes) having been, since the commencement of this year, shipped to foreign parts, in order to pay for that essential commodity — wheat, and a considerable sum has yet to be sent thither, for that purpose, ere all the accounts can be closed ! Had it not been for the timely aid of the foreigner — for such we may, jiossibly, be allowed to term it in this instance — the jirices of wheat, of home growth, must inevitablv hxfe been exorbitantly high — higher, perhaps, than at any ]ieriod during the last wt^c.ttttit^ month. > o CAMBRIDGESHIRE. With respect to the prevailing demand, we have ^ince our last report the weather has been very to state that it has been quite as brisk as at the cor- changeable, consequently it has occasioned the hay 1. -If !• 1 time to be very tedious, and from the constant tlying- responaino; period of many preceding seasons, and , ^,. r •» i,„ i „ , „.,„i .i;<.„„i„,,,.^ i ^, ' » i^ . 1 1 1 ^1 , rr- showers, a portion of it has been mucK discoloured, that on most occasions, the dealers have taken off ^.j^jj^^ some has been stored in excellent condition. The prime beasts and sheep— of which, comparatively cuttins: of white clover has commenced; the crop is, speaking, very few have appeared on sale, at fair generally speaking, but a very short one, and has the prices - the priinest Scots having produced from 4s. appearance of having died away too quickly for a good 8d. to 5s. per 8'ibs. Store heifurs, cows, and tegs crop. The trefoil, on light land, is also generally cut, have likewise so!d at currencies deemed tolerably and some of it up and thrashed, and although the straw satisfactory to their owners. At least, two-thirds of '5 short, the yield of it per acre is not complained of. the animals of beasts, by steam vessels irom Scot- It is the prevailing opinion, as regards the quantity of land (which have been much smaller than f.r many corn in the hands of either growers er merchants that ■.v.^^.1 .\ 1 • . 1 (• 1 If r . t e it is considerablv lessthan lastvear, of aildescnptious. months past) have consisted of half fat steers, for ^^ ^^^ .^^^^ ■^, ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^.^^^^ which a ready market has been found. within these last few days, upon both heavy and light Irom the 1st to the '29th, both days included, the ^^^^^^ ^ considerable number of blighted heads ; from supplies have amounted to 11,498 beasts ; 162, ()41 come cause or other, the straw appears to die away sheep and lambs ; 2,380 calves ; and 4,103 pigs. f,om the root : some persons are of opinion that it is About ."^00 of the Sc(;ts and homebreds, which occasioned by the wire-worm at the roots, and as the have formed the above supplies, have come from injury is partial — some parts of the same fields beiiig Norfolk ; 2t'0 Scots and runts, from Suffolk ; 300 considerably worse than at othc-rs— it certainly has Scots, Devons and rui'.ts, from Essex ; 100 Scots, something the appearance of it : on some pieces, at Devons and homebreds, from Cambrido-eshire ; 1,600 least one-sixth partof the whole field is quite destroyed, short horns, from Lincolnshire ; 1,300 shorn horns ^'"'J "^'^ ears of almost all the wheat are very badly set, f. „ T • . 1- (ion 1.1 1 X and a ffreat deal broken about by the late Winds ; there from Leicestershire; 980 short horns and runts, """ ' fc . .{ _^..„„^ ,. , „' i,„, „ AT .1 .1- ,--,^ c. TA are small patches in sheltered situations which are bet- from Noitliamptonshire ; b.}0 Scots, Devons, runts, ^^^, ^^^^ ^^^ ti^j^ j, ^^t general. Some fields are look- and Jrish beasts from Warwickshire and Ox- ing very dark and suspicious, and do not appear to lose ford.shire; 60 Scots, by sea, from Scotland; 30 their flag, or their colour, so last as they should do; runts, from Wales ; 230 oxen and runts, from whilst ssme few forward pieces are looking well : alto- Sussex ; 110 oxen, Scots, runts and cows, from gether our opinion of the wheat crop is anything hnt THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 14; flattering. The barley, especially the late sown, has much improved since the recent showers, but this, like the vfheat, has a great many blighted ears in it, and which will shew themselves more every day up to har- vest ; this must injure the crop as well as the sample. The Oats appear to do well. Beans promise an abun- dant crop. Peas are fully an average. And tares, although some of them have maggots on the top of them, wh'ch w''i prevent the later pods J. •cm f'ug, are still considered a good crop. — July 26. YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JULY. From the commencement of the month to the present period the weather has been incessautly raining, scarcely a day has occurred without more or less rain falling ; the temperature has not generally, however, been low, nor, with one or two exceptions, have the nights been very cold. i*U descriptions of soils are drenched with •water, and the growth of young plants is quite arrested. The Cereal crops have all much improved. Tne wheat has shot with a large, .'all, and \'gorous ear, and the blooming is over without any damage being sustained. The wet and coolness are, we conceive, highly favour- able to the grains filling with farina, and if blessed by Divine Providence with an auspiciaus harvest, we have no fear of plenty of bread — the staff of existence. The Chevalier wheat has shot a beautiful ear this sea- son, and though generally thin, promises better than the " old slaipe," which is usually sown in th's county. Of course the harvest depends upon the weather en- tirely ; if it should come dry and hot it may take place in a month's time in the early districts ; but, generally Speaking, we may safely say it will be about the same as that of last year — a September harvest. The barley crop has improved, but it is th'n, never having tillered, and the straw is weak owing to its rapid growth in June ; hence, much of it is sadly lodged bv the rains which have fr'len, and will never rise until raised by the reapers; ♦berefore, reckoning the paucity of breadth originally sown, it cannot by possibi'Hy be an average supply. The old stocks are also absolutely exhausted, and high rates for barley may be confidently antici- pated, unless the " trimming" of beer witli drugs wholly supercede the use of malt and hops — a circum- stance by no means unlikely, from the depraved taste existing for deeply narcotic beer. Oats are promising better : they have much improved, and seem to be well studded with corns. Beans are unusually promising, and quite free from disease ; the blossoms are very bu- merous, and the pods are forming, nor have they ap- peared to receive any check. We stated in our last, that the turnip season would be a protracted one, from the state of the weather. Our anticipations were re- alised, and very many had to be sown during the com- mencement of the present month ; while the Swedes, and early sown white turnips are doing well, and mak- ing rapid progress; the late sown are at a stand, 'f not retrograding, from the combined influences of wet and CDolness. Bone manure is never so efficacious in wet seasons as in dry, and hence many acres are in an un- favourable predicament: the older plants are better able to resist the wet, and despite of it, make progress, except on soils very retentive of moisture. The season is now becoming late, and if the weather does not take up, several acres must perish. Potatoes are generrMy very deficient ; the stems are stunted and slender, and in not a few instances there are actual deficiencies. The want of moisture at the time of planting has ex- hausted the vital powers of the tubers, and some have never made their appearance : a full crop can by no means be calculated upon. The hay harvest has been a very difficult and trying one : the crops were exceed- ingly thin, and deficient of undergrass, aid when cut, scarcely an opportunity has been furnished to secure them. The same maybe said of the clovers. The clo- ver ii very deficient, and from the weather to which it has in most instances been exposed, it can be but in- dtiferent fodder. The season has been favourable to the development of the aftergrass. Pastures are much improved, but clover leys have been too far gone to be who"y resuscitated : for the last three years they have had such an expenditure of vital action to overcome the cold springs, that they have never been able subse- quently to carry the ordinary quantity of stock. Cat- tle and sheep are doing well on pasture, and the markets are beginning, for the first time, to be fully stocked, and as a consequence the prices give way. Lean stock are also less in request, or rather, lower prices have to be submitted to by the sellers. Beef runs from 6s. to 6i, Gd., prime 7s. per stone ; Mutton, 6d. to 65J. per lb. Corn markets are veiy languid, owing to the prospects of the growing crops, and millers buy very cautiously. Farm work is in a state of forwardness, and thrashing is about concluded ; the last remains of the stack-yards being generally in the barn, and few farmers but will clear up their stocks before the har- vest. Wheat runs from 8s. to 9s. per bushel; Oats, 30s. to 33s. per quarter ; Beans, 5s. to 6s. per bushel, —July 24. DURHAM. Since the date of our last report the weather has been very wet, accompan'ed with awful thunder and hail- stoiius. the rain jiouring down in toi.'ents. The crops have sustained iri-eparable injury ; turnips, and land upon hilly situations, have been swept away by tlie floods over hedges and into other fields ; a great deal ot corn is beaten down and lodged by the rain and huil, frequently accompanied with high winds, and at the time we write we have had three days incessant rain, with a high cold wind; under these circumstances we entertain fears for the well-doing oF the wlieat crop at this most critical period of its growth, when it is in its bloom. The harvest will now be a late one, and we are sorry we cannot speak so favourably of the wheat crop as we did in our last report ; since then we have had weather unusually severe for tlie season, and should it be of long duraf'on the result will be distressing in the exii'eme. Genial heat is now very much wanted, for tlie land is so completely saturated with wet, that with- out sun this most important crop will be subject to mildew and vai^ous other diseases. We dread the con- sequences of another bad harvest ; What would be the result of a free tvade in grain, when this last year's im- portations has produced such a panic in this country? It is our coined gold and not our manufactured goods tiiat the foreigner will take in exchange for his wheat. We are induced to form this opinion, from a belief that a free trade in corn would not only ruin the farmer, but# the manufacturer also. The wheat crop upon strong, well cultivated soils, promise great abundance, but upon thin clays and the lighter descriptions of soil it is very thin upon the ground. The stock of old wheat in the farmer's hands is unusually small ; it is a rare oc- currence to see a corn-stack standing, and should the importations not be over-abundant, higher prices are an- ticipated before harvest. Oals have much improved, and promise a full average crop. Barley is vailous, ia highly cultivated soils it is luxuriant and good, and upon all soils less adapted to 'ts growth, it is thin, sickly, and miserable. Clover and seeds are a defeciive crop, the rain being too late in coming to benefit that crop mate- rially, and the weather has been of that character to injure the quality in a greater or less degree. The hay harvest has been, upon the whole — from the prevalence ©f the late rains — tedious and critical ; besides, from the extreme high price of labour, and short supply of hands it has been a most expensive [i)rocess. We beg to take this opportunity of stating that in consequence of the de- mand and exorbitant price of men's labour, the women do not possess that relish for field labour they have been so long pre-eminently distingv-shed fer in this county ; in most of the country villages tlie women have been striking for an advance of v/uges, and obtained their deniiinds. The late rains have improved the pastures, so PS to afford a good bite to cattle, and stock of all kinds have grown badly, as in the early part of the spring, every thing was dried and parched up ; since then we have been deluged with rP'n, and prstures have not 146 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. been foody, and little beef and mutton has as yet been laid on. The grazier will have some ground for com- plaint. The e.-ii-ly sown turnips look as well an could be desired, and in too many instances are spoiling- for want of hoeinff, from the wet weather. Those farmers ■who had not finished turnip sowing before the 18lh of June, were obliged to wait three weeks until they could attempt to resume their labours, such being- the extreme ■wet state of the ground, and we should imagine a less breadth h?^ been sown in consequence, and great diffi- culty has been experienced in keeping the weeds down. It affords us the greatest gratification in being able to state that tl)e potatoe crop is every wliere promising; we have not seen a s.ingle failure. Beef and mutton are bearmg a very high price, with a short supply. We have had no enquii.'es for wool ; the market is in a de pressed state.— July 21.— DEVONSHIRE. (fROJI the EXETER FI.VI.S-C POST.) The favourable auspices under which the hay harvest commenced in this county received a serious check from the showery wcatlier that preccdeil tlie sun's at- tainment of its greatest altitude, and i)articularly ihe memorable thunder-storm of the afternoon of the 20lli of June ; frequent showers and a cold and ungenial state of the atmospiiere being the characteristic of ihc remainder of the month. Ihe hay put together during this period was in a very indifferent state, and some of it of little worth. We then had about a week of fine summer weather, the maximum of the tiiermometer on the 5tli July being 78, and hope once more sprung up in the bosom of the faiKner. In this brief period every tiling that the most unremitting industry is capable of was accomplished, and a great quantity of hay was cut and carried in tine order. I'he growing vviieat, barley, oats, and different descriptions of pulse, also showed liow essential to their perfection is tiie presence of I he sun, and a high state of the temperature. These pros- pects however, were soon again overcast, for on the 8th of July we had a day almost continuously wet : the thermometer sinking several desrrees, and the iiay har- vest being necessarily suspended. I'he 9th wassiiowery, and the maximum of the thermometer 70. From that period to this (the 20th of July) we have had no set- tled fine weather, the 18th and 19th being remarkable as partaking more of winter than summer. During these two days and nights it continusid more tempestu- ous, the squalls being frequent, and, as the results have shown, calamitous, — large branches of trees having been twisted off and scattered far and wide ; the wind during the time generally blowing from S. and E., veered also to nearly every point of the compass, and the conse- quences it is to be feared have been most disastrous, the crops of corn not being merely /«/(; by the force of the wind, but, from its whirling action, tha stalks, in many places are so twisted and damaged, as it is to be feared, will prevent rising again. With respect to the slate of the crops— in this county, neither the clover, eaver, nor meadow hay, turn out the burden that was anticipated, and looking to the state in which much has been put to- g-ether, and also considei-ing that rather large breadths are still out, it is most fortunate that the stock of old hay on hand is greater than has been for some years, which in the next winter is likely to prove of considerable value. The full amount of damage sustained by the arrowing crops it is impossible at present to estimate, but It may be observed that the early wheat is not so well in the ear as that which was later sown. This latter is generally well kerned, and, before the recent inclement weather, promised a fair crop. I'he barley is said to have shot up too quickly, and though previous to the 18th It promised a fair burden, the corn is likely to be small. Tiie stock of wheat of our own growth on hand, is limited ; as is also that of barley and oats, in which further advance has taken place. Cattle, sheep, and lambs, continue to do well, and the supplies at market have been good, and with trifling exceptions also, prices have been fully supported. From our orchards we had no reason to expect any great amount of produce, but even this, small as it was, is now very considerably di- minished, the few trees that bore fruit, being by the vio- lence of the late tempest stripped of their produce ; cider, therelbre, particularly the choiccrsorts, will fetch high prices. GLAMORGAN.SHIRE. The sharp frosty nights in the month of May, nliich committed dreadful havoc in the vegetable creation, was succeeded by fine genial weather at the end of that month and tlie beginning of June, but it was again succeeded by cold easterly winds. The last ten days in June and beginning of the present month proved fine and warm, and very favourable for the wheat crop, which wa5 then coming out into ear, and its appear- ance presented at that time a very gratifying .sight. Since the 7th inst. the weather has been very showery, nd at present it is boisterous with continued rain, and all the heavy crops of corn must experience serious damage. Although the wheat stood rather thin on the ground in many instances, yet previous to the present wet weather setting in, we had anticipated a full ave- rage crop, of which v.e have now some apprehension. The early sown barley and oats, also, promised weil, the late sown having suffered from the drought in May. The season altogether has been highly favourable for the turnip ciop ; the dry weather afl'orded a good op- portunity for preparing the land and cleansing it from weeds, and the recent rain came in good time to force the plant beyond the reach of the fly. Swedes, the cultivation of which has greatly increased siuee the destruction of all the common varieties in the winter of 1837, are looking well, and promise a good crop. Potatoes are an irregular crop, the seed not having vegetated in many places where they were set late, owing, as we believe, to the sets being cvit too small and the dry weather which followed. The hay harvest has been considerably retarded lately by the rain, and a large breadth still remains out. The crop of meadow liay is the thinnest we have had in this couiity for many years, and on that account mowing was deferred, in hopes of obtaining an increase of bulk. This delay is seldom attended with beneficial results ; the early grasses shed their seed, and the culms which ought to form the most valuable part of the hay crop is reduced to straw, especially after a little bleaching by the rains, besides the loss of fine weather which we usually get about the end of June. The corn markets here are re- gulated by the prospects of the ensuing harvest. When these are favourable, prices give way a little, and im- prove when on the contrary the weather assumes an unfavourable appearance. The stock of old corn in the growers' hand in this county is very small, and the samples brought to market continue extremely scarce ; the crop of last year proved so deficient, that a large portion of our corn mills have been standing still, the owners supplying their customers with Irish flour. The derangement in the money market has, by pro- ducing a scarcity of money, seriously affected all pro- ductive industry, and blighted the prospects of the producing classes. This extensive evil must periodi- cally spread its baneful effects as long as a gold cur- rency is persevered in. — July 19. ON SALTPETRE AS A MANURE. TO TIIE EDITOR OF THE MARK L.\NE EXPRESS. Sin, — In your paper of the 24th June, I find it stated, that certain farmers had used saltpetre as a manure for wheat, with great benefit. Will you be so kind as to inform me, whether it was used as a top dressing, after the wheat had appeared above ground ; also the price of saltpetre per cwt.? In so doing- you will much oblige your obedient servant, J. RAYMOND BAllKEH. FuUj'ord Park, June 5*9. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 147 AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. OVERTON GREAT SHEEP AND LAMB MAR-T was held on Thuisday, July 18, when a splendid exhibition oF stock took place, seldom or never witnessed on any previous occasion. Althougli the rain fell in torrents, the fair ground was thronged with dealers, who purchased freely at advanced prices of 3s. per head from the late fairs. JMany strangers were recognised ; and, had the day proved favourable, thero is every reason to believe, from the excited state of the gentlemen present to le;' n the announcement of premiums, that the fair next year will still present an unusual exhibition of stock for the prizes already announced for 18-10, by gen- tlemen in the neighbourhood. The judges were Messrs. Church, Christmas, and Ricks, who, after a very laborious task, in deciding on the stock of 41 competitors, awarded tiie prizes as follow : — Class 1. Sir T. Baring, Bart. — A Cup of 10 gui- neas, for 100 South Down lambs to Mr. T. Dowden ; also a Cup of 5 guineas for the second best. The Judges highly commended in this class a pen of lambs exhibited by Mr. Nation, as of very superior qu.ility. Class 2. H. Fellowes, Esq.— A Cup of 10 gui- neas, for cross-bred lambs to Mr. J. Twynam ; a cup of 5 guineas for the second to Mr. H. Twyn: -a. Class 3. W. Portal, Esq. — A Cup of 10 guineas for 100 Soutii Down lambs to ]\Ir. \V. Edney ; a cup of 5 guineas for the second to Mr. H. Pain. Class 4. John Portal, Esq. — A Cup of 10 guineas for the best 100 South Down ewes to Mr. W. P; ''n, Freefolk. Class .5. W. Beech, Esq. — A Cup of 10 guineas for 100 South Down lambs, the occupier not having any water meadow, to ftlr. W. Bunce ; a cup of 5 guineas for the second to Mr. W. Garrett. Class 6. Geo. Twynam, Esq. — A Cup of 5 gui- neas for 100 lamby, the stock of ewes not consisting- of more than 310, to Mr. W. Harris. Class 7. JMr. Beal. — A Cup of 5 guineas for the best coop of 10 South Down i-am lambs to Mr. Saun- ders. This class excited great interest, and the Judges highly commended ^lessrs. iMinchin, Beck- ingham, and Geaiing's lambs as very superior. Class 8. A Friend to the Fair. — A cup of 10 guineas to Mr. Dowden for the three best two-tooth rams. A coop of ten very superior ram lambs, exhibited by Mr. C. Edney, as extra stock, were much admired and highly commended by the Judges, who much regretted ihere were no prizes to award for extra stock. The decision of the judges gave general satisfac- tion, and the evening was spent with the greatest conviviality and good feeling. About 100,000 heads weie penned, the prices of which were as follow ; — Lambs, 18s. too7s.; Ewes, 26s. to 42s; Wethers, 2Gs. to 40s. and upwards. MR. JONAS WEBB'S PURE SOUTH-DOWN TUP SHOW.— Mr. J. Webb's thirteenth annual show of this highly andjustly esteemed flock of pure Southdown tups came off on Thursday, July 11, at Babraham, in Cambridgeshire. The tups, as usual, were arranged in a field near the house to the number of 120. We were glad to witness so numerous and respectable a company assembled, proving-, not only by their attendance, but by the spirited competition which took place in bidding for the tups, the high estimation in which JNIr. Webb's breed is held by his brotiier ag'iiculturists. No strong-er proof can be given of tl 's than the fact, that a two- shear tup, let to Mr. Gurney last year for 52 guineas, was let this year to Mr. Turner, from Susiex, at 74 guineas, and, but for a circumstance of purely an acci- dental nature, might have realised upwards of K 3 g-uineaj. 'i'he circumstance to which we allude is, that a gentleman was commissioned by R. Gurney,' Esq., to give 100 guineas for the hire of the tup for the season, but did not arrive until just after the sheep was let. JMr. Webb let, before dinner, 58 sheep tor up- wards of 900/., averaging about 16/. each. After din- ner, which took place in a large building, where we found every accommodation that the well-known hos- pitality of Mr. Webb could lead us to expect, he let about fifteen sheep besides. THORVERTON LAMB FAIR.-The supply of Lambs was large, and generally speaking, of excellent quality, both for breeding and for ki'Mng. Breeding Lambs sold at from 20s. to 3Is. Gd. each, and butchers' Lambs at from 16s. to 2S3., or from 6d. to 6Jd. per lb. Mr. Greenslade sold a very fine lot of 20 to Messrs.* Darke, of this city, at 1/. Os. 6d. each. Mr. Brooks, of Southraolton, had a lot of 16 which were admitted to' be the fattest shown in the fair; these were purchased by Mr. England for 28-. each. The show of Sheep was also good and all sold. Wethers fetched from 54d. to 6d. per lb., and fat twes frem 5d. to 5|d. Mr. Chap- man, of Sdverlon, had a very superior lot of 20 fat wethers, estimated at 90 lbs. each, and which were bought by Mr. England for 45/. 55. The demand for keeping Sheep was very brisk, and they realised rather more than fid. per lb. Mr. Reynolds, of Uton Barton, had a show of 14 fine rams, which were all sold by Mr. Hussey at from 5 guineas to 15 guineas each. Mr. Kingdon, of Thorverton, plso had a lot of rams of very superior quality ; one was let for 8 guineas, another for 6 guineas, and the remainder sold at high prices. Mr. Radraore, of Thorverton, also showed some fine rams, which commanded good prices. Mr. Hole, of Guttou, had a lot of 12 which -were bought principally by parties froEi Exeter. The supply of cattle v;as not large, nor was the quality very superior, being principally grass fed. The demand was very slack at prices from 9s. 6d. to 10s. per score. There were very few barreners, and the highest price given was 7s. per score. Cows and Calves from 11/. to 13/. 10s. There was but one couple of oxen in the market, for which 30 guineas were asked, but they remained unsold. MORETONHAMPSTEAD FAIR was, in conse- quence of the very heavy rain, but thinly attended, though among those who did attend a good stroke of business vvas done, both in the bullock and sheep fair, in the former were some piim>3 fat bullocks, which chang-ed hands at IDs. per score, good cows and calves also sold freely at very high prices. Sheep and lambs also met a brisk sale and at good prices ; the sales gene- rally that were effected were such as could not but tell well into the pockets of the sellers. ST. BOS WELL'S FAIR.— At this fair the supply of bred and half-bred lambs greatly exceeded that of last year, while in point of condition they were allowed to be superior. At an early hour most of the principal lots were, as usual, picked up ; and upon the?e last year's pi.ces were fully raaint-amed ; but upon lambs of an inferior quality there was a reduction of from Is. to 2s. a-head. For lambs of this description the demand was dull; and although sales, as was anticipated, be- came brisker before the termination of the market, still not a few lots were driven off without exchanging owners. Bred lambs brought from 17s. to 24s. 6d., but the general run vvas from 19s. to 21s. a-head. Half- bred lambs from \2i. to 19s. 6d. There were a few fat beasts presented for sule, but the show of grazmg cattle and cows was more than equal to last year, and the de- mand being good the whole were soon disposed of at former prices not inferior to those of previous markets. 148 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Several parcels of wool were tlLsposed of du.lng the clay, but at ii reduction of Is. per stone below the prices ob- tnined at Kelso market on Friday last. One lot, how- ever, consisting- of twenty-two score? of fleeces, beiong-- ing- to Rlr, Scott of Courthill, all half-bred hog' wool of very fine quality, was sold at 37s. a-stone. 'I'liere was a little business done in Cheviot wools, and we believe the following' were the pi'ices obtained : — White-washed Cheviot wool, in mixed parcels, from 29s. to 33s.; and laid ditto, from 19s. to 23s. a-stone. SHERBORNE SUMMER FAIR was the smallest known for many years, and was by no means well at- tended. The sheep fair was brisk, at good remunerat- ing prices ; fleshy wethers were in request, and sold at from 40s, to 50s. each ; poor ones from 28s. to 36s. Mutton from Cd. to 7d. per lb. Lambs were inquired p.fter, and all that was good sold quickly at from 18s. to 25s. per head. Ewes were not so brisk of sale, and very few were offered ; but nearly the whole of n'l de- scriptions of sheep changed hands in the course of the day. Fat beef was in short supply, but qrHe equal to the demand ; there were some veiy pood beasts ottered, the best of which fetched from 9s. to 10s. per score, but some quanti,/ rcmp'ned unsold at the close of the fail. No doubt the weather had some effect on the trade, as we never remember seeing so few butchers at Sherborne July fair in any pre\lous year. Of poor beasts, the supply of Devons, as regards uumbtrs, was good, but not so in quality, there being but few of prime quality exhibited ; those found customers at high prices, whilst superior old Cornish oxen and steers were a corapkte drug, and many were turned out un- sold. The horse fair was the smallest known for many years, and as the few exhibited were of the most infe- rior description, but vciy little business was done. There was a good attendance of wool-buyers at tlie fair, who showed some disposition to buy at from lo^d. to 16d. per lb., tlie sellers asking 17d., being a reduc- tion of Id. per lb. on the prices obtained at this fair last year ; buyers and sellers seemed firm at the above prices, consequeutly but little if any was sold. GARDENING OPERATIONS FOR AUGUST. If tbe fruit in the jiinery be all cut, let the old plants be removed, and the suckers carefully taken off and laid up to dry for a few days before pliinling;. Fork over the bed, .-'id mix with it a suthcient quan- tity of fresh tan or leaves, taking- care to keep the greater part of the fresh matter well down towards the bottom, and to bring up to the surface a Kuflicient deptli of half decayed tan in which to plunge the pots. When the heat has come up in tbe bed, select from tho succession jiits a number of tho strongest and healthiest plants for next year's fruiting; ex- amine tlieir roots, and if necessary shift them into larger pots ; give a gentle watering, and plunge ihem about four or five inches only, until tbe violent heat of the bed subsides, when they should be fully plunged to their rims. Give a good syringing over bead to wush otf the dust from their leaves, and at- tend to regular and moderate waterings afterwards as the weather and state of the plants may deter- mine. Air should be freely admitted in tlie day time when the thermometer exceeds 80", and at night tbe temperature ought to be kept up to 65° or 70". Young plants should be examined and shifted, and taken into the succession department after the bed has been prepared as directed above. The sashes of vineries and peacli-houses where the fruit has been gathered may now be removed, and applied to some other purpose, such as the ripening- of gra]ies or jieaches on the walls, or they may be laid up under cover if not wanted, 'i'he engine should be kept in daily operation if the trees are at r'l infected with insects; '''ft borders also will re- quire fre(juent waterings in diy weather. Attend to stone and greenhouse plants, and shift such as require larger pots. Cut dou i geramiums which have done flowering, and propagate by cut- tings. Stake, train, and destroy all kinds of insects. Propagate au.'culas by offsets, carna'-'ons and pinks by piping or laying, and herbaceous plants generally by cuttings of the stem or dividing the roots, and evergreen shrubs by layers or cuttings. Attend to the staking and i/ing in of dahlias, the training of climbers, a'.id the properly securing of all plants exposed to the wind. Frequently stir the si"-face of beds and holders with the hoe and rake; cut down all decayed flower stems where seed is not wanted ; remove all withered leaves nJ rubbish, and study nea'iess in every depar' nent of the flower garden. Evergreens of all kinds may now bo transplanted, but if the weather be diy water must be liberally administe'-ed to both root and branch. Trim ever- green hedges, rnd box edgings, if not done last month. The operation of budd'ng the different soits of fruit and ornamental trees may still be perfoi.ned, but let it be comjileted witli as little delay as possi- ble. Loosen the bandages of those that were budded last month, and rub or cut off : '1 shoots from the stocks of those budded last yea''. Continue to nail in the young shoots of wr'l fruit ecs as thev extend, -.luil push the leaves oversha- dowing the fruit aside, to expose it as much as pos- sible to the full influence of the sun. Go on destroying- wasps, black-flies, slugs, &c. Gather fruits of all kinds for preserving when d, y'. Plant strawberries, select the strongest plants, and give a good watering to settle the er"'i about their roots. Cut herbs when in flower, and diy them for win- ter use. Sow spinach, cai.-ots, turnips, and black Spanish radish about the beginning and end ; winter onions, parsley, lettuce, endive, and cabbage about the mid- dle; cauliflowers, Americn cress, and chervil about the middle and end of the month, and small salad every ten or twelve days. Transplr it celeiy, colewoUs, savoys, endive, and lettuce. Iloe and earth up the crops -already planted; thin,, weed, and stir the surface among i'M young crops and clear away old leaves, weeds, and all rubbish. J. T. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. A tenant of 300 acres, rented from year to year, has just offered an advance of 10/. iter cent, for a lease of 14 years. I have consented to grant a lease at a corn rent, taking his present rent and the tithe averages for seven years, to Christmas 1835 as the basis. Perhaps some of your corres- pondents will tell him, through your columns, which will be most for his interest — his offer or mine. A tenant quitting his farm at Lady-day sows his ■Wheats dry, that is, without pickling, in a country given to smut. Is the incoming tenant bound to pay for seed and labour, rent and taxes, for the land so sown, or only for tho ploughings ; and at all events ought not the away-going tenant to wait the result of the crop at harvest before he claims payment ? A Member of the English Agricultural Societv. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 149 REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF JULY. The corn trade during the last month, has been more than usually inanimate. In common seasons at the same period of the year, the weather generally governs the state of the market, the great holders of grain being always more or less affected in their oi)inions and operations by the prospects in ilie fields. This year, however, forms an exception to the general rule, for which tiio cause is a most legitimate one. The growth of wheat at homelastyear was so extremely deficient, both in quality and in quantity, that, to all ap- pearances, very little of the late crop now remains unconsumed. U'here arc therefore at ju'csent, few great holders of the necessaries of life, unless they be of foreign production, and the proprietors of foreign wheat, on which the duty has been paid for consumption in this country, are so exceed- ingly confident in the correctness of their specu- lations, that weather ma"kets, in no material manner at present, make any important impression on their operations. In tiie almost total absence at present of su]){dies of wheat from our home growers, they bring to mai'ket only such quantities of the finest descriptions of foreign wheat, as the actual cousuniption requires, Icnowiiig that with a duty of IGs. 8d. per quarter, the quantity of free wheat in granary cannot be materially increased, until a considerable improvement occurs in its value. 'J'here has latterly therefore been far less animation in the trade than ia usually the case when the harvest time approaches, for no im- mediate decline in prices of any consequence can be anticipated, even did the coming crop prove most abundant both in quality and in quantity; but on the contrary, various possibilities at all events, if not probabilities exist, that before the close of this year, great advantages may be reaped by those who at present bring their wheats very sparingly into consumption. The season is even in the most favourite districts later than usual. A late harvest in this country no doubt is not always attended by a deficiency in the crops, nor by a deterioration in their qualities, but still it must be attended with much danger, and the result not un- frequcntly is most ruinous. A late season exposes the crops tomany vicissitudes, and seldom indeed are the wheats in particular, under such circumstances favoured at tlie proper period with that portion of sun warmth which is so very necessary to their reaching that degree of ripeness on which the ■weight of the crop so materially depends. From the middle of October last year, to nearly the end of May last, we experienced nearly a continued v\ inter. Towards the close of May, the heats of summer succeeded to the colds of winter, leaving no interme(iiate space for the Spring. It is as yet too early to observe the effects of this unnatural state of the season on the coming cro[)s, although, no doubt, to superficial observers the appearances in the fields, leaving lateness out of view, just now are favourable. The early wl.eats however, in many places have produced little or no boom, and heavy storms of wind and rain have latterly materially affected large quantities where the bloom was in great luxuriance. Tliis hitter circumstance is not however of so much importance to the actual prospect of the farmer, as the total want of bloom is, for without that there can be no grain. The extent of land now under wheat cultivation is considerably larger than it was last year as is now the case annually, but the crop, although appa- rently luxtn-iant, is still thinner than usual on the ground, the straw is rather short, the natural con- sequence of the absence of spring weather, and it is too soon yet to form any correct opinion of the ear. The weather latterly has been too wet and stormy, and genial sun is now more than usually necessary for ripening the crops. This empire is never safe, in as far as the supply of its inhabitants with bread corn is concerned, unless the growers of wheat at home, at the commence- ment of the corn season, hold over from the previous crop, a quantity sufficient for the con- sumption of the people during the remainder of the year. It is not doing justice, even to the quality of the wheat crop in the best of seasons, to convert it into flour immediately after it has been carried from the fields ; indeed in the most favourable seasons, very small is the quantity which can be ground immediately after it has been gathered from the fields without a large mixture of old wheats amongst it. In a doubtful and late wheat season like the present, it is neither fair nor possible to calculate on any material quantity of the coming wheat being fit for the miller's use as soon as it is reaped, indeed the calculation, if any can be made, must be on the other side, and a larger quantity than usual therefore of old wheat will be reqinred for the consumption of the people during, at all events, the succeeding six or eight months ; and most certainly there is very little appearance at present of our farmers holding a quantity of the last wheat crop, in any way equal to the quantity which the regular consumption Vv'ill require, until the present year shall be con- cluded, and a part of the ensuing one shall have also passed away. We have now had a too fatal experience of the general evils of an unrestricted trade in wheat with foreign nations, during the last ten months, and there is not one class of British society which hiis as yet reaped the slightest benefit from freedom in the corn trade. We have already paid from six to eight millions sterling fof foreign grain in the precious metals. As yet nobody has received one solitary advan- tage from this state of things, for the importers of foreign grain have not gained profits more than equal to tlicir capital employed in, and the risk of loss, to which they have been subjected, by their corn speculations. The foreigner has not taken from our manufacturers goods in exchange for his wheat, a fact sufhciently establishtd by the ad- verse state of the rates of the foreign exchanges, and which, shoidd anything occur, detrimental in the smallest degree to the coming crop, may occa- sion much mischief throughout the country. Du- ring the last corn season also the farmers, from the deficier.cy in the produce of their fields, and from the circumstance of the prices obtained for their crops not being sufficiently high to remu- nerate them for the want of quantity, have not been able to support the txpences, to which in more favourable seasons they v.ere subjected, in the consumption of manufactured goods, and thus 150 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. has the late experiment, or more properly speak- ing, necessity of a free corn trade injured the manufacturer of British goods both in the home and in the foreign markets. If experience ever teaches wisdom, the people of this country have at present a good opportunity of learning the les- son " that what can he jjrofitablt/ jiroduced at home should seldom indeed be drawn from forci'jn co')i,n- tries." In the one case we employ producers who must be maintained at home at any rate, whilst in the other case we give encouragement to foreign producers to the great injury of our own. A stronger argument in favour of corn laws, protec- tective to our home agricultural operations, can- not exist than that which the present state of the British empire now universally places before tlic people. We wanted large supplies of foreign wheat during this season in consequence of the deficiency in our home produce of that article, and we ob- tained them in great abundance from various quar- ters, thereby contradicting the late theory that unless we received annually whatever foreign na- tions could spare from their own consumption, they would cease to grow more than their own wants annually required. Events have fully proved this opinion to have been not correct, as they have likewise perfectly established that there exist* little reciprocity in this description of commcrci.'l intercourse, for the value of goods of all descrip- tions exported to those countries, from which the wheat has been imported, has not increased, but on the contrary has very materially decreased during the last twelve months. Sliould a deficiency in the quantity of home grown grain annually oc- cur, we must soon cease to be a flonrishing and powerful community, and the greatest enconrnge- meut, therefore, should be held out to the cultiva- tors of our own fields to prevent the occurrence of a calamity of so much magnitude, for, unless agri- culture be prosperous, we have, at the present time, most ample proof that manufactures cannot flourish. It is alooe to the depressed state of agri- culture at home, occasioned solely by the elements, that the Manchester manufacturing labourer must attribute the limit at present in)posed on his days of productive employment, for the foreigners, whose agricultural produce he has now for many months consumed, do not take in return the pro- ducts of his iiidusti-y, and unfavourable circum- stances have prevented, and continue to prevent, the usual consumption of manufactured goods at home. It is, therefore, for the general benefit and public good that encouragement, in the most extensive sense of the word, should, at all times and in all seasons, be given to agricultural pur- suits at home, for this is the key stone to the arch of British society, which, unless it flourish, every other interest in the emjjire must sooner or later decay. Amongst political economists of modern days an idea has been entertained that certain de- scriptions of lands are too poor in their qualities to admit of their profitable cultivation, and there- fore that such pursuit should not be protected by law. Now, with our dense population, we are not certain but that the surplus of our labourers would be much more profitably employed in the cultiva- tion of land at present poor and in a state of per- fect nature than in manufacturing clothing for foreigners, many of whom are perfect savages, and for which the ])ay is most uncertain, generally de- pending on the supply of the precious metals at the settlement of accounts. It certainly would be an operation of far greater national importance that these waste lands shorUl eventually be culti- vated and rendered subservient to the wants of the people, than that they should remai n in their present state. It certainly will be a vast public benefit, for instance, when the proposed county Victoria is re- claimed from the banks of various rivers in Nor- folk and Lincolnshire, and two hundred thousand acres of land of the finest quality are thereby ren- dered useful, because productive ; l)ut under the protection of corn laws alone can operations of so much magnitude be undertaken. Tliese lands, when reclaimed, will produce of themselves as much bread corn as will support half a millioH of human beings, and they will continue to do so for centuries to come, an advantage of greater national importance than any department of our manufac- tures, most valuable as we certainly consider them to be, can, by any possibility, present to the com- munity at large. This, however, is only a small portion of the cultivation of which Great IJritain is even still susceptible, for millions of acres may yet be redcetned in various other quarters from use- lessncss and rendered subservient to the wants of mankind. Surely a free corn trade, if it was at- tended by greater benefits than even its greatest admirers profess ever to receive from it, can never be placed in competition with the advantages which must be the natural andcertain consequence of the gradual progress of agriculture towards per- fection. During the last forty years, or rather since the beginning of the present century, the average cons'.imption of foreign wheat throughout tlie United Kingdom has scarcely reached half a million of quarters annually, and surely a trade, so perfectly contemptible as this is, ought not to be permitted to interfere with those most salutary laws, which encourage and jjrotect internal land improvements. This foreign importation also is only necessary once iu half a dozen of years, and then it falls most injuriously on the standard of our circulation, thereby depreciating the wages of industry and reducing the value of every descrip* tion of property whether it be commercial, manu- facturing, or agiicultural. If however tlie corn laws, imperfect as they are, be of so much consequence to the prosperity of Great Britain, they are triply so to that of Ire- lund. There is an acknowledged superabundance there in the population, and a vast mass of idle- ness and of distress is the very natural conse- quence. The whole island however, presents an almost unvaried field for improvement, and for productively employing perhaps double the num- ber of its present inhabitants, numerous though they undoubtedly be, and even under the existing protective corn laws, the progress already made in the cultivation of the fields is almost incredible to those who recollect their state twenty years ago. Although, however, a great deal in the way of improvement has been already eft'cctcd, still what yet may be done is immeasurably greater, and of far more national importance. 'I'he im- provements already made there in agricultural pursuits, have for some years past enabled the oat growers there to supply the consumers in Great Britain of that article, with a quantity little short in value of three millions sterling annually, which sum is speedily again put into circulation at home amongst our manufacturers, and other productive classes of society. Had it not been for the agency of the corn laws, this sup])ly of oats must have been iuiported from foreign nations, amongst the inhabitants of which the money paid for it must have been divided, and would have deprived many industrious families in this country of productive THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ul employment to the extent of the money I'cmitteJ abroad for these oats. Much, as we have already observed, no doubt has ah'eady been done there in agiiciilture, but under the protection of tlie corn laws a great deal moi-e must speedily be accom- plished. \\'liat has been dene in oats will, in seasons of scarcity like the present one, be also effected in wheat, any deficiency in which that n)a)' occasionally occur in this part of the empire, may eventually be supplied out of the sur])lus pro- duce of that island, and the payment for it will be soon afterwards distributed among the industrious classes at home, giving to them employment of equal value, and not depriving them of the wages of their industry, as is universally the case when large payments are made for grain of foreign pro- duce, liut the occasional demand in Great 'iritain for Irisli wheat would not limit the consumption of it out of that island, nor put any stop to agricul- tural improvements there. The position of Ire- land for foreign commerce is certainly the best in Europe, and to many parts in America and to our southern jjossessions and colonies, would be export- ed under the anticipated improvements, in the cha- racter of fl.ur, large quantities of Irish grown wheat. Tills foreign exportation of grain would be repaid chiefly b)- the precious metals, as we have been obliged to do for our foreign wheat supplies, during the last ten months, and the Irish agricul- tural interest would thereby receive an annual in- crease to their wealti). This would, in a proportion- able degree, increase the consumption of, and demand for, various descriptions of British and Irish manu- factures, aud would speedily alteiwards become of immense national advantage. The necessity for emigration would eventually cease, for with the ■ i- crease of agriculture, productive employment, of every description would increase in a still greater degree, and would banish idleness, which is at pre- SRUt an evil arising solel3' out of necessity. Blanu- factures, mineral operations, fisheries, and in fact every department of industry would proportionably increase with the increase of agricultural improve- ment, and the empire would maintain its greatness, and add immensely to the prosperity and happiness of all classes of its nihabitants. This must be the result of firmly and moderately protecting agricul- tural pursuits, but very opposite indeed would be the consequences of an unrestricted intercourse ' i grain with foreign nations. As we have already mentioned, the state of the coming wheat crop is extremely uncertain. It is considerably later than usur", and the weather has been for some weeks rainy and stormy. The crops are not as vet far enough advanced to permit us to ascertain whether the cold and frosty weather in May last, and the general v.'ant of Spring weather in the usual season, has been attended with in- jurious effects to grain generall}^ and it will yet re- quire a week or two to ascertain its actual condition. The knowledge of one thing however must be satis- factory' at all events. The breadth of land in wheat this season throughout the country is consiilerably beyond an average. Still however from the best and most authentic information vrbich can be collected at the time of our go'ng to press, an average crop of wheat is as favourable an event as the farmers can, under all circumstances, anticipate, and even this must depend on the weather being genial in the ex- treme until the conclusion of a late harvest time. In this event prices may not advance before the end of the present year, but still no material decline can be immediately expected under even the most favour- uble aspect in corn affairs. The quantity of foreiga wheat, duty paid, in the country, is, at the present moment, under eight hundred thousand quarters, and that, under the Queen's Lock, must remain there until prices improve materially, for, at the present quotations, aud with the paj-ment of the existing high duty, to sell it would be attended by a heavy loss to its proprietors. As it must now be rendered perfectly evident, by the short supplies of home grown wheat latterly in all the markets of general consumption, that the stocks of this article now in the farmers' hands are small in the extreme, and that therefore their weight cannot be calculated to pro- duce any material effect on prices, this free foreign wheal will be all required to meet the usual con- sumj)tion for mixing with the new &c. during the remainder of the year, to make good the material deficiency in our own growth. Indeed it is more than possible that something more than what hrs already been entered for home consumption may be required, and in that event prices must improve so as to leduce the duty on, and to pay the cost prices to the importers of the quantity now in bond, and of that, which will yet be imported, before the winter renders the navigation of the Baltic sea dangerous. Ihe quantity of grain now on the passage, and to be shipped from various foreign places, is undoubtedly very considerable, but the wheat part of it, as we have already stated, cannot be profitably introduced into consumption at the present prices, and high rate of duty. Should therefore any additional quantity of foreign wheat be required to supply . our wants, beyond that already entered for home consumption, an improvement Ja value must occur even in the face of a wheat crop of average growth, and of a favourable alteration in the general state of the weather, for otherwise the importers must hold their property over at all events until some portion of the coming year shall have passed away, and until the actual state of the country, with resi>ect to internal suj)plies of grain, be accurately ascer- tained. Much, however, must now depend on the state of the weather until the conclusion of the har- vest, and public opinion will be generally regulated by this circumstance until that important period shall have parsed. Should it be favourable, an advance in prices .may perhaps be prevented ; but should it be otherwise, it is not possible to contemplate the consequences to the country without some fear being created for the peace of the community. To the damage known already to have been done during the cold and inclement weather, which was experienced previous to the middle of May last, we are almost unwilling at present even to allude ; we fear that it is considerable amongst the wheat ph its, but it is not possible to know its actual extent until the wheat ripening is frrther advanced than it is when we go to i)ress with our present number. The barley season is now rapidly drawing to its conclusion, and, in many of the barley distiicts, sel- dom, indeed, have the growers had a more profitable crop than the late one has proved to be. A conside- rable demand for this article had, since the last har- vest, arisen amongst millers for grinding purposes, and notwithstanding the produce of it in these dis- tricts, was at least a fair average one, still the prices obtained for it have been satisfacto.y, because they have been remunerative. The prospect of the barley crop in the fields is, at the present time, ra- ther favourable than otherwise ; and should the wea- ther hereafter become warm and dry, an abundant produce for the breadth of land sown n;ay be confi- dently anticipated. Respec:;ing its future value, there is also every probability that it will be main- f "aed at about its present rates, for the qur uity 152 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of malt nianufiicluied cluriiif;' tlio last season was not so hiige as usual, because of the price being- consi- dered too dear bv tlie maltsters, and tbe deficiency now existing- in tbe stock of old wlicat in the country must naturally cause, durinp^ the next season, a re- newal of tbe covisuniptiou of barley by ibe millers for tbe bread trade. Wbcn it is considered tbat barley, when manui'actured into beer and I'ritisli sjU'ils, j)ays upwards of one-liftb of tbe national expendi- ture, its vast public importance must be generally admited, smd to give due encouragement to tbe ex- tension of its growtb annually becomes an object of absolute necessity. We have frequently called the attention of the readers of tbe Farmers' Mu^uzine to the important fact of over ta.ialion ilej'euihtg the ob- ject niteiided to be gained hy il ; indeed we have so often done so, that the only reason why we again re- new the subject, is the conviction, tbat the evil can only find a remedy in the repetition of tbe complaint. Both malt and English spirits arc much too heavily taxed; and not only is the (piantity of barley jko- duced limited by this circumstance, but the public revenue itself is also dpfrauded by tbe same cause. The Chancellor of tbe llxcbeipier surely cannot bo correctly informed of the extent to which tbe trade of smuggled foreign spirits is carried on throughout this count. y, else he would, at all events, apply the only remedy which can efl'ectuallv stop this Exche- cheqner injury, — we mean, he would so far reduce the duty now imposed on the English distillers as to render the profits of tbe smuggler not ecpral to the punisliment and loss inflicted on him when he is de- tected ; duty would then be paid into the Treasury on nearly all tbe spirits consumed in tiie llnited Kingdom, the revenue would thereby be very consi- derably increased, and tbe morals of a portion of tlie peojde would no longer be contaminated by the abominable practice of smuggling, tbe great founda- tion of many of the crimes of the empire. By the reduction of these duties in England to tbe same scale as those charged in Scotland, a very important hoon would be conferred on tbe agricultural intc-est generally throughout the United Kingdom. This concession, added to the reduction of the malt duty from 203. per qr. (the present charge) to one of los. 4d. i)er qr., would create an additional demand an- nually for at least three millions of quarters of barley above the quantity now used in brewing and distil- lation. By opening this new channel of wealth to the agricultural interest, not only would the public revenue be considerably increased, but a most im- portant benefit would be conferred on tlie community at large. It is but too well established that the quantity of beer at present used amongst the work- ing classes is considerably restricted by its high price, and the want of adequate wages, both of which would be in part remedied by the jiartial remission of these duties. The increased demand for barley which this measure would cei tainly create, would require at least one million of acres of land for bar- ley cropping, in addition to the quantity -already in tillage for similar purposes. It would give produc- tive employment to thousands of agricultural la- bourers more than can at present find living wages for their labour. It would extend to numerous fa- milies the use of beer, whose poverty, under exist- ing circumstances, forbids the enjoyment of. In many instances, the alteration would improve their morals, by rendering them more contented than they at present are with their condition in life; and the public treasury also would be enriched by it, at the sole expence of the smuggler. Experience suffi- ciently proves, that cheapness nowhere increases the consumptioa of r'dent spirits. In Holland, for instance, tlieir use is not carried to any excess. In Scotland and in Ireland, since pi ices have been ren- dered moderate, and tbe quality very much improved by the reduction of the duties, at all events, there is an outward appearance of a very con- siderable alteration having occurred for tbe better in the morals of the people, and in Enghand the same effects must arise from the samo cause. 'J'o obtain articles, the use of which is prohibited by law, ii, and has always been, an immense object of ambition amongst all mankind, and was so, very lately, in Scotland in particular. When the duty on S|)irit3 there, was lOs. f)d. per gallon, a large quantity of smuggled spirit was used, and the eft'ect of it on the lower classes was very visible in their appearances. JVo sooner however, was tbe duty rendered moderate, than the desire for smuggled S])irits subsided, and soon afterwards entirely ceased, and although the consumption of duty-paid spiri has since been tripled, still most certainly, the samo quantity of ardent spirits is not now in use as was the case in that country jirevious to the reduction of the spirit tax. It is therefore most reasonable that the attention of her Majesty's ministers, and of tlie legislature should be directed to tliis most im- jjortant subject, for the reduction of the malt and British spirit duty eventually must improve the re- venue, and therefore the usual excuse made, in op- position to almost every public improvement cannot, in this instance, bold good, nor could the (^.hancellor of the l-",xchequer use it with propriety. During the month of July, a considerable defalca- tion in the supply of oats in all the large markets of consumj)lion, throughout Great Britain, has taken place, and an improvenient in prices has in conse- quence thereof occurred, the effect of which has heen the reduction of the duty levied on foreign oats, when entered for home consumption, to 6s. 3d. per qr. This is a fair duty on an article worth about 27s. per qr., and tlie British agricultural interest cannot be injured under existing circumstances by the admission of foreign oats into the mirket for sale on the payment of this amount of duty. Ac- cordingly entries of these have latterly been made to a considerable extent, and the consequence has na- turally been that a check has, in some measure, been placed to any further considerable advance occurring in this article. In Great Britain the cultivation of oats for several years now, has not been so much at- tended to as it had been previously, and the admis- sion of foreign oats for consumption is to the British farmer now, at all events, not of much consequence. To import this article, however, to any great extent, would — as it has been in the article of foreign wheat — be extremely injurious to the manufacturer, and generally to all connected with the internal com- merce of the empire. The chief p-art of its value must be paid for in bullion, a mode of payment to which our wealth even is by no means equal. The Right Honourable Sir R. VVilmot Horton, has lately published a small pamphlet in the form of a letter addressed to Dr. Birkbeck, on the corn laws, which, considering the high authority from which it has emanated, ar^d the liberal opinions of the ger=tleman to whom it has been addressed, must go far tore- move the many prejudices now in existence amongst manufacturers and artisans, generally, against these laws. 'I'he right lion. Baronet clearly demonstrates to them that wages must eventually assort themselves to the value of the necessaries of life, and tbat by cheap corn, they could not, in the long run, be any gainers. His ideas of political economy are philo- sophical, because they are perfectly practicable, and we are persuaded that the diffusion oJ this small tHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 153 tract amongst tbo members of the Mechanics' Insti- tutions must be a general benefit to Society. liis argument tends to prefer indust.y -.it home and in our colonies to thut of foreign nations, indeed his principal ohject is fhe productive employment of the inhabitants of the empire generally. The de- iiciencyin the supply of oats latterly, has solely arisen from tlie exhausted state n^Ith regard to this article, in which Ireli"id at this moment is placed, and this is certainly an event, as we have already shewn, which isinjurious to the interests of thework- ing classes throughout the country generally. It proves, hoivever, the necessity which exists, for encouraging the growth of grain of all de- scriptions at home, and in a very particular manner it corroborates the doctrines held forth in Sir Robert's intelligent ]iam))hlet on the subject of the corn Jaws. The last oat crop sufiered by the weather there in the same manner as the wheat crop did in Great Britain, but still the large supply which, since the turn of the year, has been received from Irelrid, affords ample jjroof, if any thing further on the subject was wanting, of the rapid progress which agricultural improvements are making in that island, and consequently also proves how beneficial the corn laws aie to the British community at large. The appearance of the oat crop in the fields is not nearly so favourable as that of barley is in the barley counties. Oats are thinly planted in the fields, and are deficient ip. that degree ofluxuriancy which generally attends all descrip- tions of spring grain at this season of the year. In Ireland where oats are a most important crop, the complaints of the growers on this subject, are almost general, but still a favourable alteration in the wea- ther may yet, in no small degree, remove those causes, which heretofore have occasioned fears re- specting the produce of the ensuing crops of grain (hroughout that ish id. Beans and peas of both descriptions of the last year's growth, have been now nearly consumed, and they have, during the whole season, commanded fair remunerating prices, a new demand having arisen for them amongst the millers in various districts where the mixture of them with wheat for the pur- poses of bread has very seldom indeed been jire- viously resorted to, unless when necessity required it. In the fields there is a fair prospect that botii these articles may yet yield an average crop, but they are later than usual, and are therefore subjected to the hazard of a wet harvest, as every other article of agricultural produce is at the present moment. The ro'ns, however, are proving in every way bene- ficial to turnips and to potatoes, the latter of which promise to be most abundant in quantity, and the quality excellent, a circumstance highly important to the community at large in all times, but more par- ticularly so, under the existing state of the United Kingdom. Hay is a light crop, but pasturage is now most luxuriant, and abundance of food for the cattle must be the natural consequence during the season. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAIi MEASURE, July 29. Per Qr. WiiKAT, T!:ssex& Kent. .red .... 68 72 Siiirolk & Norl'olK-,, .. 66 70 Irisli ,, .. 58 60 Old, red 70 74 RvR , old 40 42 BARi.KY.Orindiiii; 31 36 Malting 38 40 Irish .' 32 34 MALT,Siilfolk &Norl()lk 66 67 Kiiic;stoii & Ware 66 6S Tor Qr. Per Qr. wliite , Per Qr. 74 76 80 do. .. 72 76 do.... 62 64 do,., 76 80 new.... 44 46 Clievalier 42 — 15'ie... — 39 Prown .. 56 0(1 ClievaHer 68 70 Black.. Potatoe Small 40 36 iiiaiile., 42 boilers. . 28 38 30 26 26 26 26 OAT8,Yoiksliire&[iiiicnIiisl],feed 27 28 Pofatoe . .29 Yo'ishall&Cork black .. 25 25 Cork,\vliite24 Dublin 24 25 Westporl — (MoMmel 27 28 [,inicrick25 Loiirloiiderry 25 26 Sllgo...25 Kewry .,.,. 28 30 Gal way 21 22 Watcrloid, wliitc ,... 24 Scdtch Feed 27 ni:AN=., Tick ~ Pkas, (ircy 34 White 38 Sbkd, Rape 32/ 36/. .Iiish 25/ per last English Red Clover, line 64 70 80 96s percwt. Wliite 66 70 80 903 niiistard, White. 123 ]4s. .browi-i 21s 22s pevbiisli. Tares. .33 36 old 30 34. .new 00 — s per qr. Floi'h, Town-made 60 —..Suffolk ..52 54 per sk of Stocktou&NinfolUSO 52, Irish fines 52funr. 56 280 1b. Foreign Grain and Flour in Uo/uf. WiiE.AT, Dantzic 54 60 ilanihurg , 50 5S Haiilkv 20 .30 Oats, Brow 20 22 feed 18 to 20 Ubans 24 26 Picas 20 24 Flour, American pci brl. — 36 Caltic, 36 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Vhcat. I Barley Oatsl Rye!nfKii?|Peas 69 2 68 1 68 1 67 10 89 0 69 2 Week ending June Htli .. 21st .. 28th .. July 5th .. 1 2th . . 19lh .. Ai.'«regateAverr.ir( of the six weeks which regulates- the dtity Duties payable in London til! Wed- nesday next inclu- sive, and at tlie Outpovts till the arrival of the iMail of that day from London Do. on giaiw fioin British possessians out oi Europe .. i 0 Foreign Flour, 8s. 3il. per 1961bs. Sid.per 1961b3 SS 6 38 5 IS 8 4 10 0 6 0 6 26 7 41 4 39 10 38 10 £7 4i40 2 40 2 39 4 27 5 43 8 -lO 3 I39 10 27 5 47 340 5 '39 7 1/ li37 841 0 40 2 26 9 45 3'4I 0 ;40 6 I 27 1 6 6 9 6 3 0 3 0 11 0 3 0 0 6 British Possessions, do. Account shewing' the Quantities of Grain, Meal and Flour, imported into the United King-'loin, during' the month ending the 5th July, 1839 ; the Qu-antities on which Duties have been paid for Home Consump- tion during- the same month, and the Quantities re- maining' in Warehouse at the close thereof. Foreign Grain and Flour. Wheat from British Possessions Ditto Foreign Barley, do Oats, do Rye, do Peas, do Beans, do Indian Corn, da.. .. Buckwiieat, do. .. . Flour from British Possessiohs Dilt® Foreign Quantity Quantity en- tci ed for Quantity remaining in imported. consumption warehouse. qrs. bush. qrs. bush. qrs. bush. 173 4 285289 6 494195 2 40f)84 4 5H»3 3 92151 7 824 4 49062 2 7723 3 291234 3 12908 7 312 3 29056 4 7639 5 2811 6 19633 0 6348 4 1397 0 24650 7 2261 6 26-20 4 .. 3 cwts.firs.lbs. cwts.qrs.lbs. cwts.qrs.lbs. 21./5 0 0 2275 0 0 4646 3 9 52015 2 4 33921 3 11 32700 3 13 STOCK OF GRAIN, &c. IN BOND IN LON- DON ON THE 5th JULY. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans. Peas. Rye. Flour, qrs. qrs. qis. qrs. qr?. qrs. cwfs. 28,752 89,509 1,976 5,492 6,262 26,758 Cloversced, 18,711 cwts. 154 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVEllAGES AVERAGES from the by the Imp. Uuiirter, coirespondiiig Gnzctte from the Gazette, ofi Friday last, July 26, , 1839. in the last year, Friday July 27, 1838. Wheat 69 2 Wheat 8. (1. 69 1 Barley 39 4;Bmii-ey 31 8 Oats Rye 26 9, Oats 22 10 45 3 ' Rye 36 4 BicANs 41 0 Beans 38 2 PjsAS 40 6 I'EAS 34 4 SEED MARKET July 20. Theri^ were several samples of new Rapesced at mar- ket this morning-, the quality of which was mostly good, but it is stated tliat the quantity harvested is very smiill. , The facters asked high rates, which deterred seeds, men from buying, and no price can yet be said to have been fixed. Of Caraway seed there were likewise some parcels offering ; the yield of this seed is iilso badly spoken of as regards quantity, whilst the quality is vaiious. We did not hear of any sales, as the holders de- manded more than buyers felt justified in paying. There was some inquiry for Trefoil. We do not think however, that it led to any actual business. So little was done in other articles that it affords no scope for remark. CLOVKa EMglisli, red....— — wliite pcrcwt.|_ Dutch — — — — I § Oeniiau ) _ yB. French 5 | p American — — — — i ~ Trefoil 12 25 J Riipesoed. English .i3l ..f 36 foreign .f28.i30 per last. Linseed, Engrlish sowing.. — — — — per qr Hixltic — — cru^I^ng.^S 40 ,, ]Mediter.& Odessa— — 40 44 Hempsecd, small .'Jl 36 large 38 40 Coriander, new 18 20 fine 20 21pcrrwt. Mustard, brown 15 17 white 10 13 perliuslicl Turnip Seed new — — 10 18 ,, Rye Grass, English 30 42 Scotch 18 40 ,, Tares, Winter JSs Od to Gs 6d Canary, new 73 76 Caraway — — 48 50 extra higher Linseed Cakes, foreign. . .8/. to 8/. 5s. per ton. Rapcsecd do. do 5/. 10s. to 0/. WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. July 29. The trade continues in a very depressed state. The North country dealers and manufacturers are not in the market as purciiaiers to any extent as yet. Tliose farmers who have sold tlieir wool have done right PS far as the present slate of the market is con- cerned ; but the contingencies upon which the future prospects of trade depend, are so numerous and un- certain, that it bsfflcs ail calculation to decide with any approach to cerlaiHly, how tlie trade will turnout to bs after it emerges from the tempestuous and ill- boding storms with which it is at tiie present time quite enveloped. May it bravely breast the unwel- come waves of adveisity, and soon come out of the raging storm undamaged ! and under canvass flowing with a prosperous breeze, may it gallantly take its votaries into the long-wished-for haven of prosperity and wealth ! Perlb. 8. d. s. d. Down TecRs 1 5 j to 1 CJ ilalf-bred IlosB 1 5 1 6| E«cs and Wethers 1 3 1 3| BlanketWool 0 9 13 Flannel do 11 15 Skin Combing 12 14 LIVERPOOL, July 27. Scotch. — There is no new feature in our market ihi.'S week, everthing continues dull, and to c fleet sales in any class of Scotch wool would iiave to be at a reduc- tion on our late prices. In the absence of pesitivc sales we keep our quotations as before, but which must be considered in a great measure nominal, 'ihere is to be a large public sale of colonial and other wool on the 3I»t July and 1st proximo, when a large attendance of the trade is anticipated, and will have the effect of esta- blishing prices. Per Stoneol 241b3. s. d. n. i. Laid Ilighlan(4 Wool, from .... 10 6toll 0 Wliile do. do Laid Crossed do 12 0 12 6 Washe-l do. do 12 6 13 6 LiidChcviot, do 12 f. 14 0 W'aslieddo. do IS G 20 0 White do. do 28 0 30 0 Import this week 238 bags. I'leviously this year 3,472 do. Total 3 710 FOREIGN. July 29. About 1,800 packages of German, East India, and colonial— the latter including some very superior lots of 'J'asmatiian and Australian — wools arc announced for public competition at Gurraway's, on Wednesday next; WMi respect to the demand by private contract, we have to stale, that, notwithstanding the quantities of most kinds of wool offering are extensive, it is in a healthy state, and the prices are exceedingly well sup- ported. Imports, about 1,100 bale-;. Wool on which the Home Consumption Duties have been paid at Lomlon, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull, during the last week: — WOOL. Spanish, A,onf/on ., lb. Australian, de lb. Other Sorts, do. lb. Livcipool lb. firistol lb. Hall lb. This Year, previous to last week. 1.074,005 ; 4,987,541 /..■?7(>.079 5,977,769 23,300 7,566,415 Same time ill the last Year. 1,206 9.30 5,098.6n9 6,829,455 5,227, .36e 4,000 7,860,912 IMPORTS OF WOOL.— Quantity of wool entered at Hull for Home Consumption, during the week ending July 18. From Hamburgh • 698,002 lbs. From Petersburg 238,149 From Aarhuus 1,419 Total 837,570 PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, July 29. Our reports from the Hop districts aro as varisus as they have hitherto been, and though, on the whole, the crop promises to be a full average one, it must be par- tial. Our letter from East Kent to-day states, that the bines during the past week have made little or no pro- gress, that koney dew is showing itself in those grounds which were affected with vermin, and that a few fresh flies have appeared. The mould, also, which had been checked by the dry weather, has, since the late rain, again shown itself in those grounds most affected by it last year. The duty remains at 200,000. No business doing and prices nominal. Kent Pockets, 1838 4 0 0 to 4 10 0 Ditto clioicc, do , 5 5 0 — 8 0 0 East Kent pockets, do 4 10 0 — 8 0 0 • Su.ssex do do 3 10 0 — 3 15 0 Kent bags do 4 0 0 — 5 12 0 lS37s 3 3 0 — 3 12 0 lS36's. 115 0 — 2 10 0 >*S\'^1/ ■?'Av^ t SEPTEMBER, 1839- No. 3.-— Vol. III.] - [New Series. PLATE I. The subject of tlie First Plate is a Slioit-liorn Bull, " Duke of Noitliumberland," bred by, aud the Property of Thomas Bates, Esq., of Kirkleavington, near Yarm, Yorkshire. It is engraved from a painting by Henry .Strafford. The Pedigree of this animal as described in the Herd Book (1940 in 3rd v.) is as follows :— Colour roan, calved Oct. 15, 1835 ; got by Belvedere (1706), dam (Duchess 34th, page 356 of vol. 3 of Herd Book), by Belvedere (1708), g. d. (Duchess 29th) by Second Hubback (1423), gr. g. d. (Duchess 20th) by The Earl (1511), gr. gr. g. d. (Duchess 8th) by Marske (418), gr. gr. gr. g. d. (Duchess 2nd) by Ketton 1st (709), gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. (Duchess 1st., bred by Mr. C. Colling) by Comet (155), [this cow was bought by Mr. Bates, at Mr. Ceiling's sale, in 1810,] gr. gr. gr. gr. gr g. d. by Favourite (252), gr. gr, gr. gr, gr. gr. g. d. by Daisy Bull (186), [this cow was also bought of Mr. C. Colling by Mr. Bates in 1804,] gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. by Favourite (252), gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. by Hubback (319), gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. [bought by Mr. C. Colling from Stanwix] by Mr. James Brown's Red Bull (97). This Bull is now three years and ten months old, and gained the First Prize of 30/. at the first meeting of the English Agricultural Society, at Oxford, July 17th, 1839, as the best Short-horn Bull ; beating, among other celebrated Bulls, the Bull " Roderick Random," (see Plate, &cc., in the June number, 1839, of the Farmer's Magazine), which had gained nine first Prizes, and was never before beaten. The " Duke of Northumberland" has been successful on every occasion that he has been exhibited ; as a two years old he gained the highest Prize at the meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society's first show, at York, August 29, 1838 ; and in September of the same year, the highest prize was awarded to him as the best Bull of any age at the Stockton and Cleveland Agricultural Society's show at Stockton; and in October of the same year at Darlington, in the County of Durham, the highest prize was likewise awarded to him as the best Bull of any age. This Bull's own sister (Duchess 43rd), now in calf, gained the Prize of 10/. as the best short-horn year old Heifer, at the Oxford meeting, July 17th last, as well as Prizes at Stockton and Darlington last Autumn. These animals were by Mr. Bates's Bull, Belvedere (1706), and their dam, Duchess 34th (see vol. 3 of Herd Book), by the same Bull, Belvedere. We are informed by Mr. Bates that the ivhole of this family of short-horns are alone in his possession, and have been so for 35 years ; and were purchased by him of the late Charles Colling, Esq., of Ketton, in whose possession they were for 20 years, Mr. Colling having purchased the original cow from Stanwix. The live weight of the " Duke of Northumberland," July 1st, (two days before starting for the Oxford Meeting), was 180 stones, (141bs. to stone) ; on arriving home from Oxford, July 29th, 1839, his live weight was 152 stones, (141bs. to stone), so that he lost 28 stones in travelling 26 days — nearly one-sixth of his whole weight, thus showing how much animals lose by travelling. At ten months and at two years old he considerably exceeded the celebrated bull " Comet" (155) in weight. The Messrs. Wm. and Robt. Jobson, of Northumberland, are now using the own brother to the "Duke of Northumberland," ten months younger. It is not to be expected that any animal should be so perfect as to merit entire approval ; the owner of tliis Bull may however be perfectly satisfied to submit OLD SERIES.} U [Xo, S.^VOL. A7, 156 tllK FARMER'S MAGAZINE. liim to a comparison with any other animal of the breed.* No better evidence of the quality of Mr. Bates's stock can be adduced than the fact of his liaving obtained a prize at Oxford for each of the four animals which he exhibited. Mr. Bates states that this tribs or family of short-horns have always been distinjijuished not only as quick grazers, with the finest quality of beef, but as giving a great quantity of very rich milk. The Cow Mr. Bates bought of C. Colling, Esq., in 1804, calved at Ilalton Castle in Northumberland, June 7th, 1807, was kept on grass only, in a pasture with nineteen other cows, and made in butter and milk for some montlis, above two guineas per week. It seems that many old families in Yorkshire paid great attention to this breed of cattle long before Mr. Colling's time ; amongst them may he mentioned Sir Hugh Smytlison, the ancestor of tiie present Duke of Northumberland, who used to weigh his cattle and the food they consumed, so as to ascertain the improvement tliej made in proportion to the food cju- sumed. It is also stated that Sir Edward Blackett had portraits of his best animals hung up in the Hall at Newby, near Ripon, now the Seat of Earl de Grey, The family of Aiselby, resident at Studely Park, it is also said, paid particular attention to this breed of cattle more than 200 years ago. An inference has been drawn from these facts, which to us seems hardly warranted, namely, that the present short-horns are not a new variety, and that Mr. Colling (who is justly styled the "fatlierof tiie short-horns",) is only entitled to the credit of bringing the breed info notice. We would not venture to give a decisive opinion without having an opportunity of judging of the character of the animals 150 years since; but, wo entertain little doubt that Mr. Colling's stockwould be found very superior. * A large coloured print of the " Duke of Northumberland," liliiographGd by J. W. Giles, from a painting taken for Mr. Bates by the same artist, is publislieJ by Messrs. Fores, of Piccadilly, price 125. It is exceedingly well executed, and we recommend those who wish to possess a goorf picture of a good animal to purchase a copy. PLATE II. DECEPTION, Winner of the Oaks for 1839. (For Descr'qition, see i)ar/e 206.J ON THE COMPARATIVE MERITS OF SWING AND WHEEL PLOUGHS. In most enquiries that have been instituted wiih a view of ascertaining the comparative merits of any of the different methods practised by mankind in accomplishing a certain object, a great and almost insuperable difficulty has ever presented itself, in the strong and inveterate prejudices of men, in favour of the particular mode they h.ave adopted, and to which they have been accustomed. Be the subject what it may, we find in the writings of almost every author, a constant leaning to a one- sided view of the question, to opinions which have been laid down to him from earliest infancy as in- controvertible, in which he has grown up, and which future enquiry has in a very few eases only been able to overcome. Early impressions and habits derived from local customs, have a wonder- ful effect on the human mind ; the greater part of mankind are biassed in favour of some particular way of thinking, and of objects which the eye iias been constantly and uniformly accustomed to be- hold; and when these early prepossessions have once fairly got possession of onr minds, it rarely happens that any ])eison is able entirely to shake them off. A prejudice in favour of any existing mode or tiling, and a preconceived opinion for or against any otiier mode newly invented, or not yet seon, has in all ages constituted an almost insurmounta- ble barrier to the progress of t!ie human mind, and has retarded in a greater or less degree, every improvement that has been suggested for the benefit of the human race. Prejudice completely obscures our perceptive and intuitive powers, clogs our understanding, perverts our judgment, and renders wholly useless that reasoning faculty bestowed upon us as the distinguishing character- istic of our nature; no sound judgment can be exercised on any subject, nor satisfactory conclu- sion arrived at, where this pernicious propensity prevails : no dependence can be placed on the opinion of any man who allows his judgment to take precedence of his reason, and whose mind is wilfully closed against conviction. As mankind increase in numbers and intelligence, however, the fetters which we so willingly impose upon ourselves, are compelled to give way — reason in one case, force in a second, and necessity in a third, burst the barriers which ignorance and prejudice have reared, and as one is demolished, another is raised, behind which mankind shelter themselves, to be again driven out by the progressive motion of reason and moral force. Hence arises the very slow pro- gress made in our advances on the road of improvement, increased, no doubt, by many obstacles arising from physical causes, and the connections of the social system. It has always been remarked, that certain classes of society are less under the influence of prejudice than others, owing to the opportunities their station affords, of associating together, and of getting abroad in the world, to rub off the rust engendered by custom and habit. In our present day and constitution, it is con- stantly observed, that the cultivators of the soil are more biassed in their opinions, than any other class of society; and thougli there would seem to be no natural reason for it, yet there appears to be much truth in the observation. Confined from boyhood, first at a neighbouring school, and then occupied in assisting on the farm, the eye is accustomed to behold the same objects, the mind has no opportu- nity of expanding its views, and by degrees every tiling is concluded to be incapable of being THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 157 rivalled in kind or degree. I-t is true that many trials and experiments have been made, and have ended in nothing ; but that must be expected in all human speculations, partly from the mode of introducing it, and from the ignorance of the conductor. A time seems now to have arrived, when a better opportunity than any yet given, will be afforded to such improvements, and when we see such subjects taken up in earnest, by the owners and cultivators of the land, we may hope that the days of prejudice and ignorance are gone by, and that agriculture will soon advance as rapidly as any other art, and shake oft' the apathy, so long charged upon it ; and to attain this object, nothing can be better adapted then the disscussions now proposed by our agricultural society. In the following observations on the comparative merits of swing awd wheel ploughs, which subject has been proposed for an essay by the society, I shall endeavour to state without prejudice or bias on either side, the result of my observations during an extensive experience in the northern parts of the kingdom, and in the fiinty chalks, and waxy clays of the southern counties, as an ac- quaintance from practice with the different soils is most essentially and absolutely necessary to enable any person to judge of the fitness of any implement to cultivate them. The Scotch swing plough in its present form, made of wood and iron, has been gradually im- proved, from the wooden plough of that country, yet remembered by the oldest ploughman, with the wooden mould-board and sides. Wilkie has the greatest merit in improving it, and it is now made in different counties with a little variation, but in all, trie bended beam, wrought iron share, and cast iron mould-board and soles prevail. Little or no difference is thought to exist, between those made of wood or of iron, in performing the work, and they are now used indiscriminately ; they are universally drawn by two horses yoked abreast, in some few cases on stift' clays where a greater depth is required, a third is added in giving the winter furrow. This quantity of animal power is found fully sufficient for all soils in Scotland, in Ireland, and in England, till in our progress southwards, we arrive among the flinty and waxy clays. This form of plough makes very beautiful work, and is easy of draught, from the narrow pointed form, and is also easily guided, from the handles being com- paratively longer than the beam, in order to act as a lever. Their being now used for the purpose of drilling, very considerably enhances their value, as performing more purposes than one, and the model of the mould-boards is admirably adapted for that purpose, and superior to any yet known ; and a great improvement has lately been effected by having the landside entire of cast iron, with a sole plate screwed on below, the mould-board over- lapping the land side in front. In England we find swing ploughs of wood, with straight beams, and with cast iron shares, which are called " dry and wet weather ploughs," are suitable for three or four horses, and adapted for the heavier clays, and the chalky and flinty bottoms. On these subsoils, the cast iron share takes a better hold, than one of ■wrought iron ; and in such cases swing ploughs are much improved by the substitution of the former. In the midland counties we find the Derbyshire plough, made of wood, with a straight beam, with two wheels on the end, one running on the land, and the other of larger diameter in the furrow. The lands in that part of the kingdom, are clays and loams, and may be very easily cultivated, by any of the swing ploughs now used. The wheels on the beam are superfluous, it is not easy to see for what purpose tiiey are retained, for at any ploughing match that takes place, the prize is generally given to the swing plough. If a piece of lea or stubble may be as well ploughed by a wheel, as by a swing plough, the former are liable to the great objection of being useless for drilling, and two kinds of implements are thus required, which may be obviated by using swing ploughs. It may be urged that on clay farms, drilling is not required, but such cases are few, and even their wheels confer no advantage; three and four horses draw it in length, and in the double plough, as many as seven are yoked, all walking in the furrow, in order to prevent, it is said, the trampling of the land, and the making holes in it by the feet of the horses to retain water ; but a hole on a furrow inverted, cannot retain water, and the damage, if any, must be much greater from trampling the bottom of the furrow to retain water, by the feet of so many horses. These wheels must be retained merely to satisfy the prejudices of the farmers, and the laziness and obstinacy of the ploughman, for they are wholly unnecessary, on the principle that oLher implements have been found to answer more purpose^, without any wheels, and it has even been held as an axiom in the construction of machines and implements, to have no more component parts than are just necessary to accomplish the object in view, and that all parts not required are super- fluous and unnecessary, clog and impede the moving power, and add to the weight and expence. And it is an economy of the first order, to have no more implements on any farm than are required, and to apply them to a number of purposes, when by so doing, the purpose can be effected fully as well as by a greater expenditure. In many parts of England, we find the Berkshire plough, with a slanting beam, resting on a bolster, placed upright, on two wheels ; in this plough, the draught chain is low, and is joined to an iron rod which passes round the heel of the plough. These ploughs are liable to the same objections as the Derbyshire plough, of being useless for drilling, and all the soils on which they are used, are capable of bemg cultivated by swing ploughs : the reason of their being ietained,is, " that the men like them better," or some such frivolous objection. Swing ploughs differing in form, but constructed on the same principle, with straight or bended beams, and made stronger for more power on stiff soils, and vvith different shares and mould boards, to suit different circumstances, are suitable for all soils in Scotland, in Ireland, and in England, until, as I observed before we get among the flinty chalks and waxy clays of the southern counties. These soils are found only in some places of these counties, for owing lo the great diversity of stratification, we find in a short distance, sands, and burning sands, loams, and waxy soils, and hard gravelly bottoms, and clays of intermediate texture, Jl 2 158 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ill wliicli flints aie lliickly imbedded, cliiefly on or near the ranges of clialky hills, and it is on these two last mentioned soils, in my opinion, where the fair comparison between the swing and wheel ploughs is to be made. The waxy clays found in the low districts, differ much in composition, for on some fields, the iron swing plouglis vvill beat the wheel ploughs, while on others it goes too deep, or too shallow, owing to the tough nature of the soil, and if the land be dried in the spring, it is unable to penetrate at all; the lightness of the implement tiirows it out, and during the latter fallow ploushiiigs, and in seed furrowing, the viscous adhesive soil sticks to the mould board, and is carried along in large lumps, and falls off in heaps. The metal mould boards of our swing ploughs are too flat in the breast to throw off the ■waxy furrow, and though this defect may, and has been remedied in many cases, yet the adherence of the soil to the mould boaid of any plough, forms a great objection, the plougli does not clean itself, and the work is incomplete and unsightly. These lands are not veiy many, and it remains to be seen how far our modern system of draining, if ever they be drained, will render them more tractable. On the drier flinty clays, the wing of tlie share of the swing plougli, forms an insuperable obstacle to its penetrating them, and the bottom of the mould boardj standing at the usual breadth and depth, invariably throws the plough upwards, despite all the exertions of the holder; and on the waxy clays, the bottom of the mould board is not able to throw off the furrow, to make room for itself. On these soils, all swing and lighter wheel ploughs share the same fate, and our farmers yet use the Kentish turnwrist plough, and an im- provement of it made lighter, and wiih an iron bottom. In this plough the beam is slanting, and placed on two wheels, with an upright bolster, the drauglit chain passes from the axle of the wheels in front, round the heel of the plough, and is bent a little upwards by a chain from the middle of the beam. By reason of this bend in the line of draught, a part of the force applied is exerted in pulling the plough downwards into the ground, at the same time drawing it forwards by the heel ; the upright bolster in front regulates the depth, and the straight flat piece of wood used as a mould board, is moved from one side to the other, when the plough is turning, and lays the furrows all in one direction : the round flat pointed share is fixed in a circular chep, and penetrates between the flints, and into the hardest clays and chalks. On the lighter waxy clays, the flirmers use a sort of swing plough, with a wooden mould board for " lauding up," which by inserting a perpendicular piece of iron, with a flat sole in the end of the beam, constitutes the foot plough, contrived to help in regulating the depth by ihe iron foot in front. The superiority of the turnwrist plough, arises from the force being partly applied in drawing the plough into the ground ; from the narrow circular shares, and from the weight and strength of the plough, enabling the mould board to throw off the furrow, and make room for itself, assisted by its being placed higher from the bottom of the furrow, than in the swing ploughs. The principle is most just, but the construction is liable to great animadversion. It cannot for a moment be doubted that such hard and tenacious soils must be cultivated with heavier implements, and consequently require more moving power, yet it is also very evident, that the turnwrist plough is capable of improvement, and is both heavier and stronger than necessary; the great fault lies in its tearing and pushing through the land, instead of cutting clean, and consequently requiring more power to be applied. The wheels, the beam, and in fact, the whole plough, is heavier and stronger than necessary ; the breast, or cutting part, where the resistance take place, is round, instead of being angular and sharp, and though many persons, in cases of attempted alterations, in passing from the extreme of cumbrous and unnecessary bulk, have fallen into the opposite one, of useless lightness, and have been obliged to retrace their steps ; yet that common error of losing sight of circumstances, which must govern in all such cases, cannot for a moment be admitted as militating in any degree against the possibility of having an inplement constructed en the con- joined principles known to us, and so as to answer the purpose required. Trials made by inexperi- enced persons, and of sanguine dispositions, and who generalize too much on one principle, and who think that if success attends an attempt in one case, it must do so in all, overlooking as unworthy of attention, the different circumstances on which the whole matter hinges, have only served to rivet the firmer, the prejudices of custom and habit, and to strengthen tiie conclusion, that no beneficial alteration can be made. But experience in other matters, overthrows this conclusion, and though no very decided improvement has been made for some time on these cumbrous, but useful implements, we are not to infer that none is capable of being made. We often find hard and compact subsoils of gravels and chalks, mixed with sand and stones, on which loamy turnip soils, and lighter clays are incumbent, and which our swing ploughs very easily cultivate ; m such cases a cast iron share is preferable to one of wrought iron, for in a few hours, the latter is rounded on the under side of the point, and the plough requues too much forcing from the muzzle to keep a hold of the ground; the cast iron share, on the contrary wears thin and sharp so long as it lasts : and hence arises the advantage over the wrought iron, which wears thicker. It is attempted at present to apply to the swing plough, a part of the force to pull the plough into the ground, by turning the muzzle downwards, and passing the draught chain from it to the beam behind the coulter hole, where a plate of iron is fixed, and divided into notches, iu which to insert the chain ; but it is evident that this power will tend in cases of very stubborn resistance, to raise the heel, and depress too much the point of the plough, — the implement itself is too light for that purpose, and very inferior to the turnwrist plough, which is drawn forwards in a level manner from the heel. It is well known that not even the smallest deviation from the straight line of traction can be made in the application of force, without losing power ; but in the present case, the loss seems to be unavoidable, and in the absence of any better principle, we must adopt the best that THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 159 is known, and use it till time, experience, and observation, science, or ingenuity find us a better. Adopting the principle in the turnwrist plougii, of the force pidling forwards, and partly down- wards, and also the slanting beam, wheels, and bolster, the round share, and the wooden mould board, to whicii the «axy soil does not so much adhere as to oast iron, we migiit join to it the pointed and clean cutting angular form of the swing plough, cautiously avoiding the reducing the weight and strength of the implement too much, so as to render it unequal to the stiffness of the soil, and disproportionate to the weight of animal power, for both the strength and weight must ever be proportioned to the resistance to be overcome, and to the force applied. The turnwrist plough provided with a broad thin share, with a side plate, to throw off the furrow, forms an excellent paring plough, with which no swing plough can contend, and thus mounted is capable of paring and skimming bean and ])ea stubbles, or any other where top weeds abound. The beam resting on the bolster, regulates the depth, the bend in the line of draught, the weight of the plough itself, and the lengtli of the sole or bottom, imparta steadiness which no other plough possesses. 1 am speakingof strongsoils; on lighlerlands, lighter implements may be eligible, but even there a little more weight and animal power may be profitably applied, to produce more perfect work. Many of these soils are capable of being cultivated by swing ploughs, after being broken up and reduced by a regular rotation ; while others are so hard, stiff, and waxy, that lighter ploughs are notable at any time to plough them, with the exception of seed furrowing, and ridging up, for which purposes svi'ing plouglis of some kind must be used ; other soils something similar, but of a lighter and drier nature, may be cultivated at any time by swing ploughs, made of sufficient strength for three or four horses, as need may require. Some writers have asserted that swing ploughs are capable of cultivating all the soils L have men- tioned, except at certain seasons, and that to plough them at limes, when swing-ploughs cannot work, is a misapplication of labour, and a doing of harm in place of good. My experience has induced me to doubt this proposition, if not the abstract truUi, at least, the possible application of it ; I could never find them in tiiat state, the transition from wet to dry being much too quick to allow advantage being taken of it, and " if " such lands become in a fit state to be ploughed all at one time, the means of the farmer will be overpowered ; in awkward seasons, the proper state never may occur, and the farmer may wait and lose all oppor- tunities. In wet seasons, tiie waxy adhesiveness is increased, in dry, they harden into huge blocks, and in both cases, the flints are always there, and bid defiance to the swing plough. It has been urged that such lands should not be cultivated at all ; a consideration foreign to the present subject ; if they be not cultivated, we will lose some good wheat soils. A most erroneous opinion has been entertained and very confidently promulgated by the Scotch writers and farmers, and by our northern cultivators in general, that no soils can be found which a swing plough which two good horses cannot cultivate. Tiiis opinion has arisen from ignorance of the soils alluded to, and from that generalizing principle which supposes success in every case of similar application, without knowing or considering the nature of the resistance that may be offered to the proposed means of overcoming it. Reasoning from analogy, has in that and in many other cases led to the most fallacious results ; and our northern cultivators having been eminently successful in cultivating with two horse swing ploughs, every variety of soil in that part of the kingdom, have drawn the conclusion, very common in the un- thinking world, that they would be equally successful whenever, and under whatever circum- stances they might be applied. Two contemporary writers of great experience and authority, and the most eminent cultivators of their day, the one in East Lothian, and the other in Kent, published their opinions on the subject, and have wandered equally far from the truth, the one in asserting that two horses can plough any soils, and the otiier in stating that the turnwrist plough is the very best yet found for all soils whatever. The clays in Scotland, and in the North and West of England, are widely different from the clays in the south and south western counties, and a hasty glance at the latter during a visit, or a hasty drive through these counties, is by no means sufficient to convince any person, without a trial in cultivating them at the different seasons of the year, more especially as most persons go there with a pre-judged opinion. A very short trial would soon have convinced the Scotch writer of his mistake; and on the other hand to cultivate sands and loams, and clayey loams with tuinwrist ploughs, is preposterous, laying wholly aside the utility of drilling. No better evidence than the respective opinions of these two writers, and very eminent practitioners, can be adduced to illustrate the observations I have made in the introduction, that most men, even those at the head of a profession, are biassed in favour of a mode or custom they have adopted, and to which they have been accustomed. Agieat part of the soils now cultivated by these heavy ploughs, are capable of being cultivated by swing ploughs, but in the southern counties it so happens from tiie near and great diversity of stratification, that many farms are composed of very opposite soils, and consequently would entail upon the farmers the expence of buying and upholding two kinds of implements, and finding the wheel- plough indispensable, he goes on with it, sowing broad cast, and drills none. This division of the land, however is judicious enough, that wheat and turnip soils may be more profitably used together. The cumbrous plough and four horses are thus put to cultivate sands and loams, where swing ploughs may be substituted with great advantage. An evident misapplication of power takes place, and it is surprising that it should still be continued, notwithstanding the long established proofs of the contrary. The recent improvement in our modern system of tile draining, of cutting the drains across or aslant, as the fall of the ground directs, and laying the land flat, without ridges or furrows, will call into requisition, an implement of the construction of the turnwrist- plough, with a moveable mould-board, to lay all 160 THE FARMER'S WAGAZINE, ihe furrows in one direction. A plougli cf tliis description lias been lutely invented in Scotland, and no doubt will answer very well on the loamy clays of that country ; but on the soils of which I have been speaking, it will be found useless from the same olijections as the swing plough, the lightness of the implement, the winged share, and the bottom of the mould-board not being able to throw off the stiff waxy furrow, to make room for itself. In this application, as in every other case, soil and circumstances must direct. The preceding observations made during a long course of extensive experience, have led me to the conclusion, that, with the exceptions of the soils I have mentioned, swing plou'.;hs are capable of cultivating any soils in the kingdom, made of ■weight and strength to suit stiffer soils, and the power applied ; they answer for drilling, are more convenient, and can be applied to various purposes; but on the soils I have excepted, they wholly fail, and there the wheel-plough is wholly indispensable, and one of strength and weight, equal to the resistance offered, and the power applied. No implement yet known can take the place of the turnwrist-plough, and in our piesent knowledge of the art, a better principle has not been found, than that on which they are con- structed; Adopting this principle, I am of opinion as I observed before, that by taking the suitable parts of each implement, and rejecting the un- suitable, a plough may be found of more convenient form, and of easier draught, and capable of performing the work, equally well. The long continued application of such heavy implements to soils that do not require them, arises wholly from prejudice and habit, from an aversion of change, from the plough being already in possession, and from the failure of changes too hastily and injudiciously made ; but it is certainly a very easy niatter for any experienced person, to judge of circumstances, and make the application a^ccor- dingly. It is from want of this careful attention and discriminating knowledge, that we see so many misapplications made, and continued by our cultivators, even in opposition to their own interest; and the non-adoption by them of the-improvements that have been made and established, not only in the case of implements, but in every other branch of tlieir business, has exposed them to the continual animadversion of the other classes of producers, who have availed themselves of every aid that has been offered them, and have completely outstripped us in the race of improvement. But it IS to be hoped that the exertions now making will be attended widr success, and that agriculture will soon take its place, as the first and the foremost, as It is the most useful of arts. J. D. AGRICULTURAL QUERY. Sir — I shall beobliged if any of yourreaders can inform me in what quantities, at what season, and on what soil, Soot and Bones should be applied as Manure for Barley, used as a top dressing or otherwise. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, A Young Farmer. ESSAY ON WHEEL AND SWING PLOUGHS ; FOn WHICH THE miZE OFFFRED EV THE ENGI-ISn ACRt- CUI.TURAI. SOCIETY WAS AWARDED TO HENRY JIAND- I.EY, ESQ., 1\I.P., AT THE OXFORD MEETING, JULY 17, 1839. (From the Journal of the Englinh Agricultui-al Society.) In the award of merit between ploughs of various construction some difficulty arises, inas- much as almost every farmer entertains a predilec- tion for one or the odier, which he probably uses exclusively, and to which alone his men are accus- tomed; and it is therefore seldom that the compa- rative advantages of different sorts can be fairly tested. To enable mo to meet this difficulty, 1 have not only used both swing and wheel-ploughs on my own farms, but have seen them tried in different counties and soils; on clay, limestone, and sandy loam ; in wet and dry weather ; on clover-ley, stubbles, and fallows, across ridge and furrow, as well as on a level surface, and with skilful and unskilful ploughmen. It is extremely improbable that, were the one implement in all respects and on all soils superior lo the odier, such a difference of opinion and prac- tice should have thus long prevailed. It will, there- fore, be found that, under certain circumstances, each may have its peculiar advantages. Thus Loudon observes — " Difterent soils, situations, and uses will, of course, require different kinds of ploughs, though there are undoubtedly some that are capable of a much more general application than others." I ought to premise that, residing in a county where swing ploughs are almost invariably used, my predilection has certainly been in favour of that implement; if, therefore, in balancing the advan- tages and disadvantages of both, I decide in favour of ploughs with wheels, it is the result of convic- tion based upon a series of impartial, and I think conclusive, experiments. I have understood the question to relate to the follov^ing ploughs, viz. : — The swing-plough, by which I mean a plough the depth of which is regulated by the line of draught and controlling power of the man who holds it : and The wheel-plough, — the depth of which is con- trolled by two wheels, the one about 12 inches diameter, attached to the beam by a sliding shank and socket on the land side of it, — the c.ner about 20 inches diameter, attached to the furrov\ side of the beam. The plough is, mechanically speaking, a portion of a screw or curved wedge forced forward horizon- tally, with which, in the first instance, the surface of the soil is cleft to a certain depth and widtli, while the wing or mould-board is so constructed as to lift and deposit the separated portion at a given angle. The implement which effects these operations with the least power and cost under ordinary cir- cumstances, and which is at the same time most capable of control, I conceive deserves the pre- ference. The first consideration is the comparative draught THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 161 requisite to overcome a given resistance, and to execute a given amount ofwoik. In tliis primary point I find that writers on tlie subject have estimated wheel- ploughs to require a greater power of draught. In theory it might seem that the addition of wheels would add to tlie draught, but, taking into account the uniform gauge and otiier circumstances whicli occur in practice, a different conclusion may be come to, as I shall endeavour presently to show. As reg.uds the cause of the diminished force required by the wheel, compared with tlie swing- plough, it appears to me to be principally, if iiot fully, explained by the more uniform horizontal motion communicated to the share and sole of the former ihrougli the regulating medium of the wheels at the fore part of the beam, which diminish the shicks arising from the continual vibrations of the implement when balanced between tlie hand of the ploughman and the back and shoulders of the horse. It is not contended liiat wlieels so situated act the part of lessening the friction be- tween the sole and the soil ; but tiiey keep tlie rubbing part more truly to its deptli, and maintain its horizontal action more correctly ; whereas ihe horses affect a swing-plough at every step by the irregularity of their proper movement, which iias to be counteracted by the effoi t of the man at the opposite end. Thus conflicting forces are mo- mentarily produced, and continual elevations and depressions of the point of the share take place, together with deviations from the flat position of the sole, which should be retained at right angles to the perpendicular; and to remedy which, un- skilful ploughmen bear unequally on tlie stilts, wliich produces a lateral pressure landwards, and consequently a great amount of friction along the whole of the left side plane of the plough. How- ever small may be the efibrts of tlie ploughman to keep his plough " sioiniming fair," those efforts must be attended with increased resistance, and consequently witli increased exertion of the horses. It is not pretended that in a wheel- plough none of these irregularities of motion exist; on the con- trary, the dynamometer shows them to be very considerable, but less in degree than in tlie swing- plough. The oscillations of tlie index of a dyna- mometer are, as raiglit be expected, very great when applied to a plough. The point of a plough- share may be readily supposed, at one instant, to have burst a sod, which, opening and being raised upwards, offers for several inches but a trifling re- sistance to its progress ; it again meets the obstacle which is again overcome. It is similar with roots, stones, and otlier varying impediments, and thus at every step of tlie horse (whose motion is also a series of impulses) the draught, as exhibited by the dynamometer, is continually and largely varying; These are effects arising from the nature of animal force and of the soil ; they are necessarily common to both ploughs, but appear to be aug- mented in the swing, compared with the wlieel- plougli, and sufficiently account for the diminished draught of the latter, as shewn in the Tublo of Experiments. In order to satisfy myself more particularly as to the draught of ploughs, I requested the Messrs. llansome, of Ipswich, who are t!ie most extensive manufacturers of ploughs in the kingdom, to fur- nish me with the opportunity of ascertaining the fact in respect of those implements which they themselves had constructed. A stubble field, of a sandy loam was selected ; partly up and down hill, and partly on a level. The ploughs, all by the same maker, were set to the same gauge, viz , furrows six inches deep and ten wide, drawn by a pair of horses abreast, and held by the best men that could be procured, who were occasionally changed from one plough to another. Tire instru- ment employed to test them was a dynamometer, which had previously been proved to register with accuracy. The index was marked down every few yards, and tiie mean taken. The length of the field and back was the (rial m each case. It was observed that the inclination or declination of ground made very trifling difference, owing, pro- bably, to tlie position of the horses acting upon the beam at an inverse angle. Ploughs tried at lp$wich, November, 1838, Description ef Ploujflis. Rutlanil, ivitli Wheels Ccflforilsliiie, with Wheels Lincolnshire, Swing. Lincoln Heath Maker and Mark. Ransomc. N. L. Ransome. L. L. White with Ransome's Irons.B.M. Ditto. L. H. Weifjlit of each Plough. cwt. qrs. lbs, I 3 22 I 20 1 0 1 1 Draught. cwt. qrs. Ibg, 2 I 21 3 0 11 In the foregoing experiments it will be observed, so far from the wheel-ploughs requiring more pover, the Rutland and Bedford, as compared with the Lincolnshire swing-ploughs (which are acknosvledged to be excellent of their kind, and but little varying from the Scotch), actually required less ; and I cannot but remark that, although the ploughing with each of the implements was ad- mirably well done, yet there was a manifest neat- ness and regularity about the work done by the ploughs with wheels over that of the swing- ploughs ; for die land-wheel acts as a lateral gauge to the width of each furrow, as well as to the depdi, and therefore the uniformity of width, depth, and angle of the furrow-sl'ce thus produced, gave a perfect form to the whole o[ieration. A further fact was established, namely, that the draught of the plough is not increased in an ecjual ratio with the weight; for on loading tlie Rutland plough with 112lbs., or 51 per cent, additional weight, the draught was only increased 33lbs., or 12 per cent. The foregoing results have been borne out in a greater or less degree by subsequent experiments on land of greater tenacity, and under different circumstances ; and even in the case of a swing- plough, to which wheels were temporarily attached for the occasion, and tried on an adjoining furrow, the draught was proved to be diminished, although the plougii was not originally constructed as a wiieel-plough, and consequently, from its length of beam and differently poised bearings, worked under a manifest disadvantage. The experiments exhibit tlie 7y/;cf/-plough as 163 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. requiring a smaller amount of animal exertion tlian the swing-plough ; indeed, the tractive force of tlie Rutland wheel-plough appears, by the table, to have been less than that of the best experiment of the Lincolnshire swing-plough by 23 per cent. ; and which is, I think, to be accounted for in the •way I have before noticed. A second property of the wheel-plough — viz., that it demands less skill in the ploughman — is on all hands acknowledged ; and that it performs its work equally well with the swing-plough, is not, I believe, denied by the admirers of the latter implement. I cannot but consider the fact of the wheel-plough demanding less skill in the ploughman to I)e a considerable advantage on its side, though it receives but little favour amongst first-rate swing-ploughmen, who are accustomed to estimate higiily their own manual dexterity, from the circumstance of the qualify of their work depending on dexterity alone. Undoubtedly there are many men will make as good work with a swing as with a wheel-plough ; but, if we take a district (and it need not be a large one) in which a hundred ploughmen are required, it is more than probable that not ten such will be found. This of itself appears to me to be a strong argument in favour of the wheel- ploughs. It has been objected that they create a nursery of bad ploughmen, inasmuch as it is in the power of any one to make a good furrow with a wheel-plough, while it tests the alalities of the man to produce the same effect with a swing- plough. When, however, it is called to mind that boys can be instructed at an earlier age in the use of the plough, and enabled to come into better earnings, than they could do otherwise, as well as that a boy at lOd. per diem wages may benefit his master by making as good work with the one im- plement as a man at 2s. can execute with the other; and that the advantage shall be attained by an even furrow throughout the field, rarely effected by a gang of swing- ploughs, with depth, width, and angle of inclination, performed with almost mathe- matical precision; thereby producing an unvarying bed for the seed, and a regular edge for the har- rows ; the advantage of the wheel-plough can scarcely be estimated too highly, and marks a de- cided preference. In Scotland, indeed, the wheel-plough is not approved; and in some parts of the country, where, thirty years ago, it was in use, it has been discontinued, having fliUen into disrepute by the supposed friction of the wheels. It must, how- ever, be observed, that at that period, and in Scot- land at the present day, the ivrought-iron share ■was the only one used. If then we intrust the depth and breadth of the furrow-slice to ihe wheels we must take care that the share and coulter do not operate as conflicting forces. If the black- smith be not extremely careful in laying the share he may set the point too low, so as by its inclined direction to occasion an excess of pressure upon the wheels, whicli must proceed horizontally ; or, if the point incline a trifle too nuicii lo land, or to the contrary side, a counter effort is pioduced, which tends greatly to increase the diaught. This is, however, remedied by the practice of casting the share, which must necessarily be alike in shape; and the improved system of case-hardening them on the under side, as invented by the Messsrs. Ransome, remedies the evil of wearing thick, to which cast-iron shares were subject when first in- troduced : and the dynamometer shows that this most important improvement of modern days has had the desirable effect of reducing the draught; to say nothing of avoiding the interminable ne- cessity of sending almost every evening to the blacksmith's shop, to have the shares relaid or sharpened. I may here mention, in estimating the value of a good swing-ploughman, especially as connected with draught", that in one of my trials I substituted for a first-rate ploughman one who, though no novice, was decidedly his inferior, and who held the same plough for a bout, during which he exerted his best abilities, aware of the comparison about to be instituted, and yet the draught was, in his iiands, increased six per cent., and I have no doubt, had he continued to hold the plough for an entire day, it would have been considerably more. Tins man, though inferior to the other, possessed skill above the average of ploughmen usually em- ployed. Had he held a plough with wiieels there would, probably, have been no difference in the draught between the holding of the plough by himself and predecessor. In land rendered hard by drouglit, or stubborn from other causes, I have found the bite of the wheel-plough effective, where the swing-plough could not, without great difficulty, be held in its work ; but of course in the former case the share was set sharp into the ground, and the draught- chain at the highest notch of the hake, which made a heavy pressure upon the wheels. I simply re- mark on this to show that the wiieel-plough is sometimes applicable to hard work, where the swing-plouoii will not do so well. On the other hand, there are cases to which the swing-plough is more applicable : I would in- stance an unequal surface, as on the Wolds of Yorkshire, where the rock lies at varying depths, sometimes within three or four inches of the sur- face, at others at a greater depth, and wliere the swing-plough, in skilful hands, may be more readily accommodated to the case. In cross-cutting dead fallows, where the surface is rough and hard clods interrupt the even action of the wheels, they would be better dispensed with. In wet weather on strong land (though I conceive as a general rule it would be better not to work it at all in that state) the wheels are apt to clog, although that in- convenience is materially diminished by the scraper attached to the best constructed ploughs. In crossing steep ridge and furrow the action of the ascending wheels raises the share out of the furrow, while in descending it plur.ges it deepev into the ridge. This, howe\er, occurs only in ex- treme cases, and, to a considerable degree, the same effect attends the swing plough, unless care- fully managed. As the wheel- plough more particularly treated of in this Essay is, with the exception of the wheels, tha same in construction as the swing- plough, it may be used either xcilh or without wheels as circumstances require. The expense of the implement is undoubtedly in favour of the swing-plough, but the prime cost THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 163 is matter of compaiatively little moment when other circumstances are considered. My experi- ments have been chiefly confined to tlie ploughs described in the former part of tills Essay. Of the Suffolk and Norfolk wheel-plouglis on high wheels and gallowse?, adapted as they may be to ligiit soils, they are necessarily cumbersome, and constructed with so mauy conflicting forces that much depends i;)n the skill of the ploughman to adjust them. I have noticed that it is con- tinually necessary to raise or deepen the gallows, which require alteration, or taking out, or setting, in each furrow, with beam-bolts, Sec, regulating the action to and from land, and consuming much time in their repeated adjustment. The Kentish ploughs are on a somewhat similar construction, with high gallowses and wheels, but larger and stron2;er than the before-mentioned : these sre said to be necessary to resist the heavy slones which they continually encounter. These are confined to their respective localities. While it is questionable whether they will be much longer retained there, it is certain they will not become general in other parts. The facts detailed in this paper are founded on practical and careful experiment. The result ar- rived at in my own judgment is forced upon me by conviction, and 1 have only to add that I shall be equally open to the influence of opposing facts, if founded upon actual and well-attested expe- riment. TURNPIKE ROADS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. (Continued from page 88.) TO THE EDITOn OF THE FARMEu's MAGAZINE. Sir, — Without dwelling on the mischief occasion- ed by the earlier coercive enactments, the monstrous wheels, the limitation of wheels to one fixed distance, the compelling waggon horses to march in single line and not in pairs, and various other ill-judged impediments to the improvement of turnpike roads, I pass at once to the " Select Committee of the House of Commons," appointed in 1819 on turnpike roads, and to the train of evils created by that and subsequent committees. British roads were then rapidly pro^-ressing in improvement ; that spirited measure tlie govern- ment road to Holyhead attracted general attention ; hand in hand with agricultural improvement, Ipnded proprietors, in all parts of the kingdom, were re- ducing hills, raising vallies, shortening distances; whilst ponderous carts, rutted roads, and the prac. ticeoffourof five horses ploughing in a line — the fruit of injudicious enactments — were gradually giving way to light one-horse carts, smootli Mc'Adam roads, and to ploughing with two active horses abreast. The report of that committee gave promise of future good — it commented on the above and other defects of ibrmer acts, recommended " to digest their various provisions, to expunge what is useless or injurious, to reconcile what is contradictory" — it recommended a " commutation for statute labour," not the shameful robbery which has since been en- acted ; it contained no meddling with turnpike mortgages whether well or ill-secured ; none of the threats of taxing, of compounding, of seizing, of sa- crificing, of estimating investments on turnpike se- curities, each of which departure from justice and good faith, has been suggested to the turnpike com- mittees, and published with the sanction of their authority. In theory the report was snlutary, but the general turnpike act which resulted from it has proved the very reverse. That act, that voluminous heap of impossibilities and blunders, (.'5 Geo. 4, cap. 126,) enacted a penalty of five pounds on the owner, and two pounds on tlics driver, for any cart or waggon with wheels less than three inches wide ; and the like penalties for any cart or waggon " in case the several nails on the tire project a quarter of an inch." By the fiat of that act a miracle was to be performed ; on the first of January 1826, the metamorphose was to be consum- mated, and perfection was to reign triumphant, not in legislative committees, but in cart wheels. What an unfeeling attack on market gardeners, farmers' wives taking milk, butter, or eggs to market, and the thousands of infirm persons who obtain their liveli- hood by donkey carts and other light vehicles already paiivig toll far exceeding lite trivial damage they did to the road ! ! — nor was the attack on the property of the creditors on turnpike trusts less injurious and oppressive; without their assent or knowledge, a partial, unequal, and in some cases enormous addi- tion to the weights allowed on turnpike roads, was authorized, thus with a twoedged sword reducingthe revenue and enhancing the charge of repair ; — to enumerate all that was " useless, injurious, and con- tradictory" in that act, those evils which the com- mittee professed to cure, would be to disgust and tire your readers. Tliere is abundant evidence of the absurdity of it. The 4 Geo. 4, cap. 95, passed the following session, and devoted 400 lines to re- peal 600 lines of it, and to this compound of disgrace to British legislation have since been appended no less than nine or ten supplementary acts, each adding to its complexity, and rendering a law, which ought to be extraordinarily plain, so intricate, that practised lawyers can scarcely advise on it. In this state has the law on turnpike roads re- mained nearly a score of years, notwithstanding the numerous reports, with evidence published by the Committees, tending to sliew the necessity of a sim- ple and improved Turnpike Law ; in consequence of this untoward state of affairs — the appearance of parliamentary interference with turnpike mortgages, the threats of refusing the renewal of turnpike acts, the taking away of statute duty, and encouraging all parish surveyors to refuse assistance to turnpike roads, and thereby creating disputes and litigation — ^judicious improvements of great national utility, which had been resolved on, have been suspended, many useful roads are falling into decay, the march of improvement has retrograded, and the agricultu- ral interest, (which depends so materialy on good roads to every farm and estate,) is neglected, op- pressed by unequal taxation, and thus left to the tender mercy of railway speculators, who are ac- quiring a monopoly in carrying which, sooner or later — probably very soon — will shew itself by ex- orbitant and undue exaction, and when every other means of transit has been by their operation annihi- lated. Why are the Parliamentary committees on turn- pike roads thus ineffective and supine 1 as Shake- spear says, " The why is plain As way to parish church," And it shall be developed, if you please to give in- sertion to a third tresjjass on your independent pages, by CINCINNATI'S. 164 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REMARKS ON THE EXCRETORY POWERS OF PLANTS. (fuom the QUAniF.ni-Y jounxAr, of aguiculturf.) I have read with considerable interest the arti- cles on the rotation of crops and the excretory powers of plants in the two last numbers of the .Journal, and do hope that some of your corres- pondents may soon, by further experiment, be enabled to give more information on tiie subject. In the mean time, 1 would offer you a few remarks which have occurred to my mind. Yo>i inform us that M. iMacaire seems to have ascertained that plants which display their flowers exude matter froui their roots ; and I am inclined to think that it is only then, or wlien plants are forming and ripening their seeds, or dying, that exudation takes place to any extent, or such as to render the soil again unfit for carry- ing the same crop to advantage ; for we know that onions, and I believe I may say every garden vegetable, may be cultivated on the same plot of ground year after year, with the assistance of manure, to advantage, except peas and beans, which arc permitted to form the seed. Your cor- respondent, Mr. Towers, also justly includes the rasp amongst the defilers of soil, which I would account for by its peculiar growth, namely, the wood dying every year, after having yielded the fruit. This new discovery (if I may so call it) explains the remark of tliat wonderful man, Lord Kames, in the Gentleman Farmer, that plants exhaust or defile the soil chiefly when torming and ripen- ing tlieir seed ; " Culmiferous [jlants," says his lordship, " having small leaves, and few in num- ber, depend mostly on the soil for nourishment, and little on the air. Uuiitig the ripening of tlie seed, they draw probably their whole nourishment from the soil, as the leaves by this time, being di-y and withered, must have lo-t their power of drawing nourishment from the air. Now, as culmiferous plants are chiefly cultivated for seed, and are not cut down till the seed be fully ripe, they may be pronounced all ofv them to be robbers, some more and some less. But such plants, while young, are all leaves, and in that state draw most ol their nourishment from the air. Hence it is, that when cut green for food to cattle, a culmiferous crop is far from being' a robber.'* But to show that they defile it only, and do not exhaust it, — 1 tried an ex- periment about five years ago : — Havitig often seen cresses growing in flannel moistened with water, I took that plant for my experiment, and sowed the seeds in a flower-pot filled with stocking, well washed to take the oil out of it ; and the plants not only grew, but ripened their seed, thus prov- ing that plants do not require soil to bring them to maturity. The practice of Goneral Beatson sowing wheat on the same land year after year (not that I re- commend it) cannot, I think, be explained on any other theory than that of destroying or decompos- ing the exudation of wheat by fire, that he was enabled to get such crops as he did. But I consi- der liming a better way of decomposing the exu- dation of plants ; and as grass, oats, and barley are all of the same family, I have no doubt that this is one reason why it answers so well to lime land when laying it down to grass, and sowing barley, namely, the lime decomposes the exudation * Gentleman Farmer, p. 137. of the barley, and prevents it injuring the grass plants. Many old-fashioned farmers are still fond of spreading lime on grass land before breaking it up for oats ; and I have no doubt, in the same way, the lime by acting on the exudation of the grasses;- prepares it as food for the oats, which it might otherwise injure. I therefore hope you will continue to encourage those who are enabled to make experiments on grasses, and particularly as to the time when the exudation from their roots takes place, as we would then be taught the proper time for cutting hay ; we would be taught if it was desirable to depasture our grasses so close as to prevent them seeding or flowering; — we would be taught whe- ther or not we ought on all occasions to be at the expense of perennial grass seeds, if by the dying of the annual r_\e grass the land is rendered after- wards unfit for oats ; — perhaps we would be taught not to take oats at all in breaking up from grass, which is almost the universal practice at present, for we ought to remember that oats and grass are of the same family. I feel confident that in this particular, alteration may be made with advantage in the general rotation ot the country ; and I have no douiit another crop may be had without any ex- tra manure, which would be no small advantage to the farmer. I am not prepared to say what crop should be taken in breaking up from grass. That must depend much upon the soil, and other cir- cumstances ; but I have known beans taken with advantage, and It must be either beans, vetches, peas, or potatoes ; then oats, turnips with dung, barley, grass, keeping the land in grass one, two, or three years, and giving lime with the barley every twelve or fourteen years. S. W. As the subject of the excremcntitious rejections of the roots of plants, with reference to the rota- tion of crops, is of the utmost importance towards establishing a satisfactory theorj' of, or amendment on, the present mode of cropping, we subjoin a de- tailed account of the experiments of M. Macaire, corroborati'.e of the original views on that subject of M. de Candolle, which has been published in the 5th volume of Mcmoires de la Societe de Physique et d'llistoire Naturclle de Geneve. This interesting paper was translated by Professor llennie, and inserted in No. 9 of the Field Natu- ralist, from which we have his authority to copy it :— - " For a considerable time, M. de Candolle has been led to form a particular theory lespecting the rotation of crops, founded on the hypothesis, that the roots were the seat of secretions of an especial nature. Some facts already given in the Flore Fraiifaise* by this learned naturalist, seem to have furnished hlin with the first opportunity of turning his thoughts to this important subject ; he thus expresses himself, p. (J7 : — " M. Brngmans, having placed some plants in dry sand, saw some small drops of water exude from the extremity of the radicles." And further on, in j). 91 : "In fine, the roots themselves in some plants present particular secretions; this maybe observed in the Carrf2/?(s arvensis, the Inula Helenium, the Scabiosa arvensis, several Euphorbias, and several of the Succories. It appears that theKC secretions of the roots are only i)arts of the juices, which not having served for nourishment, are rejected wh.en they arrive at the inferior parts of the vessels. Perhaps this * Published in 1803.-Editor Q. J. A. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 165 phenomenon, which is not easily perceived, is com- mon to a great number of plants. MM. Plenk and Humboldt conceived the ingenious idea of seeking from this fact the cause of certain habits of plants. Thus, we know that the thistle is injurious to oats, the Euphorbia and Scabiosa to flax, the Inula belu- Una to the cari'ot, the Erigeron acre and tares to wheat, &c. Perhaps the roots of these plants give out a matter which is hurtful to the vegetation of others. On the contrary*, if tlie Lijthrum salicaiia grows freely near the willow, and the branching Orobanche near the henij), it is not because the se- cretions from the roots of these plants are benefi- cial to the vegetation of the others?" "Extending these ideas still farther, and apply- ing them to the theory of the rotation of crops, both in his public lectures and in his Vegetable Physiology,* M. dc Candolle admits, that every plant, in ejecting all the moisture that extends to the roots, cannot fail to eject also such particles as do not contribute to nourishment. Thus when the sap has been spread by circulation throughout the vegetable, elaborated and deprived of a great quantity of water by the leaves, and then redescend- ing has furnished to the organs all the nourish- ment it contained, there must be a residue of par- ticles which cannot assimilate with the vegetable, being improper for its nourishment. M. De Can- dolle asserts that these particles, after having tra- versed the whole system without alteration, return to the earth by the roots, and thus render it less proper to sustain a second crop of the same family of vegetables, by accumulating soluble substances that cannot assimilate with it; in like manner, he observes, that no animal whatever can be sustained by its own excrement.f Besides, it may also fol- low that the action even of the organs of a vegeta- ble converts the mixed particles into substances deleterious to the plant which produces it, or to others, and that a portion of this poison is also rejected by the roots. Some experiments which I had formerly the honour of communicating to the Society, have shewn that, in fact, vegetables may suifer from the absorption of the poisons which they themselves furnish. The continued elonga- tion of the roots renders the effect hurtful not to the same generation of plants ; it is the following of the same species which suffers from it, while it is possible to imagine that, on the contrary, these same excrements will furnish wholesome and abundant nourishment to another order of vegeta- bles. The examples drawn from vegetables here offer themselves again with the force of analogy which is very remarkable. It was still, perhaps, necessary to this very ingenious theory, which ac- counted so reasonably for most of the facts obtained, to be more clearly confirmed by the results of direct experiments ; and by the invitation of M. De Can- dolle I endeavoured to obtain them. The thing was, however, not very easy, and my first attempts were unavailing. I first strove to obtain the sup- posed exudation directly from plants plucked up by the roots, but, with the exception of some very doubtful cases, it was impossible ever to obtain any sufficient quantity, and the rapidity with which the plants perished iu this state destroyed all chance of succeeding by this means. I afterwards at- tempted to sow the seeds in substances purely mineral, such as pure siliceous sand, pounded glass, &c. Also on clean sponges, white iinen, * Published in 1827.— Editor Q. J. A. •f- Yet the ostrich and cassowary' always devour what falls from them. — Ed. &c. ; but althongb they germinated well, the ex- istence of the plants was always short and precari- ous, and when I endeavoured to collect their exudation by the use of earths, I found that the decomposition of the refuse from the seeds gave the same character to the whole of them, and that a sort of vegeto-animal substance was always ob- tained, of which it was impossible to mistake the source, and which entirely concealed the results of the real exudation, if any were present in plants so imperfectly developed. As a last resource, with the use of rain water, the ])urity of which I had ascertained by the usual reactives, and which left no residue after evaporation, 1 endeavoured to preserve plants that were entirely developed. Their roots being taken from the ground with the great- est care, I washed them minutely in rain water to remove all the moald, and v>hcn they were entirely cleansed from all impurity, they were dried and placed in phials with a certain quantity of water. I soon observed that they flourished in it, developing their leaves, blossoming, and, after some time, giving by the evaporation of the water in which the roots were plunged, and by the re- actives, evident marks of exudation by the latter. Much time is required for studying a great num- ber of families, and at present I am able to present to the Society only a kind of preface to a more complete work. I have, however, seen the phe- nom.enon repeated with a sufficient number of vegetables, and agree with the author whose the- ory of the rotation of crops is the basis of my observations, in considering it nearly general, at least among all the phanerogamus vegetables. " Vigorous plants of Chondrilla muralls, when placed in rain water filtered, having their roots fiist cleansed as I above described, vegetate and bloom freely. These were thrown away when in full bloom, and replaced by fresh ones every two days, to allow no time for a change of regimen. After eight days the water acquired a yellow tint and a strong odour very similar to that of opium, and a bitter and rather a pungent taste ; it pre- cipitated in small brown flakes the solution of subacetate and neutral acetate of lead, rendered turbid a solution of gelatine, &c., and by slow evaporation deposited a residuum of a brown- reddish colour, which I shall examine hereafter, and which leaves no doubt that ihe water was per- fectly free from any observable substance what- ever. In order to ascertain whether this substance was produced or not from the vegetation of roots, I steei)cd, during the same time, tlie roots only of the Chondrilla, and, in another phial, the stalks only, cut from the same plant. I'hey continued fresh and in flower, but the water vi-as not changed with any remarkable colour, had no taste, nor smell resembling opium, did not precipitate the acetate of lead, and contained scarcely anything in solution. K was now clear to me that the produce obtained from the entire plant was the result of exudation from the roots, which took place only while the vegetable followed its natural course. The same experiments repeated on several other plants produced simi'ar results, as will be seen \\hcn I speak of the produce of a small number of families which I have had time to examine. When once assured that plants ejected by their roots the parts improper for their nourishment, it remained (or me to ascertain at what time of the day the phenomenon took nlace. For that purpose I steeped a vigorous plant of the kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) with the root in rain water during the day; at night the plant was taken out, 166 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •washed carefully, dried, and replaced in another jug full of rainwater: the experiment continued eight days, the plant continuing to vegetate with great vigour. On examining the two liquids, 1 found in both evident marks of the excretion from the roots ; but the water in which the plant had ve- getated during the night contained a considerably greater quantity. Both were clear and trans- parent ; the experiment being repeated many times on plants of different natures, produced always similar results. I am convinced, that, by causing artificial night for the plants during llie day, the excretion of the roots would be instantly much increased ; but, in all the plants that I have tried, I always found that it continued slightly during tlie day. As it is well known that by day the action of the light causes the roots of the plants to absorb the liquid which contains their nourishment, it is natural to suppose that the absorption would cease during the night when the excretion takes place. "It appeared probable, that by means of the roots the plants might throw off the substances which they had imbibed, which were injurious to vegetation. To satisfy myself on this point, and at the same time, as the result was another means of verifying the existence of the excretion of roots, I tried the following experiments : — " Some plants of annual mercury (Merctirialis Aiinua) carefully taken up, and washed with great precaution in distilled water, were so placed that a portion of their roots was plunged in a slight solution of acetate of lead, and the other ])ortion in pure water. They continued to live very well during several days, after which the pure water evidently precipitated the black hydrosulphate of ammonia, and consequently had received a certain quantity of salt of lead, rejected by the roots which were soaked in it. Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), cabbages, and other plants, placed in the same manner, produced the same results. Some plants which were placed in a slight solution of acetate of lead lived very well during two days, after which they were taken out. Their roots were washed in a large quantity of distilled water, care- fully dried, again washed in distilled water, which precipitated no hydrosulphate, after which they were left to vegetate in rain water : in two days, the reactives demonstrated in the water a small quantity of acetate of lead. "The experiments were made in lime water, which being less hurtful to vegetation than ace- tate of lead, was preferable for the object sought after. When part of the roots were steeped in lime water, and part in pure water, the plants lived very well, and the water considerably whitened the oxalate of ammonia, which demon- strated the presence of lime. Also a plant that had been kept in lime water, and washed until the water no longer precipitated the oxalate of am- monia, then transferred into pure water, after some time discharged a great quantity of lime, which was demonstrated by the reactives. "I repeated the same trials with a slight solu- tion of sea salt, and the nitrate of silver also de- monstrated that the salt, which the plant had im- bibed by absorption, was partly ejected by the same roots which had imju-udently admitted it. " When speaking to M. de Candolle of these results, he related to me a curious fact which he had himself observed. The plants that are culti- vated near the sea for the ])roduce of soda, some- times thrive very well at a great distance from the ocean, provided they are placed within the influ- ence of the sea air, which, it is well known, trans- ports the particles of salt with which it is charged to a great distance. M.de Candolle was persuaded that the land where the kali thus placed had grown contained more salt than the land adjoining ; so that, instead of extracting it from the earth, these plants appeared to have furnished it by the exuda- tion of their roots. Reflecting on this experiment, I imagined that I could perform it myself on a small scale with common plants ; and I placed the roots, with the plants of the groundsel, swine thistle ( Sonclius olcraceuii), mercury, &c., in rain water, and proceeded to bathe the leaves with a solution of sea salt. IMy solution being too concen- trated acted forcibly on the leaves ; I diluted it with water, and with a pencil touched the lower part of the leave? and stalks ; I even moistened all the green part of the plant, but the reactives never indicated any trace of salt ejected by the root, although the plants had flourished. Hence it ap- pears, that either solutions of salt cannot imitate the proceedings of nature, or that perhaps the soda vegetables alone have the power of absorb- ing the marine salt, and of rejecting a portion of it by their roots. I should like very much to be able to repeat my experiment on a Mesembryan- themum or a Sahola. There is, then, no doubt, that the plants have the power of rejecting by their roots those soluble salts, injurious to vegeta- tion, which are found in tVie water which they ab- sorb ; though but a small portion of these salts api)eared in the residuum which I obtained in my own experiments, because the ])lants, imbibing only pure water and carbonic acid, could reject by their roots only the small quantity of salt which they contained at the time they were taken out of the earth. I could gather little more than the result of the action of their organs on the ali- ment; not of foreign bodies, which only spread through the vegetable system, without being de- composed. I shall now enter into some details on the small number of families which I have exa- mined; each of them has produced results nearly similar in the divers individuals or kinds under experiment, but, unhappily, the number is very small. " Leguminosa: . — The only plants examined of this family were kidney beans, peas, and beans of the species generally cultivated in this country. These plants exist and develop themselves ex- tremely well in rain water. After they have vege- tated in it some time, the liquid, when examined, has but little taste, and the smell is slightly herba- ceous ; it is clear, and scarcely coloured by the kidney bean, but turns more yellow with the pea and common bean ; it precipitates the acetate of lead, and nitric acid re-dissolves the precipitated gum without eflcrvescence ; nitrate of silver gives a slight precipitate soluble in acid (carbonic acid) ; oxalate of ammonia renders it turbid ; the other reactive causes no change. By slow evaporation, a yellowish or brownish residuum is obtained, more or less abundant, according to the plant un- der expeiiment, increasing in this order — kidney beans, peas, beans. In all other respects these re- sidua are similar to each other.. Ether separates an oily substance ; alcohol nothing, and a substance remains analogous to gum and a little carbonate of lime. " In the course of the experiments on these plants, I perceived that when the water in which they had been kept was charged with muchexcrc- mentitious matter, the fresh flowers of the same species that were put into it faded quickly, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 167 (lid not live well in it. To ascertain if this re- sulted from the want of carbonic acid, although they might draw it from the air, or from the effect of the matter excreted, which these plants refused to absorb, I placed the leguminous plants by those of another family, especially that of corn. The latter lived in it, and the yellow colour of the liquid diminished in intensity ; the residuum was less considerable, and it was evident that the new plants absorbed a part of the matter excreted by the former. It was a kind of rotation of crops in a bottle, and the result tends to confirm the theory of M. de Candolle, of which I spoke at the com- mencement of this memoir. It is wot impossible that, by trying these experiments on a great num- ber of plants, we may arrive at some results which maybe applicable to the practice of agriculture* For example, — by supposing, as I feel disposed to believe by my trial, that the exudation from the roots of cultivated lugumes contributes to the nourishment of corn, 1 should be disposed to con- jecture, according to the relative quantity of these exudations, that the bean will produce the finest wheat, then the pea, next to that the Ividney-bean. I ara not sufficiently a practical agriculturist my- self to know if experience has confirmed this view of the fact. " Grajw««e«.— The plants examined were wheat, rye, and barley. These plants do not thrive so well in rain water as the Leguminosa:, and I suppose that this differ- ence arises from the great quantity of mineral sub- stances, especially silex, which they contain, and which they do not imbibe from pure water. The water in which they have vegetated is very clear, transparent, without colour, smell, or taste. The reactives demonstrate the presence of salts, muriates, and carbonates — alkaline and earthy; and the residuum from evaporation is scanty and but slightly coloured, containing but a very small proportion of the gummy matter, no oily matter, and the aforesaid salts. I should be led to believe that the exudation from the roots of these plants scarcely tends farther than to reject the saline matter, which is foreign to vegetation. " ChicoracecE. — The plants examined were the CJirondrilla Muralis and the Sonchus oleraceiis. They live very well in rain water : the latter ac- quires a clear yellow color.r, a strong odour, and tastes bitter and somewhat virous. It precipitates abundantly brown flakes of neutral acetate of lead, and renders turbid a solution of gelatine. Evapo- rated slowly, the liquor, when concentrated, has a very strong and persistent taste. The residuum of a reddish brown, by boiling absolute alcohol, partly dissolves; the alcohol evaporating leaves a yellow, slightly brown, substance, of a very bitter taste, soluble in water, alcohol and nitric acid, precipitated in brown flakes from its solutions by nitrate of silver, and appears to be very analogous to the bitter principle of the English chemists. The residuum, re-dissolved in water, has a very strong virous taste, similar to that of opium; it contains tannin, a brown gummy extractive sub- stance, and some sails. " Papaveracece. — Plants of the corn poppy (Pa- paver It/ucas) cannot live in rain water ; they fade in it immediately. " The white poppy (Papaver somnefenim) will exist in it ; the roots impart to the water a yellow colour ; it acquires a virous odour, a bitter taste, and the brownish residuum might be taken for opium. This plant is one of those of which I cut the roots from the stalks, and soaked them sepa- rately, and which imparted to the water none of the properties which it had acquired from the en- tire living plant. " Ev2)liorbiace(C.-—'ThQ plants tried were the Eu- phorhia Cyparisias and E. Peplus. These are the euphorbias on which Brugmans says, he had ob- served the phenomenon of small drops oozing from the roots during the night. Possibly I did not adopt the right method, as I could not verify the fact from my own observations. The Euphor- bias vegetate extremely well in rain water ; the liquor becomes slightly coloured, but acquires a strong and persistent taste, especially after it is concentrated by evaporation. Boiling alcohol dis- solves almost all the residuum, which has but little colour, and by evaporation deposits a granu- lous substance, gummy, resinous, yellowish white, very acrid, and unpleasant to the throat. " Sulanetr. — The only plant of this family that I had time to vegetate is the potato. It lived well in rain water, and developed its leaves. The wa- ter, not coloured, leaves very little residuum, and the taste is very slight, which makes me think that the plant is one of those of which the excretions aie very trifling, and scarcely 'percepti- ble. But this conclusion is drawn from a single and very short experiment made on a plant scarcely developed. " In concluding this memoir, which should have contained the examination of more families and individuals had the time permitted, I shall recount that the results deduced are, — fii-sf, That most vegetables exude by their roots sub- stances useless to vegetation ; second, that the na- ture of these substances varies according to the families of the vegetables that produce them ; third. That some being pungent and resinous may hurt, and others being sweet and gummy may contribute to the nourishment of other vegeta- bles ; fourth, that these facts tend to confirm the theory of the rotation of crops suggested by RI. dc Candolle." MACHINE FOR MOWING AND CUT- TING GRASS AND GRAIN. The following is the description of a machine, for which a patent has been taken out in America. In this machine, the cutting is to be effected by a single scythe, which crosses the frame from side to side, and has a vibrating motion given to it longitudinally, by means of a crank operated on by gearing from the wheels which run on the ground. Tlie scythe is convex towards its cutting edge, and the grass, or grain, to be cut is borne up against it by the revolution of a cylinder having long pro- jecting fingers, and which is placed sufficiently above, and in advance of, the edge of the knife, to effect the proposed object. The claims made are to " the particular structure of the traverse bars, and the manner of sustaining and operating the scythe, as described. The revolving comb or straightener preceding the scythe and preparing the grain for its operation, in combination with the scythe, con- structed and operating as described. The hind, or caster wheel, in combination as herein described, by which the hinder end of the machine can be raised at pleasure." 168 THE FAllMElVS MAGAZINE. ON THOROUGH-DRAINING AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. Tlie re-appearance in our last number of a communication from *' a Scotch Farmer'' will, we are persuaded, have been hailed with much pleasure by our readers. The subject of his com- munication is unquestionably one of the most important connected with the cultivation of the soil, namely, the mode of thorough-draining, and its effects when coupled witii a second opera- tion essentially requisite to render it complete, namely, subsoil ploughing. Many of our readers will recollect tiie taunts to wiiicii Mr. Sliavv Lefevre, the present Speaker of the House of Commons was subjected for having attached great importance to the use of the subsoil plough, in the pamphlet which he published in 183G, after the Select Committee of the House of Commons had closed its enquiry into the state of agriculture, without making any report ; like every other im- provement connected with Agriculture, the system of tl)orough-draining aiid subsoil ploughing was scarcely known, although it had been successfully practised for twelve years by Mr. Smith of Dean- ston, who introduced it. Mr. Lefevre may fairly take credit to himself for having roused attention to the subject in England, and many persons wlio at first ridiculed that which they were pleased to describe as Mr. Lefevre's prt?i«fe« for agricultural distress, are now themselves successfully adopting his recommendation. As yet, however, much re- mains to be done, not only to promote the adoption of the system, but to cause it to be rigidly understood. The communication of " a Scotch Farmer," will contribute much to effect these objects, but, as he justly observes, the improvement efftcted in the soil by drain- ing being permanent, " the outlay belongs to the landlord." He draws a sound and just dis- tinction between that part of the outlay which belongs to the landlord and that portion which should fall upon the tenant, and whilst he would on the one hand avoid any course which would have a tendency to damp the ardour for improve- ment in the breast of the tenant, still on the other he would guard against his being led by a spirit of enterprise into expenses which would absorb his capital and cripple his means of bearing those expenses which must devolve upon him°. Experiments sufficiently numerous have already been tried and recorded to prove to the pro- prietors of land that money expended in drainino- is an investment of capital which will pay a much larger per centage than the purchase of the soil itself. But the same mistaken ambition of possessing a large extent of land, which so fre- quently in\olves the tenant in ruin, from want of sufficient capital to stock fully and cultivate thoroughly the soil which he occupies, misleads the purchaser of land, who too often regards the number of acres as of more importance than their quality or state of cultivation. If proprietors of land would have tenants do their duty they should first set the example by performing their's. The experiment is a simple one, and including both operations, thorough draining and subsoil ploughino- would not cost more, under any circumstances than from six to eight pounds per acre, so that ten acres might be well executed, including all ex- penses, for less than one hundred pounds. The stiff" clays, which most need this system, were once considered the staple Wheat lands of England. The introduction of a better system in the cultiva- tion of the lighter soils lias brought them into a successful competition with the clay lands, and the only means by which these lands can meet that competition is also by an improved system, by adopting an improvement which will facilitate the cultivation, render it more certain, decrease the expense, and increase the fertility, that system is thorough-draining and subsoil-ploughing. The ignorant waggoner may be excused for calling to Jupiter to help his waggon out of the slough in- stead of putting his shoulder to the wheel, the farmer who has imbibed his ancestral prejudices may be in some measure pardoned for pursuing tiie beaten track of his forefathers, but there can be no excuse for the landowner, who enjoying the advantages of a liberal education, and having the means of improvement continually placed before him, neglects to adopt them. Surely there are twenty landowners in every county in England who can aff'ord to expend one hundred pounds each in the trial of an expeiiment which will amply repay the outlay. If this course were adopted one thousand experiments might be tried in one year, and in a manner best calculated to produce an effect on the tenant farmer. It has been quaint- ly observed that the farmer should always say to his man, not " go," but " come," and do such a job. Now the same remark may, in a great de- gree, be applied to the landlord ; he should not content himself with telling the tenant what he ought to do, but should say " come," I will shew you what can be done, and here is cm accurate account of ilic expenditure and the receipts. SALT MANURE. We have great pleasure in giving publicity to the result of experiments rande by Sir C. M. Burrell, Bart., on bis estate at West Grinstead, with Mr. Benett's combination of salt and lime. Having previously tried salt alone, (on a considerable breadth of land, and variously applied, without such a return as to induce perseverance^, the Hon. Ba- ronet was at length led by the representation of Mr. John Benett, M.P. for Wilts, to try his plan of mixing salt with quick lime, as a manure for wheat. Procuring several tons of salt from Emswortb, the following process was followed. In September 1838, quick lime was spread, about three inches deep, over a space of about twenty feet by eight feet wide, on which salt one inch in depth was laid ; and these alternate layers were repeated till the bed was two feet high, and then left for ten days, — at the end of which period, by the slacking and expan- sion of the lime, the bed raised itself about a foot higher. It was then well turned together, with turnings, at intervals of seven days, should be repeated five, six, or seven times (if convenient) in the whole, in order thoroughly to combine and mix the materials, and thereby convert it into a species of coarse soda, and increase the alkali. In summer, The FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 169 this may best be done in the open air, (and on ground not Winded for culture afterwards), and in the wet months, for spring use, it may be best done under a shed, and free from rain ; for it will not spread well, when wet. The quantity of sixty bushels per acre, for wheat, applied and stirred in like lime, is sufficient ; and for oats (according to Mr. Ridge's practice) forty bushels are enough, by which application (not having been able to prepare it in time for his last wlieat season,) he has written to inform Sir Charles Burrell, with his thanks for the recommendation, that a crop of six acres of oats bears ample testiniony to the goodness of the manure. A letter from the Hon. Baronet's bailiff, Mr. John Lalcer, of the 9tb inst., states as follows ; — "I am glad that Mr. lUdge, of Stoneham, approves of the lime and salt manure for spring corn, and will trvit more extensively on wheat I can safely say that two out of three fields that you dressed with lime and salt are forwarder than any on the farm, and the straw the brightest — one of these after a crop of beans, the other after tares, and the straw as stout and long, if not better, than any wheat you have. I think where the beans were, there will be quite ten sacks per acre ; and that is a good field of wheat on the east side of Knepp Water below Hill House Barn meadow, I much approve the nitrate of soda, which, as top dressing for white cattle carrots, lias answered better than the salt and lime mixture." It may here be worth while to notice what the Pearson drainage has done on the Knepp estate, since it was brought: by Sir Charles Burrell into West Sussex from Kent. The improvement in all subsequent crops is visible to every workman on the property, whose good wishes for its success have attended the practice from first to last, which is, indeed, but natural, since the new system gives extra winter work to many industrious men and lads, while it repays the employer doubl)', — namely, by the remunerative nature of the work and the contentment of his people, as proof of which he can state that amongst Sir Charles Burrell's workmen, when so employed, there has not been a single instance of a breach of the laws. We hope tliat the result will be as beneficial to tenants as to landlords, and that there will not be many farmers wanting, ere long, to follow this sensible and judicious example; especially if encouraged by the-r landlords giving them drain-tiles suited to the necessary main drains and outfalls for the plough drrin, — Brighton Gazette. ON THE USE AND ABUSE OF CER- TAIN TERMS WHEN APPLIED TO AGRICULTURE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir,— I have just read the letter of " Ruslicus" in your paper of, to-day, and your just observations upon it; but they appear to mc to fall rather short of what his communication should call forth. He is eviiiently a friend, or at least he writes as a friend of Mr. Hillyard, than whom few as'riculturists deserve hig-her praise. It is not, however, the talents either of them have evinced, which should make us blind to their mistakes, and though in a spirit of great candour if not admiration, I am induced to offer a remark or two on wiuit I conceive they do not quite comprehend, or in which they err. If I remember aright, Mr. Hillyard, a week or two ago, was apprehensive that science was meant to supersede ■practice, or at least that by the members of" the F.ng'- lish Agricultural Society" scientific would be more es- teemed than practical knowiedg-e. Rusticus also inti- mates as much in a kind of apology for the former gent., butssmelnw confounds the two words " science" and " theory.'' The latter, by the way, a too common re- tort of most farmers against those who are outweighing them in proofor argument, and is generally uttered with a contemptuous snear; whereas science and tlieory are quite as distinct from one another as they each are from practice, and can only be used as synonymous terms by those who do not fully understand the tiuc meaning of either. Remarking this confusion of words, ]Mr. Editor, as not un frequently occurring-, I venture to suggest, whether on the commencement of the present new era of agricultural economy, when we are ail to become learners, not only of the art of farming, but of the proper words and meanings by which we should communicate with one another, it would not hasten this knowledge, if you, who undoubtedly issue the most leading paper upon that subject, were to affix definite explanations of these terms, with any others which may be ambiguous, and continue in every paper what is to be inferred at lea~t from the words. Science, Theory, and Practice. This might appear superfluous to some of your readers, but to many others 1 am convinced it would not be so, and as 1 consider your paper to be the " Polar Star" of agricultural intelligence, to be the 'I primer" for all who have to do with the soil, and liking myself to begin ab ovo, I see the necessity of such a kind of glossary or grammar as is here alluded to. Besides, your correspondents will have to use even more uncommon words than these ; they will occasionally be obliged to express themselves by talking of solution, aeration of soil, ferruginous matter, carbon, carbonates, oxides, oxygen, hydrogen, &c., which it is evident an unlearned rraan cannot understand, unless they be ex- plained to him by some one conversant with their mean- ings. Now how, or by whom, or how so well can the farming classes be taught these things as by yourself 1 1 would almost say it is your duty, as I am convinced it will be your i>leasure, being the chief " agricultural schoolmaster'' of the nation, to instruct the rising gene- ration aright, and teach thi:tn how to unite "science" with the cultivation of the soil, or in other words to farm upon scientific principles. In order to do this a know- ledge of chemistry is undoubtedly requisite — without it much confusion will arise — with it, we should not be questioned, as friend Bowley of Siddiagton has asked, how tar from the gasworks (Naptha) or a solution of coal can act as a manure, how in large quantities it did harm, but when further dissolved by rain occasioned fertility. There would not be the numerous queries re- specting salt or lime as doing good or harm to land, with many others it is needless to recapitulate. Still, Mr. Editor I am greatly pleased to see the human mind awake to these and other inquiries ; I am glad to per- ceive there are some who do not so much look back- ward to what their fathers did as the criterion of good farming, but rather to what is to be done and learned by their contemporaries or posterity, and here and there a person, who casting aside " the pride of ig'uorance," believe we are yet in the " infancy of agriculture," and lend a willing eye and ear to scientific improvement. — I am yours, HY. JEMMETT. Burford, Av^. 20. ORIGIN OF THE WORD " FARM."-In the Saxons time the estates which the Lords of Manors granted to the freemen were at the first but for years, with a render of a rent, which in tho?e days were of corn or of victual, and thence the leases so made were called formes or farmes, which word signinelh victuals ; but times ensuing turned the victual? into money, and terms of years to terms of life and inheritance, re- ta'ning the rents and those called quit-rents, or the rents of tho?e persons that were acquitted or free. 170 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ROTATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS. Mirhel, A lecturer at one of the Colleges of Paris, makes the following excellent remarks respecting the well known fact in rural economy, of the necessity of changing crops — or of not requiring the same land to do the same thing twice in suc- cession : — " Every farmer knows that he is obliged to vory Ills crops, nor does he ever think of exacting corn for two successive years from tlie same piece of land ; but few arc probably aware of the many explanations which have been proposed, to explain this apjiarent caprice in tiie earth. When it has been ascertained that any pivoting plant (as turnips for example) flour- ishing upon the soilwliere the year before the toeloe se^-estes had waved their yellow corn, this was sup- posed by some writers on ngricultur^', to result from tiie radicles of this class of plants having a power to make tlieir Avay through tlie already impoverished superficial layers, and striking deeper into a virgin soil where the power of sustentation was yet unim- paired. To tliis hypotiiesis it may be objected, that were tlie elements of nutrition and growth contained in the earth, and these all that plants required for their support, then it would be sufficient to manure the corn-field of the year preceding, to make it capable of a second year's crop. Tiiis, however, is contradicted by experience. Piclet's account is not more satisfactory. This writer supposed that the circumstance of turnips sucoeeding corn (or of the succession of crojis to eacii other generally) was pro- bably owing to different plants requiring and witii- drawing, not tlie same but different elements, the supply of any of which biing limited, the earth is amerced of some new and sustaining principle by every succeeding crop. Tliis explanation, however, assumes that plants have a power of selecting their nutritive materials, an assumption not onl}- hypo- thetical, but wholly contradicted by experience ; for plants are observed to take up indifi'erently all sub- stances soluble in water. The speculation of Decan- dolle is a third unsuccessful attempt, viz.; that the excretions from plants during their growth may act as poisons of the earth, and after a certain time, so injure it, as to prevent the further growth of a plant that may have recently flourished there. Such excre- tions he supi>oses to be emanations from the root, the remains of those juices which the earth atld air con- jointly supply, and upon which in reality, the plant exists. But against even the very fact mentioned by Decandolle, in confirmation of his opinion, that opium strewed upon the ground kills jdants, and ren- ders the soil henceforth unproductive, we may quote the much more opposite fact, that trees (and why not therefore, a fortiori, corns, and grasses) grow and flourish for entire centuries in the midst of excretions of their roots. JNIirbel's own explanation is simple, and we think satisfactory. Plants require other elements for their support besitles the elements of assimilation, and never tlirive without them — for instance, tlicre is silex in the cane, and there is lime in certain plants, whose organization could not be complete without it. The quantity of any such fo- reign ingredients in a plant is generally very small ; but the necessity for it may be presumed absolute. Plants cannot be constituted, unless all the materials tbey require be furnished to them ; and indeed the smie observation will apply to animals: deprive a h3noflime, her eggs will have no shell ; deprive anim.ds generally of salt, and you ruin their powet of digestion ; deprive the earth then of its soda, and you must supply its place by potash ; for salts are the excitants of the growth of plants, and of the clovers in a very remarkable manner. The smallest quantity of sea-salt has frequently been found to effect wonders in vegetation. But the spontaneous forma- tion of any of these salts is the result of very slow chemical changes, which have been at work for cen- turies ; and when the natural and very limited sup- ply is exhausted ('as it soon will be, if the earth be forced to give her increase,) the corn of every suc- ceeding year deteriorates, the field looks shabby, be- comes chlorotic, and pines away ; but allow thecora to fall where it grew, and the earth will re-assumo the salts extracted from it during such growth, and the same grain will continue to flourish indefinitely. — In short, a peck of salt is worth a tun of manure ; and it is to tlie understanding of this fact that we may attribute tiie luxuriance of tlie environs of Paris, where the soil is naturally of the poorest kind, but is made by this simple addition to yield its unequalled produce, and to till its flower and its fruit markets with jdenteousness." REPEAL OF DUTY ON BRICKS USED FOR DRAINING LAND. All Act for consolidating and making other aUerations in the laws imposing duties on bricks, wliich received the Royal Assent on the 19th July, contains the following clauses : — And whereas it is expedient to exempt from the duties by this Act imposed bricks made for the sole purpose of draining wet and marshy land ; be it therefore enacted, that it shall be lawful for any person to make bricks for the sole purpose of draining wet and marshy lands without being charged or chargeable with any duty for or in respect of such bricks, all such bricks being in the making thereof stamped or moulded with the word " drain" in or near the centre of the surface of such bricks, in so plain and distinct a manner that the same may be easily and clearly legible to any officer of excise or other person examining the same both before and after such bricks shall have gone through the process of burning and become fit for use : Provided always, that it shall not be lawful for any person to eaiploy or make use of any such bricks for any other purpose than in draining wet and marshj' lands, and in con- structing the necessary drains, gouts, cul- verts, arches, and walls of the brickwork proper and necessarily required for effecting and main- taining the drainage of such lands ; and every maker of such bricks or other person who shall sell or deliver or use or employ any brick with the word " drain" so stamped or moulded thereon for any other purpose than as aforesaid shall forfeit fifty pounds. And be it enacted, that no drawback shall be allowed or payable on any bricks having the word " drain" stamped or moulded thereon, or on any bricks which shall not be sound and unbroken, and well and perfectly made and manufactured, and worth at least the duties of excise charged thereon if sold for home consumption. THE ^ARMER^S MAGAZINE. 171 IMPORTANT AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENT; DISTINGUISriED FROM OTHERS By THE NAME OF THE INVENTOR, AND KNOWN IN THE COUNTY OF SUFFOLK, AS iJIDDELL'S SCARIFIER; For the purpose of cultivating land under a va- riety of circumstances, and bringing it into a proper state of tilth much more effectually and at less ex- pence, than can be done by the means generally employed for that purpose. Made of different sizes. \_The English Agricultural Societii''s Gold Medal was awarded to the Messrs. Eansome for the eihibition of this and other implements at the late Meeting at Oxford,'^ —Ed. F.M. J., R., and A. Raksome have received numerous testimoninlsinfavour of BTDDELL'S SCARIFIER, and its merits being now so unquestionabl}' estab- lished, they are induced to give that full publicity to this implement, which at an earlier stage of its introduction, they should not have ventured to offer ; and as the best method of conveying an idea of its construction, they have furnished an engraving, to- gether with a description of its application in hus- bandry, and directions for using it. A gentleman who has for several years had three of the scarifiers in use, states that they are of great service in maldng Summer-fallows ; and that they have enabled him to do the work of his tillage with a less number of horses than he must otherwise have kept for the purpose. Its use may be strongly re- commended immediately after the corn is carted in harvest, where an early preparation and clean land is required for beet, Swedes, &c. If the implement be then used, it will for the first time of going over the land, require four horses to break up etfectuall}^ eight acres per day. Tlie next day, or as soon after as possible, the land should be well relied, and again scarified with three horses. It will, for clearing land without ploughing, be desirable to use the im- plement a third time, and to follow it by good roll- ing and harrowing. All grass and rubbish will by this means be brought to the surface without breaking the couch grass, the form of the teeth being such as is best adapted for that purpose. Tbe same gentleman adds, " I frequently scarify after sowing one cast of barley upon long fallows, and sow another cast afterwards, to be harrowed in with the seeds, and have often found this metliod succeed better than drilling. I have used this im- plement with much advantage on mixed and light soils, when turnips are to be sown, previously to the seed earth being worked by the plough. The land then turns up more moist and in a better state for the seed, than if it had been previously ploughed in- stead of scarified, and the plant is thus rendered more certain." In cases where a ploughing would be required, but which would leave the stetches or lands round- ing, when it miglit be more desirable to leave tliera flat ; or where by such ploughing they would be left flat, when it would be better to leave them round- ing, the implement set deep, may be used with ad- vantage, as it will leave the land either flat or round- ing, as the stetchet may happen to be previously to its being applied. General Purposes to which the Scaxiiiier MAY BE Advantageously Applied. To clean wheat, bean, and pea stubbles directly after harvest. To break up such parts of clover layers as may have failed in the plant, and to break up land after green crops in May or June in preparation for tur- nips, cole- worts, &c. ; thus accomplishing fine and deep tillage, without bringing fresh earth to the sur- face land, in preparation for barley and oats. Toe advantages of this Implement are ; — Saving in tillage, of half the labour, both manual and horse, over the ordinary method of cleaning- land. Saving of time. —Lnnd may be broken and stirred with this implement in much less time than with the plough. Improved cultivation. — The operation of this Sca- rifier is much more effective for spring crops on strong lands tlian ploughing, as it occasions less treading by horses, produces more mould, and allows the moisture to be more advantageously retained, and the seed will be deposited in the soil which has been exposed to the winter frosts. Less harrowing is required, as the land is broken up and left much finer than after the plough. The couch ffrass (if any) is brought to the surface without breaking it. The land is left by this implement in a state to be immediately harrowed, which may be done in time to break the clods before they become too hard. In all cases where it is desirable to give tillage to the land without turning down the surface, this im- plement may be used with great advantage. Directions for Using the Scarifier. lu using the Scarifier, attention should be paid to set it level, and the depth of scarifying may be va- ried from one to ten inches, which is done by means of the two levers. When the land is very hard, and required to be cut clean, first use the chisel points, and then follow with the wide hoes. The chisel points only, should be used on clover leys ; the roots of the clover being too tough for the hoes, and are not reijiiired to be cut up. The horses should be kept in a direct line and the implement not suffered to turn without taldng the fore part out of the ground by means of the long lever ; par- ticular attention should be paid to this, for ahhough the slanting direction in which the tines are set, will bear the draught required while the horses go straight forward, they cannot stand against the twist, if the Scarifier be turned round before the front tines are taken out of their work. It is also needful to ob- serve, that the draught iron from the fore wheels, upon which the wliijipletrees hang, should be sus- pended by the draught chain higher than where the N 2 172 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. three -. Jrebster's Speech. ^Vhere he, who Nature's mysteries hatli seen, Deep in Bohemia's mines of gorgeous coal,* Unfolds the structure of the vast machine, Tiie various parts of one stupendous whole : Euckland ! to latest time shall last thy name, In earth's remotest bounds be heard thy fame. As one bright star, seen through the darksome night. When wild winds rustle, and the rain descends. Gladdens the traveller with its small pale light, The one sure token that his God defends ; To this Society, 'midst party storms, Appears and shews that Britons still at heart Each other love, and other nations warms, Till each to other cheerful aid imparts. Till Peace's fruit t from firmest roots is grown. And Science calls all realms alike her own. Though curs'd the ground^ through man'a rebellious pride. Yet man's exertions may improve the soil ; Till plenteous harvests are to all supplied. Till where tall forests wave, strong peasants toil ; Till weeds through industry no more deface Their fair creation, but from sea to sea The joyous vallies teem throughout their space. Replete with corn wild waving as in glee,^ And mortals join in " thankfulness to bless The Great, the Merciful, whom all confess." ^r ^ Ju/i/ 'J2, 1839. W.W»J] — Oxford Chronicle." ON THE NEW PREVENTION OF SMUT IN WHEAT. Sir, — The subject of smut in wheat having often occupied the attention of scientific men, and also the growers of wheat in general as to its cause and prevention, I therefore send you the result of seven crops on the land I now occupy. In the years of 183;i, 1834 and 1835. my wheat was always infected more or less with smut, although brine and lime wasused in the usual way. Iresolved in the autumn of 1835, to use brine and lime on half my seed wheat, and blue vitrei on the other half. The consequence was, that I had smut where the brined lime was used, and very little indeed where the vitrolwas applied. I, therefore, determined to use vitrol in future, I have done so, and the result has been, that in my crop of 1838, I could not discover more than six smut ears, and in this present crop, I have not been able to see one, although I have made diligent search, my managing man has seen three smut ears, only, and this in near 90 statute acres of various sorts of wheat viz., Whittington, Brown's chevalier, Taun- ton velvet hull, yellow Lammas and Talavera. I can- not boast of superior crops, for the country does not warrant it, but any respectable farmer that may be desirous of seeing my wheat now in field or in the barn any time during the year, may do so. lam, Sir, Your obedient humble servant, GEO. DYER. Old Place Farm, East Tested, Hants. Aug. 23. * See Dr. Biickland's Biidgewater Treatise, or Penny Cyclo., Vol./. p. 290. t " They shall beat their swords into plongh-sharet, and their spears \\Ao pruning -hooks ; nation shall not lift sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any mere.'' — Isainh, ii. v. 4. X Genesis, iii. v. 17. § The vallies also shall stand so thick with corn, that they sliall laugh and sing."— Psalm 65, y. 14. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1^5 ON BONES AS A MANURE FOR TURNIPS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — Seeing in your excellent periodical, The Farmer's Magazine, several opinions respecting the efficacy of bones as a manure for turnip land, some stating its beneficial effects to have been astonishing ; while others assert, and with equal truth, that, from trials made by them, no benefit whatever has resulted from their use, it would seem very difficult to account for this difference of opinion, more especially when trials have been made by intelligent and practical farmers for several years. Those who found it beneficial, con- tinued its use ; while others, who, upon trial, ex- perienced the reverse, gave it up as not answering their jmrpose, without further trials or further in- vestigation as to the cause, why it is not bene- ficial to the crops on all soils. Now, if its salu- tary effects are as stated by its advocates, it must surely be worth inquiry, and ought to be investi- gated by scientific men, who would render a last- ing benefit to the farming interest, by showing on what soils it could be used with advantage, and also those soils where its application would be nugatory. This would save many from a needless ex- pense and a consequent disappointment in the crop. It appears, by an article in your number for June last, that an excellent lecture had been de- livered, at the Woodbridge Literary Institution, by a Mr. Webster ; in the course of which he al- luded to the merits of bones as a manure, and briefly described a method whereby their adulte- ration might be detected ; and this adulteration may be done in various ways, and for very differ- ent purposes, and appears to me to be a main cause, though not entirely, why on some soils they succeed well, why on others partially, and why again on others a total failure. As it is necessary, for the investigation of this subject, that the component parts of bones should be understood by every one interested in their use as a manure, I beg to submit, for the benefit of those of your readers who may have not seen a better, an extract from an analysis by that emi- nent chemist, Mr. Hatchett. He says — " The component parts of bones are chiefly four, viz., the earthy salts, fat, gelatine, and cartilage. " The earthy salts are three in number — "1. Phosphate of lime. " 2. Carbonate of lime. " 3. Sulphate of lime. " The proportion of fat seems to vary from \ to \ of the weight of the bone." Annexed is also a table, calculated from experi- ments made from bones, both of the human spe- cies and also from various animals (by the same chemist) : — 100 Phos- Carbon- parts contain of the Gelatine. phate of Lime. ate of Lime. Loss. Total. Human. 23 63 2 2 100 Horse . . 9 67'5 1-25 22-25 100 Ox 3 93 2 2 100 Sheep.. 16 70 0-5 13-5 100 Swine .. 17 52 1 30 100 Calf . . . 25 54 21 100 Elk. . . . 1*5 90 1 7-5 100 The gelatine, the most beneficial portion to the land, is also an important ingredient in making portable soups, and also in the manufacture of glue ; and there can be little doubt that, in most cases, the gelatine is, with the fat, extracted from the bones, by boiling or otherwise, before they are sent to the mills to be crushed for manure. The weight of the gelatine is about j^ of the bone. Thus the bones, after the gelatine and fat have been extracted, are divested of their most enrich- ing properties, and little remains but lime, which on some soils will do good, but not to the degree it ought, and on others none at all ; and, as Mr. Webster observes in his excellent lecture, that " the farmers can purchase that in great abun- dance, and at a much cheaper rate." He is also of opinion, "that for every cwt. of bones carted upon the land in an unadulterated state, you have \\ hundred of flesh ; and is not animal matter (he continues) the food of plants ?" He also quotes, in corroboration of his argument, some experi- ments made by the late T. A. Knight, Esq., of Downton Castle, the eminent horticulturist, rela- tive to watering plants with broth made from bones. If we were to notice the great difference in the essential parts, bj' a reference to the annexed table, it might lead into an inquiry why the vast quantity of bones, imported from the continent a few years ago, were found so excellent in quality, and so stimulating in their effects. Vast quantities of bones are collected in carts, from the butchers' shops in the metropolis, in their raw state, all the meat having been pre- viously cut from them ; these bones are taken to persons who, by roasting and boiling, extract from them every particle of gelatine and fat they con- tain ; nothing then remains to benefit tfie land but the cartilage contained in the earthy salts. By the above process, a great quantity of nutritious food is extracted for the service of man, and other purposes connected with his comfort and advan- tage, and consequently to the general advantage of the public : and although there is nothing to regret that their essential parts are extracted for such valuable purposes, still we must not be sur- prised that bone manure is found, in many cases, deficient in its fertilizing effects upon the land, and often disappoints the sanguine expectation of the industrious cultivator. — I remain. Sir, yours, &c., THOMAS JOY. Thus it appears, that the bones of the Human species and of the calf afford the most gelatine, and those of the ox and horse the least except the elk. TO THE RIGHT HON. EARL SPENCER. My Lord, — The complaints of unsuccessful com- petitors are so universally made, and generally with so little or such bad reasons, that they seldom obtain credit, or even attention. The fate so common to the class, will most probably be mine, but taking, though only one of its humblest members, as warm an interest in the English Agricultural Society as can be felt even by you, our honoured president, and believing that if the treatment I have received be extended to others it may prove injurious, by preventing them from exhibiting specimens of their stock or even becoming members of the Society, I trke the liberty of troubling your lordship with the following statement : — Within the time prescribed by the rules I entered two of my cows in the classes four and five, stating their age and breed, " the Pure long-horn," in the necessary certificates. On this point I cannot be mistaken, for 1 went to the com- mittee room, on my way through Oxford, and ascer- tained that they were corectly entered, and was in- formed that mine were the only long-horn Cows to 76 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. be exhibited. On reaching home after an absence of some weeks, I found that one of the animals was amiss, and in consequence determined to send the other only, which i did on Monday the I5th, and she was taken into the yard the same afternoon, and to prevent the possibility of a mistake 1 addressed a letter to the secretary, informing him of the circum- stance, and stating that the cow sent was entered in class four, and my reason for withdrawing the other. On going to the show yard on Tuesday to inquire if my beasts ('the cow and a cait mare and foal) had ar- rived safely, I was informed that the cow had been placed in class five ; upon which I asked permission to see the committee, and was admitted to the tent where they were sitting. As the judges had not commenced their inspection 1 begged to liave the mistake rectified, but was told it was impossible. One of the gentlemen said to me " the arrangement is correct, this is your entry. A cow, aged ten years, of the pure long-horn breed in class four, this we have marked absent, and the cow aged twelve years, of the same breed in class five, where she is placed." I replied it is your mistake, it is the cow entered in class five that is absent. J was then told that I ought to have written to the secretary to explain. I assured them that I had done so, but it made no differenca in their decision, and I received from one of them a significant hint, that it was of no conse- quence where she was placed with regard to any chance of a prize. 1 do not supjiose that your lord- ship paid any attention to the conversation, but vou were present, for you entered the tent while the entry of the stock was being referred to. I do not mean that I have any real practical grievance to complain of against the committee, for though 1 think their refus- ing to rectify their own mistake was an act of injus- tice, I am full)^ ready to agree with them that to me it made no essential diftereiice, and that the alteration of the class was as likely to be favourable as other- wise. In fact from the moment 1 first read the list of prizes to be contended for at Oxford, when I found that of twenty-four bestowed nominally to encourage the breeders of all sorts of cattle, fifteen were appro- priated to three favoured kinds, and of the remaining nine four thrown open to them, while all other dis- tinct breeds through England, each highly valued in its separate district, each possessing its peculiar merits, by which that high estimation had been fairly won, were lumped together with every conceivable description of cross, I felt that it was the height of improbability to expect that the owner of any tho- rough-bred animal without the pale of the society's fa- vour should obtain the distinction ofaprize, except the one offered for the best bull, as it is an unusual oc- currence for a half-bred animal to be kei)t as such, particularly by the class of persons likely to be com- petitors on such an occasion, the prevalent idea on the subject being, that though the first cross between any two sorts will frequently produce an animal of more than ordinary merit, the progeny will rapidly deteriorate if bred from ; your Lordship places this among common but mistaken notions (see note 1 ) ; your opinion has, and ought to have great weight, but unless it is in this instiince supjjorted by a series of well conducted experiments, if it is only theoreti- cal ; I for one must still adhere to the general be- lief, particularly as it is borne out by my own expe- rience as far as that goes. My place of residence, for some seven years, afforded me gieat facility for Studying the agriculture of those districts of the counties of Gloucester, Hereford, and Monmouth, adjoining the course of the river Wye. I attended both for amusement and business, the principal fair in each, and some of the finest beasts I ever saw were hybrids between the Hereford and 9hort-hom« If the excellence thus obtained could have befn so certainly and easily perpetuated, I know not which to marvel at the most, the simplicity of the breeders", who have gone on keeping the blood of their herds pure at such trouble and expense, or the prodigality of the English Agricultural Society, in bestowing so many prizes on them for so doing. In thus stating my opinion I feel that I lay myself open to be asked two questions, — first, why, thinking as I did, I took tlie trouble of sending my stock to Oxford at all? and, secondly, why I persist in retaining on my ground a description of caitle held in such low esti- mation by tlie best judges of the day 1 To the first I reply, that I took a pride (a failing to which all breeders of cattle are, as your lordship justly observes (2) peculiarly liable) in producing at the meeting animals of a sort, which though now out of fashion, at the end of the last and the beginning of the present century, excited more attention and sold for higher prices than any other breed whatever, (see note 3) particularly in this and the neighbour- ing counties of Bucks, Northampton, and still more of Warwick, where they are still kept up and prized as highly as ever, to this very day. To the second, that at the risk of being deemed presumptuous, I challenge the judgment of those who consider the long-horned only worthy to be classed with any cross- bred stock, and assert that the original breed of England, (for such they are, according to the best natural historians) though they may liave ceased to belong to the aristocracy of the farm-yard, if I may be allowed to use such an expression, though they may stand low with the fasJnonable and theoretical, possess excellencies that render them well worth)' of the attention of all pr.iclical farmers, especially of those who place any reliance on the dairy as a source of profit. In selecting those to exhibit I chose one, because though low m condition, it preserved the peculiarities of make and shape that commanded the highest jirices among the celebrated Croxall and Rollwright stocks, from which she is directly de- scended. The other, to exemplify one of the merits of the breed, its retaining its excellence as a dairy- cow to a very advanced age, but this one I was acci- dentally prevented from sending, I am not so blinded by partiality as not to be aware of their deficiency on certain points, they cannot vie in early maturity with the short-horns, seldom acquiring their full size under six, and sonietimes growing till seven years of age ; nor, in very good pastures, do they perhaps exceed them as milkers ; they want the symmetry of the Devons, whose almost lady-like beauty renders them so ornamental ; they will nei- ther feed as heifers, nor breed such oxen as the Ilerefords, a class of beasts I highly venerate ; but they are more hardy in constitution than any of the three, better suited for cold and exposed situations, and for the dairy generally, their milk being not only plentiful but jieculiarly rich ; they will thrive on an inferior description of pasture, and if kejjt to a very advanced age, either on account of their breed or utility, will then feed more jjrofitably than any other animal. I held for a few years a small grazing farm in Glouceslersliire, and being anxious to test the comparative merits of the breeds, I procured four of the best heifers of each sort, long and short-horned, that I could obtain ; while feeding together on the rich Wye-side meadows, there was no perceptible difference between them, (I should, however, men- tion that one of the short-horns was b)' far the best milker I ev*r met with) but when removed as they were occasionally obliged to be, to higher ground and an inferior pasture, the long-horns kept up their THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 177 milk and condition, while the short-horns fell off pal- pably in both, as did the rest of the stock, composed mostly of Herefords. This may be thouglit too trifling- an experiment to be at all conclusive, but in order to prove the sincerity of my belief, I am ready to back my opinion. My farming- is on a very small scale ; I have only fourteen cows, of vv'liich twelve are now in use for the dairy, and I am ready to show at the next annual meeting- a cheese, the produce of one day's milk, against one made by a similar number of any &f the three fa- vorite breeds, either separately or in conjunction, for any sum that may be preferred from 5/. to 25/., or more, or else to enter into a sweepstakes. I may here mention that my land, according- to a recent valuation, does not average 30s. per acre. la thus taking- up the cudgel.'; for one desciiption of *lock, I beg' to tjuard myself against the charg-e of wishing- to depreciato any other sort ; I leave them to their own champions, who know, and ca« advocate their merits far better than myself; one is already provided for; I can hardly imagine our fut-are President will allow tlie splendid cattle of his own county to be omitted as unworthy of consideration as a breed. If it is pleaded that tlie funds of the Society will not afford so many prizes, then the money amount should not be so high — a matter, after all, of no real moment to competitors ; or a trifling advance might be put on the tickets of admission to meet the additional expense. If, that for some prizes offered tliere would not be sufficient competition, then, as is common in horse-racing, the public money might be withheld, there being plenty of time to communicate with persous enter- ing their cattle before the day of show, who might take their cheice of wltlidrawing them altogether, or putting them into a Class similar to Class IV. of the last meeting, and which ought to be open to all without exception. It may be also argued that the Society, in giving their patronage to the breeds that feed the most readily, and slighting all others, are only following, not leading opinion, ," IMarching with the spirit of the age." I am well aware that dairy-farming is fallen into disre- pute—that the small, or as they are now called, working farmers, are generally complaining— the large ones rapidly withdrawing from it, and applying their capital to other modes of agriculture, and that for this depre- ciation various causes are assigned, some attributing it to the demand for meat, in consequence of increased population and wealth,— a palpable mistake, as the same state tliat requires more butchers will, as a matter of course, require moie buttcrmen and cheesemongers, others to the reduction of freight from improved facility of carriage, — an idea that would carry with it an ap- pe'irance of reason, if the abandonment of dairy-farming was confined to those districts by which London, and a few other large towns, were formerly rupplied, but the complaint is general, participated in alike by the makers of cheese and butter, and extending, unless I am greatly mistaken, to Ireiund, whose dairies, if this hypothesis was true, ought to be flourishing. I do not wish to transgress against the fundamental rules of the Society, but if we are to find the real cause we must, I believe, come to a question having a political tendency. I be- lieve that this growing dejjreciation may be traced to the different degrees of protection afl^ordcd on the re- settlement of the laws affecting agriculture in 1816; the dairy-farmers having then assigned to them pre- cisely that which so many now advocate as the best for the corn-grower — a moderate fixed duty, under the operation of which the supply of our market is gradually, but certainly passing from the British into the hands of the Foreign farmer, the importation of butter and clieese, once little more than nominal, having year by year increased till in 1837, it amounted to 18,980 tons. I am not aware of any calculation by wiiich the average yearly quantity per head can be fairly arrived at, but taking all sorts of cattle and soil, perhaps after feeding- her calf 2 cwt. of dairy produce Iper cow, will not be far off the mark, if this is correct it would require in the event of an interruption to our present commercial relations, no less than the enormous number of 189,000 cows in milk to minister to the present comforts of the people ! I will not pursue the argument farther than to ask whether it !•! judicious to throw the weight of the Society into a scale already too much depressed? At any rate, if the same regulations are to be observed at the next, as at the last meeting, the committee should in common fair- ness be cautioned to pay a little more attention to detail in arranging the less favoured classes, that they neglect- ed them at Oxford was evident enough. According to the published reports, there were several head of cattle entered in Class 5. Where were they? certainly not where they ought to have been. The cows that had the first and second prizes awarded to them, and my own stood together, having some calves on one side, and yearlings on the other, if there were any more.tiiey must have been mixed up improperly with some other class. Another circumstance too trifling to be mentioned by itself, forms a connecting link in the chain of evi- dence. To the standing of each separate beast, a paper stating the age, breed, and owner's name, was con- spicuously affixed in my case ; this was omitted, the only instance, to the best of my belief, througliout the show- yard, and to my certain knowledge the cause of much remark (see note 4), and anim-.'.d version. In addressing myself to your Lordship, as head of the Society, allow me to say that I was encouraged by your own observa- tions, " That the best way to effect the object of the English Agricultural Society, is by each member, who has paid attention to any division of farming operations communicating the result of his experience." If in so doing I have brought forward nothing new, and sug- gested nothing useful, at least let me hope, that in com- plaining of the past, and recommending alteration for the future, I have not been presumptuous or offensive, if I have, it was through inadvertence, not design; 1 would not be the first for my own sake.tlie high respect I bear to your Lordship both from your unblemished character and as a munificient Patron of a great Na- tional Interest, will prevent my ever intentionally being the second. In conclusion, however, I must respectfully but decidedly protest against the system adopt(;.i at tiie Oxford Meeting. So long- as the Society calls itself Euglisii, so long as it solicits the support, and accepts the subscriptions of all classes of Agriculturists, so long- is it bound by justice and policy alike, to hold out its encouragement to all. This is no individual opinion of mine, but one felt generally, and loudly expressed, and one that far from abating, will continue to increase to the great detriment of the Society, until its exclusive character be abandoned, and each recognized breed allowed its fair share of competition, and the owners their fair chance of success, I remain, my Lord, with every sentiment of respect, your most obedient servant, JOHN H. WHITMORE JONES. Chastleton House, Cltipping Norton. Noite 1. — Essay on the Breeding- of Cattle, Journal of the English Society. Part 1 , page 23. Note 2.— Ei-say on the Bieeiling of Cattle, &c., page 28. Nole 3. — I liave iiiiloitunately no date liy me to lix any thinsr like the average price of the Croxal Dishley and Odstone liOiig-Horncd stork. Tor one Dull Jianitd Tiger tlie enor- nious sum of 700 guineas was ollercd and lefused. The cata- logue of the sale at Rollwriglit in this county has been re- piintcd, there weic then dispssed ot 50 head of pure bred Long-hroportion of tiie soil consists of small stones, yet in old pasture-land not a single pebble will be found within some inches of the surface. The author's at- tention was called to this subject by Mr. W'edgcwood, of Alaer Hall, in Staffordshire, who showed him several fields, some of which, a few years before, had been covered with liuiP, and others with burnt luarl and cinders. These substances, in every case, are now buried to the depth of some inches beneath the turf. Three fields were examined with care ; the 1st consisted of good pasture-laud, which had been limed, without having been ploughed, about twelve years and a half before ; the turf was about half an inch thick ; and two inches and a half beneath it was a laj'er or row of small aggregated lumps of the lime, forming, at an ecpial depth, a well-marked white lime. The soil beneath this was of a gravelly na- ture, and differed very considerably from the mould nearer the surface. About thr^e years since, cinders were likewise spread on this field ; these are now buried at the depth of one inch, forming a line of black S])ots parallel to and above the white layer of lime. The 2nd field examined was remarkable only from the cinders being now buried in a layer, nearly an inch thick, three inches beneath the surface. This layer was in parts so continuous, that the siiperficial mould was only attached to the subsoil of red clay by the longer root's of the grass. The history of the ord field is more complete. Previously to fifteen years since, it was waste buid ; but at that time it was drained, harrowed, ploughed, and well covered with burnt marl and cindeis. It has not since been disturbed, and now supports a tolerably good pasture. The section here was — turf half an inch, mould two inches and a half; a layer one and a half inch thick, composed of fragments of burnt marl (conspicuous from their bright red co- lour, and some of considerable size, namely, one inch by half an inch broad, and a quarter thick}, of cin- ders, and a few quartz pebbles mingled with earth ; lastly, about four inches and a half beneath the sur- face was the original black peaty soil. Thus beneath a layer (nearly tour inches thick) of fine particles of earth, mixed with some vegetable matter, those sub- stances now occurred, which, fifteen years before, bad been spread on the surface. Mr. Darwin stated that the appearance in all cases was as if the frag- ments had, as the farmers believed, worked them- selves down. It does not, however, appear at all possible that either the j)Owdered lime, or the frag- ments of burnt marl, and the pebbles, could sink through compact earth to some inches beneath the surface, and still remain in a continuous layer j nor is it probable that the decay of the grass, although adding to the surface some of the conscituent parts of the mould, should separate in so short a time the fine from the coarse earth, and accumulate the former on those objects which so lately were strewed on the surface. The explanation of these circumstances which oc- curred to Mr. Wedgewood, although it may at first ajipear trivi.d, the author does not doubt is the cor- rect one, namely, that the whole is due to the diges- tive process by which the common earth-worm is supported. On carefully examining between the blades of grass in the fields above described, the author found th.it there was scarcely a space of two inches square without a little heap of the cylindrical castings of worms. It is well known that worms swallow earthy matter, and that, having separated the serviceable portion, they eject at the mouth of their burrows the remainder in little intestine-shaped heaps, 'i'he worm is unable to swallow coarse par- ticles ; and as it would naturally avoid pure lime, the fine earth lying beneath either the cinders and burnt marl, or the powdered lime, would, by a slow process, be removed and tlirov>-n up to the surface. This supposition is not imaginary; for in the field in which cinders had been spread out only half a year before, Mi. Darwin actually saw the castings of the worms heaped on the smaller fragments. Nor is tho agency so trivial as it at first might be thought, the great number of earth-worms (as every one must be aware who has ever dug in a grass field)making up for theinsi<;nificaiit(|uaiility of work which each performs. On the above hyi)othesis, the great advantage of old pasture-land, which farmers are always particu- latly averse from breaking up, is explained ; for the worms must require a considerable length of time to prepare a thick stratum of mould, by thoroughly mingling the original constituent parts of the soil, as well as the maniires added by man. In the peaty fiidd, in fifteen vears, about three inches and a half had been well digested. It is probable, however, that the process is continued, though at a slow rate, to a much greater dej)th ; for as often as a worm is compelled by dry weather, or any other cause, to descend deep, it must bring to the surface, when it empties the contents of its body, a few particles of earth. The author concluded by remarkint;-, that it is probable that every paitide of earth in old pasture- land has passed through the intestines of worms, and hence, that in some senses the term " animal mould" would be more approj)riate than" vegetable mould." The agriculturist, in j)loughing the ground, follows a method strictly natural ; and he onlv imitates, in a rude manner, without being able either to bury the pebbles or to sift the fine from the coarse soil, the work which nature is daily performing by the agency of the earth-worm. CULTIVATION OF THE SUNFLOWER.— On inquiring into the use made of this plant, we were given to understand that it is here (in Tartary) raised chiefly for the oil expressed from it. But it is also of u«e for many other purposes. In the market places of the larger towns we often found the people eatinir the seeds, which, when boiled in water, taste not unlike the boiled Indian cora eaten by the Turks. In some districts of Russia the seeds are employed with great success in fattening poultry ; they are also said to in- crease the number of eggs more than any other kind of grain. Pheasants and parti idges eat them with great avidity, and find the same effects from them as other birds. The dried leaves are given to cattle in place of straw ; and the withered stalks are said to produce a considerable quantity of alkali. — Bremner^s Excursions in the Interior of Russia. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 179 THE SILVER FIR. IIEI.ATIVE VAtUE OF THE LARCtl AND SILVER FIR, (To the Editor of the Chester Gazelle.) In the plantations of Dupplir, Diinheld, Monzie, and other localities hig-hly worthy the attention of all plan- ters, the Silver Fir (Abies), will be found g-reaily to exceed in growth the Larcii (Larex), which will be satisfactorily proved by the fallowing measurements, taken with great accuracy. It may not be amiss to call the attention of the owners of plantations to the advan- tages the Silver Fir holds out, which are so considerable as to render them an object of importance in a national point of view. The following facts and remarks may induce other proprietors to make enquiries and experi- ments,' the issue of which may probably be to remove the deep-rooted prejudice now prevalent against the Silver Fir; — Feet. Inches. Weymouth Pine 7 10. . . .4 feet from the ground. Larch 8 9.... Do. do. Spruce Fir 8 I....D0. do. Scotch Fir 9 3 Do. do. Weymouth Pine 8 3., .Do. do. Spruce Fir 9 I....D0. do. Scotch Fir 10 3..,. Do. do. 2 feet from the ground. 4 feet from the ground. SilverFir 17 2 14 7 Do 14 5 12 0 Do 14 6 12 3 Do. 13 9 12 1 Doi 15 10 13 3 Do. 15 8 13 4 These trees were all planted at the same time, and are supposed to be about 105 years old, growing at Dup- plin Castle, near Perth. Trees measured at Dunlield, belonging to the Duke of Athol, planted in 1737 : 2 feet from the ground. 4 feet from the ground. Larch 16 3 13 9 Larch 14 2 12 5 Scotch Fir 11 4 10 10 Do 10 1 : 9 3 Trees measured at IMonzie, belonging to JMr. Camp- bell :— 2 feet from the ground. 4 feet from the ground- Silver Fir 10 6 9 4 Larch 10 6 8 0 Do 10 7 8 11 Do 13 3. 11 8 Do ...10 8 14 7 These tree* are nearly 100 feet high. The measurement of the last Larch at two feet from the ground, owing' to its projecting roots, is greatly increase 1 in circum- ference. The above measurement leaves no doubt thut the growth of the Silver Fir is more rapid than of any Coniferous tree hitherto introduced into this country. The following is the result of three experiments to prove the superior strength or toughne-^s of the Silver Fir, in comparison to the Larch. The fir*t experiment was made in November, 1838, and tl-ie Silver Fir sus- tained a weight of 17 stone more than the Larch before it broke. The second experiment w-as the SilverFir and Larch, 15 feet 2 inches long each, and euch 25 years old. lioth trees were seven months undu'r cover, and were as near as possible of the same dimensions ; the Silver Fir sustained 37 stones, and the Larch 25 stones— difference in favour of the Sdver Fir 12 stones. Ib the third experiment, the Lurc!i and Silver Fir were both cut and dried in a green state, 12 feet long, 25 years old, and of the same dimeniions ; the Silver Fir sustained 64 stones 5 pounds, and the Larch 45 stones 5 pounds — difference in favour of the Silver Fir 19 stones. Sir Joseph Barker has a Silver fir, at his seat in Der- byshire, which measures eight feet circumference at four feet high ; another nine feet one inch at four feet ; the latter holds thirteen inches diameter at 65 feet high. At Woburn, there is a Silver Fir which exceeds nine feet in circumference, four feet from the ground, and has a clear pruned trunk of seventy-five feet, the tree itself being 120 feet high. The rapidity of the growth of the Larch, and the value of its timber, which is not liable to warp, are equal to that of any other of the Pine tribe. In the dock-yards at A'cnice, Silver Firs may be seen forty yardi long, and eighteen inches in diameter at the small end. The highest altitude of the growth of the Pine isstated to be from 12,000 to 15,000 feet above the level of the sea in latitude 20", and the limits of the growth of the Oak appears to be confined to 10,300 ieet. At about 1,000 feet above the valley of Nepaul, the Genus Pinus, of which eight species are known to inhabit these re- gions, becomes conspicuous. I'he Pinus Deodar closely resembles the true Cedar, and is confined to great ele- vations. The Pinus Excelsa is a gigantic tree, with cones nine or ten inches in length ; and Pinus Webbiana of VVallich, is an immense Cedar-like tree with purple cones, from which is prepared an indigo. 'The Pinus Lanbertina has been found to have attained to the growth of 200 feet in height, and 57 in circumference. At Fargoo, twelve miles from Simla, in India, which is about 10,000 feet above the sea, there is a wood of enor- mous Pines, some of thorn measuring irom 120 to 130 feet in height, 20 feet in circumference, and growing as straight as an arrow. The timber is found to be re- markably sound. Such a forest in Great Britain would soon put to shame the mast trade of Archangel. M. VV. SCOTUS. HOW HOLLAND WAS FORiMED.— The man- ner in which the country has been rendered haliitable to human beings, is one of the most surprising facts in physical geography. The whole of the territory, from the Texel to the north to pretty nearly Calais on the south, comprehending a large part of llolland and Belgium, and part of France, is in almost all parts perfectly level, and if it had not been indebted to art, would have been a general marsh, or included within the influence of the sea. On looking at this extensive territory, and then proceeding inland to the higher regions of Germany, the conclusion naturally arises, that the whole of the low countries are simply an alluvial deposit, washed from the alpine regions of the interior. The land everywhere, on being dug, is sand or clay. You may travel hundreds of miles and never see a stone. At this hour land is form- ing on the coast of Holland, and by a very obvious process. The waters of the Rliine, in all its branches, are very muddy, or loaded with particles of clay and sand , washed" from the upper country, and these are carried out to the sea, where they are sinking to the bottom, and forming sand-banks. At the mouth of the Maese, long sandy beaches, produced in this manner, are seeu at certain slates cf the tide. Alreidy they exhibit tufts of herbage, and are resorted to by flocks of sea-birds 5 and there can be no doubt, thai, by a very little trouble, many square miles of new land might at present be added to the coast of Holland. The exact process by which the low countries have been saved from the sea, has never yet been fully detailed. Nature having in the first instance produced an alluvial marsh, a certain degree of art has been employed torai^e barriers to ])re- vent the influx of the sea ; and this point being secured, the next step has been to drain the land, piecemeal, by pumping, the water being raised so as to flow off by channels into the sea at low tide. Much stress is usually laid by writers on the prodigious trouble taken by the Netherlands to keep out the sea, by means of artificicil bulwarks along the coast. But on this point there is some exaggeration, and one very material circuu'istance is entirely omitted to be noticed. It is only at certain places that (/real exertions are made, by means of artificial dykes, to keep out the sea. Nature, as if anxious to save the country from tidal inundation, has for centuries been energetically working to increase 180 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the magnituJo of the mounds en the coa^it. At low water, wlien the bare beach is cxijosed to the action of the winds from the German Ocean, clouds of sands are raisudinto the air, and showered down upon the country for at least a mile inland; this is constantly poiucr on, and the result is, that along the whole line, from Haarlem to about Duiiknk or Calais, the coast consists of sandy mounds or downs, of ffre.-it bi'eadtii, partially covered with grass and heath, but unfit for pasluiai^e or any other purpose. In some places thoie downs look like a series of irregular hills, and when seen from the tops of the sleei)les, they are so huge as to shut out the view of the sea. Thetraveller, in visiting them from the plains, u]\ at once ascends into a region of desert barrenness. lie walks on and on for miles in a wilderness such as might be expected to be seen in Africa, and at last emerges on the sea shore, where the mode ofcreationofthis singular kind of territory is at onee conspicuous. Loose par- ticles of sand are blown in his face ; and as he descends to the shore, he sinks to the ancle in the drifted heaps. In some parts of these dreary solitude*, the sandy soil has been prevented from rising with the wind and in- juring the fertile country, by being sown with the seeds of a particular kind of benty grass, and in a few sjjots fir-trees have been successfully planted. — Clianibei's Coiitiitental Tour. TO COLONEL CMALLONER, One of thk CoMiMrniir. ov Managkment of THK English Agricultural Socifty. Dear Sir, — You aslted me, on the Wednesdaj', at Oxford, if I did not think the present common practice of making tups so enormously fat, a very great evil. I replied, that 1 had long considered it so —that I had wiili me a paper on this, wliicli I would show you the next day, with a number of ntliers on dilfcrent agricultural subjects intended for publicationwhen the eagerness for new discoveries shall be somewhat abated, and some at- tention paid trt matter emanating from long practical experience. Not having the opportunity of showing you the p.aper, I take this method of giving you, and at the same time the public, a copy. " The present general system of making tups very fat is very bad. They ought, when put to the ewes, to have flesh enough on them to be in full vigour, but they should be active on their legs to seek out the ewes which may be inclined to take them ; instead of which, moit of the Leicester tups can only waddle among the ewes, and are often seen with many around them. I am inclined to believe what an old shepherd said to me, ' very fat tups have not so much seed in them as those which are not so fat.' I have often hired fat prized tups, but having had these two or three years past a great many barren ewes, do not mean again to do so ; at any rate, not when the time of exhibition is near the ])roper time of putting them to the ewes; hastily re- ducing them must be wrong — they ought »ot to be put to the ewes in a reduced languid state. If tup breeders were not put to such useless expense in making their tups so very fat, they might afford to let them at less prices; but fat covers faults. Leicester tup breeders keep their tups apart from the ewes, and use teazers ; thi* practice well answers to them, but does not suit those who breed only to sell mutton, and who do not keep a shepherd that does nothing else than attend the " i know some tup breeders who much condemn this fat tup making system, still, as others will continue it, they are so obliged. I wish some one of them would assist me to prove the waste of food, aod the deception iu this practice, by selecting from their tup lambs, two by the same tup, out of equally good ewes, and that were as much alike as it were possible to choose them in the quality of their wool and meat, to let me have one to keep with my wether lambs, in the early part of the winter on uncut common turnips, afterwards on cut Swedes, but without either cake or corn, or even hay, excepting in frost and snow, and in the spring turned with thcui into a fair pasture : the breeder to keep the other in his accustomed most expensive man- ner, which iu general is in this way :— Autumn, cab- bac;e3 ; winter and spring, cut Swedes ; summer, clo- ver of that height, that when the sheep are laying down, none are seen by persons walking any distance from the field : to all these indulgences they have at all times eitV.cr cake or corn, and the system of many is to give both. Although all tup breeders must allow that the produce of the tup kept, as I should keep it, would be quite as good as that from the high fed tup, and in all probability much more numerous, still, when the two tups so differently kept should be exhibited side by side for letting, and the owner of them finds he can let the high fed sheep for perhaps double the amount of the other, it is not surprising that the system should be generally continued, although many of the tup breeders condemn it, and although it is actually a public evil. I do not mean to say that it can never answer to give sheep cake or corn on poor land, or that when corn is at a low price on land that is of better quality ; but, cake should be prohibited from being given to tups ex- hibited for prizes, and it should not excite suspicion as to the accuracy of the owners' certificate by the judges offering a piece to each sheep, which it will immediately lay hold of if it has ever eaten any ; for, it is well known that many shepherds to gain credit for their su- perior management, would give it unknown and con- trary to the orders of their masters." Although at a Committee of Management in Caven- dish Square, in May, before the business of the day commenced, I put iuto the hands of one of the leading members of the Committee of Publication, manuscript l>apers about forty in number, all on different agricul- tural points, and that member having laid them on the table and then immediately walked away without mak- ing any observation, he, as I supposed, having made up his mind, that being ignorant of Chemical or Geological soienee, I conld not bring forward anything worthy the attention of the Enclish Agricultural Society ; still, should you think differently after having read the copy of one of them, I shall be happy to give you, in the same way, a copy of any of the others. Believe me, dear Sir, your's truly, C. HILLYARD, Thorpe-lands, near 'Northampton, Aug. 8, 1839. WHAT ARE THE NUTRITIVE QUA- LITIES OF LINSEED OIL AS FOOD FOR CATTLE? Sir, — The prospect for winter keeping for beasts is very unpromising ; the hay crop, generally speaking, is very deficient in quantity and greatly deteriorated in quality by the late excessive rains : the turnip crop (upon Lincoln Heath) is likely to be very unproductive, the ravages of the wire-worm have been very destruc- tive, and the growth of the young turnip is arrested by the excessive moisture; and to crown all, linseedcake is rising in price, and has already attained a value ex- orbitant to give to young growing cattle. In this extremity will any of your correspondents relate, for the benefit of their brother agriculturists, their experience in the use of liuseed oil as a nutritive substance for cattle, describing the best mode of giving it, the quantity requisite both for feeding and also for hohUng stock, any cautions necessary in the com- mencement of its applications, and also, what is of great importance, its relative comparative value with linseed- cake in enriching the manure heap ? I am, Sir, your obedient servant, A Novice. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 11^1 ON INFLUENZA IN SHEEP. (From the Veteiinarian.) TO THE VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION. Gentlemen, — Your having been pleased to elect me one of your corresponding members, renders it almost imperative that I should attempt some return for that distinguished lionour. As an humble member of the veterinary profession, I am willing to contribute the little that I am able to- wards the advancement of our common science; and therefore I venture to lay before you a few observations on the disease to which sheep are liable in this locality, and which is often attended with considerable loss to the grazier. The treatment of cattle and of sheep is a divi- sion of our art by many contemned. Such, per- haps, have not resided in districts that have called forth the energies of their minds ; nor have they seen the ravages which disease often produces : had they, I feel assured that the comments which from time to time are made, would be thought unworthy of scientific men, and especially of those to whom the healtli of our domesticated animals should have been, and even now is, in a great measure entrusted. There are many cogent reasons why instructions should be commenced in good earnest at our olma mater on this division of our art; but, as the full consideration of this would lead me into a field of argument I am not, at present, desirious of entering on, I will leave it, and pass to the more immediate object of my ])aper ; craving, however, permission to say, that I am glad to see that reform has been commenced. I feel assured that steps will be taken to ensure its progress, and to perfect the system. Thus, I trust, speedily and for ever will be wiped away a stigma which has been long attached to the pro- fession of a veterinary surgeon in country practice. These are not da3's in wliich we can retrograde ; but we must continue the onward march which Las been so nobly begun, and to which the asso- ciation lends its powerful aid. The malady to which I refer is influenza in .sHEi;p ; at least I call it by this name, because it bears so great a resemblance to that disease in the horse. The situations in which I have found it most prevalent, are the marshes near the sen. The land there is very good, but much exposed ; there being no hedges nor inclosures for many square miles. Cases are most abundant during the months of March and April, and especially when easterly winds prevail. It generally attacks young sheep, such as are called lambs hogs, and almost always those that are in the best condition, and of the largest size. I'o prevent repetition, I will give you an ac(!oimt of a flock of 180 that I attended, in April 1838, for these presented the general features of the many, and may therefore be taken as a type of all the other flocks which were affected. Tliey belonged to a wealthy grazier, Mr. G. Curbets, residing at Croft, near this place. It was on the VJVcv of April that I was first desired to attend them. On my arrival, I found seven or eight dead. They were observed to be ill on the day previous to my seeing them. There wetc eight more that could not stan 1 ; and when lifted up, they had entirely lost all power of motion. On examining the remainder of the flock, I found some scarcely affected at all, while others were gradually going on in the same way as those that had died. The first symptoms exhibited were, dulness of countenance, and a disinclination to join the rest of their companions, or to look out for food. They soon became more dull ; a thin mucous discharge made its nppearance from the nose and eyes, the tissues being highly injected; the ears drooped; a grating of the teeth was heard ; and a staggering gait evinced in walking. As the disease advanced, all the above-named symptoms became more manifest. The animals were able to walk at a slow pace, but if urged into a quicker one they would fall down on their knees, and then on their sides, throw their heads back, and grate their teeth as if in pain. After lying a few minutes they would get up again, although with difficulty ; and their manner of walking in this stage of the disease very much resembled a horse labouring under inflamed lamina;. When the disease had been allowed to run on to this height, the sheep often became aff"ected with spontaneous diarrhoea, the fa-ces appearing to come away involuntarilj'. Those that did not purge, usually voided much mucus encoating the dung. After this they quickly became worse : they would lie perfectly still, as far as the limbs were concerned, but they continued to grate their teeth, and a rattling noise was heard in the windpipe, accompanied by a frothy discharge from the mouth and nose, and an occasional cough. To this death succeeded in a few hours. The 2}ost mortem appearances were very un- satisfactory, as no particular part appeared to be more aflected than another by the disease. On examining the windpipe the lining membrane was found to be slightly inflamed ; the bronchi con- tained a frothy kind of fluid : the substance of the lungs was a little engorged, but this was not in- variably the case ; the lining membrane of the chest was also sometimes a little tinged, and most altered in character about the sternum and cartilages of the ribs ; the heart appeared quite healthy, as did the abdominal viscera, except the peritoneal and mucous coats of the small intes- tines, which were now and then tinted with an in- flammatory blush. Generallyspcakingjifanypartmorc than another could be said to have taken on active inflammation, it was the kidneys, these organs being not un- commonly found discoloured in their cmulgent portion, but nothing like approaching mortifica- tion. The tubular part was also a little darker than natural, and easily broken down by the fingers ; but the pelvis had not undergone any structural disorganization. The urine appeared to have been naturally secreted, and the coats of the bladder were healthy ; but sometimes this viscus was distended more than is usually found. The brain presented no abnormal appearance. Such were the lesions observable on the examination of several of them. The treatment I pursued with those which could not stand, was first to place them under a shed, with plenty of dry straw to lie upon. To those affected with diarrhrca, astringents were admi- nistered, such as catechu, chalk, &c., combining them with an aromatic tonic and the spiritus etheris nitrici : while to others that were consti- pated in the bowels I gave a gentle laxative, following it up with a vegetable tonic. This course of procedure appeared to be attended with benefit ; for, out of the eight that could not stand, four re- covered, and were able to provide for themselves 182 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ill two or three (laj's. After the exhibition of the nicflicinc to the diseased, the remainder of the flock was removed into as sheltered a situation as could he found ; or sheds were erected for them, •witli jilcnty of drj' straw to lie ujion. A liberal diet of oais and hay was allowed, wliile their general comfort was as ranch attended to as possible. To many that gave indications of the approach of an attack of the malady, a laxative and a tonic combined was given. On Apiil 21st, the sheep were not only looking better, but had very materially improved. The above-mentioned treatment was continued, with occasional variations, according to the circum- stances of each case ; and in five or six days they were all out of danger. I am happy to be enabled to say, that after this there were not more than two or three sheep out of the flock in which the prostration of strength became so great as to render them unable to stand ; and 1 would add, that I never knew one case to recover without the aid of medicine, after the disease had existed so long as to produce this loss of power. I am, &c. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF PASTURE IN REGARD TO THE DESTRUCTION OF MUSCI. Bv Mr. Thomas Bishop, Methven Castle, Perthshire. (From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.) The lands, from which a part is selected as the subject of the following observations, are con- tained within the enclosures or home-farm at lilethven Castle, in the county of Perth, belong- ing to Robert Smythe, Esq. They are from two to three hundred feet above the level of the sea. The soil, in general, is a heavy red loam, mixed with stones of various sizes, recumbent on a tilly sub- soil, inducing a degree of damp approaching to wetness. They have, since 1812, undergone a great extent of drainage, first under the direction of the late Mr. Stephens, in the Elkington mode of deep cutting and tapping for under-water ; and latterly, with drains only from two to three feet in depth, in some cases cut transversely to the ac- clivity of the ground, and in others in the direction of the ridges, as circumstances suggested to be most effective and least expensive in taking advan- tage of those drains that had been previously luadc. Yearly since 1825, one enclosure has been sown down with a mixture of grass seeds of those kinds best suited to the soil, and which have never failed to improve the pasturage greatly ; although in some instances the seeds of two other species only were added to the usual quantity of rye-grass seeds, taking care to smoothen the surface parti- cularly well before the seeds were sown, which always followed a green crop that had been pro- perly cleaned and manured, and the ground ploughed without open furrows. The three fields that have been selected for a specimen of treatment contain on an average, be- tween sixteen and seventeen acres each, lying contiguous to each other, and having a southern exposure. The first of rather light land than other- wise, required little draining, and was sown out with grass seeds with the grain crop of 1828, after a crop of turnips manured with a mixture of farm- yard dung, moss, the rubbish of old houses, and a portion of shell-marl, all carefully blended to- gether to insure a regular fermentation. The quan- tity of grass seeds sown per acre, was two bushels of best perennial rye-grass, 1 peck of Fcstuca du- riuscuta, 1 peck of Holctis lanatus and Ayrontia vul- garis, the two last being mixed as taken from hay seeds, and 5 lb. of white, and 3 lb. of red clover, which altogether cost 21s. 8d. per acre. The second field is composed of a rich heavy loam, naturally very damp, and which required a considerable drainage, before being limed and dunged for the green crops of 1829, and which was sown out with the barley and oat crops of 1830, with 1^ bushel of perennial rye-grass, 4^ lb, of Phleurn prufense, 1 peck of Festuca duriiuicula, 1 peck of Alopecuri's pralensis, and 5 lb. of white, and 4 lb. of red clover seeds, at an expense of 25s. 4d. per acre. These have hitherto given a very rich and luxuriant pasturj^e. The third field is less of a good loam than the preceding, one half of it being a hard retentive till, and of greater acclivity. This was also drained in the damp portions, previous to a deep ploughing given in the autumn before making the green crop of 1830 ; but no lime was applied until after an early crop of hay in 1832. It was sown down with the grain crops of 1831, with 2 bushels of Pacey's and Stickney's rye-grass seeds mixed per acre, 1 peck of mixed varieties of Festuca dvriuscula, I peck of Dactylis ylomerata, \ peck of Poa irivialis, 4§ lb. of Phleam praiense, and 5 lb. white, and 3 lb. red clover seeds, costing in the whole 28s. 5d. per acre. All these fields had an early crop of hay taken from them the first season, and the after grass of the same year, pastured off with calves or sheep in their stead, when it was not required for young stock. No top-dressing has been given to the first two fields since they were sown down, farther than spreading the drop- pings of the cattle left on the surface towards the end of each year, and cutting down or picking out all injurious root- weeds. But, on the removal of the hay crop from the third field, a full dres- sing of lime was applied over the hay- stubble of 200 bushels per acre, and during the slacking of the lime shells, a large quantity of moss-earth which had been taken from the pit nine months before, was decomposed with lime, and the com- pound spread on the worst part of the field. This top-dres?ing of lime evidently encouraged a superior pasturage of white clover with other grasses, to that which the same quantity effected on either of the two other fields, when applied previous to sowing the green crops. The stock grazed on the above fields have been cattle during the summer months, and a light stocking of sheep through the winter. They have been let to a respectable grazier for the last three years, on the understanding which he ./as ready to adopt, of shifting the stock from one field into another at proper intervals, and as frequently as possible, having one field empty, to allow a fresh spring of grass before the stock was again returned upon it. This mode of grazing has been found so very beneficial, that instead of different parties, who keep cows in the village of Methven, taking each separate grass fields, thej' have all united and taken all the field? conjunctly, in order to gain the advantages arising from the shifting of stock, and having a regular supply of fresh pasturage for their milch cows throughout the season. Although particular circumstances required the THE tARMtR'S MAGAZINE. 183 taking of a hay crop from the three fields, it is not the sj'stem wished to be recommended, when the land has undergone proper drainage, nor is it here practised in general, preferring to have the first year's grass pastured with sheep ; and until the land has been fully consolidated to carry heavier bestial, since the subsoil plough has been used, this plan has become absolutely necessary to en- sure the beneficial effects which that operation is calculated to produce. The growth of musci will always be found ra- pidly to take place when rye-grasses are the only grass seeds sown (excepting on the very best land), as it is not the nature of that kind of grass to form a close sward. The production of them is also much encouraged in older pastures by eating the grass too bare in August, and the early part of September, as also by taking a crop of meadow- hay where the ground is not much trodden upon, or has been under water in irrigation or other- wise. With a view to destroy musci and invigorate the better grasses, top-dressings have been used and found very expensive, and their effects as evanes- cent. Experiments have been made here for that purpose with bone-dust, put on in spring at twen- ty bushels per acre, price 2s. (id. per bushel. Lime and soot to the same amount of cost. Common salt was also tried at a fifth part of less expense, and found very eflicient, although fears were en- tertained for a time that the grass would suffer. The soot, in the following season, gave evident indications of its tendency to extirpate the musci, but not so powerfully as the salt ; the lime and bone-dust used had little or no effect. Liquid ma- nure collected in a tank, imder cover, from the feeding and cow byres, and washings of the dung- yard, have also been used, but not for the length of time to warrant a decisive opinion of its ten- dency to destroy musci, although their beneficial effects on grass land is unquestionable. The last and most efficient remedy for the pre- vention and destruction of musci, and easiest to have recourse to, when the ground has not be- come altogether exhausted, or in an over damp state, is to allow a great portion of the summer's grass to remain unconsumed on the ground, until the following winter, when the barer it is eaten before the new growth of spring, the finer will be the following summer's grass. But should the re- petition of this treatment fail to extirpate the musci, it will be more profitable to put the grass lands under a rotation of crops, and sow them out anew with a mixture of grass seeds suited to the soil and climate. A little more manure than would have sufficed for a top dressing, will thus be repaid with a richer and much more enduring herbage. RATTLE GRASS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS, Sir, — Observing in your valuable publication of Monday, July 29, complaints of the weed Rattle Grass having destroyed many acres of corn in the county of Essex, and of one field in particular after a fallow, Sec, &c. 1 believe it is well known that the weed in question is a very deep rooting' one, therefore tlie depth the plouffh usually goes merely cuts the head without at all afiecfing the root, and causes two or three shoots to come instead of one ; the crown of the plant bein^ sometliiug like asparajfus, the most eftectual method I have found of destroying' tliis enemy, is, at the first ploughing' for a fallow, to set the plouijh two or ijircc inches deper than usual, holding small furrows, so that the whole of the ground may 6e moved ; in that opera- tion a part of the root will be cut away, the remainder should be cut away by men following' the plough with mattocks having the cutting part four or five inches in width, and striking the root as deep as possible below the surface. Should your correspondent follow this plan for a few times tiiat tlie field is ploughed, (in order to destroy any root that may be left) I think that lie will not be trou- bled with the rattle grass again. I remain. Sir, your obedient servant, ISAAC LEARY. Near Leatherhead, August 7, 1839. Sir,— In your paper of Monday, July 29, there is an ac- count of a weed called rattle grass as nearly destroying the crops of corn ; if your correspondent wishes to be informed the means of eradicating this noxious weed, let him drill all his corn at wide intervals, say beans and peas at 18 inches, wheats, oats, and barley at 10 or 12 inches, and carefully hand hoe it, and never suffer it to seed : show me any thing in tlie land that I cannot era- dicate. Tlie broadcast system is a disgrace to a civilised country, as England ; it was the common mode of farming lands in barbarous times ; I never saw that estate yet that I could not double both in corn and stock. I am. Sir, your's obediently, R. M. ON DIPPING SHEEP TO DESTROY TICKS, Sec, &c. [We beg the attention of our readers to the fol- lowing letter on a subject of importance.] IVingham, Kent, July 26. Sir, — When I first tried your " invaluable sheep dip- ping composition,^' I was laughed at for introducing it into East Kent, although in many instances where sheep had been dressed for the tick with another prC' paration by pretended quacks, travelling all over the country, at a reduced price, aud ivhich universally failed, I persevered with yours ; had an apparatus made to let out, since which many farmers have had similar ones made, and the dipping of sheep has be- come nearly as general as clipping them. I will un- dertake to dip a thousand sheep with your composition without losing one, and destroy all ticks and lice as well &?, prevent alt attacks of the fly ; I will go further — I will increase the value of my lambs from two shillings and upwards per head. I shall now report to you an- other trial. Last August I dipped all my flock ; I bought some Down ewes in Hants aud Wilts last No- vember ; they were all lointered together ; these had not been dipped, and they were always picking and rub- bing themselves ; when shorn, those that were dipped were entirely free from tick and lice, whilst the Downs ivere full of both, and I think I suffered a loss of five shillings a-head. My store lambs I dipped previous to my attending the great Oxford Agricultural Meeting, aud since my return home I have examined them — every tick is destroyed, and their skins are perfectly clean. Many chemists have endeavoured to imitate your composition, but the attempt has proved a total failure. I will thank you to forward me six casks as before.— I am your most obedient servant, ROBT. MATSON. To Mr. Thomas Bigg, 15, Crawford St,, Portmati' Square, London, 184 THE FARMEIVS MAGAZINE. RENTS. There Las been no period in the Iii.story of any nation, wlien rent Las not been paid by tlie cultiva- tor to the sovereign, the cliief, or the proprietor ; and a variety of modes have been adopted, in satisfy- ing the claims of those who exercised a riglit to tlie superiority of tlie soils. Tn the rudest state of society, rent may be defined to be tliat portion of the produce, which remained after maintaining tlie labourer and his family, during the time they were emi)loyed in producing it. Thy first rent we read of, is Ryot-rent, paid to Pharaoh, King- of Egypt, by tlie whole of the Egyptian proprietors, after the seven years of famine; and tliis amounted to one-fifth part of tlie produce. The peasants labour-rent in Russia amounted to from three to four days' labour per week, for the use of as much land as was sufficient to produce food for his own maintenance and that of his family. The Metayer gave from one-half to two-tiiirds of tbe produce, as rent to his landlord , who furnislied bim with sloclc and implements to cultivate the soil. The Ryot ])aid fooni one-fifth to three fourths of tlio produce of the land to his sovereign. Tlie cot- tagers in Ireland pay in money, frecjuontly more than the money value of three-fourths of the whole pro- duce, for their small farms, when ibey have, in most instances, been at all the expence of tbe buildings ar,d other accommodations. The I'armer's rent is paid in money, and may be reckoned at from one-tenth to one-half of tlie money value of the produce, according to the kind and quality of llie soil. Arable land pays a much smaller portion of the produce than pasture er meadow land. The latter iiuleeil when very productive, and in the neiglibour- liood of a populous district, sometimes pavs more than three-fourths of the produce ; and even then it leaves a greater return to the farmer than that which be derives from arable land of the same cpiality. The diflerence arises chiefly from the greater expence which arable land necessarily requires in its cultivation. 'i'he fertile powers of tbe earth, aided by applica- tion and experience, yield, to the industry of the liusbandman, more than is necessary for the ex- pence of cultivation. The portion of tbe produce which remains, after the expence of production is defrayed, the farmer is enabled to pay to the proprietor for the use of the land ; and this overplus varies, according- to the nature and fruitfulness of the soil. The amount of rent, therefore, depends on the natural fertility of the soil ; but as permanent improvement has the etf'ect of increasing the jn-oductive powers of the soil, it must ako tend to increase the rent. Rent, therefore, depends not only on tbe natural, but also on tbe artificial, and permanently improved fertility of the soil ; and when these two are joined together in the highest degree there will be the greatest difference between the value of tbe produce and tbe expence of production ; or in other words, the soil will then yield the greatest rent. Adam Smith, after asserting " that in more ancient times nearly tbe whole of tbe produce belonged to the landlord," goes on to say that, " in the jirescnt state of Europe, the share of the landlord scddoin exceeds one-third, sometimes not one-fourth, of the whole produce of the land. The rent of the land, however, in all the improved parts of the countrv, has been tripled and ([uadrupled since those ancient times, and the one-third or one-fourth part of the an- nual produce is, it seems, three or four times greater than the wliole had been before. In the progress of improvement, rent, though it has increased in pro- portion to the extent, diminishes in proportion to the produce." The natural produce of pasture land, however poor it may be, is worth sometliing for sheep ; or young beasts will grow on such land, without any other expence than that of attendance and the origi- nal price of the stock ; but land under arable culture cannot pay any rent, till the price of the produce exceeds the expence of production. Under a proper system of cultivation, however, it has been shown, that the luoductiveness of the soil may not only be increased, but the expence of its cultivation may be diminished ; and we sliall find that the free produce is increased in nearly the same proportion as the produce itself is increased. Thus, if the price of twelve bushels be the expence of cultivating a jiarticular soil, and the produce be only 12 bushels, there cannot be any rent paid in tliis case ; but, if the produce be increased to 14 bushels without an increase of the expence of pro« duction, there will be two bushels of free produce, out of which the lent may be paid ; and if the pro- ductiveness of tlie soil is increased, so as to bring forth 20 bushels, then there will be eight bushels of free produce, and the icnt may likewise be increased to nearly the price of eight liushels. VVhen improve- ment of the soil has doubled or trebled the free pro- duce, without any increase in the expence of culti- vation, the rent may also be doubled or trebled ; but if the land has undergone no improvement, the rent must fall as the price of tbe produce falls, or as the expence of production increases ; — and although the price of produce m.iy fall, and the expence of pro- duction be increased, yet the rent even in this case maybe increased too, if i!ie productiveness of the soil be increased in a greater ratio. The average price in the kingdom of all the pro- duce of the land in question, should be taken as the principle for fixing t'lie money value of the free jiro- duce ; and if the rent is fixed at a certain portion of the produce, and the money value of it regulated by the average price of such produce for the last five years ; — tliis, we think, would be the best and most equitable mode of fixing the reut either of arable or pasture land. We t!ierefore conclude, that the rent of every qua- lity of soil is necessarily limited by the surplus or free produce, over the expence of cultivation, which includes tbe interest or profit on the capital which the farmer emplovs. But the price of land is kept up by the small farm- ers trading on the heels of those above them ; the occupiers of a hundred acres out-bid those wlio oc- cupy two bundled, and these again out-bid those who occupy still more extensively, as tbe smaller farms are always in tbe greatest demand. The rent or value of land in every situation may be illustrated by the detail of farming operations for a certain period, and the diflerence between the price of the produce, and the expence of culture, will shew tbe profits and the rent. If landlords permanently increase the productive- ness of their land, they will reap the profits arising from the improvement by an yearly increase of rent ; and if the tenant is at the expence of permanently improving the land he occupies, be is entitled to reap the fruits of his own industry, by having as many years of the increased free produce allowed him, as will rejiay his exertions and sunk capital with compound interest, before his landlord takes tlie ad- vantage of the improvement, either by re-occupying tlie land, or by increasing the rent, — }Joilon on SoiU, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 185 OF IHE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MANUivE AND THEIR APPLICATION. Tho coUoctioii and application of manure is the great secret of Fleinisli Husbiindry. Upon their iiuor lig-bt soils nothing could be raised without ;iu abundiuice of manure. It is consequently an object of minute attention to the Flemish farmer to collect as much as possible, and to apply it iti tlie most advantageous manner. For this purpose the dung of tho different domestic animals is generally kept separate, especially that of cows, from that of horses ; the former being thought better for dry sandy soils, the latter for cold loams and chiys. They look iijioii pigs' dung as cold and inferior, adopting in this respect the opinion of the ancients. SVe think differently; but this may be easily accounted for. The Flemish store-pigs are fed in the most miserable manner, and are merely kept alive on weeds taken from the fields, or by very scanty grazing in rough pastures. We need not be surprised therefore that their dung- is poor. The cows are better fed, and their dung is consequently richer. Cow dung is thought to last longer in the soil, and its effects on the second crop are more cons])icuous that that of borse dung, which stimulates more and is sooner effete. Sheep, which are so important to the ligiit- land farmer in England and Scotland, for their manure, are not kept in sufficient quantities in Flanders, nnr well enough fed to do much good to the land. They are commonly housed every night, and driven about in th& day to gain a scanty subsis- tence along the roads and sides of fields. The manure collected in the sheep-fold is carried out on the land, and its effects are duly appreciated. A flock is occasionally folded on a clover ley before it is ])loughed up, but never on the turnips, which are always given to the cows. This is owing to the small extent of the farms, which do not allow of a considerable flock of sheep being kept by any one farmer ; but a flock is made wp of different lots of sheep belonging to several proprietors, and put under the care of a common shepherd, or it is some- times the property of the shepherd, who occupies no land, but lets out the sheep to fold, or sells the nianurf). But the great auxiliary of the Flemish farmer is the URINE lANK, wherein are collected not only the urine of cows and horses, but also the drainings of the dung-hills. The urine tanks are generally sunk below the level of tha ground, and have the sides built of brick, and the bottom paved: they are of various dimensions, according to the number of cows and horses on the farm. Attached to the distilleries, ■where many beasts are constantly krpt to consume the refuse wash, there are very large urine tanks of an oblong shape, divided by ])artitions into different chambers, so that the liquor may be of the proper age when it is used, which some farmers think ought to be six months. Each chamber is about eight feet square and six or eight feet deep ; these are some- times vaulted over, but frequently onlj^ covered ■with loose boards. As urine and the emptyings of privies are sold wholesale and retail, there are many large tanks near the rivers and canals, where the dealers have sometimes great quantities in store. Some of these consist of many square pits like tan-pits, bricked round, and the inside covered with a cement, which jjrevents loss by filtration. There is generally in a corner of each pit a graduated scale, by which the number of barrels, or tons of liquid in the tank may bo ascertained by observing the height of che surface. Tiiese tanks are gradually filled by boat- loads brought from tlie large towns; and when the s-ason arrives fo'' sowing, in spring and autumn, the farmers come with their cavts and tubs, and purchase as much as they may want. 'Ihe price varies from thiee to live fr:incs (two shillings and sixpence to four shillings) per hogshead according to the ([uality. In a small farm of thirty to forty acres, tiie tank is generally about twenty feet long, twelve wide, and six deep, with a partition in the middle, and arched over, leaving an opening for the pump, and another suflicient to allow a man to go in t& empty out the eartiiy deposit which falls to the bottom. A trap-door shuts over this aperture to prevent ac- cidents. Sometimes the tank is round like a well, with a domed top, and so deep in the ground, that it has a foot or two of earth over it. The situation of the tank is either in the farm-yard near the entrance of the cow-house, or immediately behind it ; sometimes it is like a cellar under the building ; but this is apt to cause a disagreeable smell iu the cow-house. We here describe those which we con- sider the most convenient : the form and capacity of the tanks vary greatly according to the means and notions of the proprietors of the farms : but a tank of some kind or other is considered as indis- pensable an appendage to a farm, as a barn or cow-house, 'ihe farmer would as soon think of dispensing with his plough as with his tank : and no expense or trouble is spared to keep this well supplied. The numerous towns and villages in Flanders afford great help in the way of manure. The thrifty housewife and her active substitute tlm maid, know tlio value of what in our households is thrown away or wasted and lost. A small tank, or a tub sunk in the ground in some corner contains all the liquid which can in any way be useful; soap- suds, washing of dishes, &c., are carefully kept in this reservoir, until, once a week, the farmer or contractor calls with his tub on a cart ; and this, mixed with the contents of privies, which are frequently emptied, he keeps in large cisterns for use or sale.* But this supply is not always adequate to the wants of the farmer, and then he has recourse to rape cakes dissolved in water, or in the tank, which is expensive, and can only be profitable where flax, bears a good price, this being tlie crop for which rape cakes are chiefly used as manure. Every means, therefore, of augmenting the supply of urine is had recourse to, and the most efiicacious is the establishment of distilleries. These answer the double purpose of consuming produce and in- creasing manure by the number of beasts which are fattened on the refuse wash. It is calculated that every beast produces at the rate of ten or twelve tons of dung, and twenty-six hogsheads of urine in the year. A moderate distillery has fifty or sixty head of cattle constantly stalled. Here then is a supply of manure for several hundred acres of land every year. Formerly there were a great many distilleries in Flanders, but the duty on spirits and the interference of the government has much re- duced their number ; so that the farmers complain of the loss of this manure, and the consequent deficiency of their crops. The dung of pigeons and domestic fowls, where it can be collected in any quantity, is highly valued. The mode of using it is either in a dry and powdered * In Client we were informed that the sum paid to the servants for the liquids collected, and which is their perquisite, often amounts to as much as they receive for wapres ; an'l as consequently the wages are pro|)ortion- ally lower, it is in fact the masters and mistresses who benefit by it, 0 186 TIIK FAUMKR'S M ACAZINK. sta'o, to wlilcli it is vediicod l)v t!ir;isliin;;- wiili n fl lil, wiicn it is sown witli tlio seeds of IpL'tiniinniis phints, or clso dissolved in ilio urine tank, Jir.d thus spreiid over tlie land. This ninnure i-s cliii'Hy in- ssrved for kitclipn gardens ; it promotes the growili of vegaiables and produces no weeds. The solid dung-, from which the liquid has been allowed to run off into the tank, must bo carefully attended lo, that it may not be too dry and become /mi/, as it is called, or burn. It is therefore mixed up witii earth and any useless vegetable niatter which can he collected into a heap or compost ; and when it appears too dry some of the liquid from tlio tank is poured over it, to excite fermentation and accelerate decomposition, or it is merely watered, when there is sufficient strength in it to produce heat. In order to increase as much as possible the quantity of solid manure, there is in most farms a place for the general reception of every kind of vegetable matter which can be collected : this is a shallow excavation, of a square or oblong form, of which the bottom has a gentle slope towards one end. It is eenerajly lined on three sides with a wall of brick to keep the earth from fallinc^ in, and this wall sometimes rises a foot or more above the level of the ground. In this ])it are collected parings of grass sodi from the sides ef roads and ditches, weeds taken out of the fields or canals, and every kind of refuse from the gardens : all this is occasionally moistened with the washings of the stables, or any other rich li(]uid ; a small j)ortion of dung and urine are added, if necessary, and wlien it has heen accumulating for some time, it is taken out ; a portion of lime is added, and llie whole is well mixed together ; thus it forms tlie beginning of a heap, which rises gradually, and in due time gives a very good supply of rich vegetable mould, or compost well adapted to every ]iurpose to which manure is applied. The place where this accumu- lation is made is called in French a cio'ipissnir, and in Flemisli or Dutch smoor hoop, which may be translated smothering heap. Besides the manure which is collected on the farm,* the v'uhinges, or emptyings of jirivies obtained from the towns, and the sweepinas of s reets, a large quantity of peat ashes imported from Holland are used, principally as a dressing for ciovei . These are the ashes of the common fuel in use in Holland, and are sold in Flanders by the bushel, as iho Newbury ashes are in Berkshire. Mi-. Radcliffe has given an analysis of these as follows : Silicious earth , 32 Sulphate of lime 12 Sulpliate and muriate of soda .... 6 Carbonate of lime 40 Oxide of iron 3 Loss 7 100 'J'he effect of these ashes seem to be very similar to that of the Newbury ashes, and by comparing the * Since the above was written, the subject of liquid manure has been very ably brought to the notice of ayriculturists in a small work by Rlr. Cuthbert Johnson, and also by a paper of iMr. Kimberly, in which he announces an important discovery, made by himself, in the management and acceleration of the putrefactive fermentation in vegetable substances. The srreat acti- vity of manuro applied in a liquid state, especially in very light soils, is well known to the Flemish farmers ; but they know also that it is rapidly exh-iusied, and requires to be repeated annually, unless solid dung- be used at t!ic same lime. anidys's of the tv.o, we may he led to the ir.(ri°edien(s on which the result chiefly depeiuls. N'o.vimry a3he^s, acc;oroded of Oxide of iron 48 Gypsum (sulphate of linic!) 3'2 IMuriate and sulphate of potash. . . 20 100 It appears therefore probable, that the effect depends on the combination of the lime, or the alkalis with sulphuric or muriatic acid, and that tho silica in the Dutch ashes, and the iron in those from Newbury, have little or no effect on vegatation. 'J'his accords with the cxporimenls made witii gypsum. 'Jlie great effect of the a^hes in Flanders may arise from the total absence of calcareous earth in the light soils on which they arc chiefly used. In the polders they are thought of so little value, that the ashes produced by the burning of weeds are often collected, and carried in boats to be sold for manuring the lighter soils of the uplands. But these are not so valuable as the peat ashes. Wood ashes, after the greater part of the alkali has been extracted for bleaching, are still considered as of great use to tho land. Soapers' ashes are in great recjaest for cold heavy soils ; and sugar scum from the r'.-finers, if it could be procured in siifEcient (]uantity, would be an excellant manure for every kind of soil. Where it can be obtained, they usually throw it into the urine tank ; and the mixture is then considered as almost equal to the vidanges, which are looked upon as the iie plus ulira of manures. Soot is used as a top-dressing for wheat, or clover in spring, as it is with us. It is thought to destroy insects and hasten vegetation. The weeds, which grow abundantly in all ponds, canals, and ditches in this level country, where the current is never rapid, are mown in spring, and uied in their green state as manure for potatoes. 'The)'^ are laid in the furrows, and the sets placed over them; the furrow is then filled up by the plough, and the weeds decomposing very rapidly greatly assist the growth of the ])Otaie plants ; so rajiidly did the weeds ferment, that much of their value is dissi])afed, if thev are left only forty-eight hours in heaps before they are put into the earth. ^\'e have already noticed rape cake dissolved in water as a substitute for urine ; it is also used in powder, either as a top-dressing, or sown with tho seed. The practice of sowing in drills, and putting in dry manures in contact with the seed by means of drilling machines, has never been adopted in Flanders ; nor has the use of ground bones been hitherto introduced to any extent. There is perhaps no modern invention which could be so applicable to the Flemish sand, or so advantageous.* The manner in which manure is applied to the land for dilTerent crops will be explained as these are separately treated of; but the general principle, which prevades the whole sj-stem of manuring, is worthy of attention. Two great objects are always kept in view. The first is to obtain the most abundant crop of whatever is sown : the next is to impregnate the soil with an increasing power of production, if possible, or at least to maintain that which has been obtained. In consequence of this, almost every crop has a certain portion of manure applied to it, which varies according to the nature * Since writing the above, we understand that the Belgian Government, having ascertained the great advantage of bon'?s for manure, and also in making animal charcoal for the refining of sugar, has laid a heavy duty on the exportation of them. THE I'ARMER'S MAGAZINE. 187 of tliG crop to be raisetl, and that which has pre- ceded ; oxjjerience liiiving tauglit that some crops exhaust the soils more than others. But it is not the mere surface that they desire to manure. They well know that the deeper tlie soil is fertilized, the greater will be the profit, and the less the labour. 'J'hey are not satisfied with en- riching the land to receive the seed, they furnish food fur the growing plant in different stages of its growth, if they think it necessary. There is in con- sequence no fluctuation in the growth, no check at a time wljen the plants require support. The seed is made to vegetate rapidly bv being in contact with tliG rich juices of the manure; and hence a much smaller proportion of seed is required. The young- blade is invigorated by a judicious watering, and is sooner out of danger of the attacks of insects. Licjuid manure is carried to the fields in common water-carts, which consist of two wheels and shafts, carrying a cask containing from sixty to one hundred and twenty gallons of liquid. The cask has in the under part a hole two or three inches in diameter, secured inside by a ralve : under this is a board a little slanting, to spread the liquid as it flows out of the cask. A man usually rides on the horse wJiicb draws the cart, and holds in his hand a string, which passes througli a hole in the cask, and opens the valve when required. There is an advantage in riding on the horse, as it does not add to the weight of the load on the wheels, which in light soils would be apt to sink deep. In a momentary ex- ertion it assists the horse by the weight on his back ; and the heavy Flmders horses are well able to carry a man and draw a light load at the same time, AVhen the cask is empty the horse trots home for another load, and no timo is lost. It is astonishing what advantage there is in accuston-iing horses to trot when they have no load ; it actually fatigues them less than the continued sleepy walk. Who would suppose that the Flemish and Dutch farmers surpassed us in activity 1 but whoever has been ia the Netherlands in hay-time or harvest must ac- knowledge it. The dung which is carried in a solid state, is generally used at a time when it is in active fermen- tation, as it is then supposed to have the best efTect. To ensure this in some districts, as the Waes country, where the minutest attention is paid to every circumstance which can increase fertility, the dung is laid on the field in moderate lieaps, and on each heap a certain quantity of urine is poured to excite and renew the fermentation ; when it becomes sensibly lieated, the dung is spread out and imme- diately ploughed in. After ploughing in the manure, the land is left for some time, and then a second deep plougliing is given to incorporate the decom- posed dung with the soil, but so as not to bring any to the surface. A short time before sowiHg, the liquid manure is poured over ; and this enriches the surface to make the seed germinate sooner. Lime is not much used in the light soils, but commonly in tlie cold and stift'. As it is generally brought from a distance, it is dear ; and this prevents any extensive application of it. Marl is found in a few spots, and serves to improve the poorer lands within reach of It. — Flemish Husbandry. VICTORIA LEVEL. It gives us much satislisfaction to learn that the pro- moters of the mag^nificent undertaking- of reclaiming from ihe ocean and bringing into cultivation upwards ( f 150,000 acres of fertile land, are making considerable progress. Afiother meeting was held at the Fea Office, in Serjeants' Inn, on Tuesday last, Lord George Btn- tinck, M.P., in the chair, when a communication was made, that licr Majesty's government had relinquished upon terms all the rights of the Crown to the land in- tended to be recovered. A variety of reports were read from several scientific and other pardons well acquainted with the subject, all confirmatory of the opinion of the promolersas to the praclicublility and profit of the pro- posed undertaking of whicli 4,000 acres, valued at forty pounds per acre, would be brought into cultivation in the short space of four years ; and 73,000 acres are al- ready land at the receding of the tide. Under these circumstances the promoters felt themselves justified in forming a company to be ratified by an Act of Parlia- ment, to be called " The Company of Proprietors of the Victoria Level," under the immediate sanction of her Majesty. Lord G. Bentinck was unanimously elected president, and several noblemen and gentlemen of the first rank and property Csubject to their concurrence) as trustees and provisional directors, many of whom have expressed such concurrence. The capital to be two millions, divided into shares of 100/. each, with five per cent, deposit, and no further call till the company is established by the authority of Parliament. When wc consider the vast field of enterprise, industry, and wealth, whish will arise to all classes of her Majesty's subjects, without expatriation or severance of any domestic tics, we cannot doubt that a general feeling of support will be given to attain the accomplished end. Ten thousand pounds were subscribed at tlie meeting. Upon the suggestion of the Earl of Orford a general meeting of the Company is to be held at Lynn on Tuesday, the 8th of October, to view the great wash and estuary, form- ing the lands to be recovered. Sir John Renuie, and Geo. llennie, Esq. were appointed engineers, and Sam, Wells and Fred. Lane, Esqrs., joint registrars to the Company. — Cambridge Chronicle. LONGEVITY OF HORSES. -The Rev. Mr. Bellman, of Hclmingham, has three horses at this lime, whose united ages amount to 82 years, viz. 38, 24, and 20. FACTS AND QUERIES FOR APIARIANS. Early in the spring, I put under a sti'ong old stock an empty box, which was speedily filled — I then re- moved it, intending to take the honey, but finding the bees continued working in both, I placed empty boxes to each, viz., under the old stock, and over the new — in taking away the first box an entire comb of brood was detached, which I fixed in the empty box, placed over the one filled this spring ; for severnl following days incipient and dead brood only were brought out, afterwards great numbers of drones ; these latter on being placed in the mouth of the old stock, were received without oifence, and apparently with satisfaction, but on replacing any of them near, or into the mouth of the young stock whence they had been ejected, great irri- tation was exhibited, and a disposition to sting all who came near. As I am a young amateur, and can find nothing resembling the operation and circumstances following, in the books to which I have reference, I invite information practical and theoretical, from any quarter whence it can be given. I would further ask information on the following points, viz.: — 1 . — I lost four stocks in April, up to which time they appeared tolerably strong — on examination of the hives, I found from two to four pounds of honey in each, but no bee bread ; the cells in which it had been appearing cleaned out to the very last particle. I do not think the cold destroyed them, for reasons not needful to mention. Is the bee bread, as well as honey, essential to the preservation of old Bees, and will they not live without it ? Answers are requested, with the Editor's permission, through this paper. J. G. B., St. Thomas, Exeter, — Western Times. 0 2 l.Sf TllE TAUMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE CUSTOMS AND AT ENTRY. PRACTICE This is a subject wliicli is of mucli greater im- portance tLari it may spem to be at lirst si<;l)t, iii- volvinp^, as it does in many cases, tlie welfare and prosperity of the farmer at liis lirst (cutset in busi- ness, and even i'requently his very existence as suci), — it often occurring;, as meniioned several times in the course of tliis work under the heads of dif- ferent counties, that lie is entirely crippled in his means in consecpipnce of the lurge amount lie has to pay on enteritig- upon a fann, and rendered unable afterwards to recover himself, or to carry on his concern, either with spirit, or even witJj that common attention to favourable opportunities which is so essential to success ; whilst in others these unpleasant effects are altogether avoided, merely by a differeiiee in the practice at entry, Avhich leaves the incoming tenant at liberty to employ his capital i i his own way to the best advantage. Were the incomer, who is obliged to sul)mit to a valuation, to obtain even commodities of real value for his money, it would still very fiequenlly oi)erate upon liini as a great hardsliip and inconvenience, as he may thus be comjJelUd to take articles that he does r.ot iinmedi- ately want, and becau.-^e tiie largo ]iropoition of his capital thus invested might have been, perliaiis, laid out by himself to better profit, and more advanta- geously witii a view to liis own interests ; but too often what lie thus receives in exchange for his ready cash is either of much less worth (at least to lilm) than what he has given lor it, or it is something of merely presumptive or estimated value, such as work- maiishi]), or labour, or manure laid upon the land, iN.c., wliicli though of use to Iiira, yet he could have liad it done himself at a cheaper rate, whilst he is much inconvenienced by having to disburse a sum which hu can probably very ill spare. There is no greater source of unpleasantness and inconvenience than that which arises out of iho present system as existing in some counties, where the incoming and outgoing tenants are under the necessity of asking fiivonrsof, or becoming oldigated to, each other, or otiierwise the farm, in the mean time, becomes much injured, for want of jiroper management. Differences are every day occurring in these counties between the incomer and outgoer, neither, frequently, being willing to ask of, or con- cede to, the other any favour ; both looking warily to their own interests, and often finding them much at variance with each other, neither of them is disposed to part wilh any advantage to benefit the other ; the consequence is, that the farm is neglected, or, a proper course of husbandry not being ado)Hed or continued a long period, is, of necessity, lost before it can be again brought into a fit state of cultivation. This is all avoided in the north of I'^nglanci, and merely by means of tljc simple expedient that one tenant has nothing to do with the other; the outgoer acts upon his own system, and disposes as he pleases of any of the property on the farm, excejit wliat he is obliged to use upon the premises, ^\')lilst the incomer has nothing to pay for a valuation, r.o favour to ask of the outgoer, be is enabled to purchase a sufficient stock wherever he has tlie best opportunities of making good bargains, rnd enters lire farm completely iinincumbered, with the re- mainder of his capital, left alter purchasing his stock, to carry on his business wilh every prospert of success. They net enc-h independently of the other, without, in the least, crossing each other's •yiews, or jostling their respective interests; and ex- ]ierienco proves, most decidedly not only that this is the l)('st system for the convenience and advanlago of both, but that no incjuiry whatever results to the farm from its operation. Did this work merely refer to a single estate, or even only to one county, these points in that view, miglit not be considered of any importance; but the jnactice, such as it prevails, and such as persons taking farms are compelled to conform to, in many counties in iMiglund, becomes, from that very cir- cumstance, of tlie greatest moment, affecting, as it 'n fact does, the interests of a whole nation ; for it is a truth which will be found rendered manifest in .the jirogn-ss of the following pages, that, in several dis- tricts, the land is not half worked, nor the farm more than half stoclLcd ; and that this evil, for such it undoubtedly is, and in a national point of view ii V(!ry serious one, is entirely owing to il)e r fleets of thejiractice at entry, whicli, as before observed, by depriving ihe incoming tenant of a large portion of the capital of which ho isio want.absoluttdy prevoiils Jiim from ;^ftprwards making those exertions, or that outlay, which are essentially reijuisite, in order to render tlie farm even moderately ])roductive. These observations are not intended to ajiply to those indivi- ihials who are possessed of large suinsof money, or to those who arevery poor, as the former may have still plenty left for every purpose that they want it, wliilst the laltercannotpos-.ibly, under such a practice, enter upon a farm ; but they are meant to apply to the moderate capitalist who seeks to obtain a comfort- able suhsistence for Ids family and himself by farming ; a descrijition of individuals who, whellier Ihej- employ their capital in agriculture, or any other business, form some of the most useful classes of the community. It is these who suflerfrom the existing system in the counties where it operates ; and they sutler the more, liecause they cannot afford to part with their capital in the way in wliich they are com- pelled, in the first instance, to expend it; they cannot replace it, nor can they recover themselves, because their remaining means will not enable them to take the necessary steps, or pursue the requisite course, by which alone they can make the business they have embarked in proiitable or successful. JS'or is this all ; because a farmer's being thus dis- abled from providing for his family, or assisting iu ])Utting them in business, they are frequently com- pelled to become labourers ; and too often wlien married, and themselves having families, are obliged to apply to the parish for relief, which, in some cases, perhaps from ilieir relations either being overseers, or having a voice in the direction of parish affairs, is, and that from natural feelings, laudable in them- selves, too easily granted, and thu? the amount of the poor-rates is materially increased, as well as the number of poor. Were the system altered so that the incoming tenant might have the free use of his capital, and be enabled to employ it as best suited his own views and purposes, he would, in general, have the means of rendering his business profitable, and of making some provision for his fnmily ; and it is worthy of remark, that in those counties in the north of England where a contrary system prevails aud where no counteracting cause as to poor-rates exists, arising from manufactures, there the poor- rates are much less than in the midland and southern counties, where the most disadvantageous practice above alluded to, frequently so much deteriorates the soil, and prevents the improvement of agriculture, whilst it manifestly tends to that greatest of all evils, the increase of pauperism. Take, for instance, the county of Northumberland, where the poor-rates amount only to Is. 3|d. per acre, as compared with THE FARMER'S fiJAGAZINE. 1S9 otlier counties where the rates are so mucli liiglier, and it must at once be evident that the disproportion can only be owing to the dili'erence of the system acted upon : there is no other cause that can account for it, or, iit least, that is suthcicmt to account tor so remarkable a variance. Numerous instances are continually occurring- in tlie counties where tlie baneful system alluded to prevails, of farmers being ruined through the sacrifice thus made of a considerable portion of their capital. It is better for a man to make any shift, rather than deprive himself of his capital at the onset, as it is only by means of having at his disposal all the money he can command, that he has any chance of success. No man can manage his business well, or make it turn to advantage, whatever may ho its nature, unless he lias an adequate cajiital to coin- mence wiih ; and where tlio system in tlie counties alluded to altered, and assimilated to that acted upon in !ho north, it is clear, from what has taken place, and what is daily occuiring, that a farmer, with a moderate capital, might, in the Ibnnor as in the latter, not merely do well himself, and comfortably sui)port and [irovide for his family, but also greatly im|)rove and render more fertile tlie land which he occupies; and why should not this be the case? Every kind of business is changed, compared with what it was ; and why should agriculture stand still t Why should not its practice and customs bo accom- modated to the more modern and much better system, which, in other cases, has been introduced, and found bonelicial ; and which, with reference to agri- culture in the north of England and in Scotland, has been found so eminently advantageous ? The experi- ment has tlius been tried, and found admirably to succeed ; the only wonder is, that it has not yet been extended throughout England : this, perhaps, may be, in some measure, accounted for, iVom the cir- cumstance that the prevailing customs, and jiractices in different counties, were, to a great extent, shrouded in obscurity ; and that from theirnotheing sufficiently known, their effects were not placed in any obvious point of view. Surely, however, no exertion ought to be wanting on heha'f of agriculture, esjiecially at a moment like the present, when it has so much to contend with, when it has so many difficulties lo encounter : on the contrary, every measure ought to be adopted that can, in the least, tend to advance or facilitate its progress. Nor is it alone agriculture, but every branch of trade, that is, more or less, affected ; it is impossible that business of any kind can flourish so well in those districts where tlie farmers are deprived of the greaterpart ot their ca])ital, and obligevas due by them for labour, by throwing the labourers u]>on the poor-rates for a part of their sub- sistence ; a system, however, which only ultimately, brings back upon tliemseives an additional buiilen already thrown upon the whole land of (be parish, of which they must pay their proportion. No such system exists in the northern counties ; the farmei's have no need of it — they have their whole capital to employ in their business — they pay their labourers, and every tiling goes on in its jiroper course. — Kennedy and Grainger's Practice of 'Tenannj and C'jf.s-- toms of Counties. REPORT ON THE VALUE OF BONE- MANURE, IN COMPARISON WITH ORDINARY FARM-YARD MANURE. BY THE nONOUnABLE CAPT. W. OGII.VY, AIIiLlE CASTLE. [The thanks of the Higliland Agriculti-ral Socie- ty and the honorary silver niedul were voted by ihe directors to the author of this paj)er.] Mr. Watson of Keilor introduced the use of hone- manure into Strathmore, having seen it used in Eng- land. 1 am not certnin in what year he began to make experiments with it, or to employ it exten- sively, but I remember well that the great deliciency of farm-yard dung in 1827 (consequent on the almost total failure of the crop of the previous yearj first induced me to try four acres of turnip without other manure, sown with 15 bushels of bone-dust per acre, which I obtained from I\lr Watson : it cost OS. per bushel, or 21. 5s. per acre. The crop of tur- nips on these four acres was at least e(]ual to the rest raised with farm-yard manure ; but as the whole of the turnips were pulled, and the land received some dung before the succeeding crop, much stress cannot be laid on the circumstance of the following white crop and grass being good. Next year, 1828, encouraged by the former suc- cessful experiment, eight acres were sown with tur- nip, solely with bone-dust ; the soil a light, sandy loam ; the subsoil gravel and sand, coming in some places nearly to the surface, which is very irregular, but in general has a south exposure. This field had been broken up with a crop of oats in 1827, afier having been depastured six years principally by sheep. The quantity of bone-dust given was 20 bushels jier acre, and cost 2s. (id. per bushel, or 2/, 10s. per acre. The turnip-crop was so lieavy, that, notwithstanding the very light nature of the soil, it was judged advisable to jnill one-third for the feed- ing cattle, two drills pulled, and four left to be eaten on the ground by sheep. 'I'he following year, 1829, these eight acres were sown with barley and grass- seeds, and the produce was 57 bolls 1 bushel, or? bolls 1 bushel nearly, p(^r acre, of grain, equal in quality to the best in the Dundee market, both in weight and colour. Next year, a fair crop of hay for that de- scription of land was cut, about 150 stones an acre ; and though I am now convinced that the field should rather have been depastured the first year, yet the pasture was better than it had ever been known be- fore for the two following seasons, IB.'il and 18.'}2. It is worthy of remark, as a proof of the efficacy of the bone-manure, that in a small angle of this field, in which 1 bad ]iermitted a cottager to jdant jiotatoes, well (lunged, and wl;icb, after their removal, was in- cluded in one of the flakings of sheep, and had (one might have supposed) thereby had at least eijual ad- vantage with tlie adjacent bone-dust turni|)-land, both the barley and grass crops were evidently inferior, and this continued to be observable until the field was again jiloughed u]). A very bulky crop of oats has been rea[ied this season, probably upwards of eight bolls per acre, but no part of it is yet thrashed. Having detailed what may be, considered a fair ex- periment during the whole rotation of the above eight acres, I may add, thatturni|) raised with bone manure, and fed oft" with sheep, has now become a regular part of the system on this farm; 15, 20, and, la^t year 25 acres were fed ofl^, and invariably with the same favourable results, with the prospect of being able to adopt a five-shitt rotation, and to continue it without injury to the land. Every person in the least acquainted with the management of a farm, of which a considerable proportion consists ol light, dry sandy loam, at a distance from town-manure, mu.-t be aware of the importance of this, from knowing tho oxpence at which such land was formerly kept in a fair state of cultivation; indeed, the prices of corn for some years past would not warrant the necessary outlay, and large tracts of land, ca]iable of producing barley little inferior to that of Norfolk, must speed- ily have been converted into sheep pasture, but for the introduction ol bone-manure. Note. — For the last four years, 25 bushels of bone-dust have been given to the acre : the jirice this veiir was Ss. per bushel, or 2/. 15s. per acre. TO DESTROY WEEVILS IN GRA- NARIES. Sin, — Seeing in your paper an enquiry respecting tho destruction of weevils, I send a copy of a pai-a- gia[)h which has been cutout of some publication. It is as follows : — " Accident has discovered to a Frjnch farmer a very simple mode of destroying weevils in corn warehouses, happening to lay in the corner of a granary in which there was a quantity of corn, some sheep skins with the fleece on, he was not a little sur|irised to find them, a few days after covered with dead weevils. He rejieated the expe- riment several times, and always with the same success. At last he ordered his corn to be stirred up, and not a single weevil remained in it. I remain Sir, Yours, A Constant Pveadfr. Aiis.3. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 191 ON SALTPETRE AS A MANURE. Sir,— In a pie\ious numberofynur valuable periodical one of your correspondents, Mr. J. R. Barker, of Fair- ford Park, wishes for some information resiiectiug the use of saltpetre as a manure, the time of its application, and the price per cwt. As I have applied saltpetre this year to several differ- ent crops with the view to satisfy myself as to the ad- vantages to be anticipated from the use of it, I beg to offer the following observations upon the subject, and if you consider them calculated to convey any useful information to agriculturists in general, and will give them a place in your widely circulated journal, I shall be obliged. The quantity I have invariably used is one cwt. per acre, the cost of which varies according to the refraction and demand from ^C,<. to 32s. ; on all grass crops I have applied it, sown broad cast as a top dress- ing from the latter end of March to the end of May. For turnips and mangel I have drilled part of the land ■with saltpetre at the time of sowing, and to part I have applied it after the first hoeing of the turni.is. Upon meadows and upland grasses if put on immediutcly after the crop of hay is off the aftermath will be much im- proved iu appearance, and the quantity of grass much greater. On clover ley wheat (rough chaff) 1 applied saltpetre iu the month of Apiilto one acre in the middle of the field, the part so drtssed in the course of afw.t- night assumed a much darker colour, was apparently more vigorous, Iha side of the stetches got up better, and this part has up to the present moment kept the lead, and to all appearances there will be a greater yield of grain, certainly more straw than in the othur part of the field. Iu a clay bottom fluid after Swede turnips drawn off I dressed part of the land with salt- petre ; the effect is surprising, and in my opinion the barley is better on that part than it would have betn, bad the land been aloug summer fallow — the additional quantity ofstiaw alone will pay the cost of the manure. On other hinds, the subsoil of some ef which is a sanily grnvel, I have dressed parts of fields, Hud the result is the same in every in.'.tance. I consider saltpetre a very use- ful and ettective manure — it is cheap, very portable, and easily ai)i)lied. Upon mangel wurzell its effects have not,;is far as 1 have tried it, been ve;y aj)parent. I am aware that some ])ersons consider saltpetre to increase the straw, but not the quantity of grain : my experiments with it aro iu progress, I can only therefore oppose opin- ion to opinion, but intlie course of a month I shall have iiscertain.;d the fact, as I intend, tor iny oi.\n guidance, to bring the various experiments I am trying to the test of the bushel and scale. I huve aNo tried wool waste, cloth clippings, and dessicated compost ; but I sliould extend lliis communication far beyond llie space you can afford Were I to follow out these mailers, suilice it to say they are one and all effective, and fully eniitled to re- ceive at the hands of agriculturists a fair trial, with the view to a patient investigation of their merits. I beg to suggest tiiC pi'0])riety of farmers using iiilio, wliich is 1 u:ified saltpetre, iu proleiencc to the rough pelre, as too often we are imjioscd upon aad supplied with com/noii sa?i alone, or mixed with a small quantity ef saltpetre, instead of the article we are anxious to obtain. I am of opinion that one cwt. per acre will be found tea much in ordinary seasons upon land in a fair stale of cultivation, and I intend to adopt the suggestion which appeared in one of your late numbers of putting the quantity on in three dressings, so that if necessary the last may be omitted. jJefore I conclude tliis letter I will hazard a remark which will probably do violence to t!ie strong feeling (not ta say prejudice) which exists in favour of the four-course sliift, as it is called, orin other words allowing one-fourtli of the land to remain unproductiTC for a whole year. 1 cannot heli) thinkins" that the in- troduction of artificial manures will enable a farmer to lessen the quanliiy of his long fallow and yet maintain the reputation of being a good fanner, at iillcvehtsi have commenced a series of experiments to ascertain for my own guid-ncc, how far my op-inion is sound and prac- ticable ; it will require fouryearsat least. and if you think the results as they arise will be interesting to your read- ers, I shall probably avail myself of your publication as a medium of communication. i\Iy business as a surveyor and estate agent requires I should reside at the place from whence this letter is dated, but the land I occupy (about five hundred acres) is situated at Wethersfield, about six miles north from Braintree. I mention this as I shall be obliged by the opinion of any scientific or practical farmer who may feel sufficiently interested to watch the experiments as they are in progress, and my bailiff has instructions to give every information as to the cultivalioa and treatment of the land. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, JAMES BEADEL. Witham, Essex, Aug. 9th, 1839. That wliich is generally understood by the four course sliift does net in our opinion necessarily imply that the land should lie fallow once in every four years, certainly not upon any soils ex- cept clays, and even not upon thoseunless the very stitfest. Some farmers believe that means may be devised for rendering the long fallow unnecessary, in all cases. We shall be most happy to receive any communication from Mr. Beadel in reference to the result of his experiments. DIBBLING WHEAT.— In consequence of our iu- serling the list of prizes given by the Battel Horticultural Socitty for 7 roots of wheat with from 72 to 115 ears each, we have received the following statement, that Benjamin Kin^ has now growing at Eastbourne, from II grains 11 fine plants of wheat, one with 94 ears, one with 107, and some of the straw upwards of five feet and a half high ; the grain is of different kinds, some white and some red, eacli put three inches into the ground. On seeing these plants the chairman of the Harlesten Farmers' Club, in iS'orfolk,said, " they speak volumes" for depositing the grain below the reach of birds and of most insecli, by which, loo, it is little liable to be injured by frost, and the roots spread enough before it rises int» stalk to sujiply sap lor making stiff straw, and well filled ears, which is important when so much money is going- out of the country for grain, which would be better in our own farmers' pockets. In Norfolk broadcasting of wheat is not known — all is either dibbled or drilled, and neither uses more than a bushel and a half of seed, con- sequently this bushel and a half of seed saved, as com- pared with broadcasting, amply pays for dibbling it ; the cost of which work varies on different soils as long practised in Hertfordshire and Norfolk from 6s. to 10.-; per acre— but, at the average price of 8s. an acre, leaves the farmer four shillings an acre for superintending the work. — and as the produce in Norfolk is admitted to be fcur bushels per acre more than when broadcast, the gain would amply pay for weeding- between plants thinly ijutinto the ground, which work would lessen the poor rates, which still in many country parishes exceed a quarter part of the tithes ; the first page of the Eng- lish Agricultural Society's Journal says the average pro- duce of wheat is stated at 26 bushels per acre in Eng- land and Wales, but if this could be raised only to 27 bushels, at 50s. per quaiter, it would be an annual gain of 1,200,000/. : if 3 bushels are broadcast, 26 bushels is not nine-lold the seed, but in the plant of wheat with 107 ears thc-y average more than 30 grains each, and the pro- duce is therefore 3,210 fold. Manufacturers as well as far- mers and cousuraers generally will have reason to feel obliged to you, Sir, for inviting attention to this subject, as a letter from liurnley, Lancafhire, of the 23rd inst., says " Here th-j staple of the district is the cotton trade, but very many hands work only two days out of seven, and where they make fustians and cords it is at a dead loss, but if :i'nuiig of seed and increase of produce d:mi- ni-h the cost ol food, these miinufactuies may again he resumed with p.-otit, and increased ilemand for food fill our farmer*' pockets.— July 26, 1839. — Susse.i Adov liser. 192 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OF THE FALLOW. The fallow defiaed.—Its effects.— Similies to elucicUie the subject. — 2Vi,e noil mechanically retains, and chemicallj/ comhines ivith air, water, and vegetable and animal manures. — Whence the source of fer- iility.— Remarks on the jiractical parts of the fal- low j)rocess. By fallowing, is meant, a repeated mechanical moving and pulverizing of the soil, to a depth of eight, ten, twelve, or more inches, with the plough, the harrow, and the roll; and permitting, daring the process, which usually occupies the spring and summer months, no vegetables to grow. This mechanical process usually commences at a dry time in the autumn : and the land, from the consequent unevenneis by the furrowing of the plough, presents a large surface to the frosts, snows, sun, and weather of the succeeding winter. The effects, from such an exposure, shiver the most stubborn clods, and with no cost to the husband- man.* In the spring, the surface is harrowed and dressed down ; the weeds picked off or destroyed ; and the field again submitted to the plough ; when the under side is turned up to the heat and mois- ture of the sun and showers, and to the drying winds. This exposure should be continued, if the weather be favourable and time permit, till (niitc dry, then to have a shower and get dry again, with the surface in the roughest state ; that the effects, from the alternating extremes of heat, moisture, and dryness (the great decomposing agents of Na- ture), upon the largest possible surface, may the more speedily render the clods tender, the proper opportunities being taken for the operations of the harrow and roll. Another ploughing, and perhaps dressing suc- ceeds : then a fourth ; and probably a fifth ; when the duties and object of the husbandman arc per- formed and accomplished. A soil that has been so treated and exposed, even if very stiff in its nature, and poor when the operations were commenced, is found greatly im- proved in its tenderness and in its powers of fer- mentation, consequently in its fertility ; and the benefit arising from the fallow, is in proportion to the time and labour bestowed, and the interval before a crop is again taken. Naturally good soils need but a short period for their restoration, because they are readily brought to a pulverized state, and of course proportionally soon improved in their powers of fermentation. f * If it were practicable to expose land to the ef- fects of the winter season, more than is generally done, by one or two extra plougbings during that period, the advantage gained in fertility would be considerable. But, the fear of kneading the land whilst wet, and the impossibility when frostv, sets all attempts on any large scale at defiance.' In a garden, a bed may be dug and re-dug during slight frosts, and thus fresh and fresh surfaces and clods turned up to the weather, when the great benefit of the winter's exposure and pulverization can be ob- tamed ; and indeed is so by industrious gardeners. t Fermentation is the struggling of different affi- nities of materials in contact with each other, to ena- ble their respective proportions to continue at rest: or the struggling of various particles of matter for the balance of affinities. It is one of the chief ob- jects of a well directed cultivation to continue this fermentation, having the seasons and the power cf Whereas the stubborn and almost barren require at least a year, or indeed better if two years are devoted to a well directed cultivation, before an equal degree of pulverization and powers offer- mentation can be accomplished. From the tendency of the fallow to render light lands close, and stiff lands light, it favours the ap- proximation of the two different soils to the same state of fertility. Having gone through a detail of the particulars of the mechanical part of the fallow process, its effects arc the next object of attention. The balance of affinities, or the equilibrium of the particles of matter composing the soil, are very essentially disturbed by the operations of the plough and hairow; indeed so much so that scarcely two particles, it may be said, that were in contiguity before the commencement of the plougbings, arc to be found together at the conclusion of the opera- tion ; also the particles of stale air and moisture that were within the interstices of the soil at first, together with those particles in slight combinations with the soil itself, have escaped, and their places are supplied with fresh ; consequently every way favouring fermentation in a high degree, as well as being rendered more easily permeable in all directions for the infant roots of future plants.* Now a soil, before it is broken up by the plough, is — as to its interior j)articles, and the air and wa- ter that may occupy the few cavities — in a compa- ratively quiescent state, because the vaiious parti- cles have entered into a chemical union with each other. That is to say, the inateiials of the soil are saturated with those substances they could then combine with ; and theiefore would so continue to remain, if the subsequent variety of the seasons did not tend in some measure to destroy the equi- librium. A few examples may contribute to the better ex- planation of the above, and also materially assist future investigation. They are the following : — What is the use of stirring or shaking two liquids when put together, or one or more liquids with one or more dissoluble solids I The object is, to faci- litate a chemical union with each other, of their respective atoms, which the occasional stirring ef- fects, by removing one portion after the other of the atoms of one liquid, when they have been suf- ficiently long in contact to perfect a union with a portion of the atoms of the other liquid or dissolu- ble solid, till all the combinations of which the nature of the materials are capable of entering vegetation to assist, lest vegetation should be exposed to a too long continuance of the balance of affinities. Land dries much sooner when moved, than when left untouched. Just harrowing the surface dries the soil rapidly, the weather being fine; and why is this ? It is because the water and air in the un- moved soil is in a comparative state of rest or ba- lance; and having the same surface exposed to the sun and winds for some time, they at length saturate the particles of the soil exposed to their influence, consequently at last excite little fermentation : when, however, the surface and clods are disturbed bv the harrow or plough, every part is fresh to both sun and air, fermentation becomes strong (proved by a ther- mometer) and dryness rapidly ensues. * A gardener, whilst digging, always takes care to break each spit in pieces, both on tlie top and in Ih.;^ trench. Pie does this, knowing from experience that tliis extra labour will be amply compensated for, by the proportioned superior produce of the next crop. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 193 into, under their present circumstances, have been conipleted. Let a sponge, or a piece of cloth, be thrown into any dying liquid that will combine with the mate- rials of the sponge or cloth, and there permitted to remain awhile. The first effect will he, that every pore of the sponge, &c. will be filled with the liquid, and a combination svith the dye, immediately in contact with the sponge, take place, when all will be again quiet. If the dye is too diluted to give the requisite colour at first, the sponge is left un- disturbed, and the liquid also ; for a considerable time, the shade will not be Improved because a saturization has already been effected with the sjjonge, and the dye in its immediate contact ; but if the sj)ongc, after having remained a certain time 1)0 taken and squeezed, then returned again into the liquid, it will absorb a fresh quantity of the dye by fresh j)articles being exposed to its surface, when a second coat will be formed ; and so on with a third and a fouith, at every alternate immersion and squeezing, till the requisite shade be accom- plished. In this manner any degree of shade of a dye may be communicated to a piece of cloth, or other material capable of taking it up, in a much shorter time than in any other way. Again, how does iN'ature eft'ect the oxidation of the blood in the lungs of animals ? It is upon the same simple principle: for what does she do to gain this important end ? Let us for a moment observe ourselves in this instance ; we inhale a quantity of air into our lungs, and then immediately after ex- hale another quantity; a moment's pause ensues, when tho process is repeated again and again, to the end of our existence. Now the lungs are a body somewhat like a sponge, but composed of an infinite number of ramified tubes, by which means an immense surface is exposed to the air. The air that is inhaled is the atmosjiheiic, which is composed chiefly of nitrogen and oxygen. The air exhaled is different, being jiartly nitrogen, partly carbonic acid gas, with water in a gaseous form. We see then that the carbonic acid gas has been substituted for the oxygen, and if respiration be suspended, the air, just fiesh received into the lungs, cannot yield up more than its quantity of oxygen, if continued within them for the space of an hour ; and thus a balance, or equilibrium would be established ; conseciuently, to gain more of the oxygen, the stale air must be expelled to admit its place being occupied by a fresh quantity of atmo- spheric air. This is effectually done by the mo- ment's pause aftei exhalation, as the pause admits of the expired air escaping and ascending out of the vAay, having been rarefied by heat, and ren- dered lighter than the atmosphere, and thus making a pure entrance for the inhaled air. ~ Another simile, and a familiar one, may also be brought forward. It is of a fire that wants stirring, which exactly resembles a piece of land permitted to remain awhile unmoved. For the fire is becom- ing stale, or a balance of affinities is forming, or, properly speaking, the surfaces of the fuel, imme- diately in contact with the air, formed a combina- tion with the air whilst the lieat was sufficiently strong to effect it ; but by the hollowness conse- quent on combustion, from the consumption of a portion of the fuel, tVie particles in a state of igni- tion become more and more distant, when the heat proportionally declines, till falling below the power of decomposing the air, which now only gets rare- fied in its passage through ihe emberii, and thus robs them of their remaining he.at, when the fire soon goes cut. If, however, it be stirred in due time, aiod with judgment, whilst the heat is suffi- ciently powerful to decom])ose the air, a large ex- posure of fresh, or unsaturized surfaces and par- ticles, are presented to the current of fresh air, together with the ajjproximation of the parts in combustion, which, by consolidating the heat that was before distantly divided, materially prevents the further loss of the same, and consequently fa- vours immediate ignition. The fuel being put closer together, is however, left sufficiently porous for the free circulation of the air, which accord- ingly enters into chemical union with those parti- cles that are capable of receiving it; when the oxygen of the air, from a gaseous form, assumes a more condensed one with the fuel, the latent heat is in consequence given out, and shows itself in the general redness ; should hydrogen be present, as in coal or wood, it unites with this gas, and be- comes cheeringly visible in tlie flame. To further elucidate this meaning respecting the balance of affinities, and the advantage gained by moving the soil, the reader is requested to inspect a dung mix-hill that has been made tsvo or three months. This mix-hill will be found, if trodden down hard by the horses and carts during the time of making, or the interior defended from the out- ward air hy a covering of earth, in a comparative quiescent state ; and why ? Because the ferment- ation has gone as far as the fresh air ccntaincd within lasted, when the balance of affinities takes place. Now let this heap of manure be turned re- gularly over, and each spit broken and shaken in pieces, after the manner of making a cucumber bed, and spread a'.iout to prevent the same two ])ieces that were together before, from coming in contact again ; the uncombined stale and gaseous moisture will then be facilitated in their escape ; and from having less affinity for the materials of the manure than the fresh air and gaseous mois- ture to which the materials are now exposed, will readily give place to them, wlien afresh and strong fermentation ensues ; and this arri\'es at a great height after some hours, or a few days, and so continues, till the fresh store of air or moisture, and the new position of the particles of the ma- nure, are exhausted and saturated, when all is quiet again. When a soil is broken up by the plough and highly pulverized, this essential effect, fermenta- tion, is gained, which cannot lake place without the presence and consecpient decomposition of air or water, or both. This being the case, these two questions necessarily arise. I'he first ; is air al- ways present in the soil ? The answer is, that it is ; because it is impossible that a pulverized and porous body, such as the soil, which is always cx- I)osed, can maintain a vacuum in its innumerable cavities. The next respects the presence more or less of water in the soil. The same answer is again given, that it is present. The rains are the occasional contributors, together with the dews ; and the constant interchange of the air, charged with moisture, ascending and descending through the upper part at least of the pulverized soil, by the infiuenceof the inteiior fermentation, theday's heat, and the night's chill, leave behind in this climate, a quantity sufficicnily great to keep the soil moist exen in the driest seasons. Of the two former there is a positive certainly : and of the latter, the ploughman's experience equally satisfies him of this tact; but it is not dis- coverable in unmoved land, whicli is in conse- quence generally hard, dry, and cracky, during tlie summer months. J94 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The next step to be taken in this inquiry is, to ascertain whether the soil, hy cultivation, will me- chanically retain, and chemically, or by cohesive attraction, as Sir U. Uavy sp.ys, combine with air and water, and any gaseous tnaterials. What lias been shown already relative to the porons nature of the culti\'ated soil, cciually an- swers in this case. For having proved that the air is more or less present and diffused through the soil in proportion to its imjiroved state; then this prc*encc of the air denotes also its mechanical retainment. The next investigation relates to the capability of the various soils chemically combiiruig with air audits component ports, and the products of de- composed vegetables and animal manures, begin- ning with the latter. When vegetable and animal manures are applied to the soil and buried by the plough, they undergo fermentation, and gases of various natures are evolved ; these, passing into the finely pulverized earth, becomo arrcstt'd in tlioir nascent st;itc by the luinierous particles of the same, and are so strongly retained, as to exhibit their presence for a scries of years al'terwards (although every part of the ma- nure appears gone), by the superior crops that fol- low, and vv'hich gradually consume them. If these gases were incapable of chemical union, ihen from their specific gravity beitig so tar inferior to that of the soil, they must effect their escai^e in a greater or less degree, but more particularly so at every successive ploughing; consequently with the pro- portioned impoverishment of the land accoiding to the frccpiency of the o|)cration. However a long age of experience has no proof of such results ; therefore the detainment of the several gases for such a ])eriod must be more than mechanical, con- sequently then, is chemical.* Tho like raasouing api)lies to atmospheric :dr. The presence, or mechnnical suspension of wa- ter in soils, has been before shown ; and its chem- ical or cohesive combination with the particles of the earth, is on the same principle as water with lime ; thougli the union is not so strong; but the strength of the union, and the affinity of the soil for water, are increased by culti\aiion.-t- * This is a strong |)r:ictical f;ict ; that the j)articles of the soil have a superior affinity for the eomponent materials of anim;d and veget;ible substances than the atmosphere ; if true, the soil never lan be so in- jur, d bv exposure as some persons hiivc iuingined : indeed facts are every way in favour of exposure, so much so that it is absolutely necessary from ilie es- sential benefit the land derives by being allowed to breathe, to exchange its stale bad materials for those that are fresh and good. Meat, as of a dead sheep or horse, is sweetened and made tender by being buried in the ground for a day or so ; for the soil commences a digestive iirocess, and imbibes and retains all the ]iutrid effluvia as it genoi-ates. Dogs are, by their instinct, aware of tin; when they bury a bone, otherwise, fiom the acute smell of their own species in general, their store ■would be easily discovered, if the least efHuvia es- caped during that time, and the treasure robbe ! ; but tiie occurrence is very rare. ■\- A portion of soil being taken from a cultivated fallow, and compared with nn equal quantity from an exhausted soil close by, and wiili corn in ear growing upon it, the diffei-ences were; that the fal- low soil retained moisture longer than the exhausted soil, and when both were equally dried, the forini-;r regained moisture from the air (juicker than the AVhen there is an excess of water after saturi- zation, it evaporates in dr}' weather, and forms a mud, when very wet. Before terminating this part of the inquiry, the following well known fact is adduced in supjiortof the argument; that aration alone is capable of fer- tilizing land. '(Vhence is the source of such fer- tility.' We know of none ; if we exclude the air and water, and the improved digestive powers of the soil, saving the jjulverization ; which, indeed, with- out these wouhl be next to nothing; therefore these three must be ])iouounced as the real source, which, under the influence of the sun and seasons, yield to the hand of industry their hidden treasures, atul fixes them in the soil, to be gradually taken up by the future vegetation. J his satisfactory conclusion may at length be drawn, that the jiarticles composing a well ma- naged soil are capable of mechanically retaining and chemically combining A'it.h air and water, and their princii)les ; and a]fo witli the various pro- ducts from vegetable and animal innniircs. And this cajiability of the soil is to be improved, strengthened, and perpetuated, l)y well-directed ciUtivation ; thus jiroving not only the use, but the necessity and importance of cultivation. To dismiss this interesting chapter Vv-ithout a few remarks on the practical jiarts of the fallow ])rocess would be incorrect, and to do so it is ne- cessary to review some of the operations, and make comments as we proceed. 'i he coninienciiig the opetations for the fallow in the dry part of the autumn is highly necessary, and the ad\antages are these : that the plough presents an entire fresh and somewhat dry surface to the influence of the succeGding winter, instead of the same which had ben before long exjioscd during the preceding summer, and was in conse- quence become stale, therefore the soil would not deri\ e the projiortion of benefit it ought to do from the ensuing winter's frosts, rains, and other changes, which however will be gained by the par- ticles of the now fresh turned u]) surface. Again, the land being broken up as dry as it will plough, latter — a most important faet. Again, a thermome- ter was inserted three inches into a soil cultivated a few hours before, and then put the same depth into the same soil close by, which had not been so re- cently moved ; the result proveil that t!ie fiesh moved soil raised the (juicksilver at least two degrees higher than the unmoved, and selecting a spot just manured and fiesh moved, the diflerence of temperature was found greater. Cultivation increases the powers of decomposition and composition of the soil, or fermentation, denoted by the proportioned increase of the growth of plants; likewise by the more rapid decay of any vegetable or animal substances contained therein. But vege- tables growing in a soil have the tendency to lower the temperature of the same, caused, it is conceived, j.artly by tlieir shade, and jjartly by thi-ir very act of growing, which by transforming tjie more solid and liquid manures about their roots into a rarer or gaseous form, occasions the difi'erence, from the conse(]ue)it consumption of a portion of the surrounded heat taken up in a latent iorm during tlie rarefaction of any of the above substances. It is also known, that fisli-manuro ydoughed in early for a fallow, lasts longer than when ploughed in for a ciop on an exhausted seasc^n. 'J'hus proving again that caltivation strengthens the chemical powers of the soil. On the same principle farm-yard manure will go further when put on a fallow. THE FAllMEll'S WAGAZIINE. 195 and never mind how rough, the surface not only presents a greater number of particles to iinrae- (iiate exposure, but being at the same time rather dry than otherwise, the winter's fresh rain and snow enter more readily, and generally into every ])art of the clods, an;! after the manner of lime, crumbles tlic same to powder. Whereas if the same land be ploughed up wet so as to knead by the horses, the cavities of the soil, from this cause, being already filled with water, like '.he sponge, can receive no more, and therefore from the ap- proaching winter there is no chance of to be again moved or become dry. The Iresb rains and snows which may fall cannot penetrate through the clods, every interstice being already pre-occui)ied by the former moisture ; and this same quantity thus locked up, as the liquid dye in the sponge or cloth, and the air in the lungs, when it has parted to the soil all that it is capable, the balance of affinities is established by the saturation ; and no further bene- fit is to be expected, except upon the mere surface, where the frosts and sun may occasion a dryness. Such land, when ploughed in the spring, will, as the expression is, cut up whole furrow, instead of being in the fine and tender state of the land that was ploughed dry, aud now aj^ain ploughed in a dry time also.* With respect to the burying all the stubble and weeds ; these should always be done when practi- cable, and if done, they will, during the exposure of the winter season, particularly in very wet and stiff land, keep the same open and porous, and thus, not only make it more easily divisible by being blended with the soil, butp.ssist the running oft" of any superfluous water by the hollowness which the stubble naturally occasions, at the same time admitting a circulation of the air; be- sides, whatever of the stubble and weeds goes to decay, fertilizes, lightens, and improves, at no ex- pense. If a person follows the plough in the spring whilst stirring that land which svas ploughed in the autumn, where the stubble and weeds were buried, he will see that the land, in turning over, separates readily into pieces wliero the stubble is intermixed, and thus materially assists in the commencement of its pulverization. This stubble, on examination, will be fouiul in a blackened and mouldy stats, like manure, with the green weeds quite decayed, excepting the hearts of some of those plants that are of the biennial and percMinial kinds ; all this proceeding from the fermentation which ensued during the changes of winter, aided by the easy decomposable nature of the substance buried, and taking place too at a period wlu n ve- getation is at the weakest ; in consequence, the decay of the weeds, ratlier than their vegetation, followed, to the greater benefit of tlie laiid. Whereas, if the weeds had been sutfered to remain unmolested all the while, they would, at least, continue alive, and if a mild winter, have grosNn. The advocates for not ploughing in the autumn say, in theirdefencc, thatsuch lands plougliui) more tender and dry in the spring. Let this be granted, because they may argue, that the under soil, not * The best remedy, when the senson nnd time obliges the land to be^ploughcd wt-t, is lo plough llie furrows up an hedge as much as possible, that the v.-ater mav drain away the easic-r, with a greater sur- frt'-e being thus left' for the frosts, sun, air, &c., to operate upon. Laud should never be ploughed Ihit when in a wet and kneady state. having been disturbed by the plough becomes po- rous as the roots of the former plants decay, as well as retaining uninterrupted the old water-courses and cracks, which were formed the preceding sum- mer, aiul thus let ofl' the winter's rains and snows ; al-o, the old beaten down surface arrests a part of the water which is then dissipated by the sun and winds that follow. Li answer it must be observed, the object of the husbandman is not only dryness, • but an improved fertility by the winter's exposure, and which cannot take place in an unmoved soil, according to what has been already stated, and likewise, because the channels and cracks, similar to a fire, become hollow, and want stirring; hav- ing had the particles of the earth lining their sur- faces so long exposed to the summer's rain and air, they thus become effectually saturated as far as they were capable of receiving, and in conse- quence, little or no after benefit can be gained from the succeeding winter's rain and snow. Such reasoning as tlie non autumnal i)loughers use, 0!ily applies, if with any force, against tiiose farmers who are in the habit of ploughing up their land at that season of the year when really too wet.* The spring tillage for the fallow comes next ; but before entering upon particulars it may be asked, which of tlie four seasons are those best calculated to crown our operations witli the greatest success } 'I'he spring and early part of the summer are decidedly to be i)referred, the laud having of course been previously rough ploughed up in the autumn. This opinion is thus de- fended. In the first place, let this question be put, when is vegetation the strongest ? Why, certainly du- ring the spring and early sunnner months ; then of course must be the time of the greatest chemical changes with the soil, air, and water : therefore, the more the land is exposed to the influence of the sun, air, and rain, hy cultivation at this im- jjortant time, the greater will be the increase of fertilization. To account for all this is the next question, and it is thus attempted. That contrasts and extremes, acting alternately on matter, produce in general the greatest effects, by weakening and destroying the balance of, their affinities ; as is instanced in the familiar case of hot water brctxking a glass that is cold, and cold water breaking a glass that is hot. But tiic continuance of such contrasts for any length of time in either extreure, preserves the equilibrium of their particles unaltered ;t as for * Land improves very slowly indeed when suf • fered to lie unmoved ; if otherwi-e, the not cultivat- ing of it would of course be tlio cheapest plan ; but facts are the reverse, and the cause easily ex|)lained. Although the unmoved land receives the eflects of the same sun, the same rain and winds, yet little fer- tility is left behind, because the surface particles are early saturated, when whatever coaies afterwards is lost to them. No extra heat and chemical powers are communicated to the soil by cultivation, no change of position of the particles of the soil relative to each other takes place, and from being deficient of these essentials, no extra fermentation can ensue, conse- quently, its iinproveiuent in fertility' must be \>to- portionally small; and this ishorneout by facts. There- fore, every omittance of cultivation, if a gain in la- hour, is a loss in fertility, f The ])reservaiion of fish and meal jiresin-ved in ico is the result of the strong balance of affinities. I\leat preserved in salt, fruit preserved in close 196 TOR FARMER'S MAGAZINE. example, paper when dry, and the jjiles of bridges that are aKvaj's wet. ^Vhat have we then so fa- vourable to the overthrow of the chemical affini- ties of the soil ? A winter, the very cxtroinc in its nature to the j)rece(ling summer, as being a period overcharged with moisture and cold, in opposition to its dryncso and heat. As these extremes of wet and cold continue for about six months, the very active energies of vegetation, and of composition and decompositirm, are not to be wondered at, when the opjjosites, heat and dryness,* are in- creasing in their powers in the spring and early summer months, till the sun has reached its greatest height and limit. The rays of the sun afterwards, being on the decline, become daily less and less jjowerful, therefore less and less eft'ect nnist be produced, and this explains the cause why the vigour of vegetation is then seen lo cease, f and with it we naturally infer, the fettilizing eftects, as respects composition and decomposition on the soil also, with a consequent tendency at the same time t) a rest in their several affinities ; though afterwards the autumn rains come, ;unl v'egetation is seen to revive a little, yet winter soon lollows, and seals up all with its frosts. OP THE SPRING TILLAGE. ShouUl the land he extremely foul, harrowings and scarifyings, J with pickings and buinings, must be had recourse to whilst the land is in the driest siate, and all completed, if possible, before the next ploughing, 'i'he plough may then he intro- duced and let into the laud the greatest dej)th re- quired, that the largest ])ossilde mass of soil maj' gain the benefit of the future exposuie and tillage. Witli a field fairly clean the ploughing may at once commenco, as the surface will be(iuite tender, and sufficiently pulverized without the aid of the liarrows. If the fallow is to be manured, no bo:ttcr time can be chosen than the present to be now ])loughed in — but more of this heieafter. During the early spring tillage, be careful to knead the laud as little as can be avoided, and, as the season advances, it is best not to suffer a stopped jars aiul bottles, are ins'ances of the snme Idnd. * That is to snv, though more lain is s;iid to f;ill in summer th;ui in winter, yet it quickly vanishes again, and by its evaporation assists, no doubt, in the decomposition. t Upon the same principle may be frxplained the cause why the morning sun has more effect upon vegetation t'lan the afternoon. + Scarifying is very well for cleaning laud, but jiever will ansvi-er as a substitute for the plough ; be- cause, a scarifier is unable to bring up and turn over the fresh soil of the bottom lo the top for exposure, like the plough ; consi'(iuently, the top surfiice soon getting snturaled, gains no more benefit from the sun, air, and rain, however often the same surface may be moved . On following the plough, whilst preparing a bean hind for wheat, much of the stuhble of the barley crop ploughed in forheans w;is observed undecayed, although the last crop, beans, being a drilled one, was horse-hoed at least three times. Proving, that the eff"ects of superficial cultivation do not descend with much influence belou- the actual operation; also jiroving, that the lower materials of the soil must be actually moved, and brought up to the sun, air, &c., before the requisite strong fermentation and benefit can ensue. horse's foot or a cart-wheel on the surface until the soil beneath is too dry to knead ;* because all the former laborir will be in a great measure lost, whilst the time is too short to do it over again. Nevertheless, siiould necessity oblige a husband- man to j)longh his land before it is fit, as he is to ex- jjcct extremes of dry weather instead of the win- ter's rain, tlie clods may get perfectly dry, and the spring showers falling after wards v/ould re- pidverize them. The main object is to let the clods be quite dry, when, if rain does not fall, they, being returned to the bottom of the furrow by the next ploughing, will gain sufficient moisture to dissolve and pulverize them. In fact, the plan of always ploughing in, when possible, a dry, dusty surface, instead of a wet one, is to he prcferrcfl, because the extremes of dryness of the former siirlacG being turned to the bottom of the fnirow, where there is always moisture, svhich being alisorbed in an equal degree by the dry soil occasions a rise of tempera- ture readily detected by a thermometer, conse- (pient on the union with the inoitU April. IbJti. 1S3U Endainl., 335-20.';!)3 2i79069 4480792 33GS73.12 2!0ir4t Scoliatid . Totiil 4567083 403S0454 40350 1 20 G. A. COTTRELL, First General-Accountant. Excise Office, London, June 29; 1839. 108 TIIR FARMER'S MAGAZINE. LITEIlATUllli:. BRITISH A!\IEIIICA, Ji Vols. : J'onning Vols. 25, 2G, (ind'i? of l/ic Ediw l/urr/h Cabinet Lihrary. Oliver antl Boyd, Edinburgh. Although recent events have brought a i)art of these colonies more immediately under i)iil)]ic at- tention, still, as colonics, they possess high claims to our care and watchfulness. Tlic work now be- fore us is the best arranged and the most com- plete which we have had the opportunity of ex- amining. The history of the (Janadas occupies the first volume and part of the s?cond, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, with the maritime colonies the remainder of the second, whilst the third is devoted to an enquiry as to the best mode of employment, and, connected with that object, the situation, climate, and soil of the different dis- tricts ; conchiding with a full and interesting ac- count of the zoology, botany, and geology of tlic northern ])artsof the American Continent. These latter departments have been conducted respec- tively by IMr. Wilson, Dr. Greville, and Professor Trail; and the whole is illustrated by numerous maps and plates. The historiea! and descrijinvc dei)artments arc the work of Mr. Murray, whose jjrevious editorial labours in this pojjular ^^■ork arc well known and api)rcciated. The subjoined ex- tract will sliovv the capability of the country for raising agricultural produce. "Climate, which forms the other important particu- lar, wears at first view a k-ss favourable aspect. A region which for several months, and in some districts for ranrc than half the year, remains buried in frost and snow, may well he supposed unfriendly to vegeta- tation. As already observed, however, the strong, steady heat of summer counteracts almost completely this chilling influence, and matures with surprising ra- pidity the most valuable plants. Mr. Evans has had wheat in ear nine weeks after it was sown. Even the violent alternations of frost and thaw, of snow and rain, instead of injuring vegetation, are found to pul- verize and soften the soil, and thus render it more fer- tile, with less culture. The great steadiness of tlie summer weather exempts plants from sundry vicissi- tudes which they undergo in a more changeable climate. From these causes the annuals suited to a temperate region, grow in Canada to full perfection, and as these include the grains fitted for bread, the food most essen- tial to man, she has little cause to envy any other country; in regard to wheat indeed, the chief of those vegetables, this observation must be somewhat re- stricted ; its plants are so far biennial that to acquire the very first quality, they must be sown dtu'ing the preceding autumn, yet this course has not been found safe in Lower Canada, where wheat must be treated as an annual — sown in spring, and reaped before the end of the year. The defect is owing not te the rigour of the winter, still less to the depth of snow, which on the contrary is found to protect and cherish vegetable gi'owth, but is ascribed to severe frosts, violent and chilling rains, occurring after the snow has left the ground, and the plants have made some progress. An opinion is entertained, that with good management, hitherto much wanting, autumn wheat might he raised with success. The British American Land Company have decidedly adopted this idea, and some successful experiments have been made. Mr. Evans, however, is of opinion, that from the above causes, unless in some favoured situations, it must always he an unsafe crop, and peculiarly liable to disease. He had once autumn and spring wheats growing on the same field, when, although the first was completely ruined by rust and mildew, the other proved excellent. He seems to apprehend, Ihercffuc, that Lower Canada must be con- tent with her good spring growth. It is said, hov.xvcr, to require a soil more minutely pulverized, while the grain produced contains a greater proportion of gluten, and is thus harc'.cr and more difiicult to grind. In Up- per Canada, autumn wheat is raised without difficulty. Barley is well suited to Ibc climate, and on well pre- pared soils the produce is found very little inferior to that in England. The square, or four-rowed species, is generally cultivated as the most productive, and not objected to by tlie brewer, though the two-rowed or long eared brings a higher price, and has been partially introductd. Oats, as the intense heat of summer is apt to dry the panicles, which then do not convey suffi- cient nourishment to the ears. It is alleged, however, that by early sowing, and other precautions, the evil might be obviated. This grain, in fact, has been much neglected and underrated. Rye, so much a favourite in the north of Europe, is cultivated here, but only for the distilleries. M;uze, or Indian corn, the only im- portant farinaceous plant peculiar to the New World, \i the tallest, and yields the largest bulk of all this de- scription of plants ; the grain though very productive, alTordiog from 30 to 70 bushels an acre, is too soft and deficient in gluten to make good bread, without a large adnjixture of wheat ; it is relished however in various forms of pudding or pottage, and for feeding cattle and poultry seems superior to any other corn. Its range in America is very extensive, since being an annual, it is unaffected by the cold of winter, yet a strong heat of considerable duration is required, the absence of which in a great part of Canada, renders this crop very precarious. If cold or wet weather occur soon after sowing, the seed is liable to rot, while as the harvest- ing dots not take place till the end of September, the crop sulfers often from premature frosts. Mr. Evans considers it unsafe beyond hit. 45" N., which excludes most of Lower Canada, while Mr. Shirreff restricts it within lat 41jo, scarcely allowing it to go north of Lake Ontario. At Peterborough it had failed for seve- ral consecutive years ; where successful it is considered excellently fitted for new lands, and also as a prepara- tion for wheat. It is planted in rows to admit of horie-hoeing, and in Upper Canada pumpkins are ad- vantageously raised in the intervals." PHRENOLOGY IN BIRDS. \Vc give the conclusion of an amusing article upon this subject, extracted from the Naturalist for August, an interesting publication edited by Neville Wood, Esq. " Although it is true that the general type of the brains of rapacious birds is somewhat similar, the ear- nivorous propensity (destruetiveness) being indicated in all feeders on flesh by the breadth of the head whe- ther they kill for themselves or devour any dead decom- posing carcass which they scent with the gusto of lovers ef game, yet there is a diff'erence in the forms of the skull of each genus, and still more diversity in those of each species. There is, for example, a family likeness in the different genera of Owls, but very striking differ- ence in the configuration of the different species. The diversity of form becomes yet more apparent when we compare together different genera, as in the case of the Owl and the Hawk : by way of illustrating this posi- tion, the Barn Owl and the Sparrow Hawk may be selected. They are both broad from ear to ear, whilst the upper and anterior portions of their heads differ very much, but both are sanguinarj in their habits. The Sparrow Hawk's skull when viewed from behind shows large destructiveness, secretiveness, cautious- ness, and firmness, and its habits result from such a combination of faculties.— How noiseless are all its motions as it pursues the helpless sparrow — how gently it skims along, and how beautiful are its undulations — the very air seems undisturbed and unruffled by its floating changes of place : it moves like a bodyless spiiit, and appears so circumspect, yet so determined that its victim shall not escape, these very motioas be- TIIF. FARMER'S MA(;AZlNi:. 199 ing still marked with something of dnfjged firmness of purpose; and when its prey is considered sure, how unerring and dcadlj' is its ai-n, and how savagely does it pounce and seize tlic trembling, panting, unfortunate sparrow, and then instantaneously gratify its sangui- nary propensity ! The Sparrow Hawk reminds one of a secret assassin, turninfj and winding wich a breath- less purpose, and although determined to sacrifice the victim of his hatred or of his ire, he in either instance waits an ojTportune moment and strikes the unconscious individual, nay, often repeating the stab in order to gratify a malignant and savage disposition. Compar- ing-the skull of the Sparrow Hawk with that of a Barn Owl, we perceive that the latter does not present a full- ness from the base (laterally) to the vertex, but on the contrary, is broader at the base on comparison of the sizes of the skulls, and goes off gradually decreasing upwards like a pyramid, flattened on both its sides and also on the surface ; and of all the owls this one is the most courageous (destructiveaess and combativeness being large), it dispatches its victims with greater ce- lerity, its feeding hours being at twilight, morning, and evening. The upper portion of the parietal bones being narrow across, indicates a comparative deficiency of cautiousness, which is also well in harmony with its known habits, it being less timid than other species of Owls building in the flues of gentlemen's houses. It should Manifest great attachment if we may judge from the breadth of the back of the head. I would also now call attention to three birds of very different mental manifestations, although nearly related as far as re- gards family connection — the Magpie, the Crow, and the Rook. The head of the Magpie indicates a re- markable difference of form from either of the others, the middle portion of the lateral regions of the brain corresponding in relative positions in the human cra- nium to secretiveness (being between destnictiveness and cautiousness) is largely developed in this bird : this part of the skull actually pi ejects so as to exhibit a bump ! The habiti of the Magpie are well accounted for and explained by its cerebral organization. It overcomes its victims or its enemies by its superior cunning, more than from any great endowment of cour- age. The Magpie is proverbial for its sly and thievish propensities ; even when in captivity it has been known to conceal its food in its cage, and pry about as if to watch tiie opportuuity of gratifying its iiunger and secretiveness at the same time. Tims it may be seen taking in a deceitful, eliciting kind of way, portions of its meal, particularly v.'alching in the most sly manner that it is not observed. We often meet with magpie men, who never do anything in a straight-forward man- ner, tlioy are always suspicious of t!ie motives of others, and continually trying to overreach and deceive in every transaction. The illustrious Burns ably describes the operation of this propensity, and says, " Conceal yoursel as weel'sye can Frae critical dissection, But keek thro' every other man Wi' sliarpcncd sly inspection." " If we contemplate actions performed under the in- fluence of strong secretiveness, whether in man, in ani- mals, orin birds, we shall find them all characterised by cunning and slyness. The natural lans'unge of the Faculty is similar, the position of the head sideways, or the peculiar position of the eyes, indicating a strong desire to sec, and if possible avoid being seen ; then the stealthy gait, the step slow and noiseless, and a gravity which the superficial mistake for seriousness of manners and deep reflection, but the true rendcrinsr is deceit, cun- ning, and baseness, and in the case of the magpie it is a curious fact that it evidently delights in robbery and de- ception, and it betrays a great sense of pleasure when it has tlie power of concealing anything even if useless to itself. In order to show that these statements are nei- ther fanciful nor meretricious, but founded in nature, let acomparison be made between the skull of the mag- pie and the jkull of the carrion crow, and the contrast will be most striking. Instead of secretiveness being large in the hitter, it will immediately be seen that de- structiveness and cautiousneis are both large, and also adhesiveness, the crow's head being broad and low, with grest breadth behind, and yet Ion;;' from the back to the front. As the habits of the carrion crow are well known, I need only remark that he builds his nest in very higli trees, and fights for his Lady love witii a most chivalrous devotedness, not caring to live if he has a rival in her affections. 'I'ho very circumstance that crows provide their whole domestic arrangements indicates strong natural attachment independent of the omalre instinct. Again if we compare the skull of the carrion crow with that of the rook there are certain points of resemblance as well as in their habits and pre- dilections, but the latter has more self-esteem, is more stately and overbearing, and may therefore show more resistance to a common enemy. Finally we may ex- amine skulls of the same genus but of different species, and find some modificati m of form indicative of their different habits. Thus the skulls of the common bus- tard and the kile have many points of resemblance, but the eye soon discovers the modifications of which we have been speaking. CULTIVATION OF STRAWBERRIES.— I he Lonrlon market gardeners jilant in rows, about two feet asunder, and place clean litter over the soil. Thus the fruit is preserved from dirt, and the gardeners and ga- therers can walk between the rows of the extensive plantations, without doing injury to anything. In pri- vate gardens we see reason to form only narrow beds, three feet wide, and of any convenient length, four rows in a bed, the plants six or eight inches apart. Prepare the ground by trenching two feet deep, and incoi-porate sound vegetable mould with the earth. Do the work early in September, keep the ground perfectly free from weeds, throw light soil, mixed with the best reduced dung, over the bed in December, so as to fill up every hollow close around the collars of all the plants. In ftlarch cut off the withered old leaves, and rake the surface with a wooden rake. If any blossoms appear cut them away, and do not suffer the plantation to have any fruit in the first year. Prepare a second bed in the same way, and treat it in every respect as the first was treated. Permit that lied to bear a full crop in the se- cond year, and the product will demonstrate the value of this mode of proceeding. A third bed will complete the succession, and at the same time the second will come into bearing. The first bed may then be de- sti'oyed, and replanted, after deep digging and manur- ing. Lay mowings of grass among the plants that bear fruit, to preserve the trusses from being splashed. The directions above given comprise the routine of a mode of planting which is calculated to produce the best fruit in abundance ; and the amateur gardener would do well to try it carefully. Our objection to long angle rows is that they occupy much room, and tljc fruit is rarely, if ever, jireserved from dirt and mutilation. A ])lot formed a> directed takes up little space, and is re- newed without inconvenience. UNPRECEDEiMTED WEIGHT OF SHEEP AND WOOL.— When the sheep at Spout Rum were sheared, on the 18lh of May last, a yearling ram and five of the ewes were weighed as follows : — The ram 17411)s., his fleece Sllis. ; 1st ewe 195lbs., fleece 5ibs.; 2d ewe 1701bs. ; 3d ewe 190lbs., fleece 7lbs. ; 4th ewe 1641bs., fleece 51bs ; 5th ewe 164!bs., fleece 51bs. Only two are considered at all above the average weiglit of the flock. The wool was clean washed, otherwise the flocces would have weiphed from 7 1-2 to lllbs. ; and the ewes were all suckling lambs. 1'hese two conside- rations taken into view, it is believed to be the greatest exhibit of weight of carcass and fleece ever made in the United States by a flock of ewes. 'J'liese sheep were raised and improved by my friend, Mv. Thomas H. I'urwell, of S^jout Spring, Clarke county, Ya.— WiU' Chester Virginian. 200 THE FAIlMEirs MAGAZINE. FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. AN ACCOUNT OK SOMK SELECT EAUMS. 'I'lio (lutails of I'lemisli liusbiinJry Ciinnot he bet- ter c'X[)l:uned ilian by reference to a few of the best- cultivated firms in different parts of the country. TLero is a great uniformity in the general practice, but there aru considerable variations introduced in consequence of tiie diversity of soil and situation. One of tlie iir-st farms we shall notice is situated within a mile of Courtray, and is in ilie occupation of a man who lias more theoretical knowledii^e of agriculture than most otiier Flemish farmers : lie is a native of France, but lias passed a great part of liis life in Flanders ; and Ijis wife, wbo seems very active and well acquainted with the details of a farm, especially the dairy, is a Flemish woman. The place where the i'arm is situated is called Walle, The ex- tent is thirty-six bonniers, each bonnier being about three acres. The soil is a good sound loam, which, although it is there called a strong soil, would not be reckoned very heavy in those counties in llngland where th© clay prevails. It is such land as mav bo seen in some parts of Essex and Hertfordshire, which will produce good benns, without being too Iieavy for turnijis, or even carrots, 'i'he quality of the soil does not vary materially through the farm. It is not of so rich a nature as (he clays of the polders, and, when washed, contains a considerable ])ortion of silicious sand ; but it has been enriched by rejieated and ainple manuring, not only by tiie dung and urine of the cattle kept on the farm, but by purchased manure of every description, esjic;- cially the sweepings of the streets of Courtray and the emptying of privies. Tlio farm-buildings are very conveniently arranged at a siuall distance from the high road, from which there is an approach by an avenue of trees. 'I'he farm-house, which is substantial and convenient, and the stables for the horses, occupy one side of a square or rectangle of sixty yards long by fifty wide. Opposite the house stands a roomy bam, and another occupies tvi-o- thirds of the west side of the stjuare. The east side is taken up with a cow house, ox- stalls, and other useful buildings. The entrance is by a gate-way with double gates, at tlie north-east angle of the yard. A paved causeway ten feet wide runs all round the farm-yard, raised about eighteen inches above it. The cow-stalls, barns, &c., are on a level with this causeway ; and the yard slopes gently towards the middle, where there is an oval tank surrounded by a brick wall, which rises two feet above the yard. 'I'herc is an opening in this vs'all suiScient to allow a cart to be backed into it : from this opening the bottom slopes to the further end, where it is tliree feet deep. This is the croa- pissoir, into which all the liquid [lart of the dung runs, when it is washed by the rain, through open- ings left in the wall which surrounds it. The urine is collected in another large vaulted reservoir imme- diately under the cow-house and ox-stalls. This description applies equally to most of the farm-yards attached to large farms ; for one hundred and twenty acres is a large farm in Flanders. Thirty cows are constantly kept on this farm, and six horses, besides young heifers and colts. The cows are always kept in the stalls, and fed with grffen food in summer, ajd roots with meal in win- ter. Each cow has a stall in which she is tied up by herself, separated from the next by a large flat slab of stone about four feet square set on edge. There is a low stone trough before her, and an open- ing in tl § wall to give her air. She is tied by a leather .strap round her neck, v.illi a chain fastened to a stajile, which goes through the wall and is se- cured by a nut and sccw on the other side. The cow-stable is forty-yards long wiiiiout any division, and six yards wicJe, so that tiiere is much room be- hind the cows. In the middle against the wall is a pump to supply water for the cows and to wash out the stable, which is very frequently done, the whole being swe])t into the urine-tank below through an aperture, towards which all the gutters slope from the cow-slalls. Undir the pump is a stone cistern, which is constantly kept full, that tiie water may ac- quire the temjierature of the air. in this cistern bean or rye meal is mixed, in the proportion of a Lirge double-handful to three gallons of water, so that the cows never drink the water without this addition. It is supjiosed to increase their milk and make it richer. Outside of the building is the pump, by which the urine is raised to fill the casks in which it is conveyed to the land. Another pump is in the centre tank, by which thedung water is raised, either to mix with the urine when rape-cakes have been dissolved in it, or to pour it over the solid dung to accelerate the putrefaction. The pens for fattening calves, are placed along the wall behind the cows, and, being only two feet wide, take up very little room; there are only two or three of these, for, so near a considerable town, the fatting of calves is not so i)rolitable as selling fresh butter. A few acres of grass are kept in permanent pas- ture near the house, and the cows are put there for a few hours every day in summer, more for exercise and for the sake of their health, than for grazing. All the rest of the land is arable, and cultivated very strictly according to a regular rotation. i\Ir. Uoulre- luinge, the occupier, informed us, that he had save- ral times made experiments bv varying the usual course ; at one time increasing the cpiantity of flax, and at another that of colza ; but he found, by keep- ing very exact accounts of the expense and produce, that every deviation caused a loss in the end. The rotation is very simjde. Tlie whole of the arable land he divides into six parts — one jjart is half in flax and half in colza, one wheat, one rye and tur- nips, one oats (five-sixths of which with clover- seed), one clover, with a small proportion in potatoes and carrots, one two-thirds wheat and one-third beans. The land intended for flax is ploughed soon after harvest with a very shallow furrow, or only well harrowed to destroy the stubble ; rotten dung is spread over it, at the rate of twenty large loads per acre, about the month of September. It is left spread on the land for some time, and then rolled with a heavy roller : this is to j.ress it into the ground, and make it fine. It is then ploughed in with a shallow furrow. When the plough has made a furrow, six or eight men with spades dig spits of earth out of the bottom of it, which they set upon the part already turned up, so that the ground is partially trenched. The plough on its return fills the holes thus made, and, when the whole is finished, it lies in a very rough state with large clods all over it ; so it remains all winter. In spring, when the clods are pulverized by the frost, the liarrows pass over repeatedly and level the surface. The land is then ])loughed and harrowed several times, till it is thought sufficiently fine. Liquid manure is now put on. This consists chiefly of the emptyings of privies and the urine of cows, and also of rape-cakes dis- solved in urine, and left to ferment for some time, which is done in the open tank in the yard. The quantity of rape-cake used depends on the supply of vidunges, A>liich are preferred, the other bein» THE FARMEil'S MAGAZINE. 201 only a substitute. This is allowed to soak into tlie ground for a few dnys. It is then well harrowed, and the linseed is sown at the rate of about three bushels to the acre, and covered by the barrows re- versed or the traineau. The only peculiarity in this process is the spreading of dung over the land and letting it remain some time before it is ploughed in. According to the prevailing opinions, we should say that a poriion of it must evaporate and be dissipated. But the practice must not be hastily condemned on mere theoretical principles. It is well known that there is no manure so good for flax as tliat which is collected in the towns by poor people, who sweep the streets, and make composts of everything which is capable of putrefaction. This compost is sold, in a dry state, by measure ; and we have repeatedly seen the preparers of this manure spread it out in dry places in the sun to bring it to a marketable state. Probably the origin of this may have been that, by being dry, tlie carriage of it is lighter ; but that the virtue of the compost is not lost by drving appears from the reputation It has amongst the far- mers, who piously believe that its extraordinary effects are to be ascribed to a peculiar blessing of God, as it enables the poor and destitute to gain a livelihood. It must be recollected that this manure is so prepared b3^ repeated turning and watering, and that the vegetable fibres in it are almost entirely decomposed. It is propable that in drying nothing is evaporated but simple moisture. This practice being peculiar, and not very generally adopted, ren- ders it more deserving of notice. A little beyond Courtray along the Lys, towards IMenin, is a farm particularly noticed by Mr. E,ad- cliffe ia his report of the husbandry of Flanders. It was then in the occupation of a Mr. Van Bo- geart, who afterwards retired with a competent fortune, chiefly acquired by farming. It is now occupied bv Mv. l)e Brabanter, who cultivates it very carefully, with some slight deviations from the practice of his predecessor. This farm is called Vollander, and is one of the finest and most compact we have seen. It consists of about one hundred and forty acres, of which about twenty are fine meadows along the river, occasionally flooded in winter, but not irrigated ; about ten acres are rich Iieavy land, adjoining the meadows, in which beans and wheat tlirivewell; all the remainder, about one hundred and six acres, or rather more, lie in an oblong field bounded b}' a hedge-row, at one corner of which, nearest the rivcr, stand the farm-buildings. A road or path, six feet wide, runs through the middle of the field, and the road which leads to the farm-yard skirts one end of it. The soil of this field is a rich light Icam, which lies over a substratum of clay, but at such a depth as to be perfectly sound and dry. It is not extremely fertile in its own nature, but has been rendered so by many years of an improving Lusbandr}'^. Every part of the land has been re- peatedly trenched and stirred two or three feet deep; and the immense quantity of manure, chiefly liquid, put on year after year, has converted the whole into a very rich mould. The strength and vigour of the crops bear witness to the goodness of the husbandry. As we walked along the middle path, which is just wide enough to admit the wheels of a cart, the whole produce might be seen at once. It was just the time when tlie flax had been pulled, and remained stacked on the ground. The colza had been beat out, but the stems remained in heaps where they had been cut. There were fifteen acres of most beautiful flax of a bright straw-colour, and the stems a yard long. This, besides the seed, was worth in the stack from 25/, to 301. per acre ; twelve acres of colza had pro- duced about fifty quarters of seed ; eighteen acres of oats looked so promising, that they could not be set at less than nine quarters per acre ; eigiiteen acres of wheat, which stood well with short but plump ears, we valued at five quarters per acre ; eighteen acres of rye, partly cut, with the straw above six feet high, would probablyproduce rather more than the wheat. There were six acres of white poppy, of which every plant was strong and upright, and the ground under it as clean as a garden ; we are no judges of this crop, but we were informed that the expected pro- duce would be about seven or eight hectolitres (twenty to twenty-three bushels)* per acre : six acres were in potatoes, expected to produce eight hundred hectolitres (two thousand two hundred and seventy bushels : — three hundred and seventy-eight bushels per acre). A small patch, about an acre, was in carrots, which looked fine and large ; twelve acres were in clover, nearly the whole of which was cut green to give to the cows and horses ; it pro- duces three good cuts in the year where it is not allowed to go to seed. The ten acres of heavy land were partly in beans and partly in wheat. Thus we have one hundred and sixteen acres all profitably cropped, leaving four acres for the roads and farm-buildings. Although this farm is within two miles and a half of Courtray, the greatest part of the manure is collected on the farm. Rape-cake is used most profusely, and to this, as well as to the depth of the soil, the beauty of the flax is ascribed. Mr. De Brabanter usually sows his flax after oats, which, on this account, have been very highly ma- nured. His urine-tank is very capacious, like a large cellar under his cow-house. I'he farm-build- ings are arranged nearly as those of the last-de- scribed farm ; he has a large dry vault to store his roots in winter. His stock consists of twenty-seven cows in milk, five or six heifers, nine horses, and three colts. The rent of this farm, including land- tax and other imposts paid by the tenant, amounts to 4880 francs, 187/. 15s., which is fully equal to 270/. in England, taking the value of agricultural produce in the two countries as a measure. There is nothing very peculiar in the practice of Mr. De Brabanter. He ploughs the land well, lays it in narrow stitches with deep intervals dug out i)y the spade, puts manure with every crop, more or less, keeps the land clean by weeding, and adopts a long- and varied rotation. The beauty of this farm consists in the equality of the soil of the great field and its depth. This is not so much owing to natural advantages, as to a long course of stirring and manuring, by which there is such an accumulation of humus, as to render a sandy loam, naturally of moderate fertility, equal to old garden-giound, absorbent and retentive of moisture, without being wet. The labourers on this farm were mostly lodged and boarded in the house, and they had all the appearance of being healthy and well fed. The farmer himself is a tall athletic man, with a good-natured, but shrewed countenance j ho seemed very ready to give every information respect- ing his farm. His wife, equally active, superintends the dairy, and took some pride in showing us in a cool vaulted cellar numerous pans set on the brick floor filled with the last milking, and deeper vats in which the milk of the preceding day had been put in its progress towards churning. The milk, even when it is not intended to be skimmed, is always sot in shallow pans for twelve hours before it is poured into the vats, and the difl:erent milkings are kept separate. * A hectolitre is 2'837 V/iuchester bushels, 202 THE FARMER'S MAGAZlNli:. I'lio next fiirrn vvliicli we shall notice is sonie;v]iut (lifl'eieiit from tlio two preceding, and if the land is not (juite so carefully tilled, it is made very produc- tive irom the (luantit)' of stock ke])t upon it. It is situated between Furncs and Dixmude, at a place called Stuiveskenkerke. It partakes of the nature of a polder farm ; for the land may be considered as an old polder. The extent of the farm is consider- able, upwards of four hundred acres, of which two hundred are in rich natural pastures, the remainder is cultivated with the plough. The soil is here a good stiff loam, having the appearance of a clay ; but it approaches more nearly to a marly soil, which crumbles when moderately wetted. It contains a considerable proportion of calcareous matter mixed with sand and clay, and is decidedly of a superior (]uality to that of the two ])receding farms. It re- fjuires less manure, but is more difficult to cultivate ; both the extremes of wet and dry in the weatiier rendering- tiie plough useless. In the first case the surf\ice is converted into mud, and in the latter it cannot be ploughed ; for if sufficient strength were applied, it would rise in large clods, which would harden in the sun, and remain so fill continued wet or frost crumbled thera again. U'heat and beans are principal crops, and the latter are more cariifull}' cultivated than we have seen in any other jjart of Flanders; they are planted in rows, in imitation of kitchen-gardeners. A drill is drawn with a hoe, and beans are deposited in it three or four inches apart; the earth out of the next drill serves to cover the seed. The distance between the drills is about ten inches or a foot, which in rich land is too near. When the beans are out of the ground tlie intervals are hoed. The produce is from tliree to five quarters per acre, but might be more with wider intervals, and more effective hoeing. The rotation of crops on this farm is generally — 1 , fallow ; 2, winter barley ; S, beans ; 4, barley or wheat ; 5, beans, clover, potatoes ; (>, wheat ; 7, oats. The fallows are not ploughed before winter, but four times in spring and summer. Tliirty cart- loads of manure in a long state, without the straw being much decomposed, are put on before the last ploughing, and the winter barley is sown in Octo- ber ; the produce is eight quarters jier acre. Wheat on the same preparation produces from four to five quarters, so that the land is better suited for barley, and this last cives a better return with less exhaus- tion of the soil; ever)' year a small portion of the pasture is broken up, aud sown with colza. This would probably not have been permitted, had the farm, not been occupied by the son of the propri- etor. The natural fertility of the soil is shown by the succession of the crops produced on the newly- broken-up land without any manure; viz., colza, wheat, beans, barley, beans, wheat, clover, wheat, beans, oats. After this scourging it is no wonder that the soil wants rest ; and this is given without much care, by merely allowing the natural grasses to spring up without the trouble of sowing the seeds. It takes three years before there is any tolerable pasture ; but as it remains twenty years or more in grass before it is broken up again, the deteriorating effect of the cropping is not observed. How much more productive might not the land be made bv more judicious management ! The whole of tlie farm has repeatedly undergone this process, and must have been extremely rich at first. At present it requires repeated manuring to produce even average crojjs, except on that portion which has been broken up from old grass. Under a regular and judicious course uf convertible husbatidrv, this land might be kr])t up in the highest Gtate of fertility, and the ul- timate profit would be much greater. If we cannot altogetiipr praise the management of the arable land, we must do justice to that of the dairy and stock. Here the finest and richest butter in the world is made. 1 he stock consists of twenty- four milch cows, twenty-eight yearling calves, twenty-eight two-year-old heifers and stvers, and fifty bullocks. All these are wintered on straw, hay, and split beans. 'J he straw is cut into chalf, and the farmer, Mr. Graeve, son of tiie proprietor, a spirited young man, has procured from England a machine for cutting chaft, which is to be worked by a horse, in the same mill by which lie churns his butter. The bullocks are fattened on the pastures, and are fit for tlie butcher by the end of July or Au- gust. The weight of the carcass, when slaughtered, averages ninety stone, of eight pounds each, and sells for 12/., or 2s. 8d. a stone. The cows give each, on an average, twelve quarts ot milk per day. Me churns three times a week, making forty pounds at each churning. The cream only is churned in a barrel-churn, which is turned by a horse. The but- ter comes in one hour and a quarter in summer ; ia winter it takes two or three hours. As soon as it is taken out of the churn it is well washed, to get all tlie butter-milk out, and immediately salted : before night it is worked again, and more salt is added. It is tiien ])ut into the cask, and brine is poured over it. It sells for one franc (lOd.)the pound of twenty ounct s. This butter is famed for its keeping, and is therefore much sought after for ships' jirovision. In summer there are fifty labourers on this farm, half of whom are boarded and lodged, and have from 8/. to 12/. yearly wages. The day labourers have 9d. a day and their food. The calves which are reared, of which there were twenty-eight when we visited the farm, have per day a bushel of oats and eight oil-cakes amongst them, with hay and cut straw, from November to I\Iay. The fifty oxen have a sack of beans per day amongst them, and cut straw as much as they can eat. There were two hundred sheep, which are folded on the fallows, and in the day-time feed in the pastures and along the canals and dykes. When they are fat they are sold and others bought in. None are bred; for, when kept long on this land, they become sub- ject to the staggers and the rot in wiuter and spring ; they are therefore fatteued and sold as soon as possible. The breed of pigs was much better than the gene- rality of Flemish pigs, and appeared to have had a foreign cross, perhaps of a Berkshire hog; but there was no distinct account of this. The short legs and pricked ears clearlv prove them not to be indigenous. The cows are dry for three months in the year ; at that time they have only straw to eat, with a small quantity of meal diffused in the water they drink. They calve iu April or May, and, when the grass becomes abundant, eacii cow is expected to give five pounds and a half of butter weekly ; and as the pound is of twenty ounces, this a large average, and shows good pasture. Hay is made more carefully and better stacked on this farm than we have seen it on any other. I'he ricks are square, as they are in England, and hold from forty to fifty tons of hay ; they are carefully thatched, and want only the jiulling and trimming of the ricks in Middlesex, to vie witli them in neat- ness. 'There are seventeen horses kept for farm-work ; these are mostly of a French breed, much more ac- tive and vigourous than the heavy Flemish horses. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203 A good horse costs from 16^. to 20/. The cows are mostly Dutch, and cost from 8/. to 10/. each. Tliey are large and have iiiie udders. The colour is generally black and white, the horns moderate, and the sliin line. They are not so high as the Holder- ness cows, but their carcasses are as large ; some of them give an astonishing quantity of milk. This is one of the largest farms in Flanders, and may be considered as an intermediate between the upland farms and the polders. The buildings are scattered and irregular. It was formerly the proper- ty of a religious order, but confiscated and sold at the Revolution in 1794. The chapel still remains, but it is converted into a barn. Tlie tenant pur- chased the land for a small sum compared to its worth, and his son is the present occupier. A small canal winds through the property, acting as a drain for the superfluous water, and at the same time as an easy means of conveying the produce of the farm-yard, and taking manure to the fields border- ing upon it. With a little attention it is not diffi- cult to make this farm produce everything that a frugal Flemish family requires, and enable the occu- pier to lay up a considerable sum every year. In the hand of a skilful and scientific farmer a fortune might be realized on such a soil in a few years, by keeping up the fertility, instead of reducing it by excessive cropping of the land broken up from pas- ture; but especially by introducing improved breeds of cattle, and grazing them to advantage. Not far from Roulers, at Newkerken, there is a small farm of about sixty acres, occupied by a IMr. Verpoort, which is worth noticing. The soil is a good sound grey loam of a moderate quality, the subsoil being retentive; the fields are divided by ditches four feet wide and three deep. Some trees and underwood are planted along some of the ditches but not everywhere. There are no raised banks; the earth of the ditches having been spread over the land. The fields are all small, not exceeding three or four acres each, and mostly of an oblong shape. There was no water in the ditches when we saw it ; but it is probable that in winter they are neces- sary to keep the land dry, as the country is so flat that the water must be a long time in running off. The principal produce on this land is wheat, of which there are eighteen or twenty acres every year. The wheat this year (1837) was sown on land which the year before had been cropped as follows : two acres in beans, four clover, two potatoes, three col- za, tliree flax, and four fallow — eighteen acres in all. Mr. Verpoort thinks that it might be more advanta- geous to have more fnUow, as the land is very apt to be overrun with weeds, in spite of every precaution, and a fallow now and then is unavoidable. The other crops besides wheat were distributed as fol- lows: three acres in rye and turnips, four oats, five flax, three colza, four and a half clover after flax, two beans, three potatoes, half an acre beet-root, five fallow, ten grass, half of which was pastured, and half mown. These ten acres lie along a low rivulet, and are flooded in winter. What makes this farm worthy of notice is the great proportion of wheat sown, and the variety of other produce, which return at a much longer interval, clover only every nine or ten years. The whole of the work of this farm is done with two horses. There are thirteen fine cows, four hei- fers, two or three calves, one colt, and five or six hogs ; and all these animals seem well fed. Except a few grains from the brewers, and some linseed- cakes, no food is purchased for the cattle, but the farm supplies all that is required. JMr. Verpoort used to breed horses and sell them to English deal- ers, who came round to the dllTerent farms, and bought three-year-old colts at a fair price ; but none of them had been there for some time, at which lie was disappointed, having a very promising colt eighteen months old, very large and fat, which he thought would be much admired. The colt had been brought up in the stable, like a fatting calf, without much exercise. His feet were flat and wide ; and, from good feeding, he was large and heavy. He might at one time have been admired as a heavy dray-horse, but he was evidently very unfit for mus- cular action ; and although as well shaped as most Flemish horses, he was not likely ever to become very useful. The cows on this farm were milked three times a day for three months after calving, and only twice afterwards. They were fed in summer with clover cut for them and brought into the stalls. Occasion- ally they were led out into the pasture, but only for a ftiw hours at a time, and never in the middle of the day, when the flies would teaze them. In winter they had their brassin, made of turnips and pota- toes cut in pieces, and chopped straw, boiled toge- ther in a copper, and some linseed-cake added to this. Sometimes beans were soaked in water for twenty- four hours, and then mixed with the brassin. The roots were cut by a machine something like our tur- nip-cutters, but not so perfect. This is the only farm where we have seen a machine, as the spade is the usual instrument with which roots are cut. The chaff-cutter is exactly like our common chaff-box, where the work is done by the hand ; and, except where horse-power can be applied, or the chaff- cutter can be attached to a mill, the hand-box is, perhaps, the instrument which will cut most chaft" in a given time by mere manual labour. The cows are of the D utch breed , and apparently very good milk- ers. Mr. Verpoort fattens calves a twelvemonth old, and thinks it more advantageous than if he kept them longer. This young beef is probably more readily disposed of in Flanders than it would be in England. All the labourers on this farm are fed in the house. The women have fivepence and the men eightpence a-day for wages, which makes the food to be reckoned at only threepence per head per day. A labourer obliged to find his own food could scarcely provide himself at so cheap a rate ; but the farmer, who has everything from his own farm, finds that it is more economical to feed the labourers, even at that low rate. They have for breakfast bread and potatoes, with tea as it is called, but it is a very weak infusion of that herb, and may be better called hot water with milk in it. For dinner they have a soup of butter-milk and bread boiled in it ; after that they have potatoes and a bit of salt pork. For supper skimmed milk or buttermilk and potatoes. The hogs are kept in separate dark styes, and fed on beans and the remnant of the brassin. They are six months or more in fatting, and then not remark- ably fat. The whole farm is in very good condition and clean. The beans are sown in the furrows after the plough ; the produce per acre, on an average, is four quarters of wheat, seven of oats, four of beans. AH the roots are consumed on the farm. The land does not suit barley so well as wheat. The clover is usually sown amongst the wheat in spring. Flax is sown after oats, and colza after rye and turnips, which two last always come after wheat. This seems to be the most universal practice all over Flanders. No sheep are kept on this farm ; but a neighbour- ing farmer, who has eighty acres, keeps one hundred sheep which he fattens, not by pasturing them, but by feeding in the stable like oxen. They have clo- r 2 204 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ver cut for tltem, nnd somotimes p.irtake of tbe Lrassin. They gel fat, but wJietlier tlie flesh is well tasted when they are Idlled, is more than we can say; the principal object is profit, of \\hich the dung forms an important item. On another farm siluated near Grammont, the ])roperty of Mr. Spital, wlio is a great amateur and bleeder of English blood-horses, we found the soil of a still stronger nature, but (he cultivation very similar to the Ihst. The name of the tenant is Van der Stude, a sensible and intelliject of the fbllowinpf observations was bred by Mr. Sadler, and is by Defence, dam Lady Stumps; colour, bay ; fifteen hands and a half hig-li. Deception came to the staitinj^-post as a two-year old ; she was beaten at the Batli Spring Meeting by Westonian ; but won the celebrati'd Kelston Park Stakes at Bath, beating- b. c. by Sultan, dam Clara, who has since been named Clarion, and who on the near approach of the decision of (he lute Derby, raised himself to distinguished eminence in the betting list for that important stake ; she came out for the Lavant Stakes at Goodwood, and was beaten by vVapiti ; she was beaten by Wapiti a second time, at the same meeting, for tho Molecomb Stakes ; at Salisbury, she came out for and won the T. Y. O. Stakes, beating Sister to Carnaby, b, f. by Sultan, dam Mrs. Baggs, and b. f. by Emilius out of Farce. Deception experienced the ill-effects of these repeated struggles (at two years of age), and con- tinued somewhat amiss, or at least not exactly "all right," during the greater part of the winter, which was unsually mild, for the most part, and therefore greatly in favour of overstrained racers, or valetu- dinarians of any description. In the spring, she began to " train on," and from continuing in a state of neglect by speculators throughout the gloomy period of the year to which I have above alluded, she came into the betting for the Derby, and seemed established (for some time at least) at 20 to 1. She continued to go on well, and would unquostionablv bave advanced much higher on the list of the odds for the Derby, become the favourite indeed, had it not been for that system of ambuscade and surprise which is too frequently resorted to on such occasions. During the winter, the betting, from running so much in the same channel, appeared if not exactl}-- monotonous, less interesting and less energetic than usual : yet the aggregate amount of registered pecuniary engagements was considerable ; Ciesar bad kept the lead with extraordinary regularity, the Dey of Algiers and Erin-go-Bragh had attracted superior attention, and the only remarkable retro- gressive movements were those of Ilderim and Plambeau, who, from rivalling each other for the second y)osition in the list of the odds, had sunk, the former to insignificance, the latter to nothingness. In this state of things, Dragsman appeared, blazing like a comet in the constellation of the odds, and if his tail were not so luminous as that of the heavenly boJy which appeared so briliantly and so long to the inhabitants of this country in 1811, there was something much more portentous in this unexpected movement of Dragsman to the disciples of Plutus. It was thus no doubt meant to be understood tliat Dragsman was " the horse of Scott's stable," and he immediately assumed an imposing appearance in the temple of the god of riches, alias the money market. However, the ruse, though it tended to impede the rising progress of Deception and several other candidates of well-founded pretensions, did not succeed to any great extent : the trick bad been played too often, and had therefore become stale. The counterpart had still to be exhibited, and at what may be well enough called, if not the eleventh hour, the eve of the Derby, Sleight of Hand was avowed as " the horse of Scott's stable," was to be jockeyed by Will Scott, and of course his party wished it to be understood that they considered bira very likely to win the Derby — he was booked to win — in appearance at least, though it has since been tolerably well ascertained that the party who wished others to entertain such an exalted opinion of the racing capabilities of Sleight of Hand, did not estimate them very highly, as they " stood to win" much more largely on Deception. The INIarquis of Westminster (owner of Sleight of Hand) bets very little, if at all ; but, being straitforward in bis dealings, the exhibition of such sinister farces cannot be pleasing to him. The Deiby nags approached the starting place under unusual delusions ; or, in other words, those speculators not in the secret, were thrown into a state of perplexity by the contrivances already noticed; but were cautious, nevertheless, and many of the " most knowing" backed Deception : she had " trained on," and it had been found impossible to keep her condition, her perfect condition, it may be said, a secret. To be brief, the general impression amongst tho great bulk of those persons who make the affairs of the Turf the business of their lives, was, that Deception would win the Derby. Un- fortunately for their speculations, they had over- looked Bloomsbury. Deception is a free going filly, and when at the starting-place for the Derby, became rather impatient, perhaps from (be length of time occupied in the preparatory cantering and walking ; time was thus unnecessarily spent : tliree times Darling can- tered Bosphorus up the rise, and of course walked him slowly back each time. At starting Deception pulled bard, evidently anxious to take the lead, which her jockey (Trem) allowed her to do, very judiciously, in my opinion : there were amongst the thousands who witnessed the struggle those who thought she was not well ridden — such is not my opinion : she was beaten by a competitor decidedly her superior. If the nags which came to the starting-place for the Derby were an indifferent lot, those wiio con- gregated for the Oaks were worse : they were a weedy collection. In the conformation of Deception, there is nothing to call forth particular remark ; she proved herself superior to her competitors, and she may be considered the most finely formed ; there is au union or harmonious correspondence in the sections of her conformation, while a general wiry- ness ('an excellent quality or characteristic) prevades her frame, 'ibis wiryness enabled her to " train on," after lier overstraining exertions last year, and also to win the Oaks, after having run a very severe race for the Derby the day but one previously : when she came out for the Oaks, she did not appear to have suffered in the least by her struggle for the Derby; she looked as well as on the previous Wednesday, and was equally " eager for the fray." Deception is one of those racers which may be said to have survived her two-year old public exertions ; but what has become of Westonian and VVapiti by whom she was beaten 1 What has become of the greater part of the two-3'ear olds who raced last year, particularly such of them as were brought repeatedly to the starting-post 1 W^ould that two- year old stakes were abandoned altogether 1 It unfortunately happens by the system of early racing, that the most promising "young things" suffer more severely than those of inferior pretensions, as in the case of those already mentioned ; and also that of Azdorf, Whim, Quid, Lais, Vexation, Alms, \'ale of Belvoir, &c. &c. Further, the fleeter the pro- gressive motion of the horse, the more forcibly must ^ ^ -^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 207 liis weig-bt be thrown, every stride, on bis fore legs anil feet; and consequently operate in tbe same proportion on tbe immature tendon, tbe pastern joint, and tbe fine net-work of tbe foot. Tlie borse in a state of nature stands in no need of tbat iron rim to bis feet, called a sboe ; tbe wild horses of tbe Ukraine, and tliose whose numbers almost darken tbe boundless savannas of die western world, are destitute of tbe aid of the shoeing smith ; such of tbe lattei as the South American chooses to secure by means of bis lasso, and reduce to a state of subjection, be does not trouble, I believe, with shoes : but when tbe animal is compelled to peram- bulate unyielding and stony roads, a prolection for the foot becomes indispensable. And so of tbe racer ; tbougli not forced along bard roads like tbe back, shoes become requisite for tbe protection of his feet : to leave bis public performances out of the question, be is subjected to quick work in his exercise, with weight on bis back and therefore requires the iron protector, at least in the wet and variable climate of this country. When tirst the caravan for tbe conveyance of racers from one part of the kingdom to another came under my notice, there ajipeared something very uncouth ill its appearance, something un-English in its use ; )'et custom has reconciled me to one, and common sense to tbe other. Travelling on the roads must be injurious to the feet of tbe racer, in the first place, to say nothing of collateral considerations. Supposing a nag has one hundred miles to travel, it will occupy four days, during which he cannot receive bis food with tbat systematic regularity which characterises tbe proceedings of the training stable, while bis proper exercise is superseded by leg. weary walking en the hard and uneven i-oad. The caravan convevance obviates all this : one hun- dred miles can thus be accomplished easily in two days, tbe horse in a comfortable stable while travelling, with time for exercise at tbe place where the animal and his cortege happen to continue for tbe night. Shoeing, I ripprehend, is dispensed with in Arabia. In tbat part of tbe world the borse has cbiefl}' to traverse plains of sand, wliere shoes are not necessary for tbe pi election of tbe feet ; and then again tbe nature of the climate and of the country renders the crust of tbe horse's foot very hard : of all tlie Arabian horses which have fallen under my observation, I never met with one having bad, or even ill-formed feet. However, I am not amongst the number of those, who, because shoeing is necessary in this country, assert that the horse is thus placed in a state of torture ; since, if such were the case, tbe animal must necessarily go lame, if indeed he could go at all, I'be shoe is indispen- sable to tbe foot of the borse in this country, and the object should be to ascertain tbe form be^t calculated for the pur])ose, and tbe most eligible mode of attaching it to the foot. Yet it must be admitted, that the present system of tlie turf, the use of tbe caravan included amongst the evils, is rapidly destroying tbe most valuable qualities of tbe borse — perseverance, and the power of carrying weight. Formerly the racers were shorter on the leg than those of the present day, but they appear to have been Ocjually fleet, could carry weight, and run four miles — four mile heats if necessary. But then they were not brought out till they had attained something like maturity ; they commenced their racing career at an age when tbe modern racer is about to retire — at an age, indeed, wbicli few modern racers attain on tbe course. Flying Cbilders was foaled in 1715, but not brought on the course till he had completed his sixth year. He was a trifle more than fifteen hands high, but yet could carry weight, go tbe pace and the distance also. In October, 17'22, Cbilders beat the Earl of Drogheda's Chaunter, lOst. each, six miles, for 1,000 guineas. He ran a trial against Alinanzor and Brown Betty, carrying 9st. 2lb. over the Hound Course at Newmarket, which he accomplished in six minutes and forty seconds, the distance being three miles six furlongs and ninety- three yards. Bay Bolton (first called Brown Lusty) was bred by Sir Matthew Pierson, Bart., of Yorkshire, and sold to the Duke of Bolton. He was foaled in 170.J, but did not make bis debiit on the course till 1710 (wjien lie had attained his fifth year) when he cam© out at York, and won Queen Anne's gold cup for six-year-old horse, l'2st., four mile beats, beatino^ eight six-year-old iiorses ; a circumstance which proves the forwardness of Bay Bolton; as also his extraordinary power in thus being able to give away a year, and carry ofi' the prize in the face of eight acknowledged good competitors. The racing- career of Bay Bolton was eminently successful ; he beat the Duke of Somerset's Wyndham in a match; in another match, he vanquished Sir Matthew Pierson's Merlin ; twice be defeated tbe celebrated Mr. Frampton's Dragon. If Bay Bolton was emi- nent as a racer, he was equally valuable as a stallion. He died in the Duke of Bolton's stud, Bolton Hall, Yorkshire, about tbe year 1736, being upwards of thirty years of age. Lamprie, own brother to Bay Bolton, was bred by Sir iMattbevv Pierson, Bart., and sold to Thomas Panton, Esq. of Newmarket. Lampier was not brought out till 1721, when he had attained his sixth year. After beat'ng a mare belonging ta the Duke of Somerset, and winning tbe King's Plate at Lewes, he became tbe property of Mr. Neale, in whose possession he won tbe King's Plate at Newmarket, in October 1721 ; after which he was sold to Sir William Morgan, Bart., in whose hands be won the King's Plate at. Newmarket, in April, 1722. Lampier continued on the course for some years, racing very successfully, and beating, amongst the number of his opponents. Lord INIilsintowne's Rake, Lord Tankerville's celebrated Sophonisba, Mr. Grise- wood's Puzzle, and the famous Carlisle Gelding. He was the sire of several very superior racers, but was unfortunately killed at tbe time when he was becoming a favourite stallion. Brocklesby Betty was bred by Charles Pelham, Esq.. of Brocklesby, in Lincolnshire, was foaled in 1711, and made her first appearance on the course in April, 17 J 6 Crising six), at Newmarket, beating- a mare of tbe Duke of Devonshire, for 100 guineas ; in tbe following August she beat ten mares, for the royal cup, at Ilambleton. In 1717, Betty beat eight mares, for the royal cup, at Newmarket; in August she won the silver tea-board at Lincoln; and tbe gold cup (value 601.) at York, lOst., four mile beats, runnning three heats for it. Brocklesby Betty beat all the best horses of her time, although she had been a brood mare before she was trained for tbe course. At tbe close of her racing career, she was placed in the breeding stud a second time, and was the dam of a considerable number of racers. Fox, commonly called the Old Fox, was bred by Sir Ralph Asbton, Bart,, and sold to Matthew Lister, Esq. He was foaled in 1714, and was brought on the course for the first time in 1719, at York, for tbe Ladies' Plate for fiveyoar-olds, lOst., four miles, which he won, beating Bay Jack, Black 208 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Legs, and nine otliers. He was tLen sold to the l^uke of Rutland, in vvliose possession he beat the Uiiko of Wharton's Stripling-, at Newmarket, for a considerable sum. lie won two King's Plates at Newmarket, the King's Plate at J.ewes, and received 250 guineas from the Duke of Wharton's Swallow. Fox then became the ])roperty of Mr. Cotton, of Sussex, in whose hands he won the .300 guineas stakes at Quainton Meadow ; he afterwards beat Lord IJilborough's Witty Gelding, for '2,000 guineas, from whom he also received a forfeit of 100 guineas ; he likewise beat Lord Drogheda's Snip, in three matches, for considerable sums, and Mr. Prampton's ]\Iiss Worsop, for 200 guineas. Fox became a stallion iii Lord Portmore's stud, and died m his Lordship's possession in the spring of 1738, aged 24. He was sire of Captain Apple^'ard's Cuddy and Conqueror, of the Duke of Bolton's Goliah and Merry Andrew, of Lord Portmore's Victorious and Slip-by, of Mr. Witty's Meliora (dam of tbe flimous Tartar, sire of King Herod), of the Dam of the Duke of Cumberland's Crab, Sir William Middleton's Childerkin, Mr. Shafto's Snap, Nothumberland, Swiss, Legacy, &c. ^c. Mr. Panton's Crab, a grey horse, foaled in 1722, by the Alcock Arabian, did not come out till he ■was six years old ; and after racing successfully for two seasons, was accidently lamed. He then became a stallion in Mr. Panton's stud at Newmarket, in whose possession he died on Christmas day, 1750, aged 28, He was the sire of many eminent nags. About the middle of tbe eighteenth centur)-, racers began to make their appearance on the course when four years old j such was the case witb the celebrated Gimcrack, who was foaled in 1760, and made his debut May 31, 1764, at Epsom. After racing successfully for six years, he became a stallion at Oxcroft Farm, near Newmarket ; in 1773 he was stinted to thirty mares, at thirty guineas each, which continued his price for four successive seasons. Gimcrack measured fourteen bands one- quarter of an inch. We may thus proceed, and we shall find, that as the age of racers became gradually reduced when they were brought on the course, their incapacity for carrying weight and running long distances became correspondingly perceptible ; diseases also made their appearance, particularly of the fore-legs and feet, till at length a sound racer six years old, is rarely to be met with. ON THE VALUE OF SALTPETRE AS MANURE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LAXE EXPRESS. Harlestci}, 17 Aug., 1839. Sin,— I observed tbe application of Mr. J. l\. ■Haiker, for information respecting the use of Salt- petre as a manure, but I delayed replying to it, with the hope that he would have obtained such informa- tion from some person who had tried it longer and on a more extensive scale then myself. Mr. Beadel's letter on the same subject in' last week's " Express" I have read with much interest, but it appears that he can at present only judge from the appearance of his crops. I have much pleasure therefore in corroborating his ojiinion by actual proof of the benefits to be derived from Salt|)etre. In the spring of last year I tried several experi- ments with this manure ; 1 shall confine myself now to one of tliem. On the .5tb of April I top-dressed part of a field of wheat witb saltpetre, at tbe rate of one cwt. per acre, and to prevent any difference which might arise from any variation in the soil, I applied it carefully on every two alternate ridges througl)out the field. In three weeks from tiie time of sowing, the ridges with the saltpetre could be easily distinguished from those which bad been missed, and the difference was easily perceptible till July, when it required close inspection to observe tbe increased size of tbe ear, and stiffness of the straw upon the manured ridges. I look care to have the latter rea])ed, stacked, and threshed separately, and I weighed the produce both of corn and straw. I need not give you the details, as it will be sufficient to slate, that I obtained an increase of six bushels of wheat, and three cwts. of straw per acre, from the saltjjetre, over that part of the field which had not been manured. The wheat at the time of threshing it, was worth 10s. per bushel, and the nitre cost me 27s. per cwt ; but allowing the latter at 30s., the price this season, and wheat at 7s. 6d. per bushel, it will leave a very handsome return for the capital expended. Tbe soil is light, on a gravelly subsoil, the previous crop was white peas. There can be no question but that saltpetre is a valuable addition to our list of artificial manures, as a top-dressing for wheat on light land. I have derived no benefit from using it on stiff soils, I have tried it on green crops, but for those I should prefer the nitrate of soda, which is cheaper. 'i"he benefits of both 1 believe are exhausted in the first crop, it is doubtful therefore, whether tiiey will supplant oil cake or bone dust, which are more permanent in their effects. Wheat cutting commenced in this district about the 12th instant, since which time we have had fickle weather, but the general substitution of the scythe for the sickle, allows of the work proceeding more rapidly, and although tbe men have been frequently interrupted by showers, yet a conside- rable quantity of wheat is already cut. In few seasons has tbe plant been more regular than in tbe present, and the breadth of land planted is somewhat increased, by many farmers having sowed wheat instead of barley, on their best land, in consequence of the high price of the former last season, which I think is borrowing of " Peter to pay Paul," and at a heavy rate of interest. Against these prospects for a great crop of wheat, may be set, the injury received from the high winds and heavy rains at the time of blossoming, which is perceptible in many fields, the upper part of the ears being very defec- tive. On the whole I am inclined to think the present crop of wheat in this district, equal to the average of the last few seasons, which perhaps have proved something bevond what would have been called an average crop, ten years since. Of oats we grow but few, Barle}', beans nnd peas are all well spoken of, and I believe justly so. The former crop is deficient in breadth, by the same amount that wlieat is increased. Our markets are plentifully supplied with old wheat at present, but the stock in hand is chiefly confined to the growers and cannot be very large. I am Sir, your obedient servant, ROBERT B. HARVEY. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 209 SUITABLE SOILS FOR TREES. We cannot help considering it as a wise provision of Nature, that trees do not require tlie richest land. The deep alluvial soils so productive of corn and pasturage are not so well adapted to the growtli of trees. These seem to need a more porous surface for the spread of their lateral roots, and in near con- tact of atmospheric influences, provided they have also a substratum of moist clay, or gravel, or chalk, or rock to feed upon. The oak luxuriates on a clay subsoil ; the beoch on one of chalk: and almost all other forest trees affect a light loam on a gravelly subsoil. Thin moor earthy soil, though from want of depth, it is unsuitable for the generality of trees, is not rejected by the Scotch fir, the larch and several others of that tribe. Bog-earth, or any other verv moist soil, is favourable to most of the willows : and deep bog earth is the natural soil of the alder, and several of thepoplars, particularly the white or abele, the aspen, and the black Italian. The first of these arrive at a noble size ; containing five or six loads of timber in the boles, bearing wide spreading and lofty beads. Unluckily, the timber is inferior, and al- most always faulty when cut up, owing to the stumps ofthe fallen branches rotting back into the hole ; form- ing holes which are inhabited afterwards by the nut- hatch, the starling, and woodpecker. On very wet useless spots of an estate, where more valuable trees would not succeed, the different species of poplar will soon form a conspicuous feature in a landscape. Some of the American species are highly ornamental, grow rapidly in moist ground, and are well adapted like their congener the Lombardy, to form screens or sheltei'ing hedges either for buildings or other trees. Sandy soils are of different qualities, biit all may be soon covered with useful trees. The Scotch and stone pines, the pinaster (if rather moist), and the larch, birch, sycamore, and all the other maples, will all readily succeed in light sands. The generality of soils are, however, of a mixed character; and if well drained and trenched, digged or deeply ploughed, almost any kind of forest tree will succeed thereon, if carefully transplanted at the proper season. It may be remarked that though some kinds of trees are decidedly aquatics — such are the alder and some kinds of willovrs — yet other kinds, which are commonly met with on diy ground, grow much more luxuriantly if planted on the bank of a lake or river. This can only be attributed to their having a more copious supply of moisture in the summer months. The above, together with the Coniferas, are the kinds which are commonly raised for pleasure or profit in this country. But there are many Ameri- can trees in our ornamental plantations. Among these may be mentioned the acacia (Rohinia f&eud- acacia) as highly ornamental in its foliage and flowers, and useful for its extremely hard and du- rable timber. This tree grows well in any dryish gravelly loam, and should be planted in pretty close order, either by itself or among other kinds. It re- quires a good deal of attention during the first ten or fifteen jears of its growth. It shoots rapidly when young; and the larger shoots being extremely brittle, are liable to be split from the stem by ihe wind. To prevent this, the side-shoots, and particu- larly those which rise from the base of the leader in the same summer, should be stopped as soon as they are twelve inches in length. Tliis species of prun- ing will enable the tree to resist the wind until the youthful vigour is over ; after which its shoots are no longer liable to be broken. But few trees of British growth of this kind have yet been offered for sale, very few having arrived at full size since they were first planted in this country. The timber is eagerly sought for by naillwrights ; the wood being one of the best known for making cogs, wearing well, and as smooth as metal when put to use. This is the locust tree of American builders, and of which it is saiil, that a rotten gate-post made of locust has never yet been seen. Of the ma[)le genus we have many sorts from America. Tijey are mostly small trees, but orna- mental from the great variety of colours of the fo- liage. Their timber is chiefly used by turners and cabinet-makers. The largest of the genus is the common European sycamore, a free-growing orna- mental tree, but producing timber of very inferior quality ; and being particularly liable to the worm it is seldom used in buildings, and only fit for the toy-men. The lime is another ornamental tree, and, like the horse chestnut, is very jiroper for park scenery. But neither are Britisli foresttrs, their timber being of little value, except for the carver, and some very minor purposes. Of the oak we have many species from America ; but none of them are equal in quality to our own naval oak, 'I'he Turkey oak is a free-growing and useful tree, and deserves a place in every plantation. The evergreen oak yields durable timber ; but it is a slow grower, and never arrives at very great size. The cork oak is of similar character. Of the beech, there are several varieties ; some of them are remarkable for the colour or form of their foliage. One is called the purple ; another the copper coloured : one has cut leaves; another is of so dwarfish a habit, that it only appears, even when full-grown, as a low bush. Indeed, we have now numerous species and varieties of all our hardy trees as the following particulars show : — Of the oak the two principal sorts common in Bri- tish woods are the Quercus robuv, supposed to ha the old English or naval oak otherwise called bv bo- tanists Quevcus sessiiijiora, or sitting-flowered, or stalkless-fruited oak. The other is the Quercus pe- dunculata, stalk-fruited oak, said to be a species, but probably only a variety, as the specific character is not always constant. The habit of the trees is some- what dissimilar, and may be identified at a distance by an experienced eye : the branches of the first are more tortuous and abrupt in their outline; while those of the second are more flowing in their spread and freer in their manner of growth. Of these there are several acknowledged varieties : such as the Luccombe, which is nearly an ever- green ; the variegated leaved, and the Durmast ; which last, however, is considered a distinct species. There are above seventy species of exotic oaks, de- scribed chiefly as natives of America and the South of Europe, of which we have the following in our ornamental plantations; namely, — the Turkey or iron oak, a free-growing and useful tree; the willow- leaved ; the white, black, scarlet, and fern-leaved species ; there are also the Gramuntia.aBd Catesby's, and several other ornamental sorts obtainable from our public nurseries. Of the elm, there are six different sorts found hard}' enough in Britain. 'I'he first is called the English elm ; though as it seldom or never ripens seed in this country, it is probably a foreigner, though long na- turalized. It is never seen but near or where there have been the habitations of man, and chiefly as avenues or as hedge-row timber ; for which latter purpose it is excellently adapted, because there is a constant succession of young trees rising from the old roots, provided the old trees have not been pro- 210 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. pagatedby grafting; ; a common custom in nurseries suitnl)le enough for avenues, but not for hedge-rows or woods planted for profit, for ilieso should be pro- pagated by layeiing. We know many hedge-rows of this tree, chiefly near old manor-houses, wlienco the forefathers of tlie preient owners have drawn immense numbers of full-grown trees without ex- hausting the stoclc ever coming forward for the use of the present and future generations. Where nnco an English elm is established in a favourable situa- tion, it is a difficult matter to get rid of its progeny : on this account the tree is objected to in dressed ground, because of its suckers disfiguring the turf. Tlie wych, or connnon broad-leaved native elm, is a large rambling growing tree, yielding coarse but strong useful timber for many out-of-door purposes. Allied to this, botanists Ivave discovered four otiier sorts; namely, the cork -barked, the smooth, the moun- tiin, and the spreading-flowered ; all of which are timber trees, and all are, or may be propagated from seed. There are several exotic species which are culti- vated and rise to a timbe)--like bulk ; namely, the winged, the prndula, and the white, which are na- tives of North America; and there is also what is called the white elm, a native of Hungarv. These are usually met within ornamental ]dautations. IClms require less pruning than most other forest trees. Of the conunon asii, which is by far the best of the genus, there are no less than ten varieties, all used as ornamental plants. Of these, one of the most striking is that called the pendulous or weeping ash ; though lioi-izo)il(il growing would be a truer descrij)- tion, as its brandies are only pendulous by art, that is, by grafting a weeping scion upon a tall stem of the common sort. For assuredly a layer of this va- riety would spread its brandies close to the surlace of the ground rather than rise in tlie air. It is tliere- fore only useful as an ornament. The only other species said to be natives of Eng- land are the various leaved and warty sorts ; both rise to the size of trees; but it is doubtful whether or not they are more than varieties. 'I'iiere are near- ly forty other sorts described, mostly natives of North America and the South of Europe. Of the birch we have in cultivation nearly twenty species, only two of which are natives of Britain; narael)'', the common white, and the pendulous- branched. Of tlie first there are three varieties pro- pagated for sale in public nurseries and in the abore- tums of curious planters ; the second is a much ad- mired tree in every ornamental plantation The only species of alder indigenous to Britain is the A. glutinosa, or clammy alder, an aquatic tree of frequent occurrence. Of this there are five varieties which differ from the first chiefly in the shape or size of their leaves. Of exotic species and varieties there are sixteen described, the major part of which may be found in public nurseries. Tiie genus willow is very extensive, there being no less than one-hundred and sixty-six species already described, ftlany of them are highly useful plants, and a few are even worth cultivation for their timber. A Lincolnshire jiroverb declares that " a willow will be wortha horse, before an oak willbe wortha saddle." This is an allusion to their rapid growth, f(,r though their timber is light and by no means durable, the quantity produced for shoe-lasts, cutting boards, a few domestic articles, and even for firewood, com- pensates the planter. Tliough the willows are chief- ly shrubs, several of them rank as timber trees, par- ticularly the white or Huntingdon species, when planted on rich moist ground, where it becomes a large tree in a very few years. It is not so soon liable to rot at the centre as some of the others, and therefore affords boards of good width for many use- ful purposes. 'J'he yellow-branched, the brittle- twigged, and llie great round-leaved, rank next to the Huntingdon as trees, and also for coppice. The common osier and several others are cultivated for the basket-makers. Of the poplar genus we have now a good many very stately tiees, both native and foreign. Of the former we have the abele or white, the snow-wliite, hoarv, as])en, and black ; and o( the former we have the Athenian and black Italian, both valuable kinds, and well worth the attention of planters. The Lom- bardy, for its tall conical shape, quick growth, and unrendable quality of its wood, is a universal fa- vourite for planting on land naturally moist. Seve- ral of the Ameiican sjiccies attain to a very large size ill this countiv ; as the Carolina, the necklace-bear- ing, the large-toothed, the sweet-scented, &c. There are above twenty diflerent sjiecies which are hardy enough for our climate, and which serve to diversify our woods, and add to our stock of limber for useful purposes. The lime, if not a native, Las been naturalized for ages. Four species are said to be found in our woods ; namely, the small-leaved, intermediate, common red, and broad-leaved. Tiiey are more or- namental than useful timber trees; though their mild, close-graineil, light wood is chosen for many purposes — as carving and the like. The flowers are sweet-scented, and their outline being regularly formal, are particularly well adajited for beautiful scenery. There are six exotic species in our col- lections, all of which are hardy. Tlie horse-chestnut, in its gener.d character as a tree, ranks with the lime. Its timber is inferior; and its value consists in its fine flowers, and majes- tic port when full grown. There are four species ; namely, the smooth-leaved, the Ohio, the ruddy, and the pale flowered ; there is also a variety with party coloured leaves. There is a nearly allied genus called Pavia, which has been separated from the horse-chestnuts, on account of their fruit being smooth, instead of prickly like the chestnut. The pavias are smaller trees, but the flowers of some of them are remarkably showy ; as red, flesh-colour- ed, and yellow. Ihey, like the chestnuts, are only considered ornamental. The Spanish, or sweet chestnut, is a valuable timber tree, and one of the best for underwood ; it thrives in any gravelly loam. There are five species of this tree; namely, the common, the black, grey, ash-leaved, and wing-fruited, all trees of considerable stature. Nearly related to the sweet chestnut is the genus Carya, or hiccoiy-nut, of which there are ten species natives of North America. In this country they form elegant trees of middling size, and very suitable for garden scenery. In the s;'.me natural order with the foregoing nuts, we find the common walnut a valuable timber, as w-ell as a fruit tree. Tiie waluut has naturally a laro-e spreading head, because it is allowed ample space when jilanted in orchards; but when placed thickly together among other trees, it rises as quickly and attains as great a height as any other in the fo- rest. Treated as a forest tree solely in considei-a- tion of the value of its excellent timber, we have no doubt but that it would turn out as profitably as any other kind whatever. The walnut affects a dry loamy soil, and, like other trees, requires a little pruning when young, as its lateral shoots are in- clined to permanence. Another fruit tree which furnishes durable timber THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 211 is tlie wild cherry. It grows rapidly among others, and attains to a considerable bulk of bole as soon as most other forest trees. Tiie wood is valuable to the cabinet-maker ; and the heart, if sound, is as durable for gate-posts as the oak itself. It is a tree which should not bo rejected by the general planter. Some of ihe cultivated varieties become immense trees before they fall to decay; the owners being obliged to have fifty-round ladders to gather the fruit. The plantanus of Asia, where it is much regarded for its shade and large size, and the other species from America, hence called the western ]ilantanus, are both noble trees, and particularly well adapted for park scenery ; but they are not yet ranked as fo- rest trees, their wood being light, and though pretty dense, not so durable as our other more common trees. As however, they arrive at a large size in a much shorter period than some of our other foresters, they deserve notice, as their timber for minor pur- poses may be equally valuable with those of a moro coarse and hardy nature. One of the most interesting and useful orders of trees is the Corniferee, or cone-bearing. This title includes the pines, the firs, larches, cedars, cypresses, arborvitajes, yews, &c. Of the pines there are above forty described, only one of which is indige- nous to Britain, namely, the wood, or Scotch pine, found in original forests in the North of Scotland. Of this tree we have two sorts ; one having a rough longitudinally cracted, persisting bark, with branches rising obliquely upward and aggregately forming a pyramidal head when young ; the other having a thinner, smoother bark, successively thrown off in ir- regular-shaped pieces, with branches less numerous, and stretching out in a nearly horizontal direction, and at last nearly drooping. From this position of the branches they are liable to be split from the bole wlien loaded with snow or ice in certain states of the weather. Notwithstanding this defect of the form, it is a highly picturesque tree, and moreover yields the best timber ; at least, far superior to that of the other sort, which is mucli too common in lately planted woods. 'Jhis circumstance has attracted the notice of nurserymen, who only now raise seedlings of the better sort. The other species of pine which have been found to answer best in our plantations, are the pinaster or cluster pine, the stone, the Weymouth, the Cimbra, New Jersey, and the Corsican pine or larch. 'Jhero are above thirty others described, chiefly considered as objects of curiosity rather than useful trees, and therefore only met with in botanical collections. Of tlje firs none are natives ot Britain, all being- found in North America, or on tlie continent of Eu- rope. Those mostly preferred by the British planter are the silver, the Balm of Gilead, and the differ- ent species of spruce firs. Of these last there are four species ; namely, the Norway, the white, the red, and the black. Tlie Nomay and the wliite areniost prized, because of their rapid and lofty growth. The hemlock spruce arrives at a middling-sized tree in this country, but is a slow grower and only suitable for dressed grounds. There are twelve other sorts of firs introduced, but too lutely to show what they may ultimately become in the climate of Britain. Of the larch there are four species ; namely, the common white, the Daurian, the black pendulous, and the small coned red. The first is most gene- rnlly planted, and proves to be one of our most va- luable timber trees. The cedars are mostly ornamental trees ; for though that of Lebanon attains to a full size in this country, its timber is of little value to the builder. Several trees of this species were felled off the estate of Moo-parkin Hertfordshire, about forty years ago, containing five loads of timber each, and which were purchased by London builders for quartering at no higher price than they gave for the youngest Scotch pines felled in the same park. Another species of this tree has been introduced into this country from A eqaul, called Ueodora ; and hopes are entertained that it may be naturalized. That beautiful tree, vulgarly called the deciduous cypress, is now a new genus, of which there are two species known as Taiodium disticha and T. capensis. The latter is only a shrub ; but the former attains to a very large tree. Of the cypress we have only the common ever- green species, and two varieties ; but they do not rank as forest trees, though yielding extremely dur- able timber. There are a few inferior foresters, which, though they do not rank as timber trees, deserve to be no- ticed : one is the hornbeam, a middling-sized slow growing tree, found wild in many places. The trunk, though never large, yields timber of a remark- ably tough character, on which account it is useful for many rural purposes, farm implements, &c. Of the maple, besides the sycamore, there are two other wild sorts common in this country. The wood both of the roots and stems, is much valued by ca- binet-makers. There are numerous species of maple introduced from the South of Europe and North America ; but they are only employed as ornamental plants. The tulip-tree and yellow flowering Virgilia are two North American ornamental trees ; but as they grow freely in our woods and attain to a timber-like bulk, their wood may be found to be useful for some purposes in this country at present unknown. — Main on I'lantin^, WHAT BREED OF SHEEP WILL RE- TURN THE LARGEST PROFIT? TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK I.ANE EXPRESS. There are few, I presume, who were not gratified at the sight of the fine animals of every description exhibited at Oxford ; there we had proof of what can be done by the diflerent descriptions of stock, in the way of Iriying- on fat, obtaining- size, &c., but we had no proof of what, to every practical farmer, is of all other* the most important consideration, viz., what was the cost of making up those splendid car- casses ? The auspicious commencement of the labours of the English Agricultural Society will, I hope, stimu- late it to fuilher exertions — will induce it to consider my proposal, made in your paper of the 27tli June, of sup- plying a certain number of my breed of " middle sheep" to be tried side by side with a like number of other breeds— with the same quantity of food— and al- ways to remain, wet or dry, on arable land, consuming those green crops produced thereon, a system (excuse the repetition) " ihe very life of good husbandry on three- fourtlis the arable soil of England." The breed of sheep, bii it what it may, which will return the most pj-q/it under this trial I may fearlessly proclaim to be the one which ought to be cherished by the agriculturists of England ; and, important as the objects for which the Society is now offering its premiums may be, I will ask is there one, whether as respects the tenant, the landlord, or the nation, winch claims ])recedence in importance to this, cambining, as such trial would, the development of the quantity and quality of wool and mutton, articles, which in respect to our present relations and future prospects both at home and abroad, claim the English farmer's closeftt attention.— I am, Sir, yours respectfully, Whitchurch, Hants. J. TWYNAM. 212 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. EXTRACT FROM THOMSON'S LEC- TURES ON BOTANY, ON SOILS, MANURES, &c. It is a ■wise provision of nature, tliat as plants are not endued with volition and extensiivc loco- motion, nor guided by itistinct nor reason, they are subject to more regular and imalterablc laws tlian the animal cre^itlon, at least than that portion of it which ])Ossesses those functions which have been eiuinierated. Tlieir food is always placed within their reach, and they enjoy good healih, and arrive at perfection in their growth, indepen- dant of external accidents, to which animals are equally liable, when they are situated where the soil contains tho:sc principles which are best adapted for the various purjioses of their econoiny. The consideration of this question suggests the questions — NV'liatis the composition of soils ? What part of soils are taken up as food by the roots of plants ? To answer tiiem has long employed the attention of the philosophical observer, and many and various opinions have been given to the pub- lic ; but it is only since modern chemistry made those discoveries which may justly be regarded as the most splendid triumphs of experimental science, that any thing rational and satisfactory has been advanced. * * « » » The fact cannot be too often repeated and im- pressed on your minds, that plants are living beings, possessed of powers which enable them to convert into their own material substance, matters of a nature apparently very different from it ; with- out keei)ing tliis in view, we should be forced to look for all the diftcrent productions of plants ready formed in the soil where they grow, and to suppose that these are simply taken up with their roots, and deposited in the different parts of the plant ; an idea too incongruous to be admitted. On the con- trary, they do not even take up those principles which are most abundant in the soil where they grow; but select particular parts of them, although these are not found, in general, forming in their uncombined state any part of the vegetable frame. * * * * The ultimate components of all the various sub- stances ])roduced by vegetables have been found the same, differing only in the quantity and th.e mode of their combination ; and the parts of the soil which supply these have been found to be much fewer than was previously supposed. * * Every soil fit for yielding nutriment to vegeta- bles may be supposed to consist of earth, water, air, a small proportion of metallic oxyds, and de- composed vegetable and animal matters, in which are included salts, gases, and vegetable extracts. Earth, which is the essential basis of all soils, is, as it is commonl}' spoken of, a compound of different earths ; the most general of which are, Calcarious earth, Argillacious earth, Siliclous earth, Magnesian earth, and Femiginoiis earth. 1. Calcarious Earth comprehends lime, usu- ally combined with carbonic acid, in a state of limestone, chalk, shells, and marl, which is a mix- ture of carbonate of lime with clayey and sandy matters ; but lime is sometimes, also, found in combination with sulphuric acid, forming a sub- stance called gypsum ; and more rarely with phos- phoric acid. AVhen too much calcarious matter is contained in a soil, it is unfertile, owing to its ab- sorbing moisture, and consequently remaining too dry. But the case is different when the calcarious matter is mixed with silica, for then the moisture absorbed remains in a free state, and not so united with the chalky matter as to disappear and be use- less to ])Iants. But the absorbing properties of all calcarious soils are not alike ; and a great dif- ference depends on the de2;ree of comminution of the calcmious matter. Thus 100 parts of cal- carious sand retain, according to Professor Schubler's experiments, 2!) parts only of water, whilst 100 parts of the same matter in the state of fine powder retains 85 per cent. In the first case, when calcarious earth and silica predominate in an arable fitdd, they [jroducc a hot and dry soil ; when in the second, a moist and cold soil. 2. Argillaceous Earth comprehends clay, which is generally mixed with silicious sand and mineral substances, and is very retentive of mois- ture. '.'i. SiLicious Earth is almost entirely composed of sand. The water passes so readily through it, that very little is ret:iined for the purposes of ve- getation ; and soils which contain much of this earth, are, therefore, barren and unprofitable. In the form of sand it retains 2') per cent, only of water; while 100 parts of it, as it occurs with clay in an arable field, retains 280 per cent, of water. 4. Magnksian Earth is not so commonly found as the earths we have already noticed. The magnesia it contains is combined with carbonic acid, and mixed with silicious i)articles. It ap- proaches nearest to the nature of clayed earths in its power of retaining moisture ; that power ena- bling it to retain 4§ times its own weight of water. This renders it, when it predominates, very pre- judiciid to vegetation ; while it increases, when added in moderate proportions, the fertility of a dry sandy soil. "). Ferruginous Earth consists of those oxyds of iron, known by the names of ochres and i)yrites, mixed with silicious matter. These oxyds, in par- ticular the pyrites, when in considerable quantity in a soil, if it contains little calcarious matter, are extremely injurious to vegetation. The pyrites is a compound of sulphur and iron, and is converted by exposure to air and moisture into sulphate of iron, which destroys plants by over-stimulating them. Vegetable earths have the least specific gravity, and sandy soils the greatest, whether they be dry or moist ; the vegetable earths contain, besides vegetables in a state of decay, animal matter and a large proportion of salts, wliich are chiefly com- mon salt, sulphates of magnesia and of potash, nitrates of lime, and carbonates of potash and of soda. Such are the earths generally contained in soils ; when any one of them abounds, the compound earth is named after the component; as for in- stance, a calcarious soil, an agillaceous soil, &c. The principal difference which characterises the various kinds of earths, is their power of retaining the next component of soils, water, ^^'ater, as forming a part of soils, is either chemically com- bined with the earth, or merely mechanically mixed with it, and retained in combination by cohesive attraction. In the former, it is of no use to vege- tables ; in the latter, it is essentially necessary for their support. If the soil be not sufficiently reten- tive, the plant is starved, for nothing can betaken ui) from the earth that is insoluble ; and as we shall show afterwards, water itself is a principal part of tlie food of plants. If the soil be too stiff and retentive, the water remains uj)on its surface, and does not percolate to a sufficient depth to be applied to the roots ; and if the vegetable be of a succulent kind, the herbaceous part remaining con« THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 213 stantly surrounded with moisture has its vegeta- tive powers weakened, and rots. This is particu- I larly the case in winter ; for, as tlie vital energy of the plant is then much lowered hy cold, a di- sease of the vegetable takes place, similar to what happens in a leucophlegniatic state of the ani- mal body, from w'hich the plant rarely recovers. The most efficient soil, as far as winter is con- cerned, is that which contains a due mixture of carbonate of lime, sand, and pulverized clay, with some vegetable or animal matters ; and in which the materials are so mingled as to remain loose and permeable to the air. This soil is calculated not only to retain the water in proper quantity, but also to absorb it from the atmosphere, which is one great source of the supply that vegetables require ; for water, as has been already remarked, is requisite for rendering the other matters in soils sufficiently soluble to be taken up by the roots of plants. All the earths are more or less soluble in water ; thus lime is taken up readily in its pure state; and also if the water contains much car- bonic acid in solution, when the lime is in the form of chalk, or a carbonate, in the proportion of about 1-G80 part of its weight. Clay is soluble in a minute proportion in rain water; silica even may be retained in solution by the aid of carbonate of potash ; and in the minute state of division in which it is precii)itatcd from an alkaline solution, it is soluble in 1,000 parts of water : 2,000 parts of pure water hold one of magnesia in solution. Air is, also, a necessary component of soils. Atmospheric air is absolutely necessary, as we know, for carrying on the process of germination ; the more pulverulent, therefore, the soil is, the more air it is capable of containing, and conse- quently is the better adapted for supporting vege- tation. But a soil which is too sandy, the water not being retained, although it appears to be loose, yet does not contain so much air enveloped in it as is required ; for the small particles of which it is composed apply more closely to each other, and lie in a smaller compass than the aggregated masses of a better soil, which touch at a few points only, and therefore have more and larger interstices be- tween them. When the soil is too retentive, the water which remains on its surface evaporates in summer, and deposits the clayed particles which it had suspended, a kind of paste is left, which hard- ening, by being baked as it were in the heat of the sun, no air can penetrate to the parts beneath it; nor can that which has been already used in the vegetative process, and which is unfit to carry it further on, escape; and we know that as atmos- pheric air is vitiated by the roots of growing plants, and during the germination of seeds, a con- stant renewal of it is requisite for supporting the vigour of vegetables. It is the oxygenous portion of the atmospherical air contained in the soil which is vitiated by the functions of the roots of plants. * * * The last component of soils which we have to mention, has always been regarded as the most important of the whole. We allude to animal and vegetable matter in a state of decomposition, from which the black mould which constitutes the richness of soils is almost altogether formed. But the analysis of some of the most fertile soils has proved, that their fertility does not depend on the presence of a large proportion of those substances. Thus Sir H. Davy found in the soil of a very fertile field in East Lothian, contained nine parts only in the hundred of de- composed animal and vegetable matter ; andasoil - from the low parts of Somersetshire, long cele- brated for yielding large crops of wheat and beans without manure, contained five parts of these prin- ciples only in the hundred. It is indeed true, that the carbonaceous matter contained in plants can be deiived most easily frotn decomposing animal and vegetable substances ; but these also yield salts, which prove highly stimulating to growing plants ; and although plants seem to attain great bulk and vigour when much manure is applied, yet they are over stimulated, and their growth is connected with disease, in the same manner as in an overfed and pampered aniaial. The natural state of both is altered ; premature age succeeds, and death arrives long before the period when he should be naturally expected. Those plants also, which are intended for food for man and animals, when reared upon soil of the kind we are now no- ticing, yield less nutriment in the same bulk, than that which more healthy plants yield ; and it is also of an unwholesome kind. Upon the whole, we may truly assert, that more harm is done by loading soils artificially with much animal and ve- getable matter, than the natural deficiency of it in soils can occasion. When a Botanist examines a space of ground, he forms an estimate of the nature of the soil, by observing the kind of plants, or weeds, as they are termed, which it naturallj- produces, and draws its conclusions from the knowledge he pcssesses of the relation which always subsists between the plant and the soil. If the plants are those which have divided roots, he concludes that the soil is pulverulent and easily penetrated ; but if the roots are thick and fleshy, that, as they require a humid soil, it is probable that it is damp and retentive. Some kinds of plants grow on one soil, but are never found on another ; some require a large sup- ply of carbonacious matter, or a rich fertile soil ; others, he knows, glean the little they require in the most barren, and soon die in richer spots. But the knowledge of the Botanist, although it is an accurate guide to a certain degree, in di- recting his judgment as to the value of uncultivated soils, and is valuable in preventing him from making bad speculations by introducing new objects of culture into a place which cannot admit of them ; yet it is of little avail in examining soils under the immediate influence of cultivation. The experienced eye of the farmer supplies much of this defect. On too loose and poor soils the roots of barley and other grains are long, but the stem small and weak, but in a richer and more tenacious soil the roots are short, thick, and very closely set with fibrils. The reason of these circumstances is, that the roots shooting out towards the spots where the stimulus of nutriment is in greater quantity, exhausts the little nourish- ment it can obtain in adding to its length, and, therefore, an insufficient supply is left for the stem and leaves ; but in richer soils the whole of the fibrils being surrounded by nutritious matter, a greater quantity is actually taken up by a much smaller surface of roots, and supplies more freely the herbaceous parts of the plants. To ascertain the real nature of soils, chemistry must lend its assistance; and this mode of exa- mination is undoubtedly the most cei-tain. Sir H. Davy has, however, justly remarked, " that the results of analysis, considered as affbrding indica- tions of fertility, must necessarily differ according to the variations of climate, situation, and other circumstances. Thus, the power of soils to absorb moisture ought to be greater in warm and dry countries, than in cold and moist ones ; and when 214 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the quantity of argillaccov.s earth they contain is larger. Soils, likewise, which are situated on de- clivities, ought to be more absoibont than those in the same climate situated in plains and valleys. The productiveness of soils must likewise be influenced by the nature of the subsoil, or the earthy and stony strata on which they rest. Thus, a sandy soil may sometimes owe its fertility to the power of the subsoil to retain water; and an absorbent clayey soil may occasionally be prevented from being barren, in a moist climate, by the influence of a substratum of sand or gravel. Every farmer knows the fact, that many plants will grow only in certain soils; and his art con- sists in supplying to the natural soils that part which is most essentially necessary for their sup- port. As we have proved that the components of all vegetable matter are carbon, hydrogen, aud oxygen, we must look for the supply of these in- gredicncs in the soil ; and it is from water and de- ca)'ed organic matter that they are undoubtedly ob- tained. From this matter then the carbon is sup- plied ; and as water only, and those substances which it can hold in solution, can be aborbed by the mouths of the roots of jjlants, the carbon, which is contained in the soil, separated from ve- getable and animal matters by decomposition, must be dissolved in the water in order to be taken into the system of the plant; and it thus becomes their proper food. If this view of the subject be correct, the art of the husbandman and horticulturist must consist in a|)plying those substances to the soil which will promote the growth of plants without over stimu- lating them. The different matters known under the title of manures, which are employed for this purpose, must act in four ways to produce the effect required. 1. They must render the soil of the consistence which will enable it to retain a suffi- ciency of water, but not too much. 2. They must render it pulverulent to admit the roots of the plants to permeate, and spread freely in it. 3. They must enable it to admit and retain air in its interstices ; and, 4, fit it to form carbon, and af- ford healthy stimuli to the vegetable irritability. The importance of a finely pulverized soil was first pointed out by Jcthro Tnll, in 1?33 ; but although his ideas on this subject extended to an absurd de- gree, and led him to form a theory of vegetation altogether mechanical, yet the direction of the agriculturist to the importance of pulverization has been productive of most beneficial results. It allows of the easy extension of the roots of plants, admits a necessary supply of air during the process of germination, and assists those decompositions which are requisite for rendering manure useful. The first place among the substances fit to an- swer the purposes already specified, is certainly due to lime. This substance acts upon soils either mechanically or chemically ; and on the plants it acts physiologically. "When in the state of carbo- nate, or united with carbonic acid, it is added to clayed soils, it acts mechanically by rendering them more free, loose, and pervious both to air, moisture, and the roots of plants ; it acts chemi- cally when it is deprived of carbonic acid, or is in the caustic state, by destroying worms and other insects hurtful to young vegetables ; and, by quick- ening the decomposition of their dead bodies, render them useful to vegetation. In either state it neutralizes acids, and decomposes salt of iron and other injurious saline matters often contained in soils ; and by the healthy stimulus it affords when in the state of quicklime, it invigorates vege- tation both in young and mature plants. Lime also hastens the decomposition and solution of ve- getable matter ; and has been long known as a most useful manure when applied where half-de- composed vegetable matter abounds, as for exam- ple, in peat soils. The best corrective, therefore, for ground that has been too much dunged, is lime; and peat mosses, which consist of vegetable substances, the decay of which has been suspended by the formation of a peculiar acid in them, arc rendered arable and highly fertile by a proper use of lime. In this operation the lime is combined with the acid contained in the moss, and also with carbonic acid, and remains as a component of the newly formed soil. Every kind of quicklime, however, does not answer for manure, and parti- cularly that which abounds with magnesia ; for although magnesia, when united with carbonic acid, is a useful ingredient in a soil, yet in its un- combined state, or as calcined magnesia, which is that in which it must be, when magnesian lime- stone is burnt into quicklime, it is injurious to plants ; as proved by the experiments of Mr. Tcn- nant. When, however, even the best quicklime is too freely used, it becomes hurtful by over stimu- lating the growing ])lants ; and, therefore, the more frequent and small application of it is pre- ferable. The object of all manures is cither to alter the retentive quality of the soil, or immediately to sup- ply carbonaceous matter to the plants. For these purposes, as occasion has required, clay, brick rubbish, limestone, marl, chalk, sand, gravel, has been employed as mechanical means ; salts of va- rious kinds as stimulants ; and soot, ashes, and dung, as affording the proper nutriment of plants. That salts are taken up ready formed from the soil by vegetables i:j pretty certain ; Drs. Hamcl and Cadet having established the fact, that, if the ma- rine plants, which yield soda when they grow near the sea, be removed to inland situations, they gradually cease to yield soda, and at length potash only is obtained from the ashes. M^e shall merely notice, with regard to dung, that when it is completely rotten it does not afford much soluble carbon, owing- to its becoming as it were oxydized and the carbon being converted into real charcoal; other principles also, such as carbonic acid and ammonia, useful both as stimula and nutriment to plants, are dissipated during the violent fermenta- tion whicli is requisite to reduce dung into this state. Fresh dung, or that which is not completely rotten, on the contrary, benefits not only the pre- sent crop but several subsequent ones, as its good effect continues as long as the process of decora- position goes on. Very many plants, and parts of plants, are sensitively hygrometric, and foreshow the changes of weather. One of the simplest and most certain of hygrometers is a well twisted corJ saturated in salt, and stretched tight along a wall, with a plummet suspended from the cen- tre. And a most curious automaton may be made by glueing deal boards together edgeways, and sawing off a strip across the grain ; through this drive four nails, two at each end, all inclining the same way ; place it in a large empty room, and as the weather changes, the fore-end will advance, and then draw the hinder part after it, and so crawl across the room, in the manner of an earth-worm, who is furnished in like manner with four rows of little hooks pointing to the tail. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 215 ABSORPTION OF NUTRIMENT BY PLANTS. (from roget's bridgewater treatise.) The greater number of cellular plants absorb water with nearly equal facility from every part of their surface. This is the case with the Algae, for instance, which arc aquatic plants. In Lichens, on the other hand, absorption takes place more partially ; but the particular parts of the surface where it occurs are not constantly the same, and appear to be determined more by mechanical causes than any peculiarity of structure : some, however, are found to be provided in certain parts of the surface with stomata, which De Candolle supposes may act as sucking orifices. Many mushrooms appear to be capable of absorbing fluids from all parts of their surfaces indiscrimi- nately ; and some species, again, are furnished at their base with a kind of radical fibrils for that purpose. Ill plants having a vascular structure, which is the case in by far the greater number, the roots are the special organs to which this office of ab- sorbing nourishment is assigned; but it occa- sionally happens that, under cei-tain circumstances, the leaves, or the stems of plants, are found to absorb moisture, which they have been supposed to do by the stomata interspersed on their surface. This, however, is not their natural action : and they assume it only in forced situations, when thej'^ procure no water by means of the roots, either from having been deprived of these organs, or from their being left totally dry. Thus, a branch separated from the trunk, may be i)reserved from withering for a long time, if the leaves be im- mersed in water; and when the soil has been parched by a long drought, the drooping plants will be very quickly revived by a shower of rain, or by artificial watering, even before any moisture can be supposed to have penetrated to the roots. It is by the extremities of the roots alone, or rather by the spongioles which are there situated that absorption takes place ; for the surface of the root, being covered in every other part by a layer of epidermis, is capable of performing this office. It was long ago remarked by Duhamel, that trees exhaust the soil only in those parts which sur- round the extremities of the roots ; but the fact that absorption is effected only at those points has been placed beyond a doubt by the direct ex- periments of Sennehier, who taking two carrots of equal size, immersed in water the whole root of the one while only the extremity of the other was made to dip in the water, and found that equal quantities were absorbed in both cases; while on immersing the whole surface of another carrot in the fluid, with the exception of the exti-emity of the root, which was raised so as to be above the surface, no absorption whatever took place. Plants having a fusiform or spindle-shaped root, such as the carrot and the radish, are the best for these experiments. In the natural progress of growth, the roots are constantly shooting forwards in the direction they have first taken, whether horizontally, or ver- tically, or at any other inclination. Thus they continually arrive at new portions of soil of which the nutritive matter has not yet been exhausted : and as a constant relation is preserved between their lateral extension and the horizontal spread- ing of the branches, the greater part of the rain which falls upon the tree, is made to drop from the leaves at the exact distance from the trunk, where, after it has soaked through the earth, it will be received by the extremities of the roots, and readily sucked in by the spongioles. We have here a striking instance of that beautiful corres- pondence which has been established between processes belonging to different departments of nature, and which are made to concur in the pro- duction of remote effects, that could never have been accomplished without these preconcerted and harmonious adjustments. The spongioles, or absorbing extremities of the roots, are constructed of ordinary cellular or spungy tissue ; and they imbibe the fluids which are in contact with them, partly by capillary action, and partly also by what has been termed a hygroscopic power. But though these principles may sufficiently account for the simple entrance of the fluids, they are inadequate to explain its con- tinued ascent through the substance of the root, or along the stem of the plant. The most proba- ble explanation of this phenomenon is, that the progressive movement of the fluid is produced by alternate contractions and dilations of the cells themselves which compose the texture of the plant ; the actions being themselves referable to the vitality of the organs. The absorbent power of the spongioles is limited by the diameter of their pores, so that fluids, which are of too glutinous a consistence to pass readily through them^ are liable to obstruct or entirely block up these passages. Thus, if the spongioles be surrounded by a thick solution of gum, or even of sugar, its pores will be clogged up, scarcely any portion of the fluid will be ab- sorbed, and the plant will wither and perish ; but if the same liquids be more largely diluted, the watery portion will find its way through the spongioles, and become available for the suste- nance of the plant, while the greater part of the thicker material will be left behind. The same apparent power of selection is exhibited when the saline solutions of certain strength are presented to the roots ; the water of the solution, with only a small proportion of the salts being taken up, and the remaining part of the fluid being found to be more strongly impregnated with the salts than before this absorption had taken place. It would appear, however, that this is mcvcly the result of a mechanical operation, and th/it it furnishes no evidence of any discriminating faculty in tho spoKigiole ; for it is found that provided the material presented be in a state of perfect solution and limpidity, it is sucked in with equal avidity, whether its qualities be deleterious or salubrious. Solutions of sulphur of copper, which is a deadly poison, are absorbed in large quantities by the- roots of plants, which are immersed in them ; and water, which drains from a bed of manure, and is consequently loaded with carbonaceous particles, proves exceedingly injurious when ad- mitted into the system of the plant, from the excess of nutriment it contains. But in the ordinary course of vegetation, no danger can arise from this general power of absorption, since the fluids which nature supplies are always such as are suitable to the organs that are to receive them. The fluid, which is taken up by the roots, and which, as we have seen, consist chiefly of water, holding in solution atmospheric air, together with various saline and earthy ingredients necessary for the nourishment of the plant, is in a perfectly crude state. It rises in the stem of the plant, undergoing scarcely any perceptible change in its 216 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ascent ; and is in this state conducted to the leaves, where it is to experience various important modifications. By causing the roots to imbibe coloured liquids, the general course of the sap has been traced with tolerable accuracy, and it is found to travei-se principally the ligineous sub- stance of the stem ; in trees its passage is chiefly through the alburnum, or more recently formed wood, and not through the bark, as was at one time believed. The course of the sap, however, varies under different circumstances, and at different epochs of vegetation. At the period when the young buds are preparing for their development, which usually takes place when the genial warmth of spring lias penetrated beyond the surface, and expanded the fibres and vessels of the plant, there arises an urgent demand for nourishment, which the roots ate actively employed in supplying. As theleaves are not yet completed, the sap is at first applied to purposes somewhat different from those it is des- tined to fulfil at a more advanced period, when it has to nourish the fully expanded organs ; this fluid has accordingly received a distinct appella- tion, being termed the nursling sap. Instead of rising through the alburnum, the nursling sap ascends througli the innermost circle of wood, or that which is immediately contiguous to the pith, and is thence transmitted, by unknown channels, through the several layers of wood, till it reaches the buds which it is to sujjply with nourishment. During this circuitous passage, it probably under- goes a certain degree of elaboration, fitting it for the office which it has to perform ; it apparently combines with nutriment, which had been j)rc- vionsly deposited in the plant, and which it again dissolves ; and thus becoming assimilated, is in a state proper to be incorporated with the new or- ganization that is developing. This nursling saj), provided for the nourishment of the young buds, has been compared to the milk of animals, which is prepared for a similar purpose at those times only when nutriment is required for the rearing of their young. Several opinions have been entertained with re- gard to the channels through which the sap is conveyed in its ascent along tlie stem, and in its passage to its ultimate destination, ftlany obser- vations tend to shew that in ordinary circum- stances, it is not transmitted through any of the distinguishable vessels of the plant ; for most of these, in their natural state, are found to contain only air. The sap must, therefore, either traverse the cells themselves, or pass along the intercellular spaces. That the latter is the course it takes, is the opinion of De CandoUe, who adduces a variety of arguments in its support. The sap, he observes, is found to rise equally well in plants whose structure is wholly cellular ; a fact which proves the vessels are not, in all cases, necessary for its conveyance. In many instances the sap is known to deviate from its usual rectilinear path, and to pursue a circuitous course, very different from that of any of the known vessels of the plant. The diffusion of the sap in different directions, and its subsidence in the lowest parts, on certain oc- casions, are facts irreconcilable with the supposi- tion that it is confined in these vessels. Numerous experiments have been made to dis- cover the velocity with which the sap rises in plants, and the force it exerts in its ascent. Those of Hales are well known ; by lojiping off the top of a young vine, and applying to the truncated ex- tremity a glass tube, which closed round it, he found that tlic fluid in the tube rose to a height, which taking into account the specific gravity of the fluid, was equivalent to a perpendicular column of water of more than forty- three feet; and, consequently, exerted a force of propulsion considerably greater than the pressure of an additional atmosphere. The velocity, as well as the force, of ascent, must, however, be liable to great variation ; being much influenced by evaporation and other changes, which the sap undergoes in the leaves. Various opinions have been entertained as to the agency by which the motion of the sap is effected ; but although it seems likely to be resolved into the vital move- ments of the cellular structure already mentioned, the question is still enveloped in considerable ob- scurity. There is certainly no evidence to prove that it has any analogy to a muscular power ; and the simjilest supposition we can make is, that these actions take place by means of a contractile pro- perty belonging to the vegetable tissue, and ex- erted, under certain circumstances, and in con- formity to certain laws, which we have not decided in detcrnoining. TURNPIKE ROADS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. Sir, — When a writer presumes to give Iiis opinion upon the larliamentary returns of this or any other subject, to state that deception is practised, whereby the jiublic are misled, something more than asser- tion is necessary, but as Cincinnatus intends to offer a further exposition of the " how's" and the " ivhy's", on the statement of the Journal of the Statistical So- cietv of London, from whence your extracts in the Farmer's Magazine of July are nr.ade, it is scarcely fair to prejudge your correspondent, for as one long interested in this subject, I trust the pledge given for an explanation, will not be delayed, as such as- sertions tend to tamper witli the public mind, and renders official returns nugatory, upon which reliance has hitherto been placed. Anticipating facts, in preference to attempts of similies (as incongruous as they are inapplicable to the subject in the letter addressed to you by the wri- ter in the number of your Magazine for August,) I shall then most willinglv enter into a refutation, con- tenting myself for the present to await the promiijed replv. Ax old Commissioner A'lig. 12, 1839. OF Roads. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.— The following com- parative statement of Irish imports and exports in 1825 and 1835, extracted from the Railway Commissioners' Report, will be read with much interest : — The amount of exports was : — In 1825. la 1835. Cows and oxen, in number .. 63,524 98,150 Sheep, do 72,191 125,452 Swine, do 65,919 376,191 Wheat, in quarters 233,340 420,522 Barley, do 154,822 168,946 Oats, do 1,503,204 1,575,984 Meal and flour, in cwts 599,124 1,984,480 Bwtter, do 474,161 872,009 Bacon, hams, beef, &c., do.... 966,531 749,283 Beer, in gallons 2,686,688 Linen, in yards 55,114,515 70,365,572 The amount of imports was : — Cotton manufactures, in yards 4,996,885 14,172,000 Woollen manufactures, do. .. 3,384,918 7,884,000 Tea, in lbs 3,889,658 4,794,316 Coffee, do 335,921 1,205,762 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 217 TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — An old friend of mine used to say, when you liave a builder's estimate laid before you, that you should add as much again to the sum specified and half as much more, and you would then in all probability arrive at the cost of the erection. These recollections were called forth on perusing an estimate in your magazine, for July last, where a correspondent has favoured your readers with a comparative estimate, shewing the difference between " land in the Isle of Ely, and the heavy uplands of Cambridgeshire." I should suppose the gentleman who supplied this, (and I do assure you I wish not to give offence by these observations), but I should sup- pose he has a farm to let in the Isle of Ely, or that he is a steward or agent to some one that has. But be that as it may, I consider a half enumerated estimates, like the one in question to be uncalled for, they give wrong impressions, I don't mean as to the comparison they aie intended to show, for that, as far as they go, may be wrong or right, but I appeal to your readers, if there is not much impropriety in giving such estimates to the world through the columns of your widely circulating magazine, f jr there it meets the eyes of thousands I may say, great numbers of whom are not suf- ficiently acquainted with the detail of outlay to judge of its accuracy. I mean gentlemen who are landed proprietors, and not farmers, and many others who might take notice, only of the balances ; these persons would naturally observe, that if those estimates are correct, fand being the cal- culations of a practical gentleman, they could not for a moment doubt their accuracy,) farming must be a good business, especially in the Isle of El)'', for it is shown, that 135/. 10s. may be gained to a certainty on farming ten acres of land, and that by farming 200 acres (which is not a large farm) on the aforsaid scale of profits, a person would realize 2,710/. in three years : this must be something above the average profits of farming through the kingdom ; but it appears to be a favoured part of the country, for the expenses of labour are trifling, and there does not appear to be any tithes, church rates, poor rates, highway rates, jail or county rates, insurance, interest of capital, wear and tear of husbandry implements, losses of cattle, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, or collar makers' bills, and many others which tend seriously in most places, to lessen the profits of the cultivation. In giving to the world an estimate of this sort, every item of expenditure and profit ought to be correctly given, whether the estimates were intended merely to show a comparison or not. I shall not stop to examine the correctness or incorrectness of the items innumerated, as they are given for a part of the country I am not well acquainted with, I only know they would not do where I am farming. But this is not my object as I before said, my recommendation is, that no incorrect estimates with half enumerated details should go forth in this public manner, in order that no erroneous conclusions might be drawn from perusing them. In conclusion, I will merely add by your per- mission, that the stated rotations are curious on both descriptions of land, but I dare say they are correct and proper for that part of the country, that in submitting these few observations, I beg to assure you and your respected correspondent, that I am not actuated by any discourteous feeling, but entirely from a conviction, that if estimates are made upon erroneous data, or half enumerated details, they are calculated not only to injure the case they are set forth to illustrate, but they in- jure the opinion of the writer's reason and judg- ment. I remain, Sir, with sincere respect, Your obedient servant. THOMAS JOY. ON THE NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OP LINSEED OIL AS FOOD FOR CAT- TLE. Sir,— The underneath, which is_ a copy of one of my manuscript papers alluded to in my last letter, will probably afford your correspondent, signed " A Novice" all the information he may require. _ Linseed oil used in small quantities, as a condi- ment mixed with winter food for cattle, answers a good purpose, but it will not if given in large quantities as food, and as a substitute for oil cake. It has been for many years my practice in stall-feed- ing-, (and with cake if not too high priced) to put a small quantity of the oil in my mixture of cut hay and meal, which gives a flavour that makes the beasts eat it eagerly. If given in a large quantity it would cloy : but if not, it would be of too relaxing a nature. Many farmers would not much like the trouble, but all straw given to cattle ought to be cut. If in such dry unnutritious food, as wheat or barley straw, linseed oi) was poured over it, at the rate of about a pint daily for each beast, a greater quantity of straw would be eaten, and the beasts would be found at the end of winter, instead of being as poor as crows with straw only, in such a good fresh state, as to make immediate' progress in feeding, when turned out to graze; and the quality of the manure made in the yard would be greatly improved. Never failing iu my turnip crops, I give turnips to my straw-yard beasts. A horse chaff cutter would be found well to answer on all large farms. Your's &c. C. HILLYARD. Thorpelands, near Nm-thampton. Aug. 17, 1839. ON DIBBLING WHEAT. RIany farmers of this neighbourhood have been highly gratified at the result of a trial of dibbling wheat by Mr. Gill, of this place, he having em- ployed a labourer from Essex to dibble about five acres. In December and January last, he cleared a field of turnips, the land was shallow, well cleaned and manured with lime, in which he had dibbled about one Winchester bushel per acre ; in about a week or ten days the wheat will be ripe, and from present appearances, such an abundant crop has not been known in this neighbourhood : the result of Mr. Gill's experiment has been his determination, never again to sow broadcast, and all that have seen the corn are of opinion, that a considerable greater produce can be obtained by dibbling, than by sowing broadcast. Having seen the operation of dibbling in Mr. Gill's field, and considering, (should dibbling become general) the great number of men would be required, and as it would take a considerable time to instruct 2l8 tllR rAilMEll'S MAGAZINE. labourers in using the tlibhlcs, and feeling con- vinced from what I liavc lieard and seen of the great benefit likely to accrne from dibbling, I have with the assistance of a friend and partner, nearly constructed a machine which will be capa- ble of performing the work with much greater expedition, and at a much less cxjjence. I am led to believe, that dibbling in some counties has been carried to a considerable extent. Will you or some of your readers through your valuable journal be ])leascd to inform mc, and the ])nl)lic, \\ hat quantity of wheat i)er acre is used, what per acre is p-.iid to labourers, and the general opinion of practical farmers of dibbling ? As soon as the machine is put into operation, the result of its trial with all particulars shall be communicated to you. I am, Sir, yours, obediently. JOHN SIMS. AGRICULTURA.L REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR AUGUST. There have been, perhaps, during the month now brought to a conclusion, greater and more rapid changes in the weather thon is ever recollected to have been experienced at the corresjionding season of many past years. From the 6tli till about the 20th we were visited by strong gales of wind from almost every point of the compass, but more par- ticularly from the west and north west (scarcely more than a period- of forty-eight liours being uninterruptedly finf, and even that on very few occasions,) which latter, when accompanied by rain, had the two fold effect of laying: prostrate extensive breadths of the heavy eared wheat, in many exposed situations in Devonshire, Wales, AV^arwickshire, and Yorkshire; and of greatly retarding the vegeta- tive progress of the crops. Most of the damage, however, appears to have been sustained in the immediate neighbourhood of Doncaster, where mucii of the grain which had been lodged, has been irrecoverably lost ; since mildew and smut have made their appearance, and most of the wheat, tims situate, has become sprouted from extreme humidity. Immense quantities of hay were, too, carried away by the floods, and in some instances, the farmers residing in the lowland districts, were compelled to cart it out of the water, in order to ])revent its being wholly lost. Notwithstanding the above mentioned disasters, we are of opinion that, comjiaratively speaking, less corn of every description, has been either partially or wholly spoiled, either b^' atmos- pheric inclemency, or the ravages of the insect, than that we have frequently had occasion to notice. With the exception of a few fields of barley and oats, near the sea cost in Sussex, having received some injury from wet, the accounts which have reached us from our southern and eastern counties, are of the most favourable character, and the crops are represented as being extremely luxuriant. Reap- ing of wheat was partially commenced in Essex, about the 5th, whilst it became veiy general in the whole of our forward districts, by about the 12tb, since which period, extensive quantities of corn have been carried in most excellent condition, under for the most part, especially as relates to the last fen days of the month, delightful auspices, we having been favoured by fine warm sunshine, which aided by drying winds, has greatly assisted in preparing the crops in the northern parts of England for the sickle. A question of vast importance now arises as to the actual yield of the present year's growth of all kinds of the soil's production, but more particularly that of wheat, to the latter of which, the attention of all classes is, in the most marked manner directed, as they are still suffering from the falling oft' in the last harvest — our monentary system having become so deranged that it recjuires the most profound attention to keep it in anything like order, which derangement ai)pears to have been almost solely attrihulable to the unsunlly large exports of the jirecious metals made from time to time (and v.hich are, even now, continued) to pay for wheat of foreign production, in order to meet the necessitous wants of the population, the last harvest having been found quite inadequate for such a purpose. In venturing an opinion on the present and future prospects of our agriculturists, which are solely dependant on the productiveness of the harvest, we must candidly admit that it is a somewhat difficult matter to steer clear of the numerous and opposite reports which have been put in circulation, even by the growers themselves, some intimating that the wheat will turn out abundant, others a very limited crop. That a deficient growth is apparent, in some quarters we are well aware, but where the increased breadth of land under cultivation is taken info consideration, such deficiency is possibly counterbalanced ; consequently we premise if it should not amount to a fidl average, it will at least be considerably larger than was that of last year, whilst it is sincerelv to be desired that it will prove adequately remunerative to the owners. Very few complaints have reached us relative to the turnip croj), which is expected to be exceedingly good. The system of sowing the land thickly, in order to ensure a good crop, appears to he very properly getting into disuetude. For instance, we have almost invariably ibund that where more than the usual quantity of seed has been used, the more numerous has been that destructive insect, the fly. In the course of last year, two acres of excellent land were sown, by way of experiment, on a small estate in Sussex, by means of a hand drill. On one acre, two quarts of seed were used, on the other three. Immediately the turnips made their appear- ance on the latter piece of ground, the fly attacked them so vigorously and in such alarming numbers,^ that in a very few days, scarcely the least xestige of vegetation remained; whilst a most excellent crop was gathered on the former. We would, in this place, draw the serious attention of our farmers to this important fact, which tends, in an especial manner, to show that the use of too much seed is productive of positive injury, instead, as might have been anticipated, good. In Scotland, the crops have sustained but little damage from the wire-worm; whilst in Ireland, the harvest is going on favourably. Notwithstanding that the bine has had much to contend against, there is a good promise for hops, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 219 tbrougliout tlie wliole of the districts, on account of" which the trade has become very heavy, and tlie duty is estimated at 200,000^ The following- is our usual monthly statement of the supplies of all kinds of fat stock exhibited for sale in Smithfield Cattle Mai-ket, and the currencies which have been obtained for them. On some market days the quality of the supplies has been extremely inferior, on account of whicli high prices vrere generally demanded and obtained for the priraest Scots, Devons, and Herefords, as also old Downs, but few of which have been ofier- ing. The small quantity of internal fat wliich most of the short-horns were found to carr}^ when slaugh- tered, caused the average price of rough fat to ad- vance in the early part of the month, from 2s. lO^d. to 3s. Id. per 81bs. ; but previously to its close a decline of Id. per 81bs. took place, attributed chiefly to the improvement in the quality of both beasts and sheep offering. Very few store tegs or heifers have been on sale — the prices being considerably higher in our provincial districts than would warrant the sending hither half-fat stock : besides, the quantity of grass on the pastures is so superabundant that many graziers have intimated that, although their lands are well covered, they are in want of a large additional number of sheep to answer their purpose, from Scotland, by steam-vessels, only 50 beasts have arrived, the whole of which consisted of store kyloes, and have produced high prices. It is not expected that any fat beasts will be received from that quarter, for some time hence, from the same cause which operates so favourably in England, viz. a plentiful supply of grass. With respect to the prevailing demand, we have to state that it has proved, on the whole, steady, at fair prices. The lamb season is now rapidly drawing to a conclusion — many eminent and extensive breeders having trans- mitted the last of their portion of the supply up to the market held on the 26th inst. From the 2nd to the 26th, both days included, the supplies comprised 14,542 beasts; 142,480 sheep and lambs j 2,266 calves ; and 4,238 pigs ; from which it appears that, compared with those of the month which immediately preceded the present, there has been an increase of 44 beasts, and 135 pigs ; a decrease of 20,160 sheep and lambs, and 114 calves. About 290 of the Scots and home-breds, which have formed the above supplies, have come from Norfolk ; 170 Scots, home-breds, and runts, from Suffolk ; 200 Scots and runts, from Essex ; 100 Scots, Devons, and home-breds, from Cambridge- shire; 2,500 short-horns, from Lincolnshire; 1,300 short-horns and runts, from Leicestershire ; 1,000 short-horns from Northamptonshire; 1,200 Scots, Devons, runts, and Irish beasts, from Warwickshire and Oxfordshire; 50 Scots, by steamers, from Scot- land; 35 runts, from Wales; 210 oxen, runts, and Devons, from Sussex ; 100 cows, runts, Devons, and Scots, from Surrey ; 90 cows, runts, Devons, and various other breeds, from Kent. The remainder of the bullock supply has been chiefly derived from the neighbourhood of the metropolis. The quotations during July and August ranged as under : — Per Bibs, to sink the offals; July. August. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef 3 0 to 5 0 .... 2 10 to 4 8 Mutton 3 2 to 5 0 .... 3 0to5 0 Lamb 5 0 to 6 0 .... 4 8 to 5 10 Veal 4 0 to 5 2 .... 4 2 to 5 2 Pork 4 0 to 5 2 .... 3 10 to 5 2 A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle Market, on Monday, Aug. 27, 1838, and Aug. 26, 1839. At per 8lbs. to sink the offals. Aug ?7, 1838. Aug. 26. 1839. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coarse & inferior Beasts 2 2to2 4.. 2 10to3 0 Second quality do 2 6 2 8.. 3 2 3 4 Prime large Oxen 2 10 3 6.. 3 6 4 0 Prime Scots, &c 3 10 42. .42 46 Coarse & inferior Sheep 32 36. .30 38 Second quality do 3 8 4 0.3 10 4 0 Prime coarse wooUed do. 42 44. .44 48 Prime Southdown do.. 4 8 5 8.410 5 0 Lambs 4 8 5 8.. 4 8 5 8 Large coarse Calves ..3 10 4 6.. 4 2 4 8 Prime small ditto 4 8 5 0. .4 10 5 2 Large Hogs 3 10 4 0 .. 3 10 4 6 Neat small Porkers .,42 4 8.. 4 10 5 2 SUPPLIES. Aug; 27, 1838, Aug. 26, 1839. Beasts 2,865 3,249 Sheep and Lambs .... 29,523 26,030 Calves.... 300 153 Pigs , 410 610 From Scotland, and various distant parts of Eng- land, the receipts of slaughtered meat up to New- gate and Leadenhall markets have been very mode- rate, and of middling quality — they having consist- ed of 142 carcasses of beef; 2,330 do. of mutton; 300 do. of lamb; 583 do. of veal; and 810 do. of pork. Prime beef and mutton have been readily taken off by the dealers at high prices ; but other- wise the trade has proved heavy, and the currencies have been somewhat on the decline. LEICESTERSHIRE. Since mylast report the changes in the weatherhave had a corresponding effect upon the crops in this neigh- bourhood. The hay harvest has been most disastrous from the heavy and continued rains which fell in July. As I anticipated, the grass crops fell light to the scythe, and nearly all on the low lands were flooded before it was mown, and consequently will be of very little value, and many farmers have none but what is in this condition. We had a succession of floods on the rivers Welland, Wreake, and Soar, and all their tributary streams overflowed their usual bounds more than has been recollected for many years past. In several instances, where the crop was mown, it it has been taken clean away by the rapid currents occasioned by tbe sudden thunder showers and heavy rains. The hay out of the reach of floods has been very indifferently got — worse than for several years. These circumstances combined will make good fod- der scarce and dear during the ensuing winter. The corn crops have been much laid by the heavy rains, and the wheat, where the crops are full, is injured by mildew— blighted beads also are very numerous in some situations, and the straw is of a bad colour, and by no means ripens kindly— this may all be at- tributed to the wetness of the last two months. Though the wheat burst well into ear and bloomed beautifully, and at that time promised an excellent quality, still, from the above untoward circumstan- ces, our anticipations in this respect ("even under the most favourable harvesting) will not be realised, and the quality cannot be hoped to be equal to that of several past years, and there is great reason to fear the quantity will be deficient. The cutting of white corn has become general in this county, and during the three fine days of last week much has yielded to the scythe and sickle, but none is yet housed, ex- cepting a few oats. The barley varies much in dif- Q 2 220 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ferent siluations, but it mnybe consulerecl an average crop, and should the weather now become favourable the quality will be good, on the other hand if wo have more rain, that which was first cut will be jBUch injured. Oats are good generally, and the same may be said of Beans which are well corned. The price of grain in our markets has been tolerably steady for some time past — Wheat, 70s. to 75s.; liar- ley, 36s. to 38s.; Oats, 26s. to 28s. ; Beans, 40s. to 4.5s. The turnip crop is good and some unusually ftne ; yet, on other soils, the heavy rain about the time of their coming up injured them to that degree that they have not yet flourished : we may reckon upon more tliaa an average crop of this useful article of winter food. Never was more keep known on all pasture lands, and the latterraatb, both of clover and grass, is remarkably luxuriant. Graziers do not say that their cattle have fattened better in this than in Other seasons when grass has been less plentiful, and this is accounted for by the lateness oi the spring from the drought and u:)genial weather in May, which so much retarded the early grass. Both beef and mut- ton are scarce in our markets, and fetch a good price, from 6d. to 6!^d. per lb. All descriptions of store cattle are exceedingly dear, owing to the excess of keep. At the Melton Mowbray great Lammas fair on the 21st inst., for store cattle, the supply was good, and not less than 1500 Scotch cattle and 500 Irish were sold at very high prices. Wool has not undergone much variation in price since our wool fair, and average lots may be quoted at 3Js. per tod. —August a-ltb. HARLESTON. We have delayed g\\\ns any report of the state of our crops till the present time, because we were un- willing to mislead by any incorrect information, and until reaping had actually commenced we could not satisfy ourselves as to our prospects for the present harvest. The reports from many quarters had been so contradictory, and in our own examination of several fields, we have found so much variation, that we could not give any decided opinion. Althougli some few forward spots were fit for reaping on the 5th inst., yet wheat cultinf^ did not grenerally commence in this dis- trict till the i2tli and 13tli, since which time we have had fickle weather. But the general substitution of the scythe for the sickle, allows of the work proceeding more rapidly, and although the men have been frequently interrupted by showers, yet a considerable quantity of wheat is already cut, scarcely any of which is at present carted. In few seasons has the plant been more regular than in the present ; we have therefore more ears than we had last year, and to this may be added an increased breadth of land planted with wheat, but the efi'ecls of the high winds and heavy rain at tlie time of blossoming are perceptible in many fields, the upper part of the ears being very defective ; and the stouter the wheat, the more injury appears to have been received, as where the plant is thinner, the ears are large and well filled. A few of the thick wheats are also hurt by having been blown down before the ear was well filled, but the deficiency from the latter cause, is less than on the average of seasons. The flail alone can decide on the amount of injury from deficient ears, but without such defect, we think we should have had one of the heaviest crops we have known ; and making every allowance for it, we are inclined to pronounce the present crop of wheat equal to the average of the last few seasons, which we think we have proved some- thing beyond what would have been called a full average crop ten years since. Whatever difficulty wo may have in arriving at a correct opinion of the wheat crop, but little we apprehend will be experienced with regard to the spring corn. Of oafs we grow but few, but barley, beans, and peas, are all well spoken of, and we believe justly so. The peas are many of them secured, and the quality of those we hive seen is fine. The barley crop is deficient in breadth, by the same amount that wheat is increased, many farmers owing to the high price of the latter, having planted their beet land with it instead of with barley. Our markets arc plentifully supplied with old wheat at present, but the stock in hand is chiefly confined to the growers, and cannot be very large. — Aug. 17. HOP INTELLIGENCE. EAST RETFORD, August 22.— Before we com- meuce our account of the hops in this district it may be necessary to offer a few remarks on the general ap- pearance of the plantations, — their present state, and their ultimate tendency towards a crop. And first as to their general appearance. In the early part of the year the frosts of winter were prolonged to a late pe- riod, and this plant, ever ready to meet the coming year, made its appearance above ground at about the usual time, but this first shoot was doomed to be cut off, — and cut off it was no less, in many instances, than thrice ; so that before the leading shoot could so far rear its head as to allow it to be tied to the pole for support, the spring was very f.ir advanced, and specu- lation, ever ready, at once put forth the report that it was next to an impossibility for the bine to rally, and the duty was consequently rated at the very lowest scale. Time, however, passed away, and the stealthy advances, which the shoots made upwards, proved that the stamina of the plant was sound, and that season- able weather only was wanted to bring them to matu- rity at the usual period of the year. As the summer advanced, sudden alternations of cold and heat followed each other in rapid succession, and these transitions were looked upon as a sure forerunner of disease. In vain, however, the honcydew was looked for, and in vain was the mould anticipated ; nor did the fly venture to attack them in any such numbers as for once to make themselves formidable in the eyes of the planters, and thus they continued growing and in a healthy state up to the time of our visiting them at the commence- ment of the present week. The state of many of them at this time it must be admitted is very critical, and creates much anxiety in the mind of the planters, in- asmuch as many of them are still hanging in bur, and without a flush of suitable weather in this state they must remain. For the last few days the weather has been wet and stormy in the extreme, and though we have not experienced much wind during this period, still the nights have been cold and humid, — the very reverse of such as the hops require and diametrically opposite to such as would really prove serviceable to them. From this it will be inferred that warm, dry, sunshiny weather is all that is now required,— and in good truth it is required, and speedily too ; because the hops are now nearly ten days later than they were last year at this date, and we consider them a full fort- night later than they ought to have been in order to afford a full yielding crop, unless an autumnal summer should be succeeded by the present somewhat ungenial state of the atmosphere. For the last few days rainy weather has greatly preponderated, and the ground is so completely saturated that, we fear on the setting in of warm weather, the sap will be forced to too high a pressure, and that either the honey- dew or the mould might ensue, in which case one-half of the different weights we have mentioned below would fall far short of the estimates we have given. We may also men- tion in this place, that we have already observed a slight sprinkling of honey-dew in one or two planta- tions, Avhich was speedily washed away by the showers ; and in some very low grounds we discovered slight tinges of the mcisty mould, but these were not in such quantities as to cause any very serious apprehensions ; nevertheless it is apparent that there is a tendency to- wards this disease, and that without genial weather succeed it may so far increase as very much to dete- riorate both the quantity and quality of the growing THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 221 crop. In forming our estimates or the weights of some of the best plantations in this district, we must not be suppused to hold it out as an average, because, on a moderate calculation we cannot lay them at more than 6 cwt. per acre ; let the weather prove ever so good, but supposing the weather should prove all that the planters can wish, 6 cwt. per acre will give the old duty of the North Clays at about 2,200Z. ; aud sup- posing again that this weight should be the average of the kingdom, it will give a total of 165,000/. which, in all human probability, will be nearer the mark than the present one of 210,OOOZ. In order to show the fickle nature of this extraordinary plant, and the ex- treme fallibility of human judgment m forming an opi- nion upon it, we will cite the actual currencies of a few years. Ill July. Duty estimated at Actually paid. 1802 £50,000 £15,463 1812 52.000 30,561 1816 142,000 46 302 1817 93,000 66,522 1823 42,000 26,051 1839 200,000 quere. Now in these years we have quoted, the summers gene- rally were wet and cold, and the time of picking very backward, which in these and other respects much re- sembles the present one, and to us the present is not very unlikely to resemble them when tlie duty shall have been iinally made up. This, however, is now a matter of speculation. We have below given the best account we could collect of the various plantations in this district, and have reported according to present ap- pearances, but even since our inspection, the weather has been wet and the nights cold and ungenial. All this most undoubtedly makes against a crop, as they are backward already, and have not a moment to lose. Time, however, will show whether our apprehensions are well or ill fouaded, and to that for the present we muit leave them. DISTRICT REPORTS. ASKHAM.— The body grounds in this parish, al- though the bines are not so iieavy as vve have witnessed them, promise a fairish crop. Some of the land is of a coarse blackish soil, and very porous, so that the late vvet weather has retarded their progress from bur into hop for a longer period than usual ; but even here, should the coming weather prove kind and warm, a crop of five or six cwt. per acre may be gathered. The Beastwood yards, which are located in this parish, are extremely luxuriant, and give produce of an abundant produce ; indeed it is some years since we saw them looking belter. Amongst the most flourishing, xve may mention those belonging to Mr. Scrimshaw, Messrs. BuUivant and Smith, Mr. Ibberson, Mr. Clarke, and Mr. Ketton ; where, according to present appearance, from ten to twelve cwt. per acre is likely to be gathered. For the most part, the bur has escaped into hop, and the for- ward hills iiave already hops upon them nearly two inches in length. On inquiry of the men who have the management of the plantations here, wc find that they are anticipating the commencement of the pulling sea- son in about fifteen or seventeen days. Of course fine weather is anticipated in this result. BOUGHTON. — This parish, like all others, where there is a large growth, presents an extremely varied appearance, some being extremely good, and some the very reverse. Upon a major part of the plantations, however, we observed a considerable want of bine, aris- ing in a great measure from the great number «f dead hills, and in other instances from the extent of the smit of the last year. We scarcely know any other parish in the district where this want is so apparent as here, taking the numbers of acr«s into consideration. It must, however, be conceded, that even here the bur is toler- ably plentiful, and that from three to five cwt per acre, may be gathered. In the strong and healthy planta- tions, however, the case is far otherwise, more especially those belonging to Mr. Frogson, Mr. Gravenor, Mr. Doncaster, Mr. Flower, Mrs. Squires, and one or two others, which promise an excellent produce. As is usual with the Boughton plantations, we found them rather backward, with plenty of bur, but very few in hop ; but the land here is of that nature that it generally makes up at the latter end of the season what it seems to lose at its commencement, and with suitable weather, a fair show from this parish may be expected in time for our October fair. BELLMOOR.— We have frequently had occasion to mention this plantation In such terms as we could not apply generally, and we never recollect any previous years when such commendation could be more suitably applied than at the present period. From the com- mencement of the season, its progress has never sus- tained a single cheek from either blight, disease, or filth ; and its present luxuriant appearance amply demonstrates the care and attention which has been bestowed upon it. As we have before stated, a change of management is here annually resorted to, including most of those artificials which modern skill and long experience has of late years so beneficially brought into use ; and if any arguments were wanting to prove the efficacy of this method of treatment in a hop-ground, it is here demonstrated beyond all possibility of doubt. There are but few plantations in the district where the stamina of the plant is so good as here ; and the last few years has borne abundanttestimony that it is this which enables it to bear up under disease, and, to a consider- able extent, set at defiance those destructive insects which so frequently infest and destroy the labours of the planters in many other plantations, where the land is equally good, and the aspect more favorable than it is found to be here. Most of ,the bur has disappeared, and in its stead a fine luxuriant hop greets tlie eye in every direction. Of course, therefore, favourable wea- ther is now all that is wanted to enable its proprietor to reap one of the best crops that has been grown for several years past. BOTHAMSALL.— The quantity of hop-land in this parish is now but very small, and the present crop merely requires a passing notice. In the early part of the season the bine had a weak and puny appearance, but the warm weather brought it up to the standard. Unfortunately, however, at the late flood it was from two to three feet deep in water, which has again put it backward, and it will require a succession of very fine weather to bring it to moderate maturity before the frosty nights begin to set in. BEVERCOTES.— From the commencement of the present season many of the plantations in this parish bore an unfavourable appearance, and led us to augur that a large produce eould not be realized, and our late visit has certainly not altered our opinion for the better. In a majority of the grounds there is a very great want of bine, and an immense quantity of dead stock, so that under the most favourable circumstances not more than for or five cwt. per acre can be gathered. Besides, there appears to be a want of sufficient stamina to force the produce to perfection, arising either from some neglect, or the want of sufficient management. The exceptions to this sweeping censure are but few ; but the first most decidedly is that belonging to Mr. George Mansell, which in point of management is very rarely to be exceeded, and for cleanliness it cannot be equalled in the whole distiict. A splendid crop here promises to reward the care of its industrious proprietor, who richly merits the compliment we are compelled to pass upon him. Another plantation belonging to Mr. Thomas Denman is looking remarkably well ; and the same remark will apply to one or two others, where, should the weather come right, half a ton per acre is likely to be produced. CLARBRO'.— We were exceedingly gratified on visiting the plantation belonging to Mr. John Hudson, at this place. With respect to bine, we have seen it more abundant, but we consider that this, instead of being a fault, will| prove a benefit, as more space is al- lowed for the free circulation of air and sunshine. The lateral shoots are remarkably long and healthy, and these are clustered with liops almost from the bottom to the top of the poles. Besides these are completely clear from filth and disease of every kind, and with suit- able weather this plaatatiou promises to yield one of the 222 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. most abundant crops which has ever been gathered from it yet. Whilst inspecting this plantation the other day we found a fine specimen of the horaia- piirodite hop, namely, a branch on which is the calyx, iive-leaved, male flower, in full perfection; whilst adjoining' to it was the strombile of the female in a fine growing healthy condition. The adjoining plantation belonging to Thomas Wheelwright, Esq. is remarkably healthy and full of fine hops, and promises an abundant yield. The adjacent plantation belonging to Wm. Fisher, Esq. is not polled this year, being appropriated to acrriculturul purposes. DRAYTON EAST.— Two years ago we were com- pelled to notice the culture of the plantations here as being deficient, much more so than in some of those in the same neighbourhood ; it is with satisfaction, however, we can now state that our remarks have been atteaded to, and that the plantations are now in a most prosperous condition. We procured one of the finest bunches of hops here, during our visit, we have witnessed during the present season, and anticipate one of the heaviest crops that has been gathered for several years past. ELKSLEY. — With one or two exceptions, the whole of the plantations here are looking very healthy and thriving, the lateral shoots are strong and very abun- dant, and if the late flood should not have done them any serious injury, the planters are anticipating an excellent crop. We were particularly struck with the appearance of those belonging to Messrs. Joseph and Richard Fox; also to Mrs. Hudson, Mr. Johnson and Mr. Taylor's, as being uncommonly luxuriant and the stamina apparently very strong. For the first time, shoddy has been used in these plantations as artificial management. FLEDBRO'.— In some of the plantations here a ■want of bine is complained of, and several of them have a considerable quantity of dead stock, which must necessarily lessen the growth ; in other respects, how- ever, as far as healthiness and cleanliness goes, there is really nothing to complain of. The plantation at Woodcotes, in this parish, belonging to Mr. Billyard, is decidedly one of the best and most flourishing in the district, and, with suitable weather, will afford one of the heaviest yields. HEA-DON-CUM-UPTON.-For several years last past the quantity of hop land in this parish has been gradually decreasing, and certainly from the small crops which have been gathered, the planters ■would seem to be justified in taking this step. This season, however, those plantations which remain have put on a different appearance, and at present augur ■well for an average crop. The foliage of the bine is very luxuriant, the lateral shoots strong and healthy throughout. KIRTON. — The plantations here vary extremely, a few being very good, whilst the greater portion of the remainder are wanting of bine ; even here, however, there is some healthy looking bur, and a fair sprink- ling of hops may ultimately be realized, though these ■v\'ill not amount to anything near an average crop. MARKHAM EAST.— Towards the west end of this parish the want of bine is complained of, and cer- tainly not without some reason ; but this is easily ac- counted for by the smit of last year, which was, if pos- sible, more extensive and more fatal than in almost every other part of the district. Those grounds belong- ing to Mr. Rose participated largely of this misfor- tune, and though the present bine looks healthy, still there is not anything equal to an average crop. The fine plantation belonging to Mr. Metcalf here fully supports its ancient character, the bine being re- gular and plentiful, the side shoots strong and of an excellent colour, and the young hops well set and in good growing order. In the adjoining plantation, be- longing to Mr. Singlehurst, we were agreeably sur- prised, as for some years past part of it has been a failure ; but this season, although the bine is not so thick as some others, there is plenty of bur and hops, the latter being rather earlier, taking it altogether, than any other in the district. OLLERTON.— Most of the plantations in this pa- rish are rather more flourishing than usual, being ex- ceedingly full of luxuriant bine, and the young hop full and vigorous. This is particularly the case with those yards belonging to Mrs. Sarah Boot, Mr. Lessiter, and one or two others. At present the calculations are that from 10 to 12 cwt. per acre will be gathered ; and certainly the goodly appearances they bear justify such a calculation. ORDSALL.— The plantation here belonging to Mr. Swinscoe Jackson, is looking very promising ; the bur is luxuriant, and the young hop seems well set. A fair average crop may therefore reasonably be expected. RUFFORD.— This fine plantation, consisting of up- wards of fifty acres, is remarkably fine this year. In the early part of the season the bine was rather weakly, and seemed to linger in its early stages to a greater ex- tent than most others in the district. After the depar- ture of the frosts, however, the stamina revived, and we seldom recollect seeing them make greater progress. About a fortnight ago the bur made its appearance generally, and in a very short time part of it proceeded into hop. Judging from those of the Earl of Scarbro's, Mr. D. Williamson's and Mr. Ryall's, from 10 to 12 cwt. per acre may reasonably be presumed upon. One thing is certain, with respect to this plantation, that the bad weather has less influence upon it than in many others which are more exposed, and even small frosts which often seriously injure some, hare very little effect upon this. STURTON.— For the past two or three years this plantation, belonging to Mr, John Wilkinson, has suf- fered greatly from that destructive insect the wire- worm, from the effect of which, during the present sea- son, it has in a great measure escaped, and we hope from present appearances it will amply remunerate its proprietor. The bine is full and luxui iant, and the new hops kind and of a good colour, and promise through the greater part of the old plantation to yield upwards of 10 cwt, per acre, TUXFORD.— Like many other parishes the growth varies here, but the best decidedly preponderates. From the earliest part of the season those grounds be- longing to Mr.Bluxton, Mr, Bryan Clarke, Mr. Robin- son, and some others promised well, and the hopes thus held out are likely to be realised to a very considerable extent. Bets have been made that some acres will be found in this parish that will yield 14 cwt, per acre; but this we very much doubt, as like the rest of the district it is backward, and late hops always come off consider- ably lighter than those which are earlier ; having less condition in them, and some of them never arriving at maturity. At all events a fair crop is likely to be gathered, WALES BY. — This parish is rather noted for the pro- duction of a good hop, and some of the plantations seem disposed this season to carry out that character. Those plantations belonging to Mr, Joseph Smith, Mr, Justice and Mr. Ratcliffe, are thriving well ; the young hop appears bold and healthy, and the foliage is clean and free from disease. Some of the other grounds are un- even, and a shortness of bine is complained of, but even these are getting nicely out of bur into hop. SOUTHWELL,— We have not visited these planta- tions this season, but a correspondent under the date of the iVth ult. remarks as follows: "The improve- ment in the hop-grounds during the past fortnight has been truly astonishing, and the growers are anticipating a full average crop ; wind and weather, of course per- mitting. During the whole year we have been clear of filth, honey dew and vermin, and consequently we had nothing to impair the health of the plant from its first caving the earth up to the period of my present writing. What quantity of good hops we may ultimately gather, of course remains to be seen, but the major part of the plantations bid fair to average half a ton per acre. Before I conclude my letter I may remark that some such weather as suited the growth of this fickle plant this season, as in others would have proved its destruc- tion, so that with the exception of warm weather, there is no saying what will actually suit it.'' THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 223 EAKRTNG AND KNEE3ALL.— These two places lay rather wide of any district, but from what I have been able to gather from those who have seen them, the greater part appear to be doing well. The bine is said to be very healthy, and the bur set as tiiick and as lively as the planters could reasonably desire. Like some others parishes a few of the plantations have too much dead stock. SCA.RTHING MOOR.— The plantations here lay low, and there having latterly been such an extraordi- nary quantity of rain as to fill the laud full of water has caused the bine to be backward ; nevertheless its present appearance indicates health. We much doubt, however of its capability of bringing a heavy crop, as it has too much to do, and too little time allowed to do it in, to enable it to do so. The bur is plentiful and healthy, and to come to any conclusion on the subject we must leave it to the coming weather to decide. OSSINGTON.— The accounts of the plantations be- longing to J. E. Denison, Esq., of this place, are not favourable, the bine having suffered from the effects of the wire worm. Id the large plantation, let the weather come as it may, there cannot be oue-thiid of an ave- rage crop, and in the smaller one a few cwts. per acre will stretch it. The Kent system either does not answer here, or otherwise it is not sufficiently understood to make it do so. EAST KENT. — We can with certainty state some improvement in the general appearance of the Hop grounds smce the last four or five days, the weather being more suited, they come freely into Hop, and un- less the mould should rage with the fine weather, we expect to get about as many as last year. They will commence picking the Hops in this district about the 10th September. MID KENT. — The weather having set in dry and considerably warmer during the last five days, has brought the Hops out ; in many situations they are very uneven, some hills showing Hops full out, others meraly putting forth the bur or bloom; this will drive the picking later, and expose the crop to many a gale of wind and probably wet weather at the end of September; notwithstanding, it appears the general expectation that Kent will pay as much duty as last season, unless the mould which threatens should do damage. WEALD OF KENT AND SUSSEX.— The Hop plant has in some degree recovered its healthy iippear- aiice during the week, although ihey suffered much from theeoid nights from the 18th to the 22nd instant. They are now out in hop, stillsmall.and require tendays' hot weather to ripen them ; picking cannot be general in these districts till about the 121)1 of September. The quality may be good, weather permitting-, the quantity is yet uncertain, it is thought not more than last year. WORCESTER, Aug. 24.— For several weeks past there has scarcely been anything doing in this market, very few Hops of any description having changed hands since the middle of June, and prices have been gradu- ally giving way for the last two moHtlis. The trade is very dull to-day, and is likely to continue so till we have some new Hops at market; picking, iiowever, will be very late, and we do not expect a good supply before the latter end of next month. The accounts from the plantations are, vvith few exceptions, favourable for a crop, and the duty is now backed to pay 20,000/., witji opinions generally in favour of that amount being realized. Prices are quite norainal. (from the MAIDSTONE GAZETTE.) MAIDSTONE.— In the parishes around Maidstone no improvement (if we except one very highly culti- vated ground) has been made in the bines during the last week. The grape hops particularly, have a most unfavourable appearance, from the unevciiness of the crop. On different branches of the same bine may be seeu fine bold hops, small hops, and imperfectly deve- loped burr. Indeed the grapes appear to come out in three distinct crops. The mould is also visible on the tips of the hops iu many grounds, and the recent showers are expected to increase it. In many places under the rag-stone hills, where some improvement was recently perceptible, the plants are at a stand-still, their colour very unhealthy, and the vermin very nu- merous. The very strongest grounds in this locality are, however, in a rather more promising condition, but will still fall miserably short of the produce anticipated only a few weeks since. The season will probably be a month later than in some years, when picking has been known to commence on the 25th of August. It will not now probably commence till the middle of Septem- ber— a loss of time which is of serious importance in our variable climate, CRANBROOK.— The plantations in this and ad- joining parishes look promising for a tolerable good crop. The wind has done a partial injury, but the burr, which was very full, is fast growing into hop. GOUDHURST AND HORSMONDEN. — The grounds are looking well and fast coming into hop. HEADCORN AND BIDDENDEN.— The grounds are not so good as they were last year, and it is thought will not grow so many by one-fourth. THE WEATHER AND CROPS. MAIDSTONE.— In some places wheat has been carried, and shows for a fair crop and good sample. A very large breadth of wheat has been already cut, and, generally speaking, the quantity and quality have not disappointed us in our recent expectation. Much more would have been carried yesterday, had it not been for the showers. The quantity of rain has not done much harm at present, and has probably improved the grain. Much more, however, would render the sample tough and cold, and consequently less valuable to the miller; besides increasing the difficulty of housing. Some of the f^orward oats have been well got in, and turn out productive in the yield, and good in the sample, with about an average length of straw. Much remains un- cut that a week's fine weather Vvould enable tlie har- vesters to carry. A small portion of the forward barley- has been cut, but none carried that we know of. The beans, although now ripening, have been badly affected by the dolphin ; several good :fields of peas have been well carried. The young turnips and potatoes look well, the humid weather being highly favourable for them. — Maidstone Gazette. FA VERSHARI.— Harvest in the immediate neigh- bourhood has been very general this past week ; much corn has been safely garnered, and of excellent quality. Several farmers, fearful of the weather, have been found carrying the grain as late as ten o'clock at night. —Id. SEVENOAKS.— The harvest in this part of the county is likely to be very productive, and several farmei-s have commenced. Hops also promise well, and perhaps may remunerate for the great loss of hay, which the recent wet weather has occasioned. As much as sixty and seventy acres on some farms hrs been ren- dered totally useless by it.— Jrf. Up to Friday last, the business of the harvest in this county had proceeded uninterruptedly, but every day since, until Tuesday, rain had fallen, and it was feared that a large breadth of corn, still abroad, would be much injured. The injury, however, does not appear to be so great as was anticipated, and the weather being more propitious, carting has been resumed. — Essex Herald, Aiigust23. Owing to the various changes in the weather during the last fortnight, the harvest progresses but slowly around Lincoln. A great quantity of rain has fallen, and the low lands are yet flooded, which has prevented many from finishing the hay harvest. Oats and barley are looking extremely well, and an abundant crop is anticipateal. The wheat crops in some parts are some- what diimaged ; it is, however, presumed that a continu- ation of settled weather would be productive of an ave- rage cvop.— Lincolnshire Chronide, August 23. Heavy rains having fallen during the latter part of last week, the progress of harvest was thereby consider- 224 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ably impeded : on Monday the weather became bright, and having' since so continued, the crops are everywhere clearing (rom tlie ground in the best possible condition. — Taunton Courier, August 21. The wet weather during the last three days of the past week gave some check to the proceedings of the harvest in tliis neighbourhood, but since the commence- ment of tlie present week the favsurable state of the at- inosphere has given a stimulus to the operations of the sickle, so that a great part of the wheat in this district Las, down to the present time, been cut, and much of it slacked in good condition. 'J'he pioduce, on the wliole, may be regarded as about an average, periiaps a sii;ide below rather than above ; the yield, in many instances, not having been so good as was expected. 1'he addi- tional breadth sown to wheat this year will, however, compensate the public, and prevent the necessity of having recourse to foreign supply. Some samples of new wheat were oflered in our market on Saturday, and were of a fair average quality. The barley and oat crops are spoken of very favourably, and the turnips will be very abundant.— i)o/sei County Chronicle, Au- gust 22. DONCASTER.— Since Tuesday last, a truly de- lightful change has taken place in the state of the wea- ther. Instead of a continuance of the late heavy rains, (noticed in another place) which dimmed the hopes of the cultivator of the soil, and awakened serious appre- liensions generally, a bright atmosphere, with heavy dews during the night, has happily prevailed ; and the sun has shone out with full warmth and brilliancy, with every indication of a continuance of the most auspicious weather. The progress which the respective crops have made in the course of the last few days is perfectly won- derful, cheering the spirits of the cultivator, and calcu- lated to difTusc tlirough the bosom of the consumer the feelings of joy and thankfulness. Nor will the extent and amount of the injury consequent upon the late heavy rains, be so serious as many had from appearances been induced to anticipate. In this immediate neighbour- hood, several crops have already fallen before the scythe and the sickle ; and in the course of a few days, the labours of the harvest fields, bearing every descrip- tion of grain, will be in full and vigorous operation. It seems, indeed, very probable that, with a continuance of the present bright sunny hours, accompanied by a g-entle and refreshing breeze, all the crops of grain will be ready for reaping together ; and, consequently, that all hands will have to be employed at one time. Be that, however, as it may, we rejoice in the prospect which is now presented before us, full of hope, teeming with fruitfulness, and redolent of joy and gratitude. — Boncasler Gazatte. BARNSLEY, — The hay harvest is not yet terminat- ed in this neighbourhood ; hay may be seen abroad in the fields in all directions, which, from the continuance of wet weather, will, no doubt, be very raueh da- maged. The harvest has not yet commenced in this neighbourhood, and itis probable that very little will be done before the beginning of next week. The wheat and barley have suffered very much from the frequent heavy rains. ^Vheat in many places presents a most iinusually dark appearance, almo--t approachins" to blackness. In some places it has suffered from mildew but that cemphaint is not general, although the crops, botli of ibarley and wheat, are very much broken down, and if the weather should continue unfavour- able It will be difficult to save them from entire destruc- tion. EAST RETFORD.-In this neighbourhood the harvest has become general; and from tlie inquiries made amongst the reapers and others, we are glad to find that the corn has not been injured one-tenth so much as had been anticipated ;' indeed, with fine weather, all those gloomy forebodings wliich were ■'o general a week ago, will soon be scattered to the winds and a plentiful harvest will reward the labour of the hus- bandman, and diffuse joy and gladness throughout all the length and breadth of the land. Some samples of new wheat have been shown to us which augur well of this year's growtli, and we fully believe that most of the stones about mildew, sprouts, and canker, are entirely void of foundation. Of course there are places (o be found where these diseases do exist, but these are few, and will dimini*h but a very trifle from the general pro- duce. Some samples of oats have also been brought under our notice, which ai'e very heavy and fine in the skin, and do not appear to have received the slightest injury. One article of our producs we must acknow- lege to have been seriously injured, and that is potatoes: on the low lands many acres of which have been cohi- pletely destroyed. We hope, however, that a.? those planted in dry situations are looking so well, the ultimate loss may not be so extensive, and that for the sake of the poor this indispensable article of food will not be so deficient as a short time back we were led to believe they would be. We have had two severe frosts during the two last nights, which must have injured the grow- ing hops to a considerable extent, a succession of which must ?0 3n put an extinguisher upon all hopes of a crop for the present year. At this time, being between burr and hop, they are in the most critical situation in whicii they possibly could be, and the least able to bear op under cold and frosty weather. BLIGHT IN THE WHEAT CROP.— An intelli- gent correspondent has sent us a few head.i of wheat, cut from a field of about three acres, which is blighted on the side that grew to the south-west. This part of the head has no pickles of grain in it, whilst the other sides areall sound, 'i'he entire field is inthesame condition; and our correspondent says, he has heard accounts from several quarters of the wheal being generally affected in the same way. The weather has much improved since our last publication: Svinday and yesterday were dry, with a good deal of sun, the wind being from the north-east. Should the weather continue fine, reaping will commence in less than ten duys, and in a fortnight it would become pretty general. With the exception of the injury done to the wheat, all the crops are reported as being most promising and abundant. Potatoes sold to-day at 2s. 8d. to 3s. per cwL— Belfast Wldg. CROPS IN ANNANDALE.— August 2l.-The weather for the last ten days has been very unpropi- tious for the grain crops — shov.'ery, with little sun ; and the temperature of the nights especially very cold. It is te be feared the filling goe$ on badly. The colour of the wheat particularly is unhealthy ; and barley not at all looking well in most situations. Cutting barley may be pretty general by the last days of the month. Scarcely any oats can be ready within August ; and even on early districts there is no appearance of harvest being general for three weeks yet. The late rains have injured the turnip crop on all wet grounds, and every- where those late sown look poorly ; but the regular crops sown early itill promise well, and potatoes main- tain their luxuriant appearances. — Dumfries Herald. On Saturday, the weather cleared up, continued fine ever since, and at this moment wears a very settled appearance ; so that, under the divine blessing, we trust all our apprehensions for the fate of the harvest, will be dissipated by fair average crops. Indeed, after the wet and tempestuous weather we have just experi- enced, the accounts from the different parts of this county are more cheering than could have been antici- pated.— Wexford Independent, Aug. 21 The weather since our last may be characterised as variable. A good deal of rain has fallen at intervals, and we have been visited with one or two heavy show- ed with distant thunder. The temperature, which at the latter end of last week was close aud warm, has since become cold, with frosty nights and sudden show- ers from the North-west. The harvest is progressing more favourably perhaps than under such circum- stances might be expected, and if we are favoured with a continuance of dry weather for a brief space, the crops of grain will be gat in, in this neighbourhood, without having sustained any serious injury from the unkindly rains of July, or the alienations of fair and foul we have Kiore recently experienced. Harvesting commenced in many places this week, and a few fine days will render it general throughout the county, aud enable those who have already commenced to complete their work aus- piciously. Every thing now depends on tine weather : THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 225 if, accompanied with raiu, we have warm growing wea- ther, the wheat will yet suffer materially, aud the hopes entertained of a crop will be defeated. — Worcestershire Chronicle. We have lately been highly gratified by viewing four fields of a modein description of wheat culled " Farm- er's interest," which is growing ou the farm of Mr. John Wells, of Haxby, near this city. The seed was sown from the 20th to the 2Sth of March, and we can safely say that no crop of corn ever equalled the above in that neighbourhood. One field sown on the latter day has been calculated to produce from 7qrs. to 8qrs. per acre. The fuct is well worthy the attention of farm- ers and others, and any one feeling inclined to witness the standing crops, will, we have no doubt, be much gratified with the result. — York Courant. We have experienced some heavy falls of rain since our last. A decided change for fine clear weather ap- pears, however, to have set in, and should it hold out, as we have every hope it will, the crops in the neigh- bourhood of Hull will be secured in pretty fair condition. The harvest has commenced in tiie East Riding. On Tuesday the cutting of wheat had begun at Leconfield Parks, near Beverley, and at Etton, a quantity was in stock. The haymakers are again buMly plying the fork in fields which were cut when the recent rains compelled a suspension of operations. — Yovk Herald, Aug. 24. The last few days of glorious weather have effected a wonderful improvement in the appearance of the crops in this county. Since Monday we have had no rain, and the ripening of the different kinds of grain ha« pro- ceeded very fast under the warm rays of the sun. From tiie enquiries which we have made of parties well qualified to judge, and also from personal observation, we hope we may calculate on the crops being a full average, and in numerous iostaaces the yield is said to be unprecedented. Where the sickle is already in operation, this statement is fully borne out. The hay harvest is nearly over, and considering- the late wet weather, has been secured in fair condition. — Leeds Mercury. SOUl'H LANCASHIRE.— A very decided im- provement has taken place in the weather during the present week, and the projpects of the harvest have im- proved with tlie weather. The corn harvest has just commenced, though the hay is not yet all secured. New oats, the produce of some of the early parts of the county, wdl be in tlie market in a few days, but the general harvest will not commence here in less than ten days or a fortnight. The root crops, both of turnips and pota- toes, are promising, but the i)iice is higher than usual in the potato market. It is a coincidence wortliy of notice that last year tiie weather was very unsettled and even alarming till the middle of August, when it became favourable, and continued so for the rcit of the harvest, by which means the country was saved from something that would have approached a famine; and that this year very favourable change has been experienced at about the same part of the month of August. We may hope that the present appearances of favourable weather for the gathering in of a much more premising harvest will continue. THE CROPS IN SCOTLAND.— We learn from a gentleman who has lately been through Northumber- land, and the Southern parts of Scotland, that the corn crops look remarkably well, and are much forwarder than the generality of crops in Yorkshire. This may partly arise from there not having been so much wet and windy weather as has been experienced in England, and partly from superior sowing. Turnips look in ex- cellent condition. Barley and oats have been cut near Edinburgh and Jedburgh. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. SAXMUNDHAM LAMB FAIR more than re- alized the most sanguine calculations. Early in the morning several flocks were observed moving towards the town, and by the middle of the day there were in the field many thousand lambs, in fine condition. High prices were obtained, and from the numerous and respectable company present a great deal of business was transacted. The day and roomv situation of the fair, the great supply of pasture feed, and the central position of the town in so excellent a flock district, called forth the general approbation of the growers and dealers. Amongst the company were : — Lord Huntingfield, Sir Charles Blois, Bart., George Parkins, Esq., Edward Simeon, Esq., Wm. Long, Esq., the Rev. L. R. Brown, James Newson, Esq., Geo. Bates, Esq., John Barthorp, Esq., Messrs. Revans, Freemen, Hillen, Hewlett, Neeve, Tacon, Last, Ham- mond, Coopers, Gerrard, Whitmore, Girling, De- benham, Smith, Ransome, G. and H. Oxborrow, Barns, Messrs. Capons, Wiggs, Green, Pollett, Burch, Tye, Thos. Plant, and many other large dealers from this county, and from Essex and Norfolk. The arrangements and accommodation provided at the Bell Inn, were much approved, and every one appeared satisfied with the result of the day ; froni the general support promised, the fair may be considered to be permanently established. There were several lots of cattle, and one in particular of fine fat beast* belonging to Mr. Newson. IPSWICH LAMB FAIR.— This distinguished mart for the exhibition and sale of lambs aud sheep, was held on Thursday and yesterday. The number of lambs ])enned was not so great as last year. In consequence of the cool state of the wetither, and the absence of dust, the animals came to the field in good condition, and free from that distress which long travel, in a filthy, as well as heated atmosphere, usually entails upon them. The sales were brisk, and remunerating prices generally ob« tained. Buyers appeared to shew considerable confi- dence in their purciiases, the recent wet weather having produced an abundant feed in aftermath, and clover bottoms, thus reducing the chances of a short supply of food intervening to check the speedy arrival of the matu- rity of the animal. The breadths of turnips, also, are considered generally beyond an average crop, so that the least fear as to the ultimate and suflficient supply of sustenance did not occupy the mind of the agriculturist. This had a decidedly good effect on the fair. We might, perhaps, properly attribute to this circumstance the pre- sent short supply of lambs, comparatively with that of last year, many growers preferring rather to hold, and feed their flocks, than to sell tliem ; though the nu- merous small lamb fairs which have recently been held in various parts of the county, may have had the efl'ect of stocking many buyers, and reducing the supply which would otherwise have come to Ipswich. However, it would appear that many of the best parcels ©f lambs were untouched at former marts, and were bought here to be disposed of to the best bidders. Among so nu- merous a body of growers, we cannot, of course, name all who excelled in the exhibition of fine animals ; but our own observation leads to mention the flocks of Mr. Hicks, of Walton ; Mr. Catlin, of Chillisford Lodge, who shewed a parcel of fine shearling' ewes ; Mr. Catlin, of Butley Abbey ; Mr. Lugar, of Hengrave ; Mr. Webb, of Babraham ; Mr. Edwards, of Wood Hall ; Mr. Shillito, Mr. Rodwell, Mr. Everitt, &c. There were several fine lots of tups on the ground, but beyond all dispute, those belonging to Mr. Crisp, of Gedgrave Hall, bore away the palm. They consisted of a lot of 12 South Downs, pure in blood, and carrying wool of high quality. These animals were greatly admired, and some of tiiem were let at prices varying from 25 to 30 guineas each. We understand that the proprietor — now one of the best breeders of all kinds of stock in Suffolk — has reserved his best tups to let at his sale of 226 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sheep, which takes place at the latter end of the month, when tlie animal — bred by IMr. Crisp— wliicli curried away one of the prizes at llie Oxford Grand Agricultu- ral Shew, will also be brought under the hammer. 'I'he following prices were obtained, and will afford a fair average of the figure at which business was done : DOWN LAWBS. W. T., Mr. Lugar, ITengrave 27 0 Mr. Smith, Barton Mere 27 0 Mr. Garnham, Rougham 25 6 Mr. Philips, Barton 25 0 Mr. Wolton, Timworth .24 0 Mr. Roper, Rougham 24 0 Mr. Clover 20 0 J. Gwilt, Esq 23 0 Duke of Grafton 24 0-24 0 Mr. Rist, Foxhali 28 0 Mr. Shillito, Barrow 27 0 Mr. Everitt, Bright well 26 0—27 0 Mr.| Wolton, Newbourn 23 0-24 0 Mr. JacksoH. 'i'attingstone 25 0—26 0 Mr. Gale, Rushmere 35 0—25 0 Mr. Payne, Elden 24 0 Mr. Stannard, Rushmere 23 6-23 0 Mr. Cooper, Bnrnham 23 0 Mr. Roberts, Alderion 23 0 Mr. Fyson, Higham 25 0-27 0 Mr. Rodwell, Livermere 27 0-29 0 Mr, Rodwell, Alderton 26 6 Mr. Catlin, Chillesford 23 0 Mr. Webb, nilder>ham 27 0-29 0 Mr. Largent, Marlesford 23 0-23 0 Mr. Saul, Didlington 26 0 HALF DOWN LAMBS. Mr. Rist, Foxhall 28 0 DOWN SHEARLINGS. Mr. Edwards, Wood Hall 38 0 Mr. H. Garrod, Bucklesham 36 6 Mr. Catlin, Chillesford 45 0 HALF LEICESTER LAMBS. Mr. Roper, Lackford 23 6 DOWN CKONES. Mr. Rodwell, Livermere 25 0 Several excellent pens shewed on the ground, had been sold previous to exhibition. Among these were the flocks belonging to Col. Ray, Eldo Grange, Bury St. Edmund's; Sir H. Parker, Long Melford, &c.,iSce. About the usual number of hurdles were engaged, but not all filled, owing to previous sales. Prices may be considered from Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. per head dearer than last year. ~\'ery little business was done on the first day till a late hour, after which they sold briskly. On Fri- day there was but little doing— prices much the same, or perhaps a shade lower. The attendance of company was tolerably large, though not so numerous as on most occasions. We noticed present Earl Jerniyn, Lord Braybrooke, Lord Henniker, Sir W. F. F. Miadleton, Bart., &c. &c. There was a tolerable shew of lean stock, and a few fat cattle were oflf'ered for disposal at good prices. Sales, however, were not brisk in this depart- ment. Horses were but a short supply. Mr. Wilson, of the Chaise and Pair, Ipswich, had two considerable lots of ponies, among which were several of a superior quality. The Messrs. Ransome made a splendid shew of their patent ploughs, chaff"engines, and other agricul- tural implements of various sorts ; and these gentlemen appeared to be going on briskly with their business at the fair, as we observed them in busy occupation with their aaricultural friends. We were highly gratified in our visit to Messrs. Bond and Co.'s depot for agricul- tural implements, Irom St. Peter's foundry, in this town. Amongst the great variety— some of which chiimed our especial notice — was an entirtly new plough sledge or carriage; an improved subsoil plough, for the purpose of effecting deep cuttings ; a very superior dressing ma- chine for all kinds of grain and seeds; and some excel- lent machinery for working chaff engines, thrashing machines, &c. Uavelling machine for separating the havel from barley, without injury to the graia.— Suffolk Chronicle. TUP SALE.— Richard Daintree, EsqrV. (of He- mingford Abbotts,) tup sale, took place on Monday last ; about 250 gentlemen Silt down to a substantial dinner, at half-past two o'clock, the Rev. Jas. Linton in the chair; filter the cloth was driivvn several appropriate speeches were delivered, particularly those by tlie wor- thy chairman, and host ; who, in their relative situa- tions of landlord and tenant, expressed in warm terms their unqualified ajjprobation of each other. '1'. Lind- sell,E=q., followed and, in a powerful speech, eulogized them both ; particularly ]\Ir. Daintree, ibr his unwearied exertions to improve the breed of sheep ; after which the company adjourned to the front of the house, where l\lr. Elliot Smith, of Ciimbridgc, commenced selling, when a spirited competition took place, although a little dnmpcd by a drizzling rain, which increased so much about half-past seven o'clock, as to compel them to retire to the house, where the sale was completed about ten o'clock. Amongst the highly respectable company present, wc noticed Mr. Thos. Caswell and Son, from Pointten, lincolnshire ; Mr. C. D. Leader, of East Dereham, Norfolk ; Mr. Allen, of Polton, Bcd>. ; Mr. Goodlilfe, of Walton, Hunts.; Mr. Goulbourne, of Witcham, and many other extensive breeders, who ex- pressed the highest admiration of the UX) tups offered for sale, and became considerable purchasers. The lowest-priced tup was 5/. 5s.— the highest, 37/., (which was purchased by Mr. Goull)ourne) ; the whole pro- ceeds averaged 9/. 9s. each. 'Jlie extreme unsettled state of the weather, no doubt, prevented the attendance of many, which we deeply regret, on account of that worthy and entcriirisiiig gentleman — the owner of the property ; but, notwithstanding, the whole of them were disposed of, with the exception of ihrte.— Cambridge Independent. GARDENING OPERATIONS FOR SEPTEMBER. CORIGIXAL.) Late crops of melons will now require particular attention, the temperature of the beds should be ke}>t up by means of linings or fire flues to about 70" at night, and when the sun shines the mercury may be allowed to rise to 80° before giving air ; water should be very sparingly given, and all appearance of damp instantly removed. Thin out all superfluous vines, and all dead or decayed leaves, and push aside those overshadowing the fruit, to ex- pose it as much as possible to the full influence of the sun ; cover up with mats if the nights are cold. Attend to the directions given last month for the management of pines, keep up a brisk bottom heat ; the plants shifted List month will now be making rapid progress, and should be encouraged by every possible means, giving moderate waterings as the plants may require it, and apply liquid manure occasionally, say once a fortnight while the plants are growing ; admit air freely every fine day, and cover up at nigb.t with mats. Vineries and peach houses where the fruit has been gathered should now be fully exposed to the weather. Green-houses, conservatories, and all houses where there is no crop should now be painted, the flues cleaned, and all put in good repair for the approaching winter. Many of the more tender greenhouse plants will townrds the middle of the month require protection, especially if the weather be wet and the nights cold. Plants generally will require less water now than formerly, Prepare of all kinds in pots for their winter quarters, by staking, trimming, surfacing and shifting when necessary ; let all be ready for housing ou the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 227 shortest notice, for the weather after the end of this montb is not to be depended on. Pot oft" seedlings, and struck cuttings and shut them close up in pits or frames, and shade them for a few days until they have taken fresii root. Frequently stir the surface of auricula pots, carefully remove all decayed leaves, and about the end of the montli remove theru to their winter habitation, there let them have plenty of air, but protect them from heavy rains. The above direc- tions are also applicable to alpine plants generally. Carnation layers and pink pipings that have not been potted off, or planted out, sliould now be attended to. Take advantage of showery weatlier to transplant hardy annuals, biennials, and perennials in beds or patches where they are to flower. About the end of the month prepare beds for the reception of hyacinths, narcissas, tulips, &c. Trench the ground about two feet deep, and break it fine with the spade, and if stift add a portion of sharp river or drift sand, and incorporate] it thoroughly with the soil. 'i'ransplant evergreens, and if the weather he dry give water plentifully two or three times a week. About the end of the month deciduous shrubs which have done growing, may also be transplanted. Tie in dahlias, &c. as they advance, look after earwigs, caterpillars, and grubs. Clear away the withered stalks of plants which have done flowering, stir the surface of beds and borders with the hoe and rake, and attend to gravel and grass walks and lawns. Now is a good time to lay down new lawns, let the ground be prepared by digging, leveling, and thoroughly clearing of all root weeds, and sow with a combination of the permanent lawn grass seeds, mixed in proper proportions to suit the soil, at the rate of four bushels per acre. Rake the seeds in evenly, and cover slightly with fine mould, and well roll them to render the surface as compact as jiossible. A lawn laid down in this way will be found to be greatly superior in every respect, and formed at a less cost than by the usual mode of turfing. It may here be observed, tbu lawns have been pro- duced as above, with seeds procured from the well known establishment of Messrs. Cormack and Co., New Cross, near London, which in six months after sowing, far surpasses in beauty, any of the very best one year old turfed lawns. Pot strawberries for forcing, select the strongest runners, and give a good watering to settle the earth about their root?, plunge them in beds, and shade them until thev have struck root, and give plenty of water in dry weather. Prepare beds for straw- berries, by trenching at least two feet deep, and give a liberal watering immediately after planting. Dig and dress beds that have done bearing. Look to wall fruit trees and vines, nail in straggling branches, and remove all ill placed and useless shoots, so that the wood and fruit may be exposed as much as possible to the influence of the sun. Continue to destroy insects and protect fruits from birds, &c. Prepare dung for mushroom-beds, collect a quan- tity of fresh stable dung, containing as many droppings as possible, and shake, well mix, and frequently turn it so that the whole may be equally fermented ; when the violent heat has passed off let a bed be formed about five or six feet wide at bottom, and four or five feet in height, sloping from both sides to the centre so as to have a roof shaped appearance when finished ; the length of the bed must depend on the quantity of mushrooms required. In building the bed, which may be either out of doors or in an open shed, let the dung be well shaken or mixed, and beat it down with the fork to render it as compact as possible ; when the rank steam has evaporated, and the heat become moderate, the bed may be spawned, break the spawn into small lumps, and insert them into the surface of the bed, about six inches apart, and cover with about two inches of rich loamy earth, and beat the whole down with the back of a spade to render the surface as compact and smooth as possible. Sow prickly spinach for winter or spring use, lettuces to be planted in pits or frames, or at the bottom of a south wall, and small salads every week or ten days. Transplant leltuces, endive, celery, coleworts, and broccolies, and prick out cabbages on nursery beds, and cauliflowers in beds to be covered with frames or hand-glasses in winter. Towards the end of the month take up onions, and properly dry them before they are stored. Earth up celery in dry weather, and tie up endive and lettuces for blanching. Remove the refuse of all crops when taken, and rough dig or trench the ground if necessary, where it is not wanted for winter or spring crops. J. T. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURIxVG THE MONTH OF AUGUST. The markets throughout the United Kingdom have been supplied in an unusually sjjaring man- ner with grain of British growth during the month which has just closed, a circumstance which does not promise very favourably for the future state of the corn tiade ; it very sufficiently establishes the correctness, however, of the obser- vations which, during several months past, we have been compelled to offer on the actual produc- tion of the last crop, and on the influence which this deficiency in our home growth of wheat in particular must have on the prices of all descrip- tions of grain during, at all events, the remainder of this year. The corn trade being placed in this most unfortunate position, even were the coming wheat crop most abundant in quantity and most excellent in quality, offers anything but a favour- able aspect, at present, for the future sujjply of the people ; for the want, at the beginning of this har- vest, of at least six months' consumption of wheat, the growth of previous seasons, must be attended by most serious consequences to the milling trade on the present occasion, ^^'hen the samples of new wheat are first brought forward in the mar- ket for sale, the bulk, excepting in very rare in- stances, requires a considerable mixture of old wheats, of sound and fair qualities, to render the flour fit for the reception of that quantity of water. 228 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. which IS necesary to the production of the average weight and quality of biead. Now it is perfectly obvious that the stocks of old British wheat are, we may with great truth say, nearly ex- hausted, and at the present time there is in the country very little foreign wheat of a description Rufficicntiy good to supply this deficiency in our own production. The shortness of the supplies generally, during the month of August, naturally required, on the part of the millers, another chan- nel for providing themselves with a quantity equal to the actual consumption ; and to samples of the best qualities of foreign free wheats they were obliged 10 have resort, to make up the deficiency. This, we may call, extra demand, naturally has, in a certain degree, reduced the quantity of foreign wheat, and the quantity since imported, and landed under the (Queen's lock, has scarcely been suffi- cient to make good this reduction. If, therefore, we calculate the quantity now in granary at eight hundred thousand quarters, being about the same as it was in the beginning of August, we are certain that yve do not overrate its amount. A great deal of this wheat, however, can scarcely be said to be fit for manufacture into household bread, and the fine qualities will not be nearly equal to the demand for them, which must from necessity arise as soon as the mealing trade again comes into full activity. The holders of bonded wheat, therefore, have again a fair prospect of entering their wheats for home consumption perhaps even at the lowest duty chargeable under the corn laws, and the pro- prietors of free foreign wheat are equally sanguine of an eventual advance in prices, and, conse- quently, daily exhibit less and less anxiety to bring forward their property into general con- sumption at anything like the present prices. That large importations of wheat from abroad must follow any material advance in prices here, may very naturally be calculated on, but still it must be recollected, that in the north and east of Europe last season the wheat croi)s generally were nearly as deficient as they were in the United Kingdom, and our demand since last har- vest has already, we may say, almost exhausted the stocks remaining in nearly all the European great markets for exportation. That this is the case unfortunately in the Baltic, is already too well authenticated, for in Dantzig, the largest export port in that «ea, even after the first supplies from Poland had been in due season received,' the stock remaining at the latest advices did not exceed thirty-five thousand quarters in all. The Vistula, no doubt, will considerably increase that quantity before the closing of the present season, par- ticularly should the demand from England be in- creased ; but still the importations here from all quarters, let our wants be what they may, cannot, during the ensuing corn seasan. amount to half the quantity which we received during the season which has passed. Even, therefore, as we have already stated, should the coming wheat crop at home be most abundant in quantity and generally of good quality, no material decline in the present prices can, with any degree of propriety, be calcu- lated on ; on the contrary, an improvement, at all events, to such an extent as will admit the wheat now in bond at a duty of Is. per qr. may much more reasonably be expected. In our August number we alluded slightly to the injury which the wheat plants had suffered from the inclemency of the Spring months, and more particularly from the storm of snow and ice, which occurred in the middle of May last. Our fears then expressed respecting the amount of the damage done by this cause have been, to a certain extent, more than realizsd. It has occasioned a good deal of blight and mildew almost everywhere, in as far as the progress already made in reaping permits any judgment to be formed, and we are inclined at present to fear that, as the harvest pro- ceeds, the injury done will be proved to have been still more serious. The quantity of land in wheat tillage now is certainly larger than it has been of late years, but still it is not so extensive as has been generally represented, nor, if our informa- tion, added to our personal observation, be in any way correct, can these additional fields now in wheat make up the deficiency, which apparently exists every where in the coming wheat crops. The yield of the fesv i)arcels, which have as yet been subjected to the flail, is undoubtedly not so large as to lead tj the conclusion that the crop is more tiian an average one, and generally, for one sample of really good quality which has been for- warded to -Mark Lane for sale, nine have been of a very different description. This however is a matter of annual occurrence, for farmers very na- turally send immediately to market tliose parcels of grain, which, from the condition in which they have been reaped, raise doubts respecting the pro- bability of heating in the stack, and therefore no correct opinion of the actual condition of the new crop can be drawn from this circumstance. We only therefore, mention the fact, as a necessary poition of our review of the state of the corn trade during the last month. At the close of the month of July the harvest, even in the home counties, and in those to the South and West of the Thames, was fully one month later than usual, and every where else it was little short of two months behind the average of years. Although the first week in August was as propitious to the fields as the most sanguinely disposed ])hilanthropist could have desired, still the remainder of the last month was generally cold and wet, and the progress made in the fields, in reaping that portion of the croj), which was ready for the sickle, was much retarded by these unto- ward circumstances. In those districts wherein the crops were not ripe, the state of the weather, till near the close of August, has produced conse- quences still more injurious, and has also much more considerably retarded the ripening and con- sequently the reaping ;here of the crops of all de- scri|)tions of agricultural produce. The coldness of the nights, during nearly the entire month of August, undoubtedly has put an end to vegetation, and although it has not absolutely ripened, still it has introduced the harvest colour and appearance to the grain of all descriptions, at present stand- ing in the fields. From this circumstance there- fore, throughout the North of England, Scotland, and we are sorry to add nearly the whole of Ire- land, another deficiency in the growth and pro- duce of the present crops of wheat may be, with too much justice anticipated, and still farther in- crease the demand for foreign agricultural pro- ducts. Under prospects so little cheering it is not unreasonable to predict that very soon now the minds and intelligence of the people will be more than they have ever been previously, directed to the cultivation of all the necessaries of life in our own fields, for in this channel will be found abun- dance of room for great agricultural improvement, and for an immense increase of agricultural pro- duction. The great body of commercial and of manufacturing consumers, by inquiry into and at- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 229 tention to this most important subject, will then discover that the corn laws are as favourable to themselves, as they can by any possibility be to those, who are personally engaged in the pursuits of an Agrarian life. Toothing can have less foun- dation than the continued outcry that these laws only tend to the advantage of landlords by main- taining the rents of the fields far above their in- trinsic value, for no description of property throughout the United Kingdom yields so little annual income, in proportion to its value, as the fields do. Lands generally do not yield to their proprietors three per cent, per annum on their ac- tual value, and from this small annuity the land- holder, in many instances, has to maintain farm buildings, fences, and roads, and consequently no overgrown or rapid fortunes have ever attended agricultural pursuits. The rent of land has de- clined, since the peace of I8I0, in a far greater degree than have the prices of any other commo- dity whatever, and it has now reached the position in value, when compared witVi the wages of la- bour, which renders any farther reduction in it perfectly impracticable. That the condition of our commercial and manufacturing classes is not improved by drawing large supplies of the neces- saries of life from foreign nation?, has been again demonstrated by the experience of the corn sea- son, which is now about to close. Practice has superseded the doctrines of theory at all events during the last ten months, for it is now certain that a free corn trade is not from necessity a Trade of Barter. Nearly four millions of quarters of foreign wheat have been introduced for home consumption during that period, and we may with confidence appeal to the British merchant, whether his export trade has been increased by this event, and to tho British artisan, whether his wages have been renderedlarger by his consumption of foreign agricultural produce? It very unfortunately happens, that the consequence of this one year's freedom in tlie corn trade has been the reverse of favourable. This large importation of wheat has required an exportation of the precious metals to an extent, which has already been attended with most serious results to the property of tradesmen and merchants, and another year of commerce of this description, which from present appearances is not entirely impossible, may yet be attended by events fatal to the general interests of the com- munity. British consumers have paid lately up- wards of seven millions sterling to the proprietors of foreign wheat to supply the deficiency in the produce of our own farmers, and the consequence has been, not an increase in the exportation of British manufactured goods to an equivalent amount, but an immense decrease in the value and quantity of goods consumed in our home markets. Had the last corn season been a pro- pitious one, and had the seven millions of money paid to the proprietors of foreign wheat been dis- tributed amongst our farmers in payment for their crops, this large amount would not have been, as it now certainly is, atotal loss to the British com- munity; but it' would have long since, been again put into circulation amongst British tradesmen, artisans and manufacturers, by the additional quantity of goods, which the landed interest, under these propitious circumstances, would have been enabled to have paid for, and to have con- sumed. The darkness of prejudice must speedily now vanish before the light of truth, and then the labourer and artizan will easily and clearly dis- cover, that their interests can alone be promoted by the prosperity of the British landed interest, and certainly not by the employment received from the ladies of Coburg, Poland, and other districts of similar importance, such as we see them in the streets of London for dresses of Glasgow and Manchester manufactures. To the agricultural labourers in Poland, more particularly, and in many of the countries abroad from whence, in seasons of need, v,e are accustomed to receive supplies of agricultural produce, it is not of the slightest conse- quence whetLer the crop of wheat be large or small, whether prices be high or low, for these circum- stances make no alteration in their modes of life. By the transmission to Great Britain of the produce of the fields and the receipts of specie in exchange, they derive little if any benefit, and consequently by "a svstem of commerce of this description, very little barter of commodities is possible. To encou- rage by all fair means, our own agricultural interest, is to encourage, in an equal degree, an increased production of all articles of internal manufacture and industry, and it must be perfectly obvious that this cannot he done, unless by extending the same degree of protection by law to properiy, skill and labour, employed in agricultural pursuits which is most advantageously applied to every other depart- ment of our internal institutions. The shipping and the fishing interests are most completely and benefi- cially protected against foreign competition by most proper and most patriotic laws ; and so likewise are our mines and manufactures, for foreign articles are not admitted into competition with them, until, at all events, a contribution be levied on their importation towards the payment of our heavy national expences. By this wise policy, our manufactures, our com- mercial navy, and our mines have been reared into a state of the greatest prosperity : and in agricul- ture, the application of the same remedy will in a few years be attended by similar results. The pro- ductive classes in our society have a deep interest in the prosperity and in the rapid improvement of agri- culture, for they suffer severely when that standard of value, the precious metals, are occasionally ex- changed for any foreign article imported for con- sumption into the British empire. To this cause must mainly be attributed the dulness of trade, the dearness of money, and the too general want of em- ployment, which are now producing considerable discontent amongst all orders of society. Tho improvement of agriculture at home, can alone furnish a remedy to these evils, and this im- provement may be still followed up in Great Britain to a very considerable extent. In Ire- land, the field for it is nearly boundless. Three millions of acres of the finest description of arable land may in a few years be reclaimed from nature, but legal protection must for some years be given to capital, to knowledge of the principles of farming, and to labour employed in such patriotic pursuits, before these obvious and manifold advan- tages can be obtained. When agriculture is in a hedthy state, and when those who ep.ter into it are prosperous, there is no department of trade and commerce which does not participate in this pros- perity, and certainly no interest whatever can flourish on agricultural decay. The progressive improvement therefore in every thing connected with agricultural pursuits is a national benefit, and from the independence of tenants and landholders, in a pecuniary point of view, must eventually arise the most valuable markets for the consumption of every article, either of luxury or necessity produced by capital, science, or industry. Foreign commerce no doubt has its advantages, but however extensive itmay 230 TIJE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. already be, or to wliatever Iieiglit it may liereiifter be raised, il is perfectly obvious tlmt wiih a free trade in corn, it does not increase, and that other means for promotiTig- its greatness mnst be resorted to, than the abstraction of tlie precious metals from the empire, or the destruction of the best interests of British agriculture. A short time therefore must in every probability open the eyes of the great ma- jority of the community to the importance to every interest amongst them, of the introduction into the country generally, of an improved system of agricul- tural labour, and to the necessity of strictly guarding the rights of those who embark their projierty in undertakings so extremely patriotic, by pro(ective laws, and by institutions affording due encourage- ment to their entorjjrise. To produce at home, supplies of all tho necessaries of life equal to the annual consumption, is a far more legitimate, and certainly a far more profitable way for productively employing artizans and manufacturers of every description, than by neglecting cultivation at home and depending on foreign markets for the sale of our manufactured goods, in exchange for foreign grain imported into this country. The former is° a certain road to general prosperity, but experience has too dearly taught us that tiie latter is n theory, specious enough no doubt, to superficial observers, which cannot in the jiresent system of European society, be reduced to practice. "A good crop there- fore is most ardently to be desired for the benefit of all, but this year, should the weather hereafter be favourable to the close of the harvest, the wheot crop cannot be more than an average one in quantity, and we much fear scarcely so in quality, in the entirely exhausted state of the empire therefore in respect to old wheat of home growth, there is little chance of the average prices of wheat being much lower than they are at present for some months to come, for, as we have already snid, the quantity of foreign wheat now in this country is not nearly sufficient, either in quality or in amount, to supply this deficiency, nor is it probable that, under any circumstance, the importa- tions from abroad during the remainderof this season will be to any great extent. In France the new crop is not a large one, and the people there already com- plain of high prices. Throughout the Peninsula, Sicily, Italy, and the whole coast of Barbary, the crops however are very favourably spoken of, and in the proper time a quantity may be drawn from these quarters should occasion require it. In Belgium, and in all the foreign corn districts to the north and east of that kingdom, the wheat crops are in much the same situation as they are in this country. They are later than usual, and they are exposed to all the vicissitudes of a late harvest. The stocks of old wheat in all of them are also nearly exhausted, and it is not likely that any great portion of the present crop will be in condition for shipment before the spring months from the ports without the Baltic, and a still longer period must elapse before any sup- plies of magnitude can reach us from the great places of shipment within that sea. To these circumstances therefore the firmness displayed, during the month of August, by the holders of wheat, must solely be attributed. Without any speculative purchases, they are fully aware that their wheat will all be required, in the regular way of business, before the market can be loaded by any large importations from abroad ; and those, whose wheats are in bond, in addition to the chance of higher prices, make their calculations also on a still farther reduction occurring in the rates of the import duties. During this year, as has been the case now for several years past, our principal mar- kets for the consumption of oats have been chiefly supplied from Ireland, but this channel for such purposes was nearly exhausted at tho beginning of last month, during the whole course of which, the arrivals of that article from the Sister Island weekly decreased in amount, and were not by any means nearly equal to the regular consumption. The im- portations of oats therefore from the continent of Europe, have lately been large, and considerable quantities have been brought forward into consump- tion at a duty of Gs. 3d. per quarter. The oat crop this season is later than usual, and is, consequently, like the wheat one, exposed to the vicissitudes which not unfrequently attend a late autumn. The breadth of ground however under this article at pre- sent is larger in Ireland than it was last year, and the present appearance of the crop is luxuriant. Still it must have suffered by the heavy rains, whicU fell there during a part of last month, for no incon- siderable portion of it has been laid in the field. Should the weather be favourable however until the conclusion of the harvest, oats generally will be a fair crop in quality, and probably abundant in quan- tity throughout Ireland, from whence the shipments to the Mritish markets of consumption must annually hereafter increase in quantity and in value, adding thereby largely to the internal wealth of that portioa of the United Kingdom. That agricultural im- provements Lave made rapid progress there, during the last twenty years, admits not of the slightest doubt, but although much has already been done in this way, immeasurably more still remains to be done, and to render Ireland as profitable, as her cli- mate and beautiful soil permit, the corn laws are absolutely necessary for protecting the early efforts of those, who engage in pursuits of so much national importance. The deficiency in the production of oats, which has existed in Great Britain now for several years, and which, from the new and more valuable system of cultivation now practised there must yearly be increased, has, until within this last month, been amply supplied by the surplus growth of Ireland, and has jirevented already many millioBS sterling of tlie precious metals from being exchanged with foreign nations for foreign oats. No sooner do the consumers of Irish or of British grain pay the producers for their crops, than that money is again placed into circulation amongst all the industrious classes of our social system, but the many millions sterling paid during the last twelve months to foreign nations for supplies of foreign grain, have been en- tirely substracted from our circulating medium, have, to a certain extent, crippled our industry in the pro- duction of various articles for internal consumption, and are a certain loss to the rational wealth to the full amount of the money thus disposed of. The im- provement in Irish agriculture however may before many years pass away, remedy this evil, for it is not only possible but it is in every way probable, that any deficiency hereafter, which may occasionally occur here in wheat, will be supplied from Ireland, in the same way as oats have been now for some years, and still are, and thus protect the community at large, against the recurrence of the evils, which we are at the present time subjected to, in consequence of the scarcity of money, which has been chiefly occasion- ed by the late heavy importations of foreign wheat. The barley crop, like every other article, is late, but it has a luxuriant appearance and is full of good promise at all events, if the weather only be hereafter favourable for reaping, and for securing it from the fields. Since our last review of the state of the corn trade the supply of this article in the markets of consumption has been small, as is usually the case at this season of the year, but it has at the same time THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 231 been nearly equal to tlio demand, and its value has been fully supported. The public clihrge on manu- fiictui-ed barley is annually little short of eleven mil- lions sterling-, a cliarge so lie.ivy and extravagant, that it must from necessity, in a very s^reat degree, prevent the extension of the cultivation of this most valuable branch of ae;ricultural production. 'I'o re- duce the duties now levietl on malt find on British spirits by one-half, would increase the consumption of barley more than one-half ; would double the con- sumption of beer, would entirely annihilate smug- gling;, and the consumption of smuggled spirits, and would largely increase the [lublic revenue. The al- teration would add at least one million of acres of land to the quantity at present under barley cultiva- tion, which might be reclaimed from lands now nearly in a state of nature, would pay additional rents to the land proprietors, and would much increase the national wealth by the additional employment which the growth and manufacture of this extra quantity of barley would require from the people. To this highly important subject we have frequently directed the attention of our readers, whether they be em- ployed in agricultural, or in commercial pursuits, for it is equally interesting to all classes. When the Finance Minister of the day was prevailed on, by a vote of the House of Commons, to reduce the malt duty from 34s. 8d. to 20s. per qr., in two or three years afterwards, the revenue derived from this source ©f taxation was nearly doubled, and results equally beneficial to the community generally would follow a still farther reduction in the public charge on the manufacture of this article. Ifhowever, the revenue would be improved by a farther reduction in the malt duty, it would be infinitely more so by a reduction of the duty now charged in England on the manufacture of barley into British spirits. This duty is more than two hundred per cent, on the cost price of home made spirits, and is the primary cause of the extent to which smuggling is at present practised. Up- wards of one-half of the spirits at present consumed in England, is surreptitiously introduced into use amongst the people. It pays no duty, nor does its manufacture give any employment to the people. The raw material and the labour in its productions belong to foreigners, and to them likewise belong the profits of this illicit trade. Since, by the modification of the game laws, poach- ing was to a considerable extent suppressed, smug- gling has been the chief source of crime throughout the United Kingdom, and extraviigant duties are the sole foundation of this now only remaining channel for teaching immorality amongst the work- ing classes of society. By the reduction of this duty in England even to 5s. per gallon, smuggling would soon afterwards become much less profitable, and its existence would gradually disappear. Tlie revenue derived from British spirits would be con- siderably increased, and the doors of those schools for teaching the pleasures of violating the excise laws, would eventually be closed. Under an im- provement in the present system of the distillery laws, the consumption of ardenc spirits would not be nearly so general amongst the people as it now is, for although the use of duty paid, and consequently of wholesome spirits would most certainly be more than doubled ; still smuggling and all its concomi- tant evils, would be entirely suppressed. A reduc- tion of the duty now charged in England, would be attended by numerous and obvious advantages, and not one bad consequence could originate from this alteration. When so much is attempted towards im- proving the moral and tem))ornl condition of the people, it is only wonderful that this subject has not long since attracted the attention of the Legislature, for we are perfectly persuaded that the result would confer numerous benefits on the community at large. The damp weather has been favourable to the crops of potatoes and turnips, but dry weather is now necessary to the farmer, which, in general importance now, is only second to that of wheat. At present it is a very large crop, and the quality as yet has not been complained of, but still more rain now would be attended by the moat injurious consequences to pota- toes, particularly in Ireland, and the crop of them cannot under present circumstances be considered safe, until it be gathered from the fields. It is much to be desired that the weather may now continue fa vourable until the fields be entirely cleared , for a fair gron-th of the necessaries of life, is fully as important to the best interests of commerce and of manufactures, as it can by any possibility be to agri- culture itself. CURRSNOY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Aug. 26. Per Qr. Per Qr. iriiEAT, Essex & Kent.. rod. .60 66 68 wliite ..66 71 76 SiiiToIk & Norfolk,, 64 66 68 do. 68 72 Irisl ,, .. 58 60 do.... 62 6t Old, red 66 70 do,.. 70 76 rS-VB old 38 40 now 38 40 BARr.F.v, CJrinding32 34 MaltiHg 36 38 Clicvalier — 40 Irisli 30 34 Bore... — • 30 Malt, SulFullc & N»rt'olk 66 87 Brown.. 56 60 Kingston & Ware 66 68 Chevalier 68 70 Oats, Yorkshire& tiincolnsli, feed 26 27 I'wt.vitoc ..27 29 Yo'ighall&Cork black .. 24 25 Cork,\v!iite23 24 Uiililii 23 CloHniol 25 Londonderry 25 Newry ..,.'. 28 Gal way 20 21 Waterlord, wliitc 22 23 Scotch Keed 26 27 24 Westporl— 24 27 Lhuericlc 24 26 26 Sligo ... 24 25 Black.. Potatoe 24 25 28 30 BkAns, Tick 37 38 SnialUO 42 PEA9,(Jrey 3J 37 maple.. 36 37 38 40 boilers. 42 _ White Sees, Rape 32/ 36/..Iiish 25/ per last English Red Clover, fine, 64 "0 80 96s per twt. White 66 70 80 9J3 niiistard, White. 123 i4s. .browH 21s 22s perbnsh. Tares. «B2 36... .... old 30 34. .new 60 — s per qr. Flour, Town-made 60 — . .Sntfulk . .50 52 per sk of Stockton & Norfolk 52, Irish fines 52 54, supr. 56 280 lb. Foreign Grain and Flour in BiViJ. Wheat, Dantzic 50 60 llaMihnrg 45 B A R 7, R Y 26 Oats, Potato 20 Beans 24 Peas 20 Floi'r, American per brl. — 50 30 22 feed 18 to 20 2S 24 36 Baltic. 36 IMP Wool; iMiiling July 12th ., ]9th .. 26th .. Aug. 2nd ,, 9th .. 16th ., Ai.r^regate.Xverr.ge of the six week: which regulates the duty Duties payable in Lendon till \red- ncsday next inclu- sive, and at the O'ltports till the arrival of the Mail of that day from London l>o. on grain from Briti'sh possessions ent of Kiirojie Foreign Flour, 7 ERIAL AVERAGES. iWheat.l Barleyi Outs i llyejnean." Peas 69 0 69 2 69 8 71 3 72 0 72 3 37 4 27 li37 8 41 0 39 4 26 9i45 3141 0 37 8 I 27 1 45 9 41 0 38 7 i 27 3147 8 40 9 37 10 i 26 9,48 4 40 11 38 1 ! 26 11 46 2 40 10 70 6 ! 38 2 10 8 1 4 10 27 0 45 ^ 40 1 1 40 2 40 6 40 11 4! 8 42 3 41 6 0 6 3 0 3 0 10 6 I 0 d. per lOOlbs. Britiih Possessions, 3§d.perl961b3. 3 0 df. 232 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Account slicwinjj tlic Quantities of Grain, Meal and Flour, imported into llie United Kingilom, during the month ended the 5th Aujr., 1839 ; the Quantities on which Duties liave been paid for liome Consump- tion during the same month, and the Quantities re- maining in Warehouse at the close thereof. Foreign Grain and Flour. Quantity iniportcd. Quantity cn- teicd IVir oonsninption ip's. bush Wlicat from BritisJi j Possessions Ditto Foreign t 110560 3 Barley, do. Oats, do Rye, do Peas, do Beans, do Indiau Corn, ds.... Buckwheat, de.... Flour from Uritisli Possessiohs Ditt© Foreign 4119J 1 27436 11422 13118 7681 2»7 (|rs. bush. 18525 4. 39112 5 221529 7 421 5 .1713 5 3125 4 247 5 cwts.qrs.lbs.'cwts.qrs.lb! 19937 : 2' 17865 0 1 397SI 0 21] G44 1 3 Quantity remaining in warehouse. qrs. bush. 173 4 131.571 2 2905 6 192195 7 30696 7 2S299 0 2S30D 3 cwts.qrs.lbs. 6715 3 24 59300 2 10 COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES AVERAGES from the by the Imp. Quarter, corre.sponding: Gazette from the Gazette, of Friday last, Aug. 23, in the last year, Friday Aug. 24, 1838. 77 34 1839. s. d. Wheat 72 3 Wheat Barley 38 l Barley, Oats 26 11 Oats 24 9 Rye 46 2 Rye 40 0 Beans 40 10 Beans 41 10 Peas 41 6 Peas 37 9 SEED MARKET. Aug. 2^;. There is very little change to notice in the value of any kind of seed. Rather more business was done in Mustard, but prices remained nearly as quoted on Monday last. Caraway seed likewise excited a little more attention, and choice qualities in some cases realized Is. advance on the rates of this day se'nnight, but the value of all otiier articles remained nominally unvaried. We had a .«ample or two of new Tares ottering, (quality good), the best of which were held at about 7s. per bushel. CLOVEa Englifh, red ,.,.— — white percnt."! 3 Butib — — __ Ig Gorman ) ^ g- French ) j p, American — — — — J • Trefoil 12 25 fine new 28 30 Ritpeseed, Enjflish, . .. .£30 .£32 foreign .f 2S.i30 per last. Linseed. Enirlisb sowing.. — — — — per qr Baltic — — crufliiHg3S 50 ,, ]Mediter.& Odessa— — " 40 44 ,, Hempsecd, small 34 36 large 38 40 Coriander, new IS 20 line 20 21percwt. Mustard, brown 15 17 white 10 13 perbufhel Turnip Seed new— — 10 18 ,, Rye Grass, English 30 42 Scotch 18 40 ,, Tares, Winter Os Gd to 7s Od Canary, new 6S "0 Caraway — — 50 53 extra 56 I/inseed Cakes, foreign. ..8/. to 8/. 5s. per ton. Rapeseed do. do 5/. 10s. to 6/, TVOOIi MARKETS. BRITISH. AvG. 26. Perlb. s. d. ?. d. Down Teggs 1 5J to 1 6 llair-breil Hnss .... 1 44 1 5^ Ewes and Wethers 1 2 I 3 ClanUet Woul 0 7 0 9 Flannel do 1115 SkinCombinu * 1 2 1 4 LIVERPOOL, Ave. 24. Scotch. — We have a^ain to report but a moderate inquiry lor laid f ligliland wool at former rates, and while tiie weather continues unsettled, and money tight, we can scarcely report anything else. In white Highland and cross there is very little in the market, both how- ever would at present command a fair price, 'i'hcre has been some demand for good laid Cheviot of the best descripiion.and which if to be had would command our highest quoti'.tion-. Per St Laid llijililand White do. one 0 Woo do. do. do f 241b3. 1 , from . . . 9. 10 '. 12 12 , 12 . IS 2S d. 6 to 0 fi 6 6 0 K. 11 12 13 14 20 30 0 G Washed do. r, do. do, do.. 0 Wa>ilieddo. 0 White do. 0 FOREIGN. Ai;g. 26. Several sales of Foreign wool have taken place, at Garaway's, since our last — upwards of 9,000 packages having been submitted for public competition. The at- tendance of the trade was very nuirierous, and liie biddings in general animated. 'J'he average prices re- alized for the lots of Colonial wools offered were about the same a* at the .Tuly sales. 'J'he imports have con- .sisled of 900 bales from Germany; 152 do. from the Cape of Good Hope ; 130 do. from Spain ; and 44 do. from 'I'urkcy. About 2,000 bales will be offered to- morrow (Tucsdriy) and Wednesday. Wool on whicii the Home Consumption Duties have been p;\id at London, Liverpool, Brittol, and Hull, during the last week: — woo L. Spanish, Lon(fo7i lb. Australian, de ib. Other Sorts, do Ib, Liverpool lb. Bristol lb, IIhU Ib. This Year, previous to last week. 1,119,424 8,655,441 *-,950,9IO 7,376,485 23,300 11,352,382 Same time in the l.st Y«-ar. 1,372,754 6.723,758 8,51»,.544 6,507,544 5,402 11.112,005 IMPORTS OF WOOL.— Quantity of wool entered at Hull for Home Consumption, during the week ending Aug. 15. From Hamburgh 488,186 lbs. From Petersburg 19,286 From Nakskov 8,319 Tutal 515,791 THE WOOL TRADE, London, Tiiuusday Eve- MNG. — The imports of wool in the week ending to-day have amounted to about 900 bales, 645 of which were from Germany, 152 from the Cape of Good Hope, 67 from Spain, and 44 from Turkey. The public sales of Colonial wools, which commenced on Tuesday, have proceeded every day since, and will not terminate till next week. The attendance of the Irade is very nu- merous, and the biddings in general have been animated. The average prices realized for the lots offered up to the present time have been about the same as at -the July sales. PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Aug. 26. The W^eald of Kent and Sussex are looking remark- ably well and promise an abundant crop. Picking there is expected to commence generally in three weeks. In Mid. and East Kent apprehensions of mould are still entertained. The duty is estimated at 205,000, Prices may be quoted as last week, but there is so little business doing that they can only be considered as nominal. Kent Pockets, 183S 3 10 0 to 3 15 0 Ditto choice, do 4 10 0 — 5 12 0 East Kent pockets, do 4 10 0 — 6 0 0 Sussex do do 3 0 0 — 3 5 0 Kent bags do 3 10 0 — 4 4 0 1837's 3 3 0—3 10 0 1836's 115 0 — 2 10 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OCTOBER, 1839. No. 4.-— Vol. III.] [New Series. PLATE 1. The subject of our first plate is a Long-horned Bull, bred by and the property of Richard Hortin, Esq., of Sherbourne, Warwickshire. The sire of this Bull was bred by Thomas Court, Esq., of Lillingbourne, Warwickshire, whose breed of Long-horned Cattle is of the very best character, and is derived from the stocks of R. Astley, Esq., of Adderstone, in the county of Leicester, and Richard Smith, Esq., of Snitterfield, Warwickshire, This animal obtained a prize of 30 sovereigns, in class 4, at the meeting of the English Agricultural Society at Oxford, as the best Bull of any breed not Short-horns, Herefords, or Devons, which were not qualified to compete in that class. The author of the work on " British Cattle" makes the following remarks upon the Long-horned Cattle of Warwickshire: — " We have recorded the name of Webster of Canley, in this county, as one of the earliest improvers of the long-Lorns. The prevailing breed of Warwickshire was, before his time, long-horned, and from the shape and size of the beasts, seemed to have been originally brought from Lancashire. Webster, however, began to work upon a better stock, for he obtained some cows from the banks of the Trent, at tbat time celebrated for the value of the cattle produced there. After Bakewell had traversed every part of the kingdom in order to select subjects on which to commence his experiments, he selected two heifers from Mr. Webster's dairy as the foundation of bis future stock. "Mr. Gibbs, of Blackford, soon afterwards emulated the exami>le of Webster, and produced a superior breed of cattle, hardy, short-legged, and wide and deep in their frame. He first hired bulls from Mr. Bake- well, and tlien bred from his own stock until he bought a bull that was bred by Mr. Meeks, after which he still further improved his cattle by crossing with Mr. Prince's long-horns. "Other breeders pursued the same laudable course, and the consequence was that the Warwickshire cattle would not yield to the improved Leicesters in any valuable point, but were acknowledged as genuine branches of the same stock. They also retained a considerable portion of all their sterling value when Mr. Honeybourn's stock had dwindled into mere shadows of what they once were. " At the present day, some long-horns are to be met with in Warwickshire, and the most valuable dairy breed is at least a mixture of tlie long with the short horn. The short-horn is, however, gaining ground. Lord Clonmell had a fine breed of pureDurhams at his seat Chateau-Margeaux, some of which were after- wards purchased by Mr. King, then living at Amberslade House, in this county." PLATE 11. The subject of the second Plate is a Yearling Heifer, bred by and the property of Thomas Stephens, Esq., White Lackington, Somerset. This Heifer is cross-bred Hereford and Devon, and obtained a Prize of Ten Sovereigns at the meeting of the English Agricultural Society at Oxford, as the best Yearling Heifer exhibited in Class 4. Mr. Stephens has informed us that the grand-dam was a cross of the Hereford and Devon ; the dam was by a Devon bull bred by Mr. Davy, of North Molton, in the county of Devon. This Heifer was by a bull bred by Mr. Miles, of Yard Farm, in the county of Somerset ; which bull was by a bull belonging to Mr. John Ininans, of Comb Hay. The breed of all these animals not being specified, it is impossible to estimate the precise nature of the cross; but we apprehend the OLD SERIES.} R L^^'". i'^VOL, XL 234 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Heifer may be considered as of the " improved Somerset breed. '^ The author of " British Cattle" in speaking of tlie West Somerset cattle, says, " They betray iheir IJevonsliire origin ; but in the opinion of the Somersetshire farmers, they are far pre- ferable to the native breed, and they have increased in size without losing any of tlieir useful properties- There are few bettor judges than these Somersetshire men; for being the party concerned between the breeder on the one side, and the grazier on the other, and having opportunity daily to observe the failures or the success of each, they acquire a kind of intuitive knowledge of the points of cattle." ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. In our last report we brought the account of the proceedings of this Society down to the close of the Oxford meeting. By the rules of the So- ciety, the President and Committee of Manage- ment, although elected in May, do not come into office until after the country meeting. A meeting was held at the Secretary's rooms in Cavendish Square, on the 24th July, when the Duke of Rich- mond attended, and took the chair, as President for the current year. The following new mem- bers of the Committee of Management, elected at the annual meeting in May, also entered upon the duties of their office on that day. Baring, Hon. W.B.,M.P. Bramston, T. W., Esq., M.P. Burrell, Sir C. M., Bart., M.P. Dean, J., Esq. Nuffield, T., Esq., M.P. (jiibbs, H., Esq. Iiod8es,T.L.,Esq.,M.P. The following members of the committee were present : — Hurst, R. H., Esq., M.P. Pym, F., Esq. Rham, Rev. W. L. Sherborne, G., Esq. Smith, J. A., Esq., M.P. Tillyer, G., Esq. Weal, T., Esq, Wilson, H., Esq. The Duke of Richmond. Earl Spencer. The Marquis of Down- shire. Earl of Euston, M.P. Sir James Graham, Bart., M.P. Sir Pvobert Price, Bart., M.P. Sir T. D. Acland, Bart., M.P. Sir H. Verney, Bart., M.P. Henry Handley, Esq., M.P. E.A. Sanford, Esq., M.P. T. D. Acland, Esq., M.P. T. L. Hodges, Esq., M.P. J. W. Bramston, Esq., M.P. Col. Challoner. Rev. W. L. Rham. T. 11. Barker, Esq., M.P. W. F. Hobbs, Esq. J. Dean, Esq. D. Barclay, Esq. W.W.Page, Esq. T. Chapman, Esq. H. Blanshard, Esq. W. Shaw, Esq,, the secretary, having rcsignedj James Hudson, Esq., was elected to fill the office Mr. Hudson was for nine years Assistant Secretary and Librarian of the Royal Society during the suc- cessive presidencies of Sir Humphrey Davy, Mr. Davies Gilbert, and the Duke of Sussex. It was determined that the country meeting for 1810 should be held at Cambridge in July next, the day to be fixed at the general meeting in December-. Votes of thanks were passed to the Vice-Chan- cellor of the University of Oxford, to the Mayor and Corporation of that city, to the Provost and Fellows of Queen's College, and the Chairman and Members of the Local Committee at Oxford. A resolution was passed that the meeting of the committee should only be held once in each of the months of August, September, October, and November, namely, upon the first Wednesday in every month. At the meeting on Wednesday July 31st, present — The Marquis of Downshire ; Col. Challoner ; D. Barclay, Esq.; T. R. Barker, Esq. ; W. W. Page, Esq. ; W. Youatt, Esq. ; the chair having been taken by D. Barclay, Esq., 115 new subscribers were elected. At the meeting of the committee on Wednesday, August 7th, the following members attended : — The Duke of Richmond ; D. Barclav, Esq. ; T. R. Barker, Esq. ; H. Blanshard, Esq. { T. W. Bram- ston, Esq., M.P. ; Col. Challoner ; H.Gibbs, Esq. ; G. Kimberley, Esq.; J. Kinder, Esq. ; the Rev. W. L. Rham. The Duke of Richmond having taken the chair, ten new subscribers were elected. A vacancy having occurred in the committee of management by the resignation of C. S. Lefevre, Esq., M.P., Speaker of the House of Commons, W. Shaw, Esq., the late Secretary of the Society, was elected in the room of Mr. Lefevre. At the monthly meeting of the committee, held on Wednesday, Sept. 4, the following members of the committee attended :— P. Pusey, Esq., M.P. ; D. Barclay, Esq. ; T. R. Barker, Esq. ; Col. Chal- loner ; W. H. Hobbs, Esq.; W. Youatt, Esq.; W. Shaw, Esq. P. Pusey, Esq., M.P., in the chair. Eight new subscribers were elected. A committee was ap- pointed to make preliminary inquiries in reference to the next country meeting, to be held at Cam- bridge, and to report thereon to the committee of management. Mt. W. Fisher Hobbs produced before the committee, and deposited at the So- ciety's rooms for the inspection of subscribers, a full sheaf, and a sample of the wheat for which he obtained a. prize at the late Oxford meeting. We subjoin a list of the prizes offijred by the Society for the next year : — PRIZE ESSAYS, REPORTS, AND PRE- MIUMS FOR 1840. 1. noTATioN ©r cnors. Ten Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value will be given for an account of the rotation of crojjs best suited to heavy lands. The object of this inquiry will be the combina- tion, within a given period, of the greatest number of crops, (including winter and half crops, consumed before they arrive at aiatu- lity) with profitable return, and with im- provement of the condition of the soil. 2. STORING TURKU'S. Ten Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given for an account, founded on expe- rience, of the best mode of storing turnips, by which they may be preserved in their natural state till the April or May succeeding the time of their being taken up. Competitors are required to state : — 1. Their experience of the methods now in practice for storing turnips ; viz., on the surface of the soil, in pits, in sheds, or in houses. 2. The different sorts of covering and their thickness, 3. The dejUh of pits. 4. Tlie relative keeping virtues of different species, whether of Swedes, or of common turnips. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 235 5. The best modes of taking up and cleaning-, with reference to their preservation. 6. Any new method recommended. 3. EARLY SPRING FEED. Twenty pounds, or a piece of plate of that ralue, will be given for the best essay on the grasses and leguminous plants best adapted to arable cultivation for early feed in the spring. The points of comparison to which the society woulj wish the attention of competitors for this prize to be mainly directed, are the following : — 1. Earliness of vegetation. 2. Power of resistinpf severe frost. 3. Abundance of produce. 4. Nutritive quality. 5. Effect on the soil and on the succeeding crop. 6. The method of cultivation. The species or variety of the plants sown should be accurately designated, and also the quality of the soil on which they have been grown. 4. PLANTATIONS. The gold medal will be given for the best account of the forest trees best fitted for planta- tion in England. Competitors must state : — 1. The trees best suited to various soils of infe- rior description, distinguishing each sort, as clay, peat, chalV;, sand. 2. Whether the trees should be mixed together or in separate masses. 3. The best mode of planting, and the expence. 5. UNDERWOOD. The gold medal will be given for the best account of the cultivation and management of Underwood, founded upon actual experiment. Competitors are required to state : — 1. The nature of the soil, and when it Las been recently planted, the mode of preparing it. 2. The average number of plants per acre. 3. The description of underwood growing. 4. The best sorts to be planted. 5. The cost of fencing and draining. 6. The comparative produce of not less than five acres under the common, and under an im- proved system of management. 6. ADMIXTURE OF SOILS. Twenty Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given for the best account of the transposition and admixture of soils, as in the application of a clay-dressing to a light sand. Competitors must state the results of actual experiments. 7. WEEDS IN BIEADOWS. Twenty Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given for the best account of the weeds in meadows and pastures. Competitors must state : — 1. What weeds are found in old pastures and in newly-laid-down grasses respectively. 2. The effect of these weeds on the animals which feed on them. 3. More particularly the effect on the milk of cows, and on the butter and cheese produced from that milk. 4. The comparative value of the butter and cheese made from pastures and artificial grasses infected with weeds and from those which are clear of them. 5. The best mode of eradicating such weeds from pastures, from meadows and from artificial grasses. S. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CEREAL CROPS. Twenty Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given for the best account of the insects prejudicial to the cereal crops, viz., wheat, barley, oats, and rye, in their different stages of growth. The descriptions of the insects must be entomological, and any remedies proposed musfe be the result of actual experiment. 9. DISEASES OF WHEAT. Fifteen Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given for the best essay on smut, mildew, and diseases affecting the crop in its more advanced stages. Competitors must state : — 1. How far derivable from internal or external causes. 2. First intimation of their presence, under wha? circumstances, and in what soils they are most prevalent. 3. How far prevented by preparation of soil or seed. 4. What treatment is recommended to arrest their progress. 10. GYPSUM AS A MANURE, Ten Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given for the best account of the application of Gypsum as a manure to artificial grasses. Competitors must state : — i. The period and mode of application. 2. The state of the crop and nature of the grass. 3. The comparative produce of crops to which gypsum has and has not been applied. 11. SURSOIL PLOUGHING. Twenty Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given for the most satisfactory application of the subsoil plough to the improve- ment of the land, whether for the purpose of correcting excessive moisture or dryness of soil. The society will require from competitors :— 1. An accurate description of the plough used; and also 2. Of the quality and state of soil and subsoil, with an estimate of its annual value before the commencement of the operation. 3. An account of the drains cut, (if any), their depth and distance from each other. 4. A detailed statement of the subsoil and other ploughings to which the grounds have been subjected. 5. An account of any manure expended. 6. Of the bulk of produce of each crop. 7. Of the total expence of the operation so far as it has proceeded, and — 8. An authentic estimate of the improved value of the land resulting therefrom. 12. GORSE-CRUSIIING MACHINE. Twenty Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given for the cheapest and most effective gorse-crushing machine. 1. The machine produced must be on a working scale, and at a cost that will be attainable by the occupiers of the smallest farms. 2. It must be capable of reducing the material to a pulpy state for the mastification of rumi- nating animals, as cows and sheep. 13. ANY IMPLEMENT. For the invention of any new agricultural im- plement, such sum as the society may think proper to award. 14. SEED WHEAT. I. Fifty Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given to the exhibitor at the Cam- bridge meeting of the best 13 bushels of white wheat, of the harvest of 1839, and grown by himself. II. Fifty Sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, will be given to the exhibitor at the Cam- u 2 236 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bridge meeting of tVic best 13 bushels of red wheat, of the liarvest of 183'J and grown by himself. [12 bushels of the wheat will be scaled up by the Judges, and a thirteenth bushel of each variety will be exhibited as a sample to the jjublic. At the general meeting in December tlic prizes will be awarded.] The two best Siim))les, without distinguisliing be- tween the two, will be selected by judges appointed at the Cnml)ridge Meeting, and will be sown in the autumn of 1840, by three farmers, under the direc- tion of the English Agricultural Society, who will make their report, upon which the prize will be awarded. Ten Sovereigns will be given to the exhibitor of the one of these two sanijdes wlio shall not obtain the prize, or if from the produce when sown, neither of the two shall appear to deserve a prize, ten sovereigns will be given to the exhibitors of each. These Essavs must he sent in to the secretarij on nr before March \,\M0. PRIZES FOR IMPROVING THE BREED OF CATTLE. Class I. — Short-horns. 1. To the owner of the best Bull, Thirty Sove- reigns. 2. To the owner of the best Cow in milk, Fifteen Sovereigns. 3. To ihe owner of the best in-calf Heifer, not ex- ceeding three years old. Fifteen Sovereigns. 4. To the owner of the best yearling Heifer, 'Jen Sovereigns. 5. To the owner of the best Bull Calf, Ten Sove- reigns. Class II. — Hereiords. 1. To the owner of the best Bull, Thirty Sove- reigns. 2. To the owner of the best Cow in milk, Fifteen Sovereigns. 3. To the owner of the best in-calf Heifer, not ex- ceeding three years old. Fifteen Sovereigns. 4. To the owner of the best yearling Heifer, Ten Sovereigns. 5. To the owner of the best Bull Calf, Ten Sove- reigns. Class III. — Devons. 1. To the owner of the best Bull, Thirty Sove- reigns. 2. To the owner of the best Cow in milk, Fifteen Sovereigns. 3. To the owner of the best in-calf Heifer, not ex- ceeding three years old. Fifteen Sovereigns. 4. To the owner of the best yearling Heifer, Ten Sovereigns. 5. To the owner of the best Bull Calf, Ten Sove- reigns. Class IV. — Cattle oi- any breed, or cross. Not qualified for the foregohiff classes. 1. To the owner of the best Bull, Thirty Sove- reigns. 2. To the owner of the best Cow in milk, Fifteen Sovereigns. 3. To the owner of the best in-calf Heifer, not ex- ceeding three years old. Fifteen Sovereigns. 4. To the owner of the best 3'earling Heifer, Ten Sovereigns. 3. To the owner of the best Bull Calf, Ten Sovc- '"' Sovereigns. N.B. — The Frizes for in-calf Heifers in the above classes will not be paid until they have calved. Class V.— Cattle tor Dairy Purposes. 1. To the owner of the best Cow in milk, which shall, in the opinion of the Judges, be best calculated for dairy purposes, Fifteen Sove- reigns. To the owner of the second best Cow, Ten Sovereigns. N.B. — In awarding these Prizes the Judges will be requested to lake into their consideration not only the quantity and quulity of the milk which the cow gives, but also her value to feed after she shall have been dried. Class VI. — Oxen. 1. To the owner of the five O.xen bought since the 1st of September, 183*J, likely to weigh more than 70 stone at Christmas, 1840, which in the opinion of the Judges will pay best for grazing, Twenty Sovereigns. 2. To the owner of the five Oxen bought since the ]st of Septenciber, 1839, not likely to exceed 70 stone weight at Christmas, 1810, which in the opinion of the Judges will pay best for grazing. Twenty Sovereigns. Class VII. — Horses. 1. To the owner of the best Cart Stallion, Twenty Sovereigns. 2. To the owner of the best Cart Mare and Foal, Ten Sovereigns. 3. To the owner of the best Stallion for breeding hunters, carriage horses, or roadsters, which shall have served mares during the season of 1810, at a price not exceeding 3/. each, Thirty Sovereigns. PRIZES FOR IMPROVING THE BREED OF SHEEP. Class VIII. — Leicesters. 1. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram, Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second best ditto, Ten Sovereigns. 2. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age, Thirty Sovereigns. 3. To the owner of the best pen of five Ewes with their Lambs, Ten Sovereigns. 4. To the owner of the best pen of five Shearling Ewes, Ten Sovereigns. Class IX.— South Downs, or other Short- woolled Sheep. 1. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram, Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second best ditto, Ten Sovereigns. 2. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age. Thirty Sovereigns. 3. To the owner of the best pen of five Ewes with their Lambs, Ten Sovereigns. 4. To the owner of the best pen of five Shearling Ewes, Ten Sovereigns. Class X. — Long-woolled Sheep, Not qualified to compete for Class VIII. i '' 1. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram, Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second best ditto, Ten So- vereigns. 2. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age. Thirty Sovereigns. 3. To the owner of the best pen of five Ewes with their Lambs, Ten Sovereigns. 4. To the owner of the best pen of five Shearling Ewes, Ten Sovereigns. N.15. — The Sheep exhibited for any of the above THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 237 Prizes must not be shorn before the 1st of May, nor after the 1st July, 1840. Class XI. — Pigs. 1. To the owner of the best Boar, Ten Sovereigns. 2. To the owner of the best Sow, Five Sovereigns. 3. To the owner of the best pen of three Pigs of the same litter, above four and under nine months old, Ten Sovereigns. Class XII. — Extra Stock, Implements, Roots, AND Seeds. For Extra Stock of any kind, not shown for any of the above Prizes, and for Implements, Roots, Seeds, &c.. Prizes will be awarded and ap- portioned, by the Committee and Judges, to the value, in the whole, of Fifty Sovereigns. ON DIBBLING WHEAT AS A MEANS OF INCREASING PRODUCE AND AFFORDING ADDITIONAL EMPLOYMENT TO THE AGRICULTURAL LABOURER. (From the Mark Lane Express, Sept. 16.J The season for sowing wheat being near at hand, we embrace the opportunity of calling the attention of farmers to the system of dibbling vvhi'jh is adopted in several parts of the country, and of which we believe the practice is extending in some places. We have from time to time given insertion to let- ters from various persons, furnishing statements of their experience, and shewing the advantages of the practice, and several valuable communications will be found in the Farmei-'s Magazine, should any of our readers desire to refer to a more detailed account. It is admitted by all who have practised dibbling of wheat, that a bushel and a half of seed per acre may be saved, and it is positively stated that the increase of produce obtained is commonly four bushels per acre. If, llieiefore, the whole of the wheat sown were dibbled, the gross amount of available bread-corn might be increased five-and- a-half bushels per acre, which in seasons like the la«.t and the present would be equal to one-fourth of the whole produce of the kingdom. We are however, well aware that the quality of a great part of the lands sown with wheat would not ad- mit of the practice of dibbling, nor could sut^icient hands be found to execute the work, but if the seed were dibbled on one-half the land sown, a saving of one-eighth of the whole produce would be effected, whicii would be a supply equiva- lent to the support of one-eighth of the popu- lation. This is a view of the subject which individuals nniy perhaps be inclined to dis- regard. The farmer will be disposed rather to consult ids own personal convenience and inclina- tion, but as sincere fiiends to the farmers of this country, we again repeal that which we have stated upon several former occasions; if you desire to retain the home market for your produce you must produce a sufficient supply of grain to meet the wants of the population. But we are pre- pared to contend that the farmer will be actually benefitted by adopting the system of dibbling wherever the necessary facilities are afforded. As regards expense, the cost will be 8s. per acre ; the saving of seed at 9s. per bushel, will be equal to 13s. 6d. per acre, leaving a balance in his favor of 4s, Cd. per acre upon the beed alone, and for which sum the crop may be once well hoed — thereby causing another saving by preventing the exhaustion of the soil occasioned by the growth of weeds. We seek not to urge any favorite scheme of our own, or to promote its adoption by a flat- tering or exaggerated statement upon paper which cannot be successfully carried out in practice. Our great object in all cases of new plans, or such as are not in general use, is to induce a trial by different ^persons upon a scale such as, whilst it tests the system, may not injure the party trying the experiment, and in the hope that the experi- ment may be made with accuracy, that the result may be carefully noted, and afterwards notified to the public, so that it may be adopted or rejected according as the result may turn out to be bene- ficial or otherwise. We trust that these few re- marks may have the effect of inducing some prac- tical farmers to try the dibbling of wheat upon a small scale thi< year, and that next year the doubts which many persons now entertain of the benefit of the system may be set at rest. On the 21st January last we inserted a letter from a practical farmer iu the county of Suffolk upon this subject, and as these are the son of authorities to which we like to refer, we again repeat it for the benefit of those who may not have had an opportunity of perusing it :— - In answer to your letter respecting dibbling' and dril- ling- wheat, drilling wlieat is the most generally practised in the eastern part of the county of Suffolk ; dibbling whe.it has been upon the decliae for the last twenty years, and I believe for the two following reasons : — lit. It is more trouble to attend to a set of dibblers than it is to the drilling system. 2nJ. The main part, the dropping of the whaat, is left to children, and whicli is oftentimes very| irregularly done. I was in the habit of dibbling wheat when I took business for myself in 1807, and continue the practice to the present day, for the fol- lowing reasons :— 1st. It encourages the poor man and his family by increasing his vvages, and gives employ- ment to the children of the poor man, that if wheat is drilled they would not have ; it shews the children when young that Providence has ordained them to get their bread by industry and the sweat of their brow. I grow upon the four-course shift 100 acres of wheat every yeai'. For wheat I pay for dibbling 7s. per acre, which is done by seven men that have the largest families ; those men earn 51. each in five weeks, generally, but if the weathiT be tine, in less time, therefore the poor man earns the Gl: by the dibbling of wheat, when, if ihe wheat was drilled, at tlie common work he would have earned but 2/. 10s.; this extra money gained goes into trade, and will do a ])ublic good. iSJow, let the county of Suffolk pursue this system, and see what an encouragement to labour as well as to the benefit of the community would result. 'J'he 2d reason wiiy I prtifer dibbling is that the men and cliildren tread the land witli their feet, which makes the land firmer and belter for the crop. 3rd. It is better to clean the land, because you can only hoe between the rows of the drilled wheat, when you can hoe all round the dibbled plaut. 4lh. It generally goes into the ground deeper from dibbling than drilling ; the small end of the dibble goes into the land deeper than it ap- pears, and the drill appears deeper than it really is, the coulter of the drill raising mould oa each side, and by harrowing the land is made level, the corn i* not so deep. 5th. There is always more under-corn, that is small ears, from the drill than from the dil)blo,and if anylhing it takes Iftss seed. I should not think one bushel enough, six pecks is about the quantity of seed it takes for eil her, unless it be very early in the seassn. I am a very great advocate for dibbling for the above reasons ; I iiave iried both on the same field, and generally found the dibbled wheat the most productive, and staad up better, and the straw stitfer. 238 THE FARMER'S MAGAZIN E. ON FARM MANURE. TO THE EDITOn OF THE EAnMEu'tJ MAGAZINE. Sir, — It cannot he expected, while men differ upon every suhject in religion, morals, and poli- tics, that there should be a perfect uniformity of judgment in the leading divisions of agriculture. The constitution of our moral powers leads to dif- ferences of opinion— this diftcrence arises from education, prejudice, habit, and indolence; the dropping of water, however, at last wears a stone ; and seeing- how many impediments stand in the v^fay of improvement, we must not be discouraged by the slow advances which have, as yet, been made in agriculture. It must be admitted also that many farmers are so limited in their capital as to be, in a great degree, unable to try costly ex- periments or to undertake considerable improve- ments ; but all of them are interested in the col- lection and distribution of their manure, and all of them have the means of attending to these im- portant duties. We have abundant proof of the vast benefits which a persevering desire of improvement has al- ready bestowed ; look at the various breeds of sheep! examine our celebrated specimens of stock! inspect the beautiful prize animal presented as the frontispiece to your last number ! behold also the rich verdure and abundant crops which cover (he valleys and mountains, fructified and improved by various modes of management and by various sys- tems of cropping ! Many deserts have been made to blossom and smile ; many fields are now waving with golden-eared wheat which, but few years back, were worthless sheep-walks. It would con- fer a great obligation on the writer if some one of your correspondents would tell us the number of the millions of soughing tiles, buried under the surface of our lands, in order to drain and improve them. Nor ought we to overlook the various modes of artificial management now directed to general improvement by bones, rape-dust, salt, gypsum, &c. The agency of chemistry has, moreover, been so- licited, and she is now giving to us the aid of her secret laboratory. AVithin the memory of man Bcarcely a single acre of wheat was grown in Scot- land, " oats full of thistles was the standard crop." Nor can any contrast be more striking than the well-cultivated fields, at present beheld in our coun- try, as compared with the cold, wet, and barren sterility which pervaded it formerly. Now the great agent in preparing this abundance is ma- nure. It is therefore, well worthy of the farmer's inquiry, how far the influence of this great agent can be extended ? How the (piantity can be in- creased, and how that quantity may be rendered more effective as to production '? These remarks must be understood as applying to those lands which are under plough. It is hardly worth while to stop to inquire into the se- crets of the causes of the exhaustion which land, in common with animal existence, sustains by con- tinued exertion— it is a law of nature. I admit, however, that if the discovery of the cause could lead us either to prevent or to retrieve the diminu- tion of strength, the inquiry might confer upon us a benefit ; it is, moreover, an undoubted fact, that the rotation of crops lias a tendency to lessen the inconvenience now referred to. There is some plausibility in the doctrine of M. de Candolle, who maintains that the roots of plants eject certain ex- crementary matter which cannot he elaborated into the support ami nourishment of the plant it- self. This fact seems in conformity with the re- gular process of animal existence, in the elabo- ration of food necessary for support; and the wisdom of the Creator appears more than abun- dantly proved in the provision thus happily made for universal reproduction. It is, however, left to our own judgment and skill to make this law as beneficial as possible, and it is working along with an established law of nature, when we regulate and apply most efficiently the means of growth and fructification bestowed upon us by this excre- mental process, directed and distinguished by wis- dom and goodness ; it is, therefore, in analogy with an established system, when we conclude that the matter ejected from the roots of one crop may pro- vide a stimulant for its successor. The myste- rious cycle of decay and reproduction being in ceaseless movement through the whole range of creation. In considering the subject of FARM manure, there are two matters which prominently belong to it, and to which I trust your readers will direct their attention. First, as to quality. Secondly, as to quantity. The time is ])ast and the doctrine also, in which it was maintained, that upon ordinary lands, a crop of wheat might be grown continuously with- out manure. The process of fermentation and putrefaction is always at work in order to provide the food of plants, on which depends the support of all terrene animals, and as just noticed above, the wise provision made, for the beneficial action of decomposed matter in the work of reproduction, proclaims the wisdom of the process. Let us, therefore, inquire first how the quality of manure may be improved and made most effica- cious ? The foundation of the farmer's manage- ment must primarily consist of the straw con- sumed in his fold-yard, and which in the first place supplies winter food for his stock. The more of this food therefore which undergoes the process of digestion, the better it is for his manure ; the prominent duty of the farmer is, therefore, to keep a quantity of stock in proportion to his quantity of food. By this means he secures not only the profit upon his improving stock, but the profit also upon his improved manure ; this mode conduces to the most profitable employment of the farmer's capi- tal, and should, therefore, as far as practicable, be put into use ; but without neglecting the subsidi- ary aid occasionallj' deiived from the mere tread- ing down of straw in the yard where it is exceed- ingly plentiful. The nest agent in the improvement under con- sideration will be found in the use of every other attainable variety of food in the farm-yard, such as turnips, oilcake, beet-root, rape-dust, linseed, &c., &c., the better the food thebetter the manure heap ; the more food taken to the fold-yard to be consumed there, in addition to the straw, and the more valuable will be the manure. It is now an ascertained fact that animals thrive much more rapidly when sheltered from the Winter's blast. Mr. Handley, M.P., read a paper of Mr. Childers on the " Shed feeding of Sheep" at the late Oxford meeting, in which it was stated that an experiment liad been made by the author which produced the following results. A score of hogs were fed equally upon turnips, linseed, &c., in a shed, with a score of the same weight which were fed on the same food in the field. From the 1st of .Tanuary to the 1st of April those which were fed at home, gained 19 stone 1211)s. over those which were fed in the field, which is about a stone each per head. Those THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 239 persons, however, who are in the habit of growing- a i)retty good quantity of Swede turnips, will al- ways be in the possession of an exceedingly cheap, nutritious, and profitable food for the fold-yaixl. No plant yields so abundant a supply either in the field or in the farmyard as the Swede turnip. The third regulation I recommend for the im- proving of the quality of manure consists in the mixing of all the produce of the farm yard to- gether, the i)ig-stye, the stable, the dove-cote, and the feeding-shed must all contribute their respective quota of manure. The several products ought to be thoroughly mixed together, and if led out pre- viously to the heap being applied to tlie crop, let such other supplies of night soil, rape-dust, ashes, &c., as are within the farmer's reach, be added thereto and mixed therewith, and then finally let a four inch coat of fresh soil be placed thereon as a covering to prevent evaporation till it is called into use. The next matter to be attended to is the collect- ing in cisterns all the urine from the stables and feeding sheds. About every ten days this should be pumped up and carefully dispersed all over the heap by means of a coarse watering pan. The am- monia (hartshorn) which is a constituent principle of urine, supplies a powerful stimulant in the process of vegetable growth, it ought to be carefully col- lected and diligently applied so as that it may per- colate tlirough the whole mass while accumulating in the yard. Fifthly, the heap ought to ke kept entirely free from any weeds whatever, the seeds thereof being almost indestructible. There ought to be channels, also, for the conveying away of all the rain water fallingfrom the roofs of the surrounding buildings. The urine of the stock, together with the rain which falls upon the surface, will supply sufficient mois- ture ; an additional supply will only tend to the impoverishment of the compost. These several methods suggested for the im- provement of FARM MANURE are recommended to the attention of your readers. So much space has already been consumed that we must leave that part of the subject relating to the 5!<«?j/«7y of ma- nure for a future number. These suggestions are confined to those ordinary means which fall within the reach of the practical farmer in order that they may be more generally useful. When it is considered how much the productive- ness of our farms depends upon the manure heap, and how much this matter is at times neglected, a few thoughts will not, I trust, be unacceptable which have for their object its improvement, and although familiar to most of your readers, if they should stimulate any person to apply them, who have hitherto neglected to do so, the object in writing them will be attained. — I am your obedient servant, RICHARD HOPPER. Papperwick, NottinghamsJiire, Sept. 10. TITHE CONTINUED. TO THR EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — In the parish of Lyndby, Nottinghamshire, we are paying tithe in kind again this year. The commissioners have not been able to attend. This provoking inconvenience may be long continued. Can any of your subscribers inform me how it can be prevented for the future in case the commis- sioners should again be unable to attend? I am, Sir, your obedient servant, Sept. 10. R. H. THE RELATIVE VALUE OF ROTA- TIONS. M. Boussingault enters into a discussion on the relative values of rotations, which he endeavours to ascertain by analyses of the comparative pro- portions of the elements yielded by each crop sub- jected to rotation. These elements he endeavours to prove are not derived from one source only, but from several, particularly from the earth, the air, and water. " The relation," he observes, " in which the air and earth concur in developing vegetable life, is not only worthy of fixing our attention to the interest of physiology, it is moreover an important fact, a know- ledge of which would enable us to investigate those two vital questions of agricultural science, — the theory of the exhaustion of the soil by culture, and the study of rotations. " Thai.-r, who, belter than any other person, com- prehends the extent of the question of the exhaustion of the soil, has sought to resolve it principally by cul- ture. I have no need to show here the method which he followed, since it may be perused in his admirable work, I shall only observe that his method is founded on a disputable principle, which is, that the exhaustion of the soil is proportional to the quan- tity of nutritive matter contained in the crops. In admitting this principle laid down by this illustrious agriculturist, we would tacitly acknowledge that all the organic matter of plants originates in the soil. The soil, no doubt, contributes a certain proportion to the development of vegetables, but it is also known that the air gives an equal part." There can be no doubt that M. Boussingault is quite correct in combating the opinion of M. Thaer, that the exhaustion of soils is proportioned to the quantity of nutritive matter contained in the crops; for if, at the end of the rotation, it is found neces- sary to renovate the exhaustion of the soil by a fresh supply of manure, it is obvious to the com- mon sense of every farmer, that, did the crops re- ceive no nourishment whatever but from the ma- nure furnished at the beginning of the rotation, the quantity, however great it may be in some in- stances, could never supply all the nutritive mat- ter derived from the whole crops during the whole rotation. Could a few tons per acre of farm-yard manure applied to green crops on the fallow-break be sufficient of themselves to cope with the weight of valuable matter derived from the soil during a rotation ? No, either the extra matter must exist in the soil previous to the application of the ma- nure, as the theory of DI. Thaer seems to suggest, or it must be derived from some other source, from the air, as asserted by M. Boussingault ; and the experiments of the latter, which we have re- lated in the preceding paper, do tend to show that plants are enabled to draw much nourishment from the air, and thereby afford much valuable Hiatter to the husbandman. But if M. Boussing- ault is correct in his strictures on M. Thaer, he is himself in error in regard to the nature and neces- sity of a rotation in crops, when he assumes in the following paragraph, that, could manure be pro- cured in unlimited quantities, there would be no absolute necessity for the adoption of a S3'stcm of rotation ; for a system of rotation is not only use- ful in affording regular intervals of time for the application of manure, without which the energy of vegetation could no longer be maintained, but it is as useful in establishing the annual inoportion of the crops, whereby the supply every year of each kind of crop is uniformly maintained. Wilh- 240 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. out a uniformity in the supply of crops, no farmer could depend on the kind and quantity of produce he would take to market, nor could the farm sup- port a stated number of breeding stock. We per- ceive that almost all writers on agriculture out of Scotland are apt to overlook these latter advan- tages attending the adoption of a system of rota- tion. Let us now hear M. Boussingault's remarks on M. T haL'r's principle. " Where an unlimited quantity of manure can he procured, there is felt no absolute necessity for adopting a system of rotation; but in most agricul- tural operations, where extraneous manure cannot be obtained, the matter is quite different. A system is then obligpd to be followed, and the quantity of produce which it is possible to dispose of every year, must be comprised within certain limits, which can never be passed with impunity. In order to preserve to the earth its healthy fertility, we must give it periodically, after each succession of crops, equal quantities of manure. In viewing this matter, in a point of view purely chemical, we would say that the produce which we can dispose of, without injury to the fertility of the land, is represented by the organic matter contained in the crops, deduction being made of the organic matter to be found in the manure. Indeed this last substance, under one form or another, ought to be returned into the soil to fer- tilize it anew , it is a capital intrusted to the soil, the interest of which is represented by the produce sold off by labour. I undertake to prove that the most profitable rotation is that which deduces the greatest quantity of elementary matter from the at- mosphere, and it is precisely this quantity which it is important to appreciate, in order to judge compa- ratively of the value of different rotations of culture. In a word, I propose to compare, by a particular case of soil and climate, the relation which exists tetwixt the elementary matter contained in a suc- cession of crops, and the same matter comprised in the manure consumed by the produce. In other terms, I seek to value, by analysis, the quantity of organic substance deduced from the atmosphere by such and such a rotation. In a well-conducted farm on which a good system of culture has been followed for a long time, we can, no doubt, collect data neces- sary to estimate this valuation. It suffices, indeed, to have with sufficient exactness, the produce of the soil and the manure expended. This manure com- prehends the organic matter which should be con- sumed, in assimilating part of it to cultivated vege- table products. I say part of it, because I am far from thinking that the whole of the manure neces- sarily enters into the constitution of the plants that are raised in the duration of the rotation. No doubt a part of the manure may be lost to vegetation, in decomposing itself spontaneously, or in being drained away by water. It is also certain that another part remains a long time in the soil in an inert state, only to exert its fertilizing action at a period more or less remote ; and even it may happen that, in the actual rotation, a part of the manure previously introduced acts in concert with the new addition. But what is well established is, that the proportions of manure indicated by use are indispensable to attaining the mere rate of our crops. In short, we know that, after the rotation, the crops have consumed the ma- nure, and that the land will no longer present a pro- ductive culture, if it is desired to prolong it, without restoring to it a new dose." The author details the residts of a few of his experiments. He takes the hectare, which is to the acre as 2:li, as the unit of surface. The produce is almost always deduced from a mean of six years. The dung employed was farm-yard dung half fermented ; the unit of its bulk is a measure of which the weight had been found after numerous weighings to be 1818 kilogrammes of 21b. 'doz, each. The grains, the straw, the roots, the tubers, were analyzed with the greatest care, each of those substances having been subjected to at least four analyses. Before being analyzed, all those substances were dried at a temperature of 110° of the centigrade or 230° of Fahr. thermome- ter for a snfiicient time, and this is the five years' rotation which the author followed : — " Potatoes or red beet, dunged, wheat, clover, wheat, oats. It was found that, in the dung con- sumed on the hectare, thei'e were 2793 kilogrammes of carbon; in the suite of crops produced by this dung, the carbon was raised to 8383 kilogrammes. Tlie weight of the carbon furnished in culture by the carbonic acid of the air was thus raised at least 5400 kilogrammes. In the same rotation the azote pri- marily included in the pung weighed 157 kilo- grammes. In culture, the weight of this principle attained 251 kilogrammes ; the atmosphere had thus furnished on its part 91 kilogrammes of azote. In another very productive rotation the car- bon of the crops surpassed the carbon of the dung by 7600 kilogrammes ; the azote in excess was as high as 163 kilogrammes. " The three years' rotation with bare fallow dunged, such as is followed elsewhere, but which has almost entirely disappeared from Alsace, is far from offer, ing, as to azote, results so satisfactory ; the carbon taken from the air was only 4358 kilogrammes, the azote acquired did not exceed 17 kilogrammes. I may remark generally that every time a rotation in- cludes only the cereal crops, the azote becomes less considerable. Thus in seeking the aid of analytical data, and of the agricultural tokens which precede them, — the relation which exists betwixt organic matter entered into the earth with the dung, and the same matter exhumed by the crops, — we arrive at results which-are not withoat interest. " The Jerusalem artichoke is, of all the plants of which I can discuss the culture, that which draws most largely from the atmosphere. It is evidently alternate cropping and rest that gives the most nu- tritive matter with the least manure. No doubt, to this circumstance must be attributed the extension which has taken place in the culture of this plant in the last thirty years. It may be seen in the following tables, that in two years the carbon taken from the air, from the surface of a hectare, rose to 13,237 kilogrammes, and the weight of azote contained in the dung is almost doubled. "The principal results of my operatious plainly show that the rotations which are judged in practice as the most productive, are precisely those which abstract the greatest quantity of elements from the atmosphere ; elementary analysis can certainly serve to determine the value of this quantity, for a parti- cular case of soil and climate. " In comparing the composition of cultivated sub- stances, a remarkable fact is nearly overlooked, and which I do not pretend to explain ; which is, that many articles of food, when analyzed, afford exactly the same composition, let their properties or flavour be ever so different. " The composition of most of those substances are not represented exactly by carbon and water, there is almost always found a slight excess of hydrogen, which raises the proportion to nearly a half centime, in some cases, the excess attaining to one or two centimes. The precaution which 1 have taken to protect myself from the hygrometrical influences of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ^41 the air, authorize me in considering this result as not entirely an error of analysis. Nevertheless, I ana very far from findinof, in the fact of hydrogen in ex- cess, a new proof of the fixation of the hydrogen of water, under the influence of the vegetable life. In- deed, if this fact were sufficient to piove the assimi- lation, it might not he disputed by any person, be- cause, for a long time, a great number of vegetable substances have been known, in which hydrogen is in excess, in relation to oxygen ; such, for example, as resin in resinous trees, fatty matter in oleaginous plants. It is quite natural to draw a positive con- clusion from this circumstance, because the same substances are the origin of vegetables, wliich are believed to be under the influence of the organic matters deposited in the soil. To resolve this ques- tion in a decisive manner, plants should be raised and cultivated apart from the influence of every or- ganized matter, and only water and air given them, for food. This is what I have done. Several ana- lyses have proved that, in the vegetables developed under these conditions, hydrogen was in excess in the amount of the organic matter acquired in the du- ration of the experiment. " These two facts, if I mistake not, have a certain physiological interest. The one which establishes that azote can be assimilated from the atmospliere during vegetable existence ; the other which proves that, water is decomposed during vegetation. Tbis decomposition of water has been quite recently proved by Messrs. Edwards and Colin, by the assistance of a metliod quite difl:erent from that which I employed." The following tables serve to illustrate the fore- going observations of M. Boussingault. We may here observe, that we do not well understand the use of the third division of the fii-st table, under the title of " Ashes deduced" (Cendres deduitesj. Composition of cultivated substances dried in a temperature of 110° Centigrade, or 230° Fahr, Substances. Wheat Rye Oats Wheat-Straw Rye-Straw Oat-Straw Potatoes Field Beet Turnips Jerusalem arti- "1 cliokes J Yellow Pea Pea-straw Red Clover Hay. . . Stems of Jerusa- 1 lem artichoke J Manure (mean) . . , Their Ashes comprised of 0.853 0.834 0.792 0.740 0.81 0.713 0.'^41 0.122 0,075 0.208 0.914 0.882 0.792 0.87 0,204 0.145 0.166 0.208 0,260 0.187 0.287 0.759 0.878 0.925 0.792 0.086 0.118 0,210 0,129 0.796 46,1 46.2 50.7 48.4 49.9 50,1 44.0 42,8 42,9 43,3 46.5 45.8 47,4 45.7 38,8 >-ri rbt of gratitude to the late Pro- fessor Coleman, for having given that profession, as it were, a standing in society, by getting its mem- bers recognized as officers when attached to cavalry regiments. 1 would not have it thought that I seek to derogate from the merits of the late Professor; but I am rather inclined to believe that time and circum- stances had much more weight in promoting that ob- ject than either the influence or the exertions of that departed individual. A war carried on upon a very extensive scale, in which great numbers of horses were employed, rendered the government and the country alive to the importance of the veterinary profession, and hence, as it seems to me, the just mark of distinction bestowed upon its practitioners. So, on the other hand, I am inclined to view in a somewhat similar light the apathy which has been displayed in respsct to the diseases of the other do- mesticated animals, and the impediments which, it is said, were interposed to prevent the study of those diseases at the Veterinary College. Independent of its utility, fashion and pleasure, supported by wealth, combined to stimulate attention to the horse, the time liad not arrived when the amount of capital in- vested by the agricultural interest in cattle, sheep, and pigs, not to forget horses used for agricultural purposes, far exceeded that of horses used for all other purposes, and hence the cause of those animals being left to be treated by the ignorant and the unskil- ful. That time is now come ; circumstances begin to operate by calling attention to the subject; and a fine field is opened to the practitioners of the veteri- nary profession, not only to elevate that profession, but to acquire affluence individually. If, however, I may be permitted to hazard an opinion, I would observe, that the elevation which that profession may attain, must, in a main degree, if not altogether, de- pend upon the exertions of its members. Feeling a lively interest in everything which concerns agricul- ture, I am happy to have had this opportunity of inter- mixing with gentlemen whose pursuits are so nearly connected, and whose interests are so intimately blended with it ; and in the name and on behalf of the English Agricultural Society, I return you my most sincere thanks." Mr. Henderson proposed the health of " the Chair- man Mr. Turner and the Veterinary Authors." The Chairman returned thanks and proposed " the health of Mr. Field." Mr. Thos. Turner, after observing that there were many persons present connnected with the press, proposed " Success to that mighty Engine the Press." Mr. Ritchie briefly acknowledged the (oast. Mr. DicKiNS proposed " the Provincial Veterinary Practitioners." Mr. YouATT proposed " the Vice Chairmen, Mr. Henderson and Mr. Thomas Turner." Mr. T. Turner returned thanks. Mr. Field proposed the health of " the worthy Secretary, Mr. Morton." Mr. iMoRioN returned thanks in his usual flowing and elegant strain ; and the party separated. EXTRAORDINARY REAPING.~At Tenbury on Monday, the 20th ult., a number of people assembled to witness the decision of a waaer of two sovereigns, between Mr. W. Jefierics and Mr. S. Wilding, which was the most dexterous and experienced in using the sickle. The ground chosen was a quarter of an acre of very strong wheat, upon Mr. Jewson's farm, which was cut by these kniglils of the sickle in the short space of an hour and Ixvenftj minutea ! the crop when cut being at the proportion of forty-two thraves to the acre. The umpires decided the wager in favour of Mr. W. JefTeries. 244 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OVER-HEATED HAY. TO THE EDITOHS OF THE LEEDS BIERCURY. Gentlemen, — The enclosed account of" the man- agement of a stack of hay in danger of taking fire," was dictated to me by a gentleman of great experi- ence and sagacity in matters relating to farming. As it is very probable, from the present unsettled state of the weather, that a great deal of hay will be put together in a very unfit state, I have thought that my friend's description of the manner in which he treated his stack might not be unserviceable to those of your readers who may be unfortunate enough to have hay in a similar condition. Should you agree with me in this opinion, you are at liberty to make whatever use of the " Account" you may think proper. 1 am. Gentlemen, your obedient servant, Near Selby, -ilh September, 1Q39. II. TREATMENT OF A STACK OF HAY IX DANGER OF FIRING. 1 have had for fifty years, more or less, the man- agement of hay for myself or others. I have per- ceived much mischief arise from want of knowledge or patience in putting it into stack ; and not less da- mao-e from improper treatment when it has been per- ceived to be in danger of lire. Some years ago I put together into one stack the produce of between 20 and oO acres of meadow, in what at the time seemed to me in good condition. (It may not be improper to remark that this was a year very productive of ribbed grass on my land.) The " sweating," as we farmers term it, seemed to be go- ino- on properly — the stack shrunk rajtidly, and con- tinued for some time to do so. In a few days, how- ever, I begun to be somewhat alarmed by the smell ; and as it increased, it became evident that something must be done to prevent serious consequences. The steward of the gentleman of whom I farmed my land had also perceived the danger ; and he, becoming very much alarmed at the threatened danger, strongly urged me to send immediately lo the neighbouring town for the fire-engines. He pressed this advice on me with all his powers of persuasion, in which he was joined b}'' several of my family. I told them that were the engines sent for, they would bring in their train a number of persons, either from curiosity or worse motives, who would produce so much con- fusion as entirely to tJike away from me all control over the stack ; and that, from tlie utter want of care with which the whole affair would be managed, the danger would be greatly increased. Having obtained five men to assist me, we went to work. Our first business was to place two of the largest tubs we had by the side of the stack, and fill them with water ; also a watering pan, %>ithout the rose. We then wetted several blankets, and fastened them on the windward side of the stack, in order to prevent the wind from reaching the heated hay in our after-operations. Having next endeavoured to as- certain the quarter in which the greatest body of heat lay, by means of a long iron rod, (with a barb at tlie end for the purpose of bringing out a little of the hay,) I placed my men in the following manner: — One I sent to the top of the stack, with his hny- spade ; another to take the hay away as it came down ; a third to put into pike such of the hay as was unin- jured ; and the fourth to fork it to him. I had still one man left for emergencies. We entered the stack on the leeward side, ns nearly as possible to where there seemed the great- est heat. For some depth the hay came down in the best possible condition, and was quietly taken away and secured in pike. After a short time it began to appear discoloured, and then black. Upon this I immediately went up myself to the man cutting the hay; and taking a fork shaft in my hand, T endea- voured to thrust it into the hay. Finding it was not yet sufficiently tender to allow the shaft to penetrate, I ordered the man to proceed with his cutting. A fter the next cutting I once more thrust down the shaft : this time it penetrated about four inches; and oa withdrawing it, smoke ascended through the hole. We now first made use of the watering pan : the water we poured in at the hole made by the shaft. Having then, as we thought, well wetted the hay for some depth, we proceeded with our cutting, and I again thrust down the shaft, which this time went ia to a depth of eight or ten inches, and on withdrawing it the volume of smoke was much increased. ^V'e again applied the water as before; and in this man- ner we proceeded, alternately wetting and cutting, till we had removed the whole of the heated hay. The hay that had leceived the water was carried out iato the field, and there left to cool. We were at work for seven hours. We followed the heated hay in all directions, so as to cut the stack into what seemed winding passages, and yet during the whole of the time we never had a single blaze. The stack was considerably injured, but all other dan- ger was prevented. The work was done in the night. When the steward saw the process, he acknowledged his error in recommending the sending for the fire-engines, and went home greatly pleased with all that had been done. ^Vhen the stack hud sufficiently cooled we filled up the interior again with the hay, and when finished it was diihcult to perceive that it had been disturbed. In this way an over-heated stack, even on the point of taking fire, may be saved. But the best se« curitv is to let the hay be properly dried in the field, before it is stacked — even though it may be in some danger of suft'ering from unsettled weather ; for, as we farmers say, — " It is better to be muck iu the field, than tinder in the stack." ON THE USE OF VITRIOL FOR PRE- VENTING SMUT IN WHEAT. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MAKK LANE EXPRESS. Old Place Farm, Sept. 17, 1839. I observed in your paper of yesterday two inqui- ries, on the use of vitriol as a steep for wheat ; I with pleasure beg to inform them of the very simple way in wliich I have proceeded; it is thus: — W'e dissolve four pounds of blue vitriol in '2 or 3 gallons of hot water, and, when done, pour it into a tub con- taining 10 or 12 gallons of cold water. When the solution is thus prepared, we take 12 imperial bushels of wheat, and make a heap with it on a brick floor, and pour a solution into it, turning the wheat in the same manner as you would do if using any other liquor ; when it has been turned over several times, it is cast up into a conical heap, and let remain for ten or twelve hours, when it is taken to the field to sow, if convenient ; if not so, then spread out on the floor, to prevent its over heating. 1 may add, that if, from weather or other causes, it cannot be sown for ten or twelve days, it does not appear to take injury if kept dry. — I am. Sir, your obedient and humble servant, GEORGE DYER. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 245 TURNPIKE ROADS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. ( Continued from page 163.^ TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMEll's MAGAZINE. Sin, — Ask Mr. Grote what would most contribute to the glory of Great Britain, and the liappiness of its inhabitants 1 with perfect sincerity he would answer the Ballot, — Mr. Attwood would say, Paper- currency, — Mr. Owen, Socialism, — Mr. Canning fancied that Roman Catholic Emancipation would satisfy the Irish Priests, and quiet ther deluded fol- lowers. Equally sincere and not less infatuated, are the leading members of the turnpike committees — they magnify imperfections, put leading questions to establish a visionary theory, slight the evidence that militates against it, and propose one sovereign remedy, which like JNIorison's pills, is to work a perfect cure. The panacea proposed is, — " That persons should be appointed for the purpose of arranging the turnpike trusts of the kingdom into unions," and that " each trust should merge into and become a portion of the unions." This communica- tion, coupled with the bill as " amended by the com- mittee," " prepared and brought in by Mr. Fox JMaule and Mr. Shaw Lefevre," but happily not passed, clearly show that the turnpike committees are bent, at all hazards, upon applying to turnpike affairs, the principle of centralization ; and thus sub- ject the roads, the funds, the creditors, whether rich or poor, the magistrates.the gentry and all other trus- tees of roads, and all persons serving under them, to the surveillance of paid dictators. The conse- quence of such interference, is so well expressed by the following observations of the Lord Mayor of York, extracted from page 31 of the Railicny ]\Iaga- zine, viz., " These undertakings if left to themselves will prosper; but if suffered to be tampered witli by government, they will languish, there will be too much jobbing, 1 shall therefore oppose this system of surveillance ; they will be sure to do harm." And also in Sir George iNIurray's speech to the electors of JNlanchester, as reported in the Standard of Sept. the 2nd; " My opinion is, the principle of centraliza- tion is dangerous;" " local matters are better ma- naged by local authorities;" " Commissioners in London are too remote to be able to understand them ;"" The very nature of the system opens a door to great abuses." Again, Mr. Planners Sutton at Cam- bridge, said, " He considered tlie system of centrali- zation incompatible with liberty." Tiiese authorities correspond so exactly with my view of the case, that I adopt them in preference to what I had previouslv written ; although the first remark applies to rail- ways, and the second to the poer law, all are equally- appropriate to turnpike roads. The committees, evidently considering the great body of turnpike trustees ignorant and extravagant, very kindly en- lighten their understanding, and teach them econo- my, by publishing in the 64th page of their report of 1833, " An Analysis of the proposed system for the better management of turnpike roads ;" in the first half dozen lines we find, " Capital to build 7,000 station houses, 910,000/.." After this amended edition of the farce " A Neiv Way to Fay Old Debts," there follows in eight folio pages, " Of type, of ink, of margin ample, Of paper, not of wit, a sample," A " Statement" in which it is proposed that labour- ers shall feed their own bacon, and for that purpose expend in " Ground Peas, Oats and Pollard, 68,0001. , other items, including tea, 56,000/. ; tobacco, 9,750/. ; raisins, 833/. 6s. 8d.; mops, 333/. 6s.; brooms, 750/. ; umbrellas, 750/. ; forming part of a total, balanced with such amazing precision, that it exactly tallies with the proposed wages of " 10,000 men employed 52 weeks at 14s. ^ 10,000 24 12s. >■ 980,000/." 60,000 12 12s. 3 Then comes patronage : — " Commissioners at , General surveyors . Deputy surveyors. . Do. do. And 34 auditors. . . • £ 1 ,000 a year each. , 2,500 " '< , 1,000 " " 800 400" We may enjoy a laugh, " risum teneutis amici," attlie exqusite folly of this part of the new fangled scheme ; but with what feelings, or in what terms can we express the nefarious means by wliich it is to be accomplish- ed 1 The maxim was (and ought ever to remain) as long as there is a debt on mortgage, the security must be respected and guaranteed ; accordingly every creditor considered his security a continuous one ; there was no doubt on this subject, and num- bers of turnpike creditors at this moment, consider, and with great reason, their money (invested on se- curity of the tolls^ is not to be altered without their concurrence, on the same principle as anv other in- vestment for which security is given. Had the loans been on annuities terminable in 20 or 30 years, the annual payments would have been proportionate, but the simple fact of no turnpike act, with a mort- gage debt, ever having been refused to be renewed, or received the slightest opposition from Govern- ment, when application for its continuance has been made : and five per cent, interest being the utmost annual return, prove clearly that such was the fair, the honest bargain betwixt the legislature and the public. In page 57 of the last report (6 June 1839), it is given in evidence, and acted upon in the report itself, that " at the expiration of the local act, all their security ceases," and that by continuing the denial of renewing local acts, " it would reduce the nominal amount of the bonded debt, upon the turnpike trusts throughout the kingdom, most considerably" — in plain English this is a scheme to compel the owners of a security, publicly and universally considered a vest- ed interest, as sound as British law and usage can make it, to give it up against their will, and for any sum the proposed commissioners may call it worth, by threatening to make it unavailable, unless the offer be accepted : in what does this difier from that of a fraudulent debtor, who, by a threat of bank- ruptcy, alarms his creditors, and thereby induces them to accept, in full of all demands, " a 7nost considerably" diminished proportion of a just debt. In one of the reports, allusion is made, but by no means in the terms of praise, which the spirited and judicious procedure of the two noble Dukes so justly merited, tothe40or 50,000/. advanced (or secured to others^ by the Dukes of Norfolk and of Devonshire ; with this money new roads were opened through a mountainous countr}', to the great advantage of the public, and still more of themselves, the improve- ment of their estates having far exceeded that amount of expenditure; erase this and numerous other similar expenditures not claimed or even thought of by the parties, until the committees forced them into existence, from tlie eight and a-half mil- lions, (again " deceptively" magnified in the last re- port, to " exceed nine millions," although much of the debt has been paid of!', and little or nothing really added to it) and even this suppossd debt will no longer assume a for midable appearance, 246 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. But whether the bond Jide debt does not fas I verily believe) exceed seven millions, or, as the committee states, does exceed nine millions ; to a calm and re- flecting mind not led astray by the charms of novelty or speculation, it cannot fail to be a source of sur- prise and satisfaction, that 20,000 miles of turnpike road should have been constructed, and from time to time widened or improved, with all the erections, culverts. Parliamentary and all other attendant ex- pences, and that so trivial a proportion of the vast amount of capital thus expended, should remain un- redeemed— there need not be a stronger proof of the prudence and ability of the great body of turnpike trustees. Compare this with the grants to railways from January 1, 1826, to January 1, 1839, as print- ed by order of the Commons : — Capital in joint-stock £41,610,814 Power to raise by loan 16,1 77,630 Total 57,788,444 to which there have been additions during the last sessions. But even if the debt be nine millions, and that the view taken by the committees be correct, viz., that it is enormously too large and ought to be coercively reduced, the fault is not with the trustees or credi- tors ; they are more than PTiply accounted for by the following causes : — 1st. " No less a sum than two millions sterling, or one quarter of the present debt," having been ex- pended in procuring turnpike acts, during the last century, as stated in page 57 of the report of 1833. 2nd. The robbery before-mentioned of statute duty ; can there be a more just and severe reproof than this confession made by the committee in their last reportl " The difficulties of the turnpike trusts have also been augmented by the abolition of statute labour, and of the composition in its place, the loss of which" is about " 200,000/. per annum," " it ap- pears to your committee, that the statute labour, or a composition in its place, ought to be restored." — A very just remark, but why was it enacted? why have the committees allowed this unjust decree to be still unrepealed 1 3rd. An eminent surveyor, in reply to question 1,211, said, " I have always considered it a great hardship, that that coach which generally charges the highest fare, and which has also an allowance from the Post-office for carrying the mail, should pass through turnpike gates without paying toll;" this and various respectable evidences to the same effect, the committees have not condescended to notice. 4th. The loss of revenue to the extent of more than one hundred thousand pounds a year by exemptions from toll, from which exemptions railways and canals are comparatively free. 5th. The committees have arbitrarily imposed upon turnpike trusts a sinking fund of 1 per cent. ; thus taxing the present generation to relieve futurity; inasmuch, as rival canals and railroads are exempt from this impost, the committees have dealt hardly if not unjustly, to the " Widows and persons of very limited income," who, as his Grace the Duke of Richmond states in page 137, form a numerous part of the creditors ; by proposing to take, nolens volens, part of their individual property to their great an- noyance. 6th. Tho loss of revenue, and increase of the charge of repair, as before-mentioned, arising from the baneful additional weights introduced into the acts of 1822 and 1823, together with the injurious form of the wheels encouraged by the latter act, which, though forcibly pressed upon the committees by several surveyors, they appear to have totally neglected. 7th, Many thousand miles of footpatl), made and repaired by turnpike trusts, a charge not at all felt by canals and railways. 8tli. The heavy charge to which many turnpike trusts are still compelled to submit, of repairing the roads through towns and boroughs, in the vicinity of which, they have latterly been prevented collecting any toll or composition in lieu of toll as heretofore. IHli. But the foregoing liardships, united, bear but a small proportion to the magnitude of the evil they absolutely occasion — the good old proverb, " A stitch in time," &c., applies peculiarly to roads — a contracted policy as to the funds of turnpike roads, the poisonous fruit of the reports of the committees, each year multiplies the expence and increases the difficulty of maintaining them. 10th. In consequence of the oppressive duties on post horses, the chnises and other light carriages, which pay the highest toll, compared with the in- jury they do the road, are all but exploded; lake away the unproductive and impolitic tar, which, as Sir James Graham and Sir Robert Peel justly ob- served, will otherwise take itself away, and there will be a burst of improvement in their construction and speed. Now horses and drivers go 20 miles for 10 miles pay — then the march of improvement will manage matters belter ; the expence of posting will be reduced nearly one-half ; the inns built for public aC' commodation will resume their importance and value ; and British subjects, now driven, by the expence of internal travelling to the continent, will not entirely desert their native country, but remain, consuming exciseable articles, practically illustrating the prin- ciple of " fructification." To detail all the hardships to which the turnpike system is now exposed, the high rate of interest, the additional trouble to the clerks, which prevents the reduction in their salaries and attendant law-charges, so much wished by the trustees, the impossibility of arranging the voluntary uniting of small trusts, not merely from the great expence, but the prohibition of renewed acts, &:c., &c., would, at the present time, occupy too much space ; they are almost en- tirely the lamentable efi'ect, partly of the neglect, and still more of the mistaken policy of the Paulia- MENTAKY CoMMITrEES ON TunNPIKE IxOADS. I shall recur to this subject ; believing that all the existing defects in the turnpike system may easily be remedied without robbery or dishonesty, centraliza- tion or coercion. CINCINNATUS. ON DIBBLING WHEAT AND OTHER GRAIN. TO THE EDITOIl OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — In your Paper of the 26th ult. you inserted my letter relative to dibbling wheat, (for which I am much obliged) ; there being no date to it was an omission that I did not think of until after it was sent off. In that communication I requested to be favoured with your, or your correspondents', opinions as to dibbhng wheat only. As the machine is so constructed that it can be altered in five minutes to any other seed, I should be much obliged to any of your agricultural correspondents what the distances should be longitudinal and trans- verse, and the depth in the soil of wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans, and all other seeds that would be improved by being placed at certain depths and distances, feeling convinced that the application of the machiuc will su- persede the drill and broadcast sowing of almost every seed. I am. Sir, your's obediently, JOHN SIMS. Chaewater, Cormsall, Sept. 6, 1839. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 247 LOUGH NEAGH IMPROVEMENT. MR. GREGORY'S REPORT. In conformity with instructions received from the " Lough Neagh Improvement Company," I have caused surveys to be made of, and examined myself, personally, all the shores of Lough Neagh, and the banks of such of its tributary rivers and streams as are subject to inundation. I have, also, carefully examined the several causes that conspire to raise the waters above the Summer level ; and also caused plans and sections to be prepared, and levels taken, with a view to prevent the waters from rising above that level, and thereby obviate the incalculable injury done to a vast extent of country by the Autumnal and Winter floods, which, for a period of several months, cover thou- sands of acres of the richest soil, to a depth of from four to seven feet. This lough contains 1)7,272 acres, and receives the waters of seven considerable rivers, and innumerable streams; and has but one natural outlet for the discharge of all these waters, namely, the Lower Bann. This liver, as it issues from the lough, winds its course along in a zig-zag direction, for some miles, over a horizontal surface, and is crossed by a bar at Toome, within a few yards of this lake, over which there is but fifteen inches depth of water in Sum- mer. When the rainy season commences in that part of the country, those rivers contribute more water to the lough than its present outlet is capa- ble to discharge, in a given time. Its surface, therefore, continues to rise, while the influx ex- ceeds the efflux ; and, in time, surmounting the surrounding barriers, the redundant waters imme- diately diffuse themselves over the shores, which continue submerged for a great part of the year ; by which the soil is rendered altogether useless for agricultural purposes, and incapable of pro- ducing any thing but useless water-weeds and reedy grass, " totally unfit for horses, and very indifferent for any kind of cattle." As the surface of the lough rises, the waters of the several rivers and streams, which lie low, arc obstructed in their passage into it ; and, being forced back by the in- creased elevation of the lake, they soon become swollen, flooding their banks in some places many miles ; which remain in this state, till the surface of the lake is again lowered, by the slow discharge through the channel of the Lower Bann. The waters issuing from Lough Neagh pass through Lough Beg, distant from the former about one English mile, and containing about 2,551 English acres. At the lower extremity of Lough Beg, the waters force their way through the Lower Bann, till obstructed in their course at Portglenone, by a !)ar of rubble-stones ; and, at Portna, by one of those formidable barriers, so common in the North of Ireland, called whin-dykes, which crosses the river at that place. Another ledge of rocks, simi- lar to that at Portna, obstructs the passage of the waters at Moyvannahcr ; and a third at the Sal- mon Leap, a short distance from Coleraine. There arc other minor obstacles, composed of sand, gra- vel, and loose stones, which I shall notice here- after. The Lower Bann, being a series of hori- zontal reaches, intersected by these natural barri- ers, must necessarily overflow such portions of its banks as lie below their level. The consequences resulting to the inhabitants, from these floods, can- not be better described than by taking a few pas- sages from an excellent pamphlet on this subject, by John Obins Woodhouse, Esq., of Portadown : — " Useless water-weeds and rushes prevail to a great extent, and even this poor produce can with uncertainty be saved ; and it is calculated, that the occupiers lose one crop out of three, by the early rising of the floods. Besides these disadvantages, no kind of agriculture can be attempted ; the plough is unknown in these lands, and no person would dare to erect a habitation within reach of the an- nual inundation. Year after year, they remain almost a desert, — giving no employment to the labourer, of very little value to the owner, and ex- tremely prejudicial to the health of the inhabitants of the neighbourhood. It is, indeed, a melancholy sight to see, in Winter time, such vast floods covering lands in all directions, which might at the same time, be otherwise most usefully employ- ed. Looking either from Toome bridge, or the bridge at Portadown, in every direction the eye can turn, you see nothing but one sheet of water, covering lands composed of the finest alluvial soil, and oftentimes studded with hay-cocks, either float- ing down the stream, or rotting within sight of the owners, who are not able to rescue it from des- truction." On travelling round this extensive waste, last Winter, I was struck with amazement, that no former legislator or spirited individuals had undertaken the improvement of this vast tract, surrounded as it is by five counties, densely inhabited by a people remarkable for their industry and peaceful habits ; many of whom, for want of land and employment at home, are forced, year after year, to seek for both in foreign climes. The present design of reclaiming the flooded lands, round Lough Neagh, and along the banks of its tributary waters, is one of great national interest. The object sought is very easily eff"ected, without injury to any interest. While the Company is cer- tain of a speedy and ample return for the capital invested, the owners and occupiers will be ever- lastingly benefited, and thousands of unemployed labourers kept from the poor-house ; where they become unprofitable consumers of the property of their more fortunate neighbours, and a real bur- den to many others, already oppressed with rack- rents, and local taxation, which they are but badly able to pay. Before entering upon my plan of drainage, it may be necessary for me to shew, from the levels taken, that a sufficient fall can bo com- manded, to efi'ect the object proposed. Commenc- ing at the lake, and proceeding down the river, the first fall that occurs is at Portna. The height of this fall is seventeen feet, in a distance of about eight hundred yards.— At Moyvannaher, three miles distant from Portna, a fall of twelve feet and a half is obtained ; and, a short distance below it, at a place called the Vow, there are two falls, amounting, together, to three feet. Another fall of twenty inches is produced at the Loughans, six miles distant from the Vow, and one mile and a half below the Laughans, the ridge of rocks at the Salmon Leap produces the last fall of thirteen feet, giving, in the whole dis- tance, a fall of forty-seven feet. Having thus far shewn the several causes that conspire to inundate the neighbouring districts of the lake, and also that sufficient falls present themselves on the Low- er Bann for their drainage, the next duty I have to discharge is, to describe the mode which appears to me to be the most efl'ectual, and at the same time, the most economical, to effect this object. The first thing I would recommend is, to cut anew channel through the Crea Bog, commencing two hundred and forty-nine perches from the junction of the two roads leading from Toome bridge, and directing its course a little to the left of the North 248 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. West extremity of the Crea Island. The length of this proposed cut is one mile ; breadth at top, three hundred feet ; and, at bottom, two hundred and fifty feet ; aud must be cut to a depth of seven feet below the Sununer surface of the lake. These dimensions have been calculated upon scientific principles, — the required data having been fur- nished by a person who kept a daily registry of the different increased heights of the surface water of the lake in times of flood. The bar at Portna may be removed by dredging, — so may that near the New Ferry. The bar of rocks at Portna must be cut down to a graduated depth, as exhibited in my section of the river. This is the principal obsta- cle that keeps the water above it at its present le- vel ; the removal of this bar, therefore, assisted by a fall of 17 feet, will give the stream passing through the cut such a velocity as will keep the channel free from future accumulation of bars or shoals. The cuts to be made at Moyvannaher and the Sal- mon Leap diminish in capacity, inversely as the velocity of the stream increases at these places, as maybe seen in my section. The bar at the Loughans may be deepened, by dredging the channel at the West side of the island, situate in the middle of the river at that place. The new channel, which I propose to cut thuough the Crea Bog, possesses many advantages that cannot possibly be obtained at any other point of the lake. Jn the first place, it is the shortest distance between Lough Ncagh, from which the waters issue, and Lough Beg, through which they must pass. In the second place, the ground through which it passes is very easily excavated, being composed of a surface stra- tum of sand, two feet deep, resting upon a substra- tum of tenacious clay, free from gravel, stones, or rocks. In the third place, the stream through the channel of Lough Neagh is conducted nearly in a straight line, till it enters that partof theBann is- suing out of Lough Beg, by which its free circula- tion is promoted, unimpeded by any abrupt turns or angles, which should always be avoided in such cases. The Upper Bann and Blackwater rivers gliding along the lake, form one common channel, not far distant from the shores of the County Ty- rone. This channel directs the course of all the rivers and streams, from the Western side of the lake as far as Toome. The rivers and streams from the eastern side of the lake, uniting in the common receptacle, arc prevented from proceed- ing Northward, by the land at Shane's Castle, which, crossing their direction at right angles, constrains them to flow in a North-'\Vesterly di- rection, ultimately forming one common channel with the former, which directs its course to the new passage which I propose to cut through the Crea. Though the velocity of the stream in the lake, is, at present, almost imperceptible ; yet, when a passage is eff'ected, in a proper direction, its rapidity will soon become apparent. The pre- sent outlet at Toome bridge would not, by any alteration, well effect the object proposed ; it is too far South from the natural lake channel, and is bent in its course, at Captain O'Neill's castle, a little below the bridge, which would always have the efi"ect of retarding the progress of the stream, and the same causes that have produced the bar, near the bridge, would still continue to operate. Any other point, further South than the bridge, would be still more unfavourable for the cut. I would not recommend these works to be cari'ied on simultaneously, — they should be done, by de- grees, in the high Summer months. The bar at Portna should be first removed j after whichj thg river at Portglcnone and New Ferry should be deepened, — which could, as before stated, be ef- fected by dredging. The river at Portglcnone has a bridge over it, which should be replaced by a new one, the present being an old and infirm structure. The new channel through the Crea might next be made ; this new channel, crossing two public roads from Toome, would require two bridges, which, I would recommend, should be built with wood, such structures off"ering less re- sistance to the passage of the water than stone bridges. The keeping of the lake at Summer le- vel will not affect the navigation of the Upper Bann or Blackwater rivers. 'ITie bars, at their entrances into the lake, should be dredged out ; or locks and other works erected, to keep up suffici- ent depth of water for lighters and other vessels to pass. By the proposed alteration, the Lagan navigation can only suffer the same inconveni- ence as at present, during the Summer months. The constant Summer level would, perhaps, re- quire an additional lock, which, no doubt, would obviate any inconvenience itmight suffer from the proposed alteration in the Winter level of the lake. While these works are in progress of exe- cution, the necessary works on the new channel through the Crea, to regulate the surface of the lake, might be carried on. In order to regulate the altitude of the lake, the new outlet should be furnished with flood gates, which should be kept closed whilst the waters remain at Summer level. There should be, also, a regulating waste weir, at the side of the sluice gates. This contrivance would have the effect of discharging the water, the moment it rises above the Summer level, by raising one or more of the gates to produce the necessary discharge, and thereby keep the surface of the lake at the desired altitude; which, being fixed and certain, would afford security, and en- courage further improvements. The proprietors of the eel weirs, at Toome and Portna, should get adequate compensation for any loss they might sustain from the proposed alteration ; but it is my opinion, that these will suffer very little injury by the alteration, as the new state of the river might be as favourable as the present, and perhaps more so ; it being a well-known fact, that the overflow- ing of the river, when the eel fry is ascending, has the effect of disseminating great quantities over the adjacent lands, where they .ire lost. The wa- ter being confined, and the obstructions removed, the fry can make its way into the lake, unassisted by any artificial means ; by which the expence of keeping people for months attending with straw ropes, to assist them up the rapids, will be saved, and the entire of the fish secured. By the proposed plan of drainage, sixty thousand acres of land would be improved, which might be converted into good, arable land ; as, after the proposed al- teration having been effected, all the bogs and flooded lands in those districts, which are now of little or no value, would then command a sufficient fall for their drainage. The works at the Salmon Leap, Loughanst, Moyvannaher, and the Vow, might be deferred till the others are completed, or till an Act of Parliament was obtained, to enable the company to open the navigation of the entire district, by means of a canal through the Lower Bann, — an object very easily effected, and much to be desired. I have been induced to recommend the postponement of these works, from a convic- tion, that the quantity of land gained would, by no means, be commensurate with the expence. JOHN GREGORY, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 249 THE YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. We this day lay before our readers an abridged report of the proceedings at the Second JNIecting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, of which Earl Spencer is President. The prizes offered amounted, it appears, to upwards of 600/. Two hundred and eighteen new members have joined the society, and 1,800 persons sat down to dinner in the Pavilion erected for the occasion at Leeds. The progress which this society has made during the two first years of i!s formation is such as might have been ex])ected from the numerous and spirited inhabitantsof thecounty of Yori<,and is unquestion- ably such as to afford great gratification not only to the farmers of Yorksliire, but to those who are interested in agriculture in every part of the king- dom. We trust it is no longer necessary to ad- vance arguments for tiie purpose of shewing that such societies are eminently calculated to en- courage and promote improvements in agriculture; The selection of Leeds, as tlie place of meeting, was well made. The association of manufacturers and commercial men with the cultivators of the soil, is as eminently calculated to produce mutual benefit as the familiar intercourse of the landlord wilh the tenant. Tliere are very many persons who imagine that the interests of the manufacturing and commer- cial classes are opposed to that of tlie farmers. This gross misconception can never be so effectually cor- rected as by tlie explanations whicli the ordinary routine of tlie business of these meetings, at which all are indiscriminately assembled, afford. The great addition of members to the Yorkshire Society, during the past year, has been from Leeds and i(s vicinity. Not possessing corporate funds, the Mayor and Corporation, consisting of manufacturers and persons engaged in commercial pursuits, subscribed the sum of 60 guineas in aid of the funds of the society. The following observa- tions from Mr. Beckett, the Chairman of the Local Committee at Leeds, should be attentively perused by those who desire to learn the sentiments of enlightened commercial men in reference to agriculture : " My Lord, I am aware that we, who are devoted to commercial pursuits, can contribute but little time to the acquirement of agricultural knowjedg'e. But, little as we may be acquainted wilh agricultural science, let it not be supposed that we arc insensible to its importance — (cheers) — let it not be supposed, that we do not wish that any and every improvement should be given to it of which it is capable. ( Cheers.) My Lords and Gen- tlemen, commercial men cannot look upon the soil with apathy ©r indifference. In the fruits of the soil we see the greatest sources of national wealth, and in that we see the broadest basis of commercial prosperity. (Cheers.) We must no long'er talk of the products ot the soil being a matter of attention to the owner or oc- cupier of the soil. The produce of the soil is not merely of interest to the farmers or landlords, for we are all agriculturists in consumption, — {hmglUer and cheers) — aad every one knows this, that much abundance in the harvest is a stimulant to commercial prosperity— (/icii?-, hear) — but, if on the other hand, unfortunately for us, through the order of Providence, ©r the neglect of man, tliere should be a dearth, we all know it entails upon us a paralysis upon every limb of the commercial world. (Cheers.) I must be excused for speaking a little about the shop — (laughter)— hnt 1 tell you this, if ever there is an abundant harvest, the banker has no fears that bis coffers will be run upon, the merchant feels no uncer- tainty about his market, and the artizan and the me- chanic no longer views his occupation as precarious ; but he always sees that his subsistence will be cheap and nutritious. ( Cheers. ) My object is to make your lord- ships and the agriculturists aware of this — that we know how to appreciate the exertions making on behalf of agriculture." (Cheers.) These are the sentiments which sliould prevail amongst all the great classes which compose the na- tion. The interests of all are inseparably interwoven, no one can be materially injured without injury be- ing felt by each of the others. The observation of the same gentleman in reference to agricultural imple- ments is full of point, "send us your implements and we will send them back to you improved." Here is a most powerful argument in favour of directing attention to, and promoting the know- ledge of, mechanical skill in its application to agri- cultural implements. The village carpenter or the unreflecting farmer will perhaps exclaim, " What can the makers of spinning-jennies know about ploughs and harrows and such like implements?" The experienced maker of machinery who perfectly understands the properties of the various mechanical powers, and who is in the constant habif of apply- ing those powers to a great variety of the purposes of which they are capable, being once made acquainted with the use to which an agricultural implement is to be applied, will be more capable of suggesting improvement than the agricultural implement maker who makes by mere rule and line, without possessing the slightest knowledge of the principle upon which the implement, which he makes, acts. The inventors of some of the most valuable machines used in manufactories were not them- selves manufacturers ; and it may perhaps not be known to some of our readers that Mr. Smith, of Deanstoii, who invented the subsoil plough, and who has practically proved the efficiency of his system of thorough-draining and subsoil ploughing land, is himself a manufacturer. The principles upon which the lever, the wedge, and the screw, act, are precisely the same whether applied to agri- cultural implements or manufacturing machinery. We are happy to perceive that a prize for " the best practical report on turnip culture on light land," was awarded to Mr. M. Milburn of Thorp- fields by the Yorkshire Society. The proceedings after dinner would have passed off without the slightest interruption but for the misapprehension of some persons in reference to ob- servations, commenced by Mr. Baines, but vvhicli. their impatience prevented them from understand- ing by drowning the voice of the speaker in noise and clamour. The noble President, in calling to order, stated that his attention had been carefully- directed to what fell from Mr. Baines, and that he had not trenched upon the rule of the Society whicli precludes the introduction of topics which may- become subject of legislative enactment. The subject to which Mr. Baines was, as it seems, about to advert, was one of many, which come under the head of " Agricultural Statistics," upon which we are completely uninformed, and to which less attention has been given in this county than in several of the Continental States. To say nothing of the consumers, surely it cannot be 250 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of less impoitancc to tlie producers of wheat in tliis county to know the probable amount of the crop of the year than it is to the manufacturer to know wliat will be the produce of the cotton crop. An authentic report of the produce of the harvest, which should approximate the truth would enable tlie farmer in some measure to regulate the breadth of grain which he should sow for the following crop. The little interruption to which we have adverted soon passed off, and the meeting finally terminated in a' manner highly satisfactory to all parties, — Murk Lane Express. AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE— THEIR INTERESTS IDENTICAL. TO THE BDITOa OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir,— The various kinds of good, vrbicb " Tlio English Agricultural Society" under its distinguish- ed and enlightened patronage is almost sure to eftect, I apprehend, few people are able to foresee in their full extent ; although at present only in its infancy, the advantuges of such an iiislilutiou begin to mani- fest themselves, and it appears but a just compli- ment to its merits that every one of its benetits should be particularized, especially when they tend to the subversion of error, and the promotion of " Good will, Brotherly kindness, and Charity." This impression occurred to me on reading your ac- count of the meeting at Leeds, mentioned in last week's " Express'' (for though that society be only local, it is founded on much the same principle* as the other, and enjoys the hoHOur of Lord Spencer being its President) together with the just remarks made thereon in your " leading article," wherein the foolish idea of any jealousy or opposition be- tween the manufacturing and agricultural classes is exposed, and made to appear so extravagant and absurd that even " he who runs may read." — I am aware, however, that this sentiment is not as yet sufficiently general, and I am led thereby to ask the more especial attention of your readers to what was then said upon the same principle, and to do proper justice to the amiable chairman of flie dinner, which took place last Thursday in celebration of the first establishment of " Witney New Monthly market" in this neighbourhood (to which 3'ou only advert in general terms), as also to a celebrated manufacturer of that place; 1 beg to subjoin one or two of their speeches as copied from " The Oxford Journal." Mr. Early (to whom I last allude) is one of the Bailiffs of that town, and upon Lord Norrey's.M.P., proposing, as chairman, their healths, he rose to re- turn thanks, and after some prefatory observations, remarked, " He belonged to a class that was not ■very popular amongst agriculturists, but he could assure them that ho one felt a greater wish to see the market prosper than himself— and he was desirous to convince them, that, though a manufacturer, he was most happy to assist not only in establishing the market, but in everything that could be conducive to the interests of agriculture." Upon this the worthy chairman in his next toast of " The agriculturists and Success to Agriculture," observed, " He hoped that the agriculturists were fully aware of the great importance of the manufacturing interests to this country, and that they would evei bear in mind that the interests of agriculture and commerce were in- separable, and that the failure or success of the one was bound up in that of the other." He then went on to say, " It was of the higliest importance to trade that agriculture should flourish, for there was no instance, where one tljrived without the other. If trade was brisk, agriculture flourished, but if there was a pressure and stagnation in trade, agri- culture felt the eftecfs of it. He wished to see the two go hand in hand, and not to be considered as rivals. He rejoiced to see the two so united as they were on theprescntoccasion.and he sincerely wished that the same feeling would predominate throughout the country." To this generous and philanthropic observation Mr. Early replied, " that he could not permit the meeting to break up without being fully assured that he was deeply grateful for the noble sentiments which had been given utterance to, and for the way in which agriculture and manufacture had been associated on the present occasion. He had always been of opinion that the two were de- pendent on each other, that their interests were in- separable, and he trusted that they would always continue so. It must be obvious to all, that if a foundation be rotten, the superstructure must be insecure ; and in the same way, if agriculture were depressed, manufactures would feel the effects of it. On the part of the manufacturershe sincerely thanked the company, and valuing the union of agriculture and manufacture, he would say, " What God hath joined together let no man put asunder." Now, these are the opinions of all capacious and liberal minds ; the two pursuits are not only unopposed to each other, but, like the Siamese twins, they natu- rally suffer if either be sickly — or like the human mind and body, act and re-act upon their individual substances. This ought to be better understood than I fear it now is by a multiplicity of either party. Every meeting therefoie, which brings them toge- ther, and elicits these kinds of opinions must be be- neficial to such a desirable end. Henceforward let there be no divisions or jealousies amongst them, if it be only to conceal their ignorance of what is right and profitable to botli. This matter may be pretty well illustrated by what Dr. Johnson said of the political parties of his day, when a good deal of ran- cour and opposition existed, " That between a sen- sible Whig and a sensible Tory he could perceive but a shade of difference." I am, youis, &c. Burford, Sept. 6. HENRY JEMMETT. YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. MEETING AT LEEDS. The second annual exhibition of the Yorkshire Agri- cultural Society was held in the Barrack Yard, Leeds, on Wednesday August 28, Great expectations had been entertained that the display of cattle this year would be such as would cause the friends of agriculture to rejoice that a society of this description has been formed in this great county. The premiums offered by the society for the present exhibition, amounted to 600?., which sum was apportioned as follows ; — 175/. as premium s for short-horned cattle ; 97?. for Leices- ter sheep ; 28?. for pigs ; 124?. for horses ; 7?. for aa approved shepherd ; 23?. for wool ; 55?. for implements, SiC. ; 10?. for drainage ; and 80?. for reports connected with agriculture ; these sums being a total of 100/, THE rAllMER'S MAGAZINE. 251 more than the premiums of last year. For some weeks previous to the shew the committee had been actively engaged in making preparations for a dinner on an ex- tensive scale, for which purpose a temporary pavilion was erected, capable of dining nearly 2,000 persons. On Monday, the right hon. Earl Spencer, the presi- dent of the Society, and several other gentlemen forming the committee, arrived in Leeds, and held their meetings at Scarbrough's Hotel, Chas. Howard, Esq., of Melbourne, the honorary secretary, and his assis- tants, also attended on Monday and Tuesday, at the Court House, for the purpose of disposing of tickets of admission for the shew and the dinner, and for mak- ing other preliminary arrangements. The barracks are situate on the north side of the town, about a mile from Briggate, and a quarter of a mile north of Sheepscar -bridge. The principal part of the stock was stationed on the site below the riding school, and contiguous to the Wetherby road. The sheep were placed in a row of pens parallel with the end of the riding school ; on the south side were the pigs ; and the cattle were placed on the north side. In the middle of the area were a number of agricultural implements, some of which were the subjects of much curiosity and remark. Among these were several improved corn and turnip drills, two knife straw-cutters, oil-cake crusher, a hoy cart on a new principle, a barley humbler, Finlayson's patent harrow, a Canadian straw cutter, two Belgian corn scythes, &c. &c. The show of horses was on the parade ground, in front of the barracks, a piece of ground considerably elevated over the other part, and commanding a most beautiful view of the surrounding country. The wool was shown in the riding school, and in addition to that exhibited for prizes, there were shown several fleeces from Lord Western, of his pure Merino wool, of three years' growth, ^nd weighing 30lb. in the grease. This was much exarnined and ad- mired. Some fine samples of wheat and other produce were also exhibited in the room. Soon after seven o'clock the judges commenced their labours, which were of an arduous and difficult nature, from the number of competitors in many of the classes. At ten o'clock the public were admitted at 2s. 6d. each, the road was crowded with persons proceeding to the show, and the weather being beautifully fine, the scene was of a most animated description. At twelve the doors were opened to the public on producing one shil- ling tickets ; and the immense yard was speedily a scene of the greatest bustle and animation ; indeed such a novel sight as an agricultural show iu one of the largest manufacturing towns in the kingdom could hardly fail to bring together some thousands of persons for the purposes of pleasure and amusement. Pro- bably during the day not less than 10,000 individuals were present, but it is impossible to make a correct estimate, in consequence of the numbers which were continually arriving or leaving the ground. The show, upon the whole, was equal to the one of the preceding year, although many were inclined to believe otherwise. Of the horned cattle, the bull, Daniel O'Connell, was a most beautiful little animal, and the cow, Miss Fairfax, was probably the best ever shown. The three fat oxen were also much admired. Indeed it is almost invidious to particularize, where all deserved so much praise. The sheep, although not so numerous as we had expected, were very prime, and the show of pigs was most extraordinary, especially in the small breed. The large boar, belonging to Colonel Markham, excited the perfect astonishment of all who saw him, for his ponderous size ; and a Chinese sow with a litter of eleven pigs, received much attention from their singularity. The entry for the premiums awarded for horses was numerous, but some of the stock exhibited did not merit much commendation ; that however was au exception, the majority being noble animals. Napoleon-le-Grand was much admired, as were sevei'al other stallions ; a mare of Mr. Wetherell's, which gained the premium for coaching mares as also a match for 5Ql. was much admired by all those who examined her. The judges of the cattle were— Mr. Skipwith, Aylesby ; Mr. Crofton, HoUywell ; and Mr. Scatson, Toxteth Park.— For sheep and pigs— Mr. Buckley, Normanton ; Mr. Jobson, Wooller ; and Mr. Clark, Barnby Moor.— For horses— Mr. Clark, EUingthorpe Lodge ; Mr. Morley, East Toft ; and Mr. Walmslej', Bempton.— For Grain— John Wright, Esq., Chester- field.—For Wool— James Hubbard, Esq., Lteds; Robt. Derham, Esq., ditto ; and John Wade, Esq., ditto.— For Draining Robinson, Esq., Lockington ; M'Kcnlock, Esq., Great Ouseburn ; and Jewitt, Esq., near Hull. PREMIUMS. SHORT-HORNED CATTLE; Class. 1.— For the best bull of any age, 30/. to Charles Tempest, Esq., for his brown bull, Dan O'Connell fcalvcd 3d June, 1338;) second ditto, 10/. to F. H. Fawkes, Esq., for his aged bull, Norfolk ("calved in 1832). Class 2.— For the best two-year old bull, 20/. to F. H. Fawkes, Esq., for his roan bull, Sir Thomas Fairfax (calved April, 1837) ; second ditto, 5/. to Mr. Thomas Bates, for )iis red and white bull. One-eye (calved 15tli September, 1836). Class 3.— For the best yearling bull, 15/. to Chas. Tempest, Esq., for his yearling bull, Dan O'Connell ; second ditto, 5/. to E. B. Beaumont, Esq., for his white bull (calved 22d May, 1838). Class 4.— For the best bull calf, 5/. to Godfrey Wentworth, Esq., for his white bull calf (calved 6th April, 1839). Class 5. — For the best cow of any age, in calf or milk, 15/. to J. Whitaker, E?q., for his cow. Miss Fair- fax (1831) ; second ditto, 5/. to Charles Tempest, Esq., for his cow, Violet (June 1833). Class 6. — For the best three-year old cow, in calf or milk, 10/. to Charles Tempest, Esq., for his red and white cow, Lucetta (January, 1836). No other shown. Class 7. — For the best two-year old heifer, in calf or milk, 10/. to Charles Tempest, Esq., for his white heifer (June 11, 1837) ; second ditto, 5Z. to Mr. John Renton, for his white heifer (May 29, 1837). Class 8.— For the best yearling heifer, 10/. to Charles Tempest, Esq., for his white heifer, Lily (October 9, 1S37) ; second ditto, 5/. to the same, for his heifer (Nov. 26, 1837). Class 9. — For the best heifer calf, 5/. to Chas. Tem- pest, Esq., for his roan heifer calf (calved 14th Feb.) Class 10.— For the best lot of three fat oxen, 10/. to W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P., Esholt Hall, Leeds. Class 11. — For the best lot of three fat cows or heifers, 5/. — No Competition. LEICESTER SHEEP. Class 12. — For the best shearling ram, 20/. to Mr, Wm. Sonley ; second ditto, 10/. to the same. Class 13. — For the best two-shear ram, 15/. to Mr. John Borton ; second ditto, 7/. to Mr. John Kendall. Class 14. — For the best pen of five ewes, 10/. to W. Allen, Esq. ; second ditto, 51. to W. R. Earnshaw, Esq. Class 15. — For the best pen of five shearling wethers, 10/. to Wm. Allen, Esq.; second ditto, 5/. to J. W. Childers, Esq.. M.P. Class 16. — l^or the best pen of five shearling gimmers, 10/. to Rlr. G. Simpson ; second ditto, 5/. to W. Allen, Esq. PIGS. Class 17. — For the best boar, large breed, 5/. to Col. Markham ; second ditto, 2/. to Mr. James Denby. Class 18. — For the best sow, large breed, in pig or milk, 5/. to Mr. William Jordison ; second ditto, 21. to Mr. Nathaniel Whittenbury. The second prize was subsequently cancelled, it being discovered that the Kow was not properly qualified. s 2 91,9, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Class 19, — For llie best boar, small breed, 5/. to the ]lev. J. Iligg'inson ; second ditto, 21, to Mr. Geo. Alderson. Class 20. — For the best sow, small breed, in pi^ or milk, 5/. to Mr. Francis Gibbes ; second ditto, 21. to the Rev. J. Higginson. HORSES. Class 21. — For the best stallion for hunters, 20/. to Mr, John Watson, for Napoleon-le-Grand ; second ditto, 10/. to Mr. Richard Ferguson, for his Grey Wiguntliorpe. Cr.Ass 22. — For the best stallion for coach-horses, 10/. to Mr. Thomas Andrew, for Young Ebor ; second do., 5/. to Mr. William Phillips, for liay Carlton. Class 23. — For the best stallion for roadsters. 10/. to Mr. Philip Ramsdale, for his brown horse Fireaway ; second ditto, 5/. to IMr. Robert Ramsdale, lor his horse Wild Fire. Class 24. — For the best stallion for agricultural pur- poses, 10/. to Mr. John Bennett's North Star ; second ditto, 5/. to IMr. John Outhwaite's Norman. Class 25. — For the best mare for hunting, .')/. to i\Ir. W. Wood's mare by Orville, aged ; second ditto, 2/. to Mr. Rd, Hutchinson's chcsnut mare. Class 26. — For the best mare for coaching, 5/. to IMr. W, Wctherell's mare by Bay Ciiiiton; second ditto, 2/, to Mr, Rd. Grant's buy mare, aged. A match for 50/. between Mr. Wetherell and Mr. Anderson, to produce the best mare tor coaching, was also won by Mr. Wetherell with the above mare. Class 27.— For the best mare for draught, 5/. to IMr. Samuel Renton ; second ditto, 2/. to IMr. John Smith. Class 28.— For the best three-year-old colt for hunt- ing, 51. to Mr. Geo. Bickers ; second ditto, 2/. to IMr. J . Raper. Class 29. — For the best two-year-old coll for hunting, 5/. to Mr. Benjamin Atkinson ; second ditto, 2/. to the Rev. J. Iligginson. Class 30. — For the best three-year-old eolt for coach- ing, 5/. to JMr. Woffinden; second ditto, 2/. to John Raper. Class 31. — For the best two-year-old colt for coach- ing, 5/. to Mr. Woffinden ; second ditto, 2/. to ditto. SHEPHERD. 'i'o the first approved shepherd, being an annual ser- vant, who has reared the greatest proportionate number of lambs from not less than 50 ewes, in the year 1839, 5/. to Geo. Carr; to the second, 2/. to Alexander Mid- dlemiss. WOOL. For the five best fleeces of Leicester hog wool, 5/. to Wm. Allen Esq. ; for the five best fleeces of Soutlulowa hog wool, 3/. to the Earl of Leicester ; tor the five best fleeces of Southdovvn ewe wool, 2/. to the same ; for the five best fleeces of Moor hog wool, 3/. to Mr. James Hutchinson, Tellfitts, near Richmond ; for the five best fleeces of Moor ewe wool, 2/. to the .same. For Leicester ewe, Cheviot hog and ewe, no competi- tion. IMPLEMENTS. For the invention and improvement of such agricul - tural implements, as may appear to the committee to deserve reward, in various sums, the amount of 30/. was allotted ; but in this department the award of prizes has not been published. ROOTS, GRAINS, & SEEDS. For new or impreved varieties of agricultural roots, grain, and other seeds, in various sums, the amount of 20/. — Wm. Skirvmg, Walton Nursery, Liverpool, the only exhibitor, obtained a prize for his Purple Top Swe- dish Turnip. WHEAT IN EAR. For the best specimen of wheat in ear, the sample to be accompanied by a certificate of the produce per acre of the crop from which it has been selected, 5/. to the Rev, G. R. Read, Sutton-upon-Derwent, York. DRAINAGE. To the tenant in the West Riding of Ihe county of York, who shall have drained in the most efficacious, judicious, and economical manner, the largest quantity of land in proportion te his occupation, 10/. t9 James Roberts. PRIZE ESSAYS. Ci'LTivATioN or TunNii'S. — Mr. W'm. Linton, of Sherifl' Mutton, an essay on the cultivation of turnipson strong land; and Mr. Wm. Milburn, of Thorpfield, near Thirsk, an essay upon turnip crops on liglit land. — 10/. each, SrnoNO Land Fau.m,— For a detailed report of the best mode of cultivation upon whicli a farm of strong' land in the county of York has been actually managed, 10/. to Mr. John Young M'Vicar,of Kelfield. (^uicKwooD Fenci«. — For the best practical report on planting, rearing, cutting, and preserving quickwood i'enccs, detailing the cost of each proces*, and the result thereof, 10/. to Mr. Daniel M'Laren, woodman to Jos. Walker, Esq., of Sand Hutton. Mr. Watson, of \\'audby, also sent in an essay on this subject, which was so much approved of by the judges, that they recommended it to the committee to be published, with the i)ermission of the author, amsng the transactions of the .'jociety. EXTRA STOCK. CATTLE. W. P. Paley, Gledhow, Leeds— A roan heifer, calved Dec. 20, 1837 ; a red and white cow (calved 1832). Franci.s Gibbes, Ilarewood, Leeds— An aged cow. William Marshall, Winmoor, Leeds — A kit calf. Joshua Ingham, Blake Hall— a Highland Scot cow. PIGS. John Wilson, Elmstrce House — A Chinese sow and 11 pigs. John Rinder, Barnsley — Three hog pigs. HORSES. John Wiiks, AUeTfArd—A two-year-old hackney colt. Benjamin Stubbs, Leeds— A chesnut roadster marc. Rev. J. Dodsworth, near York — A yearling coaching colt. Willoughby Wood, Campsall Hall— A brown yearling colt. SWEEPSTAKES. CATTLE. Class 32.— For the best Bull of any age, 1/. to Charles Tempest, Esq, Class 33.— For the best Y'earling Bull, l/.to Rev. J. Higginson. Class 34.— For the best Bull Calf, 1/. to W. F. Pa- ley, Gledhow, Leeds.' Class 35. — For the best Y'earling Heifer, 1/. to the Rev. J. Higginson, Class 36.— For the best fat Ox, 1/, to W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P., for his four years old red and white fat ox. SHEEP. Class 37.— For the best Shearling Rara, 1/. to IMr. Sonley. Class 38.— For the best Two Shear Ran),l/. to John Borton, Habton, Malton, Class 39.— For the best Pen of five Ewes, 21. to Mr. W. R. Earnshaw. Class 40.— For the best Pen of five Shearling We- thers, 1/. to Wm. Allen, Malton. Class 41. — For the best Pen of five Shearling Gim- mers, 1/. to Wm. Allen, Malton. PIGS. Class 42.— For the best Boar, of any breed, \l. to Rev. J. Higginson. Class 43,— For the best Boar, small breed. Rev. J. Higginson. Cl.4ss 44. — For the best Sow, small breed, l/.to Earl Fitzwilliam. " ' HORSES. Class 45.— For the best Stallion for Hunters, 2/. te L. 'Jhompson. Class 46. — For the best three-year old Hunting Colt, 1/. to Geo. Bickers, Fry ton, Whitwell. THE FARMER S MAGAZINE. Class 47.— For the best two-year-old Hunting- Colt, 1/. to the Rev, J. Higginson, (winner of the second prize in class 29,) Class 48. — For the best Coaching Mare, ;1/. to R. Guant. Class 49. — For the best Roadster IMare, 1/. to Tho- mas Jackson, Barmby Moor, Pockhng-ton, Class 50.— For the best Mare for Draught, 1/. to W. Hall. THE DINNER IN THE PAVILION. About three a'clock, at which time a considerable part of the stock had lefl the yard, the scene of attrac- tion was the Pavilion, provided for the public dinner. The process of filling was accomplished without any pressure or hurry, and, in the course of a few minute?, more than 1800 gentlemen had taken their seats at llie tables. Earl Spencer, on taking his seat as Chairman, soon after three o'clock, was loudly cheered. On the right of the chairman were The Earl of Harevvood, Sir Thomas Goocli, tlie lion. W, S. Lascelii-*, M.P., Sir John Bower, Thomas Davi- son Blftnd, Esq., the Hon. P, Stourton, George Bhind, Esq., Dr. Hook, vicar of Leeds, Colonel Pitt, John Bhiyds, Esq., Edward Tew, Esq., Sir William Foulis, the Hon. VVm. Duncombe, C. lieckett, Esq., John Whitlaker, Esq., Jonas Whittaker, Esq., C. Montcilh, Esq., &c. On the left of the chair were Earl de Gray, Lord Galway, Lord Huwkc, Sir J. Y. B, Johnstone, Bart., William Battle Wrightson, Esq., M,P., Col. Kennedy, Major Woodehouse, the IMayor of Leeds, Edward Baines, Esq,, M.P., Hon. A, Lascel- les. Col. Fullerton, Capt. Markham, General Sharpe, R.J. Coulman, Esq.,Capt. Cunningham, Capt. Ligle- by, F. Cholmelcy, Esq., W. Wright, Esq., Major Brandling, Capt. Bernard, &c. The gentlemen who ofKciated hs vice-presidents were the Rig-ht Hon. Lord Wenlock ; H.S.Thompson, Esq.; W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P.; \V. Beckett, Esq.; Hon. Sir E, M. Vavasour, Bart.; J. W. Childers, p]sq., M.P.; Beckett Denison, Esq., &c.. See. We also ob- served Joshua Cromptou, Esq., of Sion Hill ; W. Rut- ter, Esq.; W. Mauleverer, Esq., of Arnclifle Hall ; R. Denison, Esq.; Maxwell, Esq.; W. Allen, Esq., of Malton ; '1'. Laycock, Esq., of York, and a great number of other highly iiitluential gentlemen. The stevvard* of the three Ridings were at the judg'es' table. W. F. Paley, Esq., president; T, Charge, Esq., and John Botteril, Esq., vice-presidents. Besides those already mentioned we noticed the fol- lowing present at the dinner or in the Barrack-yard during tin.' day : — Lord Wenlock, the Hon. Sir E. I\L Vavasour, Bart., Sir John Kaye, Bart., John W. Childer*. Esq., M.P., Cantley; George Rnmsden, Esq., Doncaster ; 'J'. Walker, Esq., and W. Walker. Esq., Wilsic ; Dr. Bower, Charles Jackson, Esq., Doncaster; the Rev. J. G. Fardell, Sprobro' ; Willoughby Wood, Esq., Campsall ; Wm. Hepworth, Esq., Pontefract; R. Denison, Esq., Joshua Ingham, Esq, ; E, W^. Wilmot, Esq., Ruflford; Charles Howard, Esq., York; Capt. Barclay, Fearg'Uis O'Connor, Esq., — Pulleine, Esq., Offley Shore, Esq., D. Sykes, Esq., Dr. Simpson ; F. Leatham, Esq., Heath ; M. Thompson, Esq. ; W. Allen, Esq., Malton; E. Newman, Esq., i)arley Hall ; W, Wetherell, Esq., Durham ; George Clarke, Esq., Barnby Moor ; J. Littlewood, Esq., Armlhorpe ; W. L. F, Scott, Esq. ; John Brown, Esq., John Hrowo, jun., Esq., Leeds ; R, Perring, Esq,, John Baker, Esq. ; E. Edeson, Esq., Lf eds, 6cc. &c. Seventy-two gentlemen officiated as stewards. In an orchestra, which was erected at the low end of the pavilion, were stationed the band of the 7th Dra- goons, who played many beautiful airs during the after- noon, Grace was said before and after dinner by the Rev, Dr, Hook, the vicar. The noble Chairman then gave — " The Uueen"— 3 times 3. Air — " God save the Cl'ieeu," all the company standing. " The Queen Dowager and the rest of the royal family.'' The Chairman then said — Gentlemen, I feel that it will be right for me to preface the next toast which I have to give to you by a few observations. I stated to you in the speech which I had the honour to make to you last year at York, what were the objects of our society. {Hear and Cheers.) I stated to you then, that the objects of our society were to promote the prosperity of agriculture in every one of its branches — (cheers) — not merely confining ourselves, as agricul- tural societies hitherto generally had done, to the ex- hibition of stock, but to promote, by every means in our power, the cultivation of the soil, and the increase of the produce of every article in agriculture. ( Cheers.) It is not necessary, therefore, for me now to go into a. discussion, or to state to you anything more as to what are our objects. Gentlemen, I do not think that in the assembly which I have now the honour to address, there is any necessity for me to point out to you the importance of those objects, and the benefits which we can do to the country by carrying them into effect. (Hear.) Gentlemen, I have heard, I confess, with some surprise, men to whose opinion on other subjects I should give great weight, express great doubts whether the union of science with the practice of agri- culture could be of any advantage. I differ with those persons. I believe that a great improvement may be made in the agriculture of this country by taking ad- vantage of the science now existing in it, and applying that science, whenever it can be done, to the improve- ment of our agricultural produce. Addressing you as I do at Leeds, it surely cannot be necessary for me to say whatare the advantages of the application of science to agriculture. {Cheers.) In this great town, where manufactures have risen to so great an extent, I appre- hend all those who hear me have strong reason to acknowledge the importance of the application of science to them. Then, I say that in agriculture we can have the same advantages. And lam sorry that vve have not had it hitherto to the extent that we might, but I feel confident that we can have it, and I hope and trust that we shall have it. {Cheers.) Why, gentlemen, is it possible to conceive that if we knew a little more than we do at present of the natural history of the animals we breed, and the plants we grow, that our efforts to succeed in the cultivation of those objects would not be more effective ? We are here met for what, but for the advantage of our society. We have brought together this enormous body of farmers to meet in one of the greatest of our manufacturing towns— a town, which manufactures one of the staples of our produce, and on which staple we mainly depend. (Cheers.) Gentle- men, we here have the opportunity of communicating with those who consume the article we grow, and we have the opportunity of hearing their opinions as to what sort of wool we ought to produce. We may take advantage of their experience and their knowledge in that matter ; we may take advantage, and I hope we shall take advantage of the great improvements in mechanical science, and apply it to the support of our agricultural interests. Therefore, it is not necessary for me to say anything to you in defence of the prin- ciples of our society ; yet as tliose doubts have been thrown out, I have taken the liberty of stating why I think they are unfounded. {Cheers.) Gentlemen, I will not at present detain you further, but beg leave to propose — " Success to the Yorkshire Agricultural Society"— four times four. The Earl of Harkavood : I shall give you a toast which I am sure you will all drink with much gratifica- tion ; because of all persons who have exerted them- selves to promote the interests of agriculture on all occasions, our noble president stands at the head. (Loud cheers.) On concluding an appropriate speech, hi* lordship gave — " The President" — three times three and loud cheers. Earl Spencer, ou again presenting himself, was 254 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. received with loud cheers. His lordship said— I am much obliged to you, gentlemen, for the very honest and cordial manner in which you have drank my health. Most true it is, I do not claim any merit to myself ; but, truly, I may say I am most anxious to promote the prosperity of agriculture in this great county. ( Chetrs. ) With this view it was that I was a party to the establishing of your society ; and also that 1 was a party to the formation of a society of the same nature, following your example, for the whole of England. (Loud cheers.) Increasing in numbers, we have had a very good show this day ; and we are encouraged to look forwards for times of prosperity from the symptoms which our meetings have hitherto given us ; for since the commencement of the present year we have had nn addition of 218 members in this neighbourhood. We have, therefore, earnest hopes that we shall continue to increase in our numbers at meetings of this description. And I allude not only to the farmers, but also to all other classes of this great county. With respect to myself, I shall always be happy to do all in my power to promote the prosperity of this society. {Cheers.) I would now only observe, that for the honour you have done me in drinking my good health, I beg to return 3'ou my best thanks. (Loud cheers.) The CiiAinjiAN then gave — " Lord Ilill, and thanks to him for the accommodation he has afforded us." — C Cheers.) Gen. Sharp acknowledged the toast in tlic name of Lord Hill. Earl De Grey proposed the healtii ofthe Lord Lieu- tenant of tiie Riding — " The Lord Lieutenant ol the West Riding" — (Fcur times four.) The Earl of Hahew ood returned thanks, and was re- ceived with groat applause. The Chairman then gave—" The Mayor and Cor- poration of Leeds." The toast was drank with loud cheers. The Mayor of Leeds returned thanks in an address of some length, and during his address, bis worship pre- sented to the society, from the corporation, a purse con- taining 60 sovereigns, to be appropriated as the society should think best. The Chairman then read the prizes awarded to the exhibitors of short-horned cattle. Hon. W. Lascelles, M.P. : — Gentlemen, it is now my duty to propose the health of the successful com- petitors in the 1st class (Cheers.) You have heard much of the name of Col. Tempest, and I only regret be is not here in person to acknowledge the honour ■with which I am sure you will receive the toast. But, gentlemen, 1 cannot, in introducing this toast to your notice, trespass much longer on your attention. The general objects of the society have been so well ex- plained by my noble friend, and every one so well un- derstands their nature, that it is unnecessary for me to enter upon them. But as my noble friend says, objec- tions are made to the utility of these societies ; now, I beg with my noble friend to differ from those (Hear, hear.) I take it to be of importance, that those who have the means, and who bestow their time and atten> tion on the improvement of agriculture, to meet with those who have not the means, that they may derive the benefit of their improvements. We may advert also to the difference in the nature of the profession s between the manufacturer and the agriculturist. In manufactures, if any invention is made either in sci- ence or experience, the application of such experiment can always be made without a great outlay of capital or risk of loss— f'c/ieej-s^ — but that is not the case with agriculturists, they cannot incur the expense of making experiments ; and it is by those who have capital devoting it to this purpose, and meeting to- gether periodically with those who possess not the means, and communicating the resiilt of their experi- ments, that the success of agriculture is to be ad- ■vanced (Cheers.) Gentlemen, with these few observa- tions, I shall conclude by proposing to you the health of Mr. Tempest and of those Gentlemen who have been the successful candidates for cattle (Cheers). W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., on behalf of Mr. Tem- pest (who liad gained eight prizes) and the other suc- cessful competitors, returned thanks for the toast. The Chairman having read over the list of prizes awarded for rams, called upon Robert Dennison, Esq., of Kilnwick Percy, who proposed the health of Mr. Allen, and the successful competitors in sheep (Loud cheers.) William Allen, Esq., of Malton, briefly returned thanks. The Hon. Sir E. M. Vavasour, Bart., rose amidst cheers, and proposed, "The successful candidates for pigs.'' (Cheers.) Colonel Markiiam returned thanks. Edmund Denison, Esq., on rising, was received with loud cheers. He spoke as follows : — " The com- mittee have done me the honour to request that I should propose the health of the successful candidates for horses ; I have great pleasure in so doing. I con- fess my weakness in this point, but I am ready to ad- mit that I think, that a fine hunter capable of carrying sixteen stones is one of the finest animals in the ani- mal creation (Loud cheers.) And in my humble opinion, for all the purposes of utility, and all the pur- poses of pleasure, the perfection of a hunter to carry great weight is that description of horse which all breeders of horscij ought to aim at (Cheers.) I am ready to admit, that the race-horse is an abstract spe- cies, and that the hunter cannot compete with him upon the race-course of Doncaster or of Newmarket ; but I humbly submit, that the horses I have just al- luded to are superior in point of utility, and contribute to the pleasure of the community more than any other description of horses that I have named ; for, short of winning the St. Legcr, he is fit for any «se to which horses can be put. He can carry a gentleman up to the fox-hounds, he can draw his carriage, he can draw a brewer's dray, and even draw the butcher's cart— of which the butcher in London is as proud as the butcher in Leeds — and if you wish to produce the best horses I would advise you to aim at those which will carry sixteen stones across the country (Hear, iind cheers.) If you do so, you cannot place him wrong, except it be that you start him for the St. Leger or the Derby. Now, I take the liberty of saying, that such a horse is well calculated to amuse every person now present, and that he who is the owner of such a one is bouod for such amusement to the most splendid animal of the creation (Hear, and cheers.) He always answers to whip and the spur ; he is grateful for the kindness of his driver; and the better you treat him, the better he will carry you (Loud applause.) 1 presume on this subject to speak with confidence, although humbly I hope, for it has been my satisfaction and pleasure to follow the fox-hounds for five-and- twenty years, and you will judge from my appearance that I ride no light weight. 1 have had some of the best horses in the kingdom ; and although perhaps this is not ttie best opportunity on which I might olfer advice, I may ven- ture to say, that one mistake the breeders make is in Silecting for stallions only thorough-bred horses; if they would pay more attention to their mares (and I address these observations to my lords and gentlemen on the higher seats at the end of the hall) —if they would patronise those which are not quite thorough- bred, but have all their mares of a good kind and of the best breeding, they would, no doubt, materially improve the breed of hunters of this kingdom. But the difficulty is this, that not one in a hundred stal- lions are selected from their bone, but from their blood ; and I will venture to suggest, that if you will adopt the use of stallions not quite thorough-bred, you will raise the character of the English hunters higher than it is at present. I now beg to propose — "The healths of the successful candidates for horses on the present occasion." (Cheers.) Sir John V. B. Johnstone: — Gentlemen, the three last toasts which have been proposed to your notice have had reference to those gentlemen who have pro- duced tlie best specimens of stock at this meeting ; but, gentlemen, the toast wiiich I have the honour to pro- pose to you refers to those who have been succtsslul ia THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 255 oljtainingf the prize essays of this society — those genlle- men who have contributed by their pen to the dissemi- nation of sound principles of agriculture, — and have en- deavourei to demonstrate how the growth of all crops, particularly that of wheat, may be most improved and increased in this country. {Cheers.) On more than one occasion, the noble President has endeavoured to shew tlie necessity of placing^ agriculture upon the basis of science, and 1 hope you will all assent lliat the pro- motion of the great objects of agriculture are insepara- ble from those of science. ( Cheers.) You have heai'd it so often remarked, that it is not necessary for me to tell you thai science has done nothing- as yet for agriculture. We have not been able yet to apply the great powers of steam to do the drudgery of our agricultural labours ; nor has chemistry yet opened her portals tons. I am not one of those who think there ^s any royal road to success in agriculture, but believe that whatever im- provements we may attuin must be the result of long and laborious investigation and experiment. When we see this society making such general interest to carry out this great branch of national inierest, and when I witness the disposition on the part of the manufacturing gentlemen of Leeds to take hold of our manufacturing implements, and examine them with the minute eye of the meclianic, and tell them whether there was a cog too much or not, we have no reason to despair that their utility will be considerably improved. (Cheers.) We may also count on something from the establishment of an agricultural professorship at Oxford, and also from tlie establishment of a Society in London, for the ad- vancement of Geology and Agriculture, and with the assistance of such men as Dr. Buckland, no doubt con- siderable discoveries and improvements in agriculture will be the result. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, I hope soon to witnt;?.« the day when the stratification ©f the earth will be an important feature in the cultivation of the soil, and when those riches which lay on the surface of the earth may be made of greater u?e in the general produce of the lanfj. (Loud applause.) Gentlemen, I am not in a position to trespass on your attention much longer, but I must say that T am sanguine enough to hope that by such appliances, and by such combina- tions as machinery is now making, our crops, which are at present periodically de;ficient,and the source of great misfortune to the cultivators of the soil, may in a great measure be anticipated, and precautions taken to reme- dy the ruinous consequences. ( Cheen.) 1 must beg pardon, gentlemen, for indulging in these observations, but I hope at some future time to address you more par- ticularly on the subject of geology in connection with agriculture. For the present, you must allow me to conclude by proposing to you—" The successful com- petitors for the prize essays." The toast was drank with mueh enthusiasm. Mr. M'ViCAR replied in a short speech. The Rev. Dr. Hook, Vicar of Leeds, next rose, and was received with tremendous cheers. He concluded an excellent speech by proposing— " Prosperity to the agricultural classes." (Vociferous cheering.) E. Baines, Esq., M.P., proposed—" The Vice-Pre- sidents of the Yorkshiie Aaricultural Society." (Drank with three timei three, and loud clieers.) The Chairman then proposed—" The Judges of the Show," which was loudly responded to. Mr. BucKiEY, in returning thanks, said, that every gentleman naturally thought his own cattle the best, b«t he could assure the gentlemen present, that every attention had been givtn by the judges ; and, as far as he knew, thie prizes had been awarded with impar- tiality. The Chairman, in rising to propose the next toast, said that there was no individual to whom they were so deeply indebted as iheir secretary. (Clteers.) The main business of that show depended upon him, and I can assure you that we are under gre it obligations to Mr. Howard, 1 will not detain you longer, because 1 think it unnecessary to make any further observations upon the subject. I give you—" The health of our Secre- tary, ]\Ir. Howard." (Loud cheering.) Mr. Howard returned thanks. He said, my lord* and gentlemen, I have neitker voice nor lungs to ex- press my sense of the honour that has now been con- terred upon me. Under such circumstances I am sure you will excuse me and accept my heartfelt thanks ; I cannot, however, sit down without expressing my thanks to the gentlemen of Leeds for their kind assistance in the performance of my duty. (Hear, hear.) Gentle- men, you shall have all my zeal in your cause , and I will endeavour to show my gratitude by faithfully per- forming all my duties. (Hear.) The Chairman next proposed — " Col. Kennedy, ana the Officers at the Barracks." (Dranl: with loud cheers.) Col. Kennedy returned thanks. The Chairman next proposed—" The Local Com- mittee of Leeds." (Clteers.) WiLi.iArn Beckett, Esq. proposed — " The health of Lord Wenlock, and the General Committee." (Loud clieers.) The Chairman proposed, as a concluding toast — " The Fleece," wliich having been acknowledged by a gentleman whose name we did not learn, the noble lord and the principal gentlemen retired about eight o'clock, followed by the rest of the meeting. A consi- derable number, however, remained for some time longer, to keep up the " harmony of the evening." ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF A FARM. TO THE EDITOR OF THE SALISBURY AND WINCHES- TER JOURNAL. Before the mind perplexes itself in finding out the application of the sciences to the purposes of agriculture, it should first acquire useful know- ledge of the rudiments of farming, just as a child should know the alphabet before acquiring the art of spelling. Examples — 1st, The extirpation of weeds. 2n(l, Deep cultivation. 3rd, Pulverisation of the soil. 4th, Choice and saving of seed. 5th, Depth in sowing. 6th, Change or rotation of crops. 7th, Manuring. Reaiarks. — 1st, The extirpation of weeds forms the basis on which all experiments and improve- ments can alone succeed. Weeds diminish the produce of the crops one-half — increase the ex- pense of manuring twofold — and entail on the land perpetual labour. 2nd, Deep cultivation affords a more extended range of fertile soil, from whence the roots of the plant can derive nourishment ; consequently, there must be more strength to give a larger increase of produce. For instance, spade cultivation on the poorest soil will yield more luxuriant vegetation than that broken up to the depth of single ploughs. 3rd, Pulverisation of the soil is a suitable pre- paration of the earth to a healthful condition for the reception of seed, acts as a nursery-bed to the plant in its first stage, causes a more vigorous growth in its progress to maturity, and may be considered the very best preservative against smut. 4th, The choice and saving of seed is of great importance, because on the good quality and kind of seed depends in a great measuie the prolific tendency of the plant. Hence a less poition of seed is requisite, yielding a better produce thaa more of an inferior grain. 256 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. oth, The depth of sowing must in some degree be regulated by the weather and pulverised state of the ground. As a general rule, It is better to deposit the seed rather too deep than suffer it to be exposed too near the surface, to be destroyed by birds, vermin, and the severity of the weather. The system of drilling under furrow, or dibbling, will be found most efficacious in saving- the quan- tity of seed to the extent of nearly two-thirds! 6"th, A change or rotation of crops is necessary to restore anJ purify the soil. There are certain properties in the land more essential to the growth of one species of plant than another. Oa this ac- count it is obvious, that if too great an extraction of one of the component parts of the earth is al- lowed to talvc place, the whole must become inef- ficient. On this principle, it is desirable even to change the rotation system in the course of four or five years. 7th, Manuring the land forms a grand item in farming, both on account of its expense and its need to replenish the land : it is, therefore, very important to know tlie art of managing this de- partment with the greatest economy, and prevent- ing waste in any possible shape. Close attention to the first and second of these rules will prove a great assistance to the attainment of so desirable an object. If any Agricultural Society should be disjiosed to offer a handsome premium for the best prize essay, in a condensed form, on the principle of practical farming, in connexion with the foregoing rules, I should feel pleasure in becoming a sub- scriber. Respectfully, the Fx'iend of the Farmer, JOSIAH NEAVE. Fordinglridge, 2nd of i) Mo,, 183!). LORD WESTERN'S SYSTEM OF DRILLING. Tlie following letter from Lord Western to Lord Rayleigh, showing the result of his system of dril- ling, will be read with inteiesi by the agriculturists of the kingdom : — Felix-hall, September 4, 1839. ]My dear Lord, — I promised last year in my letter of August loth, to report further to your lordship respecting my system of drilling wheat, together with a detail of the produce of my farms from the harvest of 1838. I remain firmly attached to the mode I Lave hitherto pursued of putting the rows at nine inches apart, and sowing three bushels of seed per acre ; and here let me guard myself against the erroneous opinion adopted by some persons, that I insist upon three buslielsof seed per acre, in all soils, and untler all circumstances. I am convinced that qiinntity is not too much in the generality of our clay-botiomed lands, but the nature of the soil, and the time of sou-- ing and other circumstances, must, under the judg- ment of the farmer, render very diiferent the quan- tity required. I am of opinion certainly, that in general too little seed is put into tlie ground ; that opinion I first formed from conversation with several of the most intelligent of Lord Leicester's tenants, and it has been confirmed by my own experience. I have been rather misunderstood also, 1 fear, upon another point ; I have been supposed to attribute to this drill system, the heavy crops I have grown for the last few years, which I certainly never intended to do. I think the system has had some share of merit and influence upon my success ; in the first place by securing a good plant, which is a primary object. In the spring of '38 I had a full plant, when multitudes failed. I confidently believe that the failure of a plant will be veiy rare indeed under this mode of seeding the ground, and 1 think, too, the straw is stouter, and where the straw is strong, the head will be always large. I have made special inquiry this year of my reapers, and in every instance they com- plained of the stoutness of the straw, and I dare as- sert that not only are the ears larger, but that also the dwindled ears are fewer than in broadcast sowing or very close drilling. I did indeed declare to your lordship last )-ear my conviction, after going into all my fields with my bailiff', that such was the case, and this year's similar examination and in(iuiry of the harvestmen likewise, has added confirmation strong to my opinion. My reasoning upon it then, I shortly repeat now, as it may have escaped your lordship's memory; indeed, ray reasoning is more a statement of facts, viz., that the straws and stums are fewer and therefore stronger ; and they are fewer, because the grains deposited thickly in the nariow compass of the coulter mark, nine inches apart, do not branch a tillow ; one grain puts forth, suppose, for instance, only two stems instead of ten, and the two in such will be stronger than the ten ; at the same time, from the rows being nine inches apart they have ample space from whence to draw nutriment, and a free circulation of air, sun, and light. Such, I say, is my reasoning upon it, but if the fact is as I represent, it matters little whether my mode of accounting for it is correct; and whether I am right in the facts, per- sons may satisfy themselves by inspection, which I earnestly invite now and at all times; an examine- tiou of the stubbles should be made at this time, by any persons at all inclined to fair investigation. Upon the whole, therefore, I am of opinion that my m- creased produce the last three years is in some de- gree attributable to the system I have pursued, and I strongly recommend pretty extensive trials of it, if not its immediate adoption. But the main causes of increased, and, I flatter myself, still increasing produce, have been the seasons and high farming ; the first we cannot command, the second we can. If you ask me to say what is high farming, in two words I say, animal manure. Lime, chalk, marl, salt, saltpetre, &c., may be administered with advantage no doubt, and a man may make his fortune by such applications to fresh land, but unless it is followed up by high farming, by animal manure, it tends to exhaust the soil, and there was much reason in the prohibition found in many old leases in this country against chalking the land, and in the dislike of far- mers to occupy old chalked lauds. It is the animal manure which alone gives stamina to land. There is nothing new under the sun, and there is certainly nothing- new in what I here advance ; furthermore, it is nothing new to say, that from an admixture of chalk, lime, and marl, with animal manure, the best results will follow. The value, however, of such admixture in these days does not appear to be so ge- nerally recognised, nor is it so much seen in piactice — at least not in my neighbourhood — as I think it ought. I practise it with marl to a greater extent, certainl}^, than I believe any of my neighbours. Marl prevails all over my estate, and I mix it in large quantities in every cempost I make, a layer of dung and a layer of marl alternate, and turn it over sufficiently often to make it rotten and cut out in a substance. I am aware there are those who advocate the putting on raw Iresh dung instead of rotten, I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 257 will not enter into the argument, my intention being simply to describe my own practice, and most dis- tinctly and unreservedly exhibit the results. The means of collecting the animal manure are various (I do not advert to foreign or adventitious, such as fish for example) in the purchase from London or neighbouring towns. I confine myself to the mode of supply at home if I may so express myself. My mode is by sheep feeding, and particu- larly folding in yards all the winter through, and indeed the spring — there may be some novelty in this practice, It has not, I believe, been thought that sheep would thrive under such confinement, but they do, I think, faster than in the fields ; the fatting wethers and feeding stock of all kinds, young and old, do not go out at all, the ewes and lambs for an hour or two in the day ; the folding yards are surrounded with sheds made in the rudest manner, with mere firewood sticks, and covered with haulm, and are consequently within the reach of any farmers to build. Tiie sheep tread the straw as well as bullocks, and their manure I think better, and mixed with marl as above de- scribed, I do believe constitute the best possible means to produce large ears, and render them full and heavy. To provide well for the sheep I spare no expense. I make every effort to produce vegetable crops of every description, and give coin and cake also rather profusely ; well-bred animals will pay for high feed- ing in themselves, and most decidedly in the corn harvest. Another valuable means of acquiring animal manure at home, is pig breeding and fatting, both of which I carry on to a great extent, and fatten all 1 breed ; this practice is within the reach of every farmer who grows beans, peas, and barley. iVIany are the farms in this county to which are scarcely attached above an acre or two of pasture, and some in which the land is heavy ; and here the pig feeding and fatting must be the resource, and may be most effective, if occasionally money should be lost at it, by casual rise of the corn on which they are fed ; against this loss should be put the cost of purchasing manure elsewhere, and the advantage will be found still in its favour. I met with a very intelligent farmer at Oxford, who told me that for many years he had not carried out ^a load of peas, beans, or bar- ley, having consumed the whole on his premises, and then carried them out so converted into the flesh of oxen, sheep, and pigs. Happily the fatting system is gaining ground, and the starving system is sinking- fast into disrepute ; a peep info a farm-yard in the winter shows distinctively the character of the far- mer. I have seen in some poverty everywhere staring you in the face ; a few miserable cows, hav- ing nothing but straw to eat, and their more wretched weanels upon the same diet ; gieatlean pigs, squeak- ing for food, and continually breaking bounds to avert absolute death by starvation. Go into tlie stables, and see horses racked up with straw. There are yet a few such men left ; they will, notwithstanding, often paj^ with punctuality, an easy rent; but I think their occupation of land a public injury to the sountry, and they should, if possible, be removed, to make room for men of spirit, who would give double employment to the labourer, make the ground yield a double quantit}- of food for the supply of our increasing population, and thus help to render fo- reign corn quite unnecessary. I now come to an account of the produce of my farmsfrom the harvest of 1838, and here I am unable fully to redeem my pledge, for in my Felix-hall farm a considerable quantity is yet unthrashed. On the Rivenhall farm all is out and gone to market. The number of acres sown with wheat was 45, working- measure ; the whole quantity thrashed 231 qrs. 5 bush., which gives 5 qrs. 1 bush, per acre. I have little fear of the Felix-hall fiirm turning out as pro- ductive. It is to be observed, that of these 45 acres, one field of 14 acres was in wheat in 1836, and then yielded a full 5 qrs. per acre; in 1837 it was sown with Italian and common ray grass, fed early, then ploughed about and well mended. I do not like to hazard an opinion of the crop now being har- vested, but my immediate impression is, that it will be equally productive, with the exception of one 12 acre field of rough cliaff white, which I am told has very generally failed this year. Before closing this year, I have thought that it may be useful to give an account of the produce of my farms a few years back, and the average prices. The harvest of qrs. bs. pks. s. d. 1832 gave 4 6 1 per acre 55 If per qr. 1833 3 3 3 ditto 49 5^ 1834 4 0 1 ditto 40 11 1835 4 2 3 ditto 40 lOf The average of these four years is 4 qrs. 1 bush. 1 peck per acre, and the average price 473. 7d. per quarter. The harvest of qrs. bs. pks. s. d. 1836 gave 5 2 3 per acre d6 5 per qr. 1837 5 0 0 ditto 61 0 Rivenhall — 1838 5 1 0 ditto 71 2 The average prices here are the average prices of ray sales throughout the year. This increase of produce from four to five) quarters per acre, could it be permanently maintained, would lead to most important consequences, and at all events ex- cite very interesting reflections. I think it materially owing to the higher farming 1 have recently prac- tised, and that it can be maintained except under very unfavourable seasons. Other fanners who have ef late pursued the same course that I have, will, I am confident, give the same account, and ought to avail themselves of such opportunities as may occur to make it known. I have now spun out this letter to a greater length than I intended. I hope not to exhaust your pa- tience. I have the honour to be, my dear lord, Your faithful and obedient servant, WESTERN. To the Lord Rayleigh. BLINKERS. — Amongst a variety of unnecessary suffering and punishment endured by that useful aaimal the horse (especially our unfortunate hacks), blinkers are decidedly not the least ; for, having made long and close observation on the subject, I find that they are not only a great annoyance and pain to the animal, from their proximity to the eye, but that from this cause (when it is the case) the sight becomes gradually dull and thick, till he is left entirely without it. Two or three of the veterinary surgeons with whom I have conversed are of the same opinion, giving close blinkers as a reason for the number of blind horses seen in and about London. With many of thtse poor wretched animals they are not required at all, but are used, like many unnecessary straps and trappings about the har- nesf , more from habit than necessity. Where they are required they should be placed sufficiently apart from the eye, so as not to give pain and cause irritation. I hope all persons who keep horses will give them relief in this respect, as many have very properly and kindly done in removing the painful and unnecessary bearing- rein.— Correspondent of the Morning Post, 258 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SODA AND SALTPETRE AS MANURE. TO THE EDITOn OF THE MARK LANE EXPHESS. Sin, — Both soda (nitrate of soda), and saltpetre (nitrate of potash), liave heen recommended as ma- nure, in your paper, will you permit an old sub- scriber and correspondent, to ask whether any of your numerous readers have made any experiments on the comparative merits of the two substances. The former is, I believe, the cheapest article, but I doubt whetlier it is so beneficial. Muriate of soda (sea salt) has been IVequently used, aiiJ I suspect its value in that shape is very doublful ; but polasli in the form of wood ashes is known to bo a good ma- nure ; 1 wish also to know, whetlier these substances can be used in Autumn for wheat, or only ns a top dressing in Spring, as some say. If you will insert these inquiries, eitlier in my words or in your own, you will much oblige me. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, T. F. PS. — It was with equal surprise and pleasure, Mr. Editor, that I perused vour favourable notice of Mr. Blacker's pamphlet on the Currency, and your sen- sible remarks on it, July 1.5th. Some of your leading articles have discouraged inquiry on this subject, and represented it as of minor importance ; 1 there- fore congratulate you on the increase of liglit, and and thatyouare nowmore dis])oseJto ])romote inquiry on this all-important question. I have, mvself, pointed out the injustice of our monetarv system, and its unsuitablencas in public and in ])rivate, in season and out of season. But what reason and ar- gument fail to effect, is often brought about bv the course of events. I have always looked to a large importation of corn as likely to try the strength of our " sound system of currency ;" and whenever we have two or three deficient crops of wh^-nt in suc- cession, the subject will inevitably force itself on the attention of all those persons who are capable of un- derstanding it, and eventually of the government. But, I forbear, hoping to see the remarks of others on Mr, Blacker's pamphlet. Perhaps you will favour your readers with the substance of any observatiors on it, made by any of the leading I^ondou pajiers. T. F. I believe that something like the plan recommend- ed by Mr. Blacker has long existed in Sweden, with advantage. It was predicted, I lliink, by Lord Ash- burton, in his evidence before the last Agricultural Distress Committee, that our present monetary sys- tem would not stand against war, or a heavy import- ation of corn ; yet, strange to say, h© approved of it. It is now the fashion to assert, that there would be no derangement of the system, if we could have a free trade in corn; and even Mr. Sprice Rice, in a paper now before me. Morning Post, Aug. 24th, says, we should not in that case be subject to such danger ; and Mr. Villiers echoes the opinion, and says, it is " entirely attributable to the existing Corn Laws." But how free trade in corn could jirtvent our wanting occasionally four or five million quar- ters of wheat from abroad, beyond the iisual demand therefrom (even with perfect free trade) I cannot imagine. I rather suspect our fluctuations of de- mand would then be greater than now, under our protected home agriculture, and consequently de- range the money-market more than at present. The average price of corn is ntver nigher than suffi- cient to secure the average giowth of corn ; if therefore free trade should cause a reduction of one-fourth on the average price, one-fourth less corn would be grown at home, foreigners supplying tlie deficiency in ex- change for manufactured goods J but the occafional and it»e.j;)ected demand of, perhaps, four or five mil- lions more must be paid for in bullion as at present. So at least it appears to roe. ARTJFICIAL INCUBATION- ECCALEOBION. -THE A highly curious and interesting exhibition, espe- cially to the pkyssiologist, is now open at 121, Pall-mall, opposite the Opera Colonnade, called the Eccaleobion, a contrivance for h.itching eggs by artificial heat. It differs from the Egyptian metliod of artificial incuba- tion by means of mammels, or ovens heated immedi- ately ijy fire, which was tried in Paris by De KeauHour, and in London by Mr. Mowbray ; and also from the more recent attempt at the Egyptian Hall by means of steam. In what way the heat of the Eccaleobion is produced vre are not informed ; probably it is by hot water ; certainly the operation is simple and effective, as abundant living proofs daily testify. In an oblong wooden cuse, about nine feet in length, and three feet in width and depth, entirely isolated, and divided into eight compartments, each closed by a glazed door darkened, the eggs are placed on cloth, without any covering ; here they remain for twenty- one days, the period of incubation ; at the ex'piratiou of ■which time the chick liberates itself, and the next day is running about and pecking its food as lively a? if it had the hen's wing to shelter it. The Eccaleobion is capable of containing upwaids of two thousand eggs, and of hatching about a hundred daily ; and though some failures occur Irom natural causes, the machine, unlike the parent bird, never addles the egg. It is always contrived that one compartment shall exlibit the last stage of incubation ; and this being open, the visitor may not only hear the faint chirp of the imprisoned chick, but watch its attacks on its oval cell, till having broken the shell all rounds it bursts the integuments and liberates it?elf. At first emerging into this new state of existence, the light and the hu- man eyes gazing on the little chick, together with its extreme weakness, make it appear as if it would fain retire into its confinement again ; it staggers, clo&es its eyes, and falls down in an apparently exhausted state, but soon revives, though but for a short time ; as soon as it can take food, however, it gains strength rapidly. In the last stage of incubation the egg may be held in the hand, or placed in a lady's bosom ; where, if any fair visitor bi; so minded, the chick may come to light. In a case fitted with knses, placed before eggs in different stages of incubation, lighted by gas, the ap- pearances through the shell may be observed ; and on a table are placed the contents of several eggs at suc- cessive periods of incubation, showing the formation of the embryo, from the first day (as seen under the mi- croscope), to the complete bird, coiled up in its oval form ; to trace the gradual development of the eyes, the bill and cranium, the heart and circulating system, the feet, featheis, &c., is exceedingly interesting. The fledglings are placed in partitions and supplied with food, and the room rings with their chirping. The Eccaleobion 'process is of course applicable to eggs of every species of bird, but none others than those of the common gallinaceous fowl have been reared ; parties bringing the eggs of other birds, how- ever, can have them hatched by the machine, as the same temperature (about 98 degrees of Fahrenheit) is applicable to all, from the wren to the eagle. The in- troduction of the Eccaleobion into general use will supply abundance of fowls for the table at a very cheap rate, and with little trouble : the machinery of the Eccaleopion is also applicable to a variety of scientific purposes, where an even and pervading temperature is required, as it may be regulated at pleasure up to 300 degrees of Fahrenheit. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 259 LINCOLNSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The Riffht Hon. John Eai'l Brovvnlow, Presi- dent. The following' Premiums were awarded by this Society at their Twentieth Anniversary, held at the City Arms Hotel, in the City of Lincoln, on Thursday, the 29th day of Aug-ust, 1839, as under:— For the best Cart Stallion of any age, 11. 7s., to Mr. John Bell, Gf VVelton Ls Wold. For the Stallion best adapted for getting Hunters, 11. Is., to Wm. Lacy, of Panton. For the best Bull aged 3 years and upwards, 7/. 7s., to Wm. Bartholomew, of Goltho. For the best Bull exceeding eighteen months and under three years old at the time of showing, 11. 7s., to Ste- phen Ashwell, of Waddington. For the best Bull not exceeding eighteen months old at the time of showing, 7/. 7s., to Richard Dudding, of Panton. For the best Cow or Heifer of any age, 5/. 5s., to Hy. Lister, of Goltho. For the best Milch Cow having produced a Calf within nine months at the time of showing, 5/. 5s., to Wm, Bartholomew. For the best Milch Heifer not exceedm^ three years and six months old at the time of showing, having pro- duced a Calf within nine months at that time, 51. 5s,, to Stephen Ashwell. For the best Heifer not exceeding two years and six months old at the time of showing, 51. 5s,, to Rd. Dudding. For the best aged or Three Shear Ram, 7Z, 7s., to Rd; Dudding. For the best Two Shear Ram, 11. Is., to Thos. Clarke, of Glentworth. For the best Shearling Pam, 11. 7s., to John Benniworth, Toynton House. For the best pen of six Gimmers, 51. 5s., to Wm, Hob- sen, of Kettleby, Thorpe. For the best pen of six Ewes that have reared Lambs, and given suck until the first day of August, 5/. 5s., to Israel Brice, of Risby. The Sheep competing for the above Premiums must be shorn on or after the 1st of June. For the best Boar of any Age, 3/, 3s., to James Hall, of Coddington. For the best Sow of any age, 3/. 3s., to Thos, Kenning- ton, of Stainton Vale. The Stock being bona fide the property of the Exhi- bitor. For the Labourer in Husbandry, in the County of Lin- coln, who shall have brought up the largest Family without parochial relief; character being particularly attended to, 7/. 7s., to Wm. Gray, Labourer to Mr, Adams, late of Benniworth, for 28 years, and brought up 12 children. For the second Labourer, ditto, 3/, 3s., to James Scott, of Bullingten, Labourer to Mr. Farr26 years, has had 13 children, 6 at service and remainder at home. For the Shepherd who has reared, in the county of Lin- coln, during the present year, the greatest propor- tionate number ot Lambs from any number of Ewes, (not less than 150,) taking into consideration the num- ber of Ewes put to the Ram, ar.d the Lambs to be considered reared on the first day of August, 3/. 3s., to Wm. Hutton, Shepherd to Mr, Loft, of Trusthorpe, 399 Lambs reared from 340 Ewes. For the best new invented or improved Implement for the purpose of Agriculture, 41. 4s., to James Hort, of Brigg, for a Drill with 10 coulters for corn, and 5 for turnips. For sowing fllanure in a wet or dry state ; also deposit- ing Manure with Turnip seed on a new principle, 21. 2s., to Mr. F. Nicholson, of Kirlon Lindsey, an Im- plement to drill Corn, Turnips, and Manure, with a double set of coulters and tins, also a stirrer in the bone box. To the person who shall exhibit the best variety of Seeds adapted for pasturage, accompanied with specimens of the Plants, 31. 33., to Mr. Geo.Whitworth, of Acre House, Thos. Short, Marton, near Bavvtry"! John West, Melton, Ross, Mudges. Wm. Torr, Jun., Riby, j The Show, collectively, although not large, presented some very beautiful specimens of Stock for the various prizes ; the show of Stock was pretty extensive and par« ticularly good. The dinner was tastefully laid out in the large room of the City Arms, and was attended by up- wards of 130 of the most influential gentlemen and agri- Rev. P, Curtis, Major Brown, &c,, &c. : letters were received frem Earl Brownlow, the President, Col. Sib- thorp, M.P,, and others, expresting their regret at not being able to attend. Alter dinner, and the Queen and Queen Dowager being drank, the Secretary (Mr. Car- line) read the list of awarded Prizes, which were then distributed ; and after some very interesting discussioa on various subjects connected with agriculture, the meeting broke up, ON THE USE OF MURIATIC ACID ON CHALK LANDS. Mr. Editor,— There are thousands of tons of muri- atic acid thrown away. This, if spread over ch?dk lands after the crops are removed, would kill all the weeds, would then unite to the chalk, form muriate of lime, which salt, being excessively deliquescent, would keep the land moist in the driest summer ; and as the weeds would be destroyed by the acid before it had combined with the chalk, so alter it had combined with the chalk, the ground being deprived of all organic vegetable matter, would seize with avidity upon any seeds introduced into it, and, assisted by the moisture of the ground, would ensure enormous crops.* Oil of vitriol sp, gr, 1,500 can be made for ^d, a pound, and may be bought for ^d, ; this, if thrown oa such ground would have the same effect in destroying the weeds as the muriatic acid ; after which it would combine with the chalk, and form sulphate of lime, called, when found, native gypsum, which is acknow- lodged to be the most valuable manure known. It has been the salvation of thousands of acres in America, and would confer millions of riches if appreciated here, Ona pound of such oil of vitriol would make two pounds of gypsum when thrown on such land, which would be cheaper by half than quarrying, carting, burning, and applying gypsum on the land, and more effectual. Burnt sea-weed is applied to the landin Jersey, where the crops are tliree times as large as in England. I have seen six tons of new hay to an English acre there. The fertilizing property in the sea-weed is soda. Soda, as manufactured in England, isin the first operation mixed with lime and ashes, from which lime and ashes it is separated, and made saleable. Whereas the farmers might buy it in a rough state much cheaper, and have the lime and ashes combined with it, both of which would be good manure. A farmer should know that there is hardly anything that is not a good manure, and a little of every thing is the best manure ; brick-dust and ashes, mortar and night-soil, lime and acid*, alkalis and decayed vegetable matter. VVhen a farmer sees refuse in a city, he should not hesitate, but take it away immediately ; it is certain, unless it be clinkers, to be good manure, and even clinkers may bo very useful in filling drains. Your constant reader, London, W. S. * Perhaps our correspondent will have the goodness to state wliere the large quantities of muriatic acid, which he says are thrown away, can be obtained.— Ed. 260 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE INFLUENCE OF RAILWAYS UPON AGRICULTURE. The influence upon agriculuture of a change in all the great channels of inland communication ; of a rapidity of conveyance, which our forefathers, in their dreams even, never anticipated ; of a meclianical locomotive power so vast, that the strength of the draught horse is in comparison like the effort of a pigmy, and bulk is no longer a bar to tlio transport of the jiroduce of the soil : — is a topic upon which the mind of the agriculturist must turn with an anxiety, which the magnitude of the interests at slake makes a matter of something more than mere speculative in- quiry. Many now living may remember the effect which the cutting of canals produced tliroughout the liingdom, and can point to districts and localities, which, by the mere opening of this medium of cheap conveyance have (to use a sailor's term) "shot a- head," and property within this sphere been annually increasing in value, whilst in less fortunate neigh- bourhoods the produce of the farm has still had to bear the old and heavy cost of transport, and conse- quently to suffer under formidable competition. But great as was the change whicli canal communication effected, steam seems destined to outstrip it in the revolution it is working. Those only who have had their attention fixed on the point, can form a concep- tion of the extent of the benefit conferred on tlie farmers of our coasts and navigable rivers by the steam coasting traders. Distant and lucrative markets have been opened to them at a cost of carriage little exceeding the expense of conveyance to their own market towns ; a constant and unfluctuating- demand has been created for jiroduce, which, though most suited to the soil they till, could formerlv only be profitably raised in a very limited (juantit)-. Sending fortii by steamers their cattle, their grain, and their vegetables, the ingredients for enriching their lands are conveyed to them in i-eturn by sailing vessels; and the quicker movements of commercial enterprize have supplanted the heretofore slow pro- cess of agricultural operations and dealings. The result has been that those districts, which steam navigation has been thus favouring, have outstripped in prosperity the parts of the country where the parish road or the turnpike are the only channels of communication. '!'he farmer ©n the coast and great rivers has been, in numerous instances, growing rich ; wiiilst many an inland farmer has felt the times pressing heavily upon him. At length, however, a new era is opening : steam, the mighty innovator, is beginning to move upon land as well as upon water; and the inquiry — the earnest and interested inquiry — is raised among all who look a little before them, " who is to gain by the change V We at once answer, " the farmers of those districts where the expense of conveyance will be lessened." But apart from the consideration of individual loss or gain — though a matter so momentous to those con- cerned— the general eflfect upon the agriculture of the kingdom is what we would now moreparticularlv draw attention to. The first result which we foresee, is the shortening of the time, and diminution of the expenses, required to reach the great markets, and the consequently quicker return for capital. The fat cattle, for instance, which supply the London market, are principally sent from the counties of Sufiblk, Norfolk, Lincoln, &:c., and are often as long as ten days or n fortnight on the road. Tlie expense of their keep on the journey is great, for in their fattened state they are naturally fastidious in their appetite. The drover to whom they are entrusted, is paid wages in proportion to the great responsibility of bis charge: and, withal, when the animals reach their destination without accident, a heavy loss in their weight is inevitable. Once embarked on the railway, the fourteen days of travelling dwindle down into twelve or fourteen hours; the weight of the animal is no less when he arrives in Smithfield than when ho (juitted his stall ; the cost of carriage is far below the expense of the old mode of journeying ; and the agri- culturist gets his jirice thirteen days earlier. If his corn, likewise, reaches the spot where it will be consumed some days sooner than it once did, the return of the farmer's capital is here again quickened. The next chimge, which seems inevitable, is the greater equalization of the price of vegetables, and of those minor products of the farm which are more witliin the province of the farmer's wife than the farmer ; we mean, poultry, eggs, and butter. The market-gardeners and the farmer's wives, in the vicinity of large towns, have hitherto had the almost exclusive privilege of supplying the great popula- tions. The monopoly will henceforth be thrown open to wider competition. AVhat the one party gains, tlie other will in a great degree lose, though the con- sumption will also in^^rease ; and the owners of the favoured spots of what may be called town cultiva- tion, will undoubtedly have to submit to a reduction ofrents, l^mbracing, as this fluctuation will do, so many and such wide districts, we are warranted in saying that this change, as regards the kingdom at large, will be greac and immediate. A further consequence of radways, which, to our minds must arise within the space of a very few years, is the centralization of the markets, an increase of operations in the greater marts, and an almost ex- tinction of the smaller markets. By discontinuing his sales in the latter, which railways will enable the farmer to do, food will be afforded at a cheaper rate in the large towns. Under the present system, speak- ing in a general way, the nearest market town re- ceives the produce of the neighbouring farms ; it changes hands in the town ; and is passed on, per- haps even through another market, before it reaches the spot where it will be consumed. Produce will now be carried by railway at once to those denser pojiulations to whom it heretofore travelled slowly and circuitously ; the whole race of intermediate dealers, the whole host of mere transmitting markets, unless favoured by the junction of canals or connect- ing lines of railways, will find their " occupation gone." Who shall say how far this change may work ? Having- thus briefly considered how railways will operate witli respect to that which the grower will send from his farm, we will now venture to offer an opinion as to their effect upon what he brings to his farm. This is summed up in one word, manure, rnquestionably much will be done in this branch ; facilities will be afibrded which till now did not exist ; and the application of capital to the land by the pur- chase of artificial manures, will receive a wide and beneficial impetus. But we think that the cost of transport is still too high for this system to acquire as 3'et its full development. We are surely not too sanguine in looking forward to an early period when the improvements in machinery will so lessen the ex- pense of railway conveyance, and the cost of the formation of branch railways be so reduced, that mineral, vegetable, and animal manures, may be brought fiom distant points, and delivered to the farmer at a far lower rate than at present. At that period, whenever it arrives, (and its approach may ])erhaps be gradual,) we anticipate a change of un- equalled magnitude. ^Ve shall not then fear the Malthusian cry of over-population, for every prac- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 261 tical farmer will agree wiih us in saying, tlmt lie knows few (perhaps no) farms wlieie additional manure will not most extensively augment the pro- duce. If an increase of one bushel only per acre en the lands sown with wiieat throughout the kingdom be obtained, it will amount to no less tlian 475,000 quarters annually. Let this be considered, and the question calmly asked, whether the prospect of an increased supply of food throughout the country is not opening to us to au extent for which we cannot feel too grateful. Enlarged as these anticijiations mav be, speculative opinions have gone beyond them. We have met with men, who Ijave talked of the clay soil of one county being poured, through the medium of the railways, over the lands of the adjoining county ; the sands again of the latter, spread over the clayey surface of the former, and the nature of soils radically improved. These gentlemen ride their hobby rather fast. Though we cannot keep pace with them, we do not despair of seeing a great and permanent development given to the system of mixing soils ; but practically speaking, we hold it as a mere theory to fancy that public and fixed railways can be extensively em- ployed unthjn-qfit for this purpose. If it be to be done by railway, (and we do not think it impossible,) it must be a movable and portable railway, worked at a cost far below the present expense of steam. Such are the more prominent points of change which appear impending over the farming interest from the effect of railways. That they are important, none can gainsay: that they are of sure occurrence, admits, we think, of little doubt. — Donraster Chronicle. AN AMERICAN CATTLE SHOW. Of the cattle show at Lexington (Kentucky), the fourth day was for the exhibition of jackasses of two year and one year, and for foals and jennies also ; this sight was to me one of peculiar intsrest. Accustomed as we are in England to value a jackass at thirty shillings, we look down upon them with contempt ; but here the case is reversed , you look up at them with surprise and ad- miration. Several were yhown standing fifteen hands high, with head and ears in proportion : the breed has been obtained from the Maltese jackass, crossed by those of Spain and the south of France. Those im- ported seldom average more than fourteen hands high ; but the Kentuckians, by great attention and care, have raised them up to fifteen hands, and some'imes even to sixteen. But the price paid for these splendid animals, for such they really were, will prove how much they are in request. Warrior, a jackass of great celebrity, sold for 5,000 dollars, upwards of 1,000L sterlin-. Half of another jackass, Benjamin byname, was sold for 2,500 dollars. At the show I asked a gentleman what he wanted for a very beautiful female ass, only one year old ; he said that he could have 1,000 dollars 250/. for her, but that he had refused that sum. For a two year old jack, shown during the exhibition, they asked 3,000 dollars, more than 6001, I never felt such respect for donkeys beforo ; but the fact is, that mule breeding is so lucrative, that there is no price which a very large donkey will not command. I afterwards went to a cattle sale a few miles out of the town. Don .Tuan, a two-year old bull, Durham breed, fetched 1,075 dollars ; an im' ported Durham cow, with her calf, 985 dollars. Before I arrived a bull and cow fetched about 1,300 dollars, each of them about 280L The cause of this is, that the demand for good stock, now that the Western States are filling up, becomes so great, that they cannot be pro- duced fast enough. Mr. Clay, who resides near Lex- ington, is one of the best breeders in the State, which is much indebted to him for the fine stock which he has imported from England. Another sale tQok place which I attended, and I quote the prices:— yearling bull, 1,000 dollar* ; do. heifer 1,500. Cows, of full Durham blood, but bred in Kentucky, 1,245 dollars ; do. 1,235 dollars. Imported cow and calf, 2,100 dollars. It must be con- sidered that, although a good Durham cow will not cost more than twenty guineas perhaps in England, the ex- penses of transi)ort are very great, and they generally stand in, to the importers, about 600 dollars, before they arrive at the State of Kentucky." Cincinnati is the pork-shop of the Union ; and in the autumnal, and early winter months, the way in which they kill pigs here is, to use a Yankee phrase, qiiile a cardion. Almost all the hogs fed in the oak forests of Ohio, Kentucky, and V/otern Virginia, are driven into this city, and some establishments kill as many as fifteen hundred a day ; at least so I am told. They are des- patched in a way quite surprising; and a pig is killed upon the same principle as a pin i> made — by division, or more properly speaking, by combination of labour. 'I'he hogs confined in a large pen are driven into a smaller one ; one man knocks them on the head with a sledge hammer, anil then cuts their throats ; two more pall away the carcass, when it is raised by two others, who tumble it into a tub of scalding water. His brijtles are removed in about a minute and a half by another party ; when the next duty is to fix a stretcher between his legs. It is then hoisted up by two other people, cut open, and disembowelled ; and in three minutes and a half from the time that the hog was grunting in his obesity, he iiasonly to get cold before he is again packed up, and reunited in a barrel, to travel all over the world, — Capt. Marry citt's America. MARKS HALL SHEEP SALE.— A correspondent says he never before vvitnessed a more numerous or respect- able company of gentlemen and agriculturists, than at this auction, a circumstance alike gratifying to Mr. Hobbs and to the auctioneer. About one o'clock the company ap- proached a marquee placed on the lawn at ^larygolds, in which tables with good old English fare were set to accommodate about 120 ; at that hour, however, double the number had arrived, among whom we noticed Thos. White, John Bawtree, Henry Hanbury, Henry Carwardine,.!. J.Mayhew,— Vaizey, — Bullock, — Price ffrom Kent), Henry and Charles Skingley, R. W, White, — Tyssen, — Leigh, — Gilson, — Baker and — Cooke, Erqrs.; the Revds. W. and J. Carwardine; Messrs. Baker, Hurrel, Beadel.Sach, Brooks, Hawkins, Frost, Lithgow, Ambrose, Willsher, Corder, Boxbys, Everett?;, Hutleys, Hobb's, Coopers, Greens, Barnards, Morris, Revetts, Kemps, Bridges, Shepherd, Wards, Woodwards, Crane, Watkins, Wilkin, Ciifts, Boys, and many other highly respectable gentlemen. Thomas White, Esq., President of the East Essex Agricultural Society, was solicited to take the chair, Mr. Hobbs, and Mr, Surridge acting as Vice-Presidents. After a very hearty repast, and several toasts had been drunk, the Chairman observed, that has they had met solely upon business, he would propose the health of JNIr. Hobbs, sincerely wishing him, a good and satisfactory sale ; that he knew not a greater friend to agricultural im- provement, or one who better deserved the encourage- ment of every good-wisher to that most important branch of England's wealth and prosperity. The Chairman then proposed to retire and make room for other gentle- men who had not fared so well; the proposition was immediately complied with, and the seats were again occupied. At this juncture the scene was greatly en- livened by the appearance of that veteran sportsman, C. Newman, Esq., with his justly-celebrated fox-hounds and a highly-respectable field of Nimrods, in the park where the sheep were penned. This circumstance was highly-interesting and amply filled up a short vacuum previous to the commencement of the sale ; Mr. N's motive was fully appreciated. The hounds were much admired for their excellent condition; they appeared anxious again to scent tiie varmint and to add to the laurels they had already won for their gallant leader. It was stated that Blr. Newman, since the establishment 262 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of tlie Marks IImII sale, haJ invariably fixed Iiis first meet for the season, at those extensive covers on that day, but varicil this year inconsequence of the lamcnied of iMtvvard Ilonywood, Esq.; when the company left the marquee to i)roceed to sale, tho bounds were drawn of}'. The first lot of Down ewes brou^jht 373. the whole averag'cd upwards of 34s. 'i'lie half-bred lambs went fiom 35s. to 22s. and averaged 27s. 3d. per bead. The tup? let, averaged 5/. 13s. fid. those sold 11/. 2s. 6d. and the brawns 5/. 15s. 6d. The whole of tiie stock was in excellent condition, and considered superior to that of any preceding shew. The sale did not occupy an hour, a convineing proof of an earnest de-ire on the part of the bidders to possess the stock. Some Kne fat Here- ford and Durham oxen, a handsome bull, and a herd of superior cows of the Hereford breed were exhibited. Also some improved Marygold red wiieat, for which the prize of the English Agricultural Society was awarded at the Oxford Meeting, and which, with the live stock, excited considerable attention. JNIr. Hobbs read letters from Lord Western, General llebow, and many other eminent graziers and breeders in Essex, Bedfordshire, Leicestershire, Cambridgeshire, and Suffolk, who ex- pressed their regret at being prevented attending his sale. Messrs. Hay ward, irontbunders, of Ilalsted ; and Mr. Ford, of Colchester, marquee and sick manufac- turer, exhihibited various agricultural implements, &c. and received many orders. — Eisex Herald. ON THE ACCELERATION OF THE GROWTH OF WHEAT. TO TIIE PRESIDENT AND JMEMBEnS ®r TIIE BRITISH ASSO- CIATION, &c. &c. The British Association has not hitherto ranked the pursuits of agriculture as a science in the ar- rangements of its meetings. It is, however, a pursuit of the first importance, "and of the greatest magni- tude ; and although, in its early stages, the assistance which science may bestow is comparatively little needed, yet the benefit it is capable of conferring becomes more and more evident as society advances, and the wants of man increase. Of its advantage to the British nation in this particular, and at the present time, there can be no reasonable doubt. Increased power and accelerated motion have been imparted to nearly every branch of" national indus- try ; and it is therefore evident that the pursuit which does not in a corresponding manner advance, must relatively retrograde. It has been questioned how far the pursuit of agriculture can be improved by scientific research. To the mind devoted to the investigation of the great powers of nature, — of the various elements and the diversified soils, — of the numerous tribes of plants requiring their peculiar culture, and possessing their determinate properties, — surely the field is most extensive, and the careful investigators are few. lu no pursuit is the watchful eye of discrimination more required, and the absence of performed opinions more indispensably called for, than in one where the tiuctuations of seasons may modify theiesults of the inquirer, and disturb those principles which have a generally operating effect. 'J'he well-trained mind alone can possess the quali- fications of giving the fullest power, and working up with the greatest effect, the mass of material which the experienced practitioner has the best op- portunity of collecting. Where these circumstances are combined, and enterprize and sobriety of thought exist together, discovery must advance, and im- provement be established. The object of the present communication is to call the attention of the meeting to a statement of facts connected with the acceleration of the growth of wheat, aad a consequent diminution of the i)eriod required for its occupation of lie ground, and to exhibit the results of the proceeding, and the benefits deducible therefrom. It will be needful, for the sake of comparison, to call the atten- tion to the circumstance of the ordinary period of growth allotted to tlie wheat plant, by which its abridged period will be properly measured. The medium may betaken from the middle of October to the middle of August, a period of ten months — twelve, or even thirteen months, being not un- common ; while for the ordinary winter wheat, from December to August may be taken as the shortest period of ordinary growth. Observation on the progress of the plant under different circumstances and with peculiarly selected seed, led to the con- viction that much of this time might still be spared on certain soils and favourable situations ; and the result has shewn that a period very little exceeding five months Iras sufficed to perfect an abundant crop of wheat, which was sown on the 2d of INIarch, and which was ready for the sicklo on the loth of August following — a specimen of which is here produced. This is not a solitary case — nor is it the result of a peculiar season. In the year 1835, wheat sown the .'■)th of March was reaped on the l2th of August; and on a previous occasion, wheat sown the 9th of Rlarch was reaped on the 11th of August, the produce being forty bushels per acre. These circumstances being determined, and the results so gatisfactory, the contributory causes demand a brief investigation. Wheat is a plant requiring a deep tenacious soil for its most congenial growth ; and on such soils, previous to exhaustion, it has been grown for twenty-five successive years, with liberal harvests, and without manure. Such soils, however, form a very minute portion of the land of England ; and had not skill adapted others to the production of wheat, the independence of the British nation in this ]>articular would have been far below its present standard. To the lighter and more siliceous soils these observations on the acceleration of the growth of wheat will chiefly apply. The power of adapta- tion, both in plants and animals, to the varying and even opposite circumstances in which they may- be placed, is very remarkable ; yet are the original dispositions in either case seldom wholly extin- guished. When wheat is placed upon the lighter soils, its growth and security are alike promoted by artificial pressure and compacting of such soils — this is vfry generally known and acknowledged — and a similar regard to the other variations which altered circumstances may present, and which it is believed have not hitherto been distinctly calculated or pub- licly noticed, may be found worthy of the regard of the present scientific meeting. The lighter siliceous soils, when supported by the addition of manure, possess a warm and stimulating character, and con- duce to a very rapid growth of plants, but they are assuredly become quickly exhausted ; and it will, therefore, be evident, even to a mixed assembly like the present, that an acceleration of the growth and ripening of the plants committed to a light soil, and a diminution of the time required for perfecting its crops, must not only be congenial to its character, but tend to economise and prolong its productive powers. These circumstances have been observed, and seized for the improvement of the pursuits of agriculture, and with the most beneficial results in various ways. The crops have been fully equal, or even superior ; the occupation of the land for this purpose has been diminished one-half, and set free for a beneficial occupation, directly contributing to the furtherance of this in a prolonged depasturage of a preceding crop by sheep, tending still further to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 263 compact tlie ground and obviate its natural disquali- fications for the production of wheat ; the risk from injury by insect devourers, and by weather, is alike abridged ; and, above all, the fertile powers of the soil are at once directed to the formation and sup- port of the ear of wheat, the truly valuable portion, instead of being uselessly expended in an excessive growth of blade or leaf, which the soil has not ultimately the power to supply with grain in just proportion. A manured siliceous soil will carry to maturity, with an accelerated step, the plant of wheat ; a short stage at a rapid rate it is, by natural constitution, well calculated to perform : but it lias not the strength for prolonged continuance, posses- sed by more powerful, yet more tardy soils. Science will at once prescribe the application. The means of accelerating vegetable growth, and the evils attending it, remain to be pointed out. Aspect, soil, situation, climate and manure, all tend to effect the rapidity of the progress of plants towards maturity, and the discriminating mind will select the favour- able station from whence to derive a supply of seed. It is an unquestionable law of vegetation, that the plant of early maturity again seeks to become so, even when placed in impropitious circumstances — that it recedes with reluctance from the station of its parent; and the circumstance is valuable for accelerating the growth of wheat in any soil. Wiiere it is desirable to do so has been already detailed, these are some of the means: — The crop once ripened in a 'period of about five months, has an acquired disposition to reach maturity again in a similar time, and although, if placed under very un- favourable circumstances, it will fail to accomplish this, it will not fail so much as seed would do which had not been grown so q«ickly. The nature of the plant becomes accelerated, as other plants become acclimated, and seed may thus impart changes most beneficial to the various kinds of soil. But there are still means, of a more mechanical character, for accelerating the maturity of a crop of wheat, which are frequently too much neglected, in securing by adequate seeding thickness of crop ; which, it is still very generally known, conduces to regular and early ripening. The reasons of this may form an interesting subject of inquiry in another department of the Association ; and although the cause of so beneficial a result may probably be found in the more effectual stopping of the rays of the sun, and a more general radiation of heat, which there takes place ; yet the fact that such is the case, gives an additional means of accelerating the growth of wheat in the spot from whence seed is selected, as well as in that where it is to be again deposited. This is deserving of the most marked attention, as the evils to which rapidly grown wheat is most obnoxious are best prevented by abundant sowing and com- pacting of the soil ; both of which have been directly recommended on their own account : the rust or mildew, arising from atmospheric influence, over which man has no controul, except in averting the predisposing causes, might very probably injure, most extensively, rapidly grown wheat, standing thinly on the ground ; but such should not be the case, and, practically, the crops alluded to have not suffered from this cause, or any similar evil. In conclusion, I hail with delight the existence of an association so extensive, so enlightened, and so harmonious, met together to accelerate the progress of important truths, and to disseminate their benefi- cial influence over an improved and rapidly imjjro- Ting world. GEORGE WEBB HALL. Aug. '20. A conversation ensued, and Mr. Webb Hall very satisfactorily answered several questions put to him. It was stated, amongst other things, that one hundred and fifty different kinds of wheat might be found in one field in England, and that about two hundred kinds were cultivated in Spain. HEREFORD CATTLE— A CHALLENGE. Lynch Court, Leominster, Aug. 26, 1839. Sir, — An advertisement has appeared in your paper announcing a sale of some stock belonging to Mr. John Hewer of Hampton Lodge, in which it is stated that, " the Breeders of Herefords of the pre- sent day are iclwlly indebted to him for the enviable state of perfection at which they are now arrived, and that he unhesitatingly pronounces them to be superior to any ocher herd of Herefords in the kingdom." 1 have no objection to any man puffing his stock as outrageously as he pleases, provided he does so without depreciating that of other persons. If Mr. Hewer really believes in the truth of his own assertions, I will give him a good chance, for I hereby offer to show ten cows, ten two-years-old heifers, ten yearling ditto, and ten calves against a similar number of Mr. Hewer's, bona fide his own property on the first of July last. The cattle to be shown at the next Agricultural meeting, to be held at Leominster the beginning of October, for any sum he pleases, from one sovereign to one hundred. I do not know whether Mr. Hewer is a breeder of steers, but if he should happen to have six three- years old steers, I will show that number against him for any sum he pleases, and bet him two to one. I beg to observe that not one of the cattle I shall show contains a particle of Mr. Hewer's blood, and that I am willing to show a similar number out of two or three other herds, equally free from his blood. I hope Mr. Hewer will either accept this challenge or alter his advertisement, and remain. Your obedient servant, J. R. SMYTHIES. EGYPTIAN WHEAT. — While recently in the neighbourhood of Kirkraichael, we observed two ridges of what was called Smyrna wheat (a variety lately in- troduced into this conntry) grown by Miss Bell, at Threave, which promises to yield a better return than any grain of the kind we ever saw. It is sometimes known by the name of Abyssinian, and sometimes Smyrna wheat, and is generally allowed to constitute a different genus to any other, botanists placing the distinguished characteristics on the compound form of the spike, which is caused by the lower flowrets be- coming elongated, and formed so as to make the whole resemble several spikes tied together, or a compound spike. This compound form is, however, by no means permanent, and when the spike assumes a simple form it is not to be distinguished from the turgid wheats. Egyptian wheat has often been introduced into several parts of Scotland, under different names, and has re- ceived sufficient attention, but its general produce and quality does not warrant its cultivation in this country. It is, however, partially cultivated in the southern parts of England, and France in particular. Our townsman, Mr. Imrie, has given much of his attention to it, hav- ing made experiments with it for the last three years, and having at present about twenty varieties of it in ear ; but his experience, we are sorry to say, leads us to the conclusion, that it is too tender a plant for our cold soil and comparatively ungenial climate ; as, though the heads are bulky, they do not ripen well.— Ayr Advertiser, 264 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE PRESENT EPIDEMIC AMONG CATTLE. (from the vkterinarian.) The Editor is indebted to the kindness of Mr. Hill, V. S., of Islington Green, for the following sketch of an epidemic, which is now exceedingly prevalent in the dairies in the neighbourhood of the metropolis. It is a hasty sketch, for this por- tion of our Journal ought to have been at the printers when Mr. Hill, at onr request, favoured us with a call. He has the superintendence of a dairy of nearly 700 cows. A fortnight ago a large field was mowed for the use of the cows. Six of them were attacked with a singular disease, the symptoms of which were precisely the same. The membrane of the whole of the mouth was in a state of inflammation and vesication. The tongue was involved, l)ut the most extensive and annoying vesication was between the under lip and the gums. In two out of the six it extended over the muzzle to the nostrils. This would necessarily cause a great deal of pain, and the poor animals were totally unable to mas- ticate their food. In the two whose tongue was the principal seat of the disease, the membrane of the tongue completely peeled off. A peculiar symptom accompanied this — a continual catching up and shaking of one or the other of the hind legs. Two out of the six suffered so much pain that they became altogether furious. They broke away, and ran into the shoot or receptacle for the urine or dung, and, in getting them out, their horns were broken. They were, however, penned up, and, as soon as they could be approached, he took from each a considerable quantity of blood. This was all that was wanted. They became quiet, their mouths got well, and there was an end of the matter with regard to them. Mr. Rhodes, the owner, was a little alarmed about this. He, and Mr. Hill agreed with him, was at first inclined to attril)ute the disease to some poisonous herbage in the new field. Mr. JMorton entertained the same opinion, and yet the suspicion of its being of an epidemic character was not absent from their minds. Five or six days afterwards this was plain enough. No fewer than twenty of the cows became more or less lame. Two days had scarcely passed ere that twenty had increased to more than two hundred. There was some discharge from the nostrils, but no vesica- tion of the mouth. The grievance lay in the foot, and particularly in the cartilago-ligamentous sub- stance which forms the heels. An enlargement appeared imMiediately at the posterior division of the foot, and at the separation between the heels ; it was hot and tender ; a vesicle followed, evidently filled with serum, and, if not lanced, it burst, and a serous fluid exuded. The after state of the case, and the after treatment, depended on the opening of this vesicle. If the fluid was liberated in time, one dressing with the caustic that will presently be named was sufficient ; but if that had been neglected, the fluid insinuated itself between the hoof and sensible lamina;, and burst out at other parts of the coronet, or the hoof dropped off. In addition to this, the interdigital membrane became one mass of excoriation or ulceration. The effect of poultices was tried at first, but they Nvere feeble remedies in such a case. The dressing which was most useful, — which, in fact, never failed ultimately, and, applied in time, ar- rested the disease at once, — consisted of equal parts of muriatic acid and tincture of myrrh, ap- plied by means of a brush or feather — the animal being placed in a dry yard, and the food kept from all accidental moisture by means of triangular pieces of cloth, secured by list, and not by tarred twine. A very few days elajjscd before the 200 had in- creased to more than .500, and it was as much as all the hands upon the place could do to apply the dressings. Not a single animal was lost, although many were severely lame. In the whole there were not more than six cases of disease in thej'ore feet, and that we attributed to the fore feet occa- sionally standing in places that had been occupied by the hind ones. The disease now assumed a different character in those cases in which it had not been energetic- ally treated at first. Garget appeared in one or two of the quarters — not, except in very few cases, assuming the ulcerative character, but evidenced by considerable tumefaction, hardness, and pain. The loss of milk became very considerable. In the establishment on which he attended, it aver- aged at least eighty gallons a-day, or a quart a cow, supposing the number of animals that were affected at the same time to he more than 300. In other establishments he understood the garget was more frequent and more obstinate than in his ; and he had no doubt that a very great number of cows in the vicinity of the metropolis would be fattened and sold on account of the continuance of garget, and the diminution of milk. He tried the iodine ointment in these inflamma- tions of the udder, but it only added fuel to fire, an 1 strangely increased the evil. A strong chamo- mile decoction, in the proportion of a pound or more of the flowers to a gallon of water, he found most useful. It speedily abated the inflammation and dispersed the tumour. The commencement of the disease is scarcely to be mistaken : the pain which the animal evinces by holding up and shaking one of the hind legs is a marked symptom ; and from which the vesicle at the heel, a certain degree of soreness before, and a slight tumefaction of the whole of the coro- nets, are seldom absent. The cow is very easily purged under this complaint : three ounces of sul- phur will usuallj' suffice, while the common pound dose of Epsom salts would produce superpurga- tion. The digestive organs do not appear to be at all affected. The Editor again expresses his thankfulness for the information which he gained from this con- versation with Mr. Hill, and he entreats all those who may, unfortunately, have the opportunity of studying the character of the epidemic, to furnish him with the result of their experience. This is one of the valuable purposes to which our periodi- cal should be applied. An old ulceration of the instep, to which the Editor has been long subject, bas increased its ex- tent and its torture within a few days to a degree M'hich almost incapacitates hira for mental exer- tion. Is this connected with the same atmospheric influence .' [A disease of a similar character, has, vire be- lieve, affected the cattle in France for some time.] —Ed. r.M. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 265 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS PLANTS. OF The cultivation of tLe various agriculturjl plants is by far tbe most important of the labours of the busbandman. The spontaneous productions of tbe eartb are onlj' sufficient for satisfying- tbe wants of man in a rude state of society : but, as civilization advances, a taste for tbe comforts and luxuries of life is manifested in a greater degree, and tbe cultiva- tion of tbe soil becomes important, in order to pro- duce a greater quantity of vegetable food, and that, also, of a superior qualit}'. A knowledge of the structure and functions of plants is of tbe first importance, as laying tbe foun- dation of an economical system of culture. Tbe ne- cessity of becoming acquainted vs-itb the various phenomena of tbe vegetable economy is apparent ; in order that tbe cultivator may avail himself of the great influence exercised, by human agency, over tbe productions of tbe vegetable kingdom, to tbe greatest extent. Apart from any considerations of l)rofit, tbe study of tbe vegetative process affords greater pleasure than that of any other branch of na- tural science. But, if we can influence a seed so much, that, instead of growing up into a useless, stinted stalk, fit only for the herbarium of a botanist, it shall spring up luxuriantly, and send forth such a profusion of stems as to form a little sheaf of corn ; or, expand its root, which may be naturally bard and useless, into a large esculent mass, weighing many pounds ; and, if we can do all this without knowing more than tbe means we have employed, might we not anticipate still greater and more wonderful ef- fects, were we acquainted with tbe processes of the vegetable economy, by which such happy results were obtained 1 VVe should then be able to know what it is in our culture that has aided, and if there be any thing in it that has obstructed, the processes of nature. The impertance of acquiring a certain knowledge of vegetable physiology cannot be pressed too much upon tbe attention of the cultivator. By means of selecting and improving the varieties of plants, tbe produce" of our gardens and fields is not only in- creased in a ten-fold degree, but the quality of the produce is increased in a still greater proportion. The rose is tbe offspring of cultivation ; tbe original plant, from which all our beautiful varieties have pro- ceeded, is considered, by botanists, to be the com- mon v.-ild brier. Our plums are cultivated descen- dants of tbe sloe ; tbe delicious apples, whose species may be reckoned by hundreds, are tbe cultivated successors of the small, austere crabs ; and our cau- liflowers, cabbages, and other esculent vegetables, may be regarded as almost artificial products, so much has human skill bad to do in their production. Here the labour and assiduity of man are seen tri- umphing over tbe sterility of unassisted nature, and succeeding in bringing forth a race of beings, calcu- lated to supply his wants in a manner that the origi- nal species never could have done. If the faculty of increasing the stores which Na- ture has already provided for his support, raises a man above tbe brute, that of adding new productions to those in existence, raises bim above his fellow ; and few subjects of contemplation can be more grati- fying, or more elevating to a reflective mind, than this power as it were of creation, granted to bis intelli- gence and industry. Nor is it necessary to its en- joyment, th,\t we should be either botanists or natu- ral philosophers ; or that we should devote more than occasional leisure hours to tbe pursui*. So bound- less, indeed, is tbe scope which itaflfords for experi- ment, that it is in the power of any one, possessed of the smallest garden, and tbe least acquaintance with tbe princi])les of culture, so to improvethe cjua- litics of its products, as to add something to tbe common stock ; while the farmer, who will take the pains to mark the progress of his crops, and to select from tbem the most productive ears of corn, and tbe finest roots and grasses, for seed, may, by persever- ance in such a plan, not only acquire wealth for him- self, but confer an inestimable benefit on bis coun- ti-v. ^Vith tiie fact we are sufliciently familiar, that, when a seed is deposited in tbe ground, under cer- tain circumstances, it will spring up into a plant of the same species as that vvliicb jjroduced it. As this is a primary law in the vegetable economv, we shall proceed to investigate the circumstances under which it takes place ; and, perhaps, from tbe know- ledge thus acquired, we shall be able to attain a cer- tain power over tbe process. There are two things essential to the growth of a seed, — tbe one relating- to the state of tbe seed itself, and tbe other to the circumstances in which it is placed. Tbe former of these shall be first considered. In treating of the functions of tbe seeds of plants, it is necessary to distinguish between that which is seed, properly so called, and other parts of plants, which, as they serve the same purpose, are conreni^ ently so called. We speak of seed-wheat, and seed- potatoes ; it maybe convenient to call potatoes which are to be planted by this name, Init of tbe two wheat can only be properly called seed. The number of seeds which different species of plants produce is exceedingly various ; some produce only one, others only two, while it has been estimated that certaia other species produce nearly a million. The natural use of the seed is to produce a plant, but before it will germinate, it is necessary that it possesses a certain internal structure, and be alive at the time in which it is sown ; and these are con- ditions which can in no instance be dispensed with. Some seeds, which are apparently good externallv, will not spring, because they are imperfectly organ- ized within ; while other seeds, seemingly good in every respect, fail to grow, because they are dead. With tbe exception of what are termed cryptoga- raic plants, such as ferns, mosses, and fungi, there is a great similarity between th-J structure of all seeds. 'J'hey are all provided with an envelope or outer covering, suited to the nature of the particular seed, and tbe need which it has for protection ; and seeds are, in every instance, covered with one or more coats, to defend them from excessive dryness or moisture, or from the voracity of animals. Attached to this part of tbe seed, we often observe frino-es, down, and other appendages, which ma)^ be regarded as the wings of the seed, by which it is destined to be carried through tbe air, so that the species maybe diffused. The outer covering of tbe seed seems to serve tbe purpose of protection onl)', to effect which it is often of a very hard or tough consistency ; while the inner coat seems to serve chiefly for nourishing the kernel within ; and, for this end, it is composed chiefly of a network of sap-vessels. The outer co-at is entire, in ever}^ point except one, where a scar is always ob- served to be upon it. This scar marks the spot Avbere nourishment passed into the seed, while it remained in tbe seed-vessel, or pod, by a cord, termed the nmhilical cord, consisting of an aggregation of ex- tremely minute sap-vessels, which, after reaching 266 tllE FARMElfS MAGAZ1N1-. the seed, pciietrnted ils outer covering, aiul branched over die surfiico of the kernel, coii.sUliiting, in this way, tlje frame-work of tlie iimer coat. Tlie outer covering of tlie seed, in many cases, promotes tlieir dispersion by opening when ripe, with a sort of sudden spring, ejecting the seed with violence, and throwing it a considerable distance from the parent plant. If seeds were to fall merely by dropping down from the plant, the great mass of them, instead of gerniioating and springing up into distinct plants, would grow only to putrefy and de- cay; but to prevent this consequence, tliey are often supplied with a downy covering, or an elastic peri- carp, which serves to waft them through the air, and thus promote their dispersion. It is extremely inter- esting to observe the various means for the disper- sion or dissemination of seeds. As a curious exam- ple, every one is familiar with the down of the thistle, and dandelion, and many others; and, upon examining the mechanism of these parts more mi- nutely, it will be found that there is a peculiarity in their arrangement, causing the whole to ascend in the air, though it be not specifically lighter. Various other agencies are exerted in the diffusion of seeds ; but they are in a great measure, unconnected with the structure of the seed itself. The scar, or liilum, has been sa'dto be the part at which nourishment was conveyed to the seed, by means of the umbilical cord. It is frequently of a different colour from the rest of the outer covering, and is often nearly black. In plants having small seeds, it is exceedingly minute, and recognized with difficulty; but in some it is so large as to occupy fully a third part of the whole surface of the seed, — as in the horso-chesnut, and some others. In grasses the hilnm is indicated by a brownish spot, vi-hicb is usually easily observable. The emhryois a fleshy body, occupying the interior of the seed, and constituting the rudiment of a future plant. It is usually solitary : but there are in- stances of the presence of several in one seed. It was originally formed in the midst of the pulpy sub- stance of the kernel, and is nourished by this sub- stance during its growth. This pulpy matter bears, apparently, much the same relation to the embryo plant, as the white of an egg to the embryo bird ; and hence it has obtained the name of albumen. In a number of cases it is so wholly absorbed by the embryo, that no trace of it is left behind; but in others the albumen remains interposed between the embryo and the integuments, or covering of the seed, in the form of either a horny, mealy, or oily substance. These differences in its texture are ow- ing to the natureof a substance, secreted during the formation of the seed, within the cellular tissue of the kernel, and replacing the fluid matter consumed by the embryo. In the seeds of the cereal tribe this substance consists of farinaceous matter, adapted for human food ; in coffee of a stimulating secretion, the infusion of which forms a grateful and well- known beverage ; and in the poppy of a greasy mat- ter, from which a valuable oil is extracted. Upon certain remarkable differences in the struc- ture of tlie embryo, modern botanists have divided the whole vegetable kingdom into three great portions, which form the basis of what is called the natural system. Theseare—i, Dicotyledons ,- 2, Monocotiile- (Ions; and, 3, Acotyledons. The third class, or acot)^- ledons, are the cryptogamous plants already alluded to ; and not being agricultural plants, they do not require special notice here. In order to understand exactly the nature of the others, it will be requisite, —fust, to describe fully the embryo, as it exists in dicotyledons; and ihon to explain its organiaalion in tlio monocotyledons. It will, perhaj)S, be belter to se- lect a seed for examination, from each of the two classes, as general descriptions too often leaves an indistinct impression on the mind. This division of the seeds of the common cultivated plants is also important, as being characteristic of the qualities of the plants themselves, as well as of the seeds from which they are produced. Were it, in- deed, the case, that the distinction extended only to the latter, little advantage would be gained by its adoption ; but, so far is this from according with the fact, that it is interesting to observe with how great and uniform a difference of structure in the plants that grow from them, this variation in the structure of their seeds is associated. Tiius, in the class of mono- cotyledons, we have plants, the stems of which are like canes, or hollow, or jointed but never divided into bark, wood, and pith ; the leaves of which are rarely opposite to each other, having, in general, undivided nerves running along them ; and in the different parts of the flower and fruit, the number three prevails in a very remarkable manner. — In the other class again, the stem is divided into bark and wood ; it being from the plants of this class that true wood is ob- tained. The leaves of the species included in it are beautifully netted over by the crossing of the nerves, which do not run in parallel undivided threads, as is generally the case in the monocotyledonous plants ; and in the parts of the flower and fruit, the number five is as remarkably prevalent as three is in the others. But these peculiarities may be passed by, while we proceed to a more minute account of the structure of each. If a common dicotyledonous embryo, that of the apple, for example, be examined, it will be found to be an obovate, white, fleshy body, tapering and solid at the lower end, and compressed and deeply di- vided into two equal opposite portions at the upper end ; the lower tapering end is termed the radicle, and the upper divided end consistsof two co^i/ierfo/is, or seed-lobes. Within the base of the cotyledons, a minute point, or speck, may be observed, which is called the iihunula ; from which the stem of the fu- ture plant proceeds in the process of germination, this being the line of separation between the stem and root of the plant. The embryo of monocotyledons is ssually a solid, cylindrical, undivided, homogeneous body, slightly conical at each extremity, with no obvious distinc- tion of radicle, plumula, or cotyledons. In germina- tion, the upper end swells and remains with the testa ; the lower lengthens, opens, and emits, from within, one or more radicles ; and a threadlike green body is protruded from the upper part of the portion which is lengthened beyond the testa. If this is compared with the germination of dicotyledons, an obvious difference will be at once perceived, in the manner in which the radicles are produced : in the former case, they are emitted from within the sub- stance of the radicle extremity, and are actually sheathed at the base, by the lips of the passage through which they protrude ; while, in the latter, they ap- pear at once from the very surfa«e of the radicle extremity, and, consequently, have no sheath at their base. [n selecting seeds for examination, illustrating these classes, it will be important to choose such as are generally familiar to every one, the structure of which is, of course, well known. We shall, there- fore, describe, successively, the structure of the common bean, and of a grain of wheat. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 267 On examining tlio see J of the bcai, the hilum, or Fis:. 1. scai" a, is easily dis tioguished, being usually of a darker colourthan the other pai-ts of the seed. This, it has been said, is the part by which it was attach- ed to the pod, and through which the umbilical cord en- tered, for the nou- rishment of the seed. The testa, or skin, is found, on dissection, to consist of two coats ; the outer of which is very thick and tough, when compared with tlie inner one. The kernel is composed of two coty- ledons, c c, with their edges often overlapping each other, as at b, and united together by a band, d. From the middle of this band, the plumule is seen to protrude. The cotyledons constitute the mass of the seed, and are filled with the mealy or nutritious matter, destined to nourish the young plant, until it can derive nourishment from the soil, and to digest that nutritious matter, so that it may exist in the state best calculated to effect the object in view. The organization of the seed will be more fully understood, by inspecting the annexed figure, which represents a bean magnified and laid open. Fis. 2. c The skin, a a, is seen to consist of a number of small cells, to which the term celbdar tissue is applied. The cotyledons have a similar structure, in the cells of which the nutritious matter is depo- sited. Ramifying through this cellular mass, and converging to a point, are a great many sap-vessels, which serve to convey the nourishment to the rudi- mentary plant, which is seen also at d. They bring it, first, towards the root, e, after which it is car- ried up into the stem. This description is applicable to most of the spe- cies of dicotyledonous plants ; but there are many modifications, which it is not necessary to detail, Thus, sometimes, the cotyledons rise above the ground, as in the case of the turnip, the beech, the plane, and many other seeds ; at other times, again, they remain in the ground, as in the bean and pea. They are generally entire in their form, but some- times very much divided, as may be observed in garden-cress, and the different species of pine. The nutritious matter, too, instead of being diflused through the cellular structure of the seed-leaves, is sometimes situated in a little sac behind them, as will be seen in the case of wheat. In short, there are a great many modifications of structure, but they are interesting only to the systematic botanist 3 and, in a general view of the vegetable economy, need not be more minutely noticed. There exist many points of resemblance, between Ficr. the structure of a grain of wheat and that of the bean just described ; but they differ, in the latter having only one seed-lobe, while the former has two. The testa is found to consist of an outer and inner cover- ing, the thickness of which varies with the kind of wheat, and the climate in which it is produced. A general law is, that the more severe the climate, the thicker is the skin of the seed. It is these skins which, when broken by the process of grinding, con- stitute the bran of wheaten meal. The kernel is found to be composed of three parts, in comformity with the general structure of seeds, already related ; and one of these constitutes almost the whole bulk of the grain. This is the nutritious matter, which is contained in a little sac, close in every part except the base where the sap- vessels enter, and, after pass- ing through the cotyledon, contribute to the support of the embryo plant. In Fig. 3, which represents the grain laid on its flat or furrowed side, a a represent the two coats which are torn open to shew the structure of the kernel ; h, the sac of nutritious mat- ter.wbich constitutes almost the whole of the seed ; c is the cotyledon, through which the nutritious matter passes, when the grain is germinating, and by which it is reduced fit for the nou- rishment of the little plant. The rudimentary plant is seen at d, at the base of which there are three tubers, e from which as many roots or stems, or both, will afterwards proceed ; c is the point where all the three, namely, the nutritious matter, the cotyledon, and the rudimentary plant, are united. A longitudinal section of the grain of wheat is re- presented in Fig. 4, it having been cut by a knife laid along the turrow. The skins are not so distinctly seen as ill the last figure ; 6 is the nutri- tious matter ; c, a section of the co- tyledon ; d, a section of the rudimen- tary plant, from which it is seen to consist of leaves rolled together ; and e is the point ofjunction. All the parts which have now been described are essential to the growth of the seed. If the nutritious mat- ter, or albumen, be not present, there is nothing to nourish the rudimentary plant ; for it is not yet sufliciently develojied, to draw nourishment from the soil. If the rudiments of the little plant be not present, there is nothing which can be converted into root and stem; and experiment has equally proved the pre- sence of the cotyledon to be essential to the germi- nation of the grain ; for, as often as it was cut away, no matter how carefully, the seed failed to spring. In considering the physiology of the seed, its action is confined to that phenomenon which occurs, when the embryo contained within it is first called into life, and which is named germination. Animportantcondition to the healthy and vigorous germination of the seed is, that it must previously have reached maturit}^ Unripe seeds seldom ger- minate, because their parts are not yet prepared to form the chemical combinations on which germina- tion depends. There are some seeds, however, whose germination is said to commence in the very T 2 Fig, 4. 168 Till-: FARMEll'S MAGAZINE. seed vessel, even befuie tlie fruit is ripe, and wliile it is yet attucljed to tiie parent jilatit. Jlul these are examples of rare occurrence, lliouij;!) it is soraetinies necessary to sow or plant the seed almost as soon as it is fully ripe, as in the case of the cofi'ee-beaii, which will not germinale, unless it be sown a few weeks after it has been gathered. Most seeds, how- ever, if guarded iVom external injur)', will retain their germinating faculty for many years. A second condition necessary to germination is, the access of heat. No seed has ever been known to germinate below the freezing point. Hence seeds do not germinate in ^Vinte^, even though deposited in the projier soil ; but the vital principle is not ne- ce>5sarily destroyed, in conse.^uence of this exposure of the seed, for it will germinate in thcSpring, when the ground has been again thawed, and the tempera- ture raised to the proper degree. Another essential condition is, the access of moisture. Seed will not germinate, if kept per- fectly dry. Water, therefore, or some equivalent to it, is indispensable, --hence rain is always accepta- ble to tlie farmer and gardener, after they have sown their seeds. But the cjuantity of moisture is also a matter of importance, as there may bo too much or too little : in the former case, the seeds burst and rot ; and, in the latter, they remain inactive in the soil. The access of atniospberic air is also a necessary condition to germination. Seeds will not vegetate, if placed in a vacuum, no matter bow favourably situated, soever they may bo in other respects. This has been repeatedly proved, by placing seeds in moist eaith, in the vacuum of an air-pump, and they remained inactive during the period that the air was withdrawn ; but, (in its re-admission, ger- mination took place. ^^'hen a well organized seed is ])lace'J in a situa- tion in which the foregoing conditions are fulfilled, it speedily undergoes a change. It absorbs mois- ture, and increases in bulk ; but, if it should have previously met with any accident to destroy its vilalit}', its organization decays, and it becomes putrid. The same effect takes place, though the seed be alive, unless air is present ; but, if the seed be good, and air and moisture present, with the requisite degree of heat, this swelling of the seed, from the mechanical imbibation of water, is but the first of a series of interesting changes. The nutri- tious matter becomes fluid, milky in its aspect, and sweetish to the taste. It then goes to the support of the rudimentary plant, first towards the root, and then towards the stem. There are variors other conditions which, though not so indispensable as air, heat and moisture, yet aid this process very much ; and, of these, there is none more important than darkness, to obtain which; along with other advantages, seeds are usually, b}' harrowing and other means, buried in the soil. Those which are new, also germinate more readily than those which are comparatively old, because they are more full of juice, and more readily pass into a state of ferraentation. It is often observed, however, that seeds which germinate freely are, b}' no means, those which produce the greatest quan- tities of fruit; on the other hand, they are apt to run into an excessive luxuriance of leaf and stem. If seeds are sown as soon as thty are gathered, they r 'irally vegetate, at the latest, in the ensuing spring . Jut, if they are dried first, it often happens, tbrHfi-'^'y wJJ* *laces in which they had not been jjreviously known to grow in the memory of man. Many of the rarest plants in our gardens have been raised from old seeds, taken off specimens in herbaria ; and others, we have seen, perish so soon, that a few days exposure is sufficient to destroy them. This is particularly the case with such as contain much oil. The earliest indication of germination consists in the parts of the seed swelling, in consequence of the absorption of water by the cuticle, and a chemical change taking p'ace in the nature of its juices, 'i'his is said to depend upon a loss of caibon, and addition of oxygen, without which latter, in abundance, seeds cannot germinate at all. It is this which causes the starch of barley to be con- verted into sugar in the jirocess of malting. As soon as these chen^ical changes liave taken eflcct, the embryo swells, and bursts its envelopes, pro- truding its radicle, which pierces the earth, deriving its su]iport, at fust, irom the cotyledons or albumen, but subsequently absorbing nu- Fig trinient from the earth, and communicating it upwaids lo the young plant. The annexed figure represents a grain of wheat considerably advanced in germination. 'J'he blade is seen bursting the sheath which jire- viously enclosed it. The mass of the grain, now much dimia- ished in consequence of having gjient itself in the nourishment of the little plant, and the cotyledon, aie still seen on the one band ; and a knob, or tuber, from which another stem will ^ ^l subsequently spring, on the 'j' other. Beneath are five radi- cles, which, like the stem, have burst the sheaihs in which they were first enve- !o]ied. The three remaining figures represent different n;odes of germination in dicotyledonous plants. The first is the pea, which, like the bean formerly figured, consists wholly of two cotyledons that do not rise above the surface of the ground. The second is the beech tree, also composed entirely of Tig. 6. 3 2 1 two cotyledons, which, however, do raise above the surface, become green, and become seed-leaves, com- monly so called. The third is a young pine, in which the seed-leaves are many in number ; or, if they are to be regarded as two, are very deeply divided. TflE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 269 It IS thus seen, that tlie circumstances under ^v•bich g-ermination takes place are, when the seeds are so situated as to be within the reach of air, heat, and moisture, and are secluded from light. Keep- ing tiiese in view, the due depth at which they should be deposited in tbe soil is more easily ascer- tained. If placed at such a depth in the earth, as to be depri^^ed of the influence of the air, and though they may be surrounded bv the requisite degree of heat and moisture, they will, nevertlieless, j-emain dormant. If seeds are diffused over the surface of tlie ground, they will remain uninjured and unal- tered, so long; as the air is perfectly dry ; but, in moist air, germination commences, and the jioint of the root will be quicklv protruded, and find its way into the soil. I'his is the ordinary process of nature ; but experience has taught us, that, tliough grain and other seeds are naturally distributed on the surface around tlie place where they have been produced, yet there is a proper depth at which all seeds should be deposited, and which is specially suitable. This depth is obviously that which, while it affords the necessary degree of heat and moisture, is within the requisite influence of the air. Seeds will vegetatt* in a moist atmosphere, when placed upon the surface upon the ground, and expe- rience has repeatedly confirmed the fact, that tlie same process will take place, even should they be too deeply covered. It does not, however, follow, that the depth at which they are placed is unimportant. An undue covering is, indt^ed, highly detrimental, opposed to the process of nature. An example of this may be seen in Fig. 7, in the case of the cereal gramine, shewing the effect of too deep covering Fig. 7. over the seed ; and the same holds good, in a greater or less degree, in the case of all the cultivated plants. 'I'he dotted line is the surface of the ground ; are- presents a healthy plant of wheat, from seed de- posited at the proi)er depth ; and h, the growth of the plant, from seed too deeply covered. The latter, it will be observed, vegetated, although placed at an undue depth below the surface, threw out its seminal roots, and sent up its first shoot, be;iring two leaves, into the air; but, as the growth of tlie culm rises therewith, and remains near the suri'ace, it also throws out roots, and entirely supersedes those which were first produced in the grain. Tliis is a provision of nature, to accommodate herself to ciicumstances of accidental position in the seed. In order to insure the deposition of the seed to the proper depth, and that it be placed in circum- stances otherwise favourable to its growth, the proper cultivation of the soil is of the first im- portance. Minute pulverizalion is necessary, to admit of the access of air ; and drainage is indis- pensable, to remove superfluous moisture, which would otherwise greatly injure or altogether destroy the seed. The mode of sowing, also, exercises an important influence in this respect. According to the drill system, the seeds are placed at a more uniform depth, than when scattered proniiscuousl)'^ over the surface ; and it is, therefore, to he pre- ferred, in everv case in which it is expedient. After the nourishment contained in the seed has been expended in the development of the little plant, the root is more or less able to draw nourishment from the soil, and the stem to vegetate. This, how- ever, is often a very critical period in the life of the individual, and may generally be detected, by the sickly aspect of the youngplant or braird. It seems either to be left, for a time, without a sufficient supply of nourishment, or the new kind of nourish- ment which it begins to draw from the soil is not, at first, so congenial to its nature, as that from which it has just been weaned. This may be looked upon as a constitutional disease, to which we find so many species of plants are subject ; but it is to be regarded as a wise provision for carrying oft' sickly and de- generate individuals, that the race may be preserved, and propagated in a state of the most healthy de- velopment. Seeing, then, the great influence which the qua- lity of the seed exercises over that of the plant produced from it, it might seem unnecessary^ to re- commend the utility of procuring that only which is of good quality, and free from any admixture of the seeds of other plants. The practice of farmers, liowever, is often directly opposite to this mode of procedure, very little discrimination being used in the selection of seed, either as to its being of good f|uality, or being free from admixture of the seeds of weeds. The difference in price, between seed of the best quality, and that of an inferior description, is so inconsiderable, that the farmer never should hesitate a n;oment which he should choose, when the value of the produce of his crop is at stake. In the choice of seed, regard must be had to pro- cure it from a suitable soil and climate, as well as of a proper variety. A change of seed is, in general, to be recommended, as founded on rational princi- ples. Every plant has a peculiar soil and climate suited to it, where it flourishes, and grows to per- fection, without shewing symptoms of degeneracy.— When the plant is indigenous, seed dropping from it arrives at perfection, without any change ; but, when it is exotic, it has a tendency to degenerate, in a great degree, if the seed be sown year after year, where it Has produced. jjesides preventing degeneracy in the qualit}'- of the produce, the crops of the farmer, by a judicious change of seed, will sooner reach maturity,— an ob- ject, in many cases, of the greatest moment. It is well known, that a change of constitution in jdants, originating from the situation in which they have been produced, is commonlv transmitted to their oHspring. Thus, plants propagated from seed pro- duced in a warm, sandy soil, will have a tendency to early maturity, in whatever situation the seed is sown, through a number of successive generations ; and plants, I'rom seed jiroduced on a cold, stiff soil, will have their hibits of ripening changed in a cor- responding degree. A change of seed is, also, more necessary in the case of some of the ctilfivated plants than in others. This often arises from some pecu- 270 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. liarity in the soil, as well as from the habits of the plant. TJie quantity of seed which should be sown de- pends on the species of plant cultivated, and nu- merous otlier considerations. Rich soils require a smaller portion of seed than poor soils ; as the seeds have, in the former case, a better chance of vege- tating, and the plants, becoming more luxuriant, occupy individually a greater space. In deter- mining the proper (juantity of seed, regard must be Lad as to whether the season of sowing is i'avourable or not for the operation ; as, in unfavourable seasons, part of the seed is placed in circumstances in which germination does n'jt freely take place, and is, con- sequently, lost. The (juality of tlie seed itself, and the mode of sowing, are also to be taken into con- sideration, as influencing the ijuantity to be sowo. In general, a liberal allowance of seed is to be recommended ; as a full crop, of any description, is cheaply purchased by giving a sufficiency of seed. There is a happy medium, however, in this, as in every thing else ; for the crop may not succeed, when the plants are too numerous in the ground, any more than when they are too few. Their own luxuriance may likewise be prejudicial, by retarding their ripening, and thereby hazarding the value of the crop. Having given a brief outline of the structure of seeds, and the phenomena attending the process of germination, we now proceed to a description of the general structure of plants, so far as their nature and habits can be modified by the cultivator. In the execution of this department of the subject, we shall begin with the root, and proceed successively to the stem, leaves, flower, and fruit. This arrangement, however, is adopted more in accordance witli esta- blished usage, than from a conviction that it is the most eligible in a scientific point of view. To seek for such a one, in our present circumstances, would, indeed, be a waste of labour; as, from the intimate connexion, and dependence upon each other, of the diflerent parts of the vegetable structure no one can be treated of without ambiguity, unless reference be made to the connexion subsisting between it and the other parts of the plant. S. Purdysburn,Aitg. 1839. DISTRIBUTION OF LANDED PROPERTY IN IRELAND. — It is difficult to imagine a country in which property is worse distributed tlian in Ireland. In Eng'land, large farms established on vast estates employ only a few cultivators, but tliese few live comfortably. In France, uhere property is infinitely divided, tlieag-ri- cultural labourer is for the most part the proprietor ; and his farms, when he has any, are sufficiently large to render his condition far from deplorable. In Ireland, properties are as large as in England, and farms as much divided as properties in France ; in other words, the country has all tlie abuses of larg-e properties witli- out any of the compensating advantages ; with all tlie inconveniences of small farms, a system of which it pos- sesses nothing but the vices. English economists fre- quently quote the example of poor Ireland, to prove the great injury of the extreme division of land in France. Yet such a comparison can only be a source of error, for there is only an apparent similitude in the agrarian distribution of the two countries. The land in both is, I grant, equally loaded with agriculturists, but there the analogv begins and ends ; since in France the petty agriculturists are owners of the parcels of land which they cccupy, whilst in Ireland they are only tenants. — M. de Beaumonl's Irekuul, edited by l)r. Taylor, SALT MANURE. (from the mark lane express.) We give elsewliere an extract from the Brighton Gazette, furnishing a report of an experiment upon salt as a manure, tried by Sir C. M.Burrell, Bart., on liis estate at West Grinstead, in Sussex.* Mr. Laker, llic hon. baronet's bailitt' therein states — " I can safely say that two out of three fields that you dress with lime and salt are forwarder than any on the farm, and the straw the brightest ; one of these after a crop of beans, the other after tares, and the straw as straight and long if not better than any wheat you have. I think where tiie beans were there will be quite ten sacks the acre.'' It seems to us that some further explanation is necessary to render this experiment so satisfactory as to induce reliance upon it, at all events a more full account might elicit some further useful information. It appears that the wheat upon the bean stubble is the best, and that after lures the next best, no especial mention being made of the third field we conclude that the crop is considera- bly inferior to the other two. Information upon the following points would, we think, throw further light upon the experiment. What is the estimated acreable produce of the wheat after lares, and also of the third field? NVhat was the previous crop on the third field? Is the soil in all the fields of the same quality and were they in equal condition? NVliat was the preparation for the previous crop on each of ihe fields ? Supposing thai each field had been sown with wheat, without the salt manure, is there any rea- son for expecting that the wheat on the bean stub- ble would have been the best, that after tares second besl, and on the other field the worst ? K there be no reason for expecting that such would have been the result, to what cause is the present difierence ascribable ? These are a few points which occur (o us as of value, if explained, and if the hon. baronet, who lakes so much pleasure in directing his attention to expeiiments in agriculture, would cause the necessary enquiries to be made and the result made known we think he vvo\ild confer an ad- ditional obligation on those for whose benefit he made his experiment public. Sir Charles Burrell has furnished us vviih the following communication in reply to the above remarks : — Sir, — Having referred your questions of Sept. 2d to my bailiff, I have to reply to them as follows : — The first field sown with wheat after beans was ploughed thrice, and dressed with forty bushels of lime mixed with twenty bushels of salt, as before stated, (but it maybe a saving of trouble, and better to double the thickness of the alternate layers, viz. to lay unslaked lime six inches thick, and the salt two inches thick) which dressing was spread over the land before landing up, being a stiff soil. The produce has been two loads of sheaves per acre, with long bright straw, and the yield expected to be about ten sacks per acre. The second field after tares, of which part cut for horses, and part reserved for seed, was ploughed * See Magazine for September, page 168. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 271 thrice, and dressed before landing with the snme proportion of the salt and lime mixture as the first field. Tlie quality of this field varying, part being stiff", and part light with a clay subsoil. The produce also having been similar in amount to the former field, but the straw was still brighter, though not so stout and long. The third field after tares, part cut for horses and the rest for hay was ploughed thrice before landing, having been dressed with salt and lime in the same proportions as the two former fields. 'J'his field is in quality inferior to the others, being light and shravey, with more timber in the fences, and many poppies and lilies came among the crop, to which causes is to be naturally attributed its inferiority of produce compared with the two first mentioned fields. The produce however, amounted, on seven acres, to thirteen loads of sheaves, but the straw was shorter and not so stout. From the circumstances before mentioned, it is probable tliat had the three fields been manured alike with some other dressing, relative results would have ensued, and that the two former fields would have yielded the most wheat and straw, and which replies to your questions 1 hope may be satis- factory to you, and your agricultui-al readers. I have recently had the satisfaction of a letter from Mr. John Bennett, M.P., for Wiltshire, which still more strengthens my opinion of the goodness of this dressing for wheat and subsequent crops ; and I annex his observations : — " I am very glad to have your account of the result of the salt and lime on your soil. I have now for three years experienced similar results, and I am glad to tell you that I am convinced its effects will last for the duration of three crops at least ; on land where I applied it three years since in preparation for wheat, after a two years' lay, the turnips, and more particularly the barley this year, have shown the beneficial effects of its first application. It should not I think be used on the same land under an interval of five or more years, and I am sure it ought to be applied either on lea, or after, in prepa- ration for wheat. My crop of wheat and barley is very strong but much laid by rain and wind, and the sample may not be so good as otherwise might have been expected. My calculation is as fol- lows : — for one acre, ten hundred weight of salt, forty bushels of lime, (or five i|rs.) ; cost of salt at Lymington 20s. per ton ; cost of lime at Pythouse 2s. ;>d. per qr. — Total cost per acre, exclusive of freight, carri-.ige, or turning, 22s. Cd. per acre ; but I should not object to the addition of twenty bushels more lime to this quantity of salt, and I am about to use this season sixty bushels of lirae with ten hundred weight of salt per acre. The greatest enemy I have is tiie wire worm, and I do rot find it is destroyed as I hoped by this dressing. (Signed,) JOHN BENNETT. Pylhouse, Wilts. If I err not the salt alluded to from Lymington is not the best salt, and the same may be observed of that which I have obtained from Liverpool at 27s. per ton, freight included, for delivery at New Shore- ham Harbour. Hoping that my replies to your questions may be satisfactory, I remain, Sir, your obedt. humble servant, CHARLES MERRICK BURRELL, Knefp Castle, near Uorsham, Sept. 10, 1839. ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF PEAT LAND. Of the diflferent kinds of soil of which our un- cultivated land or wastes consist, there are none perliaps, upon the wliole, so extensive as peat or boggy land. The first point to be regarded in con- templating the cultivation of peat land, is drain- age. If a tract of land afford facilities for drain- age it may be said to possess the primary essen- tial for improvement, without it, the attempt would be hopeless. The next point to be considered is tlie having within a reasonable distance a supply •of mavl, clay, or some such matter, which being laid on the surface, may in addition to the effects of drainage, give a consistency to the natural soil. There are scarcely any peat soils possessing these advantages which may not be rendered capable of producing good crops of most kinds of agricul- tural produce. The tract of land of this nature which has attracted the most attention is the celebrated Chat-moss in Soutli Lancashire. Tiiis tract of land consists of upwards of six thousand acres ; Lord Francis Egerton owns about fifteen hundred acres, upon vvhicii vast improvements have been made by the noble lord, and his predecessor the Duke of Bridgewater. We went along the railway which passes over Chat-moss about a month since, and were highly delighted at seeing the fine crops of potatoes, turnips, corn and hay, grown and grow- ing upon it. Belts of fir, poplar, larch and beech, all of wliicli seem to thrive well on this soil, have been planted round the fields and afford a valuable shelter. An accurate report of the sys- tem adopted in reclaiming the land on Chat-moss and of the expences, with the value of the pro- duce, raised would be a very useful document to persons contemplating the improvement of land of a similar character. ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.-We have g'reat pleasure in inserting- the following' letter from the President of the above Society to the Chairman and Members of the Oxford Local Committee, more es- pecially as we have heard from persons of all counties who visited the meeting", the high gratification they ex- perienced from tlie very skillful arrang^ement made for the reception of the cattle, as well as at the dining room at t,>ueen's College; and we think ourselves in duty bound to menUon the name of our respected fellow- citizen, Mr. Badcock, Surveyor, wlio furnished tho plan for each, and was afterwards unceasing in his labours to carry them out : " English Agricultural Society , 5, Cavendish-square, August 2, 1839. " Sir, — I announce to you, with much pleasure, that the thanks of the Society were voted to the Chairman and Members of the Local Committee, for the invalua- ble assistance afforded by them in preparing and carry- ing out the arrangements necessary for the late meeting at Oxford. The habits of business displayed by the Committee generally, the unceasing zeal and unwearitd assiduity of each and all of its members, contributed, in an eminent degree, to the success of the meeting, and are highly appreciated by the Society. " I have the honour to be, Sir, " Your obedient servant, "RICHMOND, President. " To the Chairman and the IMcnbers of the Oxlonl Committee ol the Englisii Agricultural Society." — Uxford Journal, 272 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON SHELTER AS A MEAN OF IM- PROVEMENT. BY ME. DONALD BAIN, EDINBl'ItCri. (From the Quarlerly Journal of Agriculliire.) This is a mean of improvement tliat has not per- haps received all tlm attention it is entitled to; hut as an accompaniment to other improvements, it is almost invaluahle. When we consider tlie cause of barrenness de- liberately, we are surprised to find, ao;ainst our general preconception, that it is not heiglit that leads to it, hut cold ; for in the higliest hills we find occa- sionally sheltered valleys, and as often as we do so, ■we find those valleys fertile. Again, in plains as low as the general level of the country, we often iiud approaches to sterility, or sterility itself, if they happen to lie open to any blighting wind. Few travellers can go over Scotland without find- ing, in situations exposed, and apparently naturally barren, evident marks of cultivation at some remote period, sometimes far up the hills ; and fewer still, it is fortunate, can now go over it, without finding rich land, and bearing heavy crops, where it is easy to see that cultivation has been but lately introduced. This last is often to be traced to draining, trenching, and other expensive operations of an agricultural nature merely ; but it may often be remarked also, by a person familiar with certain localities, that the growth of belts of wood, has by sheltering the land and enabling heavier crops to rise, wholly altered the nature of extensive districts, as well as their cli- mate and a])pearance. On the very top of Corrvarick, (a hill in the pass from Fort Augustus to Badenoch), the root of an oak may still be seen, the very prongs of which are eighteen inches across. Nothing of the kind could now rise in this spot; but history tells us, that though there is now not a tree visible, in a walk of eighteen miles over those moors, the district was once the site of an extensive forest ; and this mag- nificent oak, therefore, though on the very sumit of the ridge, found the shelter necessary to its luxuriant growth. It is equally certain, that at that time, this extensive range of heath must have been warm, and covered with grass, and sustaining in comfort ex- tensive herds of cattle and deer, as well as those who fed upon them. It is at present comparatively barren, — there is not a hut but the shepherd's and that only in a range of many miles, and without an effort at raising a single plant, — this is wholly un- necessary. Let any one look at a moor where plantations have been raised, and he will find as follows: First, If the wood has been properly planted, and fenced, and thinned, that is, if proper care has been taken to make the plant reach the subsoil, to shelter it while growing, and in due time to provide room for its growth, the wood is thriving ; and instead of heath, as was the original covering of the soil, it is now co- vered between tlie trees by a rich, and if they are close, an exceedingly silky grass. Even the heath at the outskirts, if any remains, has a softer and more luxuriant character than tho stunted article of the same description without the enclosure. It may be said this is produced by the manure annually fur- nished by the falling leaves, and this viay promote the richness and luxuriance of the grass. But the efficacy of shelter is evident from this, thattlie grass is oftea finest and richest, where there is shelter only, and no manure from the falling leaves, that is, iu casual openings of the plantation. jSiexi, If corn-fields have been created under shel- ter of the woods, they will generally be found luxu- riant, wjiile beyond this, there is first coldness, and a light crop ; and beyond this perhaps heath : or even one side of the wood is thin and stunted, and the other, which has been sheltered by tins stunted part, is thriving and vigorous. A more remarkable evidence of the benefits of shelter, and of the consequences of the want of it, may be stated as follows; namely, where a dyke has been raised of a certain height, and trees planted within it, tho trees are cut by the blast as if' by a hedge-hiij'e exacttif in the di- rection the blast has received from the coping of theimll ; that is, if the wall is flat at top, the wood lias sufler- ed far in ; if the angle of the top is small, the cut of the trees is exactly of the same angle, and extends far in, in proportion to the flatness of the angle ; but if the angle is very acute, and sends the blast almost directly iijnvdrds, the uood almost escapes ; the tree by the wall is slightly cut, and no more. These facts may not have been noticed in any scientific publica- tion, but the}' are open to every observer; and they suggest many ideas of the utmost importance, as re- gards this division of the empire. 'I'hev suggest, //rst, the great utility of slieller as a general jirinciple; but if we reflect for a moment, that every gentleman's residence is sheltered, and that much of its beauty is held to depend on that circum- stance, we shall be satisfied that the utility of shel- ter is not only recognised, but so com])letelv estab- lished iu the public mind, as to form one of the ele- Hicnts in our ideas of beautv. ^gain, by means of shelter, in gardens, we can raise the fruits of entirely difl'erent climates. These observations suggest, next that where woods are ])lanted, the wall opposed to the most prevalent or most destructive wind, should be of considerable height ; and third, that even the form of the c'lping of dykes, for woods or fields, is of conse([uence ; and that it should always be of such an angle, as to send the blast (which in all cases will obey it more or less), almost directly vpwards. By proper shelter, almost every part of this king- dom might be brought into a state of warmth and pro- ductiveness, llanges of moor, apparently the most barren, might be rendered warm and kindly to every species of vegetation, — even liilts, were it worth while to contend with them, might be con- quered by successive belts of wood ; and if not cul- tivated (as they evidently have in many instances been) , at least made of double or triple value for pasture. But our common moors and moorland re- quire nothing so much as shelter; and even where the lands are not moorish, but much exposed, shelter is necessary both to the fields and flocks, and nothing can so much enhance their value. And it is not con- tinued ring fences, clapped down any where, or any how, that should be recommended in this matter. ^VhGn an engineer wishes to oppose the tide, he does not put down a long dead wall. He ))uts down in the strength of the current, a point of great power, as the strength of the current, thus broken diminishes, he diminishes his defences, and finally leaves the matter to the tide itself, when fully biokea to the desired direction. In like manner, the person deal- ing with the winds, should consider where they bear hardest, and where they may be made to tread away with advantage, and suit his defences to the exigency, whether in height or strength. A very slight de- fence, for example, placed on a height exposed to the east, may not only protect that height, but shelter a long reach of lower land. The whole east coast of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 273 Scotland is bold, and it is bare. A belt of wood be- hind a wall of proper Iieigbt, and presenting- proper angles to the blast, might shelter whole districts in- land ; and so, of any other exposure, art is in tliis case, as in most others greatly more than strength. Aa hundred yards of wall or of wood, rightly placed may do more than a thousand placed without skill. Put down without judgment, indeed, intended de- fences may do manifest injury, for they may shut out the most kindlii influences, and expose the crop to a cata- ract of included winds. But as a general position, shelter, is in Scotland of the greatest value. It is nearly a rational object. It might reclaim many thousand acres, that without it can never ba reclaim- ed ; and almost incalculably improve many thousands more. A survey of the kingdom, with this particu- lar object in view, would not be out of place. On the contrary, it is exceedingly wanted. The larger features of other improvements might be combined, such as leading occasional lines of deep drains or canals, or taking advantage of the gullies tliat occa- sionally wind between the bills, for making them, — a natural canal, for e.^ample, extends for nearlv eighteen miles, from Corryarrick to Fort Augustus ; it is at present the bed of a trifling stream ; but by occasional stoppings of very limited extent, might be made of any depth, and open Badcnoch to the great canal, and vice versa ; and this is only one in- stance. But the object of shelter alone would justify tl>e survey I have suggested, and if it should lead to direct many hundred miles of sheltering walls, much more expensive walls have been lisd for worse pur- poses. Tlie labour would fall upon many, and so would be light ; and above all, it would be profit- able to the present and to all future ages. Holland is, for the most part, protected from uY/ier by dykes. It would not ])e so arduous to protect Scotland from wind, nor would a breach in the dykes be so dangerous. These reasons may seem very proper for a castle- builder ; hut I have very lately had the satisfaction of seeing, that not only is my theory correct, but that it has been, perhaps for ages extensively in practice. In a recent history of Devonshire, it is said, that " in this part of the country the fences are chiefly high mounds, surmounted by coppice-woods, which not only aftbrd a su[jicient supply of fuel, but also a surplus of poles, coidwood, faggots, and oak-bark for sale." (Let landowners mark that.) "I his kind of product is considered a crop of some value, in addition to its utility as a fence; as it affords to the pasturing animals excellent protection from wind and sun, with but moderate care and expense in repair- ing. 'I'hese hedges are better adapted to the hilly sur- face of Devon, than to more level countries commonly forming altogether a barrier tliirlv feet high, which so softens the rigour of the unfriendly Idasts, that many of the inferior hills are cultivated to the very suinmits. A stranger unaware of the practice, considers him- self as travelling in deep hollow ways, for miles, till arriving at some elevated opening, he is charmed with the delightful scenery of the fertile country lie has passed." This places the principle of shelter on a large scale, so completely on the footing of an approved practice in one of the counties of England, apparent- ly made " the finest" by this very practice, that there seems to be no necessity for giving the idea out with fear. The whole of the east coast of Scotland should be sheltered by high mounds, either carrying or pro- tecting wood ; and in every situation where plains or valleys are swept by scourging blasts, similar im- pediments should be put down. This acied upon as a principle, for a few years, would entirely change the climate and aspect, and even the soil of many parts of Scotland ; for as money makes money, so heavy crops lead to heavier crops ; by enriching at once the soil and the cultivator, from making more manure and sheltering and fining the soil. There is no part of Scotland, ov England, or Ireland, that may not he sheltered at less expense than the wilds of America may be cleared, and with more certainty of a market for the proceeds. •' Sheltering leases," therefore, should be granted, as " improving leases'' have been, and speedily we should see shelters rise, as profit- able to the misers, as pleasing and profitable to the countr}'. In Ireland, particularly in the northern parts, shelter is much wanted, and, so far as it exists pro- duces the most marked effects. It may be essential to consider the /i'suce of the dykes. Perhaps there is little doubtthatthey should on the side exposed to the blast, be perpendicular, rather than merely sloping mounds ; as the perpen- dicular face completely breaks the current of the stratum of air rushing against it, while an obstacle of a sloping description would merely change the direction oftlie blast, but not decrease the force. For their structure they need not be expensive, being intended for use not ornament j and their beauty would consist in their utility. Besides the scenery to which they would give rise, in belts of wood, sheltered corn-fields and cattle, these would constitute the beauties of the spots so benefited, and render the other accessories of no moment. In time too, they would become like natural objects, and co- vered with verdure and foliage of some description. Tiiey would in this way he as beautiful as useful ; and both, it is believed, in a very high degree. CALF REEDS. — This may seem a strange title for a paragraph, but we are fond of peering into odd corners, and picking up, as opportunity serves, even candle ends and cheese parings of statistical informa- tion. Heeds, as they are called, or the stomachs of calves, subserve important purposes in the business of the dairy. Coagulation is the first step towards making cheese, and every careful housewife must be prepared with a leaspoonful of reed liquid before she can make a dish of curds and cream. It is true there are substitutes in the shape of whisky, Irish moss, and the various acids ; but agents of this sort leave a flavour behind which is the reverse of agree- able, and are, on that account, only used in cases of necessity. Heeds therefore maintain their ground, and sell according to size and quality, at from Is. 6d to 23. each. But the time has been when they were higher ])riced ; for whan the mart system was uni- versal, and men on land foolishly subjected them- selves to privations, which are, in a great measure, unavoidable at sea, by eating salted meat during a great part of the year, far fewer calves were killed. The stomach of a bullock, heifer, cow, or bull, is suitable for curding purposes, and the same remark applies to such calves as are debarred from draining the udder ; and, as this sometimes happens, bad ar- ticles are occasionally brought to market unknown to the venders. The reeds of hares, pigs, and lambs possess curding properties ; but as the size must be attended to, as well at adaptation, they are very rarely if ever tiied. A fortnight or so ago, our at- tention was directed to this subject by the number of curious locking substances we observed laid out to dry in front of some of the principal butchers' shops in town. An exhibition so novel to eyes led to a 274 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. series of conversations and tLe elicitation of the fol- lowing-facts : — When a calf is liilled its stomach is laid aside, and as soon as possible salted ; and, week after week, the fleshers are engaged in accumulating such articles during the whole of the veal season. There is a trader in Maxwell-town who ))Urchases calves very extensively, when only a few days old ; few of these cost him more than five shillings, a sum he covers by the skin and the reed, and finds a very fair profit on the carcass, wbich, tiny as it may be, he cuts into small pieces, down to a pound or two, wbich are eagerly bought by such as cannot conveniently aspire to a joint, lleeds are most in demand in summer, and, in a general way, lie in salt for the better part of a year ; and as the dried ones go off, the green ones are collected, so that the trade is un- remitting. In such districts as Ayrshire, Cheshire, and Gloucester, the sale of calf stomachs must be astoundingly great, and were it possible to get at what the Hon Member for Killkenny calls " the tot- tle of the whole," the return would form a new and curious item in rural statistics. Vrom the Messrs. Primrose we learn that they purchased from their neighhour, Mr. Kerr, 256 calf-skins in one year ; and if even our better employed butchers kill veal in anything like the same ratio, the annual supply in Dumfries alone must amount to some thousands. When a reed requires to be used, it is steeped in water, which has the effect of extracting the gastric juice, or curding principle, and we learn from a lady, who keeps a fine howen of cows, that a single tea- spoonful will curd a pint of sweet milk. Reeds, as we have said, vary greatly in ([uality : but when a good one is obtained it will curd all the milk which six cows yield during the cheese-making part of the season. The trade, in short, into which we have dipped for the first time, if small in the detail, is great in the aggregate, and must yield, over the whole country, a sum of money which would go far to pur- chase a large landed estate. Let Mr. M'Cullocb, therefore, look to it, and be prepared for quite a new article in the next edition of his Dictionary of Com- merce. The late Deacon Roan, who was long in business, and than whom no man was more de- servedly respected, whether as a tradesman or a member of society, used to say, in speaking of doubt- ful characters — " I would hardly trust him a calf's reed." — Dumfries Courier. TO PR.4CTICAL AGRICULTURISTS. Mr. Editor, — I have often, in vain, searched in your valuable work for advice on a point of no diflii- culty to solve (to experienced practical farmers), viz., the smallest sum necessary to commence a farm, say from 50 to 100 acres ; the best management, &c. of the same, whether pasture or arable ; the quantity of stock necessary; the descri])tion of the same, as the late improvements in that most useful branch of knowledge have so altered the system, (or ought to), that the son of a farmer of the old school might well he at a loss how to employ a small capital with the least risk. That there are many such I know, who have, like myself, studied every work extant in hopes of finding-some plain concise directions for a farm of 100 acres or less, (as Mr. Blacker's pamphlet speaks but of such very swaU. farms as to be un- worthy the name.) Hoping that some of j'our nu- merous readers will not think it beneath theiii to give some concise directions and elucidations on that point, I remain your most obedient, Buckin°-ham, H. K. TURNPIKE ROADS. Sir,— I must trust to your indulgence in again trespassing on this subject, by noticing the remarks of Cincinnatus in your Magazine of this month, and that by reason of the commission appointed to en- quire into the state of the trusts, which w ill doubtless make a report at the commencement of the next session of parliament, an act having passed the legis- lature " for returns to be made of the extent and financial state of all highways and turnpike trusts," so that by continuing to promulgate our individual views on ibis subject, thecjuestion may become more digested by those who bear the burthen of the presf nt heavy imposts, arising from the enormous debts existing, and no better source for such dis- (juisition can be resorted to, than the medium of your widely circulated journal. In the late observati-ons of your correspondent, all must agree, that the voluminous heap of im- possibilities and blunders in the present multitudi- nous acts for magisterial study, tend rather to puzzle and mystify, than to help the unwary oflen- ders of the law ; it is therefore high time to abrogate them, that the traveller may have the be- nefit of good roads at little cost; in the first place securing the creditors, through whose means they have been so made, which can only be effected by reduced establishments, and economy in the admin- istrasion of the trusts, which is the more called for by the increasing demand that must arise for railways, the principle of the latter being now firmly fixed, and the consequent adoption becoming yearly more needed for the direct and principal lines throughout the kingdom. Such is the revolution that has began by the power of steam, (as yet in its infancy) that the march of intellect will upset all sober minded views of systematic progress in com- mon roads, for which the accumulated debts on turnpike trusts have swelled to that of eight or nine mililons, which compared with the cost of railway undertakings, only within the past ten to twelve yeais, (dating that of the Liverpool and Manchester line as the primary one of the universal system), there is at this moment, power granted by the legis- lature, for the absorption of nearly sixty millions sterling, which when completed, will cause the necessity of further extensions by connecting branches to a further probable outlay of half the original sum required for the main trunks ; it is consequently not at -Al improbable that within ten years to come one hundred millions sterling of nati- onal labour and capital will be laid down in the United Kingdom, for steam travelling, leaving the aid given to parish roads, though the medium of turnpike trusts as a drop in the ocean, that cannot be otherwise secured for posterity, than as a funded debt, locally distributed in the parts already benefitted by the outlay. In expressing our views on this subject, much may be done to prepare the public mind for an early settlement of the question, and aflPord the means of oj)ening the door to an extension of intellectual and mechanical powers, in pursuit of this wonder- working engine. Steam! assisted by the existing roads being kept up in good order for its uses in aid of railways, each being so intimately connected for the public good, in like probable results as turnpike roads have been to parish roads, these latter to be absorbed into one branch, under its own local administration. Railways being a private specula- tion, that may succeed or fail, is consequently private property, left to the option of the community to be availed of, or not, which in process of time will THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 275 probably merge into the public coatroul auJ mainte- nance as a national branch under the executive. The irresponsibility now felt in the management of the turnpike trusts, the needless legislation on tires of wheels, weighing machines, and other trivial points, are too well known to need repetition ; let the debts be fairly adjudicated, and a retrenching power placed over the general management of the roads, confined to local wants, and general accom- modation to be pursued, we shall then be free from the impost of tolls, by a substitution under efficient control of parochial goveinment, for at least the third of the present cost. I shall now conclude, with the hope of stimulating Cincinnatus to put his hand to the plough, and turn up tJie subsoil for amalgamation to produce a crop fur the harvest, as beneficial to the land owner, as to the consumer, the time being arrived for each and all to strive by a long pull, and a strong pull, and a pull altogether, to obtain the mastery of tliis long pending question. An Old Commissioner of IIo.\ds. Sept. 1839, THE CURRENCY. (from porter's " progress of the nation.") It is now generally held that the commercial crisis, or panic as it is usually called, which occurred to- wards the end of 1825, was bi ought on by llie con- joint operations of the Government and the Bank of England. It was the object of the Government, when peace was fully established, to make money abundant, and consequently cheap, in order to carry through various arrangements whereby the perma- nent charge upon the public income might be les- sened. By the means adopted to this end the mar- ket rate of interest was so far reduced at the begin- ning of 1822 that the Five per Cent. Annuities were raised to 6 or 8 per cent, above par, under which circumstances more than 140,000,000/. of that stock was converted into annuity at 4 per cent., on terms by which the annual charge to the public was reduced by 1,122,000/. In 1824 the Chancellor of the Ex- chequer was enabled to eftect a further saving of 380,000/. per annum by the conversion of 76,000,000/. of 4 per cent., and 3-^- per cent, annuities. If the fall in the rate of interest by wliich the Mi- nister was enabled to effect those operations had occurred through natural causes, there could be no question as to the pi-opriety of the step, but, brought about as they were by means of the unnatural and forced extension of b.mk issues, it is hardly to be doubted that the mischief resulting from that exten- sion has been pioductive of more loss to various classes of the com.naunity than can have been com- pensated to the nation at large by the aaving. With a reckless disregard of consequences, to a degree which can be attributed only to want of knowledge, the Directors of the Bank of England forced their jiaper into circulation by proftering facilities to all classes of the community. Money was lent upon the mortgage of land and upon the deposit of stock, in addition to liberal advances to commercial men, through the more legitimate channels of issue, and the directors, at the same time, permanently crippled their means of controlling the currency by investing a large proportion of their issues in the purchase of an annuity for a term of years, known as tlie Dead Weight Annuity, an investment which must always be least marketable at those periods when it would be most desirable that the Bank should have all its resources at command. By these means speculation was excited, the business transactions of the country were multiplied unnaturally, and by the general rise of prices thus occasioned, our markets became over- stocked with foreign produce, whilst the export trade was checked. The quantity of mercantile paper thrown into circulation aggravated the evil. Between the beginning of 1822 and the month of April, 182.'), the Bank bad increased its circulation to the extent of 4,000,000/. At the latter date it was possessed of bullion and coin to the value of 10,000,000/., but from that period to the following November the drain upon its coffers was so rapid that no more than 1,300,000/. of that amount re- mained. Alarmed at this unequivocal indication, the directors suddenly diminished the circulation to the extent of 3,500,000/. A general feeling of dis- trust then took the place of undue confidence, which had previously pervaded the whole country ; the notes of country bankers were returned upon them to such a degree that great numbers trailed ; a run upon seve- ral Loudon bankers was followed by the stoppage of some of those establishments; commercial distress of the most frightful description ensued ; and such was the want of confidence that the wealthiest mer- chants were driven to make heavy sacrifices of pro- perty, in order to provide for their immediate engage- ments. To use the memorable expression of Mr. Huskisson, " the country was within 24 hours of a state of barter." In this state of things there was no longer any evil to be apprehended from increasing the pai)er circulation, and the Bank Directors came forward with promptitude and liberality to the assis- tance of the trading classes, by lending money upon almost every description of property that could be offered, and by discounting bills without adhering to those rules by which they have ordinarily been guided in conducting this part of their business. Between the 3rd of November and the 29th of De- cember, the amount of mercantile bills under dis- count at the Bank of England was increased from 4,000,000/. to 15,000,000/., the number of bills dis- counted on one particular day having been 4,200. The efforts thus made were assisted by a circum- stance purely accidental. A box, containing 11. notes, which had been overlooked at the time when the bank called in all its notes under 51., was disco- vered at the lucky moment, and in the opinion of Mr. Harman, one of the directors, the timely issue of these notes " worked wonders — it saved the credit of the country." On the 3rd of December, 1825, the amount of Bank of England notes in circulation had been only 17,477,000/., but on the 31st of that month was increased by the means here mentioned to 25,700,000/. This great increase was rendered ne- cessary in order to replace the notes of country bankers that had been suddenly withdrawn from cir- culation, and to counteract the tendency to hoarding always indulged by the timid in periods of embar- rassment. It was consequently not followed by any undue rise of prices, which had been suddenly thrown down in the previous convulsion ; the foreign exclianges again turned in our favour, and the gold which, by the previous mismanagements, had been forced abroad, again came back. The value of coin and bullion in the bank in the last weeks of Feb- ruary, May, August, and November, 1825, respec- tively, was 2,300,000/., 4,300,000/., 6,600,000/., and 10,000,000/. The notes of the Bank in circulation in the same weeks amounted to £24,900,000 February, 1826. 21,900,000 May, „ 21,300,000 August, „ 19,900,000 November,,, 276 THE FARMER S MAGAZINE. At tbe close of 1026 the currency was, therefore, once more restored to an appearance of soundness. At tlie time of its occurrence this commercial crisis was attributed by many persons to the increase of paper money, i)ut into circulation by the country banks ; and in the Parliamentary inquiries that followed, the princi|>al object aimed at was the re- gulation of private banks of issue. The estaljlish- meut was then recommended by Lord Liverpool, then at the head of the Government, of branches of the Bank of England, as a means of controlling the issues of private bankers, and in part, also, of sub- stituting' a more secure description of paper lor tliat whicli circulated tlu'oughout tbe country. 'I'ho pnncijial aim of Parliament and the Government on that occasion, was not so much tlie regulation of the currency, by means which would prevent the recur- rence of the evils resulting from over issues, as it was to provide for the ultimate security of tlie holders of notes. 'I'liey committed the mistake, too commonly made, of confounding currency with solvency, and of imagining that if tlie issuers of notes had sufficient capital to meet at some time or other the whole of their engagements, no other evil was to he apprehended. At the same time provision was made by Parlia- ment for the establishing of joint-stock banks, which should be banks of issue ; but this being considered an invasion of the privileges of the Bahk of ICngland, — in favour of which estr.blishment no other bank having nioretlian six partners was thought to be en- titled legally to issue notes, — a compromise was made with that establishment, and joint-stock banks of issue vi'ere not permitted to carry on their business nearer to London than 65 miles. 'J"he correctness of this impression concerning the law of banking; has since been doubted and has been made the sub- ject of litigation in a cause which has not yet been finally decided. If the views of the legislature has been directed to produce a system b}^ means of which a perfect controul over the currency would be secured, a more unlikely method of attaining that object than the es- tablishment of joint-stock banks could hardly be imagined. By their constitution these establishments would naturally stand high in the public estimation. With large paid up capitals, and a numerous list of partners, the more ostensible of whom were usually men of property and consideration, while all were answerable for the debts of the company to the full amount of their fortunes, the public would take their paper with perfect confidence, and as considerable local influence would be always exerted in their favour, the case must be extreme indeed which would bring on a run against them. In fact, the greater the degree of reputation and credit such banks enjoy, the greater is the danger of their con- tributing to unsettle the currency. It has been shown, that except these banks act in concert with the Bank of England, their influence could never be severely felt, for, otherwise, any over issues on their part would speedily be returned upon them ; but this would not bo the case when the issues of the Bank of England should also be in excess ; so that their mismanagement would be felt only when it would act in aggravation of the mischief caused by the great regulator of tiie currency. At the time when encouragement was given to the formation of joint-stock banks Parliament took measures for withdrawing from circulation all notes of a lower denomination than n/. ; the granting- of stamps for smaller notes was immediately stopped, and from the 5th of April, 1829, it was declared illegal for any banker to issue such. The policy of this measure met at tlie time with general con- currence, antl although it lins been clamorously impugned, both in and out of Parliament, the num- ber ol those who (luestion its propriety has always been small. ***** In what has been said concerning the establishing; of joint-stock banks as substitutes for other banks of issue, which could offer less satisfactory security for the amount of their engagements, it is b)' no means intended to cjuestion that they present, in that respect, great advantage to the public. But it may well be doubted whether those advantages are in all lespects such as were in contemplation at the time of their formation. The number of joint-stock banks establisijed in and since lO'-iG is 119, with 37,202 ])artners, and having 670 branches acting in conjunction with them. Some of these are not new establishments, but extensions of private banks pre- viously in operation ; others of them do not issue their own notes, but circulate the notes of the Bank of England under an agreement with tliat corpora- tion, whicli gives to them certain facilities in the way of discount.--. This is u fact well known, and one whicli has been stated in evidence before Par- liamentary committees ; but it is not so well known that in making these arrangements the Bank of England does not merely give permission to the otlier parties to send bills for discount up to a certain sum, but stipulates that tlie sum so required shall always reach at least to that amount, ])roviding thus for the extensions of the issue of its own paper, whatever may be tlie wants of the commercial world, or the foreign exchanges. It is not with a very good grace that the bank directors, while thus acting, complain of the excessive issues of other joint-stock associations, their rivals in the country districts. 'J'here is no doubt that a competition of this kind is likely to have an injurious effect, and that the spirit of comjietition renders all parties less prudent than ihey might otherwise be in acting upon these indi- cations wiiich should govern the amount of the cir- culation. In the event of that circulation proving redundant, the adoption of a prudent course by one or more establishments in contracting their issues might only oiler inducements to others to endeavour to turn that course to their own peculiar advantage by filling up the void that would be thus occasioned. The advantage to the country confining to one esta- blishment the power of issuing paper money has lately been very strongly insisted on by a principal advocate and apologist of the ]3ank of England. In his zeal for the interests of the establishment with which he is connected that gentleman has not allowed himself to express a doubt as to the body which shall be intrusted with so important a function. The one bank of is«ue in his estimation is, without doubt, to be the joint-stock association with which he is connected. There is, however, a third al- ternative, which has been ably advocated by the late JMr. Ilicardo, and moie recently bv Mr. Clay, Colonel Torrens, and Mr. S. Ricardo, that of the establishment of a national bank " under the ma- nagement of competent functionaries, qualified by the possession, not of bank stock, but of economical science ; apjjointed, not by the holder of bank stock, but by the Government; responsible, not to their co-proprietors, but to Parliament; and having for their first object and primary duty the i)rotection, not of their own corporate propert}-, but of the general interest of the nation," It is not necessary to enlarge, in these pages, upon the advantages that might be derived by the country from the adoption of the proposal here mentioned. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 277 Those persons wlio are alive to the iniportfaice of tlie subject will not satisfy themselves with any second- Land argument, but v.ill of course reffr to worlis in which the establisliment of a national bank is advo- cated by men whose thorough acquaintance wiih the subject in all ils bearings must be universally ac- knowledged. It may be proper, however, to guard against misconceptions as to the meaning attached to the title of national bank. It is not meant under this name to advocate the establisliment of a bank which shall be subject to the control of ihe minister of the day, which, on the credit of the country, shall issue notes ad libitum to meet the wants or wishes of the Government, or whose paper shall be incon- vertible at the pleasure of the holder into that which it professes to represent; but a bank, the managers of which, although appointed by the Government, shall not be removeable except by vote of Parlia- ment, uj'on proof of mal-admiiiistration ; who shall be obliged to buy or to sell bullion at certain fixed prices, which, while they would yield a small pro- lit to the establishment, shall not hold out any inducement to speculative sales or jsurchnsers ; and who shall be of ability to observe and to understand the symjjtoms of any approaching derangements in the currency, and to apply the necessary remedies. All experience has shown the mischief that results from the operations of banks of issue in connexion with executive governments, and the banking annals of our own country afford abundant proofs, that no amount of ability employed in conducting the ope- rations of a great joint-stock association will preserve the country from mismanagement, where there is any private interest or conflicting duty which tempts its managers to originate or to tole:ate, and it may be to aggravate, the mishief. The shock given to mercantile credit, and the losses encountered by commercial men in lo'ecie, arising from the greater jiroductiveness of the mines, would raise prices in all countries alike, and would therefore occasion no serious derangement, nor be followed by any revul- sion ; whereas a rise that is occasioned by the undue extension of a local currency will be confined to the country in which it is issued, and must derange its commercial relations with foreign markets. It is, therefore, at all times, an interesting and valuable question to determine whether jirices are actually rising or ialling, or stationary ; and to ascertain the degree of such a rise or fall as an indication of the state of the currency. A rise or fall thus caused will generally, perhaps always, precede a variation iu the foreign exchanges ; and, if ascertained, and a timely remed}' applied, the evil might be corrected before it could reach a point that would be indicated by any such disturbance of the foreign trade as would affect the rates of exchanges. The truth has long been felt and acknowledged ; but it has at the same time been held impossible to determine, with the necessary degree of accuracy, whether any, and what degree of fluctuation is shown by the jirices of commodities generally. The disturbing causes above alluded to, when affecting articles with which the inquirer is more particularly conversant, may, unless the investigation is extended, give an im- pression contrary to the fact, ^^'ith regard to this objection, it may be said, that it is only by a prac- tical acquaintance with all the circumstances by which markets are temporarilv governed, that a proper allowance can bo made for every disturbing cause. With the possession of the necessary amount of practical knowledge, the difl5culty of course ceases; but even without it, if we see that one kind, or a few kinds of goods exhibit a tendency in regard to price different from that exhibited by the great bulk of articles, it must be easy for an}'- one to make such inquiries into the facts as will qualify him to correct the discrepancj' they might occasion, or to show the propriety of rejecting fiom among the list of articles subjected to examination, those which from extianeous causes would interfere with the correctness of the calculation. There is, however, another difficulty to be surmounted before the degree of fluctuation in prices generally can be correctly ascertained, which is this: — Some articles of mer- chandise are sold, and their prices are quoted by the pound or gallon, and others are quoted by the hundredweight or ton, or by the pipe, while the prices upon which the calculations of rise or fall must be made vary from a few pence for some ar- ticles to more than one hundred pounds for others. How, then, it has been asked, can any comparison be made, where the elements or data for that com- parison exhibit such violent discrepancies? This difficulty will be overcome by the very simple expedient of reducing to one common element the price of every separate article in a long list of articles, whether that price is estimated by pence 278 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. or hy pounds, anJ tlien calculating the lliictunlinj price of each, up or down, and expressing it in decimal proportions. In this manner, the rise or fall of a lialf-penny in the price of a pound of pepper, quoted at 5d., is made to indicate as great an influence in the scale, as a lise or fall of f>s. m a quarter of linseed, quoted at 50s., or of 10/. in a ton of copper, quoted atlOO/. In each of these cases, the index price, whether it be .Jd., 50s. or as 100/. being expressed by unity, or 1,0000, tlie supposed variations, if in advance, would in each cise be expressed by tlie figures 1,1000, -.indif in reduction, by 0,900. Upon this principle, a table has been constructed, taking for its basis or index the prices existing in the first week of January, 1B0.'3, and exliibiting at the beginning of every subsequent month, the average fluctuations that have occurred in the prices of each one of 50 articles which com- prise the principal ^kinds of goods that enter into foreign commerce. Tlie sum of all these prices, thus ascertained and expressed to four places of decimals, when divided by the number of articles in the list, will exhibit the mean variations in tlie aggregate of prices from month to month. Such a table, constructpd by any person possessing a mode- rate acquaintance with the general state of trade, will, it is thought, exhibit tlie variations of prices with as near an approach to accuracy as the subject admits, and the result will be altogether free from any of those specious fallacies which are often found to lurk at the bottom of speculative investigations. [We do not think it necessary to give the table thus described, as those who are disposed to go deeper into the subject, may consult the work itself, nor, indeed, to quote the remainder of Air. Porter's chapter on the currency. The hints thrown out respecting the establishment of a National Bank, will be interesting to many of our readers.] ESTABLISHMENT OF AN ASSOCIA- TION ON THE CONTINENT, FOR CONDUCTING THE SALE OF WOOL. Amongst otlier associations one has recently been formed in Hungary, wliich appears to be deservins^ of notice here more especially, as its operations have prin- cipally reference to this country, and here also is to be placed one branch of its iidmiiiistraiion. This associa- tion, which is both commercia! and agricultural, has its chief seat at Peslh. Il is formed by the Hungarian nobility, but more particularly by tlie proprietors of flocks, to facilitate the sale of wool. It must be under- stood, that the wealth of a considerable proportion of the nobility consists not only in the possession of large landed estates, but as large ownere of sheep. With a view to simplify operations, all tlieir produce is to be carried and warehoused in the establishment to be opened at Pesth, until a special entrepot shall be constructed in the same place. The assortment, washing, and preparation of the wool destined for export is to be eflPected in the store- house itself, under the superintendence of the committee. The shareholders are to elect from among themselves a committee and a president, subject to the decisions of this committee. The Pesth establishment is to be managed by the committee. It will receive wool and all other produce on consignment, and account exactly for the same. 1'he Hungari?.n committee is to select as its representative in London a person of probity and ex- perience, domiciliated here, who will preside over the sale of the products despatched to Engrland. The com- mittee is to be entitled to fix the periods and prices of sales. In general the London agency will not be com- petent to conclude anything without the consent and concurrence of the Hungarian committee. The English agency is to depute to Pesth a person duly empowcrctl to act on its behalf, and well versed in the manijiulation and trade in wool, to direct th% establishment and watch over the interests of the two parties, but always under the control of the committee. The commil tee, in concert with the English agent established at Pesth, will fix the value of the wools despatched to the London company, but always with reference to the piices current here. A ocrtificaie of the amount to be realised on their account will bo delivered to the owners of the produce exported. The producers are to have the option of receiving prompt, if they so desire, 50 per cent, on the estimate assigned by the committee to their produce. The balance to be arranged after the sale ol the wools. If a larger advance should be desirable in certain cases, the associa- tion would make it to the extent of a third quarter of the estimate on the receipt of the wool in London, on pay- ment of interest or discount at the rate of 5 per cent. Measures are to be taken at Vienna and other places for the disposal of the wools which may not be suitable for the London market. The English company undertakes to place these wools in the most advantageous manner possible. The London company is to be entitled to de- duct 2 per cent, commission for its labors, and Intro- mission, 2 per cent.for del credere, and 1 per cent, to cover all brokerages — in the whole, .5 per cent. The expenses of the establishment are to be covered by the associa- tors pro rata of the respective returns. The London agency undertakes lo advance to the Hungarian com- mittee the funds necessary for the building and organi- zation of the establishment on the most equitable terms. The agency promises, moreover, its assistance in developing the commercial relations of Hungary, the progress of its agricultural industry, and the crea- tion of manufactures and workshops. It engages also to found an establishment where loans of money may be obtained by any one on the security of fixed property or commercial products in proportion to their value. The annual production of wool in Hungary is esti- mated at about 20,000 quintals ; and as being one of the principal articles best suited to the country, the amount was gradually augmenting. About one-third of the raw wools exported was, it was calculated, reim- poited in the manufactured state. Offers had, it is stated, been made for the agency of the Hungarian As- sociatioM on the part of five eminent London houses. A strong impression appears to be prevalent in Hungary that the commercial relations of that country, as well as of all the Austrian States, with Great Britain, Avill derive great activity and extension from the conditions of the commercial convention of July, 1838, by which English commerce on the Danube is to enjoy the same facilities and advantages as if carried on under the Austrian flag. There is oo doubt that the immense benefits resulting to Silesia and other parts of the Rus- sian dominions from the daily increasing growth of wool, and the encouragement given to that branch of industry by the Government, have at length awakened emulation in Austria and Hungary. No country can be better adapted than Hungary for the unlimited pro- duction of wool, from its almostinterminable plains and fine pasture lands. Cut, in order fairly to enter into competition with the wool growths of other countries, something more would be requisite than the mere pro- duction of increased bulk, and therefore it will be seen that the object? of the Hungarian Association are to be directed to the assortment of qualities, to the best modes of cleansing and washing, and preparation for markets, and eventually, doubtless, to improvements in the breed and pasturage of the sheep. This association has been thus described solely on ac- count of its novelty and peculiar origin, and as an in- stance of the great enterprise prevailing among the subjects of the Austrian Government. One of the prize rams at the recent exhibition for the premiums offered by the English Agricultural Society at Oxford, the property of Mr. T. Inskipp, of Marston, Bedfordshire, has been purchased and brought into this county, by Mr. J. T. Turner, of Colebrook. — Exeter Flying Post. THE rMiMEirs magazine. 279 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. In our leading article of last week we offered a few passing observations upon the important ad- vantages which would result from authentic sta- tistical information upon agricultural matters, and especially in reference to the amount of agricultu- ral produce raised in this country. It was doubt- less the knowledge of Mr. Baines's peculiar views in respect to the corn laws which caused the ex- pression of disapprobation which was displayed at ihe Leeds meeting when he was about to enter upon a subject purely statistical. It is somewhat remarkable that our cotemporary the Morning Post, whose opinions upon the corn laws are the very opposite of those entertained by Mr. Baines, should in a very few hours after that gentleman had vainly attempted to introduce the subject at a meeting composed of persons interested in it, have put forth a statement calling upon the government to adopt the very course suggested by the hon. Member for Leeds. This is one of the many objects of vast national importance in which all are equally interested, and in furthering which we should hope to see men of all parties united. Believing that we could not occupy our columns with anj matter of more real value to the British farmer or to the country gene- rally, we subjoin the article from the Morning Post at length. " We believe that the largest holders of corn at pre- sent— and there is beyond question a very large quan- tity both of imported and of native corn, of the growth of former years, still upon the lofts of the corn job- bers— are speculating for some rise upon the present price, and actually buying in at a great inconvenience to themselve.3, so as to produce a fictitious scarcity when there is a real abundance. Of course these are facts which must be taken rather upon well founded opinion than upon direct evidence, but they are facts of so great importance in a public point of view that ■we really think the Government could not be BETTER EMPLOYED THAN IN AN ENDEAVOUR TO AS- CERTAIN "WHAT AMOUNT OF CORN THERE IS ACTU- ALLY STORED UP IN THE PRIVATE GRANARIES OF THE KINGDOM. We do not want that any restrictions should be put upon trade, or that any such things as the old decrees for compulsory sales at a certain price should be revived ; but we think it very reasonable that in so important a matter as the first necessary of life the ■people should not suffer from ignorance — that they should not be led to pay a very large price for their food upon the vague terror of scarcity — the appearance of that scarcity being produced by the operations of enormously rich men, whose subtlety and activity are only to be exceeded by their prodigious and insatiable greediness of further gain to themselves, not caring one jot who, or hov,r many may suffer in the process. " There is a great parade made now a-days about such statistical inquiries as are thought likely to aid the arguments of speculative economists. The statisti- cal INQUIRY WE SUUgEST IS OF IMMEDIATE PRACTI- CAL IMPORTANCE TO ALL WHO EAT BREAD, and tO whom the sum to be paid for it is a consideration. " We know it is expected by large holders of grain that it Avill be dearer two months hence by a good deal than it is now. But what we chiefly regret is that these liolders have it so much in their power to realise their own expectations. We are very willing they should have a fair profit, but we are not willing that they should profit by false impressions of scarcity, which impres- sions are owing to their great capital and cunning de- vices. It is OF the UTMOST IMPORTANCE THAT THE COUNTRY SHOULD CLEARLY UNDERSTAND WHE- THER OUR OWN SOIL IS, UPON THE AVERAGE OF SEA- SONS, SUFFICIENT TO SUPPLY THE POPULATION WITH ENOTiGii BREAD. We believe that it is, and that the fears of the contrary entertained by a large portion of the public are owing to the combinations of capitalists and not to natural deficiency." "NVe apprehend that no man will be found to doubt the fact that a deficiency in the harvest, or the prejudicial effects of unsettled weather are always magnified. Independent of the bias of interest which influences many, there exists some how or other in the majority of persons a disposition to enlarge, and the effect of statements so made, can only be obviated by facts. The natural privacy and caution of the English character has hitherto interposed, and would still interpose, considerable difficulties to an accurate statistical return of the number of acres and estimated produce of corn grown in each parish in the kingdom. The farmer has deemed it prudent to keep the amount of his produce secret, lest the knowledge of its increase should induce the landlord to raise his rent or the titlieowner to exact a larger share of the produce, as tithe. His apprehensions upon these points may now however, in a great measure, be set at rest. The commutation of tithes will rid him of one ground of apprehension, and we trust that a better acquaintance with the situation of their tenantry and a better knowledge of their own in- terest will prevent landlords from crippling the exertions and damping the industry of their tenantry by continually requiting im- provement of their estates by an increase of rent. A want of accurate knowledge as to the probable produce of the present harvest, so long as a doubt of its sufficiency is entertained, is akke prejudicial to the British fiirmer as to the corn merchant. It is generally believed that the breadth of land this year under wheat is much larger than last year, but how mani/ moie acres may have been sown, or how far the addi- tional quantity is calculated to supply the defi- ciency of stock caused by the failure of the last har- vest, is wholly unknown. I-f it were clearly as- certained that the produce of the present harvest would be sufficient to supply the year's consump- tion, there would be little inducement to the corn merchant or the speculator to pur- chase foreign grain, and the British farmer would have the market secured to him without competition. Whilst however matters continue in the present|state of uncertainty the hope of gain in- duces capitalists to speculate, foreign grain is im- ported and displaces British growth in the market, the speculator may realize a profit if the farmer is enabled to bold until the market is cleared, and the latter must afterwards sell at a reduction, or f both be compelled to come to market at once, each injures the other by a glut, the result of forced sale. The machinery requisite for making a return of the number of acres of wheat standing in each parish in the kingdom at harvest, with an es- timate of the produce, would be neither expensive nor complicated, and we trustlhat no long time will be suffered to elapse ere a plan for effecting this object will he devised and adopted. — Mark Lane Express, 280 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE CULTURE OF RAPE. (from POOI.Elt'sj FARJir.u'* JIANUAL.) This crop is cultivated in different ways, and for different purposes. Perliaps there is no crop within the range of modern farmin)j more easily proiiagated, or capable of being turned to more in)])ortant pur- poses than rape. It has a wider range of soils than the turnip ; it re- quires less culture and manure, and can be produced under circumstances in wliich tlie turnip cannot be ])rofitably cultivated. Generally speaking the most profitable application of rape in Ireland is soiling or feeding off with sheej). It is also cultivated for the sake of the seed, and al- though in this manner considerable sums are realized, yet it is questionable whetlier on the aggregate of sea- sons (except in the more favoured distiicts of the north east coast) this application of the crop can be considered at all times beneficial to the farmer. Ra])e possesses that convenient pliability of character and hardiness of constitution, tliat sow or plant it when or where you will, it is sure (o make a vigorous struggle to exist ; and altliough the climate may in some cases render it expedient to cultivate it exclusively for its seeds, as a green crop for winter or spring feeding it is invaluable, yielding as it does an abundant sup- ply of the most nutritious food at a season when tur- nips and mangel are equally exliausted, and before the winter vetch, clover, or Italian rye grass are fit ibr use. One great advantage which the culture of rape pre- sents is, the facility with which it may be jjroduced on inferior soils. Rape may often obviate the neces- sity of an entire summer fallow ujion such soils, for it ma}' be eaten on the ground by sheep in the month of September, and thus a crop of wheat be sown the same year. As a stolen crop, (or crop taken in the interval be- tween harvest and spring), ra[)0 becomes particular- ly valuable to the farmer. It will often yield a good cutting in October, when the frosts have stripped th clover of its leaves, and before the turnips are fit for use — and come in afterwards in spring when the tur- nips are exhausted, and before the winter vetch is suflrciently grown. As an intermediate crop it may be cultivated in various ways. Should the crop it is to succeed be likftly to remain too long on the ground, a seed-bed should be sown in June, and the plants transplanted out, assooM as possible after the previous crop. If after vetches, the rape plants should be put in rido-e after ridge, as the vetches are cut, giving tlie ground a dressing of manure. In a great majority of cases the vetches will be off the ground in suffici- ent time to sow the seed — transplanting in such cases may be dispensed with. If, however, the vetches Lad been fed off with sheep, the ground will be sufliciently rich for the rape. It will succeed a corn crop in the same manner, ploughing, harrowing, and manuring the stubble; and should no previous pro- vision be made for a supply of plant from a seed bed, by stooking the corn on one side of the field as it is cut, and manuring and sowing the cleared part of the stubbles, an excellent crop will be obtained. In Flanders, wliere rape culture is jiractised u])on the most extensive and economiral scale, the stubble is ploughed twice, and the rape dibbled in by the plough laying up the mound upon them, the plants having been previously laid at proper distances. This mode is found more expeditious than dibbling. In the north of Ireland it is usual to take a crop of rape after flax. In this case the flax is off the ground sufficiently early to sow the seed, without Laving re- course to transi)lanting. The flax stubble having been ploughed and harrowed , the manure is laid on the sur- face, and a slight covering of mould thrown over it from the furrows; tie seed is then sown at the rate of 161bs to the English acre, ('J jibs to the Irish acre*,) and covered from the furrows. In this way excellent crops arehad, which gives fiveor six weeks feeding of a warm and nutritious kind, at the scarcest season of the year, and the ground cleared off for a spring crop. Wr. lilacker advises, with a view to savingtheturnips, that the rape land be sown with late vetches, wiiich will come in October, and last until December. Rape may be sown with advantage on a well pre- pared fallow, as by overshadowing the land it will iertilize it much ; and if on sandy or gravelly soils, and fed olV by sheep, it will fit it for a crop of barley. " It may also bo sown without manure on a stubble, on which a good crop ol' brush turnips could not be expected ; for although it will not afford much keep during the winter, yet the manure deposited by a flock of shee[), and the benefit derived from the roots when ploughed in, will ultimately promote the ferti- lity of the soil. When rape is sown in this way, it would not be judicious to let it stand for seed, as tlie land not being manured, and the seed late sown, the crop would not produce well, and would leave the land very foul." Quantity of produce. — It is difficult to estimate green food by weight, so much depends npon the state of the weather or hours of the tlav at which it is cut. ]Mr. Scott, of Lurgaboy, near j\Iarket-hill, states in a letter to Mr. Blacker, that he obtained at a cutting in January, 31 stone, .*) pounds, from ^n English perch ; rnd that he would have a second cutting in March, and a third one in May. And wo are informed by i\Ir. Dougan, of thesameneighbour- hoocl, that, with the assistance of a little hay, he was able, on an E.nglish acre ol rape, to keep twelve cows for one month. Rape sown exclusively for its seed must be at greater intervals than when intended for soiling or feeding off by sheep. On the poorer soils they may be left at eight or ten inches apart, or narrower ; but on rich soils they may stand at twelve or fifteen inch- es with advantage to the seed. In close crops tlie seed is only found on the summits of the plants, but in wide onison rich soils, it also covers theirsides. When the crop is grown for soiling or feeding cff no thinning is necessarv. In this case it may stand at close intervals, either when transplanted or sown. It does not appear that by eating or pulling off the leaves in winter the produce is at all diminished. The time for sowing when the crop is intended for seed is about the middle of August; and of reaping the middle of Juh* following, provided the season be favourable, The (juantity of seed for this purpose is generally about seven pounds to the acre. Saving the Seed. — About the period of ripening, the crop ought to be attended to, for it will change so quickly if the weather be hot, that a few days may make a great maturity, and probably will require it to be cut in patches throughout the field. It is also advisable to have it watched from birds as soon as the pods begin to fill. Let the crop on no account get too ripe, and if lodged should be cut even under ripe, in preference to letting it lie on the ground. It must be reaped with great care, and then put erect in stocks to ripen in the field. About this time sufficient hands should be engaged for the day it is * Tliis is considerably more seed than is generally used, the object being' to iiave a tliick, close crop. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 281 likely t(j be (it for tbresliing, tbe process of wbicli is very siiujile, but requires great expedition, as tbc crop iijuu bt! carried to tbe sheet, tbreslied, cleaned, and put into sacks without delay, in order to guaid against any risk from showers. In whatever convey- ance the crop is carried it must be kept upright, and sljook as little as possible until thrown on the sheet ; it is then to be well beat out with long poles, and shook carefully. Should the seed be at all diimp when brought to the granary no timo should be lost in spreading it thinly on the floor to remain till perfectly dry and fit for market. The produce in seed is from ten to sixteen barrels, of sixteen stones to thebarrel, per Irish acre. The uses of rape for soiling and feeding off have been already noticed. It is ijarticuLuly valuable in the process of reclaiming bog, or other waste grounds which have been pared, and burnt or otherwise pre- pared.— By sowing such with rape, and feeding oft' with sheep, a proper mixture of useful grasses may be introduced, and tbe ground kept in a state of permanent fertility. 'J'here is no portion of the matured jilanttbat cannot bo turned to profitable account, i'he seed sells for crushing often so high as 3()s. per barrel. The rape cake is well known for its valuable effects as manure for various crops. In Flanders the manure from which tbe rape is raised is urine, with the rape cakes dissolved in it. The pods and points broken oft" in threshing are as acceptable to cattle as hay ; and the haulm, or stems, are sometimes used for litter, for the bottoms of stacks &c. In Holland the haulm is burned as ashes for manure, which is found to be so valuable that it brings iibovc three times the price of any other. Martin Poyle strongly urges the establishment of rape mills on the moors of Ireland, and the em- jiloymeat of liquid manure and ra]ie-cake in raising llie crop. He says, "if it be a fact, that upon a Flemish farm the urine of forty-four bead of cattle, with the addiiionof 12,000 rape-cakes of two pounds each, is sufficient to nianuie in the best manner twenty one English acres, tbe owner of a rape mill on Irish moors, who could bouse 100 head of caitle, might venture on the improvement of a very exten- sive tract with every prospect of success." This is another of tbe green crops that may be ad- vantageously turned into ground for manure. Ex- cellent crops of oats and potatoes may bo obtained in this way by digging or ploughing the green stalks deeply into the ground. Kinds.— Four kinds are named by Lavvson. Two only arc cultivated in the Britisli l-sles. A DEFENCE OF THE SMALL FAR- MERS OF IRELAND. No. 1. The following observations are submitted with the object of combating a principle which it has become the fashion to advocate, with reference to the improvement of Ireland, and which, by its fre- quent repetition without being met by a detailed refutation, has taken possession generally of the minds of the public, and has drawn into its vortex the opinions and assent of many who are the truest fricndi of the Irish people. The principle I allude to is this — that the first step to the improve- ment oj" Ireland must fje the yeneral dlspossessment of the small farmer, or small occujiierjfrom his j^osscS' sions, to make waij for the enterprise of the capi- talist ; and, with a view to the advancement of this object, the South Australian Colonization So- ciety have lately come before the public to seek tbe support of Irish landlords. I have no objection to the South Australian So- ciety ; I consider that a facility of emigration would be of most important utility to every por- tion of the United Kingdom ; but I object to the grounds on which the advocacy of its interests has been founded, in the reported speeches of Colonel Torrens, the chairman of that society. I object to the improvement of Ireland being based ui)on the princijde, that the small occupier must be dis- possessed, as the preliminary step to our regenera- tion. There is a wide diftcrencc between affording a facility for the voluntary emigration of such por- tion of the cottier population as cannot at present be accommodated with settlements of land in Ire- land, as well as for all who desire to better their condition, and adojjting emigration as the means of the compnlsori/ cjpatriation of the small land- Jiolders. I say compulsorij — because, if the landlords dispossess the small tenantry, it is virtual compul- sion to emigration ; it is emigration or death — death by exposure — death by starvation — or death by the penalties of the law, for transgressions which their condition will prompt them to. In opposition to thef3e iMalthusian doctrines, it is my intention to endeavour to prove, by facts and reasoning, certain propositions, which I shall state in detail- In discussing this important subject, it is my intention to steer clear of all party predilections or hostilities. There are honest friends of Ire- land to be found amongst men of all political par- ties and religious jiersuasions : to those I address myself; and I trust that not one word or senti- ment shall escajjc me which can give just cause of complaint to any party or to any individual. I de- sire to combat opinions — not persons. Following this course, I trust I may not be con- sidered too presumptuous in hoping, that, if there shall be anything contained in the observations I propose to submit worthy of public attention, the press will act towards me in a like spirit, and givo them such degree of circulation as the importance of the subjects under discussion may seem to war- rant. It must be admitted that there is no subject of such practical importance to the interests of Ire- land as that which I propose to inquire into. If the depopulating system is necessary for our coun- try, then it is of the highest importance that means should be taken to provide for the super- fluity. But if depopulation be not necessary — if it be impracticable to such an extent as to give relief, — if it be not expedient as a principle of na- tional policy — then the greatest possible evil must result from placing a reliance on such a system as the mainsprini/ of improvement, by checking the progress of other means which ought to be re- sorted to for that purpose. In order to the more clear understanding of the subject, I have reduced the main points which I desire to establish, into the form of propositions, which I shall argue in detail. riiorosiTioNs. 1. That the labouring population in Britain are inadequate to the full cultivation of the lands of Britain. 2. That the number of hands in Ireland, em- ployed iu agricultural labour, is not greater than V 282 TUB I'ARMER'S MAGAZlNfi. would be necessary for tlic jjroper cultivation, tlic improvement, iuid the reclaiming- of the lands of Ireland; and that the aggregate agricultural la- bourers of the United Kingdom are below the number required for the purposes of the country. l>. That if there be a sufficient labouring popu- tion to supply both the general and occasional purposes of the United Kingdom, the whole of this population cannot be kept in constant cmploy- mcnt. 4. 'J'hat the hands out of employment cannot have the means of subsistence except by some one of the three modes followin{(, namely : — by a rate of wages so high when employed as to subsist them when unemployed ; by a provision from poor-ratps; or, by the occupation of land. 5. That the occupier of from five to six statute acres of average land, if industrious and not over- rented, can supply himself and family with all ne- cessary provision for their reasonable and com- fortable sustenance, and apply at least half his time to hired labour; and that, therefoic, the ex- tra labour of the country can be bcstprovidcd for, by a system producing an intermixture of small holdings with those of a larger description ; by means of which a portion of the working classes can be supported from the proceeds of their labour on the land in their own occupancy, independently of the wages of hired labour. 'j. That the small farmer, of the description al- ready stated, can cultivate land to more advantage than the large farmer, in cases of a low rate of produce and inferior qualities of soil (especially if he applies part of his time in working for hire, at agriculture, manufactures, or public works) ; and can, in such cases, pay a higher and more certain rent; and that, by this system, a great portion of land will be brought into and kept in cultivation, and the national prosperity increased. 7. 'Jliat large farms would be inexpedient in Ireland, because Irish farmers cannot command the^capital, and have not the knowledge necessary for the management of them ; and because it ap- pears, from parliamentary documents, that the class of large farmers in England are in a state approaching to bankruptcy, and are only capable of_ maintaining their position by the increased prices created by the corn laws. 8. That the superior condition of the labouring popidation, in the north-east portion of the pro- vince of Ulster (where the farms rate at from si.v to sixty acres), as compared with other parts of Ireland, where larger farms exist in combination M ith a greater proportion of cottiers (or persons having houses without land or with only gardens), aflbrds practical proofs in support of the principle of small farms, as deduced from the following facts :— 1st, That, in this district, the population is greater in proportion to the area ; 2d, That also the number of families, wholly or partly employed in agriculture, bears a greater proportion to the number of acres; 3rd, That wages are higher; 4th, That rents are higher in proportion to the quality of the land ; 5th, That the number of destitute poor is the smallest in proportion to the population; 6th, That employment is gene- ral, and no able-bodied man requiring or receiving relief. 9. That, if destitution exists among the class of small occupiers, having farms containing not less than six acres of average land, or five acres of prime land, in any part of Ireland, it arises from some one of the following causes, or from a com- bination of them all, namely ;— 1st, The extortion of excessive rents; 2d, Oppression in the mode of levying rents ; .''»rd. Uncertainty of a continuance of occupancy ; 4th, Liability to eviction, without an allowance for improvements ; .'jth, ^^'ant of in- dustry ; ()th, ^Vant of information. 10. That extreme subdivision can only be effec- tually prevented by improving the condition of the people; and that the tendency to emigration will exist in the greatest degree where that condi- tion is the best. I shall endeavour to bring forward, in subse- quent numbers, in as concise a form as possible, the facts and arguments which are recjuired to support the foregoing propositions, and, having done so, I shall point out those measures, based upon the facts so affirmed, which appear useful or necessary for improving the condition of Ireland. Before I commence the regular discussion of the matters contained in the propositions I have now stated, I shall refer to one or two points in the speech of Colonel Torrens, cliairman of the South Australian Society, at a meeting held in Dublin on the 17th of July last, as given in the revised report of the Dublin 3Ionilor of the 23rd July. The state- ments which I wish jjarticularly to allude to arc the two following : — First, That "//re Enylishfarmcr (by the consolidation of the land into large farms) can produce four times as much out of an acre as an Irishman." Second, *^ That farms must be conso- lidated, until the agricultural labour of Ireland can be performed by two-fflhs of the labourers now em- ploijcd in jjerforming it." These propositions are founded on a comparison of the proportion which the number of agricul- tural hands bear to the supposed produce of each country. In this document it is assumed, that the value of the produce of England is 1.50,000,000/., that of Ireland only .id, 000,000/., and that the agricultural labourers employed in raising this produce in Ireland are 1,131,715 families, and in Britain 1,055,'J82 families. On these assumptions, a sentence of expatriation is proclaimed against three-fifths of the small oc- cupiers and poor labourers in Ireland, to be pro- vided for by emigration. ^Vhen conclusions are formed of such deep (I might say fatal) importance to the interests of the great mass of the Irish population, it is just and necessary that the correctness of the data on which they were supported should be examined and proved. In the report of Col. Torrens's speech, the autho- rities are not given on which these calculations of produce are founded ; they are assumed as indis- putable documents. 1 am aware that they are re- ferred to in the third report of the commissioners of poor inquiry in Ireland ; and, by a reference to appendix H, part 1st, table 2, I find that the cal- culation of British produce is not the result of any real return of the amount of that produce, but founded on the following suppositions : — 1st, That the rental of Great Britain was truly shown by the property tax return of 1810 ; 2d, That it is not the same amount as then ; and, 3rd, That the rental bears a proportion of two-ninths to the gross produce. From these elements it is clear, that the calculation of produce is intended to in- clude, not corn alone, but every desci-iption of ar- ticle, live stock included, to the production of which the farmer's labours are applied. On these vague assumptions the calculation is based that the produce of England is truly estimated at the value of 150,000,000/. With reference to the pro- duce of Ireland, it appears, from a reference to the Tills FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 283 tabic already quolcil, that tbc amount of produce was estimated at 36,000,000^., on a calculation v.hich had been made, at some previous period, by Rlr. Griffiths; but the data arc not given on w'l)ich it was founded, or when it was made. And this is now to be assumed as the value of Irish produce, and as showing the present true propor- tion to British produce, notwithstanding the ac- knowledged fact, that for some years past Irish production has been progressing in a rapidly in- creasing ratio ; and notwithstanding that (by table No. 10, Railway Report) it appears, that the ex- ports alone of agricultural produce from Ireland, in 1833, amounted to about 12,000,000/. ; and not- withstanding the facts proved by the evidence taken before the English Agricultural Committee of 1836, which show that the agricultural produc- tion was on the decline, from the causes stated by the witnesses. I cannot attempt to prove what the real amount of the production of either country ought to be stated at, because I know of no return or calcula- tion on the subject which can be assumed even to approach to accuracy ; but if I wanted an argu- ment to prove the incorrectness of these data, it is found at once in the absurdity of the conclusion deducted from them, namely — " That an English farmer can raise four times as much from an acre as an Irishman." I ask, what is the average pro- duce in England ? For the answer to this ques- tion, I shall refer to the first report on agriculture, 18o(J. I shall take the average crops, as given by six different farmers, farming from 224 to 1,100 acres. STATEMENTS OF PlfODUCE. Wheat. Oats. Page. Acres. Bushels. Bushels. 26— Mr. Brickwell, farming 700 . . 30 . . 44 81— Mr. JohnRolfe 300 .. 24 .. — 111— Mr. John Kemp 500 .. 26 .. 48 133— Mr. Chas.Page 1,100 .. 28 .. 55 157— Mr. Robert Babbs... 224 .. 24 .. 44 201— Mr. Evan David .... 730 .. 22 .. — Average of Wheat, 25| bushels, equal to about 141 cwt., at 62lbs. per bushel. Average of Oats, 47-| bushels, equal to about 17 cwt., at 40lbs. per bushel. Now, will it be asserted, that the average of Irish production is only equal to one-fourth of the foregoing — that the labour of the Irish farmer will only yield of cwt. of wheat, and 4i of oats, by the statute acre ? The assertion is too absurd not to meet an instant denial from every one possess- ing any knowledge of the agriculture in Ireland. It may be truly admitted, that Ireland, from the greater coldness and moisture of the climate, does not yield so high an average by the acre as the lands of England ; but the average produce is not far inferior to the above statement of English pro- duce. In the deeper soils of Leinster and Mun- ster wheat would average, per statute acre, from r2§ to 19 cwt. J in the poorer soil of Ulster, from 10 to 15 cwt. Oats, in the richer soil, from 16 to 25 cwt.; in the poorer, 13 to 15 cwt. I cannot refer to any authorised documents for the average produce of Ireland, such as the reports on English agriculture, which I have quoted ; but 1 state the above from experience and information received from different quarters, and I have no doubt that the quantities I have given will be admitted to be rather under than over the average of Ireland. The nest element on which the conclusion of Colonel Torrens is supported, is the proportion of hands employed in each country by which the produce is created. He assumes, that 1,121,715 hands arc employed in Irish agricultural labour, for the production of ihc value of 36,000,000/.; whilst only 1,055,1)82 hands are em])loycd iu ling- land, for the i)roduction of 150,000,000/. Now, if even the amount of value were correct, it is very easy to prove that the assumed proportion of hands is incorrect. The number of hands here quoted from the population returns of Ireland, are stated as fami- lies chiefly employed in agriculture ; all small landowners not emi)loying labourers are included. A great number of these are holders of land, and at the same time, weavers, and employ a portion of their time in agriculture. This is not the case in England ; and, therefore, in order to compare the reported hands employed in agriculture in Britain and Ireland, a fair allowance must be made for the time employed in manufacture. The great majority of the small holders in the province of Ulster are of this description; they are occupiers not employing labourers. The export of linen from Ireland in 1835 was 70,000,000 yards, inde- pendent of the home consumption ; and the great majority of the hands employed in this manufac- turing produce are to be deducted from the agri- culturists of Ireland, before a just comparison can be made !)etween the amount of hands employed in agriculture in Britain and Ireland. Again, — is there to be no addition made to the labourers of Britain in consideration of the emigration of Irish labourers to reap the British harvests ? Is there no deduction to be allowed from the amount of Irish labourers for the same cause ? Would it not be necessary to estimate all these matters pre- vious to making an attempt to found an argument on the actual proportion ? I trust I have now brought forward sucli argu- ments as are sufficient to convince any reason- able person, that the statements I have been combating cannot be sustained on the facts brought forward as their foundation. I trust it is plain — 1st, That the amount of Irish agri- cultural produce is considerably tmderrated ; 2d, That the amount of hands employed in Irish agriculture is over-rated; 3rd, That the amount of hands employed in British agriculture is tmder-rated ; and that further evidence is re- quired before conclusions of such an important character, founded on such data, can be admitted. I therefore claim from the public, at least a sus- pension of judgment, before sentence of exiiatria- ti'on shall be pronounced against three-fifths of the small farmers and poor labourers of Ireland. I claim a patient hearing of a few farther arguments in defence of their cause. At all times, the subject I have undertaken to discuss would be a matter well deserving of public attention ; but at this particular period it has pe- culiar claims on the consideration of the friends of Ireland. It cannot be concealed, that the re- duction of population and the expulsion of the small holders of land, is a doctrine much favoured by the public ; and tve have examples at the present moment of the system being brought into practical ope- ration. Now, if it be necessary for the good of Ire- land that this should be done, then the evil conse- quences of such a system to the immediate suffer- ers should be guarded against by legislative provisions ; their condition should not be left sub- ject to the accident of the mercy which a benevo- lent landlord might extend towards them, or the cruelty which a heartless extirpator might inflict. But if, on the other hand, the system would be productive of national evil, of national weakness, u 2 284 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of national impovcii.slimciit, it is full titnctluit tlic subject should be investigated in ;ill its beariuj^s, in order that tlic prosperity of Ireland sliouid not be rested on a deceptive and rotten foundation. Such are my objects ; and I respectfully claim the indulgence of the ))nblie in their execution. WM. SHARMAN CilAWl'UllD. Crairfurdnburn, IScpl.^t, IS.'JI). No. ir. PROrOSITION IIRST. That the labouring populalion in Britain are inarle- quate in the full cnllivdHon of the lands of that portion of Ihc Uiriled Kingdom. I have placed this proposition first in the order, because, if it be true that the agricultural haiuis of Britain are suHicient fxr tlic cultivation of Britain, then an irresistible argument would exist against my second proposition, witli reference to the hands of Ireland. In i)roof of this assertion, I have, in the first place, the undoubted fact of the extensive emigra- tion of Irish labourers, for saving the harvests of Britain. I have no returns which prove the num- bers ; but the fact cannot be disputed. If the bands were sufficient in linglaud, the Irish labour- ers could not find employment, at remunerative ^vagcs. Again— -In appendix H, Irisli poor inquiry, jjart I, table 2d, the cultivated lands of Britain arc stated at ;?1,()11,000 acres ; the uncultivated lands, at 22,r>7!»,:;;5() acres. iM tliis, about twelve millions are stated, from other returns, to be incapable of cultivation. Then, assuming the lands not culti- vated, but cajiable of cultivation, to be no more than 10,000,000, this would be nearly one-third of the lands now cultivated ; ami the present hands being insnfl^icient to labour that ])ortion now brought under cultivation (as proved by the em- ploying of Irisli labourers, in addition "to the la- bourers of Britain), it must incontestibly follow, that, at the least, ntorc than one-third additional hands would be required to bring all the lands of Britain into cultivation. But, farther— A large portion of the lands of Britain, included as cultivated, although fully im- proved, and in a state for cultivation, are kc])! in ])crmanent pasture and meadow ; large portions are not subjected to regular rotation cultivation ; the productive powers of the cultivated lands are, therefore, not brought into their full action. It is obvious to the eye of any traveller through Eng- land, that rotation cultivation is only partially brought into operation, in particular" districts ; and that, in general, a large proportion of the lands are devoted to permanent grass. A refer- ence to the evidence of the extensive farmers exa- mined before the agricultural committee of 1836, will show, that, in general, only a portion, and sometimes a small portion, of their lands were de- voted to regular cultivation, the remainder being- liept in pasture. Again— the reclaiming of the uncultivated lands, which amount, as before shown, to about one- third of Britain, would require a larger proportion of hands than the proportion required to cultivate that which is already improved. Wiien all these circumstances arc considered — 1st, That the present hands are insuflicicnt for the labour of the improved lands of Britain, as now cultivated; 2d, That this cultivation is not carried on so as to bring into full action the productive powers of the land ; .'M, That nearly one-third of the reclnimable lands are uncultivated ; I main- tain, it must be inferred, that at least one-half more hands woidd be rctpiircd, beyond what arc now employed, for the full cultivation of Britain. But, I need not let my jiosition rest on the argu- ments I have adduced : 1 can bring forward re- corded evidence, from the linglish agricultural reports, in its support. By reference to the first report (IS.'lfi) on Eng- lish agriculture, page lIKi, question 4,211), we find the expenses of the manual labour of a farm of 1,100 acres (stated for seven years) maliing a yearly average of .">,()7jL ; which would be about 2/. 1 (is. per acre, for manual labour alone. 'Ihe rate of wages is given at 12s. per week. If the abo\c amount were the labour of men cntirch/, it would he at the rate of nine men for every liun- died acres ; but, if we take ofl' one-fourth for the labour of women and boys at green crojis, and extra labour at harvest, it would amount to an a\eragc of (J j men for each 100 acres. Ihe expense.'; and i)roduce of another farm are stated, page 111, questions 2,170, 2,177. This farm contains 400 acres ; the labour i> rated at thirty shillings ])er acre (amoimting to (iOO/.) ; rate of wages being !)s. i)cr week, ecjual to the labour of (ij men for each 100 acres ; but, taking ofi' one-fourth, as befoie, for the labour of women and boys at harvest, it leaves the average 4'i men for each 100 acres. In this statement, the total value of ])roduce is given at 2,0ii2/.; the total amount of labour, (jOO/. : thus, it api)cara, that the labour amounts to nearly a third of the produce, and the produce about 3/. per acre. Pages lo/ and 158, questions .S,218 to 15,222. — The expenses and i)roceeds of a farm of 221 acres are given, on a six-course husbandry. Labour is rated at 32s. per acre (amounting to 3.58/.) ; wages, I)s. per week, equal to the labour of 6} men for each 1('0 acres ; taking off a fourth, as before, it leaves the average at .'> men for each 100 aci'cs ; total pro- duce is stated at l,0Sy/.; total labour, at 858/.; bjing about one-third of the produce, and the pro- duce about ")/. per acre. Now, the average of these exain])les— (ij, 4|, and b — would be b) men for each 100 acres (ex- clusive of any allowance for female workers) ; and it is worthy of remark, that the proportion of labour to the acre is highest on the large farm of 1,100 acres. But, independently of this evidence, it is easy to show, by an examination of the work required to be done, that the jiroportion of hands here stated would not be too much for the proper cultivation of the country ; that it would be indispensable, cither to have that proportion on the constant es- tablishment of the farms, or to be able, at all times when required, to command hands to that amount. I shall suppose a five-shift rotation, which is the rotatior\ that would require the fewest hands, as it supposes two-fifths of the farm to be under clover or grass : the rotation is — 1st, Green croj), ma- nured ; 2d, A\'heat, barley, or oats, with seeds ; 3d, Clover and grass, to cut for hay and soiling ; 1th, Second year of clover and grass, for pasture and soiling ; ."(th, Oats. I assume that the soiling system, for the feeding of cattle, is to be adopted with reference to as nmch of the first growth of the first year's clover as can be spared from hay, and with reference to the whole of the second growth of that portion ; and that, on this system, with the help of the other division of the former year's clover, and the other produce of the farm, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OSj five-and-twcnty head of cattle, on the average of quisite, at least, for the general lal)Ourin<> of the winter and summer, will be always wholly or par- improved lands of England. I Ju.ve shown in tl tially stall-fed ; for, by the system of honso-fecd- tirst number, that a deduction should b-;' m 1° ing alone can the productive powers of the conn- from the class returned as chiefl\^ emnlovel "^ try be fully brought into action. agriculture, for the time spent in manufacture b" This rotation would require four horses for the linen weavers of Ulster. A fartlier deduction carting and ploughing- of every hundred acres, on of time occurs in the prepnration of the turf fuel an average ; two men, at least, to work these consumed in a great part of Ireland, which occu- horscs ; one man to attend twenty five head of I'ies the agricultural labourers fjr a considerable cattle, piys, fowls, &c. ; two men filr all the otlier portion of the summer months (and for which the work to be perform :d— spade work, fencing, ''-"gl'sh labourers are not required). In the Irish threshing by machine or otherwise, preparing ma- population returns, the number of agricultural nure, mowing and bringing home clover for soil- h^bourers are stated as being 1,131,715. In con- ing, and mowing hay ; taking produce to market, sidcration of the above deductions, 1 shall tben and for a variety of other duties to be performeil. assume the number of agricultural labourers in There must he a permanent establishment, equal I"^''^"J_tts equal to one million. Then, if we adopt to this, for every hundred acres ; oi', if it be re- ["° i'" her public works ' ber ot acres stated to be at present in an arable t „,„' > , \ -c' u state in England-namely, 34,000,000 of acres— u^,,f I ^^^"' '^ *"^''^ V^'^^ '" Iieland no more the hands required, at five to every 100 acres, h^"<« t'lan arc necessary for the purposes of her would be l,7i;0,000-exceed!ng the number given '^i in V^ ^^'^'>' '"^'"^ ^« many of her hands un- in the population return by more than one-half. .;£,;„ flower, because her lands are not But. if we estimate the number required for the ,' f ' "^ ' °\ .^'f '^""ed, as they ought to whole of the lands of Britain capable of cultivation, ;,,// -r/""'^^""^ ,"^ ^^^" hereafter inquire namely, 41,000,000 acrcs-the number of hands J he non-ernpoyment does not arise from a required, at the same rate, would be '2,200,000, ,^^Zl ""'ff-' f.' ^'"^'^^"^'^^ f'^>- productive being more than double the present number„ Thus ^'"/,' "' ' ""{^J?''!//^* "'/« action. it appears that the want of hands limits the pro- i,.,' i ' r \^"i , ^"fg*^'!- that the labouring ductive powers of Britain ; and, among other evils, ''f ■,"', "^ /'f'^" ^ f '-^ ^oo numerous for the work renders us dependent on foreign countries for that i, '1,, ' ^^"1', ^-'^' '' '"^''' ""'nberr, were re- supply of food which could be amply produced in / S \'^>^' '''[^ ^\^ 7^"^^ » .^''^ of'er parts of the our own. In estimating tlie amount of agricnl- , '.^'1/"?''""' ^' be supplied .^ If we view the tural labourers required for England, I have li- ,tlZl wants of the empire, and the hands at mited my calculation to those required for agri- ll.^^u.of^u''^ agriculture, we find the ,, i X I. -c -1 A 1 • result as tollows : — culture alone ; but, it we consider the drain upon them for the roads, the railways, and the pulilic The arable and improveable acres of works of England, which are every day increasing, Britain are computed at 4j 254 000 it is evident that a large deduction must be jiro- Of Ii eland, at '" l"'o'^"'2ft(i duced, in this way, from the agricultural labourers ' ' ' * ' " ' of the country; and that, without the jiower of Total til ''7^ '?sn commanding a greater supply of hands than even The agricultural labourers of Britain '" ' the number pro[)Osed, namely, five to the hundred are computed at i oT <'S9 acres — the agriculture and the jmblic works of Of Ireland, at * l'l"il'''K the country cannot go forward i^ogcthcr ; and even ' ' ' the agriculture alone could not lie brought info Total o to- ccyj full operation unless a greater number of liaiids . -. , ^ could be commanded at the pressure of harvest. T' ^^'O'dd be an average of only about :\\ la- bourers tor every 100 acres, for the agriculture, PROPOSITION SECOND. ^}^^ improvement, and reclaiming of the lands, and tor every other purpose of the empire. I come now to my second proposition, namely— I slr.ill now give my opponents the advantage That the number of hands in Ireland, employed in °* '^''^. -'assumption, that their favourite .sclieme of agricultural labour, is not greater than would he co"«ohdation was carried int3 effect ; and that the necessary for Vie jwoper cultivation, the improve- ^ I , ^ Ireland were laid out in squares of 100 to ment, and the reclaiming of tlie lands of Ireland ; '^' . 'i<^ies, and the population reduced, by emi- and that the aggregate agricultural labourers of^ gi'^tion or otherwise, to the number which the the United Kingdom are below the number re- ^"PP"i'ttis ot this system allege, that those capi- quiredfor the jnaposes of the country. talists so invested with the soil of Ireland would require to cultivate their fnrms. The ground I have laid in the discussion of the The agricultural labourers of Ireland being former proposition, renders the proof of my sc- equal to the number of about one million they are cond an easy task. I have shown that the pro- to be reduced, according to Colonel Torrens's portion of five men to the 100 acres would be re- plan, to two fifths of that number —namely 28G THE FAllMEirS MAGAZINE. 400,000. Tlie acres of Ireland (see Tabic, page 107, Public Works Report, 18:^5) are as follow : — Cultivated 12,125,280 Uncultivated, but re- claimable 4,900,000 17,025,280— say 17,000,000. Then, how many labourers would these capitalists have to work their farms .' Only 2-' men for every hundred acres ! I would, then, call upon any of the advocates of reduction to sliow by what means the agriculture of Ireland could be carried on, so as to bring the productive powers of the country into operation, by a number of hands so limited. Tliey say, that capital and machinery can do this. 1 call upon them to examine, in detail, the various works to be performed on a farm, in the general system of a five-shift rotation, or of any other rotation which applies all the portions of a farm, in regular suc- cession, to the ])roduction of grain crops ; without ■which system the productive powers of a country cannot be fairly or fully brought into action ; and to show, first, in wliat way these various opera- tions can be i)rovidcd for, l)y establishments limited to an average of 2] able-bodied men to each 100 acres without the power of commanding any additional hands : and secondly, by what means labourers are to be supplied for the exti'a •work of harvest, on the supposition of this limita- tion being carried into effect: thirdly, by what means labourers are to be provided for the extra demand, in improving and reclaiming the lauds of Ireland — because, if even 2j men to the 100 acres were adequate to the regular establishment of well- improved farms, such would not be the condition of Ireland. On the consolidation taking place, every farm would require to be new-modelled, new-fenced, and, in most cases, new-drained. Such works would require doid)le, treble, or four times the number of hands requisite on regularly- prepared farms ; and the reclaiming of 5,000,000 of acres would put into employment a number of hands which cannot be calculated. I repeat, I call npon the advocates of this grand scale of emigration to show in what way these wants are to be provided for ; and, when room is made for their great capitalists, by expatriating three-fifths of the labourers of Ireland, to show what kind of machinery is to be brought into ac- tion, which will operate to do all these works, on the scale of hands they proj^ose to allow. But, if all the works of the eountry could even be provided for by this minimum of labouring po- pulation, what would be the consequence,, if Eng- land were to be again reduced to the same diffi- culties as in the last war ? How are her army and navy to be supplied with hands ? Were not the population of Ireland her sheet-anchor on that occasion ? If the labouring population were re- duced to the minimum, she could not supply an extraordinary demand of this kind, except by stopping her agriculture when its produce would be most wanted. I am not afi-aid to re-assert the old (but now too much exploded) doctrine, that the strength of a country, whether in peace or u-ar, consists chiefly in the macjnitnde of the iwpulation she can find the means to svjyport. I would say, then, to political theorists, before yon speculate on measures for the banishment of your country- men, consider,^;?/-*/, what are the means by which the greatest numbsr can derive a comfortable sub- sistence from the products of your soil. ^VM. SHAllMAN CRAWFORD. Crawfordshurn, September 7, 1839. No. III. PRorosrnou fourth. That, if Uiere he a siijTicient laliouriiif!: jHipulatiim to aiipply both the general and occasional purposes of the United Kingdom, the whole of this population cannot he kept in constant emploiiment. This is a proposition which it might be supposed un- necessary tosui)port by proofs or arguments, because it would seem to call for instant assent, from the very terms in which it is proposed : nevertheless, it seems wholly forgotten or set aside by the modern Midtliusians ; and the results arising from it are so important, with reference to the condition of the labouring portion of society, that I have deemed it necessary to bring it forward in the distinct form of a jiroposition. First, with respect to farmers : — If we suppose the proposed system carried into operation, by investing capitalists with all the lands of the country, for the jjurpose of firming, and that those lands are brought iuto regular rotation cultivation, is it not evident, that a greater number of hands would be required at some periods of the year than at others? — that a greater number of hands must be required in Summer than iu Winter 1 — because, in {he former season, the pro- duction of food is to be attended to; in Winter, simply the consumption of it, and the preparation of the land by ploughing ; and, in the harvest season, an extra supply of hands becomes indispensable. But, independently of these general purposes, even in the highly improved condition of the cultivated parts of England, there are i'ew farms on which farther imjirovements may not be required. For such ]iur|)oses, extra hands would be necessary, occasionally, beyond the general wants of the farm. If the labouring population were limited to the number in constant employment, cultivation must cease, because the harvest would rot on the ground for want of hands to cut and stack it. Improve- ments must cease ; and this result must take place, not only from the absolute want of hands, but fronr the effect of that scarcity on the prices of labour j because the price of labour, like that of every other commodity, depends upon the proportion of the supply to tlie demand ; and, if the price of labour be inordinately raised, the farmer cannot have the necessary profits on his produce, and will, therefore, be compelled to throw a greater portion out of cul- tivation ; and this evil would progressively increase as the supjily of hands were diminished. In like manner with reierence to manufactures : it is im- possible to regulate the productive powers of the steam-engine so as to cause the supply always to correspond exactly with the demands of the market. The same number of hands cannot he always kept in employment; and, if there be not at all times a sufficient supply of hands, similar results must occur to the manufacturer as to the farmer. With- out a supjily of hands, he could not meet the demands of the market ; and scarcity of hands, by raising the price of labour, would absorb his piofils. Again, it is evident, that an extra and occasional supply of hands would be required for the public works of the country. The same extent of works cannot be always going on in every locality ; and these works must stop in like manner, if extra hands cannot be drawn from the labourers of the country. Thus, in whatever way the working population can be employed — whether by capitalists in agriculture, or by capitalists in manufacture, or by the State in public improvements, — the employment cannot be constant for the whole of the workers. A porlix)n of them must be mtemployed for at least part of their lime; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 287 and, conseque uly, the question arises — Hovr are the unemployed hands to be provided for 1 Tliis is the subject of the following proposifian : — PROPOSITION FIFTH. That the Itands out of employment cannot have the means of subsistence, except by one or other of the three modes following, namely : — By a rate of labour so high, wlien employed, as to subsist them when un- employed ; by a provision from poor-rates ; or, bq the occupation of land. With regard to the first mode mentioned in the proposition, if either the farmer or the manufacturer be compelled, by any means, to give, for tliree da3's' work, the wages (or subsistence) necessary for six, it is plain tliat he gives what his profits cannot supply; because, if his profits were equal to pay the labourer for six days, he would employ him tor six days, instead of three days ; therefore, this mode of subsisting the unemployed labourer must manifestly be set aside. But, independently of this objection, experience proves, that exorbitant wages do not serve the labourer, either in agricul- ture or manufacture. He is too prone to consume his present earnings, without reference to his future wants. But I need not spend argument in proving that which every person must at once admit, — that the wages for employment ought not — cannot be sucli as to insure subsistence to the labourer or operative, during his unemployed time. This being impracticable, tlie second mode men- tioned in my proposition has been resorted to, under the old system of the English Poor Laws — namely, subsisting the unemployed labourer (or increasing the amount of his wages, when too low for his subsistence^, by a rate levied on property, commonly called a poor-rate. The operations of that system was, to efi'ect, indirectly, the object I liave already alluded to — namely, to compel the employer and the property of the country to pay tiie labourer or worker for his unemployed time. It is not necessary I should here enter into a detailed examination of the evils arising from this system. I tliink it will be acknowledged by all, tli.it evils did arise from it. It is only defended on the plea of necessity — on the ground, that the State, by its institutions and laws, sanctioned the monopoly of the lands, by a small section of the community; and, at the same time by its taxation, prevented the employment of the working body, whilst it raised the jirices of their food. It is, therefore, argued (most justly, in my opinion,) that the unemployed worker has claims on the State, to preserve him from that destitution which must otherwise fall upon him, not by any fault of his own, but by the unjust institutions of the society in which he lives. At the same time, I do not deny the evils created by sucli a system j and I, tlierefore, desire to shew what appears to me to be the only substitute for that system — namely, the occupation of land, under certain regulations, by small holders. In entering on this part of the subject, I shall first notice the effects of tlie remedy which lias been applied to the evil of tlie old system of Poor Laws in England, by the regulations of the new Poor Law Act, which is intended to limit the extension of relief to the inside of the workhouse; and the object of this change is, to prevent the demand for (or the acceptance of) relief, until actual destitution, actual want of the absolute necessaries of life, lias first taken place. I believe it will be granted to me, by the sup|)orters of this new system, that this is the meaning of what is called the workhouse test. Now, T shall inquire, whether this will act as a fitting remedy for the relief of the unemployed jjor- tion of the working conmiunity, during the period of their non-employment ! This new Act proceeds on the principle, that the poverty, or non-employ- ment, of the working man proceeds from his oicn fault. But, let it be recollected, that 1 have proved under the head of my Third Proposition, that, if there be sufficient workers for the demands of the country, tliere must, of necessity, be a portion of these workers part of their time unemployed ; and, relief not being supplied till actual destitution occurs, the operation of the new ])rinciple must be, to reduce the condition of the whole working class to the lowest state of pauperism. This is a point of great im])ortance to be under- stood ; and I solicit the special attention to it of any persons who may think these observations in any way worthv of their consideration. The object of the old system of English Poor Laws was, to sustain the condition of the unem- ployed worker — to prevent the occurrence of destitution by timely relief: the object of the new system i?, to give no relief till destitution has actually occurred ; and, by the severity of the test, to prevent any claim for relief, till every other resource has been exhausted, to sipply the necessaries of life. Now, wliat will be the practical operation of tins'! Let us suppose a labourer, not hired as a regular farm servant, having had a fair supply of employment, for a portion of the year, at fair wages ; and that, from the wages of such employment, he had pro- vided himself with a house, furniture, and clothing suitable to the reasonable comforts of a working- man. Then, suppose this man ceases, for a time, to have employment — that full employment cannot be obtained within his district — what is tliis man to do, getting no subsistence from the rates, and having no land 1 He must begin by selling his furniture — next, his good clothing — in order to subsist his family, and to pay his rent ; he must next give up his good liouse, and take a woise one; he must deal for the necessaries of life on credit. By this time, perhaps, employment returns ; but he is in debt. If his wages exceed his bare wants for the necessaries of life, they must be applied to the payment of his debt. Then, if another interval of non-employment occurs, he is ruined ; he has sunk to the lowest state of poverty ; he has neither means nor credit. Then, and 7iot till then, he becomes a fit inmate for the workhouse ; he seeks relief in that home, to save himself and his family from starvation. How, then, is he to find work? how is he to fit himself for work 1 He is turned out, a wretched pauper — broken down in body — broken down in spirit — never to rise again in the condition of societ)' : he becomes a permanent beggar, or else, to return, after a short interval, to his onl}' home — a workhouse. In fact the operation of this new measure, although it may reduce taxation for a time, will be, to reduce the whole labouring class of England to the worse condition of pauperism, unless some other means be adopted for tlie support of the unemployed, or the partially employed, worker. It was the ancient system of English Poor Laws, preventing destitu- tion, which kept up the condition of the English labourer without the occupation of land, and which created the distinction between the condition of tlie Irish and the English cottier; and, the moment that law ceases, if the occupation of land be not ])ermitted in small holdings in England, the speedy ileterioration of his condition to a level with the Irish pauper cottier must be the consequence, — a condition which, history records, existed in England, 288 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. immediately jirevious to tlio ennctmeiU of tbat Poor Now, Lere is the dilemma : if relief be supjilied in the form of wages to the uneiniiluved worker, want of energy, and a want of foresight and of management, are created. If it be not supplied till absolute destitution has taken place, then the irretrievable deterioration of condition is the con- sequence ; and it Jias been idreadv shewn, that a want of employment must occasionally exist, with reference to at least a portion of the working body. Any mode which proviJes for the subsistence of the working classes — which does not emanate from their own industry, from their own labour — which does not call forth their own foresight, and make them dependent, either for subsistence or for pros- perity, on the proper exertion of their own f.iciilties — must be productive of evil. The great object ought to be, to place it in the power of every m?n to subsist himself and his family b/ his own powers. I maintain, this cannot be the case, if the working classes be wliolly dependent on hired labour, and be deprived of the occupation of land. I maintain, that a forced supply, in any form, whelher it bo in extraordinary wages to be given bv the employer, or in wages or subsistence from poor-rates, must produce the injurious effects stated ; and that there is no other mode by which these evils can be avoid- ed, except by the small occupation of land, and the instructing of the small occupier in the means of improving bis condition. Under the head of the next proposition, this subject shall be further examined. In the mean time, I shall observe, that I am aware it will be •alleged, by a certain class of political economists, that all the evils of the working classes could be remedied by a repeal of the Corn Laws. Whilst I support this repeal (as I consider the Corn Laws to be founded on an unjust principle of partially to one sect of the community, and that, if accompanied with other concurrent measures, their repeal would be highly beneficial to society at large,) nevertheless I maintain, that repeal would be no remedy for the distresses of the working classes : it would not produce constant employmtnt ; consUint employment is absolutely incompatible with machinery ; and, if the worker, who is solely dependent on Mages, does not receive wages, it matters not whether the price of the loaf is a shilling or a pound, — poverty and want must overtake him. WJNI. SHARMAN CRAWFORD, Cmuiforchburn, Sept. 10, 1839, SUGGESTIONS IN FAVOUR OF THE SYSTEMATIC COLLECTION OF THE STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURE. BY G, n, PORTEn. (Head at the late meeting of the British Association.) If, (said Mr. Porter,) throughout the whole range oi' material interests that affect the well-being of a comnumit}'-, there be any one subject of greater im- portance than another, without doubt that subject is the adequate supply of food for the people; and vet this is a subject that, in I^.ngland, which prides itself on ])eing the country of practical men, has never liitherto been considered to any useful or practical end. The amount of ignorance on this subject is so great, that to this day the public does not possess any authentic document, from which we can learn even the i|uantiiy of land under cultivation in any county of Kngland. 'I'he only informal ion available for further calculation, is contained in the ostimateof I\Ir. Couling, who gave evidence befure a Committee of the House of Commons, which was ajipointed in ] riment onl)"-, but upon the successful practice of hundreds of men placed in similar circumstances with himself, must have the authority of undoubted facts, and the farmer would be compelled to adopt what- ever should come thus recominended, with an ala- crity equal to that which we see exhibited by the manufacturer. It may perhaps be feared, that if the public should acquire a knowledge of any peculiar ad- vantages, those by whom they are enjoyed would bo exjjosed to have them invaded. The agricultural is in this country what is called, a protected interest. Our cultivators conseijuently appear desirous of ex- cluding inquiries which they think might have the eftect of weakening their claim to the continuance of that protection. This fear is altogether chimerical. In Belgium, where the utmost publicity is given to every fact connected with the agriculture of the country, it has never been pretended that any im- proper advantage has been taken of that publicity. The knowledge which it appears to be so desirable to obtain with reference to the whole kingdom, is already easily procurable with regard to every indivi- dual farm, by any person whose interest may incite him to the task. The lantilord, who is interested iir extracting a due proportion of the produce of the farm under the name of rent, cannot find much diffi- culty in correctly estimating tbat produce. A like facility attends the operations of the tithe proctor and of the parochial tax-gatherer. Tbe knowledge is, in fact, already procurable by every one who can turn it to the disadvantage of the farmer; all that is wanted is to extend the information, so that the farmer himself may be placed in a condition to profit from its possession, and thus to add to the sum of the general prosperity. Several objections were made to the proposed plan, and it was urged that the acquisition of such know- ledge would involve a greater amount of expenditure than was even contemplated by Mr. Porter ; and it was doubted whether machinery for collecting the information existed. The general opinion, however, seemed to be in favour of l\Ir. Porter's plan. EA.ST SUFFOLK AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. (ArinincF.D from tue irswicn F.xpntss.) On Thursday, Sept. 12, the annual exhibition of the l>ast Suftblk Agricultural Association, took place in a paddock behind the ]5ell Inn, Saxmundliam j and we were glad to observe that the gradual im- provement which in j)ast years every revolving sea- son brought about at its shows, was on this occasion manifested to a still greater extent, both as regards the number of visitors present, and the quality of much of the stock prrducod. We have no doubt, fi'om appearances, that this society is designed to at- tain a degiee of eminence among the agricultural community, and to diffuse advantages in and about the field of its operations, hitberto unequalled by any other local institution of a similar description in the United Kingdom. Its beneficial tendency becomes more and more apparent every day, by the great ac- cessions it has had to its already large number of members, and by the increased competition at its va- rious meetings, not only for its prizes for stock, but what in our estimation is of far more importance, for the premiums awarded to shepherds, ploughmen, and deserving labourers and servants in husbandry. In the latter department jiarticularly, we learn that considerable benefits have accrued, in consequence of the stimulus given to excite a spirit of emulation in the minds of the peasantry, to virtuous lives and actions, thus naturally raising them to that character fur which they were once so famed — a " bold pea- santry, their country's pride." Not the least impor- tant feature in the constitution of the Society, in our opinion, is that, nulike many others of this class of associations, it is really and truly what its name im- plies, and what it was originally intended to be — an agricultural association, established for the promotion of improvement in this important branch ofour nation- al industry, for mutual instruction and information, and for extending generally its beneficial effects through- out the country. Consequently politics are excluded from the discussions in committee and in the public meetings of the association ; and though at times a member may slightly touch upon the corn laws, and ]>raise tliem as being a blessing to the agiicultural interest, yet generally these topics are carefully avoid- ed, but when referred to, the good sense of the ma- jority condemns the taste or policy of making such observations, and they are speedily repressed. There is one gratifying fact to which we are proud to direct attention, as evidence of the excellence of this association, and that is, that at the great meet- ing of the English Agricultural Association recently lield at Oxford, some of the principal prizes which were open to all England, were borne off by gentle- men who are members of the East Suffolk Agricul- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 291 tural Society, and reside in tLis county — we mean Mr. Thomas Crisp of Gedgrave, an agriculturist who perh;ips devotes moio time aud talent to the im- ])rovement of his capital stock, than any other gen- tleman in the county of Suffolk ; Mr. Thomas Free- man, of Ilenham, also a famous farmer, and Messrs. Ransomes, iron-founders ; the latter of whom won the gold medal for their splendid collection of agri- cultural machinery and implements. Besides the above enumerated advantages resulting from this in- stitution, maj' be mentioned a mode of drawing forth native talent, that will be found well to answer the purpose for which it was originated, viz., the presen- tation of a honorary silver medal to the member who applies artificial manures most extensively and ad- vantageously in proportion to the size of his occupa- tion, accompanied with a written statement or essay upon the subject. With such incitements to exer- tion and improvements then, we may with propriety ask, what was there to prevent the East Suffolk Association becoming what it is, one of the best of its kind in the country"! We will only further ob- serve, in reference to this part of our notice, that we sincerely hope increased prosperity may reward the efforts of the members of the society, and that its fu- ture success raajf be such as to enable it to extend its blessings down to the remotest ages. Among the company on the ground we noticed the noble President of the society, the Right Hon. the Earl of Stradbroke, Lord lluntingfield. Lord Ilenniker, M.P., Sir Joshua Rowley, Bart., Sir Charles Broke Vere, Bart., M.P., Sir W. F. F. Mid- dleton, Bart., R. N. Shawe, Esq., (Kesgrave), John Moseley, Esq., (Great Glenbam), Edward God- frey, Esq., (East Bergholt), Charles Rowley, Esq., Major ]Moor, (Bealings), Andrew Arcedockne, Esq., (Glevering Hall), F. Corrance, Esq., Hon. and Rev. Robert Wilson, W. Long, Esq. (Hints Hall), Captain Rous, Hon. Mr. Caneck, C.Smythies, Esq., C. S. Sharpe, Esq., (Woodbridge) , J. Peaison, Esq., J. Powell, F^sq., R. Berners, Esq., J. May- hew, Esq., (West Suffolk;, F. W. Schriebor, E^q., (Ipswich), R. Broke, Ebq., J. B. Alexander, Esq., (Treasurer), the Archdeacon Berners, the Rev. Dr. Etougb, (Claydon), Rev. Longe, Rev. J.H. Groome, Rev. W. B. Birch, Rev. E. Bellman, and Messrs. N. Bathropp, W. Fisher Hobbs, (Mark's Hall, Essex), J. G. Gobbold, H. Aldrich, (Ipswich), J. Wood, Jun., (Woodbridge), Thomas Crisp, (Ged- grave), Joshua Rodwell, (Livermere), J. P^evans, TYoxford), J. Newson, (Glenham), J. Hanson, (Sproughton), A.Ptansome, (Ipswich), — Ciuirchill, (Hasketon), W. Moor, (Lei&ton), Forsdick, (Haske- ton). Steel, Churchill, Jun., Coibell, T. Flatt, R. Rist, sen. and jun., Mayhew, sen., and jun., Cana, (Woodbridge), Salmon, R. Watling, Boyce, J. Cook, C. Churchman, J. Lewin, W. 'Wells, Waller, J. Barthropp, T. Ashford, J. Spelman, &c. On inspecting the beautiful display of slock in the field, we were struck with peculiar admiration of the splendid horses, for never before did we see such perfect specimens of cait stallions of the pure Suffolk breed. A crowd of persons was continually gazing on thisdepartmentof the show ; and moreparticularlv we were pleased with the four year old colt of Mr. Dur- ham, of Stratford, which for symmetrical jiroportion, good breed and general excellent (lualities, was highly praised. "Deserving of equal approbation were two stallions, one six-year old, the property of Mr. Francis Keer of Raydon, the other four-years old, belonging to JMr.Thos'. Crisp of Gedgrave, got by that famous cart horse " Briton," owner, Mr. Ed- wards of Sutton. The others exhibited were " Boser," four years old, belonging to the same Mr, Edwards, and got by one of his young horses ; Mr. Edward's " Bly," eight years old, Mr. Hutting's of Bawdsey, eight years old, Mr. Catlin's of Chilles- ford Lodge, four years old, J\Ir. Churchill's of Has- keton, four years old, and Mr. Spinke's of Eyke, five ye.irs old. All these were first rate horses, and it was the opinion of many gentlemen with whom wo conversed, that they had never before seen so fine a show of this sort of stock at any agricultural exhibi- tion in this part of the country. The cart geldings also were capital animals ; and one three year old of iMr. Webb of Donnington was pointed out to us as being worthy especial notice. Not less than a hun- dred brood mares with foals at foot, cart colts, riding nags and fillies were produced as extra stock, and amongst all these hardly an inferior animal was to be seen. A three year old colt belonging to Mr. Ab- bott of Bolbrook was considered very good indeed. Only two thorough-bred horses were shewn ; and one of these was the Earl of Stradbroke's Alpheas, eight years old. Several fine bulls were on the ground ; but the one which attracted the most considerable share of at- tention from the best judges was a Durliam, the property of Mr. W. Fisher Hobbs, of Slark's Hall, Essex, an eminent agriculturist. This superb beast is four years old, bred by Lord lluntingfield, and was purchased when a cilf by Rir. Hobbs, at that nobleman's sale. It was this bull that carried off tjje prize at the North Essex Agricultural Shew, at Colchester Castle, in June last ; and we must ac- knowledge that a finer animal for his age we never saw. Mr. Hobbs refused 4.5/. for him a few weeks since, offered by a gentleman who wished to send him to Van Diemen's Land ; the sum required by Mr, Hobbs was fifty guineas, but we have not been informed whether or not he disposed of him at Saxraundham. Among the olher good things of this description were INIr. Thomas Crisp's bull, twoyears and a half old, Durham stock, deemed to be of great merit; also Lord Iluntingfield's five-year old, of tiie same breed. In addition to these, tliere was sliewn a bull belonging to Mr. liillin, of Blaxhall ; but two Durhams, two or three years of age, of Sir. Thos. Crisp, were pronounced superior to all in the field, except Mr. Fisher Hohb's. Mr. Blosely, of Glenham, shewed, as extra stock, a vi^ry fine Suffolk bull, four years old, and Mr. J. Read, of Laxfield, a three-year old, of the same breed- The oxen on the ground were not numerous, but of snjjerior quality, especially Mr. T. Crisp's stupendous two two-year old Durham's, than which there could not he more splendid beasts. Worthy also of our meed of approbation, was the two-year old Dui ham ox of Mr. John Cook, of Martlesham, from tlie celebrated stock of Mr. George Cook. Much notice was taken of two four-year old Suffolk bred oxen, which were owned by Mr. Barker, of Westleton. There was a great falling off observable ia the cows, not in the number but in their breed, which was of such sort as that the Judges wisely withheld the premiums. We trust, however, that the cup ofiered by Lord Henniker, to be competed for next year, will induce the growers of stock to pay more attention to the im- provement of the breed of tliis most useful animal. ^^'ith regard to sheep, the shew was pretty fair; and, as usual, the tups were of the purest blood. Rlr. T. Crisp had twelve of his Southdown tups on the ground, one of which won the prize at the Ox- ford meeting- ; and Mr. Moses Crisp had two of the same sort. The public are now so well acquainted with the excellent breed of sheep possessed by Mr. T. Crisp, that further remark here would he supere- rogatory ; it is sufficient to observe that his tups 292 THE rAEMEil'S MAGAZINE. wore viewed with deliglit by the most eminent apjri- culturists, who were lavish in their encomi-.i of tliem. Lord Iluntingfield's and Mr. T. N. Catlin's tups were likewise honoured with inucli adiniiation : tiio wonder heiiifc, in resptct of thenohle lord'rf, how it was possible tliat his lordship, in so short a space of time since his return to Suftbllc, now only about a year, could have produced such superior animals. Messrs. Girling- and Son, auctioneers, of Peaseuliali, sold one of hislordshii)'s tui)S, a beautiful two-shear Leicester, from the blood of liurgess and Buckley's, tlie most distinguished broecU^is in Leicestershire, and five otiiers, shearlings, of the Siime breed. A numlier of liogs were shewn, and a most extra- oidinary fat one, computed to weigh .']()0r37 stone, the properly of ftlr. Coojier, of Knoddishall, was sold at auction, by Messrs. Girling, and brought 13/. ; and another belonging to Mr. Catlin, of Chillesford Lodge, was sold by the same gentleman, at 11/. 10s. 'J'here were tliree or four good boars exhibited ; and a sow and a litter of eleven pigs, from Mr. Cailin's farm. Mr. W. Fisher Ilobbs shewed a sample of bis red wheat, whi(di won the prize at the Oxford exhibition open for all England, and ofiered it for sale at bl. per ijuarter. A large <|uantity of agricultural implements from the manufactory of Mr. (jarrett, at Leislon, was in the Held as usual ; and the area in whicli it was dis- jilayed, was during the whole day thronged witli visitors, who were unanimous in their expressions of commendation of the improvements introduced by the manufacturer. Mr. Smyth of Peascnhall also showed some of his far famed drills, which wc are hajipv to say still retain their high pr.?^ition in the opinion of all who have used them. liiggs's Sheep Dipping Apparatus, anew invention siiewn by Mr. (jeo. Francis, Duggist, Market Place, Wooodbridge, Agent for the inventor, was highly extolled by in- dividuals who had had experience in its use. THE DINNER took place in a very spacious building at the back of the Bell Lin ; about 400 gentlemen sat down — Lord Stradbroke in the chair. Ha was supported on bis right by Lord llenniker, R. iSf. Sliawe, Esc|., and Dr. Etough ; and on bis left by Lord Hunting- field, Capt. Rous, and A. Arcedeckne, Esq. .Tohn ftlosely Esq., and VVm. Long, Esq., acted as \'^ice Presidents; the former being supported on the light and left by Sir C. B. Vera, J Powell, Esq., Sir •Toshua Rowley, R. Berners, Esq. and Capt. Rowley ; and the latter by the hon. l\lr. Caneck, and Sir W. F. F. Middleton, liart. After the usual loyal toasts were drank, The CiiAiiiMAX arose anil said, a vear had elajised since he had last the honour of addressing them, and this period, although it might appear to be a short time to some, had yet been pregnant with events beneficial to tlie interests of agriculture, which they would do well to encourage, {Cheers.) Local so- cieties hr.d been formed — farmers' clubs had been established — emulating with each other in science, where discussions arose and arguments took ])lace on th.« most intricate parts of that objt-ct, all tending to promote the object they had in view in the for- mation of this Societ}'. (^Loud cheers.) He attended at the great national meeting which was held at Oxford, in July last, and he might say that a large proportion of the aristocracy, of the members of tlie House of Commons, and of the leading agriculturists of England, made it their duty to be present, each vying with the other in endeavouring to support that great assembly ; and each county vying with its neighbour in bringing fortli 1(3 best production?! (Cheering.^ It w as a source of no small gratification to him to observe, when the jirizes were distributed, that the best seed corn, one of the best Down sheep, the best SiilTolk cart horse, and above all, the best machinery belonged to persons resi- dent in this county, all iie believed, membei's of the association — (c/iceis) —thus proving at once that Suffolk stands pre-eminent as an agricultural county, and that it possessed within its length and brciidth farmers cf great skill and capitil, who did honour to themselves, and did honour to this Society by undertaking that long journey. (Cheers.) He need not sto{i here, for it was no less true that the labourers of this county, in knowledge and good conduct were inferior to none. (Cheers.) 'I'Jiey had constant applications f(jr their services in distant counties, and this he attributed in a great measure to the protection they received from their masters ; for it was notoiious, and beyond cavil or the possibility of doubt, tliat in this county they received a belti'r remuneration by way of wages for their employment, than in almost any other agricultural district in Eng- land, 'i'lio increase whicli had taken place in their wages, from 8s. to 12s., during the last four or five years, miglit he fairly attributed in some respect, indeed in a great resju'ct, to the increased and now remunerative prices the I'armers received for their corn ; but he must be allowed to say, that the im- ])roved system of employment which had taken place during that time, if carrit^d out on the fullest princi- ple and to the broadest extent, must end by findinjj emjiloyment for tlie ])Oor of this country, eitiier u|)oii their native soil, or, for the sur(dus iio|iulation, in tlie- extensive field of the colonies of this country. ('C/u'^cs.) He had taken an o])])Orlunity of observing the stock eshibitcd lo-day in the field ; and it was within tlie bounds of fact when he staled, that he never saw a better description of cart horses, or, lie might say, of so great merit as he this day observed. 'J'he stick genernllv was an average of what they had usually seen, but he would leave that part of the subject to other gentlemen to discuss who weie more conversant vviili it. He had heard from the Treasurer that the funds were in a verv flourishing condition, and that it only recjuiied the calling in a small balance in arrear to enable them to give further premiums to deserving jieople in this county. (Applause.) He hail little more to add to this, but that it was with great ])leasure he observed the increased and still increasing popularity of these meetings. To-day he liad been informed that they had received four hun- dred tickets from those who had attended, and he found that there were one luindred at least wdio were sent awav, from the impossibility of furnishing room for them. That being the case, be thought they might be fairly called on to drink, with three limes three, " Prosperity to this Association," — Three times three. 'J'he Ciiaiumax next projiosod to them the healths of the " Army and Navy of Great Britain." Sir C. B. Vehe and Sir J. Ro^vLF.v returned thanks. Tlie Chaiuman gave " The Lord Lieutenant of the County — the Duke of Grafton," and " The Bishop and Clergy of the diocese." (Cheers.) Archdeacon BEKNEns acknowdedged the latter toast. The Chairman proposed the health of the ]\Iem- bers for the Eastern division of the county, who were both present, and lie was happy to say able sup- ports of this society. (Cheering.) Lord HcN'NiKKH. — For the very kind and cordial manner iu which the assembly had been pleased to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 293 receive tlie toast tVom UiG cli;iiv they would allow liim to express l)is warmest thciiilis. He bad lind tlip pleasure oriipaiiiig most favourable lepoits, both with regard to the stock and every other de;iartment wliich could be interesting to the society, and on which its pros- perity depended, except in one case; lie believed there bad been no prize ofl'ered for a Suffolk cow. He had nn agricultural book in his carriage as ho came along, and he turned naturally to Suffolk, in which lie felt so deep an interest, and ho found I here that attention to the Dairy in Sulfolk had much di- minished ; he would therefore, with the leave of the nohle President, propose a Cup for the best dairy farm where sis cows were kept, or in any other way tlie Committee might think proper to arrange. (Cheers.) He hoped and tru .ted he was not ventur- ing too much in offering this — fno, no, vo,J — for it struck him that it would be highly beneficial, and perhaps be the means of restoring that high reputa- tion which the dairies of Suftblk once held through- out the kingdom. (Applause.) Sir C. B. Vi'^iiE also acknowledged the toast. Loud Hennikeh. — The very pleasing duty had de- volved upon him, of jjroposing the health of the nohle chairman. (Great Cheering.) Ho regretted that he could not do justice to his merits. He, follow- ing the track of his noble house, which for centuries had been connected with this county, by the sacred ties of friendship with its inhabitants, hy endeavour- ing to benefit his county and his country in every ])ossible way— following, he would say, the example of his illustrious ancestors, he not only benefitted his county and the country at large, hut he gained the affections of every one who had the honour of his ac- quaintance. (Cheers.) Need he remind them that under his care, aided by other gentlemen, his neigh- hours — under his fostering hand, this society was brought into existence"! (Cheers.) If they wanted an additional reason for doing iionour to his name, it would be found in that. He begged to propose the health of the Earl of Stradbroke, the President of tli3 Association, with all the honours. Tliree limes three. The CiiAiRMAX was received with ])rolonged shouts of api)rohation. It had often been his lot to return them his most sincere thanks for the enthusi- astic manner in which tliC)^ had done him the honour of drinking his health ; but on no previous occasion did he ever rise with so much difficulty, in conse- quence of the flattering manner in which his noble friend (Lord Henniker) had proposed his name to their notice. (Cheers.) It was true that from his earliest days, he tvas bred and taught to consider, that his first and greatest duty vras to exert himself on every occasion that presented itself for the advan- tage of tli>.t county in which he was born — [ap- plause)— of that county where his family had so long happily lived, in the enjoyment of every comfort whicli luxury and fortune could give them : with the conscious knowledge that they were strong in the affections of its people. (Chetrs.) So long as this society should be maintained, as it had hitherto been conducted, it would he his most earnest desire, the greatest source of personal comfort to himself on every occasion, to exert himself in favour of its ex- tension, and in promoting all those great interests it was intended to support. (Cheering.) He thanked them from the bottom of his heart for the honour ihey had conferred upon him; and would now call upon IMr. Welton, the Secretary, to have the good- ness to read the names of the successful candidates among those labourers who had distinguished them- selves by good conduct ia their difterent occupa- tions. IMr. Wei-ton then read the awards of piizes to agricultural labourers, farm servants, and shep- herds, amidst much apjdause. The Secretary tiien proceeded to read the follow ing list of adjudications : — ■ Class X. Draining — clay loam and marsh earth — subsoil ploughing. A \)rizo of four sovereigns, awarded to Mr. Jamps Read, of Ijaxfield, for having spade drained upon his farm in Lax field, containing 148a. 3k. Ibp, of heavy land, 4,44-i rods of five and a half yards each, and filling the drains with straw, whins, and iiaulm, A prize of four sovereigns, awarded to Mr. Ste- phen Oxborrow, of Capel St. Andrew, for having carted and spread upon his farm, containing 1,670 acres of heath, light mixed soil and marsh land, 5,830 loads of clajf, loam, and marsh earth, within the year ending the first of August, 1839. The Association ofl'ered a prize of four sove- reigns to the member who should have used the subsoil plough to the greatest extent, in proportion to his occupation of ar.iblo land, within the year ending the 1st August, 1839, not less than 10 acres to have been so ploughed ; but tlie Committee de- cided that the claims sent in for this premium were not of sufficient merit; they awarded, how- ever, the silver medal of the Association to JMr. John Gobbett, of Iken Hall, for his written com- munication upon the subject. The silver medal of the Association was also awarded to Mr. .John Rous Cooper, of Westleton, for his letters upon the same subject. The silver medal of the Association was also awarded to Blr. Samuel Robinson, of Henstead, for his written statement upon the application and the comparative value of different kinds o( artificial manures upon the farm in his occupation. Class 8. — Cattle. To the owner of the best stallion, for the general jiurposcs of agriculture, bred in Suffolk, Mr. Thomas Crisp, Gedgravo £10 0 0 To the owner of the second bsst ditto, jMr. Francis Keer, Raydon 5 0 0 To the owner of the best brood mare, for the general purjioses of agriculture, bred in Sufl'olk, with foal at foot, JMr. Henry Flatt, Blaxhall 8 0 0 To the owner of the best mare, for tho general purposes of agriculture, bred in Suffolk, R.N. Shawe, Esq. Kesgrave 5 0 0 To the owner of the best entire three-year old colt, for the general purposesof agri- culture, bred in Suffolk ; no competition 4 0 0 To the owner of the best three-year old filly, for the general purposes of agri- culture, bred in Suffolk, Mr. Francis Keer, Raydon 4 0 0 'To the owner of the best gelding, for tho general purposes of agriculture, bretl in Suftblk, Mr. F. Keer, Raydon 3 0 0 To the owner of the second best gelding, Mr. VVm. Toller, Letheringhain '2 0 0 To the owner of the best Suftblk bull, Mr. T. Crisp, Cedgrave 5 0 0 To the owner of the best bull of any other breed, IMr. \V. F. Hohbs, of Marks Hall, Essex 5 0 0 To the owner of the best Suffolk cow, in milk or in calf 5 0 0 Not sufficient merit. To the owner of tho best cow, in milk or 294 tllE FARMEll'S MAGAZINE. in calf, of uny oilier brt'cd, tlie lliglit Hon, Lord Ifuntinofield £'■'> 0 0 'J'o the owner of tlie best two-slifsir tup, of ilie puro Southdown breed, Mr. 'i'. Crisp, Gedgrave 4 0 0 To tlie owner of ilie best shearling tup, of the Soutlidown breed, Mr. T. Crisp, Gedgrave -i 0 0 To the owner of the best two-shear tup, of any other pure breed, jMr. Moses Crisp, Letberingham 4 0 0 To the owner of the best shearling tup, of any other puro breed, Mr. T. Crisp, (jedgrave 1 0 0 To the owner of the best pen of five South- down shearling ewes, Mr. T.Crisp, Cedgrave 4 0 0 To the owner of the best pen of five shearling ewes, of any other pure breed, Mr. Henry Largent, Marlesford 4 0 0 To the owner of the best boar, bred in Suftblk, Mr. Henry Edwards, Sutton.. 2 0 0 To the owner of the best breeding sow, bred in Suffolk, Mr. T. N. Catlin,Chil- lesford Lodge 2 0 0 To the owner of tiie best fat ox, Mr. T. Crisp, Gedgrave 5 0 0 To the owner of the second best ditto, Mr. T. Crisp, Gedgrave 3 0 0 To the owner of the best fat Suffolk ox, Mr. Robert Barker, Westlcton 5 0 0 To the owner of the second best ditto, Mr. Kobe't Barker, Westleton o 0 0 To the owner of the best pen of three fat Southdown shearling wethers, IMr. T. N. Catlin, Chillesford Lodge .• 3 0 0 To the owner of the best pen of three fat shearling wethers, of any other breed; no competition 3 0 0 To the owner of the best fat hog, Mr. T. N. Catlin, Chillesford Lodge 2 0 0 Class 9. — HonsES tor Riping runrosFS. To the owner of the best half-bred brood mare, with foal at foot, for riding pur- poses, got by a thorough-bred horse, or from a thorough-bred mare 5 0 0 Not sufficient meiit. To the owner of the best half-bred three- year old colt or filly for riding purposes, got by a thorough-bred horse, or from a thorough-bred mare — bred by a mem- ber of this Association, Sir Thomas S. Gooch, Bart., Benacre Hall 5 0 0 William Long, Esq., of Hurts Hall, Saxmund- ham, offered a premium of five guineas to the owner of the best riding cob, under five years old, and not more than fifteen hands high, which was awarded to Mv. James Hillin, Blaxhall. A great many Sweepstakes were also decided. The CiiAiRRiAN then rose and said that, when the Seci'etary read over the list of the successful candi- dates, connected with the sheep and other cattle exhibited to-day, some of them must have been sur- prised at the fact of Mr. Thomas Crisp having won so many prizes. But they need not be much sur- prised at that, when he told them that Mr. Crisp was the gentleman wlio competed with the Grants and EUmans at Oxford, and obtained an honourable prize for a sheep of verj^ great merit. (Loud cheers.) He had no doubt that Mr. Crisp's sheep, from the pains he had taken with them for many years, were better than any others in this district. (Applause.) In proposing to the meeting the successful candidates to-day, it was necessary tlmt he should select one of those individuals to return tiianks, and lie was sure they were aware of (he fact that his noble friend on his left (Lord lluntinglield) who had been for some years absent from these meetings and from his own home, had gained but one or two prizes to-day, from the circumstance of its being so difficult in one year to establish a good breed of any sort of animals. (Jlear.) 'I'hey all knew how long the noble lord had been famed as an agriculturist in Suffolk, and what great interest he took in improving stock of every description ; and he was sure tiiey were glad to see him returned to his native county. ( Cheering.) He should therefore propose that they drink the healths of Lord Huntingfiekl and the successful candidates. (Tliree times three.) Lord HuNTiNCiiiF.LD sincerely thanked the noble Chairman for the manner in which he proposed the toast, and the company for its enthusiastic lecep- tion. He was highly gratified on his return to his native counfv to see such emulation amongst agri- culturists, and such a splendid display of stock as had been made to-day. Thougii he was a success- ful candidate for one prize only on this occasion, yet nothing should bo wanting on his part to ob- tain future and better success. (^Applause.) There was one point in farming in which the county of Suffolk was pre-eminent over other counties, and that was in the cultivation of heavy soils : he was confident that no county could farm heavy land witii so much skill and success. But there were a (ew ])oints in which he differed in opinion with the generality of farmers — he alluded lo the ma- nagement of fences and pastures. He did not rise to find fault with any farm ; but he thought if the agriculturists wished to have Suffolk looked up to as heretofore, and to deserve the character of be- ing the garden of England, they would attend more to these two points, their pasture land and fences. (Hear, hear.) lie had been residing in the midland part of England, where particular attention was paid to fences and to pasture land, and he thought the more attention the farmer paid to the drill system for turnips, the greater would be his suc- cess. The drill system was practised in his neigh- bourhood, and had been found to answer well: it was tried on a spot eleven yards square ; the broadcast system, to the eye, appeared the heaviest crop, but when they measured the quantity pro- duced by each, it was found that the drill system beat tlie other considerabl}'. When he left that part of the country he had fifteen acres of drill turnips, and the price they were valued at was 9/. 10s. an acre. He thought that a good price, and asked the valuer what stock they would carry, and he replied that nine or ten would bo about the number. Now, he would ask the meeting, if any turnips grown in this county on that quantity of land would maintain such a number. (Applause.) He would recommend them to cut turnips for sheep, instead of turning sheep into the fields among the turnips ; as the advantage of cutting turnips by machines was seen by the tendency and aptitude to fatten the animals. (Hear, hear.) As regarded manure, tliey would think it extraordinary, but the introduction of bones in some districts in the north, had actually made the fortunes of the farm- ers; and if the farmers of Suffolk only exerted themselves by introducing the same manure into this county, they would make money faster than they had hitherto done. It was extremely difficult for a man who had lived away from them three or four years to be able at once to produce by experiments any thing that would convince them of the correct- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 295 tiess of Jiis observations respecting the drill system, but he was happy to say that tho more he rode about the country the more satisfied he was that t])at system was gaininj^ ground; and he was sure tliey would introduce it in Suftbllc, and buy rape cake and oil cake. He thought the system of grow- ing wheat in Suffolk superior to what he had seen elsewhere. The great advantage of meetings like the present was that they introduced the landlord and the tenant on the most flattering terms; discus- sions arose which were taken part in by each, and resulted for the benefit of both. He would strongly recommend some of their young farmers going into other counties to see what he had witnessed ; by do- ing this they would reap great advantage. After again si)eaking of the drill system, and observing that under it one acre would go as far as two, culti- vated by any other mode, the noble lord concluded amid much cheering. " The West Suffolk Agricultural Association." (^Loud cheers.) Mr. Powell returned thanks. The (Jhaipman begged to give the healths of gen- tlemen who had been of eminent service to-day — he meant " Mr. Shawe and the Judges." (Cheer- ing.) The Judges were, for Horse Stock, the Earl of Stradbroke, R. N. Shawe, Esq., Lord Huntingfield, J. Mosely, Esq., R. C. Rowley, Esq., Mr. T.Crisp, Mr. S. Walter., Mr. T. Roberts, Mr. S. Pierson, and Mr. Robinson. For Cattle and Swine, Messrs. J. Churchyard, W. Fye, R. B. Harvey, Marsh and Shillito. For sheep, Messrs. J. Ellman, J. Webb, C Etheridge, H. Lugar, and George. Mr. SiiA^vE, on rising, was greeted with the most uproarious cheering, which continued for some se- conds.— On behalf of his brother judges and himself he returned their most sincere thanks for the honour conferred upon them. And in doing so he begged to congratulate them on the improved condition of the Association as exhibited, not only in the stock in tlie show-field, but in tlie great assemblage of gen- tlemen now met together, He had been much struck with some observations of the Noble Lord who had lately addressed them on the propriety of cutting turnips for sheep, instead of turning tho flocks into the fields upon them, as had hitherto been the custom in this country. He was happy to say that during the Noble Lord's absence some of them had begun that system, and he believed it was greatly increas- ing. For four years past he (Mr. Shawe) had liimself adopted the plan. He could not say, how- ever, that the turnips went twice as far, but he be- lieved that they went one-third more than as far ; and if (liey made an addition of oil-cake and chaft", feeding their sheep with them as well as the turnips, they would find themselves amply repaid in their future crops upon light lands. (Hear, hear.) He spoke of this confidently, because where he did not formerly grow more tlian six coombs he had this year grown eight coombs. (Applause.) And that was the first time the crop had come round with wheat since the first time tlie turnips had been cut, and he had used oil-cake and chafl". He observed that there was a premium given by the association for the best written paper on the use of artificial manures. He did not know whether it was intended to publish that paper, to the author of which a premium had been awarded; but it ought to be published and 'go out with the annual report of the association, so that the members might derive advantage from such commu- nications, for it would be impossible to judge of the propriety of using certain measures, unless they knew the results. (Hear, hear.) With regard to the use of saltpetre, he believed they would find tliat there were considerable differences of opinion as to its beneficial effects : it therefore became necessary for them to inquire what was the cause of success in one case and of failure in another. It was only just before he came to this dinner ti)at he received a statement which he was told was a perfectly accurate one, showing most certainly very beneficial effects accruing from the use of saltpetre or nitrate of soda. The cost of saltpetre had been 32s. per ton ; and he had been informed by a gentleman who was connect- ed with an extensive powder manufactory that nitrate of sf-da might be obtained at a much less price, he believed at 121. a ton. Now, this statement which had been forwarded to him showed an increase of dibbled wheat over drilled ; and went on to show that the writer had tried it also with barley, and had found that barley manured with s;iltpetre produced sixteen coombs one bushel to the acre ; and the bar- ley without the saltpetre, thirteen coombs three bushels the acre. (Laughter.) He would now- come to his own experience of thp trial of saltpetre, and he had to inform them, that upon good land the produce from saltpetre was only only one bushel more an acre than was grown on an adjoining acre which had no saltpetre at all. They would then inquire how this difference was to be reconciled. Why it was by the publication of the written statement on artifi- cial manures, for which a premium had been adjudi- cated, made by comparing the different states of the land in one instance and in another. Saltpetre might be exceedingly useful on a soil of a sandy or gravelly nature, where they did not use manure ; but on other soils, in addition to the manure, theremight be some- thing which would correct the power of the saltpetre. (Hear.) He would next allude to another subject that was not immediately agricultural, but intimately connected with it. He had been struck, in going round the county, at the manner in which gentlemen, for it was the gentlemen's business more than the tenants', managed their woods. When he walked round some of his friends' woods and saw great gaps and spaces in them, and miserably thin poor under- wood, he could not but conceive that they were im- properly managed. He found that most of the stubs were cut off as high as four or five feet, so that a few branches only grew up at the top which were almost useless, except for poles. In Derbyshire tho plan adopted was, to cut off the tree quite close to the ground. He had been told, that, if he applied this plan to his birch trees the whole would die away ; but he had had his manoutof Derbyshire who had cut the trees quite flat, and he found that there was not a single birch that did not grow well. (Applause.) The family of this man had been on his estate in Derbyshire for more than a century, and he could show by their books, from father to son, that there was more timber on the estate now, by adopting this system, than when they first took the management. (Applause.) He threw these hints out to landlords, and they might in all probability, prove them to be of utility. Having again thanked them for the hon- our they had conferred upon him by drinking his health, coupled with the judges, Mr. Shawe sat down amid rapturous cheering. IMr. Ijovce, being called upon by the noble Presi- dent, rose and said, it would probably be expected that he should make some observations on the busi- ness of the day. He could confirm practically what had fallen from their honourable representative, that a vast improvement had taken place in the East Suffolk Agricultural Association, He had the hon- our three years ago, of acting in the capacity of judge as well as upon the present occasion j there* 296 THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. fore he could spoalc from liisowii oxpovieiice, that if tlie viistimprovejiioiU wliicli liail taken jilaco, wcnton in the san-.e ratio for the next three years, tl)at it Iiad done for the last three, the county of Suftblk would be pre-eminent, for tlie breed ofstock throughout the kingdom. (Cheers.) They would stiuiJ second to none in producing the best stock the country 7)0S- sessed. (Loud cheers.) lie came to thi« meeting unknown to every bodv, witli the determination coolly and dispassionately to look over the different stock, but when Ijo arrived hero, to his great !jsto- iiishmenl, ho was called upon to act lor his brother- in-law, Mr. Elln)an. Knowing, as he did, that the value of a man was Justin projiortion to the services bo rendered his I'ellow creatures, he most cheerrullv accejited the oliice ; and lie confessed that thoui;h bo bad been instrumental in biinging many useful animals into the county of Suffolk, he was sure that his usefulness in that respect would bo greatly super- seded, and that great benefit would be derived from the excellent stock produced by his \\orthy friend Mr. (]risp. (Cheers.) He hoped he sliould be allowed to call the attention of the meeting to a sul)jcct in wbicli their best interests were deejily involved, and through them the best interests of the farmers of England— he referred to the extraordinary incorrect- ness with which the averages of the price of corn had been taken for the last six months. He had been through various counties in the U'est of England ; and from the best information lie could obtain, the averages had been returned between tluee and four shillings per quarter higher than thoy ought to have been, to the great injury of the growers of corn. Why was it that Uxbridgo and Guildford should last week return their averages from 'Js. to 10s. nioro than tlie averages of Norfolk and Suflblkl He had this day seen most beautiful samjiles of white wheat sold at 70s. per ijr., and yet the averages last week were quoted at 7 Is. Id. 'J'liev had wise and just laws for the protection of agriculture, and they were bound, as dutiful and loyal subjects, to do their best in order thattboselaws might be fufilled and obeyed. (^ApiAause.) Let him entreat them, therefore, as there was likely to be a great dispaiilj in the sam- ples of whent, to make it their office to return their inferior commodity as well as their superior, (for jicver mind producing an inferior article) that the averages might be brought to a just and fair jjrice, in order that they might reaj) tlie advantages of a just and fair law. (Loud cheers.) "The health of the A'ice- Presidents, Mr. Long and Mr. iMoseley." Three times three. Mr. MosETLV returned thanks. 'J"he Cii.MiiWAN gave "The health of Sir. Godfrey, and of the other gentlemen wlio had attended from Ipswich, Lowestol't, and Yarmouth, and from various parts of Suffolk." (Loud Cheers.) ]\lr. Godfrey acknowledged the toast. 1'he Chaikman said ho had received communica- tions from some friends who deej)!}' regretted their inability to attend on this occasion. The first was a letter from Mr. Adair, who was now in Oxford- shire, begging to express hie regret at not being able to attend. The second was from Sir Edward Kerrison, who unfortunately had been very lame for some months, and therefore was unable to enjoy the amusement of witnessing the exhibition of stock. The third and last letter was from a distinguished member of the Association, and long a great and deserving favourite of every vjgriculturist present. He fully intended yestei-day to liave made his ap- pearance here to-day ; but he had received a letter containing an account of the dentli of the wife of liis youngest son. It had always been usual at those meetings to give the health of this " (rue old English Gentleman." Ho therefore proposed, deeply as llioy regretted his absence, that they drink the health hich he has hitherto offered, he has now added a prize of large amount, namely, a prize of 50/., for a short-horn bull, for the use of the farmers witliin twenty miles of Northampton, at the low charge of 5s. for each cow. To bring together numbers of good ani- mals, so as to show to those who would not other- wise have the opportunity, the quality and charac- ter of good stock, is unquestionably productive of good. But to place the meum of improving his stock within the reach of the farmer, wiio may, from many causes, which it is needless to enume- rate, be unable to obtain those means, is to eftect immediate and substantial good. The Noble Earl has pointed out one of the readiest modes by which the ill-sliaped, unprofitable stock, to be met with in many parts of the country, may be rapidFy im- proved. Landowners and persons possessing the necessary capital, who may be desirous of improv' ing tlie breed of cattle of any description, could not effect that object in so easy a manner as by brino-ing good male animals into the district for tlie use of the farmers. The improvement which has wiihin the last few years taken place in the breed of pigs in Ireland is a striking instance of the beneficial effect of this plan. We know there are many who only need the hint to be given to them, and we hope to have the ojiportunity of re- cording many followers of the example set by Earl Spencer. The annual show of this Society took place en Wed- nesday, Sept. 11, on Lord Spencer's farm at Brampton. Owing- to the lateness of the harvest, the attendance of company was not quite so numerous as we have seen it on some former occasions, although there was a good sprinklinfj of our best agriculturists. The show of cattle was numerous and remarkably good. Sir. Annesley's cow was the object of general admiration. Among the prizes awarded were the following :— 20/. to Mr. .Toseph Bennett, of Tempsford, by way of sweep- stakes, consisting of nine subscribers, for his shearling long-woolled tup. 10/. was given to Mr. J. Manning, for his long-woolled tup, in addition to a sweepstakes of two sovereigns each among three subscribers. A sweepstakes of three sovs, each to Earl Spencer, for his Durham steer, four years and six months old, bred by him. A sweepstakes of five sovs. each, four subscribers, to Sir F. Lawley,for his three shearling tups, and a sweep- stakes of one sov. eacii to Mr. W. Bosvvorth, of Sprat- ton, for his three fat ewes. 3/. was awarded to Mr. Benjamin Brown for his sample of red wheat ; 3/. to the Hon. Captain Spencer for his sample of oats; and the Marquis of Northampton's prize of 3/. to i\Ir. H: Saunders, for his sample of white wheat. No sample of barley was shown. A silver cup of the value of 10/. given by the Marquis of Northampton, was awarded to Mr. C. Ivens, for his superior farming. Several sums, from lOs. 6d. to 3/., were given as rewards for the best ploughing, Sec. After which about 120 gentlemen dined together at the George Hotel. C. Hillyard acted as chairman, and several speeches were delivered, but, for want of space, we can only give that of Lord Spen- cer's. After the company had drank his lordship's health, Lord Spencer rose to return thanks. He was happy to say that he thought he might congratulate the meet- ing on a very good show. Somebody had indeed ob- served that he remembered shows more numerously stocked, but as far as his own memory went, he could, not confirm that opinion. Sure he was, at all events, that he remembered none which exhibited so many good animals. (Cheers.) He need hardly tell them that he was always anxious for the success of the saciety. He owed a great deal to this county, and he did not know that he could render it a greater service than by pro- moting the great objects which the society had in view. As he had told them before, however, unless the farmers would support him and other gentlemen who offered prizes it was of course impossible that any good could be done. If the farmer v/oukl second their eftbrts by showing for the prizes, much good must follow. They had given that day an earnest of the support to which he alluded, and he hoped they would not relax their efforts in future years. The society had its ups and its downs, but it was going up now, and he trusted it would become more prosperous with every year. He was quite willing to do his part towards it. The encourage- ment they had given him that day, induced him to do a little more than he had done hitherto. Two years ago he believed he had remarked that the show of sheep was not w hat it should be, and he then offered 20 sovs. to be added to a sweepstakes for shearling tups, and 10 sovs. to be added to a sweepstakes for tups of any age. The first proposal had amply succeeded. Last year and the present, the show of shearlings was decidedly improved. The latter had not been so successful, and he should therefore increase the temptation, and make the prize to be added to the sweepstakes for other lups, the same as that offered for shearlings— namely 20 sovs, 298 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. {Cheers.) Tlitre was anotlier subject on which he would detain them a short time. It was his opinion when he first became connected with this society, that in the ricli land of this county it was not desirable to breed cattle. He had thought it belter that cattle should be bred on the poorer, and fed on the richer lands. In consequence of this opinion he had ottered no prize for the manage- ment of breeding cattle. But he would tell them fairly that he now thought lie was mistaken. He had calcu- lated pretty closely, and he found tliat the animals he had himself bred, paid him more for their keep from the time of breeding, than those wiiich he bought. They all knew pretty well that he was not a high keeper, ex- cepting when he kept for prizes, and then no doubt he did keep highly and lie always would. (Cheers.) Not being then a high keeper, he found that in the long run the animals whicli he bred himself paid iiim more for their keep from the time of their being calves, than tliose wliich he bought did for only the last summer's feeding. IJnder these circumstances be was anxious that the farmer should attend a little more to the breeding of stock, and he thought the only way to effect his object was to provide good male animals, and offer an induce- ment to the farmer to use them. He was sorry to say that in this county he believed a farmer would rather pay 5s. for the use of the worst bull, than 7s. 6d. for the use of tiie best. (Laugliter.) He siiould therefore propose to offer a prize for a bull on condition that it should be for use at 5s. per cow, because he did think that the farmer would take the best wlien he could liave it at the same price as the worst. (Laugliter.) He need not tell them that he preferred the short- horned breed, and he should give his prize for short-horns only. He was aware that there were some who did not agree with him in this preference, and the society would be infinitely obliged to those gentlemen if they would do as he proposed to do and back their opinions with a prize. (Cheers and laughter.) His prize, as he had already said, would be for short-iiorns, and he would explain exactly the principle on which he proposed to make it. He should propose that the bulls be named with their pedigrees by the 1st of March ; that he should have the power of excluding any from the competition which he might consider imfit; that these bulls should be used by members of this society at 5s. per cow up to the day of the next show, and then up to the 1st of JMarch follow- ing; and that no bull be qualified for the prize under two-years old. Now he knev.' that in such a case a small i)rize would be useless ; no man would sacrifice a very good bull if the remuneration were very small. He was, therefore, ready to offer a large sum for the pur- pose, and the prize he should projpose would be 50/. C Great cheering.) He offered this sum because he thought the amount oflPered ought to be equal to the fair hire of a good bull. It was not meant to restrict the use of the bull to the county, but he thought it ought to be restricted to within twenty miles of the town of Northampton. He had explained himself at length be- cause gentlemen might, if unacquainted with his views and motives, think the proposal an extravagant one ; he himself believed the prize would be really useful. (Cheers.) ON DEFORMITY IN THE ROOTS OF TURNIPS. Sin, — In this year's turnips, shaws and double roots, or fingers and toes, are very prevalent. I am anxious to ascertain if such is the case generally, and if so, if it is considered as a disease in the plant, the causes thereof, and the best preventive. If, on the other hand, it is considered to be produced from the seed being of a spurious character, how it can be accounted for having made its appearance in some fields, whilst in others of a different nature of soil it does not exist in the slightest degree, although all wei'e sown with seed saved from the same field, and taken from the same bag. I hope some of your readers will oblige me with some informa- tion upon this subject, through the medium of your co- lumns. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, A Constant Reader. A DEFENCE OF THE SMALL FARMERS OF IRELAND. [The comniunicalions upon this question from the pen of Mr. Siiarman Crawford, three of which will be found in page 281 of this magazine, being of great importance to Ireland, and scarcely of less to England, will be readwitii much interest. Mr. Crawford is thoroughly conversant with the subject, and it will add not a little to the weight of his arguments when it is known tliatbisovvn estates are admitted to be among the best, if not the best managed in all Ireland. Mr. Stanley, of Slonelay, has published "observations'' on Mr. Crawford's communications, whicli he pro- poses to continue. We subjoin the first and leave it to our readers to decide between both. — Ed. F.M.] OBSERVATIONS ON "A DEFENCE OF THE SMALL FARMERS OF IRE- LAND.—No. 1. FIRST I'ROPOSITION OF THE" DEFENXE :" " That the labouring populution in Britain are inade- quate to tlie full cultivation ofthelands of that portion of the United Kingdom." What is meant by "full cultivation?" Is it cul- tivation without reference to profits, or cultivation with reference to profits ! If the former, it means a condition the reverse of that under which we are; and it is submitted, that facts, drawn from a known and existing state of society, cannot be offered in support of a proposition sought to be applied to an unknown and future state ; and it were impossible to form a correct estimate of the number of hands required to fully cultivate the lands of Britain. She has wastes of which we know not the barrenness — lakes and morrasses whose depth plummet never sounded, or rod probed — and rocks of which we know not the qualities and extent. At some future day the intellect of man ma\' dis- cover a means at once to render fruitful what now is not so ; the advance of mind may turn deserts into gardens, without the slow toil and enormous outlay the knowledge of to-day demands ; rocks may be dissolved, and rendered wheat fields, without the intervention of the minute labour of pulverization. If the proposition means cultivation with reference to profits, then it is submitted, the evidence ofiered cannot be received in its support. The first and only directevidence is, the extensive emigration of Irish labourers for saving the harvests of Britain, The influx to England of Irish labourers does not prove an insufficiency of hands in Britain, because — " Agricultural labourers" is a mere arbitrary de- nomination : labourers are not in castes, or bound to agricultural or instrumental industry a moment longer than it is their interest. It is the remunera- tion of labour that attracts labourers — if agriculture aflTorded five shillings a day, would labourers remain at trades or manufactures at two shillings a daj'"! Now, the influx of Irish labourers lessens rural wages in England — consequently lessens the induce- ment of English labourers to be agricultural. The point merel}"^ goes to prove that rural wages are higher in England than in Ireland. It would be inconsistent with the evidence in support of this proposition, that hands are un- employed in Britain — yet is not the fact notorious 1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 299 Nay, in supporting proposition fourtli and fifth, tbe argument turns on want of continuous employment ! Witb reference to the support the proposition may receive from statistical deducements, it is submitted it is inconclusive in many instances, and, in the main, rests on a postulate which can be proved erroneous. It is stated that the productive powers cannot be brought to full play, except by rotation crops ; and that five men are required by rotation crops for each acre. What is the test of the fullest productive powers being in action? The largest produce — the largest profit. We maintain the old pastures produce, by a natural agency, and without the aid of five men to an acre, more profit than could any rotation yield. We appeal from theory to facts : the graziers are men who study the fattening qualities of grasses — they look keenly to profits. Ask any of them in Lincoln, Essex, Cheshire, Kildare, or Meath, to break up their old pastures — they would think you " demented," Some have tried the experiment, and their recompense was ruin! When we see sober and intelligent men make money by a certain course, and refuse, from the warning of examples, to follow another mode of culture, is it not proof their mode of industry is the best — the most profitable 1 Are the opinions sealed by the acts of men who devote their lime and capital to a subject, to be disproved by an assertion 1 We grant that if five men be profitably necessary to every hundred acres in Britain, the 34,000,000 acres under cultivation would require 1,700,000 hands ; this is an arithmetical suggestion. But we deny tliat the five men are required with a view to profit ; and it is in vain to argue the matter without reference to profits — society moves on profits. Again ; reference is made to tbe 44,000,000 acres in Britain capable of cultivation. Who has de- termined, or who can determine, what lands are capable of cultivation 1 Why rocks are capable of cultivation ; witness the experiment in France. Capability of cultivation must refer to profit or it means nothing, and as it refers to profit, the question resolves into cost of production, and then the monetary system. As the subject has not been touched in the proposition, one is not called on to dwell on it. Finally, it is asserted, "that the want of hands limits the productive powers of Britain." W^e aver it has not been proved ; and we venture to submit to public opinion, that if the productive powers of Britain be limited, the cause comes under the head of cost of production. As the search after truth is the object all have in view, it is hoped that the press may give insertion to these observations, which it is proposed to continue, proposition by proposition, if they appear any way worthy of observation. J. STANLEY. Stanelay, Sept. 16. COMPARISON OF SPEED.— A French scien- tific journal states that the ordinary rate is, per second. Feet. Of a man walking- ... 4 Of a good horse in harness 12 Of a rein -deer in a sledge, on the ice ., 26 Of an English race horse 43 Of a hare 88 Of a good sailing ship 14 Ofthewind 82 Of sound 1,038 Of a twenty.four pounder cannon-ball 1,300 Of the air which so divided, returns into space 1,300 SALE OF STOCK AT CASTLE HOWARD. On Thursday, Sept. 12, there was a sale by auc- tion of Improved Short-Horned Cattle, the property of the Right Hon. the Earl of Carlisle, at Castle Howard, near York. Blr. Wetherell, the celebra- ted and experienced auctioneer, of Durham, con- ducted the sale. The attendance of gentlemen from all parts of the country was very numerous, and the sale excited much attention amongst breeders, graziers, and others, from the well known superior quality of the stock always reared at Castle Howard. The following are the particu- lars of the lots sold, with their pedigrees : — COWS AND HEIFERS. 3Hss Dickson, by Shylock ; dam. Dairy-maid, by Defender, was sold for 79 guineas. Sweet Looks, (dam of the best fat ox,) by Shylock ; dam, Stately, by Snowball, sold for 150 guineas. Retribution, by Rockingham, dam Rose, by Navi- gator, sold for l.")0 guineas. The great grandam of this cow sold for 415 guineas. Matilda, by Rockingham, dam by Fairfax, was knocked off to Mr. Lawson, for 51 guineas. Spring Flower, by Fairfax, dam Snowdrop by Snow- bell, sold for 70 guineas. Lady Marian, a red and white cow, by Fairfax, dam Lady Mary by Honest John, brought the large price of 320 guineas. Maniac, by Rockingham, dam Lady Mary, sold for 67 guineas. Martha, by Fairfax, dam Milkmaid, by Harpham, realized 83 guineas ; and Lady Sally, by Reformer, dam Lady Sarah, 70 guineas. Pretty Lass, by Belshazzar, dam Primrose by Pio- neer, brought 53 guineas. Violetta, by Young Cheviot, dam Young Violet by Shylock, sold for 71 guineas. Glory, by Argus, dam Miranda by Imperial, brought 56 guineas. Fairy, by Rockingham, dam Fan by Harpham, sold for 92 guineas. Madame Dncrow, by Bulmer, dam by Shylock, sold for 61 guineas. Ringlet, by Belshazzar, dam Rose by Navigator, brought 81 guineas. Doivager, by Belshazzar, dam ]\Iiss Dickson, was knocked down for 110 guineas. Viola, by Algernon, dam Violet, fetched 78 gs. Redbreast, by Belshazzar, dam Red Butterfly, 67 guineas. Duchess, twin-sister to Dowager, 81 guineas. Charmer, by Bulmer, dam Chess, 62 guineas. Madcap, by Bulmer, dam Maniac, 52 guineas. Spot, by Belshazzar, dam Stately, by Snowball, 71 guineas. Spotless, twin-sister to Spot, 70 guineas. Fancy, by Belshazzar, dam Fanny by Cato, 160 guineas. Margaret, by Benjamin, dam Martha, 90 guineas. Vestris, by Rockingham, dam Viscountess, by Shylock, 60 guineas. Bessy^ by Benjamin, dam by Rockingham, 71 gs. Mary, by Margaret's sire and out of her dam, 53 guineas. Phoebe, by Rockingham, dam Pheasant, 65 gs. Mermaid, by Snowball, dam Lady Marian, 50 gs. Red Butterfiy, by Grazier, dead. Chess, by Belshazzar, dam by Wonderful, 22 gs. f Quakeress, by Young Coustantine, dam a favourite cow of the late Mr. Carr's, 45 gs. Imogene, (bred by Mr. Booth, of Studley), by Ar- gus, dam by Pilot, 30 guineas. X 2 300 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Pheuiunt, by Grazier, dam Phyllis, by Harpbam, '10 gs, Ladi) Susan, by Grazier, clam Lndy Sarab, by Pilot, 30 gs. Maria, by Young Albion, dam Lady Sarab, 34 gs. Ladi/ Jane, by Keformer, dam by Newtonian. Her grandam was bred by Mr. Cattley, of Brandsby, 31 guineas. Isabel, by Belshazzar, dam Imogene, by Argus, 20 g.s. Plixmx, by Sampson, dam Pheasant, 50 gs. Lady Anne, by Ganthorpe, dam by Rockingham, 50 gs. Dolly, by Marmion, dam Dowager, 40 gs. Cltarity, by Mowtliorpc, dam Chess, 25 gs. Clarissa, by l^ickwick, dam Clara, 30 gs. Flora, by Scampston, dam Fairy, 32 gs. Iletaliation, by Mowthorpe, dam Retribution, 31 gs. Quid, by Mowthorpe, dam Quakeress, 30 gs. Immodesty, by Boz, dam Imogene, 20 gs. Lady Sprightly, by Mowthorpe, dam "j.ady Sally, 40 gs. BULLS. Bulmer, by Shyloclc, dam Blueberry by Candour, 50 gs. Belshazzar, a line roan bull by Fairfax, dam Lady Sarah by Pilot, 170 guineas. Rockingham, by Faiifax, dam Maria by Young Al- bion, 60 gs. Benjamin, by Don Juan, dam Lady Sarah by Pilot, 56 gs. Ganthorpe, by Grazier, dam Maria, by Young Albion, 100 gs. Vice-Boy, by Rockingham, dam Venus by Shy- lock, 51 gs. Boz, by Belshazzar, dam Red Butterfly, 100 gs. Lord Stanley, by Bulmer, dam Lady Sally by Re* former ; and St. Leger, by Hendersk'elf, dam Sweet Looks, dam of the best fat ox, by Shvlock, each fetched 100 gs. Major Domo, by the Baronet, dam Madam Ducrow, realized 70 gs. The Baronet, by Don Juan, dam Lady Sarah, by Pilot, 22 gs. Snowball, by Shylock, dam Lady Sarah, 42 gs. Bulmer, by Shylock, dam Blueberry, by Candour, 50 gs. Maicthorpc, by Bluebeard, dam Maria, by "Young Albion, 46 gs. Blncher, by the Baronet, dam Springflower, 20 gs. Fantastical, by Bulmer, dam Fan, by Harpham, 32 gs. Pickwick, by Belshazz,ir,dam Primrose, by Pioneer, 35 gs. Marmion, by Bulmer, dam Lady iMarion, by Fair- fax. 48 gs. Retriever, by Bulmer, dam Retribution, not sold. Phiz, by Belshazzar, dam Pheasant, 30 gs. Imperial, by Ganthorpe, dam Imogene, by Argus, 31 gs. . Isaac, by Bulmer, dam Isabel, 16 gs. Gladiator, by Lofty, dam Glory — dead. Ruben Buller, by Snowball, dam Red Butterfly, 41 gs. Revolution, by Mowthorpe, dam Retribution, 30o-s. Phoebus, by Rockingham, dam Pheasant. 27 o-s.° Marmaduke, by Boz, dam Madam Ducrow, by Bulmer, 14 guineas. The whole proceeds of the sale were near 5,000Z Immediately after the above Mr. Wetherell pro- ceeded to the sale of the Improved Short-Horned Cattle of Mr. Henry Edwards, of Market Weighton, and the sales etfectedCabove 50/.^ were as follow :-^ Mayjlou'er, by JMalbro' dam Tulip, by Regent, — 170 guineas. Foggafhorpe, by Midbro', dam Rosebud, by Rlr. Wiley's Ebor, 105 guineas. Qi/e^» ()/■ 3Vi(H)y)s, by Ganthorpe, dam IMayfloTver, by jNIalbro', 76 guineas. Dahlia, by Ganthorpe, dam Foggatborpe, by MaU bro', 150 guineas. While Rose, hy Ganthorpe, dam Lucy, by Romu- lus, 85 guineas. Lalonn, by Ganthorpe, dam Mary, by Romulus, 61 guineas^ Muliiran, by Ganthorpe, dam Mayflower, by Malbro', 300 guineas. Golden Drop, bj' Ganthorpe, dam Foggatborpe, 135 guineas. CALVES Jemima, heifer, by Benjamin, dam Foggatborpe, WHS sold for 100 guineas. 'J"wo others, Sir Robert and Baronet, sold for 32 and 37 g;uineas. Prize Second, by Malbro', dam Laura, by INIarsbal Beresford, 26 guineas. Duches^, by Romulus, dam Prize, by Malbro', 31 guineas. Lucy, by Romulus, dam Rosebud, by Elbor, 20 guineas. Mima, by Ganthorpe, dam Duchess, by Romulus, 50 guineas. Rclick, by Ganthorpe, dam Burley, by Malbro', 40 guineas. I'nsta, by Craven, dam Queen of Trumps, by Gan- thorpe, 30 guineas. Janette, by Ganthorpe, dam Mary, by Romulus, oO gs. The following ])remiums have been obtained by jNIr. Edwards' cows at difl'erent agricultural shows : — Prize Second, at Hedon cattle show, in 1836, fer the best two years old heifer. Mayftouer, twice at Hedon, three times at Howden, and three times at Beverley cattle shows, lor the best cow. Foggatltorpe, for the best two years old heifer at Howden ; for the best cow at Howden ; three times at Beverley for the best cow, and in 1838, at York for the second best cow. White Rose, at Howden and Beverley for the best yearling; at tlie same places for the best two years' old and again for the best three years' old ; at York, in 1838, the second premium for three years' old hei- fers, and also won the sweepstakes at that show. Malihran, at Howden and Beverley for the best yearling heifer ; at Howden, Beverley, and York, in 1838, for the best two year's old j and won the sweep- stakes at York in the same year. Lttcy, at Howden in 1838, for the best cow. SALE OF SHORT HORNS. The important sale of short horns, the property of John Colling, Esq., of White House, near Greta Bridge, took place on Tuesday, Sept. 10, and, we understand, a more splendid display of these beau- tiful animals has rarely been witnessed. The ani- mals were of a very superior order, both as re- garded symmetry and condition, and the prices subjoined to each lot will fully prove their supe- riority. COWS. Rosette, 9 years old, roan, by Cupid. — Mr. Pol- lock, for 50/. Rosabella, 8 years old, roan, by Highflyer. — Mr. John May, for 105/. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 301 Jlalltt, 6 years old, red roan, by Magauia Bonum. —Mr. Heslop, for 100/. Matilda, 5 years old, roan, by Champag;ne, — Mr. Jlopper, for 60/. Rosina, 4 years old, roan, by Gainford. — Mr. Pol- lock, for 170/. Rosa, 4 jiears old, roan, by Paganini. — Mr, Jaikes, for 55/. Flora, 4 years old, roan, by Young Matcli'em. — Mr. Binns, for 31/. Jewess, 4 years old, roan, by Sillery. — Mr. Emer- son, for 40/. Riibi^, o years old, by the Monk. — Capt. Sliaw, for 501. Young Rachel, 3 years old, red and wliito, ((uvn sister to the cow- that won tlie York- premium in 1838, beating 14 others,) by Magnum Bonum, — Mr. Wetberell.for aOO/. Jane, 3 years old, red and vvhite,by Young Barmp- ton. — Rlr. Wilson, for 55/. Lady, 3 years old, roan by Layton.--Mr. Wil- kinson, for '25/. Primroie, 3 years old, red, by Layton. — .Mr. Par- kinson, for 31/, Dahif, aged 3 years, red and white, by a son of Mr. Sherwood's While Bull,— Mr. Brown, 42/. Seiina, a2;ed 3 j ears, red and white, by Paganini. — Mr. Pollock, 70/. Rebecca, aged 2 years, red and white, by Magnum Bonum. — Mr. W^ilkinson, 8(i/. Roseberry, aged two years, roan, by Paganini. — Mr. Wilkinson, 140/. Ruth, aged 2 years, roan, by Layton. — Mr. West, 105/. Rarity, aged 1 year, red and white, by Acmon, — 140/. Rosamond, aged 1 year, by Paganini. — Mr. May- nard, 90/. Raspberry, white, by Roland. — Mr. Pollock 60/. Perfection, aged 1 year, roan, by Sillery. — Air. Furguson, 40/. A'oca, red, calved August 28tli, 1838, by Sillery ; dam by Champagne. — Mr. Ferguson, 18/. Strawberrii, red and white, calved Dec. 29, 1838, by Ronald.— Mr. White, 27/. Ray, roan heifer, calved May 13, 1839, by Bor- derer.— Mr. Crofton, 52/. Rouge, red and white heifer, calved April 29, 1839, by Borderer. — Mr. Topham, 2'i/. BULLS. BuH, red and white, calved March 11, 1839, by Borderer, 21/. Ralph, white, calved May 5, 1839, by Bordtrer, 21/. Rouben, roan, calved June 6, 1839, by Ronald, 6')l. Rolla, red and white, calved May 14, 1839, by Borderer, 19/. iS(. Patrick, roan, calved May 1, 1839, by The Peer, 13/. Rowland, roan, hy Magnum Bonum, 46/. Ronald, white, by Magnum Bonum, 82/. Borderer, bred by Wm. Smith, Esq., of Shedlaw, got by Mr, Barker of Lavton's Son of Satellite, ON THE NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF LINSEED OIL AS FOOD FOR CATTLE, SiE, — The underneath, which is a copy of one of my manuscript papers, will probably afford your corres- pondent, signed *' A Novice," a little of the information he may require. I bought my oil of Clay and Co., in London, at 2s. 2d. per gallon, including carriao'e ; my bran and pollard at lis. per qr., or 64 pecks light measure, — but liad to lake it at the mill. Eucli bullock had one pint of oil pcrday,viz,,half in the morning and half in the evening, mi.xed with one peck of bran and a small portion of pollard ; 1 also used a great deal of salt. At a rough oaleulution, they paid 2s. 6d. per week before stalling, and 1 Is. 6d. per weak in stalls. Whilst tliey were in the stalls, they had of good hay cut into pieces, about a foet every way, as much as they could eat up fairly clean. So* * o- •oo,,r'o.-, . p. n o) 2 fit} i-:^^^i-'Hi-'t3<-'A^>-'^t3tai-' Number bought. Oi— w Wi-'SO'-'O'bSIO », (Duiioaii*.to«ooooiocfl^oia)r5 oo ooooooooooo o P* "« 5*^-55 hH f^ « w i-i 1-^ h-. ™ S 2^0-3 DoOOOOOoS i^ n •,O'..0OO0'* wP"t;^. • '>i^' • • • >-• ^ «o 00 . o o •<1 •< • s s _ • o_- a h3 P^ . w o !^ *• • (»• = C' n to w to 4^ 00 to — t-' o to w 00 05 05 oi to w W O) O (O 0> Oi 1- Number of days each lot were fed in stalls lO o u ov to " CO W ^I u to ^I i-J O 00 to H- 0> — 00^ aioo>©uioovotoo50^ui>-i0' OOOOOOOJOOOiOOOlO: I shall feed this year forty beasts (Galloway Scots, bought in one lot, at Peterboi-ough Fair, on the 2nd of October, 1838, at 11/. 10s. each,) on straw, turnips, mangel wurzel, potatoes, and oil-cake, and calculate my loss at least 1-20/.; and believe, had 1 used linseed oil instead of cake, my loss would have been much less; so much for consumers of meat growlingatidgrumblirg' about the high pricc'of beef. To tlie facility of getting- meat from Scotland, &:c., I atti'ibute the greater if not the whole of my loss — for most of my beasts were sold in Smithfield. Steam-vessels in 1824 did not glut the London markets witii slaughtered beasts, but in the early part of 1839 they did to the heavy cost or loss, to many of my friend*. Yours, in very great haste, R. W. ALLPRESS. St. Ives, Huntingdonshire, Aug. 28, LIVERPOOL, September 2. In place of limiting our list of imports to those for the past month, we give the following statement, which ex- hibits, in a tabular form, the total annual i-eceipts of Grain, Flour, and Oatmeal into this port for the last eleven years and the current prices at the cloic of each —taking Irish produce as the standard of value, and the month of August as the terrr.inus of the year. As re- gards the last of the series we may add Ij. i)er 70 lbs. to the actual quotation lor Wheat as an equivaltn'. for the inferiority of the growth of 1838, compared with that of the previous seasons : — 302 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ppppsptspp o o 3 3 ^2- hsS »T)2. 3. a' to 3 o ■-3 ^T- ^2 <^2 T3E 2.=" E5 fD fC (t> ^S S". > 9i? a? a« Fr> &:> Fh> S c ;:: c ®ciq ©99 ©0^ o a CO o oq O 3? 05 O If) CO 0 3< CO CO CO IS O CO IS 0 03 S CO 0 -J S CO 0 <35 S CO 0 cn IS 0 0^ IS 0 CO 6-.S CO 00 '/I ^ CO og s fit M • CO coco 4^ 00 00 ■^ to 00 to cn 05 CO to C, 41. gco ■ CO 1 r-o •0 CO .03. > : : .. . 1. I 5 ^1 0 CO to 1 01 1 ^ CO 4>. • Cn 00 CO . CO to : • •5° w p •1 . E .en . ^ 1 . CO 4. • ^ to • CO • s CO : § 00 290995 4s. 3d. CO CO » 10 COKi 05 CO #^ 0 10 CO to to to CO F3 P"to Li £2co» FP-fe 0 3. =7- 5 • lO ~3 *- • CD • tn CO to c ' § : S3 • to cn CO to • CO •<^? ?.° ST 05 CO • CO COS p-g "oJ ^g 4.3 2g g§ ^'l . *. . ^J CO 4. 00 cn .coo «■' CO ■ cn 1 4. 4. 1 CO OK 4». .» cn .^ to ' r^ I^ £co 1 gE . cn 1 P-co CO ►-00 OS f"o 2coco p-p-s > w • i • CO ; h? 1 .41. . 4i. • • 1 • CO . ^ -to . . 1 . »- ^1 cn ^ C« CO 1 CO . j.cn 0 1 to ■ 2 4^ to •§ to to • to • to CO CO coS coco CoS COlo COroCOjoMjo lOio lOo t^02 tOSOlSlOoo i"o ^"co S^coifcoli^'oii"*. .-" ■^ r CO c- '^ J3i : ^ • : 0 CO 1 • to • to to • CO 0 4^?o "S w^ "^ Jg-o ^i^ ^^ g>S ?" to ?' 0 ."' -J 1 ."" 0 ^J ^ 00 1 ^J M*^ CoE2 ?■ CO 1 S" cn co!S • CO OD 43 ^O. ^1 w > C/2 • 1 • <1 • to CO -1 to . cn .0 -OS .00 -to • H- CO ^ 1 CO CO 00 1 to •I •• • CD •cn . (O C7> • CO • to • CD to f? .»2 S'co wS 4.!S| w^S cog tcH 1 ^0 w S S" cn 1 ? to ti tr. i5 . 0 ll IPi eg : i :| • S : t^ 4^ to • 0 • 4. 4:>. CO : g n 03 fi 05 CO ?' to F2 »§ * to * ^ .„ CO 'fH cn •■"S 00 CO CO ^ cn «s 1 g ^i2 do CO to2 CD CO J" CO 4. si i" to 0 4Sk. H!co f^'co • "^ cn to tog CO*: 00 ' 0 03 wS .Oa. t-' CD CO ^co ^2 >*. CO !& 4^ i" 03 i" CO •<1 t- to ^1 to ^ 0 to ^ CD 4. CO OiCO ^1 C?) 0 a Pi 05 •CD . S . - . en ] . iS .0 • 0 • 0 • C3) • CO Ja. 0 ►-'1 0 CO CO CT> to 1 CO 1 CO to 00 '■t to • 0 • to 00 cn : § CO : : j^"p to • to • CO to CO Cn • lO „ 00 00 en . 2I . CO CO • 0 • 4^ ■■t s to s • Cn ■ CD CO 4. : n 8 . CO • CO 11.0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 303 On examining these details attention will at once be drawn to the excessive importation of foreign Wheat for the past year ; and while this is made an object of comparison, it must be borne in mind that, with the ex- ception of the arrivals of the last ten weeks or about 62,000 qrs., the whole, together with the stocks in bond at the commencement of the season, has been broug-lit into the market for consumption. Since the 1st of September last duty has been paid upon 595,650 qrs. of Wheat and 233,850 brls. of Flour, adding to which the deliveries of British growth and manufacture we have a total supply equal to 1,022,150 qrs., or nearly double the gross imports of tnese articles during any similar period of the cycle,— except that of 1830-31. Of other articles of foreign produce duty has been paid upon 26,840 qrs. of OaU, 26,590 qrs. of Barley, 22,460 qrs. of Beans, 12,530 qrs. of Peas, and 3,760 qrs. of Kye. Prices during the season have undergone great changes ; Eng-lish white Wheat which in the month of December had reached 13s. 3d., was in June selling' at 10s. 8d. per 70 lbs. : in the lower qualities the fluctuations have even exceeded this ; Odessa hard, which at one period was commanding 10s. to 10s. 3d., was recently sold at 7s. to 7s. 6d. per 70 lbs. At tlie clase of August, 1838, the stock of free Wheat was stated not to exceed 15,000 qrs., but within a fort- night afterwards the duty on foreign reached the lowest point thus releasing the Wheat and Flour in bond — consisting of about 150,000 qrs. and 60,000 brls. respec- tively. There are at present in our bonded warehouses 61,200 qi's., and 16,000 brls. of these articles ; the free granaries, it is estimated, do not contain more than 90,000 qrs. of Wheat, and 4,000 sacks and brls. of Flour, so that our aggregate stock (large as it may appear upon the approach of harvest) is at least 30,000 qrs. less than at the corresponding period of last year. 1'he following statement may bs considered a very close approximation to the quantities of each article of the trade held— free and in bond— on the 31st ultimo. It is more than pro- bable that the whole of the Wheat, Beans, and Rye, with with some portion of the Peas in bond will be released during the next few weeks. Estimated Free Stocks :— Wheat, 90,000 qrs.; Oats, 3,000 qrs.; Barley, 2,000 qrs.; Rye, 1,500 qrs; Beans, 8,000 qrs.; Peas, 2,500 qrs.; Flour, 4,000 sks., and 4,000 brls.; Oatmeal, 3,000 loads. Bonded Stocks (as made up from the daily Bills of Entry issued by the Customs): — Wheat, 61,213 qrs.; Barley, 5,000 qrs.; Rye, 5,489 qrs.; Beans, 2,200 qrs.; Peas, 9,987 qrs.; Flour, 16,071 brls. Throughout tiie year we have had a ivt& and widely extended vend for Wheat ; the transshipments coastwise and to Ireland for the twelve months exeeed 85,550 qrs.; and, (besides the usual demand from this immediate district,) the midland counties — including Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, and Staffordshise — have drawn largely from this port. From the latest sales, prices may be quoted as follows : for English white Wheat, lis. to lis. 6d., Danzig lOs. 6d. to ll.s.3d., English red lOs.Sd. to lOs. 6d., Baltic 10s. to lOs. 6d„ Tuscan 9s, 6d.to 9s. 9d., Marianopoli9s.6d. to 9s. 9d., Portuguese 9s. to 9s. 6d., Odessa soft 8s. 9d. to 9s., and hard 7s. 6d. to 8s. per 70 lbs. Flour has sold less freely than Wheat, but, except during a very short period when there was a considerable release of Ame- rican, there has been little or no accumulation of stock, and at present the market is literally bare. English superfine is worth 56s. to 583., Iri?h manufacture from 50s. to 56s. per sack, and United States 38s. to 4 Is. per brl. of 196 lbs. The demand for Oats and Oatmeal has during the greater part of the season kept pace with the supply ; indeed, for the last two months the arrivals of these articles from Ireland ( wlience are derived the great bulk of our supplies) htvcibeen on an unusually limited scale, and, notwithstanding tiie release of foreign above re- ferred to, there are not more than 3,000 qrs. of Oats at this moment on tiie market ; the stock of Oatmeal is proportionally low. Less fluctuation has occurred in the value of either, than in that of Wheat or Flour; choice samples of Irish Oats for mealing are worth 4s, 3d,, middling qualities have sold at 4s. to 4s. Id,, and foreign — light but sweet — at 3s. lid. to 4s. 2d. per 451bs. 35s. to 37s. per 240 lbs. are the rates now current for Oatmeal. in the early part of the season English Barley met a good demand for mailing, and the residue of the supply of this description, as well as the foreign, has recently found ready buyers for feeding purposes : large quan- titles have been taken for tlie interior ; inferior runs at 4s. 8d. to 4s. lOd., the best foreign at 5s. to 5s. 4d. per 60 lbs., and the English at prices varying from 36s. to 43s. per imp. qr. Malt has been in steady request, and the stocks on this market are very small ; fine samples of Roundland are worth 685. to 70s, per imp. qr. For Beans we have had scarcely more tiian a retail demand, and little or no fluctuation in prices. English are now worth 42s. to 46s., foreign 38s. to 44s. per qr,, and Irish 40*. to 42s. per 480 lbs. Peas have found a good vend for feeding purposes at 38s. to 41s. per qr., and notwithstanding a large supply of foreign, there are not many remaining over. Choice boilers are held at 44s. to 48s. per qr. A large portion of the Indian Corn brought to this port has been transshipped to Ireland where, from the scarcity of other low qualities of food, it has been in request. The value here may be stated at44s, to46s. per4801b3. A considerable portion of the stock of foreign Wheat and Flour in bond, together with some cargoes to arrive, recently changed hands on speculation : the present value of both may be estimated at the free price less the duty. Recurring to the importation of foreign Wheat and Flour it may be remarked, as regards the kingdom in general as well as this port in particular, that the quan- tities thus derived have greatly exceeded the highest calculations as to tlie probable amount we should find available to our wants ; in fact, the Mediterranean and Baltic ports have been completely drained and any further demand from us must be supplied from the sur- plus of their new crops. From the United States and Canada our receipts have been small — comprised in 1,150 qrs. of Wheat and 144,000 brl. of Flour. On the subject of our harvest — its progress and promise — we have to observe that in the southern counties nearly the whole of the Wheat crop, with a large proportion of the Barley, has been secured, and, judging from the general accounts, in tolerably good order: on this side of Bir- mingham and even further to the north reaping has now become very general, but little grain has yet been car- ried— in this immediate district none. The reports as to the yield are much more various than they were last year ; in few cases, however, is it represented as exceed- ing or even equal to an average; whiUt in many it is noted as greatly deficient. A few new Oats and a little new Bere have reached us from Ireland, the quality in- ferior; nor have we by any means favourable accounts of the Wheat crop in that country. Oats it is said will produce abundantly ; Potatoes too are generally well reported of, and some contracts for the forward delivery of this important article of food have been made on low terms. BOOTH, WALMSLEY, & CO. ADHESIVENESS OF TIMBER.--At one of the sectional meetings of the British Association, last week. ]\Ir. Eaton Ilodgkinson read a table of different species of woods, and the power which they possess to resist a force tending to crush them. The following are a few of the principal woods and the number of pounds which they would sustain on the square inch without sinking under the pressure. The weight was applied in all the instances in the direction of the fibres. Yellow pine, 5,3751bs. ; cedar, 5,6741bs. ; red deal, .5,7481bs. ; pop- lar, not quite dry, 4,3071bs. ; green larch, wet,2,301lbs.; green larch, dry, 5,368lbs. ; plum tree, green, 5,3641bs.; beech, rather green, 7,733]bs, ; beech, dry, 9,3()31bs, ; dry ash, 9,3631bs, ; English oak, 5,3641bs. ; Spanish mahogany, 5,198lbs. ; elm 10,331 lbs.; box from 9,365 to lO.OOOIbs.; kingwood, 12,645lbs. 304 THE FARMER S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR .SEPTEMBER. Scarcely within tbe recollection of the oldest farmer in existence has the weather proved more changeable as wellas unfavourable for the ino-athering of the crops, particularly from about the 16tb to the ~2nd during which period scarcely a day elapsed on which we were not visited by unusually heavy showers of rain, accompanied "by strong gales of Avind, blowing- mostly from the southward and west- ward, than that experienced in the course of the month forming the subject of this report. In most parts of Essex, Sufibllc, Kent, Devonshire, Herefordshire, and indeed in ne;)rly the whole of our western, southern, and eastern counties, the wheat and barley together with oats were harvested pre- viously to the 15th, though in by no means so excel- lent a condition as could have'been desired, owing to the great anxiety manifested bv the in:ijority ol" the growers to secure their grain ere the unseason- able temperature — the near ajiproach of which was so plainly indicated by the rapid fluctuations of the oarometer— commenced ; but we regret exceedingly to assert that even on the 25th scarcely more than a fourth of the corn had been housed or stacted in those districts situate north of the Ilumber, and it was feared that that remaining in the fields would never arrive at maturity. In Lincolnshire— espe- cially in the fens— Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, and Derbyshire, the heavy rains had the effect of beating down immense quantities of heavy eared wheat, much of which speedily became sprouted, consequently unfit for consumption. Several hun- dred acres of land covered with wheat had the ap- pearance, after the storms had subsided, of a roller Laving been passed over them. The fact of last year's wheat harvest shov\-ing a considerable falling off in point of yield and general quality, on account of which there has been an al- most continuous exportation of the precious metals to the Continent for the purchase of foreign wheat in order to fill up such deficiency, upwards of Eight Millions of hard cash having been shipped abroad for that purpose since the close of last year, serious apprehensions appear to exist amongst the commu- nity at large as to ulterior consequences ; whilst not a few individuals have asserted that there is a great and alarming deficiency in the crops just harvested. In order to disabuse the minds of those who have imbibed such ideas, we kave to state that having carefully investigated the new wheat which has been offered for sale in the various markets in the king- dom, besides having closely inspected it in the fields and after it had reached the barn or mow, and seen it submitted to the process of thashing, we cannot re- port otherwise than favourably of it. But it must net be inferred from these remarks that it is intended to be asserted that deficiencies are not discoverable (would that they were not) , our line of argument being (in which, we trust, every unbiassed agricul- turist will coincide) that, taking into consideration the quantity of wheat safely housed, and should the remnant be secured in fair condition, the aggregate return will fully coir.e up to that of previous sea- sons, and prove more extensive than last year. We are the more confirmed in this opinion by the corn being less infected with red-gum, smut, &c., than has been too often the case. The turnip crop is very abundant, and a good season is looked forward to, by our graziers in Nor- folk and elsewhere, for fattening their beasts and sheep by means of this invaluable esculent. No serious complaints have been made respecting the appearance of fly, from which it is hoped that the various and excellent remedies which have been from time to time suggested, as a preventive to the ravages of that destructive creature have been partially successful. It is consideied that the growth of potatoes, in all parts of Great Britain, was never more abundant than that which is now engrossing the attention of the dealers. For some time past — as is invariably the case at the jiresent season, — tbe metrojjolitan markets have been solely supplied from, the neighbouring counties, chieflv by land carriage, and the prices have ruled tolerably remunerative. A few weeks hence, extensive receipts are expected by sea. from Scotland, various parts of England, as well as from Guernsey and Jersey. Speedily after the commencement of the progress of the sickle had become impeded by superabundant moisture, the currencies of wheat were considerably enhanced ; yet in the provinces, the rise in prices Jias not been extensive; nevertheless the trade must be considered firm. From Scotland, our accounts, regarding the pro- gress made in out- door farm operations, are, en the whole, cheerless. The same description of weather so prevalent in England has been experienced there, and a very large portion of tha grain yet remains uncut. At most of the princijial markets, wheat has realized high prices. I'he shipments of superior hard wheat, of foreign production, from the port of London, to Dundee and other Scotch ports, have been even more extensive than those which were stated to have taken place some time since, — nearly 5,000 quarters having been entered for the above ports since our last, most of which have been composed of fine hard Hamburg and Danzig qualities, on which home consumption duty had been paid, fit for imme- diate conversion into flour. The almost total ex- haustion of the stocks of old native grown wheat, in North Britain, has rendered such a seasonable sup- ply absolutely necessary ; but it has been intimated that very few of the Scotch millers have been able to keep their mills constantly at work ; hence flour has been held at relatively high rates. Since tbe close of July, scarcely any other than foreign grain has been converted into flour in the vicinity of Glas- gow ; whilst the new corn coming to hand requires a large admixture of foreign, previously to being dried for milling purposes. As the winter advances, large additional supplies will be necessary to produce good saleable flour. Notwithstanding that the weather in Ireland has been of a versatile character, fully two-thirds of (he wheat, barley, and oats have been stacked ; but it is much feared that the harvest, in the backward parts, will be a protracted one. Hop-picking was commenced in Kent and Sussex about the lOlh, on, perhaps, one of the most abund- ant growths recollected for a seties of years past. Nearly, or quite, 4,000 pockets of inferior new hops have been offered for sale in the Borough, which have produced, as the quality was inferior, very low rates — the highest price realized being 5/. os. per cwt. The following is a retrospective statement of the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smitbfield Cattle Market in the course of the month: — From all those quarters whence the largest portion THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 305 of the bullock supplies are usually received at this important period of the year, viz., Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, and Warwick- shire, the receipts have been quite as large as in many previous corresponding seasons, but their general quality has proved inferior. However, a de- cided improvement was appaient in the short-horns and runts oifered on Monday, the 23rd, on which day the numbers of beasts on sale were very great, tliey embracing 4,057, about three-fourths of which came from our northern grazing districts. The few store heifers, steers, and tegs, brought forward — which were chiefly purchased at Barnet, and other fairs — have commanded a very high range of curren- cy, which is solely attributed to the abundance of suc- culent pabulum on most farms in England and Scot- land; in fact, in many quarters turee crops of hay have been obtained. Comparatively speaking, but few kyloes have crossed the Borders in the north ; whilst only about 30 have been transmitted for sale, either by steam or sailing packets, to the Metropoli- tan market. Preparations have been, we understand, commenced in Dundee and Aberdeen, for the ship- ment hither, during the month next ensuing, of some very superior Scots. The currencies obtained for the primest beasts and sheep have been, on account of their scarcity, relatively high, with a brisk in- quiry ; but all other kinds of fat stock have gone oft' slowly, at but little variation in the prices. From the 2nd to the 23rd (both days included) the supplies of beasts amounted to 16,260 ; of sheep and lambs, to 120,200; of calves, 1,496; and of pigs, 3,499 : from which it appears, that those of the former have been on the increase, of the other de- scriptions of stock on the decrease, compared with those of the preceding month. About 60 of the Scots and homebreds, forming a portion of the arrivals, have been received from Norfolk; 70 Scots, runts, and Devons, fromSuff"olk; 50 runts, cows, Scots, and homebreds, from Essex ; 60 Devons, runts, and Scots, from Cambridgeshire; 3,200 short-horns, from Lincolnsliire ; 1,600 short- horns and runts, from Leicestershire ; 1,100 short- horns and runts, from Northamptonshire ; 1,200 short-horns, Scots, runts, Devons, and Irish beasts, from Warwickshire and Oxfordshire ; 800 Devons, from Devonshire ; 700 Herefords, from Hereford- shire ; 30 lunts, from Wales; 100 horned and polled Scots, by sea, from Scotland; 120 oxen, runts, and Devons, from Sussex ; 90 cows, Devons, and runts, from Surrey ; and 80 Devons, runts, and cows, from Kent. The remainder of tlie bullock supplies was mostly derived from the immediate vicinity of the metropolis. A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold iu Smithfield Cattle Market, on Monday, Sept. 24, 1838, and Monday, Sept. 23, 1839. At per Qlhs. to sink the offals. Sept. 24, 1838. Sept. 23. 1839. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coarse & inferior Beasts 2 0to2 2,. 2 2 to 2 4 Second quality do 2 4 2 6..2C 2 8 Prime large Oxen 28 34. .2 10 34 Prime Scots, &c 3 8 42. .38 44 Coarse & inferior Sheep 32 36. .28 34 Second quality do 38 40.36 3 8 Prime coarse wooUed do. 42 44. .40 44 Prime Southdown do.. 4 6 4 8.46 4 10 Large coarse Calves ,.3 10 4 6.. 4 0 4 6 Prime small ditto 4 8 5 0.. 4 8 6 0 Large Hogs 3 10 4 0 .. 3 10 4 6 Neat small Porkers .,42 48. .48 50 Sept. 24,'l838. Sept. 23, 1S39. Beasts 3,400 4,057 Sheep 35,000 27,360 Calves 200 160 Pigs 380 640 The prices, during August and September, ruled as follows : — Per 81bs. to sink the off"als. August. September. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef 2 10 to 4 8 . . 2 2 to 4 6 Mutton ...30 50.. 2i8 5 0 Yea\ 4 2 5 2 . . 4 0 5 0 Pork 3 10 5 2 .. 3 10 5 0 The receipts of slaughtered meat from all distant parts, up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, have been considerably on the increase, they comprising 332 carcasses of beef, 4,410 do. of mutton, 912 do. of veal, and 1,666 do. of pork ; whilst they have come to hand in good saleable condition. All kinds of meat have sold steadily, at remunerating currencies. DURHAM. Since the date of our last report tiie weather has been exceedingly unfavourable for sigricullural purposes, scarcely ever having two fair days together, indeed the summer has been altogether without precedent, the old- est person living does not recollect such a long con- tinuance of wet and stormy weather, with frosty clear nights, and rain pouring down in tonents during the day. The harvest is become now pretty general, we need scarcely observe that the weather, such as we have described, has had the effect of lessening the quantity of bushels per acre both of wheat and barley, but a full opportunity of judging of the deficiency will not be art'orded until thrashing becomes in full operation. With regard to the wheat crop it is very much beaten down and twisted in every direction, and should this weather not speedily alter for the better the result will be dis- tressing in the extreme, as where clover and weeds have grown up through it, it is already a good deal sprouted, it presents a very dark appearance instead of that fine golden colour which it ought invariably to assume when in a healthy st;\le ; there are also great complaints of mildew this season, this disease being most apparent where crops are bulky and in low situations ; these defi- ciences, we should say, will be in a great degree com- pensated by the increased breadth of land sown with wheat, and should Providence bless this country with fine weather, there seems no reason to doubt thiire will be plenty. Under circumstances to which we have just alluded, it seems probable that both sample and yield will be various, but as far as our observation extends, and in the opinion of judges, the apjaearance is such as to indicate a fair average produce. With respect to bar- ley we think it is below an average crop, upon all real barley soils it was laid as flat as if it had been rolled at too early a period of its growth, consequently the sam- ple vvilTbe found coarse and not of good malting quality ; the breadth sosvn is considerably less than usual. The oat crop is by far the best, it is truly gratifying' to wit- ness their fine luxuriant and yielding appearance, they have stood the test of wind and weatiier better than any other grain. Peas are too gross and luxuriant, they keep growing and flowering without having a tendency to mature and ripen. The hay harvest has been a dreary and most expensive one, in many parts a great deal of grass still remains to be cut, or if mown the produce was destroyed, stacks have heated and moulded to a degree that will render them unfit for fodder in far too many instances, the fogs or aftermath have not grown as usual this season. Turnips are a good and full crop upon firm good soils adapted to their growth, and upon all lands not so suitable to their culture they are full of weeds and nothing can be worse, and presents a most slovenly, sickly, and miserable appearance. It is most satisfactory and gratifying in having to report that the potatoe crop everywhere promises great abundance and 506 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of excellent quality ; notwithstanding the extreme wet- ness of the season, we have not observed one single fail- ure, and unless early frosts should bliglit our anticipa- tions the aspect is cheering'. Fallows are in the very worst possible condition, upon many farms they pre- sent the appearance of grass fields, being quite impos- sible to clean them since the 18ih of June ; very little manure has, as yet, been carted upon them, and only in some situations where tliey are ridged up as is cus- tomary before harvest ; we fear that a large breadth of fallow land will be rendered quite unfit to sow with wheat this autumn. — Sept. 13. ESSEX. With feai'ful interes-t we look forward to what will be the state of the weather during the ensuing week ; on it may be said to depend the happiness, the health, ay and the very lives of the people, to say nothing of the credit of this great empire itself. One more week such as the last eight or nine days and the devastation vv ill be frightful to contemplate. Thank God the county of Essex is safe, her produce has been gathered, and though not in so good a conditios as we could wish, still it is safe ; in riding nearly from one end of the county to the other little or nothing is to be seen save a considerable quantity of beans and a rather large breadth of cloverseed. In the Roothings may be seen, here and there, fields of revits abroad, but nothingcomparatively speaking to sig- nify. On inquiry we are sorry to find a very consider- able diminution in the bulk compared with last year, and very credible reports are made of a deficiency of yield, as the effect of the attacks of the maggot which may be found in almost every bulk in the lialf eaten kernels. The barley crop has suffered very considerably from the rains and must vary very considerably in value, we should say not one-third of our crop will be bright, Oats have also suffered and must rule high as the increased breadth of wheat sown this season has materially in- trenched upon the extent of their growth. Peas have all gone into stack in very fair condition. Beans must be bad in quality though not in quantity, as much of the crop is still out. Cloverseed must be suffering se- verely, hardly any has been can-ied, a good deal lying in swath, and what is handing must be receiving great injury. All kinds of pabulum are rampant, feed of all descriptions never more plentiful, mangel, turnips, cole- seed, grass, young clovers, arc all growing luxuriantly. Stock markets uaprecedently high. At the time we are writing the clouds are gathering thick, darkness and every appearance of a contmuance of wet. P.S, — Our corn market ranges much higher to-day, 80s. has been given for white. — Sept, 20, SOMERSETSHIRE. If we take this summer as an instance, ours cannot be said to be a land of sunshine ; for this month past the periods when the sun has broken out have been few and long between, but the most trying weather to the corn not housed has been the two past weeks, it being very close and warm, and not dry for twenty-four hours toge- ther ; but in the neighbourhood and southern part of this county all the wheat, and a large portion of the best barleys were well secured. We had a few fine bright days about the 21st,, when a great quantity of wheat was carried in excellent condition, and a good deal of the early barley cut: on the 26th a large portion of the corn as well as oats were mowed, and as it continued dry until the 30th, a vast bulk was put together without rain. From the 1st of the month to the 10th we hrd a few fine days, and a considerable quantity both of wheat, barley, and oats were taken off our high soils, but in a condition unfit for early threshing: on the 10th and up to the 15th we had rain each day with a warm close air, and complaints of the wheat and barley growing out began to be heard ; on the 15th, in the evening, the rain fell in torrents, which was followed by a flood nearly equal to the one about two months since, and we have not for years seen so much grass under water, and up to yesterday the 19th, we have had heavy rain daily, and the laud is as wet as in the middle of winter ; there is still a large quantity under water. I have seen within a few days persons from different parts of the county. On the high Mendip range much of the wheat is still green, that stitched grown out ; the oats cut gro\vn out quite green, those standing not quite so bad : in other parts of the county, except on the light for- ward soils, there is a good deal of barley in much the same condition, and a sufficient quantity of wheat in stitch out, to make the damage it has sustained of serious consequence. The barley not cut, although not grown out, is much stained, and the beans have sustained less injury, but the quality will be greatly deteriorated, I am disposed to think, that according to the bulk of straw, the yield will be better than last, but the grains are not full and will be deficient in weight, and a larger portion seriously damaged : some new barley has been brought to market. The quality of wheat is well spoken of ; there will be a good deal only fit for grinding purposes ; the produce is decidedly good, but a large portion much injured and grown, Oats are not a heavy crop, but are well balled, but much will be wasted in the fields. Bean-cutting has generally com- menced— the produce varies, but on the whole more than average where they are not grown ; but there is a pretty good stock of old ; they are worth 5s, 6d to 6s, 9d. per bushel. Vetchfs are plenty; the price ha? opened at 7s. Up to this time the supply of wheat to our millers has kept up pretty well, but it begins to fall off: it is the general opinion that there is much less on hand ; last year old wheat selling freely at 9s. 9il. to 10s. 6d.; little new has come into the market, the yield is complained of, and i 2lb. is about the highest weight per bush. The crop of flax on the whole is said to be good. There are fears that the potato crop will not turu out well ; if this be the case it will materially in- crease the price of bread, and I am quite disposed to think the fears are not groundless— in the first place in consequence of the dry weather in almost all instances where the seed was cut, they failed, and the high wind did some damage, whilst a good many were under water, and were entirely destroyed. Our fairs for fat stock liave kept up better than we could expect ; there has been a good demand, but there is a decline in the price of poor stock. Attempts have been made to add to our stock of hay, but it has mostly involved an ex- pense that promises no return, and a good deal must go to the dungr-hill ; the prices of good old hay has ad- vanced from 2l. 15s, to 5/. 5s. per ton : we have a great abundance of grass, and the late sown turnips are grow- ing very fast. Beef is worth from 6s. 6d, to 10s. per score; mutton, 52d. to G^d, ; lamb, 6d. to 6^d. ; Pork, Ss. 6d, to Ss. 9d.; there has been an advance in this last article of Is. to Is. 6d. per score, and pigs are scarce. The wool market is dull, and mostly remains on the farmer's hands ; 14d. to 152d.is about the price. Cheese has been steady, and the markets are not over- stocked ; 52s, to 60s. new, and 60s. to 65s. old best Somerset. — Sept. 20. LYNN. With few exceptions the harvest in this district is com- pleted, and some new grain has been delivered. Wheat will be found about an average crop, but the quality and condition are more various than for many seasons past, the weights generally will be less by 21bs. per bushel than last year, a few choice, picked samples may be found to weigh 631bs., but the average weiffht of our runs such as can be shipped in any quantity will not be more than 60 to 611bs. per bushel. Barley, — the breadth sown is not so extensive as last ye^vr, but the yield will be great, and altogether above an average crop— about one-thired was secured before the rain, is very fine in colour and condition, and will weigh 5!bs., the remainder is more less discoloured, but (owing to intervals of fine weather) a large portion was stacked in good order, and I have no doubt will malt well— the weight about 51 to 52lbs. per bushel. Ry^ is an average crop and quality good. Peas are a great crop and fair in quality. Oats are well spoken of as to quantity, but the quality is not very good. Beans are a full average crop, but in the Fens where most grown, are not yet secured. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 307 AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. WILTON ST. GILES'S GREAT SHEEP AND LAMB FAIR was held on Thursday laist. the 12lh inst. The numbers penned amounted lo about 75,000, bein^ full 12,000 less than was penned last year. The sales on all descriptions were exceedingly brisk, at an average advance of from 2s. to 3«. a head over the price* obtained at the last Britford Fair. Wethers fetched from 28s. to 48s. ; ewes from 26s. to 38;. ; and lambs, from 18s. to .32s. a head. Mr. Waters of Stratford-sub- Castle, obtained the iiigh price of 37s. ahead for a large pen of Wether lambs. Mr. Dear, of Durnlord, ob- tained 383. a head for a small pen of Wether lambs ; and Mr. Stride, of Longbridge Deverell, near War- minster, 37s. a head also for a pen of wether lambs. 'J'he lambs likewise bslanging to Messrs, Ravvlence, of Hale Farm, Home, of Allington, and Flower, of Wood- ford, were much admired, and fetched high prices. Mr. Home's pen of pure Southdowns attracted much notice ; they fetched 34s. a head. The show of rams was ex- ceedingly large, and many of those exhibited were from the very celebrated stocks of the Duke of Richmond, Messrs. Maton, Northeast, and Mills, and found ready customers, in their sale and letting for the season at very great prices. The number of iiorses, both of the nag and cart kind, was large, and they also met with a quick sale, and good prices. BARNSTAPLE FAIR.— There was a moderate supply of cattle, and a good demand. We have seen th 1 fair more fully supplied by many hundreds, but sel lom saw stock in better condition. Four-years old steers sold freely, a few fetched as much as 24Z. each. Three-year old steers fetched from 12/. to 161, each ; two year old ditto, from 9/. to \2l. each. The supply of cows and calves was not equsl to the demand ; they sold freely at from 12/. to IS/, each. From the great quantities of grass, finer stock sold well at 7s. 6d, to 8s. per score; and fat cattle met a ready sale at from 10s. to 10s. 6d, per score. Sheep Fair. — An excel- lent supply as we have witnessed for a number of years both in quantity and quality ; indeed we have been in- formed by a very competent judge that he had not seen so good a supply of sheep for ten years past. Horned breeding ewes sold freely at from 1/. to 1/. 5s. a head, and Nott ditto, at from 1/. 10s. to 21. a head. The horse fair has produced a pretty good show, and those of the right stamp have fetched tolerable prices. NEWTON FAIR, Wendesuay, Sept. IS.— The show of cattle was not so good as we have witnessed, and the fair was altogether dull. There was but very little said as to the ptice of corn.' Fat bullocks fetched 10s. to 10s. 6d. per score ; Sheep, from 5d. to 5jjd. per lb.; new wheat, 18s. 6d. per bag; Barley, 10s. 6d. to lis. 6d, ; Beef, 6id. ; Mutton, 5id. to 6d. ; Pork, 6d. to6|d.; Bacon, (fresh,) 6|d. ; Potatoes, 8d. per score ; onions, very fine ; not good, I4lb. for is. The cheese fair was well stocked, and sold very reasonable ; good household blue-mould cheese, 3jd., S^d., and 4d. per lb. ; good raw milk cheese, 7d., 8d., and 9d. per lb. CRICKLADE.— Although the whole neighbour- hood may be said to be inundated, the supply of sheep was extraordinary good, nearly 800 being penned ; many were brought througii the floods in waggons. The number of beasts was rather short, particularly of fat ones, indeed, beef was scarce. Pigs were in great abun- dance. Beef, from 10*. to 10s. 6d. per score ; mutton, from 6d. to 62-d. per lb. A great deal of business was done in com, especially wheat, at an advance of from 3s. to 4s. per quarter upon Cirencester market, the price being 20/. per load. Barley also advanced, prime samples reahsing as high as 46«. per qr. ; the like as to beans, the average price being 12/. per load, a few prime samples, 12/. 10s. Mr. Godfrey, of Ashton Keynes, gratified the attendants at this market by ex- hibiting his favourite two-tooth ram, which won Mr. Long's prize of a piece of plate, at Chippenham ; it was universally admired. IMr. Godfrey brought several of his rams to market, which met with a ready sale at high prices. This gentleman talks of having an annual sale of his prime stock rams, at Cricklade, if so, there is no doubt he will meet with superior and well deserved patronage. CHIPPENHAM GREAT MARKET, Sept. 13.— Our cheese market was remarkably well supplied to day, a finer supply indeed, has been never exhibited at any market in' the West of England. There was upwards of one hundred and sixty tons pitched ; — a very prime lot of about 6 tons, belonging to Mr. Rich, of Chippenham, attracted general attention, and was of a superior quality.— There was a quick sale, and nearly the whole was sold.— Prime truckles realised 65s. per cwt. ; thin, 46s.; broad, 54s. to 56s.; skim, 42s; Before Mr. Neeld came to reside in the neighbourhood tke market of Chippenham was scarcely deserving a name ; through the muuificence and attention of that excellent gentleman, it now vies with the most impor- tant in Wilts or the adjoining counties. To Mr. Neeld cartainly, the inhabitants of the town, and the farmers of the neighbourhood, are under aheavy debt of gratitude. DUNSFORD FAIR.— There was a pretty large supply and a fair share of busines done. Among the fat bullocks there were some good things, and the quo- tations in this way was at from 93. to 9s. 6d. per score. The show of store cattle was large, with many fresh and well ordered articles among them, and the sales were at from 6s. to about 6s. 6d. per score. There were some good lots of butcher's sheep, for the best of which high prices were asked; and one or two of the primest lots turned out unsold. Yet still the sales in this way were of considerable extent, the best wethers fetching 6d.: and ewes, from 5d. to 5jd. per lb. In store sheep also there was business done, the best lots fetching high prices. There were likewise some very good lambs, and the best fat lambs fetched from 6d. to 6^d. per lb. ; but as compared with the other parts of the fair, the business in these was rather dull. At GLASTONBURY TOR FAIR there was not a large show of anything ; considerable business was done in the best beef from 9s. 6d. to 10s. ; inferior was not quite so valuable. Mutton, 5|d. to 6d. per Jib. There were not as many sheep penned as usual, and for poor the sale was dull, some apprehension being enter- tained respecting the danger of the rot : where they have been fed after the flood the liver has been found unsound, but do not find that it is to very much extent. There were a good many sucking colts, and a good de- mand for them ; they fetched advanced prices ; from 7/. to 15/. was about the run. There was a general gloom ; it rained heavily during the fair, and reports from the counties adjoining of the quantity of Barley and Oats spoiling were very prevalent. SHREWSBURY.— There was a tolerable supply of sheep at this fair, on Tuesday, and plenty of buyers, so many indeed, that the whole were rapidly bought up at a very early hour, at an average of 6^d. per lb. Wethers especially iold remarkably well. Store ewes were also in great demand, at from 30s. to 38s. per head. The few Iambi offered brought high prices for stock. Pigs also were higher than at the preceding fair. On Wednesday the supply of fat cows was unusually small, but there were many buyers, most of whom were obliged to retura home without having had an opportunity of purchasing. Prime cows fetched from S^d. to 6d. per lb. Bullocks *old well, and were worth from 10?;. 1/. per head more than at the last fair. Cows and calves, and store*, in great demand, and every useful animal was speedily bought up at good prices. There was a fair supply of butter, and every lot was cleared off early in the day, at from lOd. to lid. per lb. Of cheese there was an abundant supply, which was nearly all sold ; skims at from 30s. to 40s. per cwt ; middling from 45s. to 55?. ; best 58s. to 65s. There was very little ba»on, a lot of Irish the only one in the fair, brought 74d. per lb. ; farmer's from 8d. to 8fd. 308 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF SEPTEMBER. During the month which has just been brought to its conclusion, the state of the corn trade has been unsatisfactory to tiie consumer, ami by no means favourable to the producer at home ; for had the markets of consumption generally not been assisted very considerably by the enterprise and experience of those corn merchants, who chiefly direct their attention to, and employ their capital in, the importation of foreign grain, the supplies during that period of many descriptions of the ne- cessaries of life would not have been nearly equal to the general demand. The stocks of old corn are now nearly in all cases exhausted, excepting those remaining from the late importations from foreign nations, and the very uiipropitious state of the weather has been an effectual bar to anything like a too early application to the crop, all of which ought now to have been secured, but a part of which is still in the field, and is consequently, in a great measure, exposed to the vicissitudes of the elements. iJence, during that period which has passed away since our last publication, the consumption of wheat, oats, and generally of all descriptions of grain, has been in no inconsiderable measure confined to corn of foreign growth, and prices have been rendered more moderate than they otherwise would have been or ought in reality now to be, by this fortunate circumstance, adding itself to the great scarcity of money which has now- existed for several months amongst the commer- cial community. That the scarcity of money, an apparent evil, has, in this instance, been jjroduc- tive of some benclit to the community is most cer- tain, for the appearances in the fields, since May last, have been sufliciently unfavoursble, and would, had money been in any way abundant, have caused speculations in grain to a great extent, and have thus raised its value considerably above our present quotations. Generally nothing amongst the pursuits of commerce is more uncertain than are the prioes of all the necessaries of life. At present, howerer, little uncertainty need be enter- tained that the value of grain at all events, for the actual prices paid no doubt may be ]<.t\)t appa- rently low by the inferiority of the quality of the new crop, will be very materially increased be- fore the close of the present year. It has repeatedly been stated by us that the deficiency in the supply of food, occasioned by one bad crop, requires after- wards at least two average crops to jjlace the corn trade and the agricultural interest on a safe and wholesome footing, for it cannot be made good by foreign importations. That the last wheat crop was a greatly deficient one, admits now of no con- troversy, and it is much to be expected that the present will not be more productive. We observe with much regret, and at the same time with no small portion of surprise, that a portion of the British press is already availing itself of the exist- ing unpropitious appearances in the crop to raise the usual cry against the corn laws, and to place the agricultural and commercial classes of society in opposition to each other, although il is utterly impossible that trade can ever flourish on the dis- tress of the cultivators of the soil. The corn laws under their present construction undoubtedly have one defect, and that materially atfects all classes, whether thev be of the commercial or agricultural interests, for generally foreign grain introduced for our consumption pays little or nothing towards our heavy internal taxation, but independent of this defect it is impossible that any public enact- ment can be more admirable or generally more beneficial than these laws arc. When it is neces- sary they require no act of the legislature to repeal them, for they are so well constructed that when the value of our home grown grain advances be- yond mediocri.y, they are possessed of the very rare quality of repealing themselves. Last corn season they repealed thcuiselves so far at least as to ailmit an immense importation of foreign wheat for home consumption on the payment of a duty of only l<^ per ([uarter, thereby doing no incon- siderable injury to our growers of wheat at home, who are compelled to pay their annual proportion of the taxes whether their produce be large or small, whether the ])iices obtained for it be high or low. Tlie present state of the corn trade and tiie unfavourable prospects in the fields are again gradually j)roducing the same injurious effects, and if corn unfortunately should he scarce during the next twelve months it will not be occasioned by the want of perfect freedom in the corn trade, for in a short period now there is a probability that foreign grain will be admitted into consumption here on the payment of nearly nominal duties to- wards our national expenditure. This unfortunate prospect, if actually realised, will be equally pre- judicial to the jiroducers and consumers of grain at home. Hy a free corn trade, during the last twelve months, manufacturers and traders of every descri[)tion have not obtained one solitary benefit, whilst the necessity of it has been in every respect injurious to the farmer, to his labourer, and to every person dependent on the pros- perity of agriculture at home, for the corn imported during the past season from abroad has been ciiiefly pviid for by an exportation of the piecious metals, and has so far very completely contradicted the tlieory of those political economists, who assert, that the foreign proprietors of grain are willing at nil times to exchange their agricultural produce for aiticles of British manufacture. During the period at all events, to which we now allude, tills salutary expectation, and these, pleasing hopes on their part have not been realised, for no improve- ment has as yet occurred in the value of our export trade : on the contrary the value of all articles exported by us to the corn districts in Europe, during the last twelve months, has been very materially depreciated. We took occasion in our last number to observe that had the money sent out of the country in exchange for foreign wheat been distri- buted amongst the British and Irish producers of this article, it would long since have been again placed into general circulation by them amongst the manufacturing, commercial, and industrious classes, and would now be adding to the national wealth by the increase or productive employment, v.diich it must from necessity have created. The unfortunate state of the season however, and certainly' not the co.'u laws, for they then may be said not to have existed, prevented the empire from reaping those benefits, and it is most unjust, and perfectly wicked at the present moment, when the unfavourable state of the weather is threatening the community with THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 309 even an increased renewal of their evils, in tlie public press again to endeiivour to impress on tlie minds of the people tliat the corn laws alone are opposed to their general welfare ; for a moment of unprejudiced reflection must afford convincing proof that the protection of skill, capital, and labour em- ployed in agricultural pursuits, is the surest road to general prosperity. Unfavourable as the weather has certainly made our future prospects, respecting the prices of food, still had it not been for the protection, which tlie corn laws extend to the cul- tivation of the fields, these prospects would now have caused much greater alarm, than under existing circumstances they can do, for it is admitted on all hands, indeed tlie truth scarcely requires any admis- sion, that under the protection of the corn laws, the quantity of land thrown into tillage is annually increasing, and the additional breadth this season sown with wheat, it was universally expected, until within the last month, would have fully supplied the great deficiency, which the unpropitious state of the weatber, during the spring months, had apparently occasioned in the quantity and also in th;: quality of the then growing crops. No human intehigeuce can entirely avert the consequences of unfavourable sea- sons, but certainly, by giving due encouragement to the cultivation of the fields, even should their quality be poor, these consequences maybe in a very material degree mitigated. There is as yet abundance of land in Great Britain, which at present is nearly in a state of nature, but which, by labour, capital, and proper protection to the interests of those who may engage in its cultivation, may be made eminently useful to the British community ; and the field in Ireland, for undertakings of this description, may be with truth described as nearly boundless. These operations would annually increase the nation's wealth, and the not improbable consequence would be, the transformation of Ireland into an exporter of the produce of her agricultural enterprise to our southern possessions, and generally to many of the new American States, where the climate is unfa- vourable to wheat cultivation, thus creating an an- nual increase in the foreign commerce of the British Empire, and adding annually to her internal strength, by the productive employment which it would afford to a contented, and consequently a happy population. Under a system of this descrip- tion— which there exists no reason to doubt must eventually be produced by the Corn Law Protec- tion Bill — the wages of labour would generally be found on an equality with the expences of living, and want would seldom be found amongst familips able and willing to cultivate the habits of industry. A superabundant supply of labourers in any dt=part- ment of industry could never exist for any length of time after the completion of those agricultural iin. provements of which the soil generally is capable, but without reasonable protection to those engaged in them, pursuits offering so many and so important advantages, cannot be undertaken ; whilst every other interest in the state is most completely and most properly protected against foreign interference with it in our home market, and likewise in those of our ov,-n colonies and of our foreign possessions, it is neither equitable nor fair in tradeis of all descrip- tions to complain that tbeir interests are injured by the extension of a proportionate degree of protection to our agricultural undertakings. Our mining ope- rations are protected by nearly the entire prohibition of the use of the products of foreign mines by our home consumers ; and our shipping interest is pro- tected by the total exclusion of all foreign ships from our commerce, unless in the trade of that nation of which they hoist the flag; our manufiicturers are protected by ad vnlovem duties, ruling from twenty to fifty per cent.; and no fish caught by foreigners is admitted into consumption. All these protections to our own industry are most undoubtedly in the highest degree both proper and necessary : nor do those engaged in agricultural pursuits for one mo- ment complain of their existence ; they only claim — and, no doubt, have a just right to expect — that an equal portion of legal protection be extended to their own operations, certainly in no manner inferior in national importance to any of those to which we have now directed the attention of the readers of the Fiirmer's Magazine, It is by means of this descrip- tion alone that the wealth of the empire can be con- fined chiefly amongst its inhabitarts, and that they can be relieved from the expences attending the occasional use of foreign bread, an expence which is most clearly a national loss. Last year has drained the country of upwards of eight millions sterling of bullion, wliich never can return; and the value of the necessaries of life, which may be, during the next twelve months, imported for the consumption of the people, in consequence of the bad weather which we have now experienced for several montiis past, will, in every probability, exceed that of last season, which was rendered necessary by the same unfortunate cause. The continent of Europe certainly does not at i)resent abound with stocks of corn in an}' degree so large as were to be found in many quarters at the corresponding period of last year ; but still a suflicient quantity may be foimd to supply the expected deficiency in our home produce of this harvest. In tlie Black Sea the (juantity of wheat which may be purchased is certainly large; but ships for its transportation are scarce, and freights are consequently high. Several hundreds of tons of shipping have been already chartered in the United Kingdom, to proceed in ballast to that sea for the introduction of wheat amongst us, and a much larger amount of tonnage will no doubt be speedily direct- ed to the same quarter for similar purposes. In the Adriatic Sea also large supplies may be obtained, chiefly the produce of Hungary. At Trieste and Fiume, however, the prices must be as low as they are in the Black Sea, for the voyage is equally diffi- cult, and will generally require fully as much time from the one as the other. Throughout Sicily and Italy, likewise, no complaints are made of the wheat croj) ; it has, we believe, in all instances been se- cured in good order : we may therefore receive some quantity also from all these ports. In tlie Peninsula the crops are large aud unusually good in quality, and purchases have already been effected in several markets both in Spain and Portugal ; but the want of internal navigation universally renders the amount exported from these kingdoms small, and of little consequence in supjilying the British market when any material deficiency exists in our own crops. From France we cannot expect any large ship- ments to be made during the corn season ; indeed, the crops there of every description of grain are de- ficient, and the jieople are already illegally resisting wheat transfers even from one district to another. There is therefore a much greater probability that France will require foreign aid herself, than that during the ensuing season she will export any of her own agricultural produce (fruits and wines always excepted), and no calculation ought, therefore, to be made of assistance from this quarter. In Belgium the crop of wheat is represented as a fair average one, and the same remark is applicable to that in Zealand, Sanguine expectations are generally entertained that 310 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the European demand for various articles of British manufacture will progressively, and materially in- crease, and again place tlio balance of foreign commerce in our favour, in vi-hich case a great relief to the money market here will speedily follow. Should these expectations be realised, the foreign corn to be imported may hereafter be paid for by the amount of British goods exported, and thus may circumstances render, for a while, the foreign corn trade one of barter, an ad- vantage, which a free corn trade itself could never produce. This increase in our foreign trade, should it actually occur, added to that, which may fairly be expected to arise from the healthy state of agri- culture, must at all events maintain, if it does not materially increase the wages of labour, and enhance the means of the consumers of agricultural produce to meet the advanced prices, which the stale of the weather may probably occasion. An importation of foreign grain in every way equal to our wants may thus be made, and as no quantity of bullion, to any extent, may be required in exchange for it, the value of property may not during the ensuing year be injured, as it has been on various previous occasions since the precious metals became the standard of value, by even a large supply of foreign grain. Until nearly the end of September, the supplies of British wheat of the growth of this season, were small in Mark-lane, and generally in all the great markets of consumption. The quality cannot be favourably described as yet. No doubt a part of it is fine, and fit both for the purposes of milling and sowing, butnine-tenthsof it is of a very different de- scription. A great proportion of it has been carried in very bad condition, and many samples have been damaged by mildew, rust, and other complaints, which the frost occasioned early in the season. No small quantity even will require the operation of kiln-drying, before it can be rendered useful to milling purposes. In this state of the supply the actual value of wheat cannot be predicated from the prices generally obtained for it, nor will the six weeks' averages for some time to come ascertain its intrinsic worth. In the home counties the gathering of the wheat crop, and also in most districts to the South of the H umber, has nearly been brought to a conclusion. On all heavy soils there, the quantity produced is under an average crop, and the quality cannot certainly be called of a superior description. The yield from the flail as yet has not answered the general expectation, for the lateness of the Spring, and the general want of genial warmth afterwards have been attended to a certain degree by injurious consequences. It is upon lighter soils, that the finer qualities have this season been produced, and no complaints are made of the quantity grown on these soils, so far as the harvest has as yet been completed. In all the English counties, however to the north and west of the Humber, the reports of the new crop, generally, are unfavourable, and a great proportion of it remains still exposed to the weather. Similar observations must be made on the state of the crop throughout the whole of Scotland, and also in a great portion of Ireland. The barleys in particular have suflfered severely, and much damage has been done to the wheats, to which it is now too late in the season for even a favourable change in the weather to apply any effectual remedy. The continued falls of rain have been attended be the worst consequences, and no inconsiderably portion of the wheats is sprouted. If the wheat crop, however, has suffered during the last month from the unpropitious state of the weather, the barleys have suffered in a much greater degree from the same cause. A month ago, this crop had a most luxuriant appearance, and promised, for the extent of land placed under this description of tillage, a most ample yield to its cultivators. These most favourable prospects have however not been realized, for we may with truth describe it as the worst crop in quality produced now for several years. The rains have lodged the greatest proportions of it, and a large quantity of it is either discoloured or sprouted. The quantit}' of really fine barley for the maltster's use, therefore, will probably be much under the average one of years, and this description will command high prices during the whole of the malting sea.son, unless the deficiency at home can be supplied by foreign importations. The low qualities however will probably keep the six weeks' average price low, and render the duty to be paid on its importation higher, perhaps, than the importers may feel inclina- tions to pay. At present, if any foreign barley re- mains under lock, the quantity is perfectly trifling, and, unless from the ports on the continent without the Baltic sea, nothing of any consequence can be looked for, until after the turn of the year, and even from these places the deficiency here, in the best descriptions, cannot be nearly made good. Stained and sprouted barleys however, can be used with ad- vantage by our home distillers, and every encourage- ment should be held out by the government to these consumers, to come into market. We have fre- quently alluded to the bad policy of exorbitant duties, charged on British spirits. They amount to two hundred per cent, on the cost price, encourage smuggling, prevent the extension of barley cultiva- tion, originate numerous crimes amongst the people, and very considerably limit the revenue, which, under a better system, would be collected under the distillery laws. To reduce these charges at least one-third would be a great boon, under existing cir- cumstances, to the agricultural interest, and would be attended by no loss to the revenue. There is, how- ever, still another evil, which attends this de- partment of our industry, which can be easily removed, and it is difficult indeed to discover any object for its having ever been permitted to exist. The bonding system has for many years now been enjoyed by the importers of all articles of foreign produce, on which the duties are only charged when entries are made of them for home consumption. This is more particularly the case with foreign and colonial wines and spirits, the importers of which may land, and keep them under bond, until it suit their convenience and interest to push them into consumption. In England, a few weeks only of credit is given for the duty on British made spirits to the English distiller ; we cannot conceive any advantageous reason for this circumstance, nor do we think that it is founded on common justice: it is equally unfair to the agriculturist and to the English spirit manufacturer. In a season like the present one, did the law permit the bonding of spirits manufactured in England in the same way as it permits French brandy and Colonial rum to be bonded, it is fair to presume that an additional demand would be created for that portion of the barley crop, which is this year damaged by the weather, for distilling purposes, and thus conside- rable relief might be afforded to its growers without doing the slightest injury to the revenue. Nothing deserves the attention of the legislature so much as barley, for it pays annually into the treasury little short of eleven millions sterling, and by reducing all the duties at present imposed on its various modes of manufacture, the amount of these duties might be very considerably increased, and its con« THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 311 sumption doubled. By means of these reductions encouragement would be given for a material exten- sion in the cultivation of barley, and the annual increase of agriculture would thereby be proporti- onabl}'' inci eased; the consumption of beer also would be increased, and so likewise would be that cf wholesome and home made spirits, at the expence solely and entirely of smuggling, which would speedily be suppressed. The revenue would flourish in proportion, as the wants of the people in this direction were supplied, and a universal good would emanate from the alteration. The oat crop, like the barley one, is considerably later than usual, and a great proportion of it, as well in Great Britain as in Ireland, is still in the fields, and consequently exposed to the vicissitudes of our climate. Like that of barley also, it was of good promise a month ago, but since then it has undergone a most unfavourable alteration ; it gene- rally i)as been entirely laid flat by the August and September rains, and in some places its destruction has been completed by tlje overflowing of rivers, more particularly so in Scotland. Unless, where it may bo sprouted, however, a damaged oat crop is not attended by the same injurious circumstances which accompany any other description of grain in a similar situation, and, should the month be dry and favourable for harvest purposes, the oat crop may still be secured, and answer all its usual pur- poses amongst it consumers. For feeding or grind- ing, it matters little whether oats be discoloured or not, and should the crop of them now in the fields, be housed early in good condition, little complaint will be made of the consequences of the unfavour- able weather, to which they have heretofore been subjected. In Ireland the extent of land under oat tillage is certainly larger than it was last year, but this is a circumstance of annual occurrence, and Las its origin in the rapid progress which the science of agriculture is making in the sister island : there the weather generally has been even worse than it has been in the United Kingdom. Both the wheat and barley crops have suffered in quality more materially, than they have done in the United Kingdom. A part of the oat crop has been subjected to the misfortune of inundations, and the whole of it has been prostrated by winds and rains, still should the weather hereafter permit the gather- ing of it from the fields in any thing like a fair condition, in due season we shall receive our usual supplies from that island in all our large markets of consumption, and it may under such circumstances be expected that no very material quantity of foreign oats will be required for our home consumption; this however entirely depends on the future state of the weather. The importance of Ireland, in an agricultural point of view, to the best interests of the United Kingdom, is rapidly rendering itself manifest, and that the greatest encouragement should be extended to its cultivation must be equally so. It is therefore with surprise that we observed in the organs of the cotton lords, a short time ago a recom- mendation to our legislature to turn their attention, not to Ireland, but to a district in Lower Hungary, of all places, for the future supply of these islands with wheat. This highly favoured district is called Barrat, is about the same size as Ireland, is ex- tremely fertile, and is in these prints represented to be blessed with a climate peculiarly favourable to the growth of grain of all descriptions. This land of promise is situated betwixt the rivers Danube and Theisse, but unfortunately its produce must be sent b}' land upwards of seventy long German miles before it can reach the sea at the head of the Adriatic. However much nature has smiled on this agricultural country ; it is rather wonderful that it possesses kw inhabitants, and abounds in sheep farms. Now we have abundance of sheep farms in Scotland fit for tillage, and in Ireland there is no deficiency in population ; why therefore we should give encouragement to the cultivation of Barrat in preference to Ireland, we are at a loss to conceive any good reason ; to clothe the female labourers in that highly favoured region, certainly would bs no remuneration for the preference, seeing that they are so few, nor would the expences of land carriage and ship freights render the produce of Barrat half so cheap in England, as produce of equal quality could be obtained for in Ireland, This is one of those senseless cries against the cultivators of our own fields, the mention of which is sufl!icient for its exposure, for when our own fields have reached perfection in wheat growing, it will be time enough for us to turn our eyes towards Barrat, and certainly not till that event occuis. The growth of pulse ha=! during the last month, indeed during the whole of this season, been in an unusual degree interrupted by the inclemency of the weather. At the blooming season considerable injury was done both to the pea and bean crop, and the gathering of the latter is still interrupted by the rains ; in both of these articles there will be a deficiency in quantity, and their quality is also various. The potato crop is a large one, and dry weather alone is necessary to render the quality of this article, next to wheat in importance to the people, of the best description. It would however have been still more abundant had the last month been more favourable. The lateness of the season has in some measure delayed the preparation of the fields for the winter seed, but this circumstance is not without its remedy, for should the remainder of the autumn prove only dry, the ground will speedily be brought forward into proper order. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Sept. 23. I'erQr. Per Qr. iViieAt, E3SPX& Kent. .red.... 7o /S white.. TG 78 Suffolk & Norfolk,, .. 66 7i do... 70 SO Irisl , ,. 60 66 do.,.. 64 74 Old, red 70 75 do,,. 76 78 H.VB old 34 36 new 35 38 Bari.ky, Giiiidiiig32 3t iWaltlHg 42 44 Clievalier 46 48 Iiisii 30 3t Bere.., — 30 Malt, Suffolk & Norfolk 06 S7 r5ro\vn..56 60 Kinfjstoii & \Vnie 66 68 Clievalier 68 70 OATS.Yoikshire&LiiicoIrisli.fced 27 £9 P0tatoe..29 30 YoMf;liall& Cork black .. 26 27Cork, white 26 27 Dublin 25 26 Westporl 27 28 CloHinel 26 27 Limerick 24 26 Londonderry 26 28 Sligo ... 25 28 Newrv 30 32 Galwa'y 24 25 Waterford, white ,,., 25 — Black,. 26 27 Scoteli Feed 28 30 Potatoe 30 32 BKANs.Tick 40 46 Small.. 44 48 Pkas, tirey 44 4G maple.. 45 — White 46 — boilers.. 48 50 Seeb, Rape 32/ 36/.. Irish 25/ per last English Red Clorer, line. 64 70 80 96s per cwt. White 66 70 80 90s JMnstard, White. 123 14s. .browH 21s 229 perhiish. Tares. .32 36.,,. old 30 31 new 60 — s jier qr. Flour, Town-made 65 — Suffolk ..56 per sk of Stockton & Norfolk 56, Irish fines 56 58, supi. 53, 280 lli. Foreign Grain and Flour in Bond, Wheat, Dantzic 66 70 tiaiiiburg 60 65 Barley — 30 Oats, Potato — 22 feed 20 to 22 Beans 24 26 Peas , 20 24 Flqub. American ...iicibrl, — 36 Barley,, 36 312 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. W»»k pndiiig Aug. 9th .. 16th .. 23rd . . 30tli , . Seyt. 6t!< .. 13th .. A^giegiiteAverr.gf of Hic six week? wliioli reguliitcs tho duty Duties payal)le in Lenilon till Wed- nesday iiexliiitlu- sive, and at the Oiitports till the arrival of the Mail of that day from liOiiduii Do. on giain from British jiOKsessinns out of Europe . . IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Wlieat.; Barley 1 Oat»i RyeReaiiM I 1 72 0 72 3 71 1 71 10 71 9 70 9 71 6 37 10 i 26 9,48 4 JO 11 t2 38 1 26 11146 240 10 'U 38 4 I 25 11 47 6 41 10 .19 37 11 1 26 8l41 6 42 7 10 39 0 I 26 I014I 9 42 6 42 39 6 I 26 9i3S 10 43 10 42 38 6 I 26 8 41 0,42 1 |41 6 6 S 4 10 9 3 6 G 6 8 0 2 6l0606 06 , do. Foreign Flour, 7d. per I96Ih«. Briti>h Possessions Sgd.per lOeihe. COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES AVERAGES from the by the Imp. Quarter, correspoading Gnzette from the Gazette, of in the last year, Friday Friday last, Sept. 20, Sept. 21, 1S38. 1839. s. Wheat 70 Barley 39 Oats 26 Rye 38 10 Beans 43 10 Peas 42 get rid of some article of commerce we possess. Ac- cordinc?ly, here, while Yolk Wool is packinjf at lOd. pLrlb.inone quiirter, iu another under circumstances such ns we have just slated, 9(1. per lb. offered for the same article, so great is the difference between asking and beins- asked. Washed Wools though so far operated upon by the .-tate of the money market as to occasion dulness,— as ha« for a considerable time been the case,— as respects price, fair better, the quotation being, for Knot Wool, 13d. to 14d ; Dorset Horn, Ud.tolod,; and March Wool, U^d. to 15§d. per lb. As respect Sorts, it is tindeniable that the market for Combing Wools is flat, with something of depression in price, but Short Wools not only fully maintain their price, but some descriptions have partaken of improvement; and the quotation generally, is Shorts.— Coarse and Short Coarse, 8d. to 9d.; Broad Head, 9W.; Red and Pinions, 9jd. to lod. ; Kent Head, lO^d.; Fine Head, ll^d. to 12d.; Cornish Green, 12d. per lb. Stripes :— Cornish Stripe, IS.jd. to 13^d.; North Devon Stripe, lajd. to 14d. per lb. ; Combing Wool— Tops, I6:|d. to l6id.; Matching Tops, i9d. to 19id.per lb. — Fell Wools :— Long Fine Fells, )3.',d. to 14.',d. : Short ditto, 13d. to 14jd.; ordinary parcels, lid. to 12d. per lb. d. 9 6 0 Wheat .... Barley s. d. .. . 61 10 . , . 32 2 . . . . 22 9 0 n Rye Beans ..«• .... 36 4 . . - . 39 7 6 Peas . .... 39 2 SEED MARKET. Skpt. 23. There was again some enquiry for Cloverseed ; it did not however, lead to business, as there were few sellers, except at high rates. Linseed and Rapeseed were the turn dearer. In the value of Caraway no variation occurred. Mustard Seed was enquired for, atd both white and brown rose about Is. per bush. There was not much passing in Tares, still prices were maintained. Other articles remained precisely as on this day week. Rapesctd, Knslish. . .. .;£30 -<32foreign ^26 .£25 per last. Linseed, En;;li#h sowing..— — — — per qr Raltic — — cruthiH!;3S 40 ,, iMediter.& Odessa— — " 40 41 ,, llemfsenl, small 34 36 large 38 48 Corianiler, new 13 20 line 20 21perf\vt. IMnstard, bmwn 15 1" white 10 ISperhusliel Turnip Seed .new Swedes — — 10 18 „ Rye Grass, English 30 42 Scotch 18 40 Tare*. Winter 6s. fid. to 7s. Od, cxtra;75. 6J. Canary, new 68 70 Carawiy — — SO 53 extra 56 LinsceJ'Cakes, foreiijn.. .8/. to S/. 5«. per ton. Rapesced do. do." 5/. 10s. to 6/. LIVERPOOL. Scotch, Sep. 21.— There has been less demand for laid Highland wool this week, which we think in some measure ari«es from the unsettled state of the weather, as most of the manufacturers, prudently, only buy for their immediate wants till they sec what will be the final result of the harvest. In white Ilij^hland, cross and (Cheviot, we have not heard of a single transaction, in the absence of which, however, we keep our quota- lions as before. Per Stoneof 24Ibs. s. d. ft. H. r.aid Ilishland Wool, from 10 6tell 0 M'hite ilo. do Laid Cros'ied do 12 0 12 6 Wa«hed do. do 12 6 13 6 LaidClieviof, do 12 6 14 0 Wa^lieddo. do 18 C 20 0 Wliite do. do 28 0 30 0 FOREIGN. - '^Kl'T. 23. "\'cry little business is passing in the foreign wool Irnde, notwithstanding the manufacturers are, for the most part, short of stock — the demand for broad cloth being still inanimate. The imports are moderate. Wool on which the Home Consumption Duties have been paid at London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull, during the last week : — WOOL. Spanish. //Onrfow lb. Australian, do lb. Other Sorts, do :b. Liverpool lb. Bristol lb. Hull lb. This Year, previous to last week. 1,286,783 ■ 9.997,741 9.947,712 7,90!i.732 23 300 12,904,447 Same tiwe in the I; St Year. 1,401,808 7,227,6.'»8 10,128,543 7,404,266 5,402 13,270,774 ^VOOIi MARKETS. Sept. 23. BRITISH. Perlb. s. d. s. d. Down Tegirs 1 5i to 1 6 Half-bred Hogs 1 4^ 1 5^ Ewes and Wethers 12 13 BlanketWool 0 7 0 9 Flannel do 1 1 1 5 SkinComhimr 12 14 EXETER. — The causes alluded to in our last still operate on this market and tend to depress it ;— indeed, lead to positive depression wherever it is attempted to force sales of the raw material. Nor in this is there anything that should excite SKrprise,— still less form the ground ot complaint, since it is only a natural effect, not only now, but that at all times will be likely to follow the manifestation of impatience and a desiie to IMPORTS OF WOOL.— Quantity of wool entered at Hull for Home Consumption, during the week ending Sept. 11. Frem Hamburgh 307,07S lbs. From Petersburg 4,000 From Coienhagen 18,000 Total 329,078 PRICES OF HOPS. . BOROUGH, Sept. 23. The continued rain of last week has very much impeded the picking which had become general. No first class Hops have yet appeared in our market, and the accounts from many of the best grounds of Mid and East Kent are very unfavourable. There is no alteration in pricessince our last. J^uiy, 225,000?, ^ 1 :.W H I .M ^ mr- NOVEMBER, 1839- No. 5.— Vol. III.] [New Skkiks. PLATE I. The subject of our first Plate is a Long-woolled Ram, of the Oxfbrdsliii'c breed, bred by and the property of Mr. C. Large, of Broadwell, Oxfordyhire. This animal was oxliibitcd at the late meeting of the English Agricultural Society at Oxford, on the 17tl)- July last, and obtained a prize of thirty sovereigns. The best evidence of the excellence of Mr. Large's dock, will bo found in tlic fact of his having obtained three prizes, in class 10, for the best long-woolled sheep, not Leicesters — namely, for the best shearling Ram, thirty sovereigns ; for the best Ram of any age, thirty sovereigns ; and for the best Pen of five Ewes, ten sovereigns. PLATE II. FALLOW DEER— A SCENE IN WINDSOR PARK. (For Dcicription see page 318.J ON THE PREVAILING EPIDEMIC IN CATTLE. TO MR. C. KREEFT, LOXDOS. Dear Sir, — I have received the Fanner's Moiou)U ])olicy. Universal insurance against fire would create a universal feeling of safety, and would be the best possible check against the worst possible crime. We have reason to believe that such was the opinion of tiie gentleman in whose hands the management of this institution is placed, several years ago, when he Hrst, in a great agri- cultural county, suggested the plan of arresting the progress of incendiarism by repealing the duty on the insurance of fu-ming stock, and appending to such repeal a compulsory clause upon all tenants to insure, very correctly conceiving that bad as the worst men may be, they would scarcely run the risque of forfeiting their own lives, when the crimes they contemplated could only injure strangers, and not the immediate objects of their malignity. This plan was carried through Parlia- ment, without the compulsory clause, by the ta- lent and indefatigability of the Hon. INlember for South Lincolnshire, Mr. HANDLEY, whose servi- ces to agriculture are loo well appreciated to need any praise fiom us. I'/ie Farmer's Insurance Compani/ is calculated, without any compulsion, to add to, if not to make universal, the practice of insuring against fire in all agricultural districts. Possibly many farmers may have been hitherto deterred from insuring by their want of confi- dence in the variety of offices that have recently started into existence, and their inability to deter- mine as to the safest and soundest among so many • — this reason will cease lo exist when they perceive that there is an office of their own, called by their own name, a poTtion of its profits devoted to their own objects, and the whole under the patronage and superintendance of their well- known friends, offering to them at once protection against fiie, provision for surviving relatives, tem- porary or permanent loans under difficulty, and an accumulating property for " a rainy day." We should hope that the friends of the farmers who may be addressed upon this subject, and others who may volunteer their support, will add to the obligations which the great class for whom they act owe to them, by zealously and simul- taneously lending their names, weight and influ- ence to promote the Farmers' Fire and Life Insurance and Loan and Annvitt Institu- tion." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 315 ON THE DRAUGHT OF PLOUGHS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — TLe opinions of farmers with regard to tlio best constriiclioa of lliat iinporlaut implement, ilie plough, have been almost as various as the textrre of the soils they cultivate, and it is natural that thev should be so, seeing that some soils are so tcnarious, as vrith the best adapted implement, to require great power to separate a furrow slice from the mass, whilst others are so friable that it is difficult to keep the particles in sufficientl)' close contact to prevent their being blown away by tlie Avind ; with these facts before him, is it not somewhat surprising that any man should assert that any one implement, with a definite power attached to it, is the best that can be used on any soil, be its texture what it may ? As well might he contend that four horses are neces- sary to draw a gig, and sufficient to drag the car- riage of Juggernaut. But this subject, viz., the adaptation of differently constructed ploughs, with different powers applied to them for the cultivation of different soils, lias been so ably treated in the September Number of your valuable publication, in two papers on the compa- rative merits of Sn^ing and \Vlieel Ploughs, one by Mr. Handley, and the other by J. D., that I trust those farmers who have been fortunate enough to read them, will assent to the reasonableness of the conclusions to which those gentlemen have arrived, and that for the future we shall be more liberal in our opinions of those who use a differently con- structed plough, from that best suited to the soil we happen to cultivate. There is another question of equal importance to the agricultural world, but which I believe has not been the subject of so much discussion, as that al- luded to above, namely, how should the moving power be attached to the plough 1 I wish therefore, Mr. Editor, through the medium of your excellent JMagazine, to draw the attention of your scientific readers to the subject, in hopes of eliciting some va- luable opinions as to what the proper distance is, at which horses should be attached to the plough, and whether they should be placed singly or abreast where two or four are used. I have been led to the consideration of this sub- ject by its appearing to me, that the uplifting power, which is useful in drawing wheel carriages over an uneven road, is quite the contrary when applied to the plough, it having a tendency to draw the plough upwards, out of the ground, and this uplift- ing power increases, as the angle formed by the line of traction and the line of progression increases ; conseq uently , it would appear, that the nearer horses are i.ffixed to the plough, the greater is the tendency of their draught to draw the plough upwards, to ba- lance which the share of the plough must have a greater inclination downwards, than otherwise would be necessary, and if (as I believe it does) a plough requires more force to draw it in any other direc- tion than that in which the share points, that force must be increased as the angle increases which is formed by the line of traction and that of the direc- tion of the share. I am aware that Mr. Finlayson in Lis Ploughman's Guide, has laid it down as an axiom, that " the horses should be yoked as near the plough as possible, with- out too much confining, or preventing them from taking a free step." I have seen, too, in your Ma- gazine for August, a paper headed " Notes on the Agriculture of the South of England," by Matthew M, Milburn, in which the author says, *' Now, it is a well known principle in mechanics, that the nearer to a weight a certain force is applied, the less will be the motive power necessary to impel it." Hence lie argues, that where four horses are attached to a plougii in a line, the first horse of the four will have about three-fourths of his power completely wasted, and so on in proportion, so that two horses abreast would have a degree of power nearly equal to the four in length. The axiom of Mr. Finlayson I cannot admit for the reasons above stated : namely, that by yoking- the horses as near the plough as possible the line of traction is made to diverge as much as possible from the line of progression, and, consequentl}^, much power is lost. As well might a man choose a short line in preference to a long one, to tow a boat along the middle of a canal, himself walking on the bank. \Vith regard to Mr. Milburn's " well-known principle in mechanics," if I understand it aright, he Avould say, that, supposing a team of horses were attached to a plough at the same distance from it as that at which the fore-horse is generally placed, when four horses are used in a line, about three- fourths of the power of this team would be lost in the distance between it and the plough, so that if the index of a draught machine affixed close to the plough registered 4 cwt., the same index affixed close to the team (about ten yards from the plough) would register 16 cwt. ; as well might he assert that the weight of an)' goods depends on the length of the ropes, by which the scales in which they are weighed are attaclied to their beam. I have been induced to make the above remarks, in consequence of the system of ploughing perse- vered in hy the farmers of the south of England hav- ing of late been the subject of so much animadversion ; on the heavy soils of Sussex, the usual plough team consists of three horses in length, and the trac- tive force required amounts from 3 to 5 cwt. When it amounts to so much as 5 cwt. four horses ought to be used, and I am glad to say that in such cases the Sussex farmers are not generally sparing of power ; but we are told that '* if we adopted a bet- ter sort of plough, we need not have so many horses." We have tried all sorts of ploughs, and found that none are so efficient as a moderately heavy wheel plough. Much has been said against placing the horses in a line ; but where the subsoil plough is a great benefit, the treading of a horse at the bottom of each furrow must be a great evil ; this we avoid by placing the horses in a line, and if (as I be- lieve they do) the second, the third, and even the fourth horse from the plough, exert their power as effectively in drawing the plough forwards, as the hindmost one does, I think nothing can be said against placing them in a line, except that they require a driver, and this objection cannot appear a very serious one, when it is considered that the youngest boys on the farm are sufficient for the purpose, and that whilst they are driving they are in the best possible school to learn to hold the plough. Should you, Mr. Editor, deem' the above remarks calculated to elicit any valuable information on the subject of them, I hope you wfll use them in any way that appears to you best suited to effect that purpose. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, Berwick, Sussex, Sept. 2i, 1839. Wm. Stace. Bone manure' is now extensively used upon grass= land, particularly in Cheshire, and the improvement it makes on clay soils is wonderful. Y 2 316 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 'J'lJE FARIMER'S PROGRESS. No. 1. rilOTECTION TO HAY AND RIPE CORN. 10 THE EDITOR or THE I'AnMEH's .-MAG/^ZIXE. Si I!, — Having- cullecl valuable agricultural in- formation from the " Farmer's Marjazine,'" I con- sider it a duty, in return, to impart the result of several experiments on mj' own farm of one hundred and fifty acres ; confining myself to those, which I think may he useful to other agriculturists — some to imitate — others to avoid ; thus saving the expence of experiments, proved not to merit repetition. 1 had intended to defer this comtnnnication nntil winter might afi'ord me more Icisnre ; but having hy a simj)le exjjcdient, preserved oals and wheat from the fickle to the ilail, both the last and ])rcsent harvest, without the slightest damage from the excessive rain, I lose no time in imparting the inexiicnsive process; impelled by a sincere desire to assist such of my brotlicr farmers as may still have corn outstanding. jMany useful discoveries have been the result of accident ; sucli was the case in the instance I am about to detail : — About fourteen or fifteen years ago, my bay harvest commenced in very favourable weather; I had mown forty acres, and having nearly thirty tons of hay ready, 1 purposed making a rick the next day; but the morning being fine, tiie weatherglass high, my hay (cut early) full of seed and sap, I determined to give it the forenoon's sun, and begin loading at one o'clock ; a little before noon I fancied I heard the wind whistle — 1 ran to the Tjavometer — it stood as high as in the morning-, but on my ta])ping it, the Mercury, which probably had adhered to the tube, fell so rapidly as to confirm my iipprehensiou of an aj)- l)roaching thunder storm— fortunately the hands had not yet dispersed, and my three carters were feeding their horses, and had got their carts, all ready, for a start after dinner. Two carts were soon in motion, and the third followed with a tarpawling, some old carpets, bass-mats, horse- cloths, &c., &c., all that could be collected rapidly ; by great exertion about one-third of the hay was protected from injury, and the following morning being fine, a small rick was well secured. To my surprise a wind-row, about fifty yards long, covered only by a thin canvass fruit tree cover was nninjured, and that under bass-mats y/ns jierfectli/ dry -^ the remaining bay (about twenty tons) was so drenched with rain, and the weather during the following three weeks was so unfavourable, that the hay was almost entirely spoiled. Convinced of tl.e practicability of preserving hay (and corn also) during- rainy weather, I pursued with ardour and patient attention, expe- riments innumerable ;— various kinds of wrapper and canvass, old sail cloth— old cotton bags— Edginton's rick cover, in which I led the fashion in this neighbourhood, in the summer of 1825— Dutch barns l\c.;— each of those exi)eriments paid me abundantly for the outlay— the only plan 1 tried, that did not answer, was the very mode of '• Saving Grain in wet seasons," which John Bull_ yesterday (22 Sept.J) copied '' from a pro- vincial paper.'' At length every difficulty was overcome—the object so completely attained- -the mode so simple — the cxpcncc so trivial — my ])i-acticc so public, and the benefit so uniformly admitted by numbers who have done me the honour to view it, that the only extraordinary part of the affair is, that it is not in general use. The 2nd Book of Kings, 5th Chixpter, 13th verse gives, I rather think, the best solution of this problem. The way in which I have applied my principle to ])ractice, this year, has been as follows : — Half of my first crop of hay, being cut early, and made in fine weather, needed no protection ; the other half was made during a rainy season — thanks to my rass imatts I secured it cffecluaUy from (Inmar/e in much less than half the time, and with half the expence which my neighbours incurred. Oats came next. I cut them vhen dry — my mowers and binders were attended by a low light cart, the same I use for soiling — the bottom of the cart covered by two breadths of cheap broad wrapper or canvass, so that no grain couhl be lost, and another similiar cloth attended the cart, to cover uith, in case of rain— every sheaf when bound was immediately ])Ut into the cart and conveyed to an airy i)art of the field .selected for the [jurposc — the sheaves were put on end two deep, the grain uppermost, in rows equal in length to the breadth of three matts — and at the same time three matts were spread in front, ready to put on at night, or when rain is ap])rehended ; the following day rain set in, and continued with little intermission, until the I'th day, which being fine, I housed the whole perfectly dry, thrashed a part, and better oatmeal 1 never saw or tasted than that which the oats produced ; — there were also other advantages ; the oat straw was mixed with eddisli bay (to lessen fermentation^ and the ground on which the oats grew, was manured and ])loughed the following day whilst the stubble and weeds irpre (lamp, ready to sow winter vetches, as soon as I can ])rocure good seed. The afternoon on which I housed my oats, I mowed my heavy second crop of clover — after ten day? of rainy weather, which would have spoiled it, hut for the same matts which secured my oats, I got it into my barn in most beautiful condition. The day before I led my clover, I began to shear my wheat : the matts being then engaged, the sheaves were put into riders (or shoclks) in the usual way, eight sheaves on end, and two as hoods — all I cut since was carted to the place where the oats had stood, ])iled in the same way, and covered with the same matts — never in the finest season did I see wheat in better condition ; and this morning (the 2?)rd Sept.) I sent twenty bushels to the mill, which having been spread five days on a chamber floor with a south window, is as fit for grinding as any old wheat ; the hooded wheat was sprit and very inferior. My matts are again in action — in a high pasture I have now within the limited space of two or three acres, at least eight tons of eddish hay; in spite of last week's rain it i? almost dry, and as sweet as a nut; it was mown in dry after- noons, put instantly into my soil cart, covered with the wrapper cloth, and before sunset re- moved from the low meadows and secured under matts ; once under matts / comidpr it safe — it dries more during rain from the current of air ; and as two men in ten minutes, cover or uncover the whole of the eight tons, every interval of fair weather is turned to good account. My hay field looks like an Indian encampment ; the oval wigwams ten or fifteen yards apart; my THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 317 "ienninus" corn field, like a Brigade of well dis- ciplined soldiers, cased in buff armour, in close column, with intervals for cavalry and artillery to pass through, protecting, not only the Military Staff, but THE STAFF OF LIFE. Tlie total maximum charge of this experiment and practice has been ,'500 matts at an average of one shilling, 15/. but with rushes, rye-straw or bark, this expence may be saved. ClNClNNAlUS. Sept. 23. ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Al a meeting of the Committee of ManagemenI, on Wednesday, October the 2nd, present, Piiilip Pusey, Esq., M.P., in the chair; T. Raymond Barker, Esq.; IJ. Bhinshard. Esq.; Colonel liulse ; Rev. VV. L. RImm ; tiie following new members were elected : — Rlontgomerie, C. M. Slracey, H, ,T. Llaugham, John Stephens, John Shack el, George Lawrence, Capt. Hall, James I^ayburn, Jonathan Laybuvn, Daniel Ileseltine, William Hill, Henry Barugh, William llichardson, \\ iiliaai Onley, Chas. Savill Price, Henry Tylden, Sir John Bortlett, William Kett, Geo. Sam. Tompson, Chas. Kett Adcock, William Waters, Thos. llobt. Atkinson, Jas. Wm. The ordinary business having been gone througli, the Committee adjourned to Wednesday, Nov. G. We staled in our last No. that the prizes for milch cows and grazing oxen oft'ered by llie JMiglisli Agricultural Society last year were omitted, and a second prize for a Bull added in each of the classes for cattle. Such is the fact, although by a mistake the correction was not made in the list which we publislied. It must llierefore be understood tiiat classes five and six are altogether omitted, and a second prize of fifteen sovereigns " to the owner of the best Bull calved since the 1st of January, 1838, and more than one year old," added in each of the classes, 1, 2, 3, and 4. We subjoin a statement of the prizes for Seed Wheat, with the conditions : — To the Exhibitor at the Cambridge Rleeting of the best 12 bushels of White 'Wheat, of the harvest of 1839, grown by himself — Fifty Sovereigns. To the Exhibitor at the Cambridge Meeting- of the best 12 bushels of Red Wheat, of the harvest of 1839, grown by himself— Fifty Sovereigns. Each of these 12 bushels wdl be scaled by the Judges; and a thirteenth bushel of each of the sune varieties will bs exhibited, a* a sample, to the public. N.B. — These Prizes will be awarded at the General Meeting in Decemhui-, 1841. Tiie two best samples, without distinguishing between tiie two, will be selected by Judges appointed at the Cambridge Meeting, and will be sown in the Autumn of 1840, by three hirmtrs, under the direction o( the English A^Ticultural Society, who will make their Report, upon which the Piize will be awarded. 'Jen Sovereigns will be given to the Exhibitor of the one of tiiese two samples who shall not obtain tlie Prize ; or, if from the produce when sown neither of the two shall appear to deserve a Prize, Ten Sovereigns will be given to the Exhibitors of each. MATCH BETWEEN EARL SPENCER AND MR. SELMES. AWARD OF THE JUDGES. At tlie meeting of liip English Agricultural So- ciety at Oxford, a match was made between Lord Spencer and Mr. Selmes, of Beckley, near North- iam, Sussex, for twenty-five sovereigns, eacii to slicw a hundred beasts of their own breeding on their own farms. The conditions were that each parly should name a judge, and the two judges so named should select a third, as an umpire, in case they could not agree in their award. Lord Spencer named Mr. Smith, of West Rasen, Lincolnshire, and Mr. Selmes named Mr. Putland, of Firle, near Lewes, as their respective judges. Mr. Smith and Mr. Putland not being able to agree as to the per- son who was to act as umpire, the Duke of Rich- mond was requested to select one from two who were resjieclively named by RL-. Smitii and Mr. Putland, and his Grace selected Mr. Buckley, of Normanton IJill, near Loughborough. J\L'. Smith and Mr. Putland began by inspecting ten two-year old Steers, forty Working Oxen, ten Yearling Steers, five Feeding Oxen, thirty-three Cows and Heifers, and two Bulls, exhibited by Mr. Selmes, on his farm at Beckley. They then inspected twenty-three Feeding Oxen, and nine Store Steers, exliibited by Lord S|)encer on his farm in North- amptonshire, and ended by inspecting four Bulls, and sixty-four Cows and Heifers on his lordship's farm at Wiseton, Notlinghamsiiire, wlien having agreed on the following award, the services of J\Jr. Buckley were not required : — We, the undersigned, having been appointed (o decide the match proposed by Mr. Selmes, to shew one hundred Sussex Beasts of his own breed against one hundred of any other breed in FLugland, bred by tiie same person, and which was accepted by Earl Spencer, with one hundred Short Ilorns ; having carefully inspected the respective herds ou Mr. Selmes' farin at Beckley, in Sussex, ou Earl Spencer's farm at Brampton, in Northamptonsliire, and al Wiseton, in Noltingiiamshire, we do hereby declare Earl Spencer to be the winner, and direct the stakes to be paid to his lordship accordingly ; al the same time, we consider Mr. Selmes' stock to possess great merits, and great uniformity of cha- racter. Dated this 27th day of Sept., 1839. JfoiiN Putland. Wm. Smith. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — I possess an estate which borders upon a river in which the tide is at particular i)eriods so rapid as to undermine the banks, ^verc not constant means taken to support them. The effect of the tide is fell at particular ))oials, to support which the practice is to throw in large quantitities of stone. These points are proverbially called stailhs. There arc five of these which 1 am compelled to maintain at a heavy annual expense. I should feel much obliged to any of your readers who would inform me if there is any Its-- costly mode by v.'hich the hanks may be protected. Jt has occurred to me Ihnt piles might be used, but I am told that in one spot ihe water is thirty feel deep at low water.— I am, yours, 6cc. A Landid PuoPRiETO,;. 318 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PLATE II. FALLOW DEER. A SCENE IN WINDSOR PARK. Of all those animals which have heeii rechiimed from a state of unlimited freedom, and subjected to a sort of serni-domestitr.ition by mnn, the fallow deer is tlie most beautiful, and constitutes the most ele- gant and the most jjicturesijue ornament of the parks and pleasure grounds of the magnates and the wealthy of the land. As these animals were bunted with hounds by spoitsraen of the old sciiool, a peculiar phraseology was applied to them : thus the buck is, the first year called a fawn ; the second, a [jrioket ; the third, a sorel ; tlie fourth a sore; the fifth, a buck of the first head ; and the sixth a great buck. Tlie female is denominated a doe; the first year a fawn; the second, a tegg. The manner of hunting the buck is similar to the mode of pursuing the stag ; hut, inas- much as the latter is larger, moio ])owerful, and more perseveringly courageous, the chase is more animating, more noble, and continues for a greater le igth of time. If we take a retrospective glance at the hunting of former jieriods, when a great part of the country was forest, and fallow deer could roam at large, if we compare the hunting of the buck with that of the stag, we may state, that the former is more easily roused ; it is sufficient to judge by the view, and mark what cover it enters, as it seldom rambles far from the place : it does not so frequent- ly change its lair or place of repose as the stag. When hard pressed by the hounds, it flies to a cover with which it is acquainted, and endeavours to con- ceal itself in the more gloomy part of the wood or the fastnesses of the mountain ; it will not stand up so long before the hounds as the stag, nor does it resort to so much crossing and doubling, and so many subtleties as that animal. It will take the water when sorely pressed, but seldom enters a great river ; it is not so strong as the stag or hart, nor can it swim either so long or so swiftly. The strength, the cunning, and the courage of this animal are not equal to those of the stag ; and in consequence it affords neither so long, so various, nor so obstinate a run. The principal difference between the stag and the buck, (if we except the size) is manifested in the horns; those of the former being round, while those of the latter are palmated. But, although veivmuch alike in form and disposition, thby are never seen to herd together, nor indeed do any two aiimals avoid each other with more uniform animosity ; in short, they form distinct families } which though seeaiinoly so near, are still remote ; and, although with similar habitudes, yet retain an unalterable aversion. The horns of the buck, as of all other animals of the deei kind, are shed every year. ^Vllen the rut- ting season (October) approaches, fierce battles en- sue between the males ; and after many furiously fought contests, one buck becomes the acknowledged master. The gyoa7iing of the buck, at this season, though less sonorous perhaps than the helling of the hart or stag, is irksomely unpleasant, and impresses a feeling upon the auditory nerves aiiproachiug to horror. Like the stag, the buck uses his fore feet in defending himself against his enemies, and also in attacking an animal which has provoked his ire; and the force of the blows thus given is almost incredible; they bring their horns into operation in the fight, but generally commence the battle with their feet ; when driven to take soil (the water) by the hounds they defend themselves with tLeir fore feet, in tlie same manner as the stag ; and it is the opinion of the Queen's huntsman (Davis) that the latter animal, having taken his position in the water where he is able to stand, and the hounds are forced to swim, th^t forty couple could not pull him down, that ho would not only keep them at bay successfully, but disable many, if he did not absolutely kill them. This striking with the fore feet, is a chara^terislic of the species, v.-liich is ramified almost «vin with bulls, usually called fremartins, 11. There is a prevalent belief among farming men, and I believe farmers, that, when the time of gestation of a cow is longer than usual, the produce is generally a male calf. I must confess that I did not belitve this to be the case, but this table shows that there is some foundation for this opinion. In order fairly to try this, the co^vs who calved before the 260th day, and those who calved after the 300t!i, ought to be omitted as be- ing aaomalnus cases, as well as the cases in which twins were produced ; and it will tlien appear that, from the cows whose period of gestation did not exceed 286 days, the number of cow calves produced was 233, and the number of bull-calves 234 ; while, from those whose period exceeded 286 days, the number of cow- calves was only 90 while the number of bull-calves was 152. I am not aware of any other conclusions which may be deduced from the collection of cases which I have made, and as I have already stated, I do not see in what manner the knowledge of these conclusions can be practically useful ; but any information elucidating the physiology of cattle may be advantageous in some way which at the present moment I do not foresee. I think it most probable that these results will be found generally applicable ; but it must always be recollected that they are derived from the observations of one breeder only ; and though I think it likely that no other man in this country has made similar observa- tions on so large a number of individual cases--, still it must be admitted that there is a possibility tkat, from the circumstance of my experience having been confined to one variety of cattle and to one farm, there may be found a difference in the re- suits to be deduced from a similar experiment, if it was tried on land of different quality, in a different locality, and upon cattle of some other breed. 1 will therefore add, that the situation of the farm on which my cattle are bred, is in the northern part of Notting- hamshire, that .the soil on which they are always kept is either a light sandy soil or peaty meadows, and that they are of the Durham or improved short-horned breed. * In another work, however, entitled " Brilisli Hus- bandry," published under the sui)erinlcndence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, the ex- periments of ]\1. 'J'eiisicr, of Paris, on the gestation of cows, are recorded to have given the following results : 21 calved between the 240lli uwd 270ili day, the mean term being 259^ ; 544 calved between the 270lli and 299lhdny,the mean term being282; 10 calved between tlie 299tli and 321st day, the mean term being .'303. " In most cases, therefore, between 9 and 10 months )nay be assumed as the usual i)eriod; though, with a bull-calf, she has been generally observed to go about 41 weeks, and a few days less with a female." — Vol. ii., p. 438.— r. BuiiKE. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. i^^^^CBug^ DRAINING. Observations of Mr. Smith, of Deanstoun, at the late meeting of the INIanchester Agricultural Society : — Mr. Smith, of Deansloun, Perthsliire, in aclcnow- ledgiug the compliment, said, that the ch-.iirmnn had been pleased to speak veiy highly of the system of drainnge which he (Mr. Smith) had recommended, but of which he did not profess to be the inventor ; but, at an early period having discovered the ad- vantages arising- from it to agriculture, he had en- deavoured to apply the system in the most effectual manner on his own small farm ; and, having suc- ceeded, he thought it his duty to his country, to pub- lisli wh;\t he had done. Up trusted they \\-ould give him credit for having done this not from ostentation, but with a view to the benefit of his country. (Hear) It would be wrong to detain the meeting with a long speech, but he would endeavour to ex- plain as shortly as possible, the system of drainage and deep ploughing which he had followed. It was nearly fourteen years since he first began draining bis farm, of about 'zJOO acres, in the western district of Perthshire, about 150 feet above the level of the sea ; the geological aspect of the country being that of the old red sand stone. Generally speaking, the soil was a very wet, rushy, and what, in Scotland, was called a sprutiy bottom, and when he took it the value per acre of the whole was about 10s. annually. lie set to work in applying this system of drainage, and in some instances tbund that he did not make them deep enough, for it was only by experience this could be ascertained. He cut drains 21 feet from each other, and 2^ feet deep, and shallower drains he would not recommend, for almost any soil what- ever. He found stones a much cheaper filling for drains than tiles : and h^ should think that in any situation they were to be preferred, because inde- structible. His drains had 12 inches surface, and were 21 feet deep ; he filled up about 12 inches deep with the stones, and covered up these stones very carefully with a thin turf, for if these were neglected, in all probability a great quantity of loose soil got into the bottom of the drain and choked it up. But with turf overlapping each other, no sand or earth could get in, and the drain remained jjermanent for many years. There were 18 inches left from the stones to the surface, which he considered of great importance ; and he impressed on agriculturists the necessity of making the drains deep, so as to avoid the danger of the plough coming in contact with the stones in deep ploughing. In this way he had formed a hun- dred miles of drains — (applause) — in which there had not been a single failure, nor had it been neces- sary, any where, to open a single drain, in order to remove an obstruction. INInny had said— "Those drains will be choked up — stone drains will not last." He could state to the company that not in one single instance had these drains had to he open- ed to be repaired. (Hear.) jMany practical agri- culturists had come from distant parts to see his drains ; and many remarked that in the low hollow parts where there was no perceptihle fall, there must in the course of 12 or 11 years have b'een some de- posit of mud. His answer bad been that in any place they would point out he was ready to have the drain opened for them. He generally had a farm servant to follow them with a spade for the purpose, and he had in many instances had iho drains opened where they suggested, but in no one instance v.-as it found that the drain was perceptibly filled up with sand or mud. In many parts of the country no doubt tiles could be procured, and they would answer very well. The observations which Lad been made by the chairman about putting ovef them a layer of gravel were very good ; but in, most clayey soils, they would find that, whatever miigiit be the depth of the drains, tlie water would iintl its way t© them ; that, in proportion as the soils were stiff and clayey, they would contract, and cracks would take place, and all along the side of the drains they would find these cracks extending to the very centre of the ridge, and any moisture would find its vs-ay through tijese little fissures to the drain, and instead of being delivered into the channels in a muddy stiite, it would be found to be as pure and as clear as spring water. In tlie level soil, which covered great part of the land in Perthshire on the banks of the Forth, where, for generations, people had been in the habit of deriving their water from a great distance, they now obtained by this drainage, as pure spring water as flowed from anj^ mountain side in Scotland. And now he would say a word or two in reference to his subsoil plough. He had long seen the necessity of the subsoil being broken up, and it occurred to him that it was possible to contrive an instrument that would at once mechanically break up the subsoil without bringing it to the surface, for it appeared to him that nothing could be worse by the system of deep ploughing, than bringing the inferior soil to the top. HARVEST SONG. BV ELIZA COOK. I love, I love to see Bright steel gleam through the land ; 'Tis a goodly sight, but it must be In the reaper's tawny hand. The helmet and the spear Are twined with laurel wreath ; But the trophy is wet with the orphan's tear, And blood-spots rest beseatli. I love to see the field That is moist with purple stain ; But not where bullet, sword, and shield Lie strewn with the gory slain. No, no ; 'tis where the sun Shoots down his cloudless beams. Till rich and bursting- juice-drops run On the vineyard earth in streams. IMy glowing heart beats high. At llie sight of shining- gold ; But is not that which the miser's eye Deli-hteth to behold. A brighter wealth, by far. Than the deep mine's yellow vein. Is seen around, in the lair hills croun'd AVith sheaves of burnished grain. Look forth, thou tlioughtless one. Whose proud knee never bends ; Take thou the bread that's daily spread, But tiiink on Him who sends. Look forth, ye toiling men ; Though little ye possess. Be glad that dtardi is not on earth. To leave that little less. Let the song of praise be poured. In gratitude and joy. By the rich man, with his garners slored. And the ragged gleaner boy. The feast that Nature gives Is not for one alone — 'I'is shared by the nieane-st slave that lives. And the tenant of a throne. Then, glory to the steel 'I'hat shines in the reaper's hand ; And thanks to a God who has blessed the sod, And crowned the harvest land ! 324 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Eeing a farmer in the Northeni part of our island, and being anxious to possess accurate information re- specting tlie feeding of Slieep on Turnips, cut by the turnip-cutting nuichine, in Norfolk, where I am in- formed lliat method of management is in extensive use, might I reijuest you to place the following que- ries in a vacant corner of the " Mark Lane Kxpres-?," ivhich circulates much interesting agricultural infor- mation to all of us farmers. Some one of the intelli- gent farmers of A'orfolk seeing tliem, will, 1 have no doubt, take up his pen, and instruct us Northern husbandmen with tlie best system of feeding Sheep iji Norfolk with cut turnips. Now as to the several queries which stand under- neath, viz. : — I. Feeiling on Turnips not cut, 1. IIovv many weeks are required to hed a one-year- old sheep on turnips, when he is folded upon ihcm in the usual way ? 2. What liuie to feeil a two-year-old siieep, when turned in on turnips ! What time for an a^ed sheep ! II. Feeding on Turnips cut hi/ Machine. 1. Wliat time wanted to feed a year-old slieep on tur- nips cutby machine ! 2. What time for an aged sheep ? '^^. \Vhose turnip-cutting machine most recommended ? Its cost ! 4. ilow many i)eo))le daily required to cut witii ma- chine, turnips for a flock of 500 sheep! or lor every hundred sheep ? 5. Wliat quantity in weight of oil-cuhe daily given to oacli slieep, while feeding on turnips '. 'I'he c«ist of uil- cako per ton 1 Whetiier ICngiish or Foreign best ? b". If chopped hug, straw, aud suit be mixed with oil- cake for turnip-fed sheep? 7. How much farther will an acre of turnips when cut by machine, go in feeding sheoj), than when not cut, and sheep folded on t!>em in usual way ! 8. 'J'o enumerate every advantage that arises from feeding sheep on cut turnips, wiih ciiopped iiay and oil- cake, whether the animal be young or aged ? III. Housing Sheep in bad wealhcr. 1. If housing sheep in winter, or in stormy weather, in yards haviog low sheds constructed around the sides of the yards, fitted with racks aud mangers, be practised iu Norfolk, or in any other county in Eng- land ? 2. What may be best construction and expense of such a sheep-yard ? N.B.— We are confident great benefit would be derived from having such a sheep yard with low sheds on every sheep farm to drive the sheep into at night time in winter, and in bad weather at other seasons of the year. Good keep would tell sooner with shelter of the yard in feeding sheep than the present oixtdoor way of feeding. The Saxons in Germany have improved the quality of their Merino sheep wool and made it equal to that of Spain, by housing their sheep during winter. When once the tiecce is broken by the storm and wetness of our climate, the health of the sheep, how high soever its feeding may be, is fattened with the greatest difficulty. Any one who knew Lord Western's flock of Meiinos twenty years ago, and who now examines them, must be struck at the very improved condition and symmetry of his fine jNIcrino sheep. His lordship has fur many years allowed his flock the shelter of a yard with shtds having vack$ and niaugers during the winter at night time, and at other seasons of the year when the wea- ther is stormy. IV. Tillage Land. 1. li Rupecake be used in Norfolk and Suflfelk to manure the land for turnips and grain crops ? 2. At what time is the rapccake dressing given ; be- fore, or at the time of sowing, or afterwards ? ;s. What quantity is given per acre for turnips ; what for each of the grain crops ? 4. If rapeeake dressing for turnips yields as heavy a crop of turnips as dressing of bones ? 5. On what sort of soil, light sandy, gravelly, sandy, or clay, is rapeeake found to answer best ? M, CHELMSFORD AND ESSEX AGRICUL- TURAL SOCIETY. WITHAM DISTRICT PLOUGHING MATCH. (Abridged from the Essex Standard.) On Thursday the Ilth October, the Witham Annual Agricullurtil Meeting took place, 'i he Ploughing Match came off in a held, lent for the occasion by Mr. Crump, and situate about half a mile from the town on the (^olciiester Road. There were 43 competitors. At two o'clock, J. Round, Esq., MA', (the President;, supported by Lord Rayleigli, W. W. Luard, Esq., thu llev. J. P. Wood, H. S. Cilson, Esq. (the Honorary Secretary), and other gentlemen, pre-ented the prizes to tlie labourers and servants, addre^sin^ to them suit- able and imju'essive observations. The following toasts having been drank—" The Queen," " Queen Adelaide and the rest of the Royal Family," and " The Lord Lieutenant of the County,'' the Chairnuin, in an appi'opriate address, proposed " Prosperity to the Ciiclmsford and lOssex Agricultural Society." 'HIE DINNER. About seventy s-entlcmcn sat down to dinner at the \Vhitc Hart Inn; J. Round, Esq., i\I.P., in the Chair. Lord Rayhigh, T. W. Bramstsn, Esq., M.P., and C. G. Round. lOsq., JM.P., were present ; as were the Rev. II. Du Cane, the Rev. J. P. Wood, J. Bullock, ICsq., W. W. Luard, Esq., W. H. Patisson, Esq., J. Patisson, Esq., O. Ilanbury, Esq.,T. Tomkin, Esq.,II. Ilanbury, Esq. ; Me-srs. II. S. Gilson, James Beadcl, jun., Bel- ciier, I'. Phillips, J. Foster, Ling, J. Ling, Pitt Beadel, Shoebridge, H. G. Beadel, J. Huticy, Carter, Upson, Blood, Di.\on, .1. Everett, G. Moore, Thedam, Piggot, W. F. Hobbs, B. Smith, Groves, 'I'. Butler, jun,. Chap- man, Cowper, aud Aldham. i\lr. Crump was the Deputy Chairman. The Chairman then gave the healths of the Judges. Lord Ravleigii. I am sure the company will not rest contented if one particular toast is not soon pre- sented to their attention ; and as it is one which cannot arise from the chairman,! hope it will be well received, coming, though it does, from the bottom of the room. Our chairman has been a supporter of the Chelmsford and Essex Agricultural Society from its commencement ; he is one who does not boast of being a practical agri- culturist, and in that I think he is a loser, for whatever may be liie profit or gain, much pleasure is derived irom t!->.e cultivation ot the soil — (liear, hearj — hut he has always given the society his time and attention. He was one of the three membcrj delegated to the central society, three years ago, and I have seldom seen hir.^ absent from the quarterly meetings at Chelmsford ; he ako attends all the district meetings, and we see him here this day — he being the President for the year. Ysu have witnessed the way in which he gave the prizes in the field, and I am sure you will joiw me in drinking his health with three times three. (Much cheering.) THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. S^5 Tlie CiiAinjiAx, in returning' thanks, saiJ, that amonj his pubhc duties there was none which he discharg-eJ with more gratification than that of attending meetings of this society, which were calculated to do much real good, and had been attended with most beneficial re- sults. I'iiere was no occasion, when his humble ser- vices were available, that he should not feel it his duty to render ihem, 'J"he Chairman then observed, that two of the repre- sentatives of the county were present. For their in- creasing attention to the interests of agriculture, the meeting owed their most grateful thank-, and he begged to give their healths. {Cheers.) Lord EAvi.Kir.ii observed, that he had received a note from Sir John Tyrell, this morning, to say that he was prevented attending the meeting, by a particular engagement at Bury. Mr. Bramsto.v. — I assure you I feel deeply a com- pliment of this nature, paid me as it is by a Society I have now the honour to address, comjosed ©f a most respectable and useful clas« — the yeomanry. It is not my intention to occupy your time, for I did not come here to make a speech. 1 have been prevented in pre- vious years from attend ng, but have derived great pleasure from seeing what has taken place, from the reports in the newspapers. I think there is a pecu- liarity attending this Branch, which applies to no other ; for it seems more a meeting of bnsincss, and there is more of practical advantage in the conversation, which the community have the benefit of seeing reported. I congratulate you on the success that has attended your measures, and it must be gratifying to you to observe that the same subjects hnve occupied your attention, as have occupied that of the English Agricultural Society. 'J'hey, like you, have analyzed various kinds of manure, and diflerent sorts of wheat, ascertaining its properties, &c. ou different scils. The great test of the value of wheat is the quantity of bread it will produce. (Hear, hear.) It is known that 91bs. of flour ii calculated by us to produce 11 lbs. of bread, while it appears that from experiments they have kinds of flour that produce 12J lbs. of bread from the quantity of 91bs. flir. C. G. Round— Permit me to add ray sincere ac- knowledgments to those of my honourable friend. I am well aware how important is the interest entrusted to my hands ; and feeble though I may be, faiihful, to the best of my judgment and ability, I will be. (Cheers.) When 1 see institutions such as these flourishing like this, I am reminded that no defence of them is required, and 1 shall take the him from my honourable colleague, and address myself to a matter of prcctice, and give a toast which is allowcil, and ought to come from me. It cannot have escaped your notice, that since we last met in this room, inany of us have been to one of the learned Universities to iuke uur degrees. One gentle- man who atiended there to put on liis red gown, took some red wheat with him to pay his fees. (Lauglifer.) When I wa-5 at college, we used to hear something about Hobbs's Thucydides, but on lliis occasion we heard nothing' but ef Ilobbs's red wheat. {Renewed Uiitghler.) 'I'his is our iir'^t meeting since the visit to Oxford, and we are bcund, as JMr. Holsbs is a neigh- bour, not to pass this opportunity without offering him our sincere congratulations on the prize he gained on that occasion. (Hen)-, hear.) 1, as one of the repre- sentatives of North Essex, am proud that a gentleman from that division carried off the prize from such a meeting. (Apphiuse.) This is the way to keep the name of old Essex at the head of the agricultural coun- ties. Mr. F. HoBBs returned thanks, and said he should always be happy to assist in any practical measure for the improvement of agriculture. 'I'he CoAinjiAN was obligeil to his friend and relative for giving the meeting the opportunity of congratulat- ing the county of Essex in the health of the gentleman jut drank, 'ihat gentleman was also a member of a ^ociety from which agriculture derived considerable advantage. It was founded under the highest auspices ; and with objects which must produce the most impor- tant results and national benefit. It v/as presided over by a nobleman wiiose name was dear to agriculture. Lord Spencer was the president last year, but the presi- dent of this year was the Duke of Richmond, the warm friend of agriculture ; he, therefore, proposed to drink the health of the President and Members of the English Agricultural Society. ]\Ir. Biia:mston said he hoped he should not be con- sidered obtrusive in rising to return thanks for the com- pliment paid the English Agricultural Society; but as a member of the committee to whom the proceedings of that society had been entrusted, he should feci wanting in proper duty and respect, if he «!id not rise to return thanks. He saw m.any gentlemen present who were at the Oxford meeting, and he was not only happy to see My. Ilobbs carry off the prize, by producing that noble quality of wheat, but also to see so many neighbours to witness the distribution. (Applaiife.) He was also gratified by its being determined that the meeting of next year should be at Cambridge, to give an opportu- nity for East England to appear there, and exhibit wheat or stock. He had no doubt that this opportunity for the Eaitern Counties would not be thrown away, and he was sure those gentlemen who would take the trouble to go that sliort distance, weuld be amply gra- tified by the result. He understood that they would have better treatment than at Oxford, at the entrance of the Pavilion, and should not run the risk of having' their coats torn oft' their backs. The CnAin.MAN expressed his satisfaction that the Chelmsford and E.-scx Agricultural Society was coun- tenanced by most distinguished and influcnti'al charac- ters ia Essex. Their vice-presidency was graced by some distinguished names. That nobleman to whom he never could allude without feelings of consideration. Lord Western, had given them his countenance. Last year, or the year before, his lordship's health permitted him to witness the operations in this field, and he much lamented that his lordship's health did not admit of their having the benefit of his presence on this occasion ; but his pen was never idle. Another vice-president was his noble friend, Lord Rayleigh, to whom the society owed a great debt of gratitude for ihe lively interest he took in liieir proceedings, and the condescending kind- ness he matiifested in attending to tlie most minute de- tails. His Lordship was in the habit of receiving from Lord Western much practical and scientific informa- tion, and had made him instrumenlal to an interesting communicaiion to the public, and he would now ask Lord Rayleigh -whclher he had any communication lately that he was inclined to disclose to this meeting ? Mr. Round concluded by giving the health of Lord Rayleigh, Mr. Bullock (who was also present), and the rest of the vice-presidents. Lord Rayleigh : — Since you have requested me to state whether I have any communication to make from Lord Western, the only one that I have received for some time has been published in the newspapers. Lord Western states, that the average crop ■^kich he had the last three years, as compared with the preced- ing three years, was more than an average one — more than five quarters per acre, and he did not doubt that on the present year's crop, -when thrashed out, the ave- rage would be equally great. At the same time, I felt Lord Western's letter to myself complimentary to me, inasmuch as the experience of a man who has passed so much of his time in agriculture, being cnmmuoi- cated through me to the public, ■5\as gratifying ; but I am not so very intimate with his Lordship's proceed- ings as to give a reason for all he does, nor assurance for all that he writes to me. (Hear, hear.) As so pub- lic an allusion has been made to Lord Western's writing, I cannot let this opportunity pass without saying, that of late I have heard a statement with re- spect to Lord Western's dealings at Helvedon, which, if perhaps we heard the whole truth, would not be so greatlv prejudicial as it might appear to be, to a nobleman at his time of life. {Hear, licar.) I have received one communication on the subject of wheat, and as I was made the medium to the public on one system, it is but fair, when another statement is put into my hands, tp make that also known. I have been told there has 326 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. been a statenaent prepared by Mr. Robert Dixon, from ■which it would appear that the same trials were pur- sued, and the results ace the fame ;— and both of these statements are opposite to that which is recommended by Lord Western. (Hear, hear.) That which I hold in my hand is by Mr. Joseph Foster, who farms ISlunt's Hall Farm, Witham. The wheat he tried was the Gilden Drop sort, on land of the same description. His Lordship then read the following particulars : — C D a Ui ►a P5 3 TJ CD •a s! 3 ^ n ns a ►a >-> p m 1 p 1 ja (i> H o O 5° ^ ft ^O a. -< o '. t3 m f/l ; '^ m s: I " to to 05 H O 3 D o n O •-h • n P" • m sr c > a. * 0< en w M w W Measure of four w 4- 4^ ►a Stetches. O 10 Average Quan- tity of Corn per o lO •Hh Acre. > 2 ta H .S B ^ p CO OS CO «) Estimated Value per qr. o H ^ _ ,_, ^ < W 2^ Ol at •-I f' Average of Straw ?■ s o '- ^ "-J per Acre. =^ ? a> s lO o 5 s o 1 o M w l<^ ^5 Amount per Acre, according o PI M •a w to estimated S?- ^ O •Hh Cb Value per Acre. 1- O O ^i o Cl »0 to ." Cost of Seed per Acre. •-3 a to ^ p. Net estimated H- M M 1^. Value of Corn H co rf>' 1^ ." per Acre, after 13 duducting for o »it p- Seed. P His Lordship then continued: — I can but say that we have these results too late to make an investigation of the matter, and probably Lord Western's produce is rather to be ascribed to his high farming that anything else. (Hear, hear.) Mr. Dixon farms highly, but in a different way, and his produce is different ; and it ap- pears that Lord Western's system does not give the same advantages to the producer. Now we are on the subject of putting seed into the ground, perhaps the Chairman will call on the Secretary to read some pa- pers which he has in his possession, sent by a warm friend of agriculture— one on whose nicety of calcula- tion and care the company may depend — Mr. Lungley. He has also sent a paper, containing various trials he made on the produce and weight of manure. He has also another paper ou manure, which may per- haps tend to the edification and amusement of the company. Mr. H. S. GiLSON, the Honorary Secretary, then read the following : — TO THE SECRETARY OF THE CHELMSFORD AGRI- CULTURAL SOCIETY. Sir, — So much has been said and written upon the produce and value of many varieties of wheat, that it induced me last October to give a fair trial of nine dif- ferent sorts, upon a clover lay or layer. One qnarter of an acre was appropriated to each sort, and drilled nine inches apart, at the rate of ten pecks per acre. — The land is not congeiiial to the growth of turnips ; soil not deep, subsoil-day. I have been requested by many of the Members to give them the result of the experiment*, perhaps you will be good enough to com- municate the same at the Witham Ploughing Match, on the 10th instant. I remain, Sir Your obedient Servant, Smyth Lungley. Kelvedon, 6th October, 1839. Mr. Gilson. P.S. At the last Agricultural Meeting at Witham, some of the Members expressed a wish to be informed the quantity of manure a given number of beasts would make in the usual time cf grazing, in the winter months, in house or yard. — The inclo&cd are the result of the experiments. N.IJ. Should the above communication be considered too trifling, or too long and tedious to be read to the Members, I beg you will decline troubling them with any of my experiments and remarks. ->l < t>V2 -sua c .^ • •' 2.&S-& — ^i &: -^i E.?f^ c =^ U. ■ — ; s- 12 =s, = = r = =r : .- - - -' ^o ! - ^' "^ ^' t^-s ^ lifif 5 rt m !>• it^taoooo^-'-cos' 00003 0000 ooooooooore-fl >-^i-^o^-o^>-o " ■— M O "^1 — "^ O CO VJ c- Height when standing July 5. Measure of Lnnd. P/oducc '.ipou One Quarter . of an Acre ""■ i« 0 0 IS CO to 13- UH 0 to of Land. Estimated ^ 0 C5 •<1 0 55 en 0 to • value per Quarter. to 60 0 00 CO 0 CO CO 0 CO CD CO Amount of the One Quarter of - 0 0 0 .0 0 to to C! r- an Acre of Land. •M in "^1 CJ C-1 0 0 Vl M C! < Weight of Straw upon 0 CO ^- 0 CO <- to 0 to *- <% One Quarter to (4 00 0 CO CO ^1 0 to to _o- of an Acre. ^ to 0 t« 0 00 CO CO 00 00 CO CO >t- c- Weight of Chaff, ditto. CO CO 0(1 t>5 CO to tn 00 00 »^ •^1 00 00 f Weight of Co. yens 0" Sitc- int;s. 0 t»- 0 CO ffil to 0 <3 CO 0 0 0 ta- J Weight of Wheat per bushel. 1^ en 0 0 CO CO 0 CO Quantity of Wheat per acre. 5i Oi 0 E CO CT to >1^ CO CO (S Value of the v> 0 !^ 0 lf>. 0 Cn 0 CO Wheat per acre. 0 a 0 0 0 00 0 00 0 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 327 The following- statement from Mr. Lungley, of an experiment with reg-ard to manure was also read : — " Tied up to graze in a house, on the 1st of Decem- ber, six Aberdeen three-year-®ld Scots: fed upon turnips, oil-cake, meal, and cut clover-hay : kept the same eighteen weeks : littered with good wheat straw twice a day, and cleaned out every time— one truss of straw, weig-hing- 36 lbs., every morning-, the sami:; at nig-ht : weight of straw for the eighteen week.?, 5 tons 2 cwt. ; made 29 large tumbrel loads of raw muck — each tumbrel or cart contained about 45 heaped bushels: when rotted, and in a fit state to cart upon land (when it would not spit er fork well), it wasted to 10^ loads — the same tumbrels used as before ; 10^ tumbrel loads weighed 12 tons, 15 cwt. 1 qr., 24 lbs. ; average per load, 1 ton, 4 cwt, 37 lbs.'' "Grazed in an open yard and shed, on the 1st of December, six large three-year-old heifers; fed with turnips, oil-cake, meal and, cut clover: kept in the yard sixteen weeks ; well littered down with barley straw every day (straw not weighed) : when carted from the yard it made 33 large tumbrel loads of raw muck— when carted upon the land, in a proper state of rottenness, it wasted to 15 loads— weighed exactly 15 tons ; average weight, one ton per load. The 16 weeks unusually dry for the time of year, or more straw would have been consumed." The CiiAiRMAx. Before we proceed further in our communication of practical matters, 1 mu?t call on you to acknowledge the services of our intellitrent and ctfi- cient Secretary. {Cheers.) From the first moment of the Society's existence, Mr. Gilson has given it his most unceasing attention, and he has received every applica- tion that can conduce to the furthering of the general objects of the Association, or at our festive meetings of adding to our individual comforts. His services are mo&t valuable, and 1 drink his health cordially and gratefully. ( Qheers. ) Mr. Gii.sox, in returning: thanks, said he felt it a duty as well as a pleasure, on this and on all other oc- casions, to do that which was most consonant with the feelings of the members. They had heard of Coutcur's Wheat, and Velvet Chaff, and a variety of other sorts ; but in his opinion the Golden Drop had done most service to the Society's labours. Those seeds, if properly placed, would be of essential service to the young persons who had met here to-day. If they reaped them hereafter by quarters of acres, every member of this Society would be proud to put Ids hand into his pocket to lay out liis money to so great advantage. Ititwas placed in the Savings' Bank, it might hereafter be tiie means of the persons who had received it bringing up a family of children, and of enjoying more comfort them- selves. Mi . G. concluded by repeating his thanks, and reminding the company that the Society could only be kept up by an accession of nev;' members, to fill up the places of others who might die or leave this part of the country. Mr. HoBEs said, that as I\Ir. Lungley had made use of his name, he wished it not to go out to the public that the wheat mentioned was not the sort wdiich gained the prize at Oxford, but it was that which gained the sweepstakes last year. Mr. Hutley had a right to the credit ; but it was not the most productive wheat of the sort. That which gained the prize at Oxford would bear, net only the test of sample, but of produce. Several new members were elected The CiiATRMAN, in requesting IMr. Gilson to read the Report on the Sweepstakes entered into last ytar, ob- served that he must express his thanks to the sub- scribers who had permitted a considerable portion of the money to go to tlte rewards of the young ploughmen this day. The Secretary then read the rport. g g s ^ T' T' "t^ 2^ E C S 5= fJ2 ^ ^ 3 « 1- » ^ » ^ ^ n ^ S-" f^ s: ^ <1 » ^ — ■ ■< re P _. P r» ?J '. '. o o o:». CO CO CO ^ Measure of ro NO bs * six Stetches. 00 00 00 -s *. ,(^ rf^iO Produce of o to CO =■ ditto. lO O »0 CO CO o? v> V| VI aj CO CO ' o • Value per do. J^ o» Et t+1 kf^ K) t(^ t£> iJ^Oi^ Amount. t-. ^ o o CO ooco r" ^ w lo<^ VJ 00 o S Average of o CO cc-5 Straw per Acre. (« M O! 5- o la CO co:3 Average of CO <— 0-2 Chaff — **b per Acre. Average o- quantity of to en Crt ■ Corn (a »a corj" pfr Acre. m m Ci £• Net VVciglit CO t« to ;« per Bushel. SJ w vj VI es o "; Amount per ^ _ ^■ Acie, accor- to ,d^ o »^ Qi CJ C! o i" ding to esti- o CO o >;.. cot- CO oco?- mated Value.! '■3 S" w tn ; p re I 1/2 ^aS »-.™ "r — ra ^■Z S-. '^ ?5 =?2 ^'S ts re •<> 5 o m » -r CT^ • ^ re "T^c- " 1— I o rj -. — "^ re H- - £.2 <^c/} a c- . o 3 re ^' s — ^ ?^ ?j ro f^ =■ a. i. c ^^ "■^ w Str - p S"= c S: Sere's. ^<^^<3 re- o:^° i>5 5" ^''n re r^ ^ - ^ n V ^^ §-" re S 3 C — "^ 3 Lord Rayleigh said he thought the society was under great obligations to gentlemen who made experi- ments, and thus made details of the results ; he, there- fore, proposed the health of Mr. Lungley, Mr. John Hutley, and Mr. Foster. Mr. .T. Hutley returned thanks. The Chairbian gave the health of the Judges. The Chairma>' then gave the health of ]\Ir. Crump, who had so liberally and kindly accommodated the so- ciety, not only to-day, but formerly, with the use of a field for the ploughing. jMr. Crump returned thanks. Lord Rayleigh — On former occasions we have had some pleasant speeches from a person who delivered himself very well, and who in some small matters has applied himself to improvement of the soil. Since then he has undertaken farming on a greater scale, and 1 believe has been following more extensively his expe- riments on manui-e. (llea'^, liear.) He was, last year, very instructive in showing us how well he had grown some fine Swede turnips. Since then he has had agri- culturists from different parts of the county to look at his various applications of manure ; but as many may not have had the opportunity of visiting his farm, per- haps he will indulge us by giving us some idea of what he thinks to be the result of his practice. The gentle- man to whom I allude is well known to the company as performing with zeal whatever he undertakes : it is Mr, James Beadel — {applause} — and when it is our object to gain information, t'iose gentlemen who give their time, their land, and their money, in buying manure to discover its effects, we are much indebted to them, and ought to show our gratitude by drinking their healthst I myself tried a small quantity of saltpetre— about ose cwt. — to some Italian rye grass, and the effect was won- derful. I sowed the seed with oats in the spring, and fed it till Christmas, and then mowed it for seed, 1 328 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tlien let it grow, and fed it close ; nnd at tlie beg-inning' of summer it was quite bnre. I then powpj one half of a small field with saltpetre, and the cflcct at first was prodig'ious — there was very green vegetation there, while there was none on the other half, and you mtiy see tlie effect of it to this moment. Mr. Beadel, in returning thanks, said he had been trying some experiments on the use of saltpetre, and any information in his power he was happy to commu- nicate ; for he considered that, as a body of persons associated for the improvement of Agriculture they had a right to expect information on saltpetre, or any other experiments. It always appeared to him de-^irable for persons to tnrn their attention to one olijcct at a time, and last year his attention was turned to the applica- tion ef manure, and amongst the other substances he tried saltpetre, for he imagined it might be used to advantage. He tried it on wheat and put on a clay soil one cwt. per acre, and the wheat looked more vigor- ous than the other, and during the season promised to be more productive : the result was, that there was the same weight of straw and the same quantity of wheat, but its weight was less ; therefore, a"? far as saltpetre went as a dressing to wheat, he considered the experi- ment anything but successful ; but on that point he should try it again and again, as a matter of experiment. He ti'ied it on a piece of barley, on land where Swede turnips had been drawn off the last winter; there the appearance was the same, and he took care to have each portion separately harvested, and found the result to be an increase of fifteen bushels peracre, and (ilOlb':. weight of straw in favour of saltpetre. In this instance he be- lieved the quantity of one cwt. was too great, and that if he had ujed only three quarters the barley would not have been laid, which deteriorated the sample. He also tried for oats on a sandy soil, and the appearance was the same ; the increase from the saltpetre was twenty bushels, and half a load of straw. He also tried it on turnips, on a clay and on a gravelly soil, and the result was the same in both instances. When saltpetre was used as a top dressing for turnips, it did not succeed ; but did so when drilled in. It was inefficacious, so far as he saw, for mangel wurzel. On grass land the ef- fect was prodigious ; he had applied it alter the pasture had been mowed for h:.\y,in asmallcjuantity ; and when tlie cattle were turned in, they gnawed it close down to the earth, on the jiart where the saltpetre had been, but they did rot touch any other part till they had eaten that. He had likewise tried wool v.aste — (the cuttings of ends of cloth in the loom) on wnizel it had been very effective, and also with potatoes. Desiccated compost he found to be excellent for wurzel, and it made a dif- ference of ten or twelve cwt. per acre. He thought that a mistake was made as to the use of saltpetre, or any other artificial manure, by relying on it to reduce the necessity of making as much muck as possible. It was only to be u-ed as a help to the farmer. For himself he knt»v that he had never been able to make so much muck as he could use, and he thought that saltpetre, desiccated compost, and other things, easy to be got, were extremely useful to the farmer. The Chairman reminded the Meeting that before the close of the present month there would be more than one agricultural meeting in the county, and one of them was presided over by a kind and active nobleman, and he was sure that all who attended it would be highly gratified. The SalTron Waldcn Association had set an excellent example, and he was sure that all who knew the valuable qualities of the noble president, would cordially unite in drinking Lord Braybrooke, and the Saffron Walden" Agricultural Association. Lord Eayleigh said that a friend on his left sug- gested a sweepstakes, for which an additional sovereign or two might be given to the ploughboys. It had been suggested to his lordship at the beginning of the even- ing, that Mr. Wm. Hutley ofl'ered to compete with any two gentlemen to show wurzel. When they saw that they had in the field 40 ploughmen, and only 6 boys, he thought it desirable that two gentlemen should take up M(. Hutley's challenge for such a purpose. Perhaps Mr. Hobbs would be one. Mr. Hobbs said he was a great advocate for joining in a sweepstakes, when he had any chance of winning ; but he could not contend for wurzel with Mr. Hutley on his own land ; but he would grow his seed with Mr. Hutley on his (Mr. Hutley's) own land. Lord Rayleigh said it had not been the inten- tion of Mr. Hutley to show very extraordinary mangel, but he had resolved to do so that the boys should not lose the advantage they had enjoyed at this and pre- vious meetings. The suggestion that Mr. Hobbs should compete with Mr. Hutley came from his Lordship, and not from Mr. II. The difficulty was, that Mr. Hutley's wurzel was ready now ; but he was willing to show 12 roots on the morning of the meeting next year. It was intended to be the long wurzel. A Sweepstakes of One Sovereign eachwas then en- tered into between Mr. William Hutley, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Unnin Pattisson, .Jacob Howell Pattisson, Esq., and Mr. John Upston, to show 12 roots of long red mangel, to be taken from a growth of not less than .'! acres, to be produced in the jjloughing field at the next Witham meeting in 1840, and to be judged by persons appointed by the committee. One sovereign to be paid to the winner, two sovereigns to be added to the prizes for plough boys, in the second class, and the remaining sovereign to be appropriated as the committee may di- rect. The following prize was offered by W. H. Pattisson, Esq , for IS 10 T— "A Prize of One Sovereign to the Domestic Servant who shall have been the longest regular depositor in the Witham Savings' Bank." The following by Jacob Howell Pattisson, Esq. : — "A Prize of One Sovereign to the Cottager who shall grow the greatest number of bushels of potatoes on one rod of ground, the measure of the land and po- tatoes to be certified by a member of this Society.'' The company soon after separated. It.AILWAVS AND THE GROWTH OF CORN. — Being a few days since in company with several far- mers, and requested by them to calculate the exteiit of land occupied by the Grand Junction Railroad from London to Liverpool, and also the quantity of oats con- sumed by the horses employed for one up and down coach, and the extent of land necessary on which to grow them, the following is the result : — From London to Liveipool, 2(X^ miles, 11 yards wide, is exactly four acres per mile, not including that part occupied by the soil excavated, that is, the sides. The aggregate from each of the said places is 860 acres. Divide the distance from London to Jjverpool into twenty stages by the turjijiikeroad, and 10 miles each stage, and there are eight horses for changing daily at each stage, for two coaches; the total number then, for 20 stages, require 160 horses on the whole distance. It wns agreed that each horse would consume half a bushel of oats daily (they eat very little bay, and their every-day work is the same ), consequently they consume every day 80 busii- els, which in one year amount to 29,200 bushels ; and allowing 25 bushels per acre, would require 1,168 acres of land toproducG thein. Thiscalculaiion isforoneupand down coach only. How many have discontinued run- ning sinc^ the ojjeningof therailroad,Iam not prepared to say; but it will be no exaggeration to su])pose ten. Then, for this number, 292,000 bushels would be con- sumed annually, requiring 11,680 acres of la:rt was only the signal for the increase of the demand ; and thus poverty, wretchedness, and dirt were his only pro- tection ; he was compelled to assume the appearance of destitution, even if the reality di.l not exist. I do not say, that this was altogether the work of the TOE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. landlords, in districts W-Lere tbe people were sub- jected to the kind of exhaustion described in tiie fore- going statements. The land receivers had a bounty themselves in keeping up the system. It was not unusual for the agent to be a dealer in corn, or in connexion with a corn mercliant. The tenant's corn seized and sold at the cheap season of the year, was transported to the receiver's haggard and stores, and sold in the Spring season, at a profit ; and part of it again re-sold to the tenant, for seed to l)e put in the earth, at double the rate (not of the original but) of the advanced market price, charged in consideration of the credit to be given,~the agent paying himself, or the merchant with whom he was in connexion, out of the first proceeds of the usual seizure, at the following November. In giving this account, I do not wish to name particular districts ; I do not wish that one word or sentiment should escape me, to hurt tho feelings of any individual proprietor; but I am certain, that what I have here stated can be vouched for by undoubted authorities. Where the evils I have slated may not exist, there are other evils, arising to tlie occupier from tlie mode of letting land. In many cases, he holds it from what are termed middlemen, vv\w have the le.ises of land, at a moderate rent, from the head landlord, and who re-let it, in dn'isions, to the small occupier, at double or treble the fair value. Again, another practice exists, of holdings in common, by which a number of partners hold jointlj^ under the same lease, and by which each occupier is liable, at any time, to be distrained for the rent of the whole : the inevitable consequence of which is, that the honest, industrious, improving tenant ('if any such could be found on n lease of this description), would be made responsi- ble for the idleness, the dishonesty, or the indolence of his partner. But another consequence results from such a system as I have described, that the tenant has no confidence either in tlie continuance of his occupancy, or, in the case of expulsion (or at the termination of bis lease), of receiving any value for tho expendi- ture of labour in the good cultivation or other im- provement of his con-acre. A rent is demanded from the occupier equal to what could be obtained from any bidder for it, according to the condition in which it stands, and to which it has been brought by his labour and capital. If he should have made buildings on it, and thereby raised the value, he is charged a rent equivalent to that very value which he himself has actually created ; thus forcing him to pay double for his improvements ; and consequently, the more wi'etched his condition is, or appears to be, lie is less liable to inordinate exactions. If he bet- ter bis condition, or exhibit an}' symptoms of enjoy- ing the comforts of life, exactions are demanded from him, whichmust deprive him of these comforts ; and in case of refusal, he is unmercifully dispossess- ed, to make room for a new bidder, to enter into the enjoyment of all the advantages of the labour of bis predecessor. But these are short-lived enjoyments to the new-comer, because he is, in like manner, barrassed in his turn, and after a few years, sutlers a similar fate. Such are the practices in many parts of Ireland ; and under such circumstances, can any tiling else be expected, but that want of industry, want of energy, illegal associations, and violence, should prevail, and should become, as it were, the inherent propensities of the population 1 They are born in wretchedness — they arc educated in indolence and. idleness — they never are permitted to know the value of tbe comforts or the decencies of life ; they would derive no pleasure from their enjoyment ; the}' would feel them a restraint, instead of a gratifica- tion. Under such circumstances, the natural and unavoidable consequence is, ignorance — general ig- norance—not only of those acquirements which are obtained by what is usually termed education, but ignorance of the mode of cultivation which is neces- sary to promote the increase of jiroduce, and even when instructed, unwillingness to practice it. Tbe evils produced by such a condition as I have stated, spread themselves like a contagion over the whole mass of population, even although a portion of that population, might bo placed un- der more favourable circumstances. They have no desire or ambition to elevate themselves above the condition of the community in which they live. They find they can possess the means of existence necessary in such a condition of society without the labour requisite for an improved con- dition; aud then, the indolence always natural to human nature, in an uncivilized s*.ate, interposes, and bars the progress to improvement, even under circumstances most favourable to its advancement. From hence arises the difficulty which benevolent landlords, set down like lights glimmering here and there, in tbe midst of the darkness of the dessert, find in inducing the small occupiers to take the course desirable for their own interests, or for the improvement of their own condition. But at the same time improvement is progressing, and if proper means be taken, can be rapidly advanced. These means I shall inquire into, in a future section. The grand cause of the difference of condition in the state of the small occupier, in the North of Ireland, and the greater part of the West and South, is the important distinction which has existed in the relationship of landlord and tenant, ever since the connexion took place in the North of Ireland — namely, at the time of the colonization of that por- tion by the new settlers. The landlords and tenants commenced with a mutual feeling of confidence and kindness, which exists to the present day; the tenant right is respected ; tbe lands are not put up to bidders ; the tenant at the expiration of his lease, on the principal estates, is sure of a renewal on fair terms, without being charged for his improvements ; the system of middlemen and joint-tenancy were not resorted to for the security of the landlord ; and the consequence is, that in no case is the smallest bolder destitute, except by his own fault. Such was not the case in the South and West of Ireland. In these parts confiscations took place ; the persons who held the fee of the lands were attainted ; forfeiture of proparty was the result; and a new race of landlords were placed over the heads of the native occupiers, who had no one feeling in common with their landlord, or their landlord with them. Tbe utmost possible degree of hostility existed, generated by circumstances, and fostered by the laws ; the security of the landlord could only be provided for bv the weakness, ignorance, and impoverishment of the tenant. Thus, the landlords were necessarily tyrants, and the people slaves ; and they bad no feelings towards each other, except those which are naturally to be expected from such a condition of society. From this cause, a fatal stop was put to the ])rogress of improvement, and the minds, habits, and dispositions of the people were degraded ; and an incapability of any effort for their own advancement in condition^ was the unfortunate, but unavoidable consequence. The effects of this state of the relationship of landlord and tenant are operating to the present hour, and can only be removed by the fostering hand of beneficent legislation and parental goverment; and this, if judiciously applied, will renovate an impoverished and degraded people j 342 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and without the violent means of expatriation, will elevate them, as small holders, to a condition of comfort and independence. I trust I have now estahlished the terms of my proposition ; and having before shewn what benefits the small occupier might derive (and in tlie North of Ireland, actually does derive) from his small Lolding, 1 confidently hope I have proved the posi- tion I have endeavoured to maintain— namely, that if destitution exists in connexion with that descrip- tion of small occupancy, which I have been contending for, it arises from otlier extraneous causes, operating to retard or prevent the improve- ment of condition. But I ask, is apparent poverty and bad cultivation, in the parts of Ireland I allude to, confined merely to the small holder ? The larger holder has, perhaps, the means of existence — he is not absolutely in a state of destitution ; but in those districts, if the eye surveys them, is it possible to find a spot (unless within the walls of a gentleman's demesne, and they are scarce, and seldom seen), where there is any thing like wealth or comfort] The house of the farmer of 100 acres is only a shade better than that of his cottier neighbour — everything about his concern in dirt and confusion— no energy manifested — bis clothing, and that of his family, ragged and disordered— his cattle half starved, wandering over fields where grass had probably never been sown after the last crop of corn — fields which were ex- hausted by successive grain crops, till their productive powers became annihilated, and left to rest, till the droppings of these starved cattle should produce a partial regeneration. Is it any advantage to have farms consolidated under the guidance of such a system as this ? No ; it would be only making desolation greater. I maintain then, that the evil of Irish poverty — of Irish destitution— does not arise from small tenancy, but from faults in the condition and in the habits of the farmer, created originally by the causes I have described, and kept up by their continued operation ; and which only can be removed by an improvement in the relation- ship of landlord and tenant, and by such other provisions as will produce an increase of useful education in the working classes. I have referred to the North of Ireland, as ray example of agricultural improvement, because I am best acquainted with that portion of Ireland ; but I am not satisfied, there are districts, both in Leinster and Munster, which are inhabited by a mixed proportion of smaller and larger occupants, and which can vie with any part of the North of Ireland. I am not sufliciently informed to be able to specify those particular districts ; but I know from observation, that they do exist; and where I have observed them, I have always found that they were in connexion with the management either of a fostering landlord, or a benevolent agent. It is also worthy of observation, that in such districts, where improvement is to be found, it pervades the whole mass of the communitj^ whether occupying in smaller or larger divisions; and in like manner, in those districts which I have first alluded to, poverty, indolence, and bad cultivation, reign with permanent sway, through every portion of the occupying population. In my next number, I shall proceed to discuss my tenth and last proposition ; after that, in a con- cluding number, I shall probably suggest some of those measures, which would appear to me the most likely to advance the practical improvement of Ireland. AVm. Sharman Crawford. Crawfordsburn, Sept, 24, No. IX. PROPOSITION TENTir. That extreme subdivision can only be eJfecluaUy pre- vented by improving the condition of the people ; and that the tendency to emigration uill exist in the greatest degree, where that condition is the best. In considering this proposition, it may be useful, in the first instance, to enquire into the means pro- vided, by legal enactment, in Ireland, for checking the extreme subdivision of land and their operation. In very old leases, it was a common practice to insert clauses, binding the tenant not to set, sell, or alienate, in any way, without the permission of the landlord ; but it appeared, that these clauses (not being sufficiently defined in their terms, and having been considered as cancelled, in many cases, by the acts of the landlord, in having accepted rents from new tenants, and being, therefore, set aside by the decisions of (Courts of Law^, became almost en- tirely useless for the purposes intended. In con- sequence of this state of the law, an Act was introduced, and passed, in the year 1826, of the most stringent nature in its provisions, with a view to remedying the evil complained of. One of its objects was, to re-establish the force of these old clauses, notwithstanding any acts of the landlord which might be considered as waivers of their rights. It also restrained the tenant, in the lower description of tenures, from devising to more than one person, even of his own family. This law was complained of as unjust and oppressive, and was repealed by an Act in the year 1832. The provision before alluded to, with reference to old leases, was re-enacted ; but the power was restored to the tenant, of devising to more tlian one, —with an exception of leases granted during the interval between the passing of these Acts, — namely, from 1826 to 1832. I shall not here enter into the various reasons for objecting to the provisions of the first Act. It is sufficient to my present argument to shew, that the Legislature bad made these provisions, with a view to correcting the evil of subdivision ; that this Act had remained in force for about six years ; that, after this experi- ment, the Legislature, although still desirous to correct the practice of subdivision, found it necessary to repeal the most important provision of the former Act, — that which limited the right of devising; and thus the power was again permitted to the parent, to subdivide among the members of his family, with- out being liable to the penalties of alienation. — Al- though evil may, and does, arise from this power, yet it would be monstrous to withold it; it would be depriving a tenant from making a provision, of any kind, for a widow, or for any but one member of his family ; it would be making a law, restoring, partially, the old feudal system, with reference to the poor man : whilst the policy of the present day (the necessary policy of a commercial ctountry) is to relax it, with regard to the rich man ; it would be making one of the children of the deceased parent the tyrant over the widow, and all his brothers and sisters, — he might monopolize the whole, and leave them beggars ; because, if the parent had not a right to devise to more than one, he would not even have the power, legally, to burthen the land with money, as compensation to the rest of his famil}^ Thus, he would be utterly deprived of the power of making a provision, in any way, except for the one child. A feeling of this kind, I presume, operated on the Legislature, in inducing them to repeal the Act of 1826. It appears, from the foregoing short statements, that the landlords, by their clauses against alienation, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 343 and the Legislature, Ly its laws, have been endea- vouring- to check the progress of subdivision ; but, notwithstanding all their attempts, subdivision has been going on, and is still going on. A population reduced to the lowest st.ite of existence, from the causes I have detailed in the preceding number, become desperate ; they have no other resource ; their condition is so bad, it cannot be made worse. A small patch of ground insures food for at least a portion of the year ; and thus subdivision goes on. It breaks through all attempted restraints, in the same way that it is said " hunger breaks through stone walls." But, if subdivision could only be checked by the power of the law, what would be the benefit of it 1 If the check only arose from such means, would the condition of tlie people be im- proved ? Unless the desire existed, not to sink in the scale of society — unless there is some ambition to obtain and preserve the decencies and comforts of life — can the circumstances of the peasantry be im- proved, whether in large or small farms 1 I have already stated, that, where that desire is absent, we see the same desolation and poverty pervading the ■whole mass of the population. Can this be denied ? I am enabled to produce additional evidence, in support of these positions, by a reference to facts connected with emigration. I am enabled to shew, that, notwithstanding the farms are let in smaller divisions in the North than in any other part of Ireland, yet, that, in place of indefinite subdivision, emigration is there restored to, in a greater degree than in those parts where the condition of the people is less improved, and where the larger farms are com- bined with a cottier population. I have, in the Parliamentary Returns of Revenue, Population, and Commerce, of 1835, page IS'i, a return of emigrants from the different ports of Ireland, from 1831 to 1835 (inclusive). The total number, in these five years, is 100,664 persons, from all the ports in Ireland given in these returns. Of these, the port of Belfast alone gives 21,803; being more than l-5th of the whole number from Ireland. The ports of Ulster, taken together ("namely, Belfast, Londonderry, Newry, Strangford, Larne, Donegall, Ballyshannon^, give 38,355 emigrants; being nearly four- tenths of the whole emigration of Ireland ; whereas, the emigration from the ports of Connaught (namely, Galway , Westport, Killala, Sligo,) only amounts to 14,028 persons — not more than two-thirds of the emigrants from the port of Belfast alone. Dublin is the only port which exceeds Belfast, yielding 24,114 persons; but these probably come to the metropolis from all parts of Ireland ; whereas, the emigration from Belfast must be supposed to consist chiefly of emigrants from the province of Ulster. Now, I believe it cannot be disputed, that the dis- trict of Down and Antrim, surrounding Belfast, has the most comfortable population in Ireland [chiefly small holders) ; and yet, here the emigration is in- comparably the greatest ; because the population, being accustomed to the reasonable comforts of life, prefer emigration to descending into the sphere of pauperism. For this purpose, I desire to see a facility for emigration supplied. I desire to see the ready means aftbrded for a population, having arrived at a tolera- ble state of comfort, to throw off its superfluities by voluntary emigration ; but I do not laish to see a po- pulation eradicated, whilst we have the means within ourselves to make them comfortable at home. 1 do not wish to see the prosperity of Ireland rested on the basis of (what I must call) compulsory emigration. I do not wish to see it rested on a principle of ex- tended consolidation of land j because this can only operate as conferring a monopoly on capitalists, to amass undue superfluities of wealth, to the disad- vantage of the great body of the community — de- priving them of that wliich the great Creator of the universe conferred on his creatures, namely, the soil, to labour and subsist on by the sweat of their brow. This, I assert, they might be permitted to enjoy, without subverting any of the rights of pro- perty which have been established for the benefit of civilized society, but with advantage, as much to their landlords as to tliemselves, and to the whole community. Thus, I infer, there is no danger to apprehend, that small holdings will degenerate into indefinite subdivision, provided other concurrent measures are resorted to, for stimulating and giving power to the occupiers to elevate themselves, by their labour, to such comforts of life as, I have already shewn, these small holdings can afford them the means to possess. But I shall be asked, what now is to be done with the Irish cottiers 1 How is that class to be provided for, which is returned in the population enumeration as labourers without lands ? I shall be asked, is not Australia to be their berth 1 I would answer in the Irish fashion, by asking a question in reply — what is to be done with 5,000,000 of uncultivated Irish acres ? I would ask, why are not those poor people to get settlements in their own land, as well as in a foreign land 1 Why are not measures to be taken to bring this provision for them into effective operation ? Why are those practical means, which are easily within our reach, to be cast aside, to adopt others, whose practicability is, indeed, very problematical ? The number of the labouring class without land amounts to about half a million of families ; the re- claimable lands, to 5,000,000 acres. I say, then, give those families settlements on the reclaimable lands of Ireland ; instruct them, and instruct the others who have land, in the best means of rendering it available to their benefit. I would ask only 2,500,000 acres out of the 5,000,000 ; this would sup'- ply 10 acres a-piece to each of the labouring families having no land. The rest of the 5,000,000 of acres might go to the big farmers, on the consolidation prin- ciple ; and, by the time these men should become broken merchants (which would certainly be the case, in the event of the Corn Laws being repealed), my little farmers would be prepared to advance them- selves, by an additional complement of the other ten acres, which would then be ready for distribution among them. There are legislative measures neces- sary to effect these objects, which I shall explain in a concluding number. But, supposing that all the points of argument which the emigrationists claim were conceded to them — that the labouring population of Ireland was to be reduced by emigration to two-fifths of the pre- sent number — that they were to he sent eut to Aus- tralia— I should wish to understand how the pro- prietors of the Company are to effect this object, from a reference to the resolutions passed at the Dub- lin meeting, of the 17th of July last, it would appear, that the Guardians of any Union were to be empow- ered, on payment of 80i., to obtain a free passage for four emigrants ; that land was to be purchased with this80Z. ; but (mark) this land is not to be given as sell le- menls to ihe emigrants so sent out, but to be resold at a future time ; then to be applied to the passage of four other emigrants from the same Union ; and thus, by a repetition of this process, to dispauperize the Union. Now, let us examine what the several par- ties would gain by this. If 1 understand the propo- sition, the passage is only offered to able-bodied emi- grants } because, by a subsequent resolution, it ap- 344 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. pe^rs lliey arc to bo ensured einplovment. as labourers, on Uieir arrivnl ; niul, by an advertisement from tho Company, in a liellast paper now before rae, tl)e offer made to tbose piircbasing 80 acres of land (paying 8()<. for the same), is, " the right to nominate emigrants of the labouring class, f(>r a free steerage i)assagc, to the extent of four adulls, two men and two women." I ask, then, what would the Guardians of a Union gain by this ; or, what would Ireland gain ? Would it produce a reduction of the number of agricultural families? No such thing : it would li-ave tlie most lielpless portion of every family behind— it would leave the father, and the mother, and the helpless children, and pick out only those who weie best able to support themselves and the families they had de- serted, 'J'luis, the same number of families would remain, strij^ped of their best sinews, and more likely to become a charge on the public taxation than before. It would be a reduction of the population, in the worst possible form for the interests of the country. Next, what would the poor emigrants themselves gain 1 What is the amount of tho offer ! Are they to get any of the land to be purchased with the mo- ney of the Guardians? Not a fraction of it — it is to be resold, as before slated, to settlers who havenioney to buy it. The resolution simply offers them employ- ment at the ])ublic works, " until they obtain era- jiloyraent at the higher wages prevalent in the colon}-." 'J'liere is no farther guarantee — when they are dis- posed of in this way, all responsibility ends. Tliey were labourers in their own country ; they are to be labourers in their new country. To this new country they go, unprovided with » single necessary of life, on a speculation between the Guardians of the Union and the Emigration Trustees, unprovided even with that which would elevate them in their own countrv, and which would be requisite to raise their condition in any other country — education. — They undoubtedly may prosper : but, if they do. it will be by the work of l;htir own hands. They will owe no compliment either to the (iuardians or tlie Trustees. The Guard- ians of the Unions are invited to become, as it were, jjartners in the profits of the South Australian specu- lation, and the article of merch mdixe is to be — the able-bodied labourers of Ireland ! 13ut the Company, if tbey get the description of persons they desire, will gain that which tbey most want, able-bodied labourers, artisans, and mechanics, and young females, iiy these means, the improvement and the ])opulation of tlie colony will be increased, whilst Ireland would be stripped of her best hands, and the aged and the young left to be burthens on the public taxation. Such appears to me the bearings of the project, as now laid before the public. I take the statement from the published documents. If I misunderstand those documents, I am willing to profit by correction. I liave seen no offer {or the removal of families — no offer except to the able-bodied. I ask, will the Company give free pnssages to emigrants going out with fami- lies, the children 7wt being of an agefit to luork ; and, if thei"^ will not, I ask to have it explained, bow their project can be of any value, in providing for the de- population of estates, produced by the consolidation, of farms 1 If onlv the able-bodied are to be accepted, I ask, bow the father and mother, and the j'oung children of these dispossessed families, are to be supported? This is the point to which I desire to draw attention. The project is recommended to the attention of Irish landlords (in the speech of Colonel Torrens), as the means of providing for dispossessed families. I wish to know how it is to operate in that way. 1 wish that tiie landlords of Indand .should not be tempted to pro- gress with tho depopulating system, resting on means of provision which do not really exist. This is ray object in scrutinizing the project of South Australian emigration. ]5ut, supposing none of the objections I have stated to the South Australian project to be of any weight, — supposing the (company were willing to give free passages to the whole t'atnilies, and that even those families were to get free settlements, — how would their transportation be practicable, in the numbers necessary, in order to provide for the great mass of population proposed to be ejected? — Colonel Torrens, in the extract I gave in my first number, states, that the labouring population must be reduced to two-fifths of its present number. The present number of families being 1,131,715, in reducing them to two-fifths, the number to be provided for would be 679,029 families. It is stated, in Colonel Torrens' sjieech, that in the year 18:>B, 3,300 persons were sent out in thirty ships, at Wl. a-head ; this was at the rate of llO adults for each ship. — But, supposing whole families were to be sent out, ofcourse a greater number of individuals could be carried in each ship ; but, if we take fifty families, young and old, for each ship (which would be an average of at least 250 head of population), and if we suppose the large number of 100 ships to be employed, the emigration would only amount to 5,000 families each year, or 25,000 head of the population ; at which rate, it would re- f)uire l35 years before the reduction necessary for this jjroject could be effected ! If I used a thousand arguments, it would not be possible to shew the ex- travagant absurdity of the proposition, in terms so strong as the simple statement now produced. If the defenders of this plan say, that my positions are wrong, then I call upon them to shew, in what length of time they will engage to transport the number of families stated. Again, if Ave estimate the expense, the proportion is 20/. for each adult. Suppose whole families, at the average of five heads to each family, to be taken, at only double the cost of one individual, what would be the expense of removing the number required ? It would amount to the enormous sicni o/' 27,161,160/. ! Is it not necessary to consider how this money is to be raised, whether by the landlord or the poor rates : and, if a sum to this amount could be raised, whe- ther it might not be applied in some other mode, more beneficial to the interests of the poor of Ireland ? Let me not be supposed to object to the system as a benefic'al outlet for voluntary emigration, in throw, ing off the superflous members of an improving so- ciety; in giving the facility of advancing themselves, by the purchase of land (which appears to be offered on most advantageous term.sj, to those who have ac- quired any means for that purpose; but I object to it as being held forth as a stimulus to landlords, to progress with w/io/esa/e depopulation ; I object to it as a delusion, when offered as a provision for the wants of that population. I object to it as being made a foundation on which to base the regeneration and im- provement of Ireland. I particularly request attention to this point, be- cause I appear to be misunderstood bjr some, as oh- jecling to emigration, generally . I do not object to it ; I think it a valuable and importantmode of providing for the rising generation; but I deprecate it when advanced as the means of an extended system of extirpation. Wm. Suaum^x CrtAAvronD. Craivfordshurn, Sept, 26,1839. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 345 No. X. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. Having, in my last number, completed tbe review of the several propositions into which I had divided the subject of discussion in my iirst number, I pro- ceed in closing the series, to submit a few suggestions as to the means by which, in my judgment, the prin- ciples I have advocated could be advanced. I shall first notice the objection which is raised with reference to the reclaiming of waste lands, and otherwise inducing tenants to improve ; namely, that landlords in many cases, have neither the means nor the power ; that, a great part of the lands of Ireland being under entail, the existing landlords are only tenants for life ; and, therefore, cannot themselves raise money for the purpose of improving, and cau" not give leases of such tenure as to induce the tenant to lay out money for that purpose. It is perfectly true, that those obstacles at present exist ; but, it is equally true, that the legislature could easily remove them, without doing violence to the interest of any party. The same difficulty existed in Scotland, and was removed by an act of the legislature j and this removal has been productive of tbe most beneficial effects, in promoting the improvement of that por- tion of the United Kingdom. A bill was introduced by Mr. Lynch, the member for Galway, and was discussed in committee, in the last parliament of the reign of Wm. IV. (1Q37) ; but that, with many other bills, was dropped, in consequence of the king's decease, and has not, I believe, been since renewed. Its object was, to give power to landlords, being- tenants for life, to raise money under the approval of the court, to be expended on the entailed lands, and the profits to go to the benefit of the trusts. Another bill was introduced at the same time by the same gen- tleman to promote the reclamation and improvement of the waste lands of Ireland, which contained many useful provisions, and which proposed to give exten- sive powers to commissioners, to be appointed by the government, in forcing, under certain circumstances, the reclaiming of lands, and providing equitably for the interests of proprietors. Some might say that this would be an infringement of the rights of property. I deny it. I maintain that when a state, for the interests of society, permits a property to be acquired in land — permits a mo- nopoly of the sdil to be vested in any individual as private property — it can only do so, subject to the eternal decree of the Creator, that man shall be sub- sisted off that soil, and that no individual can have a right to hold land in a state of barrenness, when it can be converted into a productive condition, for the benefit of society. The state has a right to say to a proprietor, — If you will not reclaim these lands, we will reclaim them, allowing you your due benefits. By such measures as these, provision could be made for the settlement on land of the cottier population of Ireland, as stated under the head of my last propo- sition. The next object I shall notice is, the agricultural education of the people. The principles of agricul- ture should be a leading feature of instruction in every school supported by the state ; and model farms should, as far as possible, be connected with schools, in order to show the practical operation of the science ; because, no matter how good the instruction, nothing but practical exemplification will induce a population to adopt new systems. I have understood, that it ■w^s the intention of the National Education Board to arrange a system of this kind ; and I trust that sufficient means will be supplied to them, in the public grants, for this most useful purpose. I now come to another measure, which appears to me to be of an importance incomparably bevoud all others, for promoting the improvement of Ireland ; namely, the securing to the tenant a right to claim compensation for improvements, on a fair valuation, in case of being ejected by Ids landlord. During the three sessions I sat in parliament, for the Borough of Dundalk, my efforts were directed to this object. I brought bills before the house ; but I met with so many obstructions, and so little sup- port, that I never was able to advance these bills to the stage of a committee. The principle I contended for was, that the tenant (if evicted for any other rea- son than the non-payment of rent) was justly en- titled to compensation, for labour and capital ex- pended, in such degree as the expenditure of that labour and capital had increased the value of the farm. I did not claim, that, if a tenant laid out money, extrava- gantly or uselessly, he should be compensated to the amount so expended; but that he should be com- pensated on a computation of the degree in which that expenditure had produced an increased value to the landlord. Is not this just and equitable to both par- ties! Would it not serve the landlord's interest as much as the tenant's ? Would it not advance the interests of the whole community, by encouraging the expenditure of both labour and capital on land 1 This was the principle I contended for, and which I endeavoured to sustain by my bill ; and I also con- nected with this principle a power to be given to the landlord to recover damages from the tenant for in- jury from wilful neglect or wilful deterioration. JMy bill might be defective in its details, and I am cer- tain might have been improved. I only desired to contend for the principle, and I was ready to leave the arrangement of the details to be decided by those who might be more capable of forming them. If the Irish character be considered, it will, I think, be admitted, that a measure of this kind would afford the most powerful incentive to industry which could be devised. If there be any one trait in the character of an Irish peasant which is pre-eminently marked, it is bis desire for the occupation of land. It is this which impels him to proceedings the most violent — to murders, to assassination, to every de- scription of agrarian outrage. This leading desire is said to be combined with a disposition to indolence (either natural or acquired, from the circumstance in which he is placed.) If, then, any measure can be adopted which will cause the gratification of this leading principle to rest on the exertion of industry, that very actuating motive, which, under other cir-- cumstances, would lead into the commission of crime, will operate to his own benefit, and to the good of every interest in the state. Such would be the result of the measure I propose. His hold on the possession — his defence against eviction — would be proportioned to the extent of his industry ; for, the greater that industry, the greater would be the amount of his claim against the land- lord ; and, the greater the amount of that claim, he would be in the better condition, at the expiration of his lease, to come to a fair agreement with his land- lord, for a renewal on just and equitable terms : and, if he could not agree for renewal, he would have the certainty of the means to provide himself elsewhere. At the same time, there would be no danger of the landlord's interest being injured ; because, if care be taken to form the details in such manner as to insti- tute an impartial principle of valuation, it would be the interest of both parties to agree. The Irishman's attachment to his native spot would prevent his sur- render of it, unless the rent demanded by the land- lord was excessive; and the landlord would always 2 A r 346 THE FARMER S MAGAZINE. be reluctant (and, perliii|)s, would generally find it inconveniisnt} to pay compensation, if the old improv- ing tenant could be retained on such terms as would yield him a fair rent for the land. It has been made an objection to the enactment of a principle of this kind, that many Irish landlords had not means to pay for improvements ; but let it bo marked, that, by my Bill, they would not be liuble to pay, except on ejectment of the tenant. If the tenant should take out a new lease, he could not claim ; because, then, he could secure himself by the terms of his new agreement, and he would be left in the continued enjoyment of his own improvements. It would only come against the landlord, in case, by demanding an extortionable rent, he placed the tenant in the ])Osition of surrendering the premises, or in case, from other causes, the landlord desired to dispossess the tenant. The great difficulty in the framing of a measure of this kind, at tlie time my Bill ■was introduced, was, the jiroviding a safe and impartial machinery for valuation ; but this difliculty would be now, in a great measure, removed ; because a valuation between land- lord and tenant must be made under the Poor Law Actj and, whatever machinery shall be adopted for thatpurpose, might be made available to the purposes of the measure I project. I do not say, that difficulties will not exist, in arranging the details of a Landlord and Tenant Act ; but, 1 maintain there are no difficulties which cannot be overcome, if the mind and talent of the country were applied to a practical consideration of the ques- tion. 'J'here are various other im))roveraents in the law of Landlord and Tenant, which could be incorporated in an Act of this nature, which, my space does not permit me even to r.llude to ; but I shall remark, that a provision could be made against too minute subdi- vision, by an enactment, that, in caseof thatsubdivi- sion taking place beyond a certain limit, the benefits of the Act should be forfeited. But the importance of sucb a measure as this, for the improvement of Ireland, is vouched for by higher authority than mine. In Appendix F., Irish Poor Law Inquiry (subject, " Landlord and Tenant"), the ■witnesses, at eacli place where an examination was held, were questioned as to the advantage of a mea- sure such as that I have been advocating. I find eighteen diflerent examinations detailed, and the evidence, in every case, with the exception of two, is strongly declared in favour of its justice and utility, I shall extract a few quotations. Page 143 — " It would be most desirable for all parties, that the landlord should be compelled to take all improvements at a fair valuation, and the tenant to pay damages for proved wilful neglect." Sereral smallfarmers exclaimed, " that hundreds would- readilii improve, if they icere sure that they themselves, and not their landlords, should have the benefit of the mone\] laid out." Page 1 53 — The following is the report of evi- dence, as taken at Balrothery, County Dublin, before John Power and Francis Sadleir, Esqrs. : — "It was the opinion of every one -present at the examination, that it would be desirable, that the landlord should be compelled to take all improvements at a fair valuation, and that the tenant should be made liable to pay damages for proved wilful neglect of the land ; only well and practically established improvements should be included, and all theoretical experiments excluded. To that extent, it would he the salvation of the country, furnishing the means of employment, increasing produc- tion, obliging the landlord to spend a j^art of his income on the land which furnished it, and lowering rents, by preventing many, who have no, or not sufficient, capital (and who, therefore, shouM not fake land), from outbidding those for it, who, having something to lose, are disposed to be more prudent," Page l6.S — A tenant answered, —" If that law were passed, my place would be worth 50/. ; whereas, now, it is not worth more than 10/." Page 203 — A Mr. Love answers — " I would soon have slates on my house, and the straw I am now using for thatch, would make manure for my land." I cannot extend my extracts from this most valu- able document ; but 1 would recommend the whole of this |)ortion of the Report (namely, that under iho head of" Landlord and Tenant"^ to the consideration of any person desirous to receive information on the subject. 1 consider, also, that it would be a most useful check against the avarice of under-landlords, in letting miserable hovels to the poor man, at rack- rents, if a provision of the following nature were in- corporated with the Poor Law Act — namely: that, in all cases wherein a cottage was let (or the seat of a cottage), not having more than a certain portion of land attached to it, the landlord who received rent for the same, should be, in all cases, liable to keep such cottage in a fair condition of repair ; and, in case he failed to do so, that the Poor Law (iuardians (or other officers of the district) should have power to repair the same, and to sue the immediate landlord for tlie amount, or to sequester tlje rent, till such time as the expenses should be repaid. A provision of this sort would be most important and beneficial, because every one, who knows any thing of the condition of the poor in Ireland, knows, that, if a farmer erects the most wretched hovel, under the name of a bouse, he will get a tenant for it, promising a i-ent treble its value ; and that this hovel, although let on the condition of being kept in repair by the landlord, is wholly neglected ; and the poor tenant has no means of forcing the agreement. He holds at will and if he complained would be turned ont. This, of course, would raise the rent of cottages ; but this effect would be beneficial, in preventing early marriages and im- provident settlements, in the expectation of ob- taining a wretched habitation to exist in, such as I have describtfd. I now bring this series of essays to a conclusion — not because the subject is exhausted — not be- cause I consider, that all the arguments which could, or ought to be brought forward, Ilave received due notice in my observations — but because I feel, that it would not be becoming in me to trespass further on the indulgence of the press or of the public. To the press of Ireland, both metropolitan and provincial, I offer my grateful acknowledgements, for the circu- lation afforded to these papers, and the liberality and kindness of their observations. The subjects I treated of are of a nature so complex in their bearings, that I could not expect a perfect agreement of opinion. My object was, by discussion, to elicit truth ; and the press has most honourably aided me in that object. I again repeat, what I have before stated, that I was arguing entirely on the defensive. I was arguing against wholesale extirpation of the population, for the object of the consolidation of land. With that view, I shewed what the small farmers could do ; but, whilst I oppose a. forced consolidation, I do not desire to force subdivision. It results from the nature of humanity itself, that there must be various classes in society — that equality cannot be main- tained ; or, even if it were, for a moment, artificially produced, it must, from the nature of raan, cease, in a short time, to exist. Therefore, consolidation or THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 347 division should be left to the natural operation of events ; trying, in the mean time, to iniprovo the condition, information, and habits of the people; and thus laying the only solid foundation on which the true interests of society can be based. CONCLUSION. — ADDRESSED TO THE WOnKINO TEOPLE OF IRELAND. Fellow-countrymen, — To you I respectfully dedi- cate these humble efforts in your service. My object is, to protect you from extirpation, by proving- to those who have the power over you, by the rights of property which the state has conferred upon them, that their interest and yours (the tillers of the soil) are intimately united — that, by expelling you, they would be cutting off their own right hand ; whereas, by cherishing, protecting, and encouraging you, in the efforts of honest industry, their own property and happiness would be insured, as well as yours. The objects for which I am contending, are not those of a sect or of a party : they are of common interest to the whole population ; they are objects for which Ca- tholics and Prostestants mightstruggle,handinhnnd, in brotherly affection. Oh tliat 1 could see sucha description of agitation — that I could see you united in a common object for the common good — that I could see Irishmen cease to make that religion a scource of acrimonious division, which was intended by the benevolent Creator, as the foundation of peace and good -will between man and his fellow- man ! I would hope, that, by bringing before you an object of national importance, which was not tainted by the smallest tinge of sectarian or political partisanship — one on which the moral power of the nation might be concentrated — the spirit of contention might be softened, the spirit of peace might be advanced ; and that, thus, a foundation might be laid for the attainment of those political rights and privileges, which are necessary, in my opinion, for the security of national interests, but for wliich the struggle of a disunited people must ever terminate in disappointment. Accept, then, this offering, in the spirit in which it is tendered, from your faithful servant, Wm. Shahman Chawford. Cruufordsburn, Sept. 28th, 1839. 61b. of increase of pork from 1 decalitre of peas ; where- as, from boiled carrots, 28st. 21b. of increase were only obtained from 175 decalitres, or about 2Jlb. from 1 de- calitre, giving- the advantage over the peas in the ratio of 2§ : 1. The next most nourishing food is buck- wheat, which nearly gives 41b. of pork from 1 deca- litre. Boiled potatoes are next, giving nearly 31bs. of pork from one decalitre. And the lowest quantity of pork obtained was from the balls of wheat, which is as low as 1 1-5 from 1 decalitre. Flour would, no doubt, fatten better than wheat, espe- cially if the feeds were made into small dry balls of dough and frequently administered, but better still if made into bread or flour ground overhead.— Quarier/y Journal of Agriculture. FATTENING OF SWINE.— M. Bengtrapp, in his work on the fattening of swine, mentions several experiments which serve to show the fattening powers of boiled carrots, potatoes and some others. He brought up separately five couples of pigs, and obtained, after a certain length of time, the following- results : — Couples. Food. Inc. of weight. 1st got 5S decalitres* of peas 22st. 71b. 2nd.. 283 ballsofwhcat 24 3 3rd.. 96 buckwheat .. 26 10 4th.. 98 boiled potatoes 20 4 5th . . 175 carrots. . 28 2 These results of the experiment are unsatisfactory ; be- cause it is not mentioned whether the pigs were all of the same age and weight, nor is it stated whether the quantity of food marked in the table was as much as the pigs could consume. We have always believed that peas were the most nutritious food that could be given to pigs, and this experiment confirms the belief, as may be seen by comparing the relative increase of weight obtained from the various kinds of food, viz., 55 decalitres of peas gave an increase of 22st. 71b., or nearly * A decalitre is equal to 15 pints. IMPORTANT INFORMATION TO SUR- VEYORS OF HIGHWAYS. It is not perhaps generally known that an act of parliament was passed on the 17th ult. of the utmost importance to surveyors of highways, who are com- pelled by its provisions to make, on or before the 20th of November next, a return to government of the particular state and condition of the highways under their care. They v/ill also have to answer several enquiries which will be extremely trouble- some. They are likewise requested to state for the three last years ending in March, the following particulars, which, we apprehend, will be found puzzling enough to many of them : 1. Extent of public highways used for wheel car- riages in statute miles, distinguishing streets or roads repaired under local acts, and turnpikes from all other highways. 2. Amount of rates levied for the repair of these roads daring each of these years. 3. Sum expended in repairs. 4. Sum expended in law and other expenses not being repairs. This act also imposes an additional duty upon the clerks of turnpike-road trusts, who are within sixty days after the passing of the act, to state their answers to the following questions regarding their respective trusts : — 1. Extent of turnpike roads in statute miles with the number of gates with side bars in them. 2. Name of each parish or extra-parochial place through which the turnpike passes, and their extent in each parish. 3. The present state of their roads, and whether wholly kept in repair by trustees, or in part by parishes, and if so, how far. 4. Effect, in their judgment, upon the security held by the creditor of such road, arising from railroads, and by the abolition of statute labour. 5. An emuneration of all statutes regulating their trusts. 6. Amount of debt on their trusts at 31st. December, 1838 ; when borrowed ; how much of the debt consists of unpaid interest converted into principal ; amount of interest paid to creditors in each year, from 1832 to 1838 ; rate per cent, of interest due on, and rate per cent, actualy paid on, such security. The act imposes a penalty of not more than 10/., nor less than 51. in cases of neglect, and a penalty of fifty pounds for making a false return. The duties of both clerks and surveyors were previous to this enactment onerous enough in all conscience, and the additional labour now required cannot, possibly be performed without additional cost, 2 A 2 348 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CLOD AND CLAY BURNING. The following observations on clod and clay burning appeared recently in a Provincial Paper : — " A few weeks ago, in an article which appeared in your paper upon the subject of manures, the writer proposed, what to every practical agricul- turist must appear chimerical theory, and what may appear very plausible and scientific upon paper ; but which in actual practice in the present state and cost of transit and labour can never be followed. I allude to the changing and mixing the different soils of different districts. The same correspondent alluded to the present practice of putting clay upon light lands, and its beneficial eflfects, all of which I am willing to allow ; at the same time, every practical man must be fully aware of the immensity of labour and cost of such a system, and when the idea of transporting 50 tons to the acre, of clay, chalk, or sand, a distance of several miles, is contemplated, it must at once appear that no increased value and produce of land could make it answer. Your correspondent suggests, that railroads will, perhaps, afford a means of transit for the laixture of soils ; but the carriage upon railroads must be amazingly altered before such a thing can be thought of. We have certainly no present data upon which we can come to the conclusion that the expenses of the transit by railroads will ever be sufficiently low for the purpose. But although we have no present prospect of being able to produce a beneficial change by the mixture of soils, there is a plan which is, in many instances, quite practicable, and ought to be more generally followed, particularly on strong clayey lands, which are difficult of cultivation. At pre- sent the practice is almost entirely confined to the burning of turf, after breast ploughing old swards; but there is no doubt that where rough wood, furze bushes, or even haidm straw is to be obtain- ed at a trifling expense, much more benefit would result from burning the clods from other lands, than old pastures; and here let us inquire what is the change in the nature of the soil produced by clod-burning ? This question is readily answered, if we consider that most of our heavy lands have a portion of chalk mixed with the clay, thus forming marl ; and what is the effect of fire upon these earths ? I'he clay is converted into quite a different character by the burning, and is pecu- liarly fitted to assist vegetation, while the chalk is made into lime — one of the best manures that can be applied to this sort of land — at the same time the smoke and ashes of the combustibles are all retained, and ultimately mixed with the soil, so as to produce good succeeding crops, besides which, it has the effect of destroying almost all grubs and insects, and more particularly the wire- worm. But it will at once be argued by those who have not tried the plan, that it is impossible to make common clay, with very little vegetable matter in it, to burn. Let me ask such persons to make a trial. By doing so, they will not be at- tempting any untried novelty, as the practice is extensively adopted in Norfolk and Suffolk, and surely this is a sufficient authority for any man. I will, therefore, at once proceed to explain the method which has been found most economical and beneficial to carry the plan into execution, pre- suming that where an individual is desirous to fol- low up the practice to a great extent, it is highly desirable that he should, if possible, procure a man who has been accustomed to clod-burning, as by his management and direction there will be a great economy of fuel, and a greater certainty of com- plete success. In the next place it is desirable that the land should be jiloughed up at a proper time of the year, when dry weather may be expected. An old clover ley, after the crop has been cut and carried, or where spring vetches have been grown and eaten or carried off, is most proper, as the land is at liberty, at a favourable time, for the purpose. The land should be ploughed up the depth it is thought desirable to burn the clods, and the deeper the better. The clods must be daily turned over for a week or ten days, so as to become dry from exposure to the air and sun ; when sufficiently dry, a sort of floor- ing must be made of them upon the spots where a heap is intended to he burnt, round which a wall of clods must be built according to the size of the heap, within which wall the combustible material must be put and covered over with the clods which are driest, and which contain most vegetable matter. The fire is then to be lighted, and as it gains strength keep adding fresh clods, taking great care that fresh clods are constantly applied over every part where the smoke is seen to issue. The heaps must be now carefully watched, and fresh clods continually thrown upon it, until it is as loose as is desired, when the clods which formed the wall must at length be thrown up, and the heap be allowed to burn itself out, taking care occasionally to make air holes at the bottom by means of a long pole. The size of the burnt heaps is important, because the larger the heaps the less is the fuel necessary ; on the other band, the smaller the heap, the less is the labour required to collect the clods, and spread the burnt materials ; each individual, therefore, must be guided in this respect by the relative value of labour and fuel in his particular district. Where eight heaps to the acre are chosen, very little labour is required. I cannot conclude my letter without giving you an extract from The Horticulturul Register for 18:32, which bears directly upon this subject, and although a large farm cannot be managed like a small garden, every agriculturist is willing to ac- knowledge that the nearer a farm is to a well cul- tivated garden the better. It is contained in a letter to the editor of that journal, by Mr. George Stafford, gardener to R. Arkwright, Esq., Weller- sley Castle, Derbyshire, he says : — 'When I first came to this place, the garden was formed with admirable judgment; but was, for the most part, a strong clay, and within nine inches of the sur- face ; even the most common articles would not live upon it — no weather appeared to suit it — at one time being covered with water, at another time rendered impenetrable by being too dry. Having previously witnessed the good effects of burning clods, commenced the process, and pro- duced in a few days a composition three feet deep, and equal, if not superior to any soil in the coun- try ;' he adds, ' the clay is rendered as pliable as burnt chalk, and seems possessed of the medium of holding just a sufficient quantity of water ;' he further adds, ' as the violence of the heat subsides, I spread out the soil, which from the carbonaceous principles it receives in the process, is rendered in point of richness, fully equal to soot.' I know not whether you will think the above letter suffi- ciently interesting for your journal ; my object in writing it is to stimulate my agricultural friends to improve the staple of their lands, which many of thera can thus do at a trifling expense, and be THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 349 enabled not only to grow a greater quantity of corn, but at the same time to supply it at a price which will be both satisfactory to the consumer and remunerating to the grower." This essay brought to our recollection some practical observations on earth-burning, published by Cobbett, in his Year's Residence in America, which we subjoin. Writing of the ruta baga culture, he says, — "As to the quantity and sort of manure to be used in general, it may be the same as for a sow- ing of rye or of wheat. I should prefer ashes; but, my large crops in England were on yard- dung, first thrown into a heap, and afterwards turned once or twice, in the usual manner as prac- tised in England. At Hyde Park I had nothing but rakings up about the yard, barn, &c., as I described before. What I should do, and what I shall do this year, is, to make ashes out of dirt or earth of any sort, not very stony. Nothing is so easy as this, especially in this fine climate. I see people go with their waggons five miles for soapers' ashes; that is to say, spent ashes, which they purchase at the landing place (for they come to the island in vessels) at the rate of about five dollars for forty bushels. Add the expense of land carriage, and the forty bushels do not cost less than ten dollars. I am of opinion, that, by the burning of earth, as much manure may be got up on the land for half a dollar. I made an experi- ment last summer, which convinces me, that, if the spent ashes be received as a gift at three miles' distance of land-carriage, tbey are not a gift worth accepting. But this experiment was upon a small scale ; and therefore I will not now speak positively on the subject. " I am now preparing to make a pei'fect trial of these ashes. I have just ploughed up a piece of ground, in which, a few years ago, Indian corn was planted, and produced, as I am assured, only stalks, and those not more than two feet high. The ground has every year since born a crop of weeds, rough grass, and briars or brambles. The piece is about ten acres. I intend to have Indian corn on it; and my manure shall be made on the spot, and consist of nothing but burnt earth. If I have a decent crop of Indian corn on this land so manur- ed, it will, I think, puzzle my good neighbours to give a good reason for their going five miles for spent ashes. " Whether I succeed or not, I will give an ac- count of my experiment. This I know, that I, in the year 1815, burnt ashes in one licap, to the amount of about two hundred English cart loads, each load holding about forty bushels. I should not suppose that the burning cost me more than five dollars ; and there they were upon the spot, in the very field where they were used. As to their etfecfc I used them for the transplanted ruta baga and mangel wurzel, and they produced full as great an effect as the yard dung used on the same land. This process of burning earth into ashes without suffering the smoke to escape, during any part of the process, is a discovery of Irish origin. It was jiointed out to me by Mr. William Gauntlett, of Winchester, late a commissary with the army in Spain. " I have tried the efficacy of this manure on cabbages, Swedish turnips, Indian corn, and buck wheat. In the three former cases the ashes were put into the furrow, and the earth was turned over them, in the same way that I have described, with regard to the manure for savoys. I put at the rate of about twenty tons weight to an acre. In the case of the buck wheat, the ashes were spread out of the waggon upon a little strip of land on the outside of the piece. They were thickly spread ; and it might be that the proportion ex- ceeded even thirty tons to the acre. But upon, the part where the ashes were spread, the buck wheat was three or four times as good as upon the land adjoining. The land was very poor ; it bore buck wheat last year without any manure. It had two good ploughings then, and it had two good ploughings again this year, but had no ma- nure, except the part above-mentioned and one other pait at a great distance from it. So that the trial was vei-y fair indeed. " In every instance the ashes produced great effect ; and I am now quite certain that any crop may be raised with the help of this manure ; that is to say, any sort of crop ; for, of dung, wood- ashes, and earth-ashes, when all are ready upon the spot, without purchase or carting from a dis- tance, the two former are certainly to be employed in preference to the latter, because a smaller quan- tity of them will produce the same effect ; and, of course, the application of them is less expensive. But, in taking to a farm unprovided with the two former, or, under circumstances which make it profitable to add to the land under cultivation, what can be so convenient, what so cheap, as ashess procured in this way ? " A near neighbour of mine, Mr. Dayrea, sowed a piece of Swedish turnip, broad-cast, in June, this year. The piece was near a wood, and there was a great quantity of clods of a grassy descrip- tion. These he burnt into ashes, which ashes he spread over one-half of the piece, whilst he put soaper's ashes over the other part of the piece. I saw the turnips in October ; and there was no visible difference in the two parts, whether as to the vigourousness of the plants or the bulk of the turnips. They were sown broadcast, and stood unevenly upon the ground. They were harvested a month ago, (it is now 26th November,) which was a month too early. They would have been a third, at least, more in bulk, and much better in quality, if they had remained in the ground until now. The piece was 70 paces long and 7 paces wide ; and, the reader will find, that, as the piece produced 40 bushels, this was at the rate of 400 bushels to the acre. " What quantity of earth-ashes were spread on this piece it is impossible to ascertain with pre- cision ; but, I shall suppose the quantity to have been very large indeed in proportion to the surface of the land. Let it be four times the quantity of the soaper's ashes. Still, the one was made upon the spot, at, perhaps, a tenth part of the cost of the other ; and, as such ashes can be made upon any farm, there can be no reason for not trying the thing, at any rate, and which trying may be effected upon so small a scale as not to exceed, in expense, half of a dollar. I presume, that many farmers will try this method of obtaining manure ; and, therefore, I will describe how the burning is effected. " There are two ways of producing ashes from earth : the one in heaps upon the ground, and the other within walls of turf or earth. The first, in- deed, is the burning of turf or peat. But, let us see how it is done. " The surface of the land h taken off to a depth of two or three inches, and turned, the earth-side uppermost, to dry. The land, of course, is covered with grass, or heath, or something the roots of which hold it together, and which makes the part M THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. takes offtake the name of turf. In England, this operation is performed with a turf-cutter, and by hand. The turfs are then taken, or a part of thena, at least, and placed on their edges, leaning against each other, like the two sides of the roof of a house. In this state they remain, till they are dry enough to burn. Then the burning is begun in this way. A little straw and some dry sticks, or any thing that will make a trifling fire is lighted. Some little bits of the turf are put to this. When the turf is on fire, more bits are carefully put round against the openings whence the smoke issues. In the course of a day or two the heap grows large. The burning keeps working on the inside, though there never appears any blaze. Thus the field is studded with heaps. After the first fire is got to be of considerable bulk, no straw is wanted for other heaps, because a good shovel-full of fire can be car- ried to light other heaps ; and so, until all the heaps arc lighted. Then the workmen go from heap to heap, and carries the turf to all, by degrees, putting some to each heap every day or two, until all the field be burnt. He takes care to keep in the smoke as much as possible. When all the turf is put on, the field is left, and, in a week or two, whether it rain or not, the heaps are ashes instead of earth. The ashes are afterwards spread upon the ground ; the ground is ploughed and sowed ; and this is regarded as the very best preparation for a crop of turnips. " This is called ' paring and burning.' It was introduced into England l)y the Romans, and it is strongly recommended in The First Georgic of Virgil, in, as Mr. Tull shows, very fine poetry, very bad philosophy, and still worse logic. It gives three or four crops upon even poor land; but it ruins the land for an age. Hence it is, that te- nants in England are, in many cases, restrained from paring and burning, especially towards the close of their leases. It is the Roman husbandry, which has always been followed, until within a century, by the French and English. It is impli- citly followed in France to this day ; as it is by the great mass of common farmers in England. All the foolish country sayings about Friday be- ing an unlucky day to begin any thing fresh upon ; about the noise of geese foreboding bad weather ; about the signs of the stars ; about the influence of the moon on animals ; these and scores of others, equally ridiculous and equally injuri- ous to true philosophy and religion, came from the Romans, and are inculcated in those books, which pedants call ' classical,' and which are taught to ' young gentlemen' at the universities and in academies. " So much for paring and burning. But what I recommend is, not to bui'n the land which is to be cultivated, but other earth, for the purpose of getting ashes to be brought on the land. And this operation I perform thus : — 1 make a circle or an oblong square; I cut sods and build a wall all round, three feet thick and four feet high; I then light a fire in the midlde with straw, dry sticks, boughs, or such like matter ; I go on mak- ing this fire larger and larger till it extends over the whole of the bottom of the pit or kiln; I put on roots of trees or any rubbish wood, till there be a good thickness of strong coals ; I then put on the driest of the clods that I have ploughed up round about so as to cover all the fire over ; the earth thus put in will burn ; you will see the smoke coming out at little places here and there; put more clods wherever the smoke appears ; keep on thus for a day or two ; by this time a great mass of fire will be in the inside ; and now you may dig out the clay, or earth, any where round the kiln, and fling it on without ceremony, always taking care to keep in the smoke ; for, if you suf- fer that to continue coming out at any place, a hole will soon be made ; the main force of the fire will draw to that hole ; a blaze like that of a vol- cano will come out, and the fire will be extin- guished. " A very good way is, to put your finger into the top of the heap here and there; and if you find the fire very near, throw on no more earth. Not too much at a time, for that weighs too heavily on the fire, and keeps it back ; and, at first, will put it partially out. You keep on thus augment- ing the kiln, till you get to the top of the walls, and then you may, if you like, raise the walls, and still go on. No rain will affect the fire when once it is become strong. " The principle is to keep out air, whether at the top or the sides, and this you are sure to do if you keej) in the smoke. I burnt, this last summer, about thirty waggon loads in one round kiln, and never sav; the smoke at all after the first four days. I put in my finger to try whether the fire was near the top, and when I found it approach- ing I put on more earth. Never was a kiln more comjiletely burnt. " Now, this may be done on the skirt of any wood where the matters are all at hand. This mode is far preferable to the above-ground burn- ing in heaps. Because in the first place, there the materials must be turf, and dry turf; and in the next place, the smoke escapes there, which is the finest part of burnt matter. Soot, we know well, is more powerful than ashes ; and soot is com- posed of the grossest part of the smoke. That which flies out of the chimney is the best part of all. " In case of a want of wood wherewith to begin the fire, tiie fire may be lighted pre- cisely as in the case of paring and burning. If the kiln be large, the oblong square is the best figure. About ten feet wide ; because then a man can fling the earth easily over every part. The mode they pursue in England, where there is no wood, is to make a sort of building in the kiln with turfs, and leave air-holes at the corners of the walls till the fire be well begun. But this is tedious work : and in this country wholly un- necessary. Care must, however, be taken, that the fire be well lighted. The matter put in at first should be such as is of the lightest descrip- tion ; so that a body of earth on fire may be ob- tained, before it be too heavily loaded. " The burning being completed, having got the quantity you want, let the kiln remain. The fire will continue to work, until all is ashes. If you want to use the ashes sooner, open the kiln. They will be cold enough to remove in a week. " Some persons have peat, or bog earth. This may be burnt like common earth, in kilns, or dry, as in the paring and burning method. Only the peat should be cut out in the shape of bricks, as much longer and bigger as you find conve- nient, and set up to dry in the same way that bricks are set up to dry previous to the burn- ing. This is the only fuel for houses in some parts of England. 1 myself was nursed and brought up without ever seeing any other sort of fire. The ashes used in those times to be sold for fourpence sterling a bushel, and were frequently carried, af.er the purchase, to a distance of ten miles or more. At this time, in my own neigh- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 351 bourhood, in Hampshire, peat is burnt in large quantities for the ashes, which are sold, I be- lieve, as high as sixpence sterling a bushel, and carried to a distance of even twenty miles in some cases. " Nevertheless, it is certain, that these ashes ai'e not equally potent upon every sorl of soil. We do not use them much at Botley, though upon the spot. They are carried away to the higher and poorer lands, where they are sown by hand upon clover and sainfoin. An excellent farmer in this island, assures me, that he has tried them in various ways, and never found them to have effect. So say tlie farmers near Botley. But there is no harm in making a trial. It is done with a mere nothing of expense. A yard square in a garden is quite sufficient for the experi- ment. " With respect to earth-ashes, burnt in kilns, keeping in the smoke, I have proved their great good effect ; but still, I would recommend trying them upon a small scale, i^owever, let it be borne in mind, that the proportion to the acre ought to be large. Thirty good tons to an acre ; and why may it not be such, seeing that the expense is so trifling ?" While on the subject of burning, we cannot well pass the practice of clay-burning. Burnt clay or marl is a manure of excellent quality, though it is little in use, and probably from no other reason than want of knowledge of it. Se- veral excellent treatises on burnt clay have been published, but they are little known. A valua- ble condensation of the information contained in them is given in The Brilifih Hunhandry of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. We quote a few passages : — The use of burnt clay " has been in many cases, sanctioned by the experience of extensive farmers. " A turnip-field was manured by Mr. Craig, of Cally, in Gallowayshire, partly with rotten stable- dung, and the remainder with the ashes of burnt clay. The seed, which was of the yellow field sort, was sown on the same day ; but that on the ashes sprang up the earliest, was the most vigor- ous during the season, and the crop was far supe- rior to that produced by the dung, or to any- thing of the kind in the neighbourhood. A fol- lowing crop of Swedes was calculated to weigh fifty-two tons — equal to about forty tons jier Eny- Ihh acre, — including tops and tails ; but, as they grew in the centre of a preserve, the greater part of the tops were stripped off by the pheasants, and some of the roots were eaten by hares. " A friend of this gentleman, an extensive far- mer, though it was late in the season when he sowed his turnips, yet obtained a premium from the Agricultural Society of the Stewartry, and the first prize of the Highland Society, for twenty acres matmred with clay-ashes, at the rate of forty-five cart loads per acre; which he, how- ever, afterwards reduced to thirty loads, and de- clared himself so satisfied with the result, that, although his farm was only a mile and a half distance from Kirkcudbright, yet he would not be at the trouble of carting dung from thence, even if he could get it for nothing I " Burnt clay, also, when applied to turnips, on a farm consistiiig of stiff clay, in Annandale, at the rate of sixty cart-loads per acre, produced a better crop than dung upon the same land ; and, when succeeded by barley, no difference was observable in the produce. The cost, in 1818, ne- ver exceeded sixpence per single cart-load for the labour and expense of burning, exclusive of that of cartage, and in some seasons did not amount to more than threepence or fourpence. " Mr. Curwen also states, about the same time, that he had made 2000 single cart-loads of ashes from burnt clay on his farm in Westmoreland, and had raised from tbem fifty acres of Swedish tur- nips fully equal to those largely manured with good dung. " JNlajor-General Vavasour, of Melbourne Hall, near Pocklington, in Yorkshire, having a large farm of a strong clay soil thrown upon his hands in a very impoverished state, commenced the practice of burning clay, and manured one half of a field with ashes at the rate of twenty solid yards, or about twenty-five tons per acre ; the other half with fifteen tons of dung, and the former was decidedly the best crop. The same result has been experienced in corn crops upon the same farm ; and land which had been laid down with seeds, atid top-dressed with clay ashes, became uncommonly luxuriant. On the Wolds, in the East Riding, twenty to thirty cubic yards are also said to have been found equal to from eight to twelve tons of good fold-yard manure, when used for wheat and for every kind of green crop. " These experiments, it will be observed, were made solely ia comparison with unequal quantities of clay- ashes and yard-dung, but those of Dr. Cartwright were carried on comparatively with the ashes of clay at the rate of 400 bushels per acre, 100 of those of wood, and 50 of soot, laid upon an equal portion of cold, wet, tenacious land, without any top-dressing, and applied to different crops, of which the following was the produce : — Swedes. Kohlrabi. Burnt clay 25 tons 2 cwt. 6 tons 17| cwt. Wood-ashes 23 12 3 18^ Soot 16 12* 4 171 No top-dressing . 10 4 4 7\ Potatoes. Barley. Burnt clay 480 bushels. 4 qrs. 4 lbs. Wood-ashes .... 456 4 2 Soot 432 4 2 No top-dressing. 340 3 0 It thus appears that in each of these the burned clay displayed a superiority : the disparity between the turnips which were top-dressed, and those which had not that advantage, ii?, partly attributed to the protection thus afforded to the young plants from the fly ; but it is difficult to account for the extraordinary deficiency in the pi'oducc of the kohlrabi, spread with wood-ashes, vvhen compared with the part left without manure. The Doctor says, ' that he had no convenient way of judging the experiments on grass land but by the eye, yet that, so far as that enabled him to judge, the burned clay was without question superior; and the soot, as in all the other trials, except the last, was evidently more powerful than the wood-ashes.' The quantity, indeed, of clay-ashes was greater; but the expense he only calculates at 15s., while that of the wood-ashes and soot cost, in each in- stance, oOs. : though on this it should be remarked that the charge of spreading, and probably of cartage, must have been greater in the former case than in the two latter. " Mr. Burroughs, after detailing the difference in the chemical qualities of burned earth, in the essay to which we have already alluded, and to which we shall hereafter refer, says that ' lime be- 352 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ing established as a valuable application to many soils, it would be no easy matter to persuade those who have not tried the former as a substitute, that it possesses more fertilizing properties ; but then, experience, by which all must be governed, has convinced me that burned earth is by far more valuable, on many soils, than lime. I have tried it on strong clays, on light soils, and on moory soils, on all of which it produced good crops of potatoes and turnips, and afterwards corn ; and in one instance in i)articular, where lime had been ineffectually applied, a dressing of burned clay made the land yield most abundantlj'. Lime only stimulates and pulverizes the soil, whereas burned earth not only possesses those properties, but con- tains within itself enriching and vegetative quali- ties.' In proof of which he gives the following facts :— " 1. A wheat stubble, on a light sandy loam, gravelled as a preparation for that crop, was sown ■with barley in the following spring ; the land be- ing winter fallowed, and in good tilth : part of the field was dressed with burned clay, and part with lime and clay compost. The crop was sown and treated on both parts alike, but that j)ortion of the ground to which the burned earth was applied pro- duced by far the best quality of grain, and also a larger quantity to the acre. " 2. On a moory field, prepared for a potato crop, a heavy dressing of strong clay and lime compost was laid on, as the land was not consi- dered sufficiently strong to take pure lime with ad- vantage; part of the field remained undressed till the middle of May, when it was manured with burned earth, which was dug from the headlands, and the crop was better than where the compost had been applied. " He then adds, that ' burned earth may be de- pended upon as a manure fit to produce abundant turnip crops, of every description, on a variety of soils ; even the Swedes, so difficult to grow on light land, will prove a more luxuriant crop with this manure than with farm-yard dung, and are less liable to be cut off by the fly. It may be sup- posed by some that any crop sown on this mahure would be precarious in dry seasons, not containing, as they may conceive, any enriching quality or properties to preserve moisture : but this is by no means the case, for it will be found that an appli- cation of burned earth makes the land on which it is applied more capable of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere ; and, by minutely dividing the soil, the roots of the plants can search more freely for nourishment. I have often observed that farm-yard dung, unless very well prepared, does not, in excessive dry seasons, supply suffi- cient moisture to the roots of plants ; and that, during such seasons, crops sown on ashes, or burned earth, have uniformly thriven, while those in dunged land have gradually declined. "Effects of Burnt Clay. — From this we should be led to conclude that a very material dif- ference would be found to exist in earth thus merely dried ; for there can be no doubt that its properties must depend upon the quantity of vegetative matter which it contains. But it is difficult to draw the line between this process of torrefaction and that which consists in burning the earth to ashes : for if the clay be merely dried, the next rains will reduce it back to its former state, by which the soil cannot be benefited ; and if the fire be advanced to a degree much stronger, it will probably have the effect of consuming the earth to ashes, in the qualities of which no perceptible difference will be found. In the latter state, indeed, we are strongly of opinion that its effects are purely me- chanical— acting upon heavy soils merely by cor- recting their tenacity, and rendering them less stubborn ; but this will doubtless contribute greatly to their fertility, though it cannot be con- sidered as a nutritive manure. " The stress which has been laid upon the supposed value of some kinds of burned clay, in consequence of the calcareous matter contained in the subsoil, is probably overrated ; for it is sel- dom found, in soils of that description, in such abundance as to be of much service as a manure to other lands. We learn, indeed, from an experi- ment of General Beatson, that when even the surface-soil has been burned, no difference was found between the effects of that, although con- taining vegetative matter in the sward, and the ashes of common clay ; though the quantity ap- ])lied was perhaps too small to warrant any posi- tive conclusion.* We, therefore, think that the ideas which have been entertained of the effects of this maninc, are rather too sanguine ; and we are decidedly of opinion that the expectations of those of its advocates who imagine that ' burnt clay will supersede the dung-cart' will be disap- pointed. It appears, indeed, from a more recent essay by Mr. Burroughs on the cultivation of white crops, that he has not been so well satisfied of its good effect as to persist in its use instead of farm-yard manure; for although we there find him recommending the use of the latter, he yet makes no allusion to burnt clay. In Scotland, also, where the burning of clay was a few years ago very extensively practised, we learn that it has since fallen into considerable disuse. There can however be no doubt, that clay ashes may be beneficially used ; but it does not appear from past experience that they can preclude the use of lime on soils not formerly dressed with it." It has been recommended to use stone kilns for burning in, but they are both inconvenient and expensive. The cheapest, and perhaps the most effectual mode of burning clay, is similar to that pursued by Mr. Cobbett, as described in the above extract from The Residence. The following me- thod is recommended by the author of The British Husbandry. " On a headland, or waste piece of ground, of which sods can beprocured with sward sufficiently tough to build a wall, erect an oblong or a cir- cular inclosure, abotit eight or ten feet in diame- ter, and two feet thick, but not higher than three or four feet. On a level with the surface of the ground cut flues, opening through the opposite sides of the wall, so that they may all meet in the centre of the kiln ; make them also about five or six inches deep, and four wide, and let them be covered with sods on the top, so as to keep them free of clay and rubbish, and the mouths well open to the air. Then, in the centre of the kiln, place brushwood, turf, or any combustible, with some blocks of wood to strengthen the fire, and then when all is well kindled, throw on some culm — if you have any — and then cla}^ and so on, adding clay to the heap as the fire may be found sulfi- * " Part of the field of eight acres was manured with the ashes of stiff soil burnt in a kiln, and another part with ashes obtained by paring- and burning, at the rate of 20 cart-loads per acre. The whole field was drilled with wheat, and the crop was excellent ; but no difference was perceptible at the time of growth, nor at that of reaping-. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 353 ciently strong to take the dressing ; always ob- serving to keep the heat of the kiln as even and as moderate as possible ; just of sufficient strength to expel the moisture from the layers of clay as they are laid on. Much care should also be taken not to cover the fire too soon after being lighted, as that might extinguish it totally, and therefore the clods first put on should be of the largest de- scription, that spaces may thus be left for the free admission of the heat. The smoke must be pre- vented from escaping; but the progress of the fire, as it ascends, may be ascertained by occasion- ally thrusting a finger here and there through the surface ; to which, if it has approached very near, more matter must be added. " The walls, when made of sods, should be beat close \Yith the spade, in order to prevent them from drawing air, by which the burning of the clay would be much retarded ; the kiln may be then immediately lighted ; but if made with mud and straw, they should be permitted to dry before the fire is kindled. They should not, at first, be built higher than three to four feet, nor the inclo sure be wider than ten, because the earth can then be flung easily over every part ; the fuel will also be thus more easily placed, and the firing more conveniently managed. As it is not necessary that much neatness should be observed in the construction, a kiln of this size may be erected, under proper directions, by five or six men in the course of a day. When the inside of the kiln, however, begins to be filled up with clay, then the . wall must be raised as high as may allow the earth to be thrown on without much additional labour; and care should be taken, during the burning, to keep the wall fifteen or eighteen inches higher than the top of the clay, in order to prevent the wind from acting on the surface of the fire. As soon as the fire is strongly kindled, the mouths of all the flues, except the one to windward, should be stopped, and even that will only be of use at the commencement of the process ; for, if the fire burns with tolerable keenness, the sods of which the flues are composed will soon be reduced to ashes. Some people, therefore, dispense with the use of flues altogether; but the trouble of making them is very slight, and the want of them often occasions difficulty in the management of the fire. " The kiln may be increased to any size, by raising a new wall round the former when that one has been burned through ; and in this manner kilns have been made so large as to contain more than 100 loads of ashes ; but, as these walls can- not he equally pulverized, they should be broken down, and blended with the contents of the kiln, as that is burning out. No precise period can be fixed for the time which the operation will occupy, as much will necessarily depend upon the quan- tity of matter, the nature of the fuel, its manage- ment, and the state of the weather; most ac- counts, therefore, affirm, that it can be well ac- complished— that is to say, both sufficiently burned, and afterwards cooled — in a few days ; some in a fortnight ; others in a month ; but Mr. Burroughs says, that it requires about six weeks, and that it will not then be in good order for the land until after two months longer, for it will take considerable time to reduce it to powder. "When the kilns are burnt out, the ashes are still paler than the original clay, and are generally in a powdery state, or are -easily rendered so by a slight stroke of the shovel, either when filling the cart, or when they are spreading upon the ground ; this, indeed, should never be neglected if there be any appearance of lumps, for if the earth be not completely pulverized, it will have little other eff'ect upon the land than may be expected from bits of brick. The expense of burning clay in the kiln here described is stated to be, in Ireland, from 3d. to 4d. an Irish load, or about 40s. or 50s. the Irish acre, — equal to about 32s. imperial measure ; but, with the usual inaccuracy observable in all accounts of manure per load, we are left to guess at its contents. " The chief art in burning is, to keep out ilie air, and keep hi the smoke ; which can only be ac- complished by having the walls made quite close, and taking care to have the tops always lightly covered with clay. If the smoke should appear coming out in spots here and there, cover those places with sods immediately; for by thus half burning or charring the earth, it is supposed that any vegetable matter which it contains will be preserved, and that the staple of the land will not suffer. In short, the kilns must be carefully at- tended to, both day and night, until the ojieration is completed. No rule can be laid down for the size of the clods, but those first laid on will burn more readily if dug up and dried a day or two be- fore ; if they be properly managed, that, however is not absolutely necessary, and if once the kiln is fairly set a-going, no further fuel of any kind is required ; for the clay, though wet, will con- tinue to burn, unless extinguished by carelessness, as even the changes of weather, except in very bad seasons, have very little effect upon it. It may, however, be proper to caution those who are not acquainted with the process, from opening any part of the kiln in order to ascertain its pro- guess ; for although, from its outward appearance they may imagine the fire to be extinguished, it yet may be burning fiercely in the interior ; and if the air be admitted, the main force of the fire will draw to that hole, where it will blaze out, and thus the work will certainly be retarded, if not entirely stopped. Although the process is very simple, when well understood, yet, like everything else, it requires some experience, and mistakes are continually made by workmen who, not being already acquainted with the practice, are apt to burn the clay into lumps. It is, indeed, difficult to describe the operation with sufficient accuracy to enable those who have never seen it done to burn properly. jMen who understand it can, how- ever, be easily procured from some district in which it is common, and, with the instruction of one of these, any of the labourers on the farm can soon be rendered sufficiently expert ; but without such assistance, it would be inexpedient to attempt it.*" TEAK TREES IN ENGLAND,— Among the va- rious species of trees recently introduced into Egypt, the teak is considered by far the most valuable ; it be- ing the opinion of Mr. Traile, the English botanist, that It will thrive there as well as in India. About a dozen seeds having been sent as a present to Ibrahim Pasha from Hindoostan, they were sown in the Enghsh garden at Rhouda, towards the close of 1829. Three of them took ; and in two years one of the specimens had reached the height of nine feet. A Turkish officer, walking in the garden,happening to observe the straight- ness and beauty of the tree, thought it would make a good naboof, and with one stroke of his sabre, levelled it with the grouud.— Sf. John's Egypt. * British Husbandry. 354 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OBSERVATIONS ON " A DEFENCE OF THE SMALL FARMERS OF IRELAND." No IV. FIFTH PROPOSITION OF THE " DEFENCE." " That the occupier of from Jive to six statute acres of average land, if industrious, and not over-rented, can supply himself and family with all necessary 2irovision for their reasonable and comfortable sustenance, and apply at least half his time to hired labour ; and that, therefore, the extra labour of the country can be best provided for by a system produciny an intermixture of small holdings with those of a larger description ,■ by means of which a portion of the working classes can be supported from the proceeds of their labour on the land of their own occupancy, independently of the wages of hired labour." The pioposition is, that " the occupier of from five to six statute acres, &c., if not over vented, can supply himself and family with all necessary provisions," &c., and the argument states, " I admit, that a smaller portion would be adequate and liighly advantageous,'' in certain cases ; and the proposition further advances, "the extra labour of the country can be best provided for by a system producing an intermixture of small holdings with those of a larger description." Wh)', all this is tlie condition oflreland. Ireland has land occupiers, from the fraction of a rood up to the " larger description" of holdings ; and, instead of finding the small occupier supply himself or his family, with all necessary provisions, &c., we see him and his family, " between the crops," on the verge of famine — his house a hovel, their apparel rags. But then they " can' do all asserted in the pro- position, and sought to be maintained in the argu- ment. " How ?" We may imagine the possibility of arriving at a point, but be, as regards practica- bility, very far removed indeed. We may think it possible to ascend, "marrow-bones and all," to the high concave; heaven yet not distinctly comprehend the means of accomplishing it. AVe may indulge the ho])e that all the cottier and pauper tenants of Ireland can maintain themselves and family in comfort and with decency — nay, with poor Goldsmith, sympathise over the time "ere England's griefs began — when every rood of ground maintained its man," and endeavour to shut out the fact, destroying the illusion, that such a time never has been ; centuries and ages may roll on ere it will be. But it were unfair not to admit thei'e are estimates given of what it is supposed small farmers could produce : and though not easy to deal with such calculations, as they are so sus- ceptible of rising fresh and quick after death, in some more approved form wg shall endeavour " to catch, ere it fall, the Cynthia of a minute." It is estimated that a small farm would produce 71. Is. per acre. My Lord Western informs the public, in a recent letter, that a farm of his pro- duced five quarters of wheat per acre ; here is theory versus fact:— small farm against large farm : and, Capital is essential to production — the quantity produced depends on the degree of capital applied ; in other words, the power of capital increases in tlie same ratio with its amount. Large farms present the coudition for the application of large capital, and consequently for the result of its larger influence. A small farm is, at the first step, the working of small capital ; the application to a given spaee of a lesser productive power. In the progress of population, small farms are the con- dition, causing diminution of capital ; the ap- plication of a diminishing and wasting power, till you come to its destruction to its exhaustion of power, and then the small, or smaller farmer becomes a denuded Irish cottier : and. The argument to this proposition " in defence of the small farmers of Ireland," altogether over- looks the increase of population, by reason of such small fdrms,andthe geometric incrcaseon each division of small farms; and above all, omits the consideration, that as such ])opulation cannot make its demand effective for the products of instru- mental industry, it cannot increase the demand of the instrumental branch of industry for labourers: as the supply from the agricultural branch in^ creases the labour market, the demand for labour does not increase in the instrumental branch : in a word, one part of the community don't set to work the other. As an instance of how far su])|)ositious estimates will go, it may be noticed that the argument estimates a six acre farmer's gross produce at 42/. (is. 4d — the nett, at 32/. 1.5s. ;5d., and de- ducting subsistence, the "profit" at 17/. .'is. 3d. ; and that all the capital ruquiicd in order to place the small holder in this desiral)le position, in the first instance, is "the means of purchasing one cow, one pig, a spade, a shovel, a scythe, a hook, and a barrow. If we estimate the capital for these at 10/., possibly it would be allowed a full equivalent. The qtiantity of land supposed being six acres, the capital per acre would be 1/. 13s. 4d. (By the way, the estimate overlooks the necessity of support to the far-mer and family until the land produces .') The average capital required to fully cultivate, with reference to demand, is agi'eed to be from 7/. to y/. per statute acre, and the profit commonly estimated at double interest of money. Mr. Rennie, of I'hantassie, it is well known, acquired, from his great skill, about li per cent, and that this rate is given as the highest. Now, in the estimate of the " Defence," the calculation is on 10/. capital, 17/. 3s. 3d., or about 170 per cent'. The argument advances the theory of putting the labourer into the office of the employer, of mixing farmers and labourers, and of blending agriculturists and manufacturers. Division of labour was and is the advancement of civilization ; through it man emerged from barbarism. Happily for society, the principle on which production de- pends foi-ever prevents t'ne retrograde movement. Arthur Young, many years since, alluded to the connexion in Ulster of manufacture with agri- culture. In agriculture he saw bad artisans, in manufactures bad farmers. " Every man to his last," is a wise maxim, and the only road to per- fection. Employers being " tyrants," is, to say the least of it, unsupported. As to the opinion that the portion of the labouring class, solely dependent on hired labour, should be reduced as far as pos- sible, it is submitted there are sound reasons of dissent. Wages are the recompense of labour, and labour has no other wholesome recompense. If maintenance direct become its recompense labourers become serfs — slaves. NVitness for me, Russia and Bohemia ; witness the Slave Islands ; witness the days of feudalism. Small farmers are THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 355 essentially maintenance farmers — in time, em- phatically maintenance-farmers, and the condition engendering serfs. Instead of diminishing the portion of the labour- ing class solely dependent on hire, it is the duty and business of every friend of humanity to in- crease it. Establish the principle that every man able and willing to work, be ensured work, and labourers are as independent as employers — the former would be as necessary to the latter as the latter to the former — both would possess their respective values. To say that the condition of England at this moment is caused by the principle of labourers depending on wages, is at variance with a deep and settled truth. No : labour is restricted in England. Ere labourers rise to their full value and have continuous employment, the labour fund of the community, capital, must be unfettered— emancipated. I have the honour to be, &c., &c. J. Stanley. Stonelay, 2Wi Sept., 1839. BONES IN THE DESERT.— The accustomed route (M. Dumas says) is marked by a wiiite line of bleached bones extending' to the horizon. 'J his extra- ordinary circumstance, it may well be supposed, aroused all my attention. I called to i3echara, who, however, did not wait for my question, for he at onrjc read my desire in my obvious astonishment. "The dromedary," said he, coming' to my side, and commencing his story, without preface, " is not so troublesome and importu- nate an animal as a horse. He continues ins course without stopping, vv'ithout eating, without drinlcing' ; nothing' about him betrays sickness, hunger, or exhaus- tion. The Arab, who can hear from such a distance the roar of a lion, the neigh of a horse, or tiie noi<;e of men, hers nothing from his haghin hut its quickened or lengthened respiration, it never utters a complaint or a groan. But when nature is vanquished by suffering, wlien privations have exliausted its strength, when life is ebbing, the dromedary kneels down, stretches out its neck, and closes its eyes. Its master then knows that all is over. He dismounts, and without an attempt to make it rise, for he knows tlie honesty of its n'dture, and never suspects it of deception or laziness, he removes tiie saddle, places it on the back of another dromedary, and departs, abandoning the one tiiat is no longer able to accompany him. When night approaches, liie jackals and hyenas, attracted by the scent, come up and attack the poor animal, till nothing is left but the skeleton. We are now on the highway from Cairo and Mecca ; twice a year the caravans go and return by this route, and tliese bones are so numerous and so constantly reple- nished,that the tempests of thsi desert can never entirely disperse them. These bones, which, without a guide, would lead you to the oases, the wells and fountains, where the Arab finds shade and water, and would end by conducting you to the tomb of the Prophet— these bones are those of droraedaries which perish in the desert. If you look attentively, you will see some bones smaller in size, and of a different conformation. These, too, arc the wrecks of wearied bodies, that have found repose before tiiey reached the goal. They are the bones of believers who desire to obey the Prophet's com- mand, that all the faithful shall once in their lives per- form this holy journey ; and who, having been too long deterred from undertaking it by cares or pleasures, commence their pilgrimage so late on earth, that they are obliged to finish it in heaven. Add to these some stupid Turk or bloated eunuch, who, sleeping when he ought to have had his eyes open, has fallen and broken his neck; give the plague its share, which often deci- mates a caravan, and the simoon, which often destroys one, and you will readily see that these funereal f.raide- post* are planted with sufficient frequency to preserve the road in good order, and to point out to the children the road pursued by their fathers." — Quiiize Jours an Sinaifhy M. Dumas. ACCOUNT OF LIQUID MANURE. AX hSSAV TO WHICH THE PRIZE OF TEN SOVEREIGNS WAS AWARDED IN JULY, 1839. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., OF GRAy's INN, BARRISTER- AT-LAW. (From the Journal of the English Agricultural Society.) Liquid manure, the subject of our society's pre- mium, is not a mode of fertilizing the land altoge- ther of modern origin, for a fermented mixture of water and night-soil has, from a very early period, been employed by the Chinese farmers; those of Italy certainly practised irrigation in the days of Virgil (Georgics, book i., v. 106-9), and Cato adds that they employed a mixture of grape-stones and wnter to fertilize their olive-trees (book xxxvii.). Columella praises very highly the use of putrid stale urine for vines and apple-trees (book ii., c. 15), commending also the lees of oil for the same pur- pose. IMore modem agricultural authors have united in praising various liquid preparations; thus Evelyn (whose ingredients most of the authors recommend), in his treatise on earth (p. 123-60), gives several recipes, some of which have served as the basis for recent modes of preparing liquid manure, such as the dung of cattle, urine, salt and Lime, and nitre. Of these artificial mixtures, salt one part, and lime two parts, mixed together and allowed to remain in a heap for two or three months (jNIr. Bennett turns it over three or four times in this period), is fully equal, if not superior, to any thus recommended, most of which 1 have tried. When mixed with water and spread over land intend- ed for wheat, at the rate of from 25 to 35 bushels of the salt and lime to 10 or 15 tons of water per acre (and it answers very nearly as well when carried on the land dry), excellent results are produced. The wheat which I have thus grown on clover-leys has been superior, in height and strength of straw, to any I have seen produced under different modes of treatment, and the seed very bright and heavy. All substances, whether organic, earthy, or s-aline, which are employed to fertilize the soil, or become the food of plants, can only be rendered thus ser- viceable to vegetation when they are presented to the roots of plants in solution, or in a fluid state ; and although this may appear at first rather a sweeping position, yet such is the real fact, the compost of the farm-ynrd, the crushed bones of the turnip cultivator, the oil and bones of fish, the gypsum of the grazier, the earths, lime, magnesia, and even silicii, and all the saline manures, are dissolved by some process or other before they can be absorbed by vegetables. Every attempt which has been hitherto made to make plants imbibe the most minutely divided powders which chemistry can ]:roduce, has been entirely fruitless. Davy inelfectually tried the finest impalpable powder of charcoal, and with much perseverance I have fruitlessly employed the earths, saline substances, and organic matters, for the same purpose. This absolute necessity for every substance which is the food of plants being of a soluble nature did not escape the sngacity of the early Greek and Egypti;m philosophers ; it is true they carried their conclusions with regard to subjects of natural phi- losoph)' too far, as in this instance, when they asserted that water is the onlv food of plants; yet they must have patiently noticed many facts in vegetable economy, unaided as they were by the light of modern vegetable chemistry, before they could have arrived at a conclusion so nearly ap- proaching the truth. The idea was probably f 356 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Egyptian origin, for the cultivators of that country could not fail to notice the magic fertilizing powers of the waters of the Nile, whose annual overflow is perhaps the most extensive natural irrigation taken advantage of by the cultivators of the earth. The same wild dream of water being the sole food of vegetables was again revived, so lately as 1610, by M. Van Helmont, a celebrated Dutch Chemist, who made some very plausible, deceptive experiments on a willow tree, which he watered only with rain-water ; researches, however, whose inaccuracy (owing principally to rain-water, as usually collected, not being quite pure) was shown in 1691, by Mr. Woodward. Although, therefore, it is now well ascertained that water is not the only food of plants, yet it certainly contributes univer- sally and largely to their support ; and, as it has been well observed by Davy, no manure can be taken up by the roots of plants unless water is present ; and water, or its elements, exist in all the products of vegetation.* It must not, however, be concluded that these carefully considered conclusions, from the results of often-repeated laborious experiments, are erro- neous, because transparent water, apparent hi pure, as in water-glasses, or in irrigation, promotes the growth of bulbs, grass, &c., since the very purest spring-water, even rain-water, contains foreign sub- stances, as I have clearly ascertained by experiment ; and when only chemically pure water is employed to water plants, they cannot be made to flourish. I have fruitlessly varied the attempt in several ways. All the experiments of Dr. Thomson were equally unsuccessful, the plants vegetating only for a certain time, and never perfecting their seeds. Similar experiments were made by Ilassenfratz and Saussure, and others, with the same unfavourable result. Duhamel found that an oak which he had raised from an acorn, in common water, made less and less progress every year. The florist is well aware that bulbous roots, such as hyacinths, tulips, &c., which are made to grow in water, unless thev are planted in the earth every other year, at first refuse to flower, and finally even to vegetate. Moreover, it has been unanswerably shown by many very accurate experiments, t at the varied repetition of which I have personally assisted, that the quantity of nourishment or solid matters absorbed by the roots of plants is always in proportion to the impurity of the water with which they are nourished; thus some beans were made to vegetate under three difterent circumstances; the first were grown in distilled water ; the second were placed in sand and watered with rain-water; the third were sown in garden mould. The plants thus produced, when accurately analyzed, were found to yield the follow- ing proportions of ashes: — 1. Those fed by distilled water .... 3.9 2. Those fed by rain-water 7 .5 3. Those grown in soil 12.0 And again all attempts to make plants flourish in the pure earths have failed utterly when they have been watered with pure water ; yet a totally diSerent result I have invariably experienced when I have employed an impure solution or liquid manure. My trials have been entirely supported by those of M. Giobert, who, having formed of the four earths, silica, alumina, lime, and magnesia, a soil in the most fertile proportion, in vain essayed to make the plants flourish in it when watered with pure water * Lecture 15. t Rech. sur la Veg., 51. only; but every difliculty was removed when he moistened it with the water from a dunghill, for they then grew most luxuriantly ; and M. Lampadius still further demonstrated the powers of such a foul liquid manure, for he formed plots composed of only a single earth, pure lime, pure alumina, pure silica, and planted in each different vegetables, watering thom with tiie liquid drainings from a dunghill, and he found that they all flourished equally well. The soluble matters of a soil ever constitute, in fact, its most fertilizing pordon ; and if by any artificial means the richest mould is de- prived of these, as by repeated washings in cold or boiling water, the residuum, or remaining solid matter is rendered nearly sterile ; this fact, first accurately demonstrated by M. Saussure,* I have since confirmed by a variety of experiments of my own. The soluble matters or liquid manures consumed by plants are sometimes imbibed by their roots un- altered,'— in other cases they are decomposed during their absorption. The earth, gypsum and other salts, are instances of the first class ; oil, and other purely animal matters, of the last. Davy found that some plants of mint which he forced to vege- tate in sugar and water, apparently absorbed the sugar unaltered, for they yielded a considerably larger proportion of a sweetish vegetable extract than those of the same weight which he had grown in common water ; and it is an ascertained fact that the roofs of plants will absorb or reject the various earthy substances of a soil, or even when placed in a saline solution, in a very remarkable manner ; thus, when equal parts of gum and sugar were dissolved together in water, and some perfect plants of poly- gonum persicaria placed with their roots in the solution, it was found that they absorbed thirty-six parts of the sugar, but only twenty-six of the gum ; and when in precisely the same proportions and manner Glauber salt, common salt, and acetate of lime were used, then it was found that the roots of the persecaria separated these salts from the solution with much ease, absorbing 6 parts of the Glauber salt, 10 parts of the common salt, but not a trace of the acetate of lime.f These facts will not be uninteresting to the irriga- tors or occupiers of the English water-meadows, since they may in some degree serve to account for the beneficial action of water on such lands — a ques- tion not nearly so well untierstood as it ought to be, and on which widely differing opinions are com- monly held by practical farmers. It is a theme intimatelv connected with the subject of this paper, for irrigation is, in truth, a mode of applying the weakest of liquid manures, on a very bold scale, to grass-lands. Almost every farmer has a mode of accounting for the highly fertilizing eflfects of irriga- tion. Davy added another to the list of explana- tions. He thought that a winter-flooding protected the grass from the injurious effects of frost; he examined with a thermometer, and with his usual address, the water-meadows near Hungerford in Berkshire, and ascertained that the temperature of the soil was ten degrees higher than the surface of the water, and that too on a frosty Blarch morning. He remarked, also, a fact that most farmers will confirm, that those waters which breed the best fish are ever the best fitted for watering meadows.* Such were the opinions of Davy as to the fertili- * Rech. 150. t Thomson, vol. iv. p. 321. J Agricultural Chem. p. 352. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 357 zing properties of water. It is to be lamented that the agricultural opportunities for observation of this great chemist were so few, for his valuable i-emarks were always cautiously made. He appears, however, never to have steadily investigated the chemical composition of river-water, with regard to its uses in irrigation, and in consequence ho knew little of the value of some of its impurities to vegetation. Thus, if the river-water contains gypsum Csulphate of lime) , which it certainly does if the water is hard, it must, under ordinary circumstances, on this account alone, be highly fertilizing to meadows, since the grasses contain this salt in very sensible proportions. Calculating that one part of sulphate of lime is contained in every two thousand parts of the river-water, and that every square yard of dry meadow-soil absorbs only eight gallons of water, then it will be found that by every flooding more than one hundred-weight and a half of gypsum per acre is diffused through the soil in the water, a quan- tity equal to that generally adopted by those who spread gypsum on their clover, lucern, and sainfoin crops as manure, either in a state of powder, or as it exists in peat-ashes. And if we apply the same calculation to the or- ganic substances ever more or less contained in flood waters, and if we allow only twenty-five parts of animal and vegetable remains to be present in a thousand parts of river-water, then we shall find, taking the same data, that every soaking with such water will add to the meadow nearly two tons per acre of animal and vegetable matters, which, allow- ing in the case of water-meadows five floodings per annum, is equal to a yearly application of ten tons of organic matter. The quantity of foreign sub- stances present in river-water, although confmonly less, yet very often exceeds what I have calculated to exist. I have found it impossible to give from analysis the amount of the foreign substances, under ordi- nary circumstances, present in river-waters, with any tolerable accuracy, since the proportion not only varies at different seasons of the year, but a consi- derable proportion of the merely mechanically suspended matters invariably subsides when the specimen water is suffered to rest, so that the chemical analysis is in fact merely that of those portions in chemical combination : to give an in- stance of this, Thames water usually contains from 1 to 2 per cent, of mechanically suspended matters ; yet, when this water was analysed by Dr. Bostock, 10,000 parts were found to contain only about If parts, namely. Organic matters • 0.07 parts Carbonate of lime (chalk) .... 1.53 „ Sulphate of lime (gypsum) .... 0.15 ,, Muriate of soda (common salt) 0.02 ,, And in the same quantity of the water of the Clyde, Dr. Thomson found only a little less than 1| part, namely. Common salt 0.369 parts Muriate of magnesia 0.305 ,, Sulphate of soda (Glauber salt) 0.114 „ Carbonate of lime (chalk) . . . 0.394 „ Silica (flint-earth) 0.118 „ There is no stream more celebrated for its prolific water-meadows than the Itchen, in Hampshire ; and in no part of England is the system of irrigation better understood and more zealously followed. I have several times examined the water of this river, taken from above the city of Winchester ; it contains in 10,000 parts, after all its mechanically suspended matters have subsided, about 2g parts, namely, Organic matter 0.02 parts Carbonate of lime Cchalk) 1 .89 „ Sulphate of lime (gypsum) . . 0.72 ,, Muriate of soda (common salt) 0.01 ,, The water of lakes is usually still more surcharged with foreign substances than those of rivers ; and from the use of such waters, especially if an occasional or winter stream of water passes through them, I have wituessed great fertilizing effects pro- duced on meadow-land. In my conclusions with regard to the theory of irrigation, I have found many able practical farmers concur. Thus, Mr. Simmonds, of St. Croix, near Winchester, considers that the great benefit of winter-flooding for meadows is derived in the first place, from the deposits made by the muddy waters on the grass; and, secondly, from the water cover- iag the grass, and preventing the ill eflfects arising in the winter from the sudden transitions in the temperature of the atmosphere. This gentleman is perfectly aware of the value of the addition of the city drainage of Winchester to the fertilizing qualities of the Itchen river-water, and of its superiority for irrigation after it has flowed past the city, having water-meadows both above and below the town ; and he finds that, if the water has been once used for irrigations, that then its fertilizing properties are so materially reduced that it is of little value for again passing over a meadow; and so convinced is he of this fact, by long experience, that having in this way long enjoyed the exclusive and valuable use of a branch of the waters of the Itchen for some grass-land, a neighbour higher up the stream followed his example, constructing some water-meadows, and^ using the water before it arrived at those of my informant, who, in conse- quence, found the water so deteriorated in quality (though not sessibly diminished in quantity}, that he had once thoughts of disputing the right with his more upland neighbour. The employment of artificially-prepared liquid manure (though little known at present in England) is very extensive on the Continent : the Swiss far- mers calls it guile; in France it is denominated lizier ; and by the Germans, mist-wasser. They prepare it throughout many of the German states, and in the Netherlands, by sweeping the excrements of their stall-fed cattle into underground reservoirs, mixing with it four or five times its bulk of water, according to the richness of the dung: five reser- voirs are generally employed, of such a size that they each take a week to fill ; and thus each has four weeks allowed to ferment before the mass, which in this time becomes of an uniform consistence, is removed, by means of a portable pump, in water- carts, or large open vessels, A similar plan is adopted in the north of Italy, and from time out of mind has been practised by the Chinese. In that empire, however, the cultivators chiefly employ night-soil, which is made into cakes for this purpose with lime or clay, in all their large cities, to prepare their liquid manure. It is from long experience, an admitted fact among the German farmers, that there are no manures so powerful in their operation as those which are liquids, such as human urine or bullocks' blood : so that no English farmer need fear deception as to their as- serted value. This very fact was submitted some vears since to the consideration of Professor Hemb- stadt, of Berlin, by the Saxon and Prussian authorities, who were anxious to apply the contents of the city drains towards fertilizing the barren lands in the neighbourhood of Dresden and Berlin. This talented agriculturist undertook, in consequence, a 368 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. series of valuable experiments, which varied in every possible vi'ay, were carried on for a considera- ble ])eriod ; the result of them, so highly advan- tageous to the prosperity of Germany, Ilembstadt then published. They were repeated with unvaried success by Professor Schiibler, and the results may be stated in the following order. If the soil, without any manure, yield a produce of tl)ree times tlie quantity of seed originally sown, then the same quantity of land will j)roduce — 5 times the quantity of seed soivn, when dressed with old herbage, grass, leaves, &c. 7 times, when dressed with cow dung, y times, with pigeons' dung. 10 times, with horse dung. 12 times, with human urine, 12 times, with sheep's dung. 14 times, with human manure, or bullocks' hlood. Thus, it will be seen, that, of seven usually em- jjloyed fertilizers, the liquid manures, urine and blood, were found to bo decidedly the most powerful. Both with regard to th^ quantity of liijuid manure applied per acre, and the mode of spreading it, much must depend upon the circumstances under which tiie cultivator is j>laced, and the richness of the liquid he employs. If the impurities dissolved, or mechanically susjiended in the water are equal to 1 part in ]0, then 20 to 30 tons per acre of the licjuid manure I have found amply sufficient, under ordinary circumstances, to produce the most excellent results; if the fluid mass is purer, then more must be applied. For gardens, and small plots of ground in genera], the liquid may be readily and evenly distributed over the beds by means of a watering pot or garden-engine ; for fields it must be carried in water-carts, and distributed either by being let into a tr.insverse trough, ])ierced with holes in the iftanner of those employed for street-waterings, or the Flemish plan may be adopted, (especially when the manure is of too considerable a thickness to flow readily through the holes) of taking it into the fields in the water-carts, open at the top, (furnished with slight moveable covers,} and then distributing it out of the cart very evenly by means of a scoop ; and I have invariably perceived the advantage of ploughing the liquid into the soil as soon after it was spread on the land as possible. The cultivator will find great advantage if he uses the garden-engine, water- ing-pot, or cart, from straining the liquid manure before he pumps it out of the resorvoir, either through straw, coarse sand, or a basket ; the pieces of straw, and other coarsely divided-matters thus separated by the strainer, he will discover add very slightly to the fertilizing powers of the liquid, and yet they all materially hinder the even distribution of the manure. The expence, per acre, of such an application of liquid manure, I thus estimate, supposing the cow- herd to be employed : — £ s. d. Three tons of cow or other fresh dung 0 18 0 Labour in mixing and occasionally ^ stiring it with from 20 to 25 ton's S-0 2 0 of water j Carting, and spreading it on the field 0 8 0 £18 0 I^ it shall occur to the farmer, that the quantity of solid manure thus added to the soil will not, in reality, much exceed two tons per acre, and that this is, in appearance, a very small allowance, I would remind him, that the quantity thus conveyed consists of the soluble or richest portion of the manure, and is, in fact, the extract without any of the straw, or other inert residuum usually carried on to the soil ; besides, it is a very erroneous, though common con- clusion, that to produce fertility a manure must be used in large quantities. I have observed in this paper, that a flooding with river water, so productive of heavy crops of grass in the water meadows, does not carry on to the land more than two tons per acre of animal and vegetable substances ; and, in the successful experiments of the late Lord Somer- ville, at Fairmile, with whale bludder, not more than a ton and a half per acre were applied. The Essex farmers find three-quarters of a ton of sprats amply sufiicient ; and two cwt. per acre of gypsum is the ordinary successful allowance for grass land. The exact evenness, therefore, with which a manure is spread over the land is a highly important consi- deration as regards the economy of manures. There is no commonly cultivated plant which more delights in li(]uid manure than the potato. It naturally luxuriates near to wet ditches : on plots which have received the drainage of a dunghill it grows witli the greatest rapidity. I have invariably found that, to any liquid mixture intended as a manure for potatoes, the addition of five or six bushels of salt per acre is productive of great good, both as regards the (]uantity and quality of the potatoes. On clover leys intended for wheat, the liquid should be turned into the soil as early as possible after it is spread ; and if this operation is performed in moist cloudy weather, a very material advantage will be perceptible in the succeeding crop. The warmth of the sun is certainly prejudicial to the thinly-spread liquid manure, composed of finely- divided animal and vegetable substances. Of the tanks for receiving or preparing the liquid manure, I may remark that I have always found them best made of flints or bricks set in good mortar or Parker's cenient ;* they mav be bedded in clav, but I would not advise the use of clav for the brick- work, since worms are sure eventually to penetrate through it : and I advise the shape to be something like a decanter, larger at the top than at the bottom, in the manner introduced at Eastbourne, and in Cornwall, chiefly by the advice of Mr. Davies Gilbert. To the presence of a large proportion of urine, the richest of liquid fertilizers, must be chiefly attributed the luxuriant efi"ects produced by the liquid manure, as prepared on the Continent, and from the use of the sewerage matters of large towns as so strikingly proved in the case of the Craigintinny water-meadows, near Edinburgh, where the drainage is employed in the state in which it issues from the sewers, and from whose use several crops of the most luxuriant grass are annu- ally obtained. "All urine," said a late distinguished chemical philosopher, " contains the essential elements of vegetables in a state of solution. " By a careful analysis, the human variety of this fluid, in its fresh state, was found, by Berzelius, to con- tain the following substances : — Water 93-300 Urea (the peculiar animal matter of urine) S'OIO Sulphate of Potash 0-371 Sulphate of Soda - 0-316 Phosphate of Soda 0-294 Common Salt 0-445 * See 'Flemish Husbandry:' by the Rev. W. L. R.ham, JM.A. — (Farmers' Series, Library of Useful Knowledg-e.) THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 359 Pbospliate of Ammonia 0'165 Muriate of Ammonia O'loO l/dctate or Acetate of Ammonia "^ Lactic or Acetic Acid ; 1.714 Animal matter, soluble in Alcohol .... ,' Inseperable Urea J Earthy Phosphate (Earth of Bones) with Fluate of Lime 0-100 Uric Acid GMOO Mucus of the Bladder 0-032 Silica (Earth of Flint) 0.003 too Thus it will be seen that there is hardly a single ingredient found in urine which is not either a direct food for vegetation, or furnishes by its decomposition a supply in another form ; for in it are thus detected the ammoniacal salts of the dung- hill, the phosphate of lime of bones, as well as of many cultivated vegetables, and abundance of easily decomposable animal matters.* The urine of the liorse is nearly as rich in animal as vegetable matters ; its composition, according to the experiments of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, is as fol- lows ; — Water and Mucus , 94.0 Urea 0.7 Carbonate of Lime (Chalk) 1.1 Carbonate of Soda 0.9 Benzoate of Soda 2.4 Muriate of Potash 0.9 100 The following are tlie constituents in that of the cow, as ibund hv Professor Brande : — Water . . . .' 65.0 Urea 4.0 Phosphate of Lime 3.0 Muriates of Potash and Ammonia ... 15.0 Sulphate of Potash 6.0 Carbonates of Potash and Ammonia . 4.0 Loss 3.0 100 It would appear, from some experiments of Dr, Belcher, that the ammoniacal salts of urine have a forcing or stimulating power which considerably hastens the vegetation of plants. His experiments were made with the common garden cress ; and in his trials, some plants nourished with a solution of phosphate of ammonia were fifteen days forwarder than plants growing under similar circumstances, but watered with plain water. In some experiments of Mr. Gregory, who watered half a grass field at Ley- ton with urine, the portion thus treated yielded nearly double the quantity of hay produced by the other unmanured portion ; and tlie use of the urine of the cow, so extensively employed for grass lands, and in the garden and orchard, by Mr. Harley, in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, was attended with results equally satisfactory, producing, when diluted with water or soap-suds, very superior crops of grass on land of a very inferior description. t * The respective properties of animal urine depend much upon the nature of the food upon wiiich the creatures are nourished ; and its effects upon the land are consequently different: thus, it has been found weaker when taken from cows fed upon white turnips than upon Swedes, and still weaker from cut grass ; while that produced in the distilleries is comparatively better than either of the former. — F. Burke. See Quart. .Tourn. of Agric, No. XIX. p. 96. t It appears, in some extensive experiments made in Scotland, not to have been successful upon arable I shall conclude with a few observations on tiie loss which the cultivated lands of England incessantly sustain from the liquid manure of the sewers of her cities and large towns — a question to which 1 have before alluded in this paper, and which is not nearly so well understood as is desirable. Thus, bv care- fully conducted experiments and very accurate gaugings, it has been found that the chief London sewers convey daily into the Thames about 115,000 tons of mixed drainage, consisting, on an average computation, of 1 part of solid and 25 parts abso- lutely fluid matters ; bu!: if we only allow 1 part in 30 of this immense mass to be composed of solid sub- stances, then we have the large quantity of more than 3800 tons of solid manure daily poured into the river from London alone, consisting principally of excrements, soot, and ihe debris of the London streets, which is chiefly carbonate of lime : thus, al- lowing 20 tons of this manure as a dressnig for an acre of ground, there is evidently a quantity of solid manure, annually poured into the river, equal to fer- tilizing more than 50,000 acres of the poorest culti- vated land! The (juantity of food thus lost to the country by this heedlesswaste of manure is enormons ; for, only allowing one crop of wheat to be raised on these 50,000 acres, that would be equal to tlie mainte- nance (calculating upon an average produce of 3 quar- ters of wheat per acre) of 150,000 persons. London, too, is only one huge instance of this thoughtless waste of the agricultural riches of the soil of England ; from every other English city, every town, every hamlet, is hourly passing into the sea a proportionate waste of liquid manure ; and I have only spoken of the solid or mechanically suspended matters of the sew- erage; the absolutely fluid portion is still rich in urine, ammoniacal salts, soda, &c., when all the mechanically suspended matters have been separated from the other portion. According to very careful experiments this fluid part often contains 16 per cent, of animal matters, salts, &c., intimately or chemically combined with the water. No farmer, after such an analysis of the sewerage of a large city, can feel surprised at the important results from the use of that sewer water, as long practised in the vicinity of Edinburgh. After learn- ing the composition of such a foul mass — its endless mixture of organic matters — its soot —its carbonate of lime — and, above all, its urine, the forcing nature of the ammoniacal salts which that fluid contains, added to the presence of the other matters which are the food of plants, and the constant supply of such irrigation water in all seasons — he will readdy give credence to the talented editor of the " Quarterly Journal of Agriculture," when he asserts that, by such treat- ment of the Edinburgh meadows with the sewerage irrigation, they have been increased in value several pounds per acre, yearly.* I have often employed, with decided effect, in my own garden, for vines, peach and standard apple- trees, liquid manure, prepared either by mixing one part by weight of cow-dung with four parts of water, or tlie collected drainage of the stable and cow-house. Of these the vine is by far the most benefitted by the application ; but to whatever fruit-tree the gardener has occasion to apply manure, there is no form so manageable and so grateful to the plant as the liquid. crops ; for, to wheat, sown upon clay-land, it did no good; to barley it was found injurious ; potatoes were grown to a large size, but were watery and unfit for the table; and, on turnips, it was found not half so efficient as mere fermented dung. — F. Burke. Qua^t. Journ. of Agric. No. XIX. * Practical Irrigator. 360 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. It Las beeu found advantageous to plants cultivated in stoves to apply even a liijuid manure, composed of six quarts of soot to a hogshead of water ; and al- . though this is a verj' unchemical mixture, yet it has been found by Mr. llobertson to be peculiarly grateful and nourishing to pines, causing them to as- sume an unusually deep healthy green ; and for stoved mulberry, vine, peach, and other plants, the late Mr. Knight, of Downtoo, employed a liquid ma- nure, composed of one part of the dung of domestic poultry, and four to ten parts of water, with the most excellent result — the trees maintaining, at the end of two years, " the most healthy and luxuriant appearance imaginable.''* In whatever way we view the question of liquid manure, to which our Society now directs the atten- tion of the English farmers, an abundant field of re- search presents itself on every side : it is evidently an investigation likely to amply repay the cultivator for the labour he may be induced to bestow upon it. By such manures nourishment for vegetation is more equally diifused througli ti)e soil, and becomes more speedily serviceable to the crop, than by any other mode of cultivation. I have endeavoured, also, in this paper, to convince the farmer of what 1 have long remarked in my own practice — that a much smaller quantity of manure, if uniformly mixed with land, is sufficient for all the purposes of fertilization than is commonly believed. Sucli investigations must be of the highest interest to the farmer and to the public in general, for they relate to the increased produce of the land of England ; and not only does a fortunate experiment carry with it its own reward, but even an unsuccessful one is not without its advantages — it serves, at least, as a beacon to other cultivators, and affords that satisfaction which ever accompanies the acquisition of knowledge. PROFIT FROM THOROUGH-DRAINING.— A farmer in Lanarkshire, whose name we are not at liberty to use, tried the effects of thorough- draining on a small field of four acres. Two acres of this field were drained in every furrow, the subsoil being retentive, but the upper soil was favourable to the growth of green crops. The other half was allowed to remain undjaiaed, as the whole had been until the winter of 1837. In spring, 1838, the whole field was worked for, and planted with, potatoes. The potatoes were sold, and the result was, that the thorough-drained half yielded 45/. an acre, whilst the wndrained only realised 13?. an acre. The drained land thus yielded about three and one-half times the undraioed : and, supposing that the draining cost, at the utmost stretch 10/. an acre, the first crop, not- withstanding, not only repaid that cost, but left 22/. an acre more than the whole crop per acre of the un- drained land- What an encouragement does this simple fact and single instance of profit hold out to farmers to spare no expense and indulge in no hesitation in thorough-draining retentive bottomed land ! Although 45/. is a very large sum to obtain for an acre of pota- toes, yet the crop was generally very deficient last year, and good potatoes were very scarce ; but it must not be supposed that that amount was all profit, for the ex- penses of raising and driving the crop to market fall to be deducted from the value of the gross produce ; still 45/. and 13/. give the relative values of produce obtained from drained and undrained land. It is worthy of re- mark, that draining renders strong soil capable of raising a large green crop even in a wet season, whilst soil in want of draining is comparatively materially in- jured in a wet season. It is obvious that the soil here spoken of only required draining, to render it eminently qualified to raise green crops ; and there is abundance of such soil in the country. — Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, September. * Trans. Hort. Soc. v. ii. p, 127. 47 10.. 31 9.. 21 0 PRICE OF GRAIN AND STATE OF CROPS IN BRITAIN FOR 47 YEARS. The following statement shows the nature of the seasons since the year 1790, as also the annual ave- rage prices of Wheat, Barley, and Oats, in each of the seasons : — I'KR QUARTER. Wheat. Barley. Oats. ears. Nature of the Season. s. d. s. d. a. d. 790 ~) „ 1 r 1.1 f 53 3.. 25 6.. 18 6 ygj J. Peace and favourable N ^7 3 25 g ^g 3 792> seasons ^ ^ ^^ 0..26 10..17 10 ^ ? War, but favourable < '•^ ^ seasons ^ J.^.. > Deficiency of the crop. < -., 7961 f 76 797 / Seasons less favourable •' 52 7983 C 50 ^99 j Bad Seasons \^% 6..60 0..39 > Good crop, followed by C ( peace, also good sea-^ 115 11 sons in 1802-3 C ^"2 ?, Averao-e crons ^ ^' ^ 804 \ Deficient crop, fol- 805 f lowed however by 806 i average crops in 807* 1805-6-7 808 Partial deficiency .... 809 Great deficiency 810 Good crop 103 811 Deficiency 92 812 ? Favourable crop, but ^12 8.. 66 6.. 44 0 813 > currency depreciated ^106 6.. 53 3.. 39 3 '\ Nearlyau average crop, r I but great import and f 814 > decrease of the charges«( 72 1,.37 4 .26 6 J out 0..31 10.. 22 0 0..37 6.. 24 6 6.. 35 9.. 21 9 6 .27 10.. 22 9 6.. 29 3.. 20 0 6.. 35 9.. 27 6 6 801 ^ ,67 10.. 36 9 /- 60 > 87 ,20 .21 I] 6. . 33 6 6. . 24 6 5. .30 6. . 24 0 1..44 6. .28 0 9.. 38 6.. 25 10 1..38 3 .28 4 78 11.. 42 3.. 33 8 94 5.. 47 0. .32 8 3.. 47 9. ..20 4 5.. 41 9 .28 10 73 production coase- I quent on peace ^ 815 Full average crop .... „, - ? Gieat and general de- ( 81o 63 8.. 29 9.. 23 76 2.. 30 9.. 21 ^ ficiency . gj^? Not exceeding average \ g^ g 72 3. .45 6. .27 8 ,43 6.. 31 ,51 6.. 31 819 Somewhat below ave- rage crop 65 10. 54 5. 43 6. 61 9. 62 0. 66 6. .33 4. .25 11. 21 3. 30 7. .22 3 35 3. . 24 1 38 10.. 24 11 56 11. .33 4. .25 11 55 60 66 64 66 0..35 5.. 26 820 Exceeding average crop Roo I -A-verage crop 823 Scarcity 824 Average 825 Nearly an average . . 327 ^ Average crop 828 Scarcity 829 Average 830 Full average 83 1 Nearly an average crop 832"^ C 58 833 J- Above an average crop. J 52 834 J L 46 „„- > Considerably above an > „(, S3^5 average S 836 Above an average .... 48 6. .32 10.. 23 837 Under an average .... 55 10. . 30 4. . 23 23 10 19 3 17 7 5.. 32 10. 3.. 32 6. 3., 32 7. 4., 38 0. 8,. 33 1. 1..27 6. 2.. 29 0..20 4.. 29 11,. 22 MOISTURE IN PLANTS.— The quantity of sim- ple moisture, or rather pure water, which some plants raise from the earth is uncommonly great. This is beau- tifully exemplified in the organization of some creeping plants, in which the moisture is frequently conveyed to the distance of forty, or fifty, or a hundred yards, before is reaches the leaves or fruit, or perhaps the assimilating organs of the vegetable. A plant of this sort having been accidentally cut across, continued to pour out pure limpid and tasteless water, in such a quantity as to fill a wine glass in about half an hour. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 361 HIGHLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. On the day previous to the annual meeting and show of this Societ)^ on the 3rd October at Inver- ness, according to custom, the Committee dined together, with a number of the Rlembers of the Society. After the usual loyal toasts had been drank, The Chairman then rose and said, that there were other topics equally interesting to a farming society, with the usual routine of toasts, and, therefore, it was proposed to discuss some agri- cultural subjects at that meeting, and some gentle- men qualified to give opinions on these matters, would do so as l)riefly and succinctly as possible. As it was the first time that subjects of that kind had been brought before the Society, the Marquis of Tweeddale would explain the reasons why the Directors had deviated from the practice hitherto pursued. The Marquis of Tweeddale was received with great cheering. He believed he rose to ad- dress a company comjiosed of the Members of the Highland Society — or at least supposed to be so — and being requested by the Directors of the Society to address them, he would not have felt justified in so doing, had he not explained his idea of the assembly to whom he was to di- rect a few remarks. He had been requested by the Directors of the Society to explain the rea- sons why the Directors thought the time of the Society might be more profitably occupied on that occasion than by drinking toasts, as the practice hitherto had been on the day previous to the great cattle show. As had been explained by the chairman, it was proposed that their time should be devoted to treating on subjects most interest- ing to the agriculturists of the country in which the meeting of the Society might for the time be held. [Applause.) And that the evening of the show day should be as of old — celebrated by those enjoyments and festivities which he hoped long to see the prevailing amusements of the Highland Society of Scotland — {cheers) — that was to say the pleasure of seeing the landlord, tenant, and cottager — and every class of persons connected with agriculture meeting under the same roof and enjoying the refreshment natural to Scotchmen — {cheers) — and which he trusted would long be the emblem of harmony betwixt the proprietor, the agriculturist, and all his dependents. {Renewed cheers.) In carrying that object into effect it oc- curred to the Directors, and not only was it their own opinions, but that of distinguished strangers who had attended their meetings on various occa- sions, and of many agriculturists in other parts of Scotland, that great advantage might be de- rived were subjects connected with agriculture to be discussed by persons possessing practical know- ledge—these subjects to be the most interesting and useful to the district in which the Society was then located. {Cheers.) In consequence of these suggestions this was to be the first attempt. Se- veral subjects had been selected for discussion on that occasion, by gentlemen living in the North- ern districts of Scotland, the Directors supposing they were more likely to understand what was most interesting to agriculturists residing in that quarter of the country. After having said that much, he begged to make a few i-emarks on the progress of the Highland Society of Scotland for the last twenty years. When the Society first be- gan to show itself openly to the world in the years 1816 and 1817, as was well known to all whom he addressed, the state of agricultui'e was very much, depressed, Very few people had the courage to come forward and suppose that the Society would ever be able to advance the condition of the agri- cultural community in this country. Fortunately there were other individuals bold enough to sup- pose that although they would not be able to ad- vance the interest of the farmer by pecuniary as- sistance, yet by bringing knowledge into the field, and offering prizes for the encouragement of breeding, his general interests would be advanced, and a knowledge of the foundation of agriculture attained. When the Society first began to show itself to the world, many pre- sent would recollect that the only bond which united the members together, was the spirit of competition in feeding large fat cattle, and the triumphs attained by one party over another in the production of those disgusting animals. The flesh of these over-fed cattle was good for no pur- pose of utility, and was thrown to the dogs as re- volting to mankind. As soon as the Directors perceived the bad tendency of that competition, and became aware of its injurious effects upon agriculture, they immediately deviated from their old practice, and introduced what he considered the commencement of the practical use of the Society to the country. (Cheers.) This was the regulation of the quantity and quality of food. They required that every person who gained a prize should show the ground on which he gained it — and communicate to the Society on what food the animal had been fed. (Applatise.) As soon as this was done, they began to encourage the im- provement of male and female animals, and thus brought about the introduction of a better selec- tion of cattle into the country. They were now no longer troubled vvitli disgusting, unnatural crea- tures, but animals capable of being placed at this table or any other, and which were not only good for meat, but good to look at. (Cheers.) He should state that it was only within the last two years that the Society had ever given the slightest encou- ragement to the science, notwithstanding the num- ber of applications made to the Directors. That portion of their duties was by no means to be neg- lected, as science would throw much valuable light on agriculture. The great object of the So- ciety ought to be to instruct and educate the agri- cultural youth in all things pertaining to agricul- ture, and put them in possession of the knowledge and experience accumulated by their seniors in age. He thought that those gentlemen who were in the habit of meeting and seeing the agricultural youth at the Local Agricultural Societies of Scotland, would bear him out in stating that a great object had been already attained. (Cheers.) They had only to look at the Essays produced annually by the Society, and enquire who the individuals were that wrote them, and they would find it was the agricultural youth of Scotland whp produced that which those of niaturer years could scarcely have accomplished at a former period. (Hear, hear.) They were most anxious to take a step in advance, and he would propose that on all future occasions the subjects interesting to the parts of the coun- try where the Society were to hold their meetings, should be selected at a meeting of the Directors for those counties embraced by the Show, in or- der that all information in regard to that part of the country should be communicated to the whole of Scotland. By that means, as the Society changed from place to place, a complete knowledge 2 * 362 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of the agricultural condition of the country would be obtained, and important results would, no doubt, flow from the system. (Loud cheers.) The meeting would now hear the discussion of questions selected by the Committee, and he trusted they would have a little ijatience with the ])ro- ceedings,asit was the first attempt of the kind. (_ Applause.) QUESTIONS I'ROrOSED TO UE DISCUSSED. I. How far is it a wise and prudent measure to cultivate so largely the short-horn breed of cattle, to the risk of the entire loss, or at any rate to the deterioration of the fine native breeds of cattle ? Mr. Heriot, Ladykirk, and Mr. Craij, Kirkton, will speak to the question. II. Whether it would be better to feed sheep fat for market, or bestow the extra keep raised in this northern district of the country upon the young stocks ; and how far crossing "different breeds of sheep may be carried on with advantage ? Mr. Dudgeon, Arboll, and Mr. Home, of Lang- well, will speak to the (juestion. III. What is the best system of thorough drain- ing?— The advantages of surface or hill drainage, usually called " sheep drains," will also be advert- ed to. The Marquis of Tweeddale will speak to the ques- tion. IV. What is the best and most economical method of destroying thistles, ragweed, ferns, and other noxious weeds 1 Dr. Inglis Nicol will speak to the question. V. Can bone manure be considered effectual for a crop succeeding turnip, without being a second time manured, or ate off by sheep ; and if so, what quan- tity will the acre require? Mr. Sim, Drummond, will speak to the question. yi. The advantage and economy to a farmer in using machinery for cutting turnips, hay, and straw, and in bruising grain for his stock ? Mr.DAViDsoN,ofCantra3s will speak to the ques- tion. Mr. Heriot, of Ladykirk, rose and said, Mr. Chairman — My Lords and Gentlemen — In proceed- ing at the request of the Committee of the High- land and Agricultural Society of Scotland to give some account of the origin and present state of that remarkable description of improved short horn cattle, I have thought it more respectful to this Committee that I should commit names and dates to paper, rather than commit any mistake on so important a subject. (Cheers.) I shall, therefore, without further preface, proceed to read a short history of the Short Horn Breed which I trust will not prove uninteresting to this Committee : — In obedience to the wishes of your lordship, I shall most willingly make a few observations, found- ed on facts consistent with my own knowledo'e, re- lating to that splendid description of farming stock, technically called " improved Short Horns," at pre- sent in such extraordinary demand. Previous to the year 1788, when tho great im- provement took place with regard to " Short Horns," there had existed, perhaps, for a century, a very good race of cattle, known as the Teeswater breed, in the possession of proprietors, or extensive far- mers, of the name of Colling, Hill, Charge, May- nard. Brown and perhaps a few others. The feed- ing qualities of those cattle were good, and they attained to a heavy weight. Many of them were well shaped and gay in colour, but not remarkable for yielding much milk. At this period, the know- ledge of ascertaining the qualities of live stock by touching or handling, was in its infancy, but the handling of those Teeswater Cattle, has been since described by those who brought the " Short Horns" to the highest perfection, as not what would now be called the best, being somewhat like the touch of chamois leather. Mr. Maynard, of Airey Holme, on the Yorkshire side of the Tees, one of tho gentlemen to whom 1 have already alluded, had a cow, which, from what afterwards happened, appears' to have possessed very remarkable properties. This cow was pur- chased from Mr. Maynard by Mr. Charles Colling, of Ketton, near Darlington, for oO guineas. The male progenitor of the present race seems to have been chiefly a bull called Foljambe's Bull, bred by Mr. Charles Colling, and got by a bull called Bar- ker's Bull, whose genealogy appears not to be so well established. He came from the Swale side, and is said to be traced to the Cattle of Sir Wm. St. Quinlen of Hunmanly, in the East Riding of York- shire. Foljambe's I3uU among many other cows put to him, had Maynard's cow, sometimes called Lady Maynard and produced Old Phucnix and Strawberry. These two cows (Strawberry I per- fectly remember) seem to have been the original stock of the " improved Short Horns," as Straw- berry bred Bolingbroke, and from them sprang Fa- vourite, Young Phfcnix," Veaus, Comet, &c. I have already remarked that a great improvement had taken place in those Teeswater cattle about the year 1788. They had become well known through- out Yorkshire and as far north as the Tweed, without, however, the breeders on the Tees being able to ob- tain any extra ptice for what they sold. It is exceedingly curious to trace the steps by means of which the brothers Coiling brought their Cattle to such a degree of perfection, which, as will be seen by referring to the Herd book (and I know it to be accurate in this respect) was effected by breed- ing " in and in" and none could be more robust than the Cattle bred in this way for a certain time. But, as early as the year 17 91, Mr. Charles Colling per- ceiving that by continuing this close breeding, he was rendering the stock delicate, took (he remark- able step of putting a Galloway Bull to some of his best cows. As it bears upon the subject, I may here remark, that in the No. just published, of the English Agricultural Society, a distinguished Nobleman, in his article on the breeding of Cattle and Sheep, has been led into error ; for that Noble Lord says " The most successful cross between two different breeds of cattle, of which I am aware, was the one between a Durham Bull and a Galloway Scotch Cow, made by Mr. Charles Colling. The produce from this cross sold for enormous prices at his sale, and at the pre- sent day, a majority of the best sliort-horned cattle are descending from it." This is certainly a mis- take. The cross was between a Galloway Bull and short-horned Cows. From tkis cress were produced several splendid females ; but eventually he gained neither fame nor profit by the experiment ; and al- though, by this time, the' stain is probably washed out, breeders who possess the best herds, have always carefully guarded against the blood thrown in by this cross, which has ever since been technically called " the alloy." At length, in the year 1789, Mr. Robertson of Ladykirk, then a young gentleman of good fortune, and enthusiastically attached to country affairs, went to the County of Durham and the adjoining parts of Yorkshire, accompanied by my father, on purpose to inspect narrowly this improved breed of cattle, of the superior qualities of which he had heard so much. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 363 He immediately sawtlie vast superiority of those cat- tle, and anticipated tbe mighty improvement which lias since taken place in the stock of the Border Counties, by introducing the breed now called the " Short-Horn." In the years 1789, 1790, and 1791, Mr. Robertson purchased from the Messrs Colling, and Mr. Charge, twenty-five females, which were, in his opinion, the best of the respective stocks of those gentlemen, and also two of their best Bulls. Thus, the best of the family of tbe" Short-Horns" were transferred to the north side of the Tweed. The prices given for those Cows and Heifers, varied from twenty to fifty guineas. One Bull cost forty, and the other fifty guineas ; thus an extra price was, fur the first time, put upon the " Short-Horns," which, in after years, rose so numerously. As an example of the prices which Mr. Charles Colling received a few years afterwards, he sold a Heifer to the late General Simpson of Pitcorthie in Fife, for 300 guineas, and at his sale, as is generally known, a single Bull brought 1000 guineas. It is certainly an undoubted fact, that the splendid animals in the possession of the INIessrs. Colling, and a few others, thirty years ago, were produced, as I have already mentioned, by putting the sire to his own progeny. But with those animals, that extra- ordinary mode of breeding appeared to stop — for, by unfortunately pursuing a similar course, for eight years, the fine stock brought to the Tweed side by Mr. Robertson, became not only extremely delicate, but many died of consumption, so that he was obliged again to apply to the Messrs. Colling for fresh, and more distant blood than his own. He hired from Mr. Charles Colling, the capital Bull Wellington, out of Peeress, and the celebrated animals, Maidas and Barmptou, from Mr. Robert Colling. He used them during ten years, and his herd, altogether clear of "the alloy,"' again became superb. The effect produced on the race of cattle on the Border Counties, by the use of Bulls of the pure breed, has been most remarkable. I perfectly recol- lect the time, when generally speaking, the cattle of Berwickshire and Roxburghshire, although of a breed of " Short-Horns," were kept to a great age, and then fattened with difficulty, while now, the race in these districts possesses all the qualities of profitable stock. The " improved Short-Horns" are now spreading far and wide. Mr. Craig then i-ead the following statement on the first question — First, he contended that crossing must deteri- orate thenative breeds. That this must ultimately happen is beyond a doubt. At present the rage over all Scotland is to cross the cows and heifers of the Scotch breeds of all sorts with short-horn bulls. The consequence of this is that parties ■will see their error when it is too late, as the excellent and hardy breeds of Galloway, Fife, Angus, Aberdeen, and the West Highlands will be gone; and the whole of Scotland, from John O'Groats to Berwick, not excepting the Isle of Skye, will be filled with a mixed and spurious race of cattle. That parties will, in the first instance, select the finest cows and heifers to put to the short-horned bulls, and that the_^rs^ cross will be in most instances large and handsome, is not doubted ; but then, from the neglect that must ensue (and it has already begun) of keeping bulls of the native breed, the supply of pure Scotch cows and heifers must run out, and the conse- quence will be that people must and will breed from the crosses, and it is generally allowed that a second cross is a failure. What then will happen ? As stated above, in a few years nothing will be found in Scot- land but a mixed and bad breed of cattle. Many people say we can breed pure short-horn cattle, so they can, but will that be for their in- terest ? The short-horn breed is soft, delicate, and liable to many casualties, which Scotch cattle are not, andarenotso fittotravelthe roads. Some again say, we do not want them to travel as we can now send them to market by sea. Many cannot do this, and, besides the whole cattle in Scotland cannot be fattened at home for London and other large towns; and let it be kept in mind that short- horn cattle or even crosses, from them, are very inferior beef, generally selling at 6d. to 2s. a stone less than the fine grained and beautifully mixed beef of Scotland. It is not denied that well bred short-horn cattle are very handsome to look at, but they are made so at a very great expense. Earl Spencer, who is allowed to be among the best breeders in England, has aherd ofvery fine ani- mals of that description, but how are they kept ? Why, they are fed, groomed, and clothed like race horses; and it is very questionable if there are many farmers in Scotland disposed to be at that expence, and, if they were so inclined, would it not be wiser to give the extra feeding to the best Scotch cattle, which invariably fetch a higher price per stone in market. But with the manage- ment of cattle in England, we have nothing to do, although it may be remarked, that there the people do not run upon short-horn cattle, as the majority of Scotch landlords and farmers do, although England is the native place of the short- horns, and the climate there is much better suited to the breed than that of Scotland. In such thing, many of them would not, for any consideration, contaminate their fine Devons, Herefords, Long- horns, &c., by infusing one drop of short-horn blood into them. It may also here be observed, that short-horn cattle are to Scotch cattle some- thing as Leicester sheep are to Cheviot sheep. Now, there is not a Cheviot sheep farmer, who knows his business, in the Highlands of Scotland, but would say that by crossing his hardy Cheviot ewes with the finest and highest bred Leicester tups, his stock would be ruined, and his own ruin would soon follow. {Cheers.) If individuals only were likely to suffer from the propagation of this (to Scotland) foreign and soft breed, no one would mend ; but it is too much to be feared, that the whole of Scotland must soon feel the bad effects of the measure, and it is, therefore, humbly sub- mitted if the subject be not worthy of some at- tention. {Loud cheers.) The Chairman having stated that any gentle- man present was entitled to ask questions at either of the speakers upon the subject discussed, — the Marquis of Tweeddale, and several gentlemen put various interrogatories to Mr. Craig, in reference to his statements relative to the crossing of Cheviot ewes, and Leicester tups, on Hill Pastures. Mr. Wetherell of Durham, and Mr. Wood of Kimblesworth, in the county of Durham, united in contradicting Mr. Craig's statement, in regard to the mode in which Earl Spencer reared his stock of short-horns, inasmuch as each was personally aware of the fact, that all his Lordship's stock was " badly kept on bad land." Mr. Dudgeon of Arboli, then spoke to the second question. He stated that any observations he would read were meant to apply to the district of Scotland, north of the Spey, viz,: — The 2 B 2 364 THE FyVRMER'S MAGAZINE. counties of Moray, Nairn, Inverness, Cromarty, Ross, Sutherland, antl Caithness. As matters stand at ])resent, tlic growers of turnips will dis- pose of them most advantageously by feeding sheep for the market. Ultimately, I mean, when the period lias arrived when matters are ripe for it, the general welfare will, I think, be most pro- moted by all extra winter keep in the low dis- tricts being given to young stocks from the mountainous districts. The reason why I give tlie preference to feeding at present is, that the extent or turnips grown so far exceeds the demand of the sheep farmers for their young stock, that they obtain them in general at the very low rate of one farthing per hog, per night. This price is quite inadequate to compensate for the expense of manure, and of cultivating turnips ; more than double ])er acre has of late years been realized by feeding wedders, and sending them by steamers to the Edinburgh, Glasgow, and London markets. I have long contemplated a change by an increased demand from the high parts of the country for turnip wintering for young stock, and this is evidently gaining ground. Had not a succession of unfavourable lambing seasons occurred, it would ere now have been more general; as it is, there is a great addition to that system— twenty-live years ago there were not above 2000 hogs wintered on turnips in the low districts of Koss-sbire ; this year I do not think there will be under 10,000— a proof of the conviction operating on Highland farmers of the profit arising from this mode of management. Indeed I can hardly think but it must do so on every one who reflects on the security from loss in low sheltered situations, where stock have a competent supply of good food, compared to their being exposed on high stormy lands, in danger of being buried under wreaths of snow, or starved to death by inability to find food. It, therefore, seems to me that the period is fast approaching when fattening of sheep ■will be superseded in the north, £ind that tbe high and low [districts working together, extra keep will be most advantageously used in giving it to young stock. But it is too great a sacrifice of in- terest to expect from the turnip- growers that they are to give their turnips at a farthing per night for hogs, and although it will occasionally happen that they will be disappointed in the South country for fat, yet it seems to me more for their interest to take chance in tliis way, than submit to a price which is anything but remunerating. As to crossing different breeds of sheep, I have no doubt it may be practised to much advantage, and car- ried further than it has been hitherto, when greater attention is paid to wintering. That the breeders may dip more into Leicester blood in many cases, — I say more ; for I am decidedly of opinion that the best stocks of Cheviots in the north have ali-eady a share of it, and to this are they indebted for their superiority in carcase, wool, and propensity to fatten. As sheep-walks vary in their qualities, so should the stock vary ; while v/hat I have ventured to assert may be adopted with the best ad^'ant;ige, probably in a general point of view jisdicious crossing of the Ciieviot stocivs by that kind of tups from different stocks may be the most eligible, and on the infe- rior or wildest ground, the blackfaced or hardy juountaineeis, pure or crossed, would probably give more pay than the other. These matters can be best determined by professional men, whose minds are imbued with liberal ideas, and not too rnuch wedded to the practice of their forefathers. When kci)t in view, the saving of lives, the addi- tional weight of carcase, of wool, and the earlier age at which improved breeds attain maturity, it will be strikingly obvious that good wintering in the low country is worth a great deal more than is presently paid for it. I am doubtful if capital is yet invested in sheep farming in the nortliern Highlands of Scotland to that extent which may be done to good account, and of which the country is susceptible ; the tenements are so large as to require what may be termed men of fortune to stock them. Holdings capable of supporting from 10,000 to 20,000 sheep not only require a large capital to stock, but when nearly the whole of the sheep are intended to remain on the Highland farm throughout the year, prudence dictates that the stock should be kept moderate, with the view of guarding against ruinous loss in case of severe winters occurring. The more effectual way of guarding against this would in my opinion, be by providing largely in low country wintering of tur- nips, &c., by approximating to the Spanish system of summering on the mountain ground, and win- tering in the low districts. Even in favourable winters, the great saving of lives of young stock which are cut off by braxy, by pining or vincus, accidents by flood and storm occasioned princi- pally by poverty ; these, combined with the safety of the stock at home, additional weight of carcass and wool, would amply compensate for the addi- tional expense, supposing the present farthing the night system was doubled. I am far from recom- mending overstocking, or even heavy stocking ; my idea is, have a due regard to the elements, to summer and winter ; keep stock improving as large a proportion of the year as possible, and avert loss from diseases so far as you can, parti- cularly from poverty, the worst of all. Providence appears in a particular manner to have intended the low districts of the counties alluded to, to go hand in hand in promoting an immense addition to human sustenance, and in wool for clothing and affording employment for our manufactures. The climate of these districts (I speak from an expe- rience of thirty six years) is milder than in the counties of Scotland south of the Frith of Forth. The branches of the Moray Frith penetrate into the interior, on the margin of which snow never lies to a depth formidable to sheep. Tracts of un- cultivated moor land in many cases lie on an ele- vation less than 100 feet above the level of the sea, valuable as an outrun for young stock getting tur- nips in winter. Extensive tracts are covered with fir plantations, the branches of which are keenly devoured, and afford wholesome food for sheep in winter. Probably not le^s than nine-tenths of the arable land are adapted for the turnip husbandry. These sources afford a supply in the most rigorous seasons and protracted storms, and seem to hold out an inexhaustible supply in such emergencies for the whole of our mountain flocks ; a paternal Government has given access to these by roads and bridges. Thus has a benign Providence or- dered all matters so as to render the northern counties of Scotland particularly useful in rearing herds and flocks for the use of man. The system is rapidly adjusting itself to that effect, and amongst many others, holds out many comfortable pros- pects for the stability and prosperity of the British empire. (Cheers.) Mr. Donald Horne of Langwell, after a few prefatory remarks, expressed his satisfaction at what Mr. Dudgeon had said in reference to low country fanning, He, however, viewed the ques- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 365 tion as a high countryfarmer. It was only at a very recent period that the north country farmers could think of putting fat on bones, which they were enabled to do by the improvements in agri- culture, under the auspices of this Society, by which we have an increased extent of green food, raised in vai-ious districts. The food having been thus raised, the next question for tlie farmer to consider, was, to what advantage he could disj)ose of this increased supply of food. By the establish- ment of steam communication, along the east and west coasts of Scotland, it was not surprising that farmers in the northern counties should be ready to take advantage of this means of communication with ready markets for their fat, and he would give it as a good advice, provided they increased their fat without decreasing their breeding stock. Having that abundance of green artificial food which enables the farmer to send a quantity of stock to market, it should be recollected that the south country farmers can clear their yards in a foil, whereas a north country farmer were he to exhaust his green food by the month of May in fattening for market, how is he to maintain his breeding stock ? It is, therefore, the object of the north countr)'' farmer to bring his stock to market as soon as possible without attein])ting to fatten at the injury of his breeding stock. There are many hill farmers so circumstanced, that they are obliged to send their lambs to hogging in the low country, but if a farmer had abundance of green food at home, it would be much better for him to hog at home, than fatten his spare stock for mar- ket. If he hogged in the low country, and sent his Dinmonts and Wethers to market, then he would have a sorry account of them. There is abundance of evidence that that is the fact. With regard to the crossing of sheep, it must depend upon locality. Where land, climate, and food were favourable for Cheviot and Leicester sheep, there he would advise them to get a cross as fat as pos- sible, and then they would get the most valuable animal that could be produced, and one which could be brought to market at as low an expense as pure breeds. Another cross was betwixt the Che- viot and blackfaced. How has it been introduced ] It was introduced in consequence of farmers thinking the hills too good for blackfaced, and not good enough for Cheviot. He believed they were all well aware that it was necessary to take care never to exceed the first cross, otherwise, ac- cording to every information he had obtained, they were doing what was not a wise thing. Mr. Home concluded bj'^ some remarks as to where the pure Clieviot blood was obtained by the farmers in the north, viz., in the v^^estern part of the Cheviot Hills both on the English and Scottish sides. ]\Ir. Sim said, that he thought Mr. Home had taken a partial view of the subject, and that many sheep farmers would corroborate him in stating- that it was impossible to keep the sheep at home, without great damage being sustained by disease. The advantage of turnip feeding to young stock during the winter would amply compensate for any dilference in the expense of hogging in the low country. Mr. HoRNE said, that what he said was, that some hill farms were so laid out that they had safe and secure hogging at home, and that if the lambs were not sent to the low country, and that by the time the sheep farmer brought his sheep to market, he was much better by not hogging his lambs, than if he got turnijis for hogs for nothing The Duke of Richmond said, — I am one of- those who think that business should always be attended to first, but that it should be accompanied by amusement. As they told me when a boy, that such could not always work, but required some little pleasure — (Laughter and cheers). I rise now to propose to you to drink "Prosperity to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot- land"— (immense cheerimj) — and 1 shall couple that with, — " May we, every year, as Highlanders, promote the great and important interests of the Higbland Society, ever having in view the pros- perity of the Agriculture of the country" — {great cheer'my). I beg you, now then. Gentlemen, to teach our Lowland friends here present, the High- land honours to this toast, — " Prosperity to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and to the Agriculture of the woi'id at large" — (Tremendous clteerhig.) The Chaikiman then gave the Duke of Richmond as a Highlander. CThis toast was received with tremendous cheering, and with all the Highland honours.] After the cheering had subsided. The Duke of Ricumon'd rose and said — I feel most deeply grateful for the manner in which you have received my health. As an old soldier I ought not to have proposed to give tiie fire for the Highland Society of Scotland without being aware that one /ire brings another. [Laughter and cheers.) If I was to regard that as a mark of the approbation of the Highland Society of Scotland and from the farmers of the country — then, although I feel perfectly inadequate to return thanks, yet the pleasure of receiving thanks must supply the want of that ability. {Great cheering.) I trust I am not seriously interrupting the business of the meeting. (Cheers.) The business is of the greatest importance. We have to hear the opinions of practical farmers on many interesting questions which may be of advantage to this country, to Scotland and to the world at large. (Cheers.) I thought that after some little dis- cussion, that you would forgive me if I asked you to drink to the prosperity of the society. (Chee7's.J I trust, the Highlanders of Scotland will never regret the manner in which thej* have received me — (great cheering) — one who is deeply connec- ted with the interests of the country, and who to his earlier days looks back with proud gratification in having met the Highlanders of this country in another field. {Tremenduous cheering.) The Mauouis of Tweeddai.e after a short introduction read the following paper on the 3rd question for discussion : — THOROUGH AND PARALLEL DRAINING ON IMPERVI- OUS CLAY LAND. In discussing a subject, where, from local cir- cumstances as well as other causes, there may be a difference of opinion, as to which is the best and cheapest manner of making an improvement, I think it may be more agreeable to the company, as it certainly will be to myself, to state the diffe- rent methods in use in those parts of the country, which have more particularly come under my observation, and leave it to them to draw their own inference. Tile draining [in parallel lines) as it is generally called, has of late years been considered one of the greatest improvements ever made in this country. It is to this branch of improvement I shall now call your attention, and for your convenience separate the subject into different heads. 1st— Soil in which this improvement is made. In most parts of Scotland where frequent 366 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE- draining in parallel ines is found to be useful for the improvement of the land, the surface soil is generally found to have a subsoil impervious to water, which is the cause excepting in very dry weather, of keeping the roots of plants imbedded in water, and in the winter time, they are much weakened by the change from wet to frost, which is generally supposed to be the cause that wheat plants are thrown out of the ground in spring, and that all suifer in an equal proportion at other seasons of the year. The effect of frequent drain- ing is to relieve the land of its stagnant water, to remove the soil from which the crops formerly suffered, and to enable the farmer to grow those crops on the improved land, such as potatoes and turnips, which were supposed (until this species of drainage was introduced into the country to require what is commonly called turnip soil to induce an abundant crop. A subsoil impervious to water is not only found under a poor weak surface soil, in its natural state, producing little or nothing, but it is also found un- der a surface soil composed of the richest mould, having the impervious subsoil sometimes close to the surface, at other times at a considerable depth. The quality of subsoil retentive of water that I have found in my experience is various — where frequent drainage is required, that most common is generally called till, composed of clay of differ- ent degrees of strength, mixed with various kinds of soft sand, and frequently impregnated with iron. The colours of the till under a poor surface soil are various, sometimes of a sickly yellow ochre — frequently of a rusty iron colour, but more fre- quently of a weak white and grey colour. Under a rich black or red coloured surface soil, the subsoil is generally strong clay ; sometimes of a rich red, at other times inclined to yellow, occa- sionally with a shade of green. There is another species of subsoil that partially holds water, viz. : — Muirland pan, of which there are two species, the one where gravel is the prin- cipal component part, the other is of sand. On my own farm I have found gravelly muir- land in the strata of wet clay. On Mild Field Plain (Northumberland), I found the gravelly as well as the sandy muirland laying in a strata by themselves, sometimes in different parts of the same field, having a dry thirsty light purple sand above and below the strata of muir- land. The surface soil in some places six, nine, and twelve, to twenty inches deep. When the surface soil is shallow, little or nothing grows on it — that is to say, from six to nine inches. Where it is deep the turnips were most luxuriant, THE MODE OF DRAINING LAND HAVING AN IMPER- VIOUS SUBSOIL. Some agriculturists prefer their drains being made longitudinally, others transversely. Experience has taught me that the drains ought to be made longitudinally and in the furrows, the distance of the drains from one another ought to depend upon the quality of the subsoil, in those subsoils where I have had experience 15, 18, and 30 feet are the distances, I have found most effec- tual, and perfectly sufficient. THE DEPTH OF DRAINS, FILLING THEM, &C. When the ridge is 15 feet and the drains at the same distance from one another, the depth is 24 inches— at 18 feet, 30 inches — at 30 feet, 36 inches. I have invariably observed in subsoils (except- ing in the strongest clay) seams of sand from a quarter of an inch, sometimes to an inch and a quarter in thickness, laying horizontally connected with one another, by seams of different thickness, descending at different angles, through which the water oozes into the horizontal seams, and ulti- mately into the drains. These drains should be cut, having an aperture on the surface of eight, ten, and at most twelve inches, sloping gradually to the bottom, which should be the exact breadth of the tile, so as to give a support to the lower part of the tile, that no weight from above may move it from the position in which it is intended to stand. In cutting a drain with economy, it is necessary that the workmen should be possessed of spades of various sizes, in general three sizes are suffi- cient, a common working spade, one on a smaller scale, with the side of the iron contracted towards the bottom, the third of the breadth and shape of the bottom of the drain. These spades are to be found in all the hardware shops in the South of Scotland, and are in general use. When the soles and tiles are laid in the bottom of the drain, a covering of straw, orof the small branches of spruce or Scotch ferit, or faggots, &c., ought to be strewed over them ; this, a work of the greatest importance to the future stability of the drain, should be exe- cuted by a man accustomed to lay tiles, and who is a good judge of the accuracy of the level. There is no economy so bad as not using flats ; and I have no doubt, if tile drains are ever found to be deficient in durability, it will be owing to a bad ■quality of tile, or laying them without a sole. In filling up the drain above the tile, several plans have been adopted depending on the locality of farm, gravel, sand, small field stones, quarried stones broken small, or the surface soil are gene- rally used, gravel or sand appears to me to be the best covering as the water filters through either, taking nothing along with it, hut what the farmer wishes to get rid of. The surface soil is the next best, then the small land stones, and lastly, quarried stones broken small. The objection I have to the broken stones, is, because they are most expensive, and neither kind of stone filters the water. If the drain is three feet deep, it is frequently filled with a foot of stones above the tile, a sod is placed above the stones, the re- mainder of the drain is filled up with surface earth. The subsoil that comes out of the drain should be spread equally over the ridge. On land, where the surface soil is very shallow on the sides of the drain, it should be taken from the crown of the ridge to cover the tile, and fill up the drain. In laying off the lines of drains, the straightest side of the field should be selected : the first drain should be made as parallel to it as possible, the other drains should then be measured off at such distances from the first drain as the farmer may think most convenient, giving due attention to the quality of his subsoil, and making that the rule by which he is to be guided. In subsequently ploughing the field, the plough- man can have no difficulty in laying off the breadth of his ridges. Some of the reasons that appear to me in favour of longitudinal over transverse drainage, are as follows : — 1st. The main object being to get the water as rapidly off the land as possible, and as most fields have a slope, it is quite evident that water falling on a 30 foot ridge, following the declivity of the land will escape into the drain much more THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 367 rapidly, having only 15 feet at the greatest dis- tance to find the lowest level in the drain, than if the ridge lay across the declivity where it might have 20 or :25 feet to pass through the soil. 2d. In a five course rotation which is acknow- ledged to be the best for the quality of land under consideration, by making the turnip drills across the ridge, you ensure that the water will under no crop of the rotation have to run more than 15 feet. EXPENSE Ot DRAINING. The expense of draining land on the above men- tioned principles, done by piece-woi-k, the labour- ing men are supposed to make from nine to eleven shillings a week. The table of expenses is here annexed : — Feet--deptli of (Vi'aiii. ^)D(-SI-*l-'O^^SI-^^-'O0^Ol-»l-'O3^^^-'l-' o_i^_co_ar o .1^ CO oi o tfJL CO cji o »(^ a>_t7t aJOOOOlCOOODOlCOOOOOlCOOODO^ 00*->-'00a^'-'00if-^-^00t£>.>-^ MM zatoa-ui,^ w.0M-M,o ubw-wio mmmj- Rate ^rood of 6 yards lineal. Foet apart. Roods per Acre. 6S fS w *- I-' ^^ OS 03 !->. 1-1 6® oj >-i i.i 1-1 ^s .— «* CO CO *. o Oi i-^OlO-^OOOOtODO CO k5|-N5|.-B|MU|»t.|wt.|'-*'l-'-NH 1-1 M- M. h-*|»ft|0!lM»*l« ' 03 Ot Ch 03 O ' tOtS0Sl^t&(S03tr-tO6S03l^(£>tO03l^j o o CTi oi o ! OC>C>iOOOiCriOO gi Oi Rate !(*aore for cutting. Rate ij^rood lillinff iu. Rate ^acre filling in. R,ate ^aere laying tiles. l-0tS6S6SI-i^^W-)-il-if-i|-iM-l-it-iMI-l ^J.l-l.|J.^-l^o^s^s^^^-l^-l^-iM. Cubic yds. per rood. M•^S^^O0^-l^-l^s^^^-l^-o o *. 1-1 t-i en to t^ l_i 1-1 bS >p. to lift O (-1 1-1 to to O 4^ per acre, 14 it^ o> -^ 00 Or •^ 00 h*^ u- -<( CO *- Ut ^ CO 111. long. at I*' Ol t3^ii>.CitG to *. ^ O^ to *i ~J Ol to >f^ w l-ll-l t-lh-1 l-l»-l I-IM O)^oto0l^otoo>»^o^scl-»0lo t-S ^ 03 iji. to !« 4-1- t|- i.[i) i-l- +)(u *>- p- Rate of soles^aere. O'C^03Olt»-0-'^yDkf>.0rt-vfC0 03*.. chvjr^ .O- to O 1-1 03 V) o^ CO CJ. ^ (O 1-1 fi', ^n o<^ o » Total Expense. •o to 03 ~5 1-1 oi CO o ^ o 3 chiefly attributed to an increased demand on the part of the tallow-melters, rather than to any actual de- ficiency. On each market-day, a very steady, but not to say brisk demand, has been experienced for both beef and mutton; whilst the fluctuations in the currencies have been by no means extensive — they scarcely having-, in any instance, exceeded 2d. per 81bs. Neat small porkers, as is usually the case, during Octo- ber, have been mostly bought up briskly, at iVom 5a. to 03. 4d. per 8lbs. The veal trade, although calves have come slowly tohand, has proved heavy — the primest veal only producing- 43. 8d. per 81bs. The supplies of beasts have amounted to 1:5,109 ; of sheep, 86,300 ; of calves, 1,024; and of pigs, 3,004 : from which it will been that a trifling falling off has taken place in the aggregate numbers when compared with those in September. About 1'20 of the Scots and homebreds, forming a portion of the above supplies, have been received from Norfolk ; 60 Scots, runts, .and hon\ebreds, from Suffolk; 80 Scots, runts and Devons, from Essex; 100 cows, Scots, and runts, from Cambridgeshire ; 3,500 short-horns, from Lincolnshire; 2, 3J0 short- horns and runts, from Leicestershire ; 2,100 short- horns and runts, from Northamptonshire ; 1,230 Scots, runts, Devons, and Irisii bedsts, from War- wickshire and Oxfordshire; 580 Devons, from De- vonshire ; 700 Herefords, from Herefordshire ; 90 Devons, lunts, and Herefords, from Hampshire; 150 horned and polled Scots, but mostly the latter, by steam vessels, from Aberdeen and Ptrth ; 200 oxen, runts, and Devons, from Sussex ; 120 cows, runts, Scots, and Davons, from Surrey ; 100 cows and runts, from Kent. The remainder of the sup- plies were chiefly derived from the stall feeders, marshmen, cattle lodgers, &c., near to and within a i'ew miles of the metropolis. During this and last month the value of each kind of stock has ranged as under, at per Bibs, to sink the offals : — September. OcroBEn. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef 2 2 to 4 6 . . g 2 to 4 4 Mutton ... 2 8 5 0 .. 2 8 5 0 Veal 4 0 5 0.. 40 48 Pork 3 10 5 0 . . 4 0 5 4 A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold iu Smithfield Cattle Market, on Monday, Oct. 29, 1838, and Monday, Oct. 2S, 1839. At per Qlbs. to sink the offals. Oct. 29, 1838. Oct 28, 1839. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coarse & infcriorBeasts 1 10 to 2 0 .. 2 4 to 2 8 Second quality do 2 4 2 6.. 2 10 3 2 Prime large Oxen 2 8 3 2 ,. 3 6 3 10 Prime Scots, &c 3 6 40. .42 46 Coarse & iuferior Sheep 3 0 34..210 3 6 Second quality do 3 6 3 10 . 3 8 3 10 Prime coarse woolled do. 40 42. .40 46 Prime Southdown do.. 4 4 4 8 . 4 S 5 0 Large coarse Calves ..38 46. .40 44 Prime small ditto 4 8 5 0.. 4 6 4 8 Large Hogs 3 10 4 4 .. 4 0 4 10 Neat small Porkers .,48 50. .50 54 supplies. Oct. 29, 183S. Oct. 28, 1839. Beasts ..... 3,500 3,6'26 Sheep 27,400 23,690 Calves 200 119 Pigs 53? 569 From Scotland, and various distant parts of Eng-- land, an immense quantity of slaughtered meat has been received up to Newgate and Leadenhall mar- kets, miich of which has been greatly deteriorated in quality by the pievailing mild weather, and sold at extremel}' low prices, tolerably prime carcasses of pigs having on some occasions barely produced 4s. per Slbs. The various speculations have not been hitherto very profitable, yet we find that there is every jtrobability of the future supplies being on the increase, from the fact of many extensive shippers in Ireland having contracted for upwards of 300 pig.^, to be sent weekly to the above markets by steamers. The arrivals have comprised 651 carcasses of beef; 6,187 do. of mutton ; 1,064 do. of veal, and 6,652 do. of pork ; whilst the prices have been as ibllov.s, viz.: — Beef from 2s. 6d. to 33. 8d. ; mutton, 3s. 2d. to 43. 6d. ; veal, 3s. lOd. to 4s. 6d. ; and pork, S'-. 4d. to 43. 8d. ])er 81bs. by tlie carcass. Prime meat has sold readily, but in the middling and inferior kinds little has been doing. DURHAM. We have experienced a most critical, tedious, ex- pensive, and protracted harvest, scarcely ever having two fair days together, from the commencement ; indeed, the weather frequently assumed a charac- ter that threatened destruction to the crojis in general ; every one became alarmed, and a large proportion of grain was hurried together in a state thr.t will render it quite unfit for grinding until next summer, very little, indeed, has been secured in a state that will giind without being mixed with old. 'J'ime has now afforded us ar. opportunity of judging with more accuracy with regard to the wheat crop, and it is with deep regret that we are im'nced to make this unfavourable report:— it is deficient in quantity, and small and shrivelled in quality, be- 382 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sides he'ing unsound : wo fear tliis crop will be very inadcqutKe (o supply tlie w nnts of our increas- ing- popuhition, and a lar;,^e importation of foreign grain will be again required before another crop. Never was tliere a year of greater promise tban the present one, the earth everywhere seemed to teem with abundance, but, alas ! the rain and the floods, the winds and the tempests, came and blighted our fond auticipations, and what a])peared so beautiful now became a sad reverse, a scene of distress and devastation ; {ew could contemplate this j)ic- ture without feelings of the greatest anxiety, the crop was in great hazard, our sickles and reapers were ready, but the elements prevented us from proceeding until a serious mischief was done by sprouting. The Chevalier wheat is very Iiighly spoken of by some agriculturists, we think it a vari- ety of wheat admirably adapted to tlie feeding of poultry. Barley has suffered severely from the long continuance of wet weather, it is coarse and much stained, good and malting samples will be found ex- tremely scarce. The oat crop is decidedly the be.it and suffered least from the continued wet Weather ; a large quantity still remains standing out both cut and uncut, but the weather is now so excessively wet, that we are apprehensive a largo quantity must be entirely lost. Harvest wages have been very high. Women in some places as high as 6d. per hour, men equally high. I\len are earning ex- travagant wages on the railway, which enables them to drink half of their time. Turnips upon wet cold- bottomed land are miserably bad, also upon light sandy weak land they are small and sickly, and upon iirm real turnip soils they are very good ; Swedes are splendid where they have been well cultivated. Po- tatoes are excellent and good quality. Seed-tirae is just beginning. Fallows are in a bad state, the pros- jiect for the next crop is gloomy ; the advantages of furrow-draining has been most apj)arent this sea- son ; a large breadth of land will be unfit to sow with wheat, and must be sown in the spring with oats. A good deal of animation is exhibited in our lean stock markets ; short-horned steers to go to turnips have been in great request.— Oct. 25. CAMBBIDGESHIRE. In our last report we gave an account of the finish of a long and protracted harvest, without being able to make any correct statement respecting the yield of the crop of barley, and from the lateness of the season it is scarcely possible at present to do so, but it is generally supposed that it will prove a fair average per acre, the quality varying from light and dry to damp and discoloured, with more body. To black and wet the two first-named will doubtless all be malted, whilst the latter can only be used in its present state for pigs, or kept for grinding purposes next spring, unless some of it can be made use of by the distillers. There is now a difference of 12 or 14 shillings per qr. in the value of this article, and doubtless a still greater difference will be experi- enced unless we should have a greater quantity of foreign imported fit for malting purposes than has ever yet been remembered, a smaller breadth having been sown last season by about one-sixth than the average of the three years preceding it. Some few of the new oats come to band in better condition than was expected. Old oats are very scarce and dear. Since the commtncemcnt of the month the •weather has been unusually fine and warm for tho season, having scarcely had a shower until to-day, which has afforded on excellent opportunity for carting manure on the bean and pea land, &c., for wheat, and which had been scarcely possible to do before upon all stiff heavy land. The clover lays break up very tough and livery, and will require great care in dressing, as will also the bean land. The layers on tho light soils have generally ploughed uj) well, and a large portion has been sown, and in most cases done well, although the land was consi- dered by some to have been rather too dry, but the (juantity of rain which has fallen to-day will remove all further difficulty in that resjjecf ; upon tho wliole is is likely to prove a satisfactory seed time. The mangel wuizel roots have improved very much within this month, owing to the fineness of the wea- ther. The potatoes where the plants were good are an average crop, and not dear in proportion to the price of corn. — Oct. i^4. SUFFOLK. As we can now with some confidence give an account of the probable produce of the last harvest in this county, both from our own experience as far- mers as also what we are able to learn, from exten- sive inquiry, of our agricultural friends that we are in the habit of meeting at various markets, &lC., fitc. From all parts of the county we are happy to be able to report that we find, although the wheat is less in bulk, the yield from a given quantity of straw is very good, and, where sufficient has been thrashed, the acreahle produce is satisfactory, decidedly be- yond what was anticipated when the crop was har- vested ; we therefore consider the farmers in this county have most abundant reasons to be thankful to the bountiful Disposer of all Good for his dealings toward them. With respect to the barley and oat crop J— of the latter a very small extent is grown in Suffolk. We are not able at present to give so de- cided an opinion as we have with wheat, we never- theless think the produce of both will be good — quite an average on the whole ; — many are as splen- did crops as we ever saw. Beans and Peas are much beyond an average (7 coombs we consider an average) ; many will produce ten, twelve, or fouiteen coombs per acre, some even more. Hay is a very short crop, but clover is abundant, added to which mangel wurzel, Swedes, and common turnip are as good as we ever saw them. Labourers are well em- ployed at good wages — 10s. to l'2s. per week, by the day ; — in general they are employed at task work, by which they earn 2s, to 3s. per week more than that sum. A f'(^w days since, we were conversing with a farmer who resides in one of the parishes where, before the introduction of the New Poor Law, 60 or 70 labourers were out of employ more than iialf their time; now there is not an able-bodied man out of employ ; and he states he is obliged to drill his wheat this season in consequence of not being able to obtain sufficient men to plant or dibble it without neglecting other farm work, which, to be done icell, should be prosecuted at this season of the year. — Oct. 25. WEST CUMBERLAND. The month of September was throughout one of the wettest ever remembered,* and so far all hopes of a fine settled autumn, indulged in in consequence of so wet a summer, have been entirely disappointed. This season has consequently been one of the mo^-t adverse and ex - pensive ever known to the farmers in West Cumberland, * It appears, from a laiii-gauge koft at tlie Leeds Pliiloso- pliical Society, that during tlie montli ol Sobtcniler tliis yejr, there has fallen sixteen times more lain in that town than fell durina the same month of last year ; and we feel pretty coii- fident'that this statement would nut befouhd an exaggerated one if aj-plied to Wc :t Cuiuherlaiul. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 383 and seldom, if ever, were tlie g'rain crops secured in a worse condition. In the early part of the present month we were favoured with an occasional dry day, and now and then with a hot sun and a close atmosphere, which caused the wheat and other grain to sprout most rapidly, consequently nearly the whole of tiie wheat and much of the barley are sprouted to a great leng'lh, and consi- derably injured. Indeed, scarcely any of the wheat, from wliat we can learn, is fit for domestic purposes, particularly for bread. Instances can be produced where three bushels of new wheat have spoiled fifteen bushels of old, by mixing: them and g-rinding- them toije- Iher. The g'rain although now almost entirely housed, much of it has been secured very indifterently, and we are afraid was placed under cover before there seemed a probability of its keeping. We must here, however, make an exception in favour of some portions of that which was got in in the beginning of the present month, when we had four as fine harvest days together, (from theStii to the 9th) as the farmer could desire for the se- curing of his crop, and the latter part of the stack-yard will be prepared first for the market. There is still some grain in the more mountainous parts of this divi- sion of the county yet exposed to the drenching rains which almost fall daily, and not many days ago hay was likewise seen standing out in a completely wasted state. Field operations, generally speaking, are backward, though there are instances of wheat sowing having com- menced. Manyoftiie summer fallows are yet to rigg" up, and they are not in over promisins' condition for a good ensuing crop ; some of them which we have seen are filthy, and very indifferently prepared. 'I'hc farmers at present are busily engaged in taking up their pota- toes ; but we are not yet prepared to say whether we may look for an average crop or not, as on many heavy lands they have suffered considerably from the slate of the weather. There is a great defect in the turnip crop ; on cold lands they have failed in every direction. Those sold to be eaten off immediately by sheep are averaging about three pence halfpenny per week. Sown seeds on some soils promise well ; but fogs are scarce and bad. Summer pastures, and indeed pastures gene- rally, are much eaten, and at present lookin*' very in- differently ; neither does tiie stock upon many pastures look v,'ell. We are afraid that fodder Vv-ill be very scarce, as there has been so much hay wasted, and win- tering commencing so early for stock; but keep is pretty plentiful in the south of England, and lean stock are selling well. Fat stock continues in good request, both amongst sheep and beasts, and consequently meet a ready market at goed prices. The pork market has opened, and business is i)rctty brisk at from 5s. 6(1. to 6s, per stone, according- to quality. We still continue to receive a tolerable supply of foreign grain, which seems almost to be our principal dependence, owing to the very indifferent quality of homegrown grain, par- ticularly the wheat, which will for a time be a poor ar- ticle for bread. We may remark, however, that wheat, barley, and oats, all originally appear to have been ex- cellent crops, if the season had only been favorable for gathering" them. The ensuing winter has every appear- ance of being a serious one for the poor, and it will be equally disastrous for the farmer. 'J he wheat, which is the main support the farmer draws from his crop, will be sold for little money, and consequently the duty upon foreign grain will be kept high, which will operate very injuriously upon the poorer classes of the connnunity. Those farmers who can keep their wheat till the spring or summer will be likely to command a better price, but we are afraid there are few farmers who will be able to accomplish this object. As this is a trying season with the agriculturist, we would strongly recommend those landlords who have good and managing tenants to meet them in their difficulties with all the encourage- ment they can give. This plan, the landlords may rest assured, will answer their own interests much better than by resorting to measures of severity, as they may- depend upon it, whilst they keep up the spirits of their tenants they will reap the advantage in the superior cultivation of their soil. If opposite measures were pur- sued, the farmer, whilst he had possession, could, and in all probability would, seriously injure lands in which he had no longer any beneficial interest, and the consequence would of course be seriously felt by the landlord when he came to treat for the amount of rental with an in- coming tenant. By the plan suggested being attended to, the interests of both landlord and farmer would be alike benefitted and protected. As the wheat-sowing- season is now at hand, we would state that the gi eat dif- ferenccin the appearance of the qualities of those recently introduced into this part of the county compared with the crojjs from the old seed, disposes us to recommend the general adoption of Messrs. Brown and Whitting- ton's A^ew Prolific Wheats. All those who have tried them have found them to answer remarkably well, and plenty of seed may be got in the neighbourhood. Sir Wilfred Lawson, Bart., ot Brayton Hall, had a splendid crop of Wliittington's new wheat this season; and Mr. Salkeld, of Stainbnrn Hall, has also cultivated these improved wheats with the like success. Money, gene- rally speaking, seems very scarce among- our agricultu- rists, and trade is consequently languid. This is ac- counted for by the heavy remittances made for foreign gram, and from the state of our present crops there is every reason to believe that this evil will be still more seriously and generally felt. — Oct. 24. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. HOWDEN GREAT HORSE FAIR.— This an- nual horse fair, one of the most considerable in the kingdom, lasts one week, and concluded on the 2nd ult. A number of London dealers were down in the neighbourhood for some time before the fiiir, making extensive purchases of first-rate hunters and carriage-horses. It is princi]vally asa colt fair, how- ever, that Ilowden is famous, especially for first-rate colts is reckoned one of the first in the kingdom. The show of horses was the largest known for a con- siderable number of yeaj-s. We heard a respectable London dealer say that there were more horses ex- hibited at Howden fair during- the past week than are to be seen at anj' other fair in the world. Many valuable horses left Ilowden for London, Italy, Ger- many, and various parts of the continent during the past week. This celebrated mart for horses for several years past lias been progressively earlier in its commencement. The arrivals on the 22nd and 23rd ult. betokened a very great fair, and on Tues- day night the stables attached to all the inns of the town Wire crov/ded, and it was with difficulty stand- ings could be procured. It was not, however, until Tuesday and Wednesday that the town began to ex- hibit much bustle, when the influx became great. On Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, there were fresh arrivals from different parts of the kingdom, and the town presented one dense mass of men and horses, and many sales were efl^ectcd. Hunters were looked after with great aviditjs the greater part being sold in the inn yards. Very excellent prices were given, prime hunters fetching 150/. to 200/. each, whilst those of an inferior grade were bought up at propor- tionate prices. Good coach horses were equally prizeablc, and found ready customers at the best prices. We trust that the great demand for this description of horses, both in this country and on the continent, will induce our farmers to turn themselves to this lucrative business, and that the breeding of coach-horses will engross more of their attention. 384 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The extension of tlie foreign ilemaiul for English bred horses is worthy of note, as it promises to be- come for n time ;x consider-.ible branch of tiafllc ; that is, until foreign breeds are :;ulFicient!y improved and extended by tlie cross and admisturo with the finest British stock. When tliis is tlie case, as, from the pains taken, and from the liberal encouragement, as well as outlay given hy foreign governments to pro- mote the object, is likely to occur in a few years, this foreign demand for horses will receive a check ; as Loises equal in blood and bone can then be bred and reared on the extensive plains and waste lands of Germany, Hungary, and elsewhere, at a much cheaper rate than on the dearer lands, and with the Jiigher ])riced labour of this country. At the pre- sent moment foreigners and their goveinmenfs are equally emulous in the imports of the best breeds in furtherance of this end. We believe that the IIow- den ]\Iichaelmas horse show is now acknowledged as tlecidedly one of the fust in the kingdom ; it is the great mart to which the breeder can bring his horses with the certainty of meeting with a good customer ; whilst on the other hand, dealers know that if there are any good horses to be bought in the country, Ilowden is the i)lace at which they can be met with. The accommodation at the respective inns of the town is of a very superior description, and much more extensive than at several other towns where horse fairs are held. The following distinguished per- sonages attended the fair : — Count Harrach, from Vienna, and other foreigners from Germany ; Lord Rosslyn, Lord Seymour, the Hon. B. R. Lawley, Colonel Chomley, Mr. Kirby, &c. The attendance of dealers from London, and the midland counties, and indeed from all parts of England, was very numerous. TnE Great Fair Day, Oct. 2. — There was a large quantify of beasts exhibited to-day, including a large lot of Irish, but not much business doing. Beef, 6s. to 6s. 6d. per stone. Of sheep there was agood sujiplv, but the sales to-day were heavy, and the business transacted trifling; prices are a shade lower, 6d. per lb. being the highest quotation. The show of colts also was tolerably good. Ssveral colts and fillies got by Shuttle, sold from 20/. to 251. each. There was a great number of Scotch ponies, which met with some buyers at good prices ; they were generally in better condition than formerl}^. There was a great influx of country people to the pleasure fair on Wednesday and Thursday. This great annual fair concluded on the 3rd instant, and from its earliest commencement on the 20th ult. to its termination on the 3rd inst. will have continued nearly a fortnight. YARM GREAT OCTOBER FAIR.— This an- cient, well-established, and justly celebrated fair held on the 19th inst, for horses and cattle, and (Sunday intervening) on the 21st for sheep and cheese, and also the new horse show on the day preceding the fair, were extremely well attended, and the new horse fair may now be considered as established, and likely to become one of considerable importance, as the time is so suit- able for the attendance of dealers on their Avay to the Newcastle fair, and for the sale of colts brought up from the Marshes, as well as of carriage horses, hunters and roadsters, made up for the purpose. Many highly respectable dealers from London and the Southern counties, and country gentlemen in want of hunters and roadsters, were seen in the town several days prior to the fair, and mauy horses were sold at good prices previous to the fair day. The show of horses of every description, both on the ISth and 19th, ■was larger than we ever knew it on any previous occa- sion. Coach horse*, hunters, and good roadsters were much enquired after, and those of superior quality were readily sold at high prices. There was also a good show of strong and useful draught horses, but the Scotch ponies shown, (and for which there was a very great demand) were too young and slender for tUij market. The show of short-horns was, as usual, very large indeed, and the ([uality of tlie cattle far exceed- ed anything we have ever before witnessed ; several cows and heifers, v.hich had gained premiums at some of the principal cattle shows in the neighbourhood, were offered for sale, and were readily bought up by gentlemen wishing to improve their breed of short- horns, and no gentleman could possibly have come to a better market for a supply of superior shorthorns. Several lots of fine fat steers and breeding heifers were bought up the night before the fair, and were conse- quently not brought into the market. Good calving cows, and fresh steers and heifers, all met with ready sale, but large forward steers were most in demand. Beef sold at from Gs. 3d. to Cs. 9d. per stone, and some of the best steers were sold as high as 7s. On the 21st, the show of tups, as well of the Leicester as of the Tecs-water breed, was acknowledged by gentlemen of experience, to be the best ever known in a public market ; there was also a very large show of shearlings and other fat sheep, which sold at from 6d. to C^d. per pound ; and the choice of breeding ewes and sheep for turnips, and also that of Highland wethers was likewise exceedingly good. The show of cheese was large, and the quality good, and they met with quick sale. New milks at from 54s. to 63s.; general price 585. per cwt. of 1 12lb3., and old milk at from 2Ss. to 36s. per cwt. COLCHESTER FAIR.— The show of beasts at the cattle fair was not so numerous as is customary at this season of the year, the principal deficiency being in Welsh cattle ; but the quality of such as were brought into field was very good. At the commence- ment business was flat, and continued so until the middle of the day, when the buyers finding the dealers were not inclined to give way in the high prices demanded for superior stock, agreed to the terms, and business was briskly maintained throughout the re- mainder of the day, insomuch that more sales were ef- fected than has been the case for many years preced- ing, which resulted in good prices to the dealers— the main inducement on the part of the buyers being the present plentifulness of feed. Good Scotch beasts sold from 13/. to 16/. each ; and a few short horns realized from three to four pounds per head more. The best kinds of Welsh beasts met with a ready sale, although considerably enhanced ia price since last year's fair. Indeed every description of cattle was much higher in price, according to their quality and condition. Of sheep there were about 7,900 penned, most of them be- ing of good quality and in fine condition, and the ma- jor part changed hands at better prices than have been current at our market for some time past. Prime we- thers realized from 39s. to 45s. and lambs from 18s. to 28s., and a few pens of Somersetshire ewes brought high prices. There was a much larger supply of cart colts than last year, which may in a great degree be attributed to the superior accommodation afforded than has been customary, most of which were readily bought by the agriculturists in attendance, at prices extraor- dinarily high. A pair of carriage horses — a capital match, we are informed were sold for one hundred and eighty guineas. There were a great many nags tipon the ground, amongst which considerable business was done by the London dealers ; but there were none that could be termed of superior quality. A considerable number of ponies exchanged hands at high prices. The business transacted was altogether very extensive. A large number of the various descriptions of ploughs and agricultural machines and implements, were exhibited by Mr. Charles Wallis, and were a source of consider- able attraction. WEYHILL FAIR.— Slieep: About the usual num- ber of sheep were penned at this fair on Thursday the 10th, and the attendance of buyers was very numerous. Notwithstanding the almost incessant rain, business com- menced with good spirit very early in ihe morning, and sales were speedily effected upon good terms. As the day advanced, the ardour for making purchases ap- peared to have abated, and for a few hours very few THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 385 transactioilis were effected: about noon, however, the SALE OF MR. HARRISON'S SHORT-HORN"- sph'it of the dealers appeared to be revived, and sales ED CATTLE, AT LOWFIELDS. — The foUow- were ag'aiii very easily effeeled, whilst the prices «vere ing is aa account of the sale of a part of the cele- as g-ood as at the commencement of the fair. Some brated stock of short-horned cattle belonging to farmers expected to have obtained more money for Mr. Harrison, of Lowfields, near Kirkby Lons- lambs, but the prices for other descriptions were equal dale, submitted to public competition by Mr. S. to their most sanguine expectation. I'he whole were Garnett, of Low Sizergh. A great concourse of disposed of before the clese of the day, and prices may agriculturists attended, both from the neighbourhood be stated about as under:— Down Ewes, 20s. to 45s.; and from a distance. One eight-years old cow was Down lambs, 18s. to 35s., — very superior, 30s ; wethers, bought by Mr. Benn for the Eail of Lonsdale for 50?,— 28s. to 50*.; Dorset ewes, 40s. to 58s. Horses: about Emma, by Coburg, twelve years old ....^32 the middle of the day the show of horses was excellent. Silvia, light roan, by Wellington .^50 Prices for g-ood horses higher. Queen Bess, seven years old 37 BALLINASLOE FAIR.— Friday Evening.— The Duchess, seven years old 38 fair is considered to be pretty much the same as last, Deborah, seven years old 33 perhaps one shilling lower on the average. 'J'he highest Linthorp, six years old 22 price heard of was — Mr. French, of French-park, for Lofty, sixty years old 35 200 wedilers, 2/. 12s. 6d. per head ; Mr. P. Baife, for Young Emma, six years old 20 200 do., 21. 10s. do. ; Mr. Taaffe, for 300 do., 2/. 10s. Lilly, (white; six years old 23 do.; Mr. Fair, for 100 do., 2/. lis.; Captain Taaffe, Alice, six years old 27 for 150 maiden ewes, 2/. 7s. do. ; old ewes, 2/. do. In Spangle, five years old 27 the opinion of some gentlemen, the fair is not so remu- Prude, four years old 26 nerating a one as last year's. Piuk, four years old 21 Saturday. — All the sheep remaining unsold yes- Cherry, four years old 19 terday— and those, it was thought, amounted to nearly Emmeline, three years old 25 one-half of the entire— together with many new lots, Tvvo-Years-Old Heifers. — Fancy, 17/. ; Lucy, were driven, this morning, to the fair-green; and, 22?.; Eliza, 24/.; Mary, 17?. ; Nancy, 17?.; Ruby, from the uninterrupted nature of the ground, unlike 12?, 15s.; Victoria, 10?. 10s.; Blossom, 12?.; Lady, the beautifully wooded park of yesterday, they had the 15?. ; Sprightly, 11?. lis. effect of appearing in greater numbers than on the first Heifer Calves.— Matilda, 12?.; Elizabeth, 11?.; day. The prices, however, were down; and at an Isabella, 10?. 10s. ; Beauty, 14/. 2s. ; Jessy, 7/. early hour the buyers seemed to have it all their own Bulls.— Gambler, 26?. ; Felix, 21?. ; Bloomsbury, way ; the prices ranged fiora 2s. to 49. a-head below 14?. 5=. those of yesterday. The following returns are made, A number of Leicester ewes and young horses were this evening, from the custom-gaps, viz. :— Number of also sold, which obtained good prices. We hear that sheep sold the second day, 27,374 ; total number sold the sale altogether realised upwards of 1,000?. on both days, 70,550 ; number unsold the second day, 24,909 ; total number of sheep at the fair, 95,459. These are the uncorrected returns made by the collect- ors of customs. The number unsold this year is a good /-. t ■r»T-«r'VTTVT/-l /-wnnr. 1 mT/-v»T-« t-i/-vt. deal more than double that of last year, thus, on the ^AltL>liMlJN br OPEKATIONi. FOR whole, the fair may be said to have been a bad one. NOVEMBER. Monday Evening. — Tliis day was the great horse m, ,./i- <• ■ ■ 1 ,, fair. The show on the green was exceedingly large, ^ "'^ different compartments of the pinery should but they were, with few excep'.ions, of the most inferior "O^ '^e put in order for the coming winter ; carefully description that ever were offered for sak in this place, remove the plants, and turn the beds to the bottom, Some of thesuperior descriptions, however, commanded adding a sufficient quantity of fresh, well prepared high prices. Mr. Booth, of Clover-hill, got 145/. for a matter, to raise them to the proper height; such four year old colt, got by Ferrymore ; and this was the plants as require larger pots, may be shifted, highest price heard of. Mr. Butler, of Elphin, got 100?. but care must be taken at this season to disturb the for another young horse and one ot the laatfesgot 120?. ^^ as little as possible, for if the roots be much in- ["n.fJ.'' r' 1*" '"??9n;''f\n''\ ' '^f.T''^y jured. there is little chance of their forming new Longtord, also /t-?/)e(/u;eVnEAT, T!:s<:cx& Kent. .red,... 68 72 white "4 76 80 Siiirolk & Norfolk ,, .. 06 68 do... 74 76 Irist ,, .. 50 60 do.... 60 64 Oid. red 70 80 do,.. 78 84 RvK old 34 36 new 35 3S Barley, Grinding 32 31 iyaltiiig 42 44 Chevalier 44 46 Iri^li 30 34 Bere... — 30 Malt, Sullolk & Norfolk 70 75 Brown .. 56 GO Kinirston & Ware 70 75 Clievalicr 70 76 Bkans, Tick 40 46 Small.. 44 48 PBAs.tirey - 42 44 maple.. 42 44 White 46 — boilers. , 48 50 392 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OAT8,Yorksliiro&Mnc(.)lnsli,fecd 27 20 I'otatoc.ZO 30 Yn'i)rliiill& Colli lilaik .. 2(i 27Cork-, white 20 27 Diililiir 2,-) 2G Wcstport 27 28 CloHincI , 2'i 27 f/niiericl< 24 2G f<(Mi(1on(leriv 20 28 Sli|r,, stipr. 58, [280 lb. Fnrcign Grain and Flour in Bond. Wheat, Dantzic GO 70 llaniburjf 00 05 BAaLKV — 30 Oats Potato — 22 feed 20 to 22 Bkans 24 26 I'KAs 20 24 Flour. AMieiican jierbrl. — 36 Barley.. 36 IMPKRIAL AVERAGES. Wlieat.lBarlcy. Oats. Rye. Beans Peas Week cndinif 13tli ..■ 20ih . , 27th . . Oct. 4Ili .. lltU .. ■:8th .. A ggropateA verage of the six week which regulate* the duty Duties I'layaMe ii Lendori till Wed nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Outpnrt!! till the arrival of the Mai' of that (lay from Ijonilon . . , Do. on grain from BritishPossessions oui of Europt' .. . .39 6 26 9 3S 10 43 10 12 6 .39 7 I 26 11 .39 0 43 3 !42 1 40 4 , 28 10 38 3 44 7 43 5 26 9 38 1 16 0 41 2 40 8 41 2 41 0 9i37 9 46 1 44 11 5 38 7 45 6 45 0 68 11 40 5 26 9 33 44 10 43 8 7 912 6 0 0 0 0 COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES AVERAGES from tlie by the Imp. Quarter, corresponding Gazette from the Gazette, of! in the last year, Friday Friday last, Oct. 25th, Oct.26, 1S38. 1839. s. d. s. d. Wheat 65 6 Wheat 66 4 Barley 41 0 Barley 31 1 Oats 25 5 Oats 22 4 Rye 38 7' Ry^e 32 9 Beatss 45 6 Beans 38 10 Peas 45 OPeas 41 2 SEED MARKET. Oct. 28. The seed trade remained in a state of great inac- tivity, and so very little busine,^s Avas done in any one article, that we deem it useless to notice the different sorts individually. Quotation!! remained precisely as on this day week. Clover EhkHsIi, red ....— — white— —per cwt. 1 Hutch — — — — ',5 Gorman 50 78 _ _ '. = French 5S 80 [a American — — — — j ^ Trefoil 12 25 fine new 27 28 J Rapesced. Enjtlish, . .. ^30 ..< 32 foreign .fSO 32 per last. Linseed. Jiuiflish sowing.. — — — — per q". Baltic — — erufhini,'.38 40 ,, Mediter.& Odessa— — 40 4t ,, llempseed, small ,34 36 large 38 40 Coriander 14 18 fine — — per cwt. IVIustard, brown 15 17 white 10 14 pcrbushel 'J'urnip Seed .new Swedes — — 10 18 ,, Rve Grass, English 30 42 Scotch IS 40 ,, Tares, Winter 7». Od. to 7s. Od, extra S?. Od. Linseed Cakes, foreign... §/. to 8/. 5s. per ton, Rapeseed do, do 5/. 10s. to 0/, AVOOI. MARKETS. BRITISH. Oct. 2S. Perlb. 8. d. s. d. Down Teegs ISitol 6 Half-bred Hogs 1 4!, 1 SJ Ewes and Wethers 1 2 I 3 BUnketWool 0 7 0 9 Flannel do 11 \ !> SkinCombin? 12 14 LIVERPOOL. Sf;nTcri, Oct. 26.— There conliucs to be but a limilcfl demand fer liiid Highland wool ; our imports continue to be lit'ht still, quite equal to the demand ; as manufac- turcr-i only purchase for their immediate wants, tliere is no alteration in price. White is scarce, but in demand. There has been some little inquiry for both crossed and Cheviot wool this week, but we believe little actual business has been done. Per Stoneof 241bs. r. d. ». d. r-aid Hishland Wool, from 10 Otoll 0 White do. do 12 6 13 0 Laid ("rosvied do 12 0 13 0 Do. Washed do 13 0 14 0 Do. Cheviot unwashed do 14 0 15 6 Washeddo, do 18 0 20 0 White do. do 28 0 30 0 FOREIGN. Oct. 2S. The public sales of Australian wools were continued last week up to 'Jhursday — the last quantity offered being l,390balcs,most of which sold briskly, at a trifling improven-ient in prices. Some of the Van Dieman's Land wool produced from 2s.2il. to 2s. 32d. per lb.; and one lot of lambs' wool sold at 2s. 6d. Generally speak- ing, the sales appear to have proved tolerably satisfac- tory to all parties. Since INIonday last, the aarrivals have consisted of 800 bales from ^'aH Diemen's Land ; 100 do. from Spain ; 200 do. from Germany ; 115 do. from the Cape of Good Hope ; 90 do. from Turkey ; and 70 do. from Russia. PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Oct. 28. Kent Pocketf, 1838 3 10 0 to 3 15 0 Ditto choice, do , 4 10 0 — 5 12 0 East Kent pockets, do 4 10 0 — 6 0 0 Sussex do do 3 0 0 — 3 5 0 Kent bags de 3 10 0 — 4 4 0 1837'8 3 S 0 — 3 10 0 1836'3 115 0-2 10 0 POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK W^ATER-SIDE, Oct. 28.— During the past week a liberal supply of Potatoes has arrived from the inland coasts, as well as from the channel Islands, they .-■re as follow, viz.— from Yorkshire 881 tons, Devons 50, Jersey and Guernsey 681, Kent and Essex 651, making together a total of 2263 tons. There is yet no arrivals from Scotland ; but a supply from that quarter is shortly expected, as most of the j,rowers are now taking them out of the ground, and generally ship a few of them off as they are taken up. The trade during the week has not been brisk, the buyers being rather shy in taking any but very superior samples at the present price? ; no doubt anticipating that they would probably be lower, but as the weather is now colder the buyers are more on the alert, and there is every probability of the present prices being maintained, especially for the primer sorts. Pre- sent prices as follow : — Per Ton. York Reds 70s. to SOs . Devons 70s. Jersey Whites SOs. Guernsey Blues 55s. Kent and Essex Whites ..,50i, to 60s. THE FARMEPv^S MAGAZINE. DECEMBER, 1839- No. 6.— Vol. III.] [New Series. PLATE I. The subject of the first Plate is a Devon Bull, the property of Mr. Paull, of Compton Pauiicefoot, Somerset, and to which the first prize of Thirty Sovs. in Class 3, was awarded at the meeting of the English Agricultural Society at Oxford, in July last. Mr. Paull was eminently successful as an exhibitor of Devon cattle upon that occasion, having also obtained a prize of Fifteen Sovs. for the best In-Calf Heifer, a prize of Ten Sovs. for the best Yearling Heifer, and a prize of Ten Sovs. for the best Bull Calf. Mr. Paull also won upon that occasion a Sweepstakes of Ten Sovs. for the best Devon Bull, and Five Sovs. for the best Devon Heifer. It is not, however, at Oxford alone, nor in one department of farming, that Mr. Paull has signalised himself, as will be seen by the subjoined long and diver- sified hst of prizes which have been awarded to him at various agricultural meetings : — 1832. Bath, best Cart Stallion, 10/. 1835. Yeovil, best fat Cow, 31. Bruton, do. do. do., 2/. Wincanton, do. do. do,, 3/. Sherbourne, do. do. do., 31. 1837. Yeovil, premium given by E. A. Sandfoid, Esq., M.P., for three acres of best Mangold Wurzle, grown within tifteen miles, 10 guineas. Ditto, ten best South Down Ewes, 3/. Sherbourne, ten best do,, 21. Wincanton, ten do. do., 21. 1838. Yeovil, premium given by E. A. Sandford, Esq., M.P., for the best cultivated Farm, not less than 100 acres, within 16 miles of Yeovil, strict regard being paid to nature of management, quality of stock, and greater amount of labourers' wages paid per acre, having nearly 900 statute acres, and eleven competitors, 10 guineas; Ditto, a Silver Cup, value 5 guineas, given by T. D. Acland, Esq., M.P., for ten best South Down Ewes, open to all England. Wincanton, ten best South Down Ewes, 2l. ; best Dairy Cow of any breed, 21. ; second best do., 1^ ; best Boar, 1/. ; best Sow, IZ. Sherbourne, best Bull of any breed, 3/. ; best Dairy Cow do., 31. ; best pair of stock Heifers, 21. ; best ten South Down Ewes, 21. Bath, six South Down Ewes, 3/. for merit. 1839. Nov. 22. Yeovil, Silver Cup, given by T. D. Acland, Esq., M.P., value .5 guineas, for ten best South Down Ewes, open to all England ; Ditto, Silver Cup, given by W. Helyar, Esq., value 6 guineas, for the best South Down Ram, open to all England. This ram was a two-tooth, and sold at the show for 50 guineas. PLATE II. CHARLES XII. AND EUCLID running the deciding heat for the Doncasler St. Leger, 1839. (For Description see page 457-J OLD SERIES.} 2 D [iVo. 6.^V0L. XL 394 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ESSAY ON THE ADVANTAGES OF FARMERS' CLUBS, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE RULES AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE HARLESTON FARMER'S CLUB. EY ROBERT ELYTII HARVEY, Secretary to that Society, [We are much indebted to Mr. Harvey for tlie readiness with which he complied with our request, to pen sucli an account of the establishment and regulations of the Harleston Farmer's Club, as would assist peisons disposed to form new clubs. It will be seen by an article in this Magazine, extracted from Tfic Mark Lane Express, that a portion of the profits of tlie Farmer's Fire and Life Insurance Institution will be applied "in aid of the formation of Farmer's Clubs ;" persons wishing to establish Clubs sliould therefore make application to the manager upon the subject. — Ed. F.M.] Although this kingdom has long been celebrated for its practical agriculture, yet it is notorious that the discoveries in science which distinguish the present century, have had but little relation to husbandry. In all kinds of manufactures, in the machinery by which they are made, and in the arts and sciences in general, the most extraordinary improvements have been effected during the last twenty years ; but the progress of agriculture, al- though considerable in particular districts, has yet been chiefly confined to them ; and they have there resulted, more from unexpected discoveries arising from the variations in practice adopted by cultivators, than from the light of science having been especially directed towards their acquire- ment. A dift'erent era is evidently dawning on agricul- ture, practical farmers are turning their attention to the science of their business, and scientific men are devoting their knowledge to the improvement of the practice of husbandry; associations of va- rious kinds are fostering the efforts of both, and men of large property, character, and intellect, are taking the lead in the advancement of the most useful and interesting of all the sciences. In none is there greater scope for improvement, and it is the object of the present essay to endeavour to point out a means of obtaining and spreading that improvement amongst the farmer's of this king- dom. The first question that naturally arises on con- sidering this subject, is, what has conduced to the advance of other sciences over that of agriculture ; the latter confessedly as producing the necessaries of life, being of more importance than those which minister to the luxuries of mankind ? Is there any advantage which has tended to increase the know'- ledge in manufactures of all kinds, and in the arts and sciences generally, the want of which has re- tarded the progression of agricultural improve- ment ? I have no doubt these questions will be answered in the affirmative, and that it will be readily conceded, that the opportunities which per- sons engaged in manufactures, and therefore ne- cessarily living in masses, have had, of frequently meeting to consult on and discuss their various interests, have had the most beneficial effects in obtaining and spreading a general knowledge of their art ; and that the comparatively scattered situation of farmers, and the consequent want of societies like Mechanics' Institutions and other similar associations, have materially tended to prevent an equal increase of knowledge amongst the cultivators of the soil. This fact has indeed long been acknowledged, and were it necessary I could offer in support of it the opinions of many eminent men; but I will content myself with an extract from the very eloquent speech of Mr. Webster, at the late splendid meeting at Oxford. He said: — " Is it not obvious to the most common observer, that those who cultivate the soil have not the same convenient opportunities and facilities of daily inter- change and comparison of opinions, as tlie commer- cial and mauufacturing interests 1 Those who are associated in the prosperity of commerce and the manufacturing interests of life, naturally congregate together in cities — they have instantaneous commu- nication— their sympathies, feelings, and opinions are communicated like electricity tlirough the whole body — but how is it with the cultivators of the soil 'i separated, spread over a thousand fields, each atten- tive to his own acres, with only occasional oppor- tunities of communicating with each other. If among commercial men, chambers of commerce, and other institutions of that character, and if among the trades and guilds, these are found expedient, how much more necessar)^ and desirable to have some such institutions, which at least annually shall bring together the representatives of the great agricultural interest." I am equally aware with Mr. Webster of the ad- vantages which will result from bringing annually together the representatives of the agricultural interest. But I ask, would the commercial men, would the members of the chambers of commerce, and of the mechanics' institutions, have obtained half the benefits which they have derived from those associations, had they met only once a year .' I consider that the frequent opportunities which the members of such societies have had of meeting together, has been one of the leading features amongst the benefits derived from those institutions. If then the farmers of England wish to extend their knowledge, and to improve their cultivation, through the discoveries of science ; let them establish societies like the mechanics' insti- tutions, at which they can discuss the merits of new discoveries, or the improvements in the prac- tice of old, and profit by the experience of those who have had greater opportunities of devoting their time and attention to the science of agricul- ture. I cannot indeed better describe the objects of Farmers' Clubs than by an extract from the ex- cellent prospectus of one lately established, after the model of the Harleston Club, in the Isle of Thanet :— " The formation of Farmers' Clubs is a new and interesting feature in agricultural history. By means of these institutions much valuable information is diffused ; different modes of cultivation are com- pared and their results ascertained ; improvements are suggested and made public ; and the interchange of thoughts, opinions, and observations, promotes good feeling and in various ways exercises a bene- ficial influence. Among the objects sought to be attained by Farmers' Clubs are the following : — to ascertain the nature and qualities of the soils and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 395 subsoils of tlie district; to inquire into the compara- tive value of difl'erent sorts of manures ; to test by experiments alleged improvements in cultivation, in agricultural implements, or in the management o i stock ; to discover the most profitable varieties in corn, seeds, or roots, and the most advantageous rotation of crops ; to collect information respecting the state and progress of agriculture, by corres- pondence, by the establishment of agricultural libra- ries, and by such other means as may be deemed expedient ; in a word, to advance the interests of agriculture in every possible way — reducing theory to practice, and throwing the light of knowledge and science over the most useful and important of the arts of life." The allusion to agricultural libraries in the above prospectus, brings me to a part of the subject which although the last mentioned, is not amongst the least of the advantages derived from Farmers' Clubs. It has been impossible for persons en- gaged in agriculture to procure any books treat- ing on that science but at a heavy outlay of money, purchasing them at their sole expence ; as should they have the wish or opportunity of joining the Book Club in the nearest market town, they will not find in it works treating on farming; and j'et, if agriculture is to emerge from the stationary position in which from a want of the application of science it has so long been placed, how can this be accomplished but through the medium of books, and more particularly of periodical works, which by placing before lis the suggestions, the experi- ments, or the practical knowledge of other culti- vators, enable us to benefit by such information, and to pursue our own improvements with much better prospects of success? Having thus attempted to show some of the ad- vantages of Farmers' Clubs, I would consider the objections to them; but, although there may be some difficulties to surmount in their general in- stitution, I know of no objections to them when once established. I am aware that the scattered situation of farmers, which has been before alluded to, may be stated as the chief obstacle : but this, in my opinion, is not so serious a difficulty as it has been considered. If farmers have further to go than merchants or tradesmen to a central place of meeting, are they not better provided for going? and I think when the benefits to be derived from such meetings shall be fully understood, very few farmers will object to riding four or five miles to attend them. I may be told, that the general esta- blishment of Agricultural Associations in each county, in some measure precludes the necessity of the clubs I am advocating : but they are insti- tuted for a different purpose, viz., for rewarding deserving labourers in husbandry, and for encour- aging the breeding of good stock, &c., &c. No one is raoi'e friendly to such associations than myself. I think they have been, and will continue to be of the greatest utility; and I hail with de- light the establishment of the English Agricultural Society, which by becoming the focus of all other Associations and Clubs, may disseminate the in- formation received from each, amongst all the other societies in correspondence with it. But these associations, and more particularly the Eng- lish Agricultural Society, are designed chiefly for the advantage of the landowners and larger occu- piers, and the benefits derived from them, although ultimately descending to all classes, are not imme- diately within the reach of the smaller tenant. The clubs I am advocating, not to the exclusion of the associations above mentioned, but in con- nexion with them, are, from the trifling amount required for subscription, open to the smallest oc- ciijjier of land. The experience of the Harleston Club proves, that five shillings per annum from each member, with no forfeits for non-attendance at the meetings, is amply sufficient to secure all the advantages contemplated in its establishment ; and this sum will surely not be grvidged by any occupier of land, particularly when it is considered that the money will be expended in the purchase of agricultural books for his reading. I now proceed to give a short account of the for- mation, rules, and transactions of the Harleston Club. This district had for several years enjoyed the advantages of an agricultural association, hav- ing for its objects the encouragement of good ploughing, the rewarding of deserving labourers in husbandry, and the promoting the breeding and feeding of good stock. The benefits derived from this association were soon felt, particularly in the first two classes ; but some of its members having witnessed the successful establishment in the ad- joining county of Suffolk, of two societies which contemplated, by the discussion of agricultural subjects, the improvement of the members them- selves, they considered there was an opening at Harleston for the formation of a similar society, perfectly distinct from the Association. The Farmers' Club was accordingly established, consisting at fii-st of about thirty members, and gradually increasing to its present list of nearly 140. It is managed by a Chairman, Committee, and Secretary, and is governed by the following rules : — 1. That the officers of this Club shall consist of a Chairman, Secretary who shall also act as Trea- surer, and a Corfimittee of seven members, all of whom shall be elected annually. Five of the Committee, including the Secretary, to form a quorum. 2. That at each meeting the authority of the Chair- man upon all disputed matters shall be final. 3. That it shall be the duty of the Secretary to re- ceive the subscriptions, to keep the accounts of the Society, and also of the books in circulation. 4. That it sliall be the duty of the Committee in the absence of the Chairman, to elect a Deputy chair- man, to take care that at each meeting a subject be proposed for discussion at the succeeding one ; and to decide upon all matters connected with the business of the Club. 5. That any person wishing to become a member of this Club, must be proposed by one member and seconded by another, when he may be elected by a show of hands. 6. That the Annual Subscription payable by each member shall be five shillings, which sum shall always be paid in advance. 7. That the Club shall meet on the Friday in each month on or preceding the full moon. 8. That the Chairman shall take the chair at six o'clock, and any business of the Society shall be first transacted ; after which he shall call upon the member introducing the subject for that even- ing, the discussion upon which shall be terminated by nine o'clock at the latest ; apd all questions upon which it may be necessary to come to a di- vision, shall be decided by a majority of votes. 9. That there shall be no forfeits for non-attendance. 10. That the first meeting of tue Club shall be held at, &c., &c. 11. That the Annual Meeting for choosing the Of- ficers, and auditing the Accounts, shall be held in January. 2 D 2 396 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 12. That all Political Subjects shall be totally ex- cluded from the discussions of this Society. 13. That the Books purchased by this Society shall be confined to Agricultural and Horticultural works, the price of which shall not exceed the existing funds of the Club. 14. That it shall be competent for any member to propose the purchase of a Work, which, if se- conded, shall be ordered or refused by a show of hands. l.'j. 'J hat all arrangements regarding the Boolis shall be decided by the Committee. 16. That any member may introduce a friend ; but no pel son residing within five miles of Harleston shall be introduced more than once as a non-sub- scriber ; such visitor shall be at liberty to take a part in the debate, but not to vote on the subject. 17. 'J'hut any member wishing to effect an alteration in the above Rules, shall give notice in writing to the Secretary of his intention at one meeting, who shall propose it at the next, when it shall be de- termined upon by vote. The above Rules, after the experience of eigh- teen months, we have found to work very satisfac- torily ; and I would respectfully, but strenuously recommend to any district about to establish a similar club, the adoption of, and strict adherence to, the ninth and twelfth rules. The necessity of the latter is obvious to every one. — Once allow political subjects to come before your club, and it will speedily merge into an arena of party strife, from which no satisfactory results could be de- rived. The advantage of the former rule may not be so readily acknowledged ; but the experience of our club convinces me, that as a means of income forfeits for non-attendance are unnecessary, and that imposing them would speedily induce many members to withdraw from the Club. The other Rules sufficiently explain themselves ; but, having had applications from gentlemen who are forming societies on the model of the Harleston Club, re- specting two or three points of management, I will give the questions with my replies, as it may pre- vent the necessity of similar applications. 1st. Do you find it absolutely necessary to have a committee? As the Club meets monthly, mighc not every thiug be managed in a " Committee of the whole House V If not, what are the duties of the Committee ? 2nd. Does the Secretary take minutes of the speeches or conversation at each meeting, and prepare a di- gest of the whole ■? ord. How are the Books circulated, and where is your Library kept "! 4th. Have you any regulations respecting smoking and drinking? Should they not be altogether prohibited during the transaction of business? To the first question I would reply, that we find a committee occasionally useful in transacting any business which may chance to occur between the monthly meetings, the other duties allotted to it by our 4th rule, might certainly be managed by a " committee of the whole house," but not I apprehend so satisfactorily as by a committee of seven members. Regarding the next question, it is the duty of the secretary td take minutes during the debate on any subject, of such remarks as he thinks bear strongly on the merits of the question : the discussion usually continues till one side, by the production of stronger facts, a greater amount of evidence, or more valuable and better supported arguments, are in a considerable majority. He then endeavours to draw up a report on the sub- ject in accordance with the views of that majority. This report is put by the chairman, altered or not as may be requisite to suit the views of the meeting, when it is carried, and entered in the books of the club, together with such remarks as appear necessary to elucidate the subject ; and from these reports and remarks, an annual report is drawn up ; thus placing in each member's hands a short account of the transactions of the club during the year ; and I think it will be readily conceded that the opinions of a large body of practical farmers residing in the same neighbour- hood, extended and maiui-ed by the advantages derived from discussion, can but be useful and l)rofitable to themselves and neighbours. In reply to the third question : — The books are not circu- lated in rotation, but are under the care of the secretary, to whom each member applies for any work he requires, and to whom he returns it when read, the secretary of course keeping an account of the circulation. The party proposing any book has the preference in reading it, and after him other members in rotation as they may put down their names; but having already more volumes than members, I find no difficulty in apportioning the supply to the demand. It is easy to answer the last question, by saying that smoking and drinking are allowed, but it is not so easy to give satisfactory reasons for the departure from the regulations adopted by those societies, which have been in some measure the models of Farmers' Clubs. I confess it would be more agreeable to mc, to see the latter frequented for the objects for which they are instituted and for those alone, viz., the receiving and imparting of agricultural know- ledge; but in the early stages of them, I do not think it practicable under such restrictions, to draw together and keep in the society, a sufficient number of members to be capable of effecting much good. The subscribers would then I fear be at first confined to those alone who are zealous in the cause; more to those who are willing to impart, than to those who seek information. It is a great object to prevail on the latter to come, and although such inducement should in the first instance be the pleasure of meeting their neigh- bours, and not any zeal in the cause for which they are met, yet in all probability the latter will soon be imparted, and they will then take as much interest in the discussions, and be as willing to give the Club the benefit of their own practical experience, as those who required no other in- ducement to join the society, than that of serving the cause for which it was established. To those who think that a glass of grog must of necessity be a great interruption to the business before the meeting, I have much pleasure in stating that in no single instance have we ever experienced the slightest annoyance from it ; and although I shall hail with pleasure the time when Farmers' Clubs shall be sought entirely for the food offered to the mind, yet I will not now reject such repast, be- cause it may be alloyed by mingling with it some food for the body. The following are amongst the subjects, which have already come before our Club, each of which has had a "full, fair, and free, discussion, and upon most of which, satisfactory resolutions have been arrived at. The use of saltpetre as a manure. The use of gypsum as a manure. On the comparative advantages of using fer- mented or unferraeiited manures. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 397 On the management, and cheapest method of keeping cavt horses. On spade husbandry. On the best method of improving the breed of neat cattle in this district. On stall feeding. On the best plan of keeping farming accounts. On the advantages of cutting hay into chaff. On the turnip fly. On the effect of soil on manures. On the selection of seed wheat, and the best method of steeping and planting it, &c., &c. It will be seen by the above list that we have experienced no want of interesting questions, and the field is I think inexhaustible, and I hold it to be impossible to join in, or listen to the discussion on any subject, without deriving some advantage, either from the confirmation of old opinions, or the suggestion of new ones ; and the opportunity which each member has had, by the month's notice given of the question, consulting such books as are applicable to the subject, and of introducing quotations whicb bear upon the point, adds great interest to the meetings. In every district there are some farmers who possess more zeal than their neighbours, who perhaps to greater means add also, greater desire to try experiments, and obtain information. It is impossible to estimate the benefits which such persons may confer on their brother farmers, if they will establish clubs, and freely impart at them the results of those experiments, so that the successful may be practised, and the unsuccessful shunned, and thus enable the smaller and less wealthy occupiers to reap the advantage of their experience. No narrow views of self interest ought to prevent this ; let their station or acquire- ments be what they may, in all ])robability they will receive in return for their scientific know- ledge, some useful practical information, which may repay them for tlieir own liberality. The increase of knowledge on whatever concerns their occupation in life, should be dear to every one, and as the attainment of such knowledge becomes the interest of all, all should cheerfully endeavour to furnish their share of it, the probability being that the same opportunity which has enabled them to impart more to the general fund of information, will also enable them to draw in the same proportion fi"om it. The truth of such maxims are I think peculiarly applicable to agriculture, and hope to see a large field for the application of them, in the general establishment of Farmers' Clubs. THE FARMER'S FIRE AND LIFE INSURANCE INSTITUTION.— IN- SURANCE AGAINST STORMS. Having now laboured for many years zealously, and we trust in some measure successfully, in advocating the interest of the British tenant farmer, we should not call upon tiie members of that large and influential body to adopt any course without having first given the subject our deepest and best consideration, and being convinced, so far as our liumble judgment will enable us to decide, that the result would be beneficial to thern. It was not tliercfore without serious reflection, and a per- fect conviction of the benefits wliich it would con- fer upon the whole agricultural class, that we recommended to their attention " The Farmer's Fire and Life Insurance Institution." The neces- sity of insuring against loss sustained by fire, whether caused by accident or by the wicked and unnatural hand of the incendiary, is now so strongly felt that no further inducement to take that prudential step may seem necessary. Upon this bead the projectors of the "Farmer's Fire and Life Institution" do not desire merely to come into the field of competition with offices already established; they lake higher ground, they seek to exercise such a moral influence over the mind as shall stay the hand of the midnight incendiary The advantages of Life Insurance are well under- stood, and very generally embraced by a large portion of the community, but we have reason to believe that insurance on lives has made but little progress amongst farmers. The man who marries and goes mto business at twenty-seven years of age may, by the annual payment of little more tlian twenty pounds per annum, secure a thousand pounds for his family at his decease. Tlie in- surance of a life is an investment of capital of the most gratifying and delightful kind ; what a relief does it afford to the father of a family, upon whose existence or present exertions his wife and chil- dren depend for support, to know that if it may please Providence to deprive them of his exer- tions he has laid up something in store to protect them, for a while at least, from the buffetings and selfishness of the world. Not a day passes with- out some instance occurring of men being taken oft' in the prime of life, and whose families are left destitute from having neglected the advantages which Life Insurance affords. The farmer, as it seems to us, is the man who needs this means of providing for his family to the full as much, if not more than any other. How rarely does it happen that the business of the farmer is continued by his widow ; the death of the husband is the fatal notice to quit to the widow and family; and, unhappily, in how few instances is the stock on the farm sufficient to make even a slender provision for them. More- over, if a pressing emergency arrives, or if circum- stances render it no longer necessary that the in- surance be continued, the money is not lost, as the full value can be obtained for the policy. The lenant-fanuer himself, although the most deeply interested, is not the only person who may derive botii gratification and benefit from the adoption of a course so prudential. How frequently does it occur that the stock and property do not suffice to satisfy the claims of the landlord, and how ill at ease must his mind be when he knows, that the family of a tenant who may have been long upon his estate is about to be thrust out upon the world almost penndess when the account between the parties shall have been settled. Here is another instance in which the interests of landlord and tenant are blended together. If the establishment of " the Farmer's Fire and Life Institution" had merely the effect of calling the attention of farmers more effectually to this mode of providing for their families, we should think it a sufficient reason lor supporting it, but there are other fea- 398 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tures which give tliis Institution claims for sup- port from the landed interest. It is proposed to insure tenant farmers against the ruinous effects of those dreadful hail and other storms wliich have become so frequent, and have entirely destroyed the crops of grain in many parts of the country. The ravages of these storms are as sudden and destructive as those of fire ; and the necessary mea- sures are now being taken to mature a scale of rates for insurance applicable to tliis head. In the advertisement which has appeared it is stated that " one-tenth of the 'profits'^ of the ** Farmer's Fire and Life Insurance Institution" " shall he applied to agricultural purposesT The importance which we attach to, and the value we set upon the establishment of Farmers' Clubs is well known to our readers, and we are happy to be enabled to state that tlie projectors of the " Farmer's Fire and Life Insurance Institution" entertain the same opinions, and have determined to appropriate one-tenth part of the profits of the Institution, under certain regulations, in aid of the formation of Farmers' Clubs, and to he placed at the disposal of the Members of such Clubs, to be distributed by them in rewards for the encourage- ment of deserving agricultural labourers, S^-c. It is needless to enlarge upon the rapid and effective means of promoting improvement in agri- cultural knowledge which these clubs afford. They are to the farmers wliat the Mechanics' Institution have been to the mechanics. It may be that we value Farmers' Clubs too highly, but we regard them as the most powerful machinery now at work, not only for extending, but adding to the store of sound agricultural knowledge. The farms of the members of each of these clubs will be as it were one large experimental farm, on which new experiments or suggested improvements will be tried hy practical farmers, and their merits afterwards discussed and determined at the meet- ings of the Club. And lastly, though not of least importance, we anticipate highly beneficial results generally from the moral effect to be produced upon the minds of the agricultural labourers by the additional encouragement held out to them by the distribution of rewards for good conduct, which will tend to check incendiarism, the more especially as the Institution which gives these rewards has for its express object protection against losses by fire. These are, as it seems, powerful reasons, in addition to those previously offered, which should operate with the agricul- tural class, to support the proposed Institution. — Mark Lane Express. Farmers' clubs for the dissemination of agricultural knowledge are likely soon to become very general in this county. We are authorised to state, that on the 31st ult., at a committee meeting of the Chislett Agri- cultural Association, it was unanimously resolved to establish a farmers' club, at Grove Ferry, on similar principles to those of the Isle of Thanet Club : the same to be held monthly, on the Thursday nearest the full moon. From the number of agiiculturists resident within a convenient distance of the place of meeting, we venture to predict that the Geove Ferry Farmers' Club will soon be a very numerous and influential body. —Kentish Gazette. ON PURE AND IMPROVED VA- RIETIES OF WHEAT LATELY INTRODUCED INTO ENGLAND. An Essay, to which the Prize of Twenty Sovereigns tuas awarded in July, 1839. By Colonll Le Couteub. {From the Journal of the English Agricultural Society.) WHITE DOWNY. 1st. The mode of procuring the sorts of wheat described. — One of the best varieties of wheat in general cultivation, from which I have raised large crops, is the " White Downy," or hoary — the " Vclout6" of the Fi'ench — described in my work on wheat. This excellent variety is believed to be the same that is so well described by Boys, in his ' General View of the Agriculture of Kent,' as the " Hoary White," or " Velvet-eared ;" said by him to have been much prized by the millers, but then entirely lost. 2nd. Its culture, — viz., preparation and quantity of the seed ; time and method of solving ,- relation both as to preceding and folloiving crops, and as to varieties of soil. — The seed was carefully washed in several waters, till the water appeared clear on stirring the wheat with it : this is intended to draw off any smut, rust, or noxious invisible seed of the fungus tribe, which might be adhering to it, previous to steeping it in brine, made sufficiently strong to float a potato or an egg. In this it was steeped a night, or about twelve hours ; then well mixed with powdered lime. This process, it is thought, ensures the destruction of the eggs or larvre of any invisible insect adhering to the seed. Time and method of sowing. — The seed thus prepared was sown in drills, on the 29th of January, 1836, 7 inches apart, with an ordinary wheat drilling-machine, at the rate of 2 bushels, or a little more, to the acre. The wheat was carefully hand-hoed in the month of May, which caused it to tiller freely. Relation both as to preceding andfoUowing crops. — The land in which the above wheat was sown had been well dressed with 9 loads of dung to the acre, the previous year, for potatoes, which were twice horse-hoed, and once hand-hoed, to remove any weeds that the horse-hoe might have left. The land remained very clean ; and after the potatoes were dug, and well cleared from the soil by 2 ])loughings, 36 quarters of sea-weed (or kelp) ashes were spread on the field, or 9 quarters to the acre, at a cost of 21. .5s. per acre, and, a month afterwards, ploughed in, about 5 inches in depth, with a view to nourish and warm the young shoots of the wheat, sown 3 inches deep. The ashes have a peculiar tendency to cause the wheat to grain, and render it plump, white, thin-skinned, and farinaceous. They have the additional quality of greatly augmenting the produce of the succeed- ing crop of clover. The soil on which the trial was made, being derived from argillaceous schis- tus, is light and rich, indicating, however, the presence of iron ; to counteract the effect of which lime has been applied. 3rd. Hardihood and power to withstand severe winters. — This wheat will withstand the most severe weather. The season 1837 to 1838 was a very trying one, both as to wetness and severity THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 599 of cold, the thermometer having fallen to 18" below freezing ; but the crops of this wheat raised by my neighbours were perfectly insensible to it, and of great produce. 4th. Earhj maturity and time of severance of crop. — This wheat is not remarkable for its early maturity, though it cannot be called a tardy variety. On this occasion it was reaped about tlie 16th of August. 5 th. Tendency to degenerate, and liabilities to disease. — From my own experience, and from that of the oldest persons I have consulted on the subject, this excellent wheat is not subject to degenerate ; and, by bestowing on the portion of it intended for seed the attention recommended in my work, and annually, or even occasionally, varying the manure intended for it, it is possible that it may never degenerate. The only objection to it is in the huskiness, or velvetty ear, which in damp weather is retentive of moisture ; and in snatchy seasons the grain is more apt to sprout than the smooth-chaffed va- rieties. It is not much affected with dust-brand ; and, when pickled and limed as desci'ibed above, has never been found with smut-balls. It is little liable to shed, even when over-ripe, and will resist very heavy gales without being laid or broken. In the wetland stormy season, which prevailed in the Isle of Man before last harvest, this was the sort which resisted it best. Its height is from 4 to 5 feet, according to the soil. 6th. Amount of produce in grain, cliaff, and straw ; and the relative quantities of four and offal. — This crop produced 48 imperial bushels to the acre, of a very fine sample. It weighed 62 lbs. the impe- rial bushel. The straw was firm and white ; the weight of it produced was 4557 lbs., and that of the chaff 315 lbs. to the acre. Quantity of four and offal. — The quantity of flour obtained'from an acre was 2402 lbs. of the finest, 126 lbs. of pollard, and 416 lbs of bran. The bread is of a very fine quality, white, and rather of a moist nature; 18 lbs. of this flour making 25 lbs. of bread. With a view to further the design of the Agricultural Committee, the mode of making this bread is stated, which may enable other persons to make comparative ex- periments with similar quantities of flour from their own wheats. The flour was placed to rise, or to sponge, overnight, with 5 a pint of yeast and 2 quarts of water. At 9 o'clock the next morn- ing, 4 ounces of fine salt were added, and it imbibed 3 quarts of water, milk-warm, which was well worked up, drawn up (as it were) into strings to expose it to the air as much as possible, in order to render it light ; which is preferable to pressing it down with the closed fist, which more or less excludes the air, and tends to render the bread heavy. The dough is then left in tin pans to rise for 20 minutes or half an hour, and is usually baked in two hours, more or less, ac- cording to the size of the loaf. It is weighed when cold the next morning. It is to be observed that some flour has only im- bibed, on the following morning, after being placed to rise overnight, 2 quarts and 1 pint of water ; whereas other sorts have imbibed as much as 3 quarts and 1 pint, or a quart more. Ci-02>. £ s. d. £ s. d. 45 bushels, at 8s. per bushel 18 0 0 3 ditto Tailings, at 5.v 0 15 0 Straw, 40| cwt., at 1*. per cwt 2 0 9 20 15 9 Brought forward. . . ,. . ..... .... £20 15 9 Charges. Rent of land per acre 5 12 6 9 quarters of ashes 2 5 0 Tithe 0 8 6 One ploughing for crop 0 8 0 Half-tillage and dressing on potatoes 2 0 0 Seed, 85. per bushel 0 16 0 Sowing 0 2 0 Bush-harrowing and rolling. 0 10 One hoeing 0 5 0 Reaping 0 8 0 Cartage, stacking, and thresh- ing 0 15 0 Interest on capital 0 10 0 13 11 0 Profit £ 7 4 9 JERSEY DANTZIC. 1st. The mode of procuring the sorts of u-heat described. — The seed is described as having been raised from a single ear, originating from seed procured from Dantzic selected from the finest " High Mixed." It is, however, suspected to be identical with some excellent sorts, called in Sussex, Kent, and some parts of Surrey, the "Chittums," in other parts " Pegglesham ;" in Berkshire, "Trump;" in Essex, " Hardcastle;" in some counties, " Old Suflblk ;" in Scotland, " Hunter's White ;" and assuming several other names. 2nd. Culture : Viz., preparation and quantity of the seed: time and method of sowing, both as to 2/receding and folloiviny crops, and as to varieties of soil. — The seed was prepared precisely in the same manner as the last described : it was sown on the same day on a contiguous piece of land of, the same nature as the last described for the purpose of comparison, therefore prepared and manured iu like manner. 3rd. Hardihood and power to withstand severe winters. — This wheat is not quite so hardy as the "Hoary;" it is nevertheless considered suffici- ently so to succeed throughout the kingdom, excepting the north parts of Scotland. In rich soils it tillers amazingly, and produces a longer straw then the Hoary, nor is it so liable to sprout in a moist climate, from being smooth chaffed: in very severe, moist, and stormy weather, it will be laid sooner than the Hoary. 4th. Early maturity and time of severance of crops. — It ripens a week earlier at least than the Hoary, and should be reaped while the grain can be marked by pressure from the thumb-nail, as it is rather liable to shed if over-ripe, — a disadvan- tage which the hoary is peculiarly free from, as it is tenacious to the car. This was reaped about the 12th of August. 5th. Tendency to degenerate, and liabilities todis' ease. — The experience of five years has not found this wheat to degenerate. A sample raised this year, from that i)rocnred as above stated, was quite pure and unmixed, it may be said, as only 93 ears of foreign growth were picked from one hundred sheaves, which were carefully examined in order to free the sort from any of stray kinds which might accidentally have got intermixed with it. This is a practice which 1 now constantly follow with the wheat set apart for seed for the ensuing year. In a dry season this wheat will afford a beau- tiful clean, white straw, fit for bonnet-making, or any purpose of thatching : it is firm and tena- 400 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cious. In wet seasons it is rather subject to rust, which under such circumstances almost all wheat suffers from. It is a fact worthy of notice that, in 1837, a field of this wheat, which had been sown with seed carefully washed and steeped in a solution of arsenic,* had not a single smutted ear ; but on one headland, for which there was not sufficient seed, a small portion was fetched from the barn, and sown dry ; though appearing a beautiful sample, it was infested with smut throughout ; this was of course carefully picked out by hand before it ripened fully, and burned. (ith. Amount of 2iroducein grain, chaff, and straw, and the relative quantities of flour and offal. — The crop produced 43^ imperial bushels of fi3 lbs. ; of chaff 430 lbs. ; and of straw, as described, 4, (J81 ]bs. to the acre. The quantity of flour obtained from an acre was 2,161 lbs., of bran 510 lbs., and of pollard 9(i lbs. The bread from this flour is of a dry light nature, very white and good, but objected to by some from its being quite what is termed dry bread at the end of 48 hours. It is, however, of excellent yield, and, according to the millers, ex- ceedingly fine and smooth in the working. It is a valuable wheat : 18 lbs. of the flour, treated as the former variety, imbibed the following morning three quarts and one pint of warm water, and produced 251 lbs. of bread, weighed when quite cold. Crop. £ s. d. 40 J bushels at 8s. per bushel 16 4 0 3 ditto Tailings, at fw 0 15 0 Straw, 41f cwt., at Is. per cwt 2 19 19 0 9 Charges as in the last 13 11 0 Profit £ 5 9 9 WHITINGTON WHEAT. 1st. The mode of procuring it. — From Mr. Whitington himself, a very fine pure sample. The grain is large, full, and plump, rather of a whitish-red cast, and a little thick-skinned. 2nd. Culture : viz., preparation and quantity of seed ; time and method of solving ; relation loth as io preceding and following crops, and as to varieties of soil.— The seed was washed, pickled, drained, and limed, as is usual on this farm ; then sown in drills 7 inches apart, about 3 bushels to the acre, on the 8th of January, 1838. When the seed is large, it is considered prudent to add half a bushel or more to the acre. The field had borne potatoes the preceding year, and after two ploughings to free it from any pota- toes which might have been left, it was dressed with 2 hogsheads of lime, 6 quai'ters of lime ashes, and 5 quarters of kelp ashes, at a cost of 21. 5s. 6d. per acre. This mixture of manures was with a view to afford the wheat a different food from any it might have received, all of them having a tendency to cause the corn to grain, and rather check the overabundant growth of straw. Owing to the cold and frosty season which followed, the wheat was 49 days in coming up ; it was hoed in * The steeping' of seed in a solution of arsenic is a dangerous practice, as, from the poisonous nature of the drug', there is a great hazard of accidents occurring. The steeping in brine, as above described by Colonel Le Couteur, is an effectual prevention of smut, and not accompanied with any danger.— Spencek. the middle of April, and again in May, which left the land very clean, and the crop continued to look beautiful throughout the season. It is worthy of remark, that a piece of the wheat was laid along the centre of the field, over which a pipe of liquid manure had been spread from a watering-cart the preceding season on potatoes, just as they were appearing above ground. I'he crop of potatoes not having absorbed the whole of the nutritive properties of the liquid, the wheat grew taller, coarser, darker, and so abundant in straw, that it afforded less grain, and that too of an inferior sample to the corresponding strips on cither side of it. The straw was 7 feet long in many places, and fully (» feet over the whole field, which consists of a soil derived from argillaceous schistus on a red clay bottom. 3rd. Hardihood and power to witfistand severe ■winters. — I consider this to be a very hardy wheat, affording much herbage and straw, very fit for being eaten down by sheep in the spring, when sown early in the fall. 4th. Early maturity and severance of crop. — The "Whitington" is rather a late wheat, ripening a week or ten days later than the Jersey Dantzic, before described, though it was in bloom on the same day, on the 2nd of July. It was chopped on the 2 1th of August. 5th. Tendency to degenerate, and liabilities to dis- ease-— From the purity of the seed, and the uniform appearance of the crop, it does not appear likely to degenerate, nor does it seem more liable to disease than other wheats, but its recent intro- duction prevents a conclusive opinion being offered on this head. The straw is brittle and many ears break off. N.B. From the cultivation of another year (1839), I am inclined to think this to be one of the most valuable wheats for poor land : it has not degenerated in the smallest degree. 6th. Amount of produce in grain, chaff, and straw, and the relative quantities of flour and offal. — The produce in grain was 33 bushels the acre, a very good sample weighing about (il lbs. the bushel; the chaff". 483 lbs.; and the straw 7,786 lbs. per acre. Here was an amazing produce in straw, which made amends for the deficiency in grain ; it is the most productive variety I have met with but one for the straw-yard. The straw- is so long that it is unfit for the ordinary purposes of thatching ; a short tenacious, firm straw being generally preferred. The quantity of fine flour obtained from an acre was 1,454 lbs., of bran 477 lbs., and 47 lbs. of pollard. The bread from this flour is rather dark, but very well flavoured, and keeps moist some days: 27 lbs. of this flour made into bread, in the mode formerly described, in the same relative pro- portions of yeast, salt, and water, afforded when cold 35 J lbs. of excellent bread. Crop. . £ s. d. 31 bushels, at 8s. per bushel 12 8 0 2 ditto Tailings, at 5s 0 10 0 Straw, 69^cwt.,at Is.thecvvt 3 9 G 16 7 6 Charges to deduct as before, with an 1 extra hoeing, and an additional >- 14 0 0 half-bushel of wheat 3 Profit £ 2 7 6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 401 BELLE-VUE TALAVERA. 1st. The mode of 2)rocuring it. — Described in ray work on wheat as having been raised from a single grain. This admirable variety is invaluable, where it is adapted to the soil and climate. 2nd. Culture : viz., preparation and quantity of the seed ; time and method of solving ; relation both as to preceding and following crops, and as to varie- ties of soil. — The seed was prepared precisely as before described. The cultivation of the two fields destined for this wheat and the Whitington had been similar throughout the course, with the view to ascertain the result on the crop of wheat. This was sown on the 3rd of February, 1838, at the rate of nearly 3 bushels to the acre in drills, on land dressed in the same manner as the con- tiguous field had been for the Whitington ; the land in both may be said to be alike, the best description of light, rich, loamy soil. The seed being large, a greater quantity of it was allowed than usual. It is to be noticed that in another field the seed was jjut in as late as the 21st February, and that it ripened equally well and early. 3rd, Hardihood and poicer to ivithstand severe winters. — This wheat has succeeded in the North of Scotland, and is sufficiently hardy to withstand the winter in its grassy state, but it is otherwise more valuable as a spring crop : without doubt it may be sown as late as the first week in February, in all the milder parts of England, with a prospect of reaping quite as good an average crop from it as from any other wheat, but with a certainty of obtaining more flour than from most. A celebra- ted Scotch agriculturist wrote of it on the 12th of September last—" Talavera is nearly ripe, but such has been the untowardness of the season, 1 do not expect any other wheat to make any return." This testimony is in favour of its early habits and hardihood also. It is what the French have long sought for — both a winter and a spring wheat. 4th. Earlg maturity and severance of crop. — The wheat appeared in 25 days, on the 1st of March ; it was in bloom on the 30th of June, and was chopped on the 17th of August, a week sooner than the Whitington, which was sown nearly a month before it. 5th. Tendency to degenerate and liabilities to disease. — There is no tendency to degenerate ob- servable in this wheat, as far as the experience of five or six years goes ; nor from its early habits is it at all likely to become intermixed by fecunda- tion from other varieties, though sown about the same period, as it will, in such cases, flower a fortnight or three weeks before them. It is not more liable to disease than ordinary white wheats, and affords a very fine, clear white straw : it is indeed one of the Italian bonnet making varieties. There is, however, one disadvantage in it, which is, that the ear is so heavy that it is apt to break down, though not break off, when swept by a gale, about the period of ripening ; but it has a counter- vailing good quality, of ripening the grain equally well though bent down ; as is the case with spring wheats, which ripen their seed well though quite laid, which with winter wheats is doubtful. Another peculiarity is the tenacity of the chaff" to the ear, more remaining on it after passing through the thrashing-machine than any other variety I am acquainted with. 6th. Amount of produce in grain, chaff, and straw, and the relative quantities of flour and offal, — The amount of produce in grain wa? 52 Imperial bushels to the acre ; the grain is so large that it tells in the measure ; the sample very beautiful, as a bushel of it, which will be produced at the Oxford Meeting, will shew — uniform, clear, and thin-skinned. Hence the weight in grain at (Jl lbs. the bushel, was 3,172 lbs., the weight of chaff" 282 lbs., and of straw 5,480 lbs. The quantity of flour obtained was 2,485 lbs., the quantity of pollard 38 lbs., and of bran or off"al 588 lbs. The bread made from this flour is incomparably the best tha(; I have met with ; it is light, very white, and preserves its moisture almost as long as bread made from spring wheat. It is, moreover, so sweet and well-flavoured, as to appear to some palates more like cake than ordinary bread. In- dependently ofthe large proportion of flour it aff"ords it makes much of this fine bread ; 18 lbs. of the flour, having absorbed more water than the last described, gave 25 lbs. of bread. Crop. £ s. d. 48 bushels, at 8s. per bushel 19 4 0 4 ditto Tailings, at 5s 10 0 Straw, 48f cwt., atls. thecwt 2 8 9 22 12 9 Chargestodeduct, as per Whitington.. 14 0 0 Profit £8 12 9 The weights of 18 lbs. or 27 lbs. used for the flour to be baked are intended to be comparative experiments of weights of nines, it being generally understood, especially in baking bread and serving it out to troops, that 9 lbs. of common flour will make 11 lbs. of bread. All those, however, that I have experimented on aff"orded more : the two lowest having aflforded, from 18 lbs. of flour, 22 lbs. 9oz., and 23 lbs. ; the former of my own growth, the latter made from wheat imported from Rostock and Dantzlc mixed. In all the cases detailed, the succeeding crop was not allowed to interfere with the wheat crop; the clovers and artificial grasses having been sown subsequently to the harvest, after one light ploughing. In some cases I Lave sown the clovers and grasses after the second hoeing, but always, I am inclined to think, at some expense to the wheat crop ; the coronal roots of which may be de- prived of a share of their nutriment when the grass seeds begin to draw nourishment from the soil, and the thousands of mouths which they present may deprive the wheat of much pure air, and themselves e-xhale gases which may be injurious to the plants. Nothing can be moi'e apparent than the sudden check wheat sometimes receives at the moment the grasses appear to take possession of a portion of the juices of the earth, which probably should be entirely devoted to the nutriment of so valua- ble a crop as wheat. This is of itself an inquirj'^ well worthy the nicest investigation. The following sorts I have also grown experi- mentally, but not having raised them in quantities sufficient to warrant a positive opinion, which probably might only tend to mislead, they are merely named. It is to be observed that a little calculation might have ottered all the replies re- quired by the conditions stated in the margins : — The " Golden Drop" is one of the best red wheats, aff"ording great produce in corn and straw, 402 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and a larger quantity of flour than some white wheats. Ilickling's "Prolific Red" is a productive variety, but rather coarse. Brown's "Ten-rowed Chevalier," or prolific, is well named, where it suits the soil and climate; it has borne a fine crop with me, but it unfortu- nately has sported much into a pale red sort, owinp; no doubt to the seed which I obtained from Mr. Brown himself having been accidentally im- pregnated by a red sort ; it is, when pure, a very fine variety. "Gale's Hampshire" is an enormously pro- ductive sort of bearded wheat, which may be hereafter described, " Essex Red." A very good variety. "The Duck's Bill" wheat is very productive, but shedding greatly, and not very farinaceous. J. Le Couteur. Belle-Vue, Jersey, December. ON REARING AND FEEDING SHEEP. (original.) The improved Leicester and South Down breeds of sheep are now rapidly banishing all other va- rieties, as there are very few situations in England to which the one or the other is not suitable. There are certainly a number of other varieties and crosses yet used, but the management of all is nearly similar, so that in detailing the improved management of these breeds, we will comprehend the general practice, except in the case of hill flocks and bought stores, in which the arrange- ment may be different, and yet the process be es- sentially the same. In the month of September the sorting and culling process takes place, and that period of the year may very fitly begin a few remarks on the annual course of sheep breeding;-, as being the commencement of the labours of the farmer in that department of his business. Whatever breed of sheep the farmer may have adopted, it is understood that ho has rams bred on his farm, or that he hires from breeders who let tups for one season for a stipulated price. This sum now varies from 10/. to lOOZ., but a sufficient animal of any breed may be got under 40/., and the South-downs yet fetch the highest prices. "Formerly it was the custom with farmers, and is yet in several places, to turn at random a ram among ewes without bestowing any care, scarcely even a glance at the relative qualities of each ; and hence arises the great dissimilarity to be ob- served in quality and form, not only among sheep, but in all other live stock in the hands of an un- skilful breeder. In mentioning this custom in a late article on breeding, Earl Spencer very judi- ciously observed, that any farmers who breed in that manner never can expect a flock possessing the desired properties, either in form or quality. A lot of cows, of heifers, or of bullocks on a farm, or of ewes and lambs, and lots of hogs, male and female, sorted together, never please my ideas of breeding, when I see a great difference in size, shape, and quality of wool and carcass in the lat- ter ; and a dissimilarity in cattle, whatever breed is adapted, in size, and shape, and even in colour, where it is naturally uniform or nearly so. Such faults must arise from want of attention, for no greater expense attends it. In the case of horses the fault is far more glaring ; for any animal of whatever shape, size or colour, when worn out or disabled for other purposes, is laid aside and thought good enough for breeding. Bad qualities are thus transmitted for generations, and it is cu- rious enough that farmers who have very excel- lent flocks of sheep by attending to qualities, never apply the principle to cattle and horses, but use a motley and unprofitable breed. In the case of sheep, of which animal we are now speaking, when I see a flock, old or young, that shows a great dissimilarity in size, shape, and quality, though it may contain many excellent individual animals, yet tiierc is a great want of attention evi- dently displayed, and a great step below perfec- tion ; for if such a flock was offered for sale, the inequality would be a great drawback in price, be- sides the hurtful propagation of the inherent de- ficiencies of the animal. Many good breeders do not seem sufliciently attentive to this point, aad show they are not fully masters of the business ; and such as wholly neglect the distinction are ob- stinately blind to their own interest, and remain ignorant "of the principles of physiological im- provement. The adaptation of animals male and female before they are put together, constitutes the most essential part of sheep-breeding, and lays the foundation of the farmer's expectations from that source of his employment. In the process of sorting, the ewes will be brought and confined in small lots before the view of the farmer and his shepherd, where a rigid ex- amination can be made without the attention being distracted and confused by a multitude being ex- posed at one time. The form and shape of the animal will be taken notice of, if the body be too long or narrow, without sufficient roundness, the head too thick or too long, the feet and bones too large, want of straightness in the back, neck and legs too long, bad handling, the wool long and picky, waxy or hempy, pelt thick or scurvied, the chops being hogged or the jaws of unusual length, the mouth not too large, the teeth sound and the set unbroken, and the eyes and gums, and the whole appearance of the animal denoting a healthy sound carcase, and fitted for propagation. In se- lecting ewe hogs for breeding, which will now at the age of eighteen months be admitted to the ram, much discrimination and judgment are re- quired, and such animals should be culled and sorted down in a very close manner ; and in case of many deficiancies in the requisite properties, and in the want of number to clioose from, it will be safer to breed from an old ewe for another year, than to admit incipient imperfections. The animals, 3'oung and old, that are now rejected are marked with ochre, or some distinguisliing mark, that the flocks may not get mixed by accident, and they are sent to the feeding divisions for the ensuing winter. In the choice of rams, the farmer will be guided by the kind of flock he would wish to have, the quality of the pasture and other keep, and by the soil and climate. Though the month of September is mentioned here as the period of gene- ral culling, the farmer who is always examining his flocks, and the shepherd who is constantly among them, can carry on the soiting process throughout the year, by taking notice and mark- ing any animal which at any time shows a defi- ciency in any respect. By attending to this very simple but far more effectual mode than a general culling at one time, which, with every care and attention, is apt to be done in a hurried manner, very little will remain to be done in September, except to examine and compare again, and^raake THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 403 the final arrangement. The ewes are then divided into lots of 50, and sent with the ram intended to a separate field. A very bad custom has long ob- tained among tup-breeders, of over-feeding them, and by that means concealing many defects, and also rendering them unfit for the purpose. A healthy fresh condition is all that is required in ewes or rams, though somewhat more condition may be allowed in the latter. On extensive farms, where the breeding flock is large, and the divisions consequently nu- merous, or in fact more than one, the ewes and the ram put together, will have a similar tempo- rary mark, and the ram will be deeply marked be- twixt the fore legs, for the purpose of showing what ewes are served, and when ; and the shep- herd will be careful in noting down the periods of such markings throughout the six weeks, the time the ram usually remains with the ewes, and will also attend particularly if any ewes i-eturn to the ram, and thus transfer the period of their ges- tation from the beginning to near the end of the time allowed. For this purpose the i-am should be rubbed with fresh ochre every morning, and the shepherd will impi'ess a mark on each ewe, in order to distinguish from what week of the six the time of gestation must be reckoned, and to know thereby the week of yeaning in the spring. The ewes will be in fresh condition, and the ram being withdrawn at the end of six weeks, they will con- tinue in a stubble or lea field, and receive during winter a daily supply of turnips, at the rate of a two-horse cartload to 100 in twenty-four hours, which will keep stock in good condition ; or they will be confined to eat turnips on the ground, as convenience may direct. Larger lots will also now be formed by the size of fields and convenience of food. The season of lambing seldom begins before March, except in very early situations, or for the purpose of procuring fat lambs. The shepherd will now begin to draw into a lot those ewes which show the mai"k of earliest impregnation, and remove them to the lambing ground. For this purpose every farm is, or ought to be, pro- vided with an old grass paddock or small field, as the size of the farm may require, in which there is a shelter shed with the proper exposure, and which can be temporarily divided into different apartments as the shepherds may require. A small flock may be removed at once to this paddock or field — but on large farms the ewes only next in or- der of yeaning will be drawn in succession by the shepherd from the fields, as a large number would create much confusion and endanger the young lambs. In this field, or enclosure, which should be warm, dry, and well sheltered, the ewes will con- tinue to receive turnips, cabbages, and beet, and some artificial food in case of a scarcity of these but succulent food is always to be preferred. Where the field is large and allows the ewes to lie thin and scattered, the shepherd will divide by a temporary hurdle fence, a corner of the field nearest to his nightly habitation, generally in or near the farm-house, into which he will put every night those ewes that he thinks will yean before morning, and which corner he visits at short in- tervals during the night, and is much more conve- nient than wandering over the field. On large farms, the shepherds divide the labour by day and night alternately, and where only one is kept he will be allowed occasional assistance. This tem- porary enclosure will be provided with a roomy shelter shed, which can be very easily and cheaply effected with hurdles and straw; or a more per- manent one may be formed, according to situation and convenience. In some observations I lately made on the rear- ing of young cattle, I remarked that the grass paddock or field, and the sheds, may be contrived to suit the double purpose of weaning the young calves, and for lambing the ewes,— -the latter busi- ness being finished before the season will allow calves to be turned out from the pens. On farms of moderate size, an orchard may suit the purpose, but in all cases, whether it be an orchard, a pad- dock, or a field, it must be dry, warm, and shel- tered, with a comfortable shed, the bottom of a thick grassy sward, no open ditches, or hollow places where the animals may tumble over and lie powerless on their backs. By this arrange- ment, the shepherd has the lambing flock close under his inspection, and drawn from the field in order of lambing as indicated by the Autumn marks of impregnation— a shed v^here he can confine separately a weak or a diseased animal, bad or un- willing sucklers, and which^will also shelter nearly the whole flock from the changes and occasional inclemencies of the weather. On large farms a smaller subdivision is indispensible, wherein to confine during the night the ewes that are expect- ed to yean, that they may be easily seen and at- tended to. As the lambs attain strength, the ewes will he removed from the lambing- ground to the grass fields, and the best pastures on the farm will be al- lotted them, and where, if the season be backward in producing grass, corn and other artificial food will be given them until the pasture is suflfici- ent. In other cases, they will be sent to the early rye and winter tares, which lands are hurdled off and folded upon. Castration of the males will be performed at as early an age as they can endure that severe operation, and advantage will betaken of mild genial weather to second the very succes- ful skill now attained in that process — but if cold weather suddenly ensue, housing at night will be used. The tails are also cut at this time. When speaking of the rearing of cattle I observed that in all fields of permanent pasture, a shelter shed might be erected at very little cost which would serve both for sheep and cattle, by fronting three ways, and by having the division for sheep raised only to the height of the animal, with a single post and rail in front to prevent damage from cat- tle. Where timber is very plentiful plain board- ing will suit for walling, and feather-edged for the roof; or straw or weeds, as may be most con- venient. I think the utility of such sheds will not be disputed by practical judges, in sheltering the animals from cold and heats ; but more especially the calves and lambs when first sent to pasture and during the first year of their age. But even in fields that are used under the alternate system, there is most generally a corner to be found un- touched by the plough, where a shed may stand, and even in the absence of that convenience, a temporary shelter may be erected of hurdles and straw to which ewes and lambs will instinctively resort in rough weather, but if not the shepherd's business is to see to it. On the attention paid to all kinds of live stock during infancy and the first year generally, the future success of the animal depends. The shepherds will continue drawing the ewes to the lambing ground in succession from the fields, and keep remaining the oldest lambs with their dams to the pastures, and sort them in lots 404 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. by the size of the fields and the quality of its pro- duce. If the paddock be puddled bare in any places, it should be harrowed and rolled, and seed sown if necessary. In the end of May, the wash- ing of sheep generally begins, and is continued according to situation and exposure. The lots of different sorts and ages are driven to the side of a running stream, with a gently sloping bank, and are there close hurdled in succession on a confined space of ground with a middle division fence extending a distance into the river. Four men stand in the river of two or three feet in depth, the unwashed sheep are pent close to the bank and are handed in single succession by per- sons for the purpose to the nearest man in the ri- ver, who turns the animal on its back and moves it to and fro in the water ; it is then passed on to the second, and so on to the third and fourth, who plunges the animal for the last time, exa- mines the wool and sees that all is light, and then directs it to ascend the sloping bank to the part of the enclosed ground separate from the un- washed sheep by the middle fence. When a lot has been thus washed and has had a time allowed to drip, it is moved off to the pasture field by a boy or lad, and the remaining lots are washed, returned in a similar manner, and in succession. During' this process it is necessary that the un- washed sheep be closely i)ent in order to prevent their running about, and sustaining damage in catching : and they will be removed to and from the operation in a gentle manner. A running stream is much to be preferred in carrying off' all filth and impurities. In about 10 days after wash- ing, the wool williic sufficiently dry for shearing, which is usually performed by the shepherds, and in large farms the adjoining farmers assist each other in succession ; and it is now customary to pay a price per score, about 4s., to a number of men who travel a district for the purpose. The wool is now severed from the animal by cutting a cross or round the body, the shearer begins at the ear, and opens a passage to the fore legs, he then cuts alternately with the right and left hands straight across and meets on the back, and the fleecedescends regularly to the tail, and then falls off. Some use the right hand only and turn the animal as one side is cut. For this purpose a hard floor must be provided, of clean earth, bricks, turfs from a thick grassy sward, or a strong cloth ; :it all events it must be clean, and the wool as shorn is wrapped by in single fleeces by a careful person, first cutting off the locks and any coarse particles or filth that may be attached. It is then laid up for sale in the wool room, or in want of such a place, a part of the corn gi'anary may answer. In a proper wool room, upright posts are very necessary in prevent- ing the falling down of the wool when built to a considerable height. It is often necessary to house the sheep or one lot during the night, and they must be closely confined near to the shearers, and under the same roof. In very fine weather the process goes on in the open air. When the lambs are about three months old, they are weaned, and are at once removed to a distant field beyond hearing the mothers bleat. The best pastures and aftermaths will be given them, and the best encouragement the farm will afford. Soon after shearing the whole flocks are marked or branded with one or both of the initial letters of the owner's name, with a mixture of charcoal or soot and pitch boiled very hot. Other ingredients are used ; and in order to distinguish the ages and sorts of the sheep, they are marked differently, ewes on the near middle rib, wethers on the far middle rib, male lambs on the near hip, and ewe lambs on the far hip, and several other marks are adopted by the wish or fancy of the farmer. After weaning no other change takes place until September, when the culling and sorting process will again occur, and I may again mention the propriety of culling and marking de- ficiencies throughout the year, as opportunities of observation occur. VV hen September arrives lit- tle will remain to be done. The diseases of sheep are now not numerous, and disappear before improved management. Maggots prevail only near tlie sea, and are easily prevented by constant attention, and a slight application of acids and corrosives ; the jjreventive powder has answered well. The immersing process now adopted to prevent ticks aud lice, aud any cutaneous itching is very useful and efficacious, and supersedes the use of the batliings of tobacco juices and other mixtures applied to sheep in autumn ; for the scab many reme- dies are known, the best is to prevent it by good keeping ; the foot-rot is local, and the real rot also, depending on seasons, and perhaps more on manage- ment. In large flocks, much confusion would ensue if rams and ewes were put together promiscuously aud without any attention to descent and relationship. To prevent such mixtures, the shepherd marks the ewe lambs that are tlie progeny of each individual ram, generally on the ears, and he is thus able to know at any time the connexion of the whole flock, and the farmer is thus enabled to allot the ewes and rams to nearer or more distant degrees of blood as he may think proper. This distinction is never lost sight of in breeding, or in hiring a ram ; new blood will be infused, which may be crossed afterwards with native, and again with distant blood, aud thus keep flocks removed from too near consanguinity. But without some such distinction, the whole system would become amass of confusion. In the month of October the lambs, now called hogs or tegs, will be laid on turnips on the field, or removed to a lea or a stubble field. The turnips are now very generally cut on the field for them and put into troughs, which, with the cutters are moved as required ; this practice is more desirable in the case of hogs or tegs than of older sheep, though it is much recommended for all ages. The lots of feeding sheep will be fed in a similar manner, or get turnips on grass fields or stubbles with an ample allowance, but that none be wasted. When the turnips are eaten on the ground on poor lands, the whole crop is allowed ; on better soils, one-half, or one-third is removed, and the remainder is eaten on the land. On sands and all dry loams where the sheep can lie dry in the wettest weather, feeding on the land seems unobjectionable, but on the wet poachy loams where the best crops of turnips are produced, the animal stands and lies on mud during rains and the melt- ing of snow, the turnips are fouled and wasted, and the process is attended with loss on both sides. It has been proposed that the sheep have a field of stubble or lea, adjoining to which they can retire and lie during the night, but this convenience cannot always be found ; the loss in turnips remains, and the wetness of the land to which sheep have a great aversion. 1 have proposed and often practised, to eat the whole turnip crops not required for home consumption on lea and stubble, and the land would by this method get the benefit derived from the sheep in regular rotation as well as in arable farm, care being taken to spread the turnips evenly over all the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 405 field, that the benefit may be equal. The sheep would have a dry and warm bed at pleasure, and not confined to lie on mud and mire on the ploughed field, and often pent in a fold of a small space. I do not include the driest turnip soils : and the cut- ting of the turnips will prevent much of the waste, but it may not be applied in every case, and the ex- pence may be an objection. The confining and fold- ing of sheep on ploughed lands is most objectionable in the northern counties, and in all cold and exposed latitudes, and on damp subsoils in the southern counties, and in all dry lands, warm climates and sheltered situations the objections may be more limited. The custom of confining of sheep in a fold on an exposed field among rains and snows in order to benefit the land cannot be for a moment admitted ; in mild climates where it may be practised with less objection, the turnips should be cut in troughs, or thrown back over the fence; ia order to prevent the waste or running- over them, and treading and foul- ing the firm shell, and in case of eating winter and summer tares, the food should be cut and thrown over thb fence into the racks. The expence of cut- ting the food will be amply repaid by the quantity lost bv treading, especially during «'et weather on damp clayey soils where tares are mostly grown. This custom of confining sheep by regular folding on the land where the food is growing, will in cer- tain circumstances above mentioned be very benefi- cial and is followed with much success ; the other mode of feeding the sheep in one quarter, and driving them to a fold m another is liable to heavy objections and is only practised on certain soils and circum- stance. 1 could hope that the folding of ewes and lambs on rough summer fallows, and in mud during wet weather, which I have seen in the southern counties is not extensively practised. I would nearly as much object to driving the working flock, as they are called, to any such a bed, for sheep require to lie at ease, and to eat when inclined ; the field when in clover could get the benefit of the fold, though for my own part I object to their being con- fined anywhere, except in particular cases where the food is growing on the field, and to whicli they have not full admission at once. In folds they are ex- posed to all weathers, heat of sun, winds, rains and snows, without any liberty of seeking shelter and a dry bed : and the sight of a fold on fallows in a wet morning satisfied me of the plan, for I never ])rac- tised it. It is followed and much commended on the hard chalky soils of the south, and as there is usually some good attends any practice, the benefits may be circumstantial, and not capable of exten- sive application. It is evident that two aad three- year-old sheep only should be so treated. Both in feeding and in grazing during summer and winter small lots are greatly preferable. The distribution will however be much regulated by the size of the fields, the convenience of food and other circumstances ; but if possible, small numbers should be put together and occasionally shifted. A very objectionable custom prevails in the southern counties in keeping together the whole flock, to the amount of hundreds ; and in eating the fields in succession with the lot, and returning over thern again. In all enclosed counties each field should be allotted a number, by the acres it contains and the quality, but in hilly countries, on downs, and in all uninclosed districts, a different arrangement is caused by circumstances. But even in these cases the advantages of separation may be more regarded. ESSAY ON STALL CATTLE. FEEDING Nov. 15, 1839. J. D. BY C. niLLYARO, KSO., PRESIDENT OF THE NORTH- AMPTONSHIRE FARMING AND GRAZING SOCIETY. A Prize of Twenty Sovereigns having been offered by the English Agricultural Soeiety for the best account of Stall-Feeding Cattle, to be sent in before the 1st of March, the Essay was sent in before the ap- pointed day. At the latter end of April there were sent to the writer for circulation a list of all the prizes offered, wtiich list contained the following conditions ; Competitois for the Essay on Stall-Feediag must state : — 1. The number and sort of cattle placed in the stalls. 2. Their estimated value. 3. Tlie period of the year when put up. 4. Whether the cattle were tied up or not. 5. The times when the food was given ; whether always given at the same hour each day. 6. The quantity of food given. 7. The price paid for what was bought, if any, and the estimated quantity and value of what was produced on the farm. 8. The price for which the cattle were sold, and the time when. 3, 4, 5, 6, answered. 1, 2,7, 8, might have been very easily answered. Under the conviction that no onchas had moro experience or bestowed more attention to stall feeding, the writer of this is induced to become a candidate for the prize offered by the English Agricultural Socity, for the best account of stall- feeding cattle. It is the writer's opinion that on all arable tur- nip land farms, beasts should be stall fed, in num- bers according to the size of the farms ; and also to have store beasts in the farm yards to eat straw, and the refuse hay, which the stall-feeding beasts will not eat ; to trample the dung thrown out of the stalls, and thus have all the straw produced on the farms turned into good manure. Many occupiers of entirely grass farms stall feed for six weeks before Christmas, the greater part of their best beasts ; in thus doing they look chiefly to the increased value of their beasts : the dung being of little value to them compared to what it is to the occupiers of arable land. The writer of this has for many years put into the stalls, the latter end of October, five and thirty bullocks, and as they have been taken out fat has replaced them by others. Three men and a boy are necessary to attend this number of beasts. The boy and two men to cut the turnips with the machine, to feed &c., the other man to assist in throwing out the dung in the morning, and the remainder of the day in cutting clover hay into chaff; so that the weekly expense of attending beasts in the stall cannot be estimated at less than one shilling each : this, and the value of the food consumed, makes stall feeding very expensive. It is for the occupiers of arable land farms to consi- der whether being at such expense is likely to an- swer their purpose. Near large towns it cannot, for there straw can be exchanged for good dung. Buying manure and fetching it from a distance, the wear and tear is so great it cannot answer excepting where the produce of the farm is drawn to market. Those who with their arable have good grazing land, may turn their straw into good fair manure by giving their store beasts in the yard eating straw, three feeds daily of half a 406 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bushel of cut tuinli)s ; thus when they are turned out on good grazing land, they will become good meat the latter end of the summer or beginning of autumn, when good beef, from not being then ])Ientiful, generally fetches a good price in Smith- licld market. In Norfolk it is a common practice to give store beasts in the fold-yard eating straw, as much lin- seed oil cake as they will eat, this is getting good manure at an expense that cannot possibly answer but on very weak land at very low rents. It is a mistaken notion that beasts can be better fed in Norfolk than elsewhere. It is quite true that they are generally better fed, because it answers the purpose of Norfolk occupiers of land to keep them longer in the stalls. Meat cannot be laid on lean beasts to pay the expenses of stall feeding, allowing the utmost value of the dung produced ; they should be half fat when put in the stalls : and the price of beef higher when they come out than'when they were put in, to repay thegrent expenses of stall-feeding. Beasts when first put up may, for a short time, be kept on common turnips and hay, to keep their bodies from being heated by the great change of the atmosphere of the field to that of the house ; but common turnips, from having so great a por- tion of water in them, will do very little towards feeding. For stall-feeding on a large scale there ought to be a mill on the premises to grind the corn into flour, thus getting rid of the miller's toll, the trou- ble, inconvenience, and expense of sending to and fro to the mill, the stall feeder thus having meal the produce of his own grain. There are hand mills made to grind corn into flour, but the grind- ing- being by stones, they require so many men to work them, that one worked by a horse would answer much better. The hand steel mills which are sold to grind corn into flour will only break it. A one-hoi-se chaff cutter would be most useful where there is much stall-feeding, and in fact on every large farm. In Norfolk the greater part of the beasts are fed in yards with sheds. Polled Scots, and their polled homc-breds may do as well as if tied up, but horned beasts certainly do not. Stall-feeding answers better in Norfolk than in most other counties, the land in general being so weak as to require more manure to raise good crops of turnips and corn, rents therefore are generally lower than elsewhere, which enables the occupiers to be at a greater expence for manure, and thus to keep their beasts longer in the stalls, and make them very fine meat for the London market in the spring, when so great a portion of the wealthy people of the country are in town, and can afford to pay the highest price for the best beef, which at that season of the year is Norfolk fed Scotch, which will travel the long distance to London, with less injury to their carcasses than any other kinds of beasts. Stall- feeding beasts should have plenty of straw under them, the straw saturated with their urine and droppings, thrown out, and their beds shook up after each time of feeding ; they will then soon lie down, and this tends to their making great progress in becoming fat. If beasts have much hair on their necks and chins.it should be cut off on their being tied up, as it is apt to become so matted together as to make them feel itchy and uncomfortable. Curry combing and brushing them does good. An ox house ought to have a manger with two divisions for each beast, and a water trough for every two ; and over the manger a rack for hay. There should be windows convenient for throw- ing out the dung and letting in plenty of air on the beasts first going in ; and afterwards so to close, that be the weather warm or cold, the house may be always kept in one equal and tolerably warm temperature. Beasts should be pushed on by degrees to fatten, not so highly fed at first as to cloy their appetite. The system of feeding pursued by the writer for many years has been this, — for the first ten days or fortnight of tying up ; three feeds daily, of half a bushel each of cut turnips, and as much hay night, morning, and middle of the day as they will eat. The next fortnight the same feeds of turnips, with three feeds of cut hay, with a little less than a gallon of bean or barley meal in the whole ; with a small quantity of fresh made linseed oil, just to flavour it ; hay put into the rack after the first feed of turnips, and as much at night as they are likely to con- sume before morning. When on full feeding it is thus : — first feed in the morning, half a bushel of cut turnips, directly afterwards half a bushel of cut hay, with about a pint and half of meal in it. These feeds repeated at noon, and in the afternoon, and supped up at night, with hay in the rack, and three oil cakes, of three pounds each, in the manger. If oil cake is high priced and linseed not, it may be substituted for it, by being mixed with the cut hay and meal. Boiling it is best, because that best dissolves it, and also prevents the numerous seeds of weeds in it from vegetating; but it will do pretty well if steeped in boiling water ; and so it will in cold if broken in a hand mill, and using seven tubs, so that when given to the beasts it will have been steeped seven days, and thus be- come a complete jelly. When boiled or steeped in hot water, it will become sour in a few days, in which state it cannot be so good for beasts, although they might not reject it. The different weekly cost of the food consumed by each beast will be as follows, including the expences of getting up, carting and cutting the turnips and hay ; and also the expence of attending the beasts, taking into consideration the extra value of the manure. Feed No. 1. «• d- 10§ bushels of Swede turnips. 2 9 1| cwt. of hay 5 3 8 0 Teed No. 2. Turnips 2 9 Hay, I5 cwt., cut and uncut 3 9 Meal, 6 gallons mixed with the cut hay .... 3 0 Linseed oil, a pint 0 6 10 0 Feed No. 3. Turnips "• 2 9 Hay, cut and uncut 3 3 Oil cake, 63 lbs., casting at home IH. a ton 6 0 Meal, 4 gallons ;.. 2 0 14 0 Finding at Christmas 1838 that I could not get English oil cake to cost me at.home less than four pence the three pound cake, about 12L 10s. per ton, I determined to feed the five-and-thirty beasts then in my stalls in the followng way; and I never had beasts that cost so low a price, become better meat ; at the same ^time acknow- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 407 ledging that the process of preparing the food was very troublesome, and therefore should not recommend this mode of feeding, without the master looked to it himself, or had men he could depend on. Peed No. 4. s. d. Three feeds daily of half a bushel of cut hay which is five pounds, aud four pounds of uncutat nii^ht, 1 cwt. a week 3 0 Boiled Linseed, 21bs. daily, seven shillings per bushel 2 0 Meal, barley, and bean mixed, 3§ gallons, . 1 9 Potatoes boiled, 1§ gallons daily 1 6 Molasses, which is of a feeding nature, but given f lb. daily, te make the mixture of cut hay, linseed, meal, and potatoes pala- table 0 9 Turnips, ten bushels 2 6 11 6 With a proper steaming apparatus, potatoes are a cheap and good food for stall-feeding. Beasts may be fattened with little trouble and expence, with good feeding hay and raw potatoes ; but not more than three pecks daily should be given, being of so heating a nature ; if more is given, the beasts are likely to have all their hair come off, and to be greasy healed. Linseed oil cake is merely the husks of the seed after the oil is pressed out. Could my mixture of food in No. 4 feed be so pressed together as to form a cake, there cannot be a doubt but it would be as feeding. At the time the oil cake would have cost me eighteen pence per stone, this cost me, or I should say was of the value of one shilling. Linseed without being mixed with other food would be of too relaxing a nature. I tried sago, which in the summer of 1838, was less than three half pence a pound, but it did not answer for stall-fee ding. It is well known to be good for weaned calves. The comparative cost per stone of 14 lbs. for different kinds of food for stall-feeding, is as follows : — Linseed oil cake costing the consumer at home 10^. per ton., Is. 3d. ; linseed at 5(Js. per qr-. Is. 11 Jd.; meal and barley, 30s. per qr.. Is.; bean meal a stronger food, beans at 36s. per qr., Is. ; steamed or boiled potatoes on the average, about 4d. One stone of linseed in a mixture of food will do as much towards fattening as two of cake. The making out how the expenses of stall-feed- ing are repaid, should be thus. The worth of each beast, on going into the stall should be entered into an account ; at the bottom of which should be the value of all the different kinds of food consumed. Turnips, six or seven pounds an acre, about the value to be eat on the land by sheep ; taking the turnips off may be said to be robbing the land of manure ; but it is only borrowing from a part of the farm which is rich, to lay it on other parts where it is wanted. Hay at three pounds a ton is a full price being consumed on the farm. To ascertain the profit of each beast mnst be in this manner. The average cost of the keep for each beast will be for the first month, 9s. per week — the month, li. 16s.; the cost for the next month 2i. 2s. — for the last fortnight 1/. 8s.; whole amount 51. 6s. Ten weeks is the time calculated for feeding, because beasts ought to be in that forward state when put into the stall, as not to require more time to come out fat. An estimate of the gain or loss in the feeding, may be made out in this way. Beasts of a moderate size, if half fat when put into the stalls, will in- crease in thefirst month about 8 stone of 8 lbs., in the next monthabout 10 stone; in the last fortnight, 6 stone. The whole increase of weight in ten weeks stall-feeding, 24 stone, which at 4s. 4d. a stone, amounts to bl. 9s. When interest of money and risk is considered, this shews a poor account. But if the value of the beasts when put into the stalls was estimated at 3s. 8d. a stone, and the worth of them when they came out was 4s. 4d. this would give a profit of 31. 6s. 8d. on each beast of 100 stone. Often has the writer found no ad- vance in price, and some years a decrease. Although it may at all times be doubted, if stall- feeding proves to be a benefit to those who are engaged in it, it will always be beneficial to the public, by increasing the quantity of animal food for market. Landlords should encourage stall- feeding, for it is a likely means of having their arable farms enriched ; besides which it gives employment to labourers on their estates, at that time of the year when it is in many parishes difficultfor them to obtain it. They should permit tenants to plough grassland thatdoes not produce a good herbage, on condition that they stall-feed, and thus make a great quantity of manure. A profitable crop of oats the first year, and a crop of wheat the next year may be obtained, a summer fallow the year after, if not turnip land, and with a crop of barley the year following, the proper seeds may be sown with it to bring the land, which produced a bad herbage, into a good pasture. After all the great trouble and expence of stall- feeding, this mortifying circumstance has frequently occurred. Smithfield being overstocked, beasts have been sold there at less tbau they were worth in any other market ; the butchers knowing that the beasts after their driving, and being so knoclied about in the market, were so injured it could not answer to turn them out to come in the next market-da)"-, there- fore bought them at their own prices. This often serious loss to stall-feeders and graziers, may in future be prevented if all the different large droves of fat beasts destined for the London market can be conveyed by railroad at the same time, which appears doubtful. As the population of the country increases there must be an increased demand for beef; the increased supply must come from stall-feeders, for there can be no increase of the acres of feeding land. Twenty years ago there were but few beasts but minestall-fed in my neighbourhood. Now there are many. Stall-feeding is generally supposed likely to answer best when the price of corn is low, but the old saying of " down corn, down horn" should be borne in mind. Such time may be the best to enrich the land, to produce large crops when corn fetches a better price. In the feeding marked No. 2, good sweet grains may be mixed with the cut hay and meal. Turnips for beasts are best cut by the machines that do not cut them into thin slices, which takes more time in the cutting, and the beasts do not clear them up so well. The dirt is easily chopped off with the roots of the turnips as they are pulled up, so that washing is unnecessary. A bushel of cut Swedes weighs oOlbs. ; a bushel and a half is a fair daily allowance for a moderate sized beast, say from 100 to 1^2-1 stones of 81bs., which is 70 stones of 141bs. An acre producing 222 tons will keep twelve beasts thus fed for eight weeks. Every beast in the stalls will make a large cart-load of manure in eight weeks. 408 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. To ascertain tlie progress beasts are making is by taking their girths onco a fortnight. But until they have become murketubly iat, the carcasses will not be the weight the measurement computes them to be. Beasts in the first forcnight increase but very little in their girth, because the iirst progress they make in feeding, is in the inside. When beasts are bought good fair meat, and driven 100 miles to get them home, their appearance and condition is sadly changed. Thoy should lay in a well littered yard, a week or a fortnight, fed on turnips and hay, and, if it can be done, let out once a day into a field for water before they are put in the stalls. Beasts in the early stage of feeding are apt to be blown after eating their turnips. In most cases the swelling will subside if turned out of the stall and kept walking about some time. A table spoonful of carbonate of ammonia in a quart of water will relieve them, by correcting the acidity in the stomach, and expelling the wind. No food can be given to stall-feeding beasts that will fatten them so soon as linseed oil-cake ; but without ic is at a low price there is no money ex- ])ended on a farm that brings back so poor a return for tlie expenditure, but there is much less trouble in feeding with it than in any other way; beasts that have been fed with it do not, after a long drift to market, lose their firmness of handling, as those do, fed without either cake or linseed. The superiority of the manure produced from oil- cake or linseed fed beasts, ought to be considered. Those who have good feeding hay can fatten the largest sized beasts with it and oil-cake. JJurhams and Herefords are the most likely to pay the best for stall-feeding. When ]3urhams can be obtained that are well bred, 1 prefer them, for al- though they consume more food they increase so much more in weight as to produce the most profit. There is the same trouble and expense in attend- ing small beasts and sending them to market as witli large. The writer recommends when buyers come to bargain for stall-feeding beasts that they are turned out of the stalls, where they appear smaller than they really are. He also recommends stall-feeders to get from Ca- rey's, in the Strand, the sliding scale formed by the late l)r. Woolaston, from my book, given to Lord Althorp, to compute by measurement the weight of the carcass of fat cattle. THE PEASANTRY OF ENGLAND. (from the rORGET-ME->'OT FOR 1840.) The peasantry of England, The merry hearts and free ; The sword may boast a braver hand — But give the scythe to me ! Give me the fame of industry ; Worth all your classic tomes ! God guard the Enslisii Peasantry, And grant them happy homes! The sinews of Old England ! The bulwarks of the soil ! How mach we owe each manly hand. Thus fearless of its toil ! Oh ! he who loves the harvest free, Will sing where'er he roams, God bless the English Peasantry, And give them iiappy homes ! God speed the plough of England ! We'll hail it with three cheers : And here's to those whose labour planned The all which life endears ! May still the wealth of industry Be seen where'er man roams ; A cheer for £n;?land's Peasantry ! God send them happy homes ! PRACTICAL IMPROVEMENTS IN AGRICULURE. SiK, — It has been invariably found that, when- ever the land has been effectually drained of its superabundant moisture, the manure applied to it has been of far greater benefit— in fact that it has almost doubled its effect ; and that the luogrcss of improvement on a neglected farm should be first to scour and deepen the ditches, so as to secure a good outfall for the water ; secondly, to drain, and then to manure. I need not remind a farmer that care must be taken in arable lands to ])lacc the drains sufficiently deep to be secure against the action of the plough. The improve- ment cflFccted by draining on pasture lands is even greater than that on arable; abetter description of grass is produced, and a far heavier vjcight of hay is grown, though at first eight the quantity may appear smaller, and it is of a more nutritious quality. The drainage too is more easily effected, aud is less liable to obstruction or injury. I have within the last fortnight seen thousands of acres in the county of Somerset which if well drained would produce a fine pasture, yielding three- fourths of a barren sort, worth nothing for hay, and only consumed by the cattle for want of a better food. There are vast districts to which this mode of im- provement is applicable, and the apathy which prevails on this point is truly astonishing. It is in Scotland that this practice has been carried to its greatest extent, and the advantages resulting from it have been more fully developed. In the county of Ayr, land, which was before unfit for wheat, from its extreme wetness, has yielded forty bushels per acre, and the harvest is considerably earlier than on the same land in its previous un- improved state ; and there is a constant return, for the same seed and labour, far greater than when they were applied to land naturally in a wet condition. It is my intention to offer to your notice at a future time a few observations on the different modes of obtaining these results, but I wish to introduce to my brother agriculturists another useful implement of husbandry, the subsoil plough, invented by INIr. James Smith. After draining, this has been applied most beneficially to break up the lower stratum of soil, its operation being to loosen the stiff clay that frequently lies under the stratum of earth and commonly turned over, and thus to make interstices for the water to find its way into the drains, and also to expose the subsoil thus moved to the operation of the atmosphere, which renders it fit for cultivation. It is then brought to the surface by a second deep ploughing, and it has been found to fertilize the land wherever the plan has been adopted. In using this instrument a furrow of six inches depth should first be turned with a common plough, and the subsoil plough, which raises and breaks the subsoil, but does not throw it further than the bottom of the furrow, goes along this furrow pre- viously made ; it is again followed by a common plough, which throws the active soil upon that which has been subsoiled; and it thus remains from three to four years, being well cropped in the meantime. It should then be ploughed to a depth of sixteen inches. The cost per acre has been found to vary from 30s. to 45s. I am not aware of this plan having been followed in our immediate neighbourhood, but the effects have been such as may well warrant its adoption. I am. Sir, Your obedient servant, A Yeoman of Kent, November 8, 1839. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4d9 ON RURAL ECONOMY ABROAD. An Essay to which the Socie(i/'s Gold Medal and Twenty-five Sovereigns were awarded in July, 1839. BY J. STANLEY CARR, ESQ., OF FUSCHENBACH, IN THE DUCIIY OF LUXEMBURG. (From the Journal of the English Agricultural Society,') Feeling it to be tlie duty of everj' large land- owner, in whatever country, and however humble his talents ma}' be, to respond to your call for in- formation, I shall venture to offer, from time to time, an account of the husbandry of the North of Germany, beginning with my own immediate neighbourhood. The jMecklenburgs. — These countries, about 100 miles long and 60 broad, are situated between the Baltic on the north, Pomerania on the east, Brandenburg on the south, and Holstein and Lune- burg on the west. From north to south there is a ridge of elevated sandy land (the same which may be traced from theBannatin Hungary to Jutland in Denmark), varying from 10 to 20 miles in breadth, affording miserable crops of corn and worse pas- ture ; but the soil improves on both sides towards the Elbe and the Baltic, where fine districts of rich loams and clays are managed with considerable plodding industry. The size of farms varies from 50 or 60 acres, in the hands of the peasantry, to 300, and even 2000 acres, cultivated by farmers, but more frequently by the proprietor. A com- fortable country-house is usually situate about the middle of the estate, flanked by rows of very large buildings, often 200 feet long, by 60 broad :— 1st, a stable. &c. ; 2nd, cow-house and dairy, tjie num- ber of cows varying with the extent of the farm, but often amounting to 300 or 400, exclusive of young cattle and oxen ; 3rd, a sheep house, to contain from 500 to 5,000 sheep ; and lastly, barns for putting the whole of the crops under cover. The threshing-floor extends through the whole length of the house, and is large enough to admit a full four horse waggon of corn, and to give shel- ter to a dozen at a time if necessary, which is often of much consequence in catching seasons ; and although these large buildings are a serious ex- pence at fii-st, they require little repair, and facili- tate harvesting greatly. Mecklenburg, situated in the same latitude as Yorkshire, with a climate warmer and dryer in summer, and colder in winter, is prosperous, al- though the rotations are defective, and the agri- cultural implements of remote antiquity. The in- strument which serves as a substitute for a plough is called a haken, and the same as the Romans used, according to Loudon (page 112, figure 13 b). The harrows are often with wooden teeth, and in using them the driver lunges 5 horses with a har- row each, in a circle of about 10 yards in diameter, half the round at a quick walk and the rest at a trot, and as he steps backwards slowly a few inches at a time, the work advances. The system of cultivation is to tear up the pasture intended for fallow with the haken, in autumn, leaving a large rough clod exposed to the winter. As soon as frost and snow have made all hard and even, 4-horse waggons are employed to carry out the long fresh dung from the yards, which is spread at once over the land, where it lies exposed till the dry weather of spring admits of its being worked under with the same implement. After some weeks a favourable moment is taken for harrow- ing, with a heavy brake, and subsequently with the small wooden haiTows, which work the couch grass to the surface. Two furrows are afterwards given, and where the land has a sufficient propor- tion of clay, rape-seed is sown broadcast in the end of July or beginning of August; this crop is greatly benefitted the following spring by dusting gypsum over it, about lOOlbs. to the English acre. In July the seed is ripe, and as the weather is ge- nerally fine, is trodden out by horses, very expe- ditiously, on large canvass sheets in the field. The oil of this seed, when purified, is without smell, gives a brilliant clear-burning flame, and is universally used all over Germany, in the saloon and the cottage. The value of the crop is very precarious, because it is subject to so many con- tingencies ; the turnip-fly, slug, and caterpillar, make war upon it when young, and when in flower a small beetle (Haltica nemorum) often eats away the blossom-bud, or lays its minute larvae in the petals, ultimately furnishing every pod with a maggot, which either eats the seed away, or, forc- ing the pod open when nearly ripe, causes it to fall out. When spared all these calamities it is, however, a very remunerating crop, worth from 10/. to 20^. an acre, especially if there is a foreign demand. The straw is generally burned, and the ashes scattered over the field ; it is sometimes sold to the soapboilers, who value it highly. Two furrows are then given for wheat, sown broadcast in September. The usual rotation, ten years ago, would then have been to sow barley followed by oats, and if the land could bear it, oats again, laid down with, a little red clover and grass seeds, for three or four years. But agricultural knowledge has much increased by the example of individuals and well organized associations. The improved rotations are now generally of ten years, viz : — 1st year, fallow, well dunged ; 2nd, rape ; 3rd, wheat; 4th, barley; 5th, (light dunging) peas; 6th, rye; 7th, oats, sown down with rye or timothy-grass and red clover, which, as Avell as the peas, is gypsumed with great eff"ect before the dew has left the plant of a May morning. The clover is mown twice for hay, and left two years longer for pas- ture. The means of obtaining a sufficient quantity of manure for such a scourging course, where neither composts, bones, nor any other substitutes are re- sorted to, arc deserving of notice. In the first place the beginning of all improvements in these countries is to give a dressing of marl (containing on an average 60 per cent, carbonate of lime), at the rate of 164 cubic feet per acre ; by this means land not worth cultivation previously yields excel- lent crops for eight or ten years, and if the straw produced during that time is carefully converted into manure, the productiveness does not mate- rially decrease. Should that, however, be the case, the deposits of ponds, and even plots of peat moss, which not unfrequeutly occur, are carried upon the fallows in winter, where these substances, when broken down by the frost, prove a valuable alterative to the texture of the soil, especially where the pulse, rape, and clover crops are gyp- sumed. The maintenance of the various stock by which the manure is produced (and which is debarred from pasturage during six months of the year by climate) comes next to he considered. There has long been a useful breed of horses in these duchies, suited to sandy roads, where a five mile an hour pace was all that was compatible with the safety of 2 E 410 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, the carriatjcs ; but now that good M'Adamized roads are becoming more frequent, they have not lungs nor action enough, and tlie breed is being supplanted by a cross from English thoroughbred and other stallions, to which the magnificent studs of the late and present Counts I'lessen, of Ivenack ; the Counts Bassiwitz and Hahn ; and Barons de Maltzaha and Biel have chiefly contributed. The farm-horse is a long-legged, smalJ-bodied, big- headed, shapeless animal, bred in Holstein or the Danish islands, his price from 15/. to 20/., and two tons is a load for four of them, in a waggon over country roads.* The haken is generally worked by two oxen, which, with the cows, arc tended during the sum- mer upon the pastures, and from the time the corn fields are cleared, upon the stubble and young clovers till November, when they arc taken into the house, and fed with hay and straw, during the winter. A great desideratum in these countries where turnip culture is unknown, is a consider- able proportion of natural meadows, along the banks of rivers, or reclaimed from peat bogs. The warm summers force the indigenous swamp plants into luxuriance, and two crops of coarse hay are generally obtained. It cannot be expected that dairy cows, even in cases where they get the addition of some sheaf oats for some weeks in spring, can yield a great quantity of milk after being kept for six months entirely on dry food, but they are necessary, even if not very remunera- tive, to convert the straw and hay into manure, and are generally let to a dairy-man at about 21. 10s. per head. The Saxon or Merino sheep however, is the animal which best remunerates the INIecklen- burger, and forms the especial object of his care and attention. They were brought to these countries from Saxony, about the year 1811, and are now universal. The greatest pains are taken to produce fleeces as nearly equal as possible over the whole flock. The nature of this sort of sheep is so little known in England, although an object of such vital importanee to the British Australian colonies, that I venture to hope a description of it may be acceptable. The Merino is a long-legged, narrow-bodied, ugly animal with a fleece varying in weight, in proportion to its coarseness (although fine wool is specifically heavier than coarse) , from 2 to 31b. The staple is very close and thick growing, greasy or oily to the feel, elastic and soft, very tenacious, and formed differently from any other wools, with a number of regular, minute bends, or curls, in each hair. There are always different sorts of wool upon the same sheep, and that animal is of course the most esteemed which produces the highest qualities in the greatest proportion. Breed- ing successively with this view is a most difficult science, requiring years of pains-taking intelli- gence to attain. I was present at the exhibition of 22 rams at the cattle show of Giistrow, in Mecklenburgh, in May 1837. The specimens, to an inexperienced eye, appeared much alike ; they * English stallions have been long employed in Mecklenburg for the improvement of saddle-horses. I myself purchased a pair from the late Count Pies- sen full 30 years ago : they were got by one of our celebrated racers, aud bred upon his estate. He then had 120 brood-mares, and his stock commanded rather high prices. The farm-cattle of the neigh- bourhood were then, however, not worth more than half the prices above mentioned,- -F. Burke. were carefully washed and shorn, the fleeces numbered and sent to t)ie most eminent wool- staplers at Leipsic, where they were submitted to accurate assortment and valuation. I annex a translation of the published document, by which it will be seen how enormous the difference in value, between one flock and another, of nominally the same animal, may be. The Merino is sup- posed to be indigenous to Spain, and known to have been first introduced into Germany in I7'i5 by the then Elector of Saxony. Shortly after (about 1773) another small flock was brought to Austria, and subsequently in 178(), and 1802, to the impe- rial domains of Holditeh in Hungary, and Man- nersdorf in Austria, From these small beginnings has this valuable animal been spread over these immense countries. But there arc two distinct breeds, which dififer materially in shape, and the quality of their wool. 1st. The Infantado, or Negretti, distinguish- able by shorter legs, and a stouter make ; the head and neck generally short, and broad, the nose short and turned up, and the body round like a barrel. The wool is often matted upon the neck, back, and thighs, and grows upon the head to the eyes, and upon the legs to the very feet. The grease in its fleece is almost pitchy, and as the dust becomes incorporated with it, the washing is a matter of difficulty and risk ; the greatest care is at all times necessary in this operation. A warm mild day, without harsh or drying wind, is indispensable, and care must be taken never to rub the fleece with the hand. A marl-pit with a depth of from 8 to 10 feet of clear water is a favourite washing-place, and is thought to become better every year. The sheep are thrown in from a stage in the evening, and made to swim the whole length of the pond f20 or 30 yards), between rails, with boards on one side, from which women or boys assist them through their bath, by placing wooden rakes or crooks under their chins, and so passing them onwards. When the water has dripped from the fleeces for an hour or two, the sheep are put into a house for the night, as close together as possible, in order to cause the greater evaporation, and the next day they are swung three or four times through the same pond, the last time the head being rubbed a little, and they are kept in the house (well sup- plied with clean straw^ on dry food, for three or four days, until the wool, by sweating as it is termed, has recovered its characteristic softness. The fleece of this species is generally thick, closely grown, and abundant. Ewes may average 2:J-lb. and even 3|lb. by careful feeding (which, howerer, must never approach to feeding to be fat, else the wool becomes wiry and hard), and rams and wedders may bring 41b. and even 61b. This is the animal which came to Austria from Spain, The other distinct breed is the Saxon importa- tion, and is called Escurial. Their shape differs markedly from the Infantados, longer-legged, with a long spare neck and head with very little wool on the latter : a finer, shorter, and softer character in its fleece, but deficient in quantity. 1§ lb. to 2 lb. is frequently the amount from ewes, and 2 lb. to 3 lb. from rams and wedders. On being presented to the Elector of Saxony in 1765 they received the appellation of Electorals, A great deal of trouble has been taken to combine the advantages of both breeds by crossing, but with doubtful advantages ; and, although the mixed breed has been found suitable for crossing with sheep not thorough-bred (called Mestizen), yet THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 411 experieuce has shown, that to breed with advan- tage, all the rams, he the ewes what they may, should be either thorough-bred Iiifantados or Escurial, and that the same strain of blood shoiild be persevered in; I know an instance where a large and valuable flock has been for years retro- grading, in consequence of one unsuitable ram hav- ing been introduced twelve or fourteen years ago. Good rams are of course becoming every year more attainable, but there are examples of breeders in Saxony who still obtain, for dis- tinguished rams, as much as 100, 200, and even 3001ouisdors.* I am aware that these sheep have been fre- quently brought to Britainf from Spain, but three never was labour more lost, as they cannot thrive in a damp climate ; besides, it is quite necessary that they should have a wide range of dry and hilly pasture, of short and not over-nutritious herbage. If allowed to feed on swampy or marshy ground, even once or twice in autumn, they are sure to die of liver complaint in the following spring. If they are permitted to eat wet grass, or exposed frequently to rain, they dis- appear by hundreds with consumption. In these countries it is found that the higher bred the sheep is, especially the Escurial, the more tender. They are always housed at night, even in summer, except in the very finest weather, when they are sometimes folded in the distant fallows ; but never taken to pasture till the dew is off the grass. In winter they are kept within doors altogether, and are fed with a small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw wLich has not suffered from wet, and which is varied at each feed : they pick it over carefully, eating the finer parts, and any corn that may have been left by the threshers. Abundance of good water to drink, and rock-salt in their cribs are indispensable. In letting a large farm the usual calculation is, that the clear returns from the sheep and dairy should pay the rent, always including taxes ; and that the corn sold should cover the labour and other expenses of the farm, support the farmer's family, and leave a surplus, more or less, in pro- portion to the industry and skill employed. The farm-servants consist of active young men, lodged and fed in the house, and paid from 51. to 61. wages per annum (including perquisites, called sack-money, for all grain sold), who take charge of four horses and one waggon each, plough, &c., &c. These are assisted by married labourers, who have a free house and firing, a cow kept, about one English rood of garden (which is well manured every second year), and twice as much potato land ; which, together, supply them with abundance of fruit (fresh and dried) , vegetables, and potatoes, for their familes ; and serve also to bring up and fatten a pig or two annually, which forms the chief part of their animal food. Their wives work at all ti meswhen required, but especially in harvest, when they are employed in binding the corn, which the men mow. The wages may be averaged for men, from the 1st of May to the 1st of November, at lOd., and in winter 8d. per day ; the women always 2d. less. The men earn much more by hand-threshing, in which they are em- * The Louisdor is worth rather more than 19s. t The disuse of the pure Merino in this country may rather be ascribed to the circumstance that our breeders look to the mutton for their profit, and the Germans to the wool. — F. Bijrke. ployed from the time the harvest is housed till May or June, and for which they get one sack in every 14, 16, or 18, according to their agreement, which is influenced by the abundance or scarcity of hands in the neighbourhood, and the probable returns from good land or bad. They frequently earn Kid. a-day by their work, when prices are good ; and even at the lowest, they have bread for their families, and to spare. Poverty is rare, seldom occurring except from misfortune or sickness ; and in such cases they arc supported by the lord of the soil, so that wandering beggars are unknown. The rent of land has increased within the last twenty years by 50 per cent., and may now be averaged at about 18s. sterling per acre for a mixed farm of wheat and barley soils. Petty crime is as little frequent as in any other country that could be named, while open violence is almost unheard of. THE WOODS.— A HINT TO PLANTERS.— From the Inverness Courier. — The progress of the year is now visible ia our woods, which, without losing much of their summer luxuriance, have assumed all the tints and hues of autumn. Last week we had a few delicious days ; the mornings were damp and misty, but after noon the sun shone out with the splendour of July, and the fine contrasts presented by a Highland landscape at this time of the year — the dark waters, grey rocks, clear blue hills, and trees in all their va- riegated foliage — make the spectator forget that the year is hurrying to a close, and will soon become a scene of blank and cold desolation. Towards the latter end of May and the beginning of June the plantations re- ceived a severe check from the prevalence of frost. The Lammas growth, howerer, was unusually favour- able ; and in the forest of Darnaway — amongst whose leafy shades and precipices we pen this paragraph — there are oak shoots, from the old copses, of four feet in length. Oak plants have two seasons of growth — Spring and Lammas, or May and July. The yearly growth of the plant, before being cut, is from nine to fourteen inches ; and there are few more interesting sights in the interior, or on the skirts of a wide far- sweeping forest, than these embryo monarchs of the woods in their earthen recesses, shooting forth their dark green leaves and tiny stems— hereafter, perhaps, to be charged with the naval thunders of Britain. In most plantations there is a loss of about eight per cent. on the plants, from frost or other causes ; and the great object of the forester is to accelerate and secure their growth the first year. On this head we can give a useful hint from the experience of Darnaway. One hundred and fifty acres have, within the last two or three years, been planted there without a single instance of loss ; and this has been achieved by a very simple process, which merits the name and the honours of a discovery. It is merely putting a small quantity of lime into the hole in which the plant is laid. About four bushels of lime will suffice for an acre ; it is thoroughly mixed and incorporated with the mould be- fore the plant is inserted. The effect of the lime is to push on the growth of the plant in its first and most precarious stage ; new fibres begin to form and raiaify from the tap root : and not only is the growth of the plant secured, but it is advanced in a double ratio compared with the ordinary system where no lime is used. We saw this process in operation two years ago, and were not a little anxious as to the result of the lime. We had great faith in the sagacity and practical knowledge of Mr. Cutlar, the forester ; but, we con- fess, we had a doubt that liming the plant would force it OH prematureyl, and that after a brief season of re- markable growth it would be found deficient in stamina, and decUne as rapidly as it had arisen. Experience and observation have dispelled these fears. The plants are 2 E 2 412 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. thrivinic: steadily and vigorously on the most exposed parts of the forest : and the dangerous period of their existence heing over, there seems no doubt that they will continue to assert aad maintain their superiority of growth over their brethren of the forest. Indeed, we anticipate that in a short time lime will be univer- sally used for this purpose, as it is in the operations of agriculture. The person that first used lime for ma- nuring his land in Ross-shire was Major INIackenzie, of Fodderty, and many of his neighboiirs shook their heads in wonderment and pity at the adoption of such a scheme for " burning up the land." The worthy major, however, triumphed over all the unbelievers of the district, and has lived to see the universal adoption of lime, as well as another potent auxiliary of the soil, bone dust. May we not hope for a similar result as to the application of lime in our forest plantations ? With respect to quality of soil, we need only remark, that wherever ferns grow strong and abundant, oaks will thrive and prosper ; and it is on a soil of this de- scription that lime has been found to answer ia the nurture of plants. ON SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. In recommending to our readers the use of the subsoil plough, we have uniformly given it as our opinion, that the advantage to be derived from bringing the subsoil at once to the surface must wholly depend upon its character. The editor of the Journal of the Hig/ilcmd Jgricullural Societi/ has more than once animadverted upon our re- marks upon this subject, and, as we are inclined to believe, relying mainly upon the opinion and practice of the Marquis ofTweeddale, insists upon tlie propriety of turning up the subsoil without waiting for that change which the stirring and breaking it may effect. Deeply sensible of tlie interest which the Noble JNIarquis takes in tliis subject, and of the attention which he has given to it, and notwithstanding the very elaborate article in the last number of the Journul of the Hig/tlmid jlgricidtural Society, in which, by the way, the writer has greatly modified many of his former assertions, we still maintain our opinion. Having recently had the opportunity of looking over a very extensive tract of clay land, embracing almost every variety, from the richest and most valuable down to the most inferior, and having com- municated with the various parties engaged in the cultivation of these lands, we find the sentiments which we have expressed uniformly confirmed by all who have directed their attention to the matter. Having so very recently noticed this subject, we should not have again adverted to it so soon, but to express our great satisfaction at finding our opinions confirmed by the highest authority upon this subject, namely, by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, the originator of the system of subsoil ploughing. Mr. Smith attended at the late meeting of the Manchester Agricultural Society, and being called upon by the president. Lord Stanley, gave a lucid and valuable description of his method of drain- ing, and of the effects of subsoil ploughing. He thus commenced his remarks upon subsoil ploughing : — " And now he would say a word or two in reference to his subsoil plough. He had long seen the necessity of the subsoil being broken up, and it occurred to him that it was possible to contrive an instrument that would at once mecha- nically break up the subsoil, without bringing it to the surface, for it appeared to him Ihut nothing amid be worse in the si/ston of deep ploughing than bringing the inferior soil to the top." It is a bource of great gratification to us to know that in press- ing upon our agricultural readers the importance of adopting the system of subsoil ploughing we have given them correct advice upon a point, a mistake in which might have induced them to consider subsoil ploughing as prejudicial, instead of being the most beneficial operation which can be performed upon the land. Mr. Smith pro- ceeded to state — " The main object to be attained, therefore, was to break and stir up the subsoil, while the original soil was kept on the surface for the growth of plants. With tiiese views he set to work to invenl the subsoil plough. One great desideratum in the construction of this in- strument was to have it of sufficient strength, while, at the same time, it should be of as slight draught as pos- sible. That object he hoped he had attained. He had found this plough had not only been efficacious on his own fiirm, but the use of it had since extended to Eng- land, Scotland, and Ireland, and it had even been in- troduced into the stubborn soil of the West Indies, Still there were many gentlemen opposed to the use of this plough, and it was but to-day he had met a gentleman m the shew-yard, who had said, that it might do well in some soils, but he was quite sure it would never do in alight gravelly soil. In answer, he could mention many instances of its success in light, gravelly, and moory soils. He would stale one instance in which it was most efficacious. It was on the land of a gentleman in the west of Perthshire, part of whose farm, near to his own house, consisted of sandy knolls. The gentleman had asked him if he thought tiie subsoil plougli would do good to this, and he told him he thought it would. The gentleman said he had asked the opinion of people thereabout on the subject, and all agreed that the sub- soil plough would be the ruin of it. He (Mr. Smith) told him, that if he had courage to try the experiment, he would send a man over with his plough who under- stood its use, in order that the experiment might be properly tried. (Hear, hear, hear.) The gentleman agreed to the experiment. Unfortunately he had gone fur in his land, and had had a crop of turnips off it, and had laid it down with barley, so that the experi- ment appeared to be more hazardous. Nevertheless it was tried. A light furrow was taken up— the subsoil plough was passed along — it was sown down with bar- ley and grass — and he had, perhaps, one of the most splendid crops of barley ever produced in the county of Perth. (Applause.) It had had grass laid down since, and it had now remained in that state eight years, and he was able to state, that those knolls which were once almost bare, now waTed with the most splendid crops of grass every year to their very summit. (Applause.) In addition to what had been stated by Mr. Loch, he had letters from farmers in all parts of the country who had tried this plough upon all soils— chalky bottoms, flinty, gravelly, and moory bottoms, alluvial soils, stiflt clays, and almost every variety of subsoil found in these islands, and without one single instance of failure. He was frequently asked as to the propriety of using this plough before draining ; and he would say, that if the ground were completely drained by nature by its resting on a gra- velly or sandy bottom, then the subsoil plough might be safely and with advantage used at once ; but if the bottom was clay, or any stiff, hard, subsoil, that re- tained the moisture, then the subsoil plough must be withheld till the land had been drained ; because its application but made a greater space to hold water. By no means should this plaugh be introduced in stiff bottoms until the frequent drains had been applied. His own land, which was not worth 10s. an acre when he took to it, no agriculturist would now value at less than 21. an acre. As to the expence of drainage, and the subsoil ploughing, that must depend upon the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 413 drainage and the nature of the country ; but there was no place in which it could not be performed, at an ex- pense that would remunerate both the proprietor and the tenant." Draining necessarily involves an outlay which it may not be convenient for every owner of land to make ; and as subsoil ploughing would be use- less on land requiting to be drained, before it is drained some time may elapse before the system can be introduced in wet lands; but we have the statement of Mr. Smith, declaratory of iis bene- ficial effects on light dry soils. We therefore, agam, strongly urge the owners of all such soils to procure a subsoil plough for the use of the tenantry upon their respective estates. TURNIPS.— Qy. their WEIGHT PER ACRE ? TO TUK EDlTOn OF THF, FARMEr's MAGAZINE. Sir, — As a constant reader of your Magazine, I have to beg the favour of your insertion of the fol- lowing :— As the time is now approaching for housing tur- nips when they are intended for shed-feeding, I have to request the favour of one of )'our correspondents who is in the habit of so doing, for a correct state- ment of the weight per acre which a good crop of Swedish turnips will produce. My reason for such request is to set at rest a great difference of opinion which at present exists among some few farmers with whom I am in the habit of discussing the subject with reference to the cheapest mode of clearing the laud for the purpose of housing. I have been informed by a friend who frequently visits the northern parts of the kingdom, that forty to forty-five tons per acre of Swedish turnips are stated to be grown there ; and be also informs me, that an essay was read at Oxford, last July, which after shewing the best mode of cultivating turnips for the above purpose, goes on to say that one-horse carts, which take twenty- five hundred weight each time, are well calculated for effecting that object. Now I have been a o-rower of turnips for twentv years, but have never been so fortunate as to have such a crop, neither could I suppose that one-horse carts could take off the land such a quantity as twenty-five hundred weight at onccj I am therefore led to believe that the above crop, as well as the quantity carted at one load, could not have been ac- tually weighed, but only estimated as such ; if there- fore any gentleman will have the goodness to inform me through the medium of your Magazine how the crop of turnips is managed to produce suci) a quan- tity, and whether (if actually weighed) they are first cleared of top, root, and soil, I shall feel greatly obliged, for though 1 have not at present the honour of belonging to the English Agricultural Society, I am yet exceedingly anxious that all the statements made under its auspices should be really the result of actual experiment, and not at all given as mere opinion, feeling fully assured that nothing can more retard the usefulness of the above Society, than to allow incoirect statements to appear in its papers ; I beg at the same time to say, that I by no means suspect that gentlemen making such statements have any doubt of their truth, all 1 wish to infer is, that they have not seen them actually proved, which ought certainlv to be done, before they appear in public. Oct. 14th 1839. Q. ON SHED-FEEDING. BV JOHN WALBANKE CHILDERS, ESQ., M.I'. (From the Journal of the English Agricultural Societii.) Having tried an experiment on the winter fatten- ing of sheep this year, I think the insertion of it in our Journal may be desirable. It has for some time been my opinion that sheep would fatten more quickly in a yard than in the usual manner on tur- nips in the field. In consequence of this view of the case, I last winter enclosed a small yard with posts and rails, and erected a low thatched shed, just large enougli to allow a score of sheep to lie down at once. The floor of this shed was boarded with common rough slabs, and was raised eig;hteen inches above the surface of the ground, the boards being placed three-eighths of an inch apart, in order to allow the free passage of vvater and keep the boards dry, as my great fear was that the sheep might get the foot-rot. I then proceeded, on the 1st January, to draw forty wether hogs out of my flock of Leicesters, and divided them into two lots, as equal in quality as I could get them. On weighing each sheep sepa- rately, I found the weight of one score to be 183st. 31b., and that of the other 184st. 41b. I put the first lot into the yard, and placed the other lot on turnips. The field was a dry sandy soil, well sheltered, and peculiarly favourable and healthy for sheep. Each lot had exactly the same quantity of food given them, which was as follows : — 1st. As many cut turnips as they could eat, which was about 27st. per diem for each lot. 2nd. lOlbs. of linseed cakes, at the rate of half a pound per sheep per day. ord. Half a pint of barlejr per sheep per day. 4th. A little ha)', and a constant supply of salt. For the first three weeks both lots consumed equal portions of food, but in the fourth week there was a falling off in the consumption of the hogs in the shed of 3st. of turnips per day, and in the ninth week there was a falling off' of 2st. more ; of linseed cake there was also a falling off of 3lbs. per day. The liogs in the field consumed the same quantity of food from first to last. The result of the experiment is as follows : — 20 Shed Ho^s. St. lbs January 1st 183 3 February 1st ... . 205 0 March 1st 215 10 April 1st 239 9 Total Increase. ... Increase. 20 Field Hogs. St. lbs. 21 11 10 10 23 13 56 6 St. ibs. 184 4 199 8 208 2 220 12 Increase. St. lbs. 15 4 8 8 12 10 36 8 Consequently the sheep in the shed, though they consumed nearly one-fifth less food, made above one- third greater progress. The circumstances of the experiment were, if anything, unfavourable to the sheep in the shed : the turnips, by being stored in a house fm- their use, became drier than those consumed by the sheep in the field ; and also in February the shed-hog's were salved or rubbed with mercurial oint- ment, which is generally supposed to give a check to feeding sheep. N.B. The boarded floor was swept every day, and fresh straw was given after every shower of rain. 414 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. QUERIES ON DRAINING AND CUL- TIVATING A POOR CLAY SOIL. (rnoM TriE makk i.ane express.) A correspondent who lias lately come into pos- session of an extensive tract of clay land whicli requires draining, and which has already been tried, seeks the following information, which we liope some person practically engaged in this kind of work, will furnish him with : — In furrow- draiaiug, how wide should the drains he apart ? How deep from the surface to the tops of the drain 1 What is the best season for subsoil ploughing 1 Sliould that operation be performed parallel to, or across the drains 1 How is it performed] does the subsoil plough follow in the furrows after the common plough 1 What strength does the subsoil plough require, and ])ow much work can be performed in -.i day ? \Vl>at is the best rotation of cropping for a clay soil, with a view to making manure 1 It being considered that bones are not effective in such soils, what is the best and cheapest extraneous manure 1 Is the system of burning clay on the headlands into ashes, pursued, and where ? Can persons who understand burning ashes in that manner, be procured, and is the plan good 1 first ploughed stitch-wise and then across, no hu?e slakes are raised ; the subsoil broke up by each plough- ing' IS mellowed somewhat (being a thin slice) by the time llie next earth is given ; and no danger occurs, as to breaking into the drains, and a belter chance is given for obtaining a root crop that season. It will cost more to isubsoil in this way, hut it is the only mode a small farmer can adopt, and it appears to me most advisable for large farmers. 7th. The best rotation of cropping " with a view to mukiii-r miinure," must be tiiat which will carry most stock. The, more cattle crops are grown, of course the sooner the land gets into a fertile state, — tenant-farmers must have an eye to quick returns, owners may proceed till the land is improved to any required state. 8th. Burnt eariii is the cheapest " extraneous ma- nure," hulk and quality considered. 9lii. ijurniug earth is extensively used in this county, has been used for centuries probably, but greatly ex- tended of late years; and the mode of burning greatly improved. 10th. Most labourers in tlie clay-land districts can burn "old banks, head lands," &c.. but there are but few expert at clod burning. It is difficult to find a first- rate labourer who would go to a distant county to burn earth, because they are all fixed in a good birth — have families, or cannot leave without a remittance of money. There arc no doubt some occasionally to he had, and lone men in particular, and an old man would instruct the labourers in a district in a month or two. A gentle- man wrote to me to send him a man experienced in burning earth, into Monmouthshire, but I could not find one willing to go who I thought would do credit to this county. I am, Sir, Your humble servant, Chas. Poppy. Witnesham, Ipswich, Suffolk. ANSWERS TO QUERIES ON DRAIN- ING AND CULTIVATING A POOR CLAY SOIL. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Lest no one answer your correspondent's queries respecting the cultivation of clay land, I offer my opinion : — 1st. The drains must be near enough to lay the land dry, and the distance depends ou the tenacity of the soil, and presence or absence of veins of loose matter (golts). From nine feet to three times nine feet is adopted ; less distance in plough-draining- than by spade, 2nd. From 20 to 26 inches ; hut if the land is sub- soiled a greater depth is necessary, as it is only the un- stirred earth that protects the drains. 3rd. The best season for subsoiling must he during summer. 4th. A. different mode of subsoiling to what is prac- tised may be adopted, which will not injure the drains — whether subsoiled parallel with the drains or not. If the land is subsoiled across the drains it will probably be parallel with the main or leading drains, where greater danger of injury exists. 5th. The subsoil plough follows in the furrows after the common plough. 6th. On a stiff' clay soil it requires at least six good horses to subsoil 12 or 14 inches deep, and two to draw the common plough ; in all, eight horses, and three men and a lad ; and of course if horse strength suffi- cient is attached to the subsoil plough, it keeps pace with the surface plough. As six horses in a subsoil plough require strong geers, tread on each others feet in turning, distress the hind horses in carrying out the plough at the ends, break up the subsoil in ku9 lumps, and mix much of the sour subsoil with the surface soil, and if drought occur, the land remains hollow till re- duced by a winter's rain and frost. I prefer using two liorse subsoil ploughs, and going only three or four inches deep ; and on giving the land another earth, pursue the same plan, going three or four inches deeper with the subsoil ploughs, and thus continue till the depth required is attained. Thus as the fallow is making, BRAINTREE AND BOOKING AGRI- CULTURAL ASSOCIATION. The great length to which the proceedings at Agricultural INIeetings extend, render it impossible for us to give them at length; we subjoin an extract from the Essex Stundurd of that part of the busi- ness of the above Meeting which bears upon prac- tical agriculture. Mr. W. IIoEBS said that the sheep were kept on a pasture in his occupation. There were nine lots of three each, but seven only were for the sweepstakes. They were all kept in the same manner, and had the same food and grass to eat. The other two lots were — S of IMr. Barnard's Gloucesters, and 3 Kents, be- longing to him, (Mr. Hobbs) which were a trial between him and Mr. Morris, steward to Mr. Bar- nard. The result of the dead weight to-day was this : the mutton was all laid at 5s. per stone, and the wool taken from their backs and weighed at the time at Is. (id. per lb. Mr. H.Hobbs's half-bred Leicesters yielded from their back, bl. 6s. 4id.; Mr. W. Hobb's Leicesters, 51. 7s. ; Mr. Barnard's Downs, 3Z. 14s. 9d. ; Mr. SaviU's South Downs, 4,1. 17s. 6id.; Mr. Gosling's (an Essex flock) bl. 5s. 4|d. ; Mr. Bar- nard's, of Lynn Downs, 41. l.Ss. 7|d. These sheep were valued when put together, by the judges, and this calculation was made taking the price of the sheep when put together, and the price when now sold out. The terms of the sweepstakes were, that the sum was to be given for these three sheep that gave the most profit to the owner in wool and mutton ; therefore it was given to i\Ir. II. Ilol.bs. In the trial between Mr. Barnard and himself, the Gloucesters paid 61. Is. l|d., and the Kents 61. (5s. The following are the particulars of the experi- ment: — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 415 SWEEPSTAKES FOR SHEEP, ENTERED INTO FOR THE PURPOSE OF ASCERTAINING WHICH SORT OF SHEEP WOULD IMPROVE THE MOST ON THE SAME QUANTITY OF FOOD. The sheep have hoen constantly kept in the same pasture since the 2Cth of December, 1838, divided into nine allotments of three roods each, in each of which was kept three sheep. They have all consumed an equal quantity of corn, viz. : — one pint of peas per day each sheep, from January 1st, to J une 1st, and half a pint per day since that time. — Ihe allotments have been repeatedly inspected, and it has been con- sidered that Mr. Barnard's (of Gosfield) Downs, and Mr. Henry Hobbs's half-bred Leicesters fed their part rather closer than any other. WEIGHT OF SHEEP AND WOOL AT THE UNDERMENTIONED DATES. 1839. to 0 ©5 Is! a. < CO ^1 ■53 > Price of Wool at ls.6d. ■-5 bo 3 < a. 03 Oct. 24. Dead Weight. Mutton at 5s. per stone. Mr. Henry Hobbs Half-bred Leicesters. Valued at 35s. 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 St. lb. 13 1 15 2 14 1 St. lb. 15 4 16 6 16 2 St. lb. 16 1 17 6 17 3 £.s. d. 0 11 3 0 11 3 0 11 3 St. lb. 19 0 20 0 20 1 St.lb. 20 1 21 4 21 2 St.lb. 20 6 22 2 21 5 St.lb. 21 3 22 4 21 7 St.lb.£. s. d. 12 03 0 0 13 03 5 0 12 53 3 li 42 4 48 4 51 2 22i 1 13 9 59 1 62 7 64 5 65 6 37 5 9 8 11 Mr. William Hobbs Leicesters. Valued at 27s. 9 6 11 0 10 4 11 3 13 7 13 3 12 4 15 1 14 4 4 5 0 8 3 0 6 0 0 7 6 15 1 17 6 18 3 15 6 18 7 19 2 16 6 19 7 20 4 17 5 20 4 21 2 9 52 8 li 11 7 2 19 41 11 6 2 18 9 1 31 2 38 5 42 1 141 119 51 2 53 7 57 1 59 3 33 28 6 3 Mr. Gosling Half-bred Downs, Valued at 18s. 6d. 10 0 8 6 10 0 28 6 12 5 11 2 12 4 13 6 12 2 14 2 4 31 3^ 0 6 0 0 5 3 0 5 3 16 5 15 0 17 0 17 7 15 7 18 3 17 7 16 1 18 4 18 1 16 4 19 1 9 32 6 10* 8 72 4 41 10 52 13 1§ 1 36 3 40 2 11 0 16 6 48 5 52 1 52 4 53 6 28 7|r 4 4§ Mr. Barnard (Lyons) Downs, Valued at 2O3. 10 7 9 7 10 1 13 0 12 1 11 1 14 0 13 3 12 4 3 4 0 4 (3 0 3 9 0 6 0 16 1 15 1 14 7 16 7 15 7 15 5 17 2 16 2 16 1 17 7 9 42 7 6 16 59 32 6 lOi 16 7 9 02 5 0 1 30 7 36 2 39 7 9^ 0 14 3 46 1 48 3 49 5 51 3 27 7 6 19 41 Mr. Durrant Downs, Valued at 23s. 8 4 10 3 9 4 9 5 13 1 11 5 11 2 13 6 12 1 5^ 5 6 0 8 3 0 7 6 0 9 0 13 1 15 7 14 1 14 0 17 0 14 7 14 0 17 2 14 7 14 4 17 5 15 2 Not slaughtered 28 3 34 3 37 1 16i 1 4 9 43 1 45 7 46 1 47 3 S. W. Savill, Esq. South Downs. Valued at 29s. 13 0 14 0 10 6 15 4 15 4 12 2 16 7 17 0 13 7 4^ 5i 5^ 0 6 9 0 8 3 0 8 3 13 3 18 1 19 1 15 3 18 6 20 0 15 7 19 2 20 3 16 1 19 6 20 4 16 7 11 6 9 2 11 2 2 18 9 2 6 3 2 16 3 37 6 43 2 47 2 5 5» 6 52 5 18 6 20 0 18 7 54 5 55 6 57 1 32 2 8 13 E. G. Barnard, Esq., M.P. Downs, Valued at 40s. On February 13th. 13 3 14 4 14 1 13 0 16 3 16 1 15 3 17 3 16 7 0 7 6 0 8 3 0 9 0 19 2 20 4 19 5 19 6 20 5 20 1 20 1 21 0 21 0 11 3 10 7 11 6 2 16 10| 2 14 41 2 18 9 42 2 45 4 49 4 16J 14 9 57 5 59 3 60 4 62 1 34 o|8 10 0 E. G. Barnard, Esq., M.P. (Gosfield) Gloucesters, Valued at 27s. 1 2 3 1 2 3 12 0 11 1 10 2 14 2 12 2 12 6 15 7 13 1 14 3 9 8 6 0 13 6 0 12 9 0 9 0 18 0 16 2 16 5 19 320 5 17 618 3 18 018 5 21 5 19 4 19 6 12 1 10 1 11 1 3 0 7i 2 10 7» 2 15 7i 33 3 39 2 43 3 231 1 15 3 50 7 55 1 57 5 60 7 S3 3 8 6 lOJ Mr. William Hobbs Kents, Valued at 28s. 10 5 12 1 14 0 13 1 14 6 17 3 14 0 15 0 18 4 6 6^ 0 6 9 0 9 0 0 9 9 17 0 18 0 22 6 17 1 18 5 23 1 18 0 19 3 24 5 18 6 30 3 25 5 10 5 11 1 15 0 2 13 11 2 15 71 3 15 0 3() 3 45 2 17 4 17 1 5 6 57 () 58 7 62 0 64 .T 36 6 9 3 9 416 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. Gale aslced what the Kents had to contend with, and what was the difference 1 Mr. HoBBs said they were kept all alike : each had a rood of ground railed in, and they had the same quantity of peas and corn— measured by the same measure. Mr. G. NoTTiDGE, jun. Did they all consume alike? Mr. HoEBs. — It is considered by the Committee there was some slight difference in that respect, and that Mr. Barnard's three Downs and my brother's half-bred Leicesters ate their grass the closest. Mr. W. F. HoBP.s stated that Lord Western wished to propose the following challenge : — " Lord Western offers to show at tlie Chelmsford meeting, in December next, for 5 sovereigns, 3 An- glo-Merino shearling wethers, against any 3 shear- ling short-wool wethers, bred an(! fed in ihe county: weight not to pass for merit. — Also, for the same sura, five acres of cattle cabbage ; weight and qua- lity united to be the criterion. This match to be decided in December." Mr. Baines. — I fear the quantity is too large for any one general farmer. Mr. HoBus. — Lord AVestern would not object to four acres, but he would not like to compete with a gardener who might have only half an acre. Mr. Baines. — I am satisfied tliat general observa- tions on practical subjects are better than desultory conversation. Perhaps some gentleman here will give us his opinion on a new sysLem of practical farming, of which many persons are ignorant; there is a difference of opinion upon it, and some think it detrimental to Agriculture. Perhaps some experi- mental gentleman will give his opinion on the new system of subsoiling, its practical effect on the soil, its effect on land ditching, the length done, and profit from increased crop. I know not whether Messrs. Hobbs are practically informed on it ; but if they are and will favour us with their practice, it is one of the best subjects that could be brought forward. Mr. Jas. Beadel. — I should be most happy to afford any information to this meeting. I never tried sub-soiling, but attach much importance to it in a theoretical point of view. For one, I feel much interested in the proceeditigs of this meeting, and I feel that there are still many effective points on agriculture which cannot be brought to bear at meetings like the present ; and 1 would suggest in an agricultural neighbourhood like this the establish- ment of a Farmers' Club, not to interfere with this Association or others on the same principle, but there are many points connected with agriculture which I should be glad to find solved by series of experiments. No single experiment is sufficient in agriculture, for we have the seasons to contend against, the different qualities of soil, and a variety of matters ; but if we were to have a Farmers' Club in this and other neighbourhoods, a number of ex- periments might be tried and recorded, forming a body of evidence which we could appeal to, and so settle matters which are at present in dispute. I may say I am a young practical farmer, having been engaged in farming only about 11 or 15 years; but it has been a matter of surprise to me that when among men, whose whole lives nearly have been passed in agricultural pursuits, I have put the question to them of what stock I should buy to put np, almost every one has told me different — one has said that a Scot would win the saddle, while another says it would only win the bridle ; then if I have asked whether I had better grow globe or lono- mangel— one has said I had better grow the globe, and another that I should make more of the long mangel. Now these things might bo settled by a Farmers' Club ; and those who are members should from time to time grow these things to a small extent, and I think that in the course of a few years we should get so many experiments, brought to bear on particular points, as would make matter of certainty of what has been either matter of specu- lation or doubt. (Hear, hear.) I assure yon I have received from my attendance to day great gratifica- tion and pleasure, and I felt that your society is founded on a right basis. When I saw the stock and roots that were exhibited, I considered that it reflects infinite credit on those by whom they were exhibited, and on those by whom tjje object was carried out. I should be glad to join a Farmers' Club that would communicate sound knowledge, and produce pecuniary ]n-ofit. {Applause.) I have no objection lo fat a beast, as it always shows well. When I have talked to those who fed them, they have exclaimed " is it not a fine beast? is it not beautiful ?" but when I have put the £. s. d. toge- ther, 1 have found that the animal cost more than it would make in the market. The information I want is that which will get me something. I do not want to be shown the way to pay balf-a-crown, and get Is. 6d. for it. (Hear, hear.) We are obliged to gentlemen who obtain pure breed, for I do think that aptitude to fat and purity of breed are almost synonymous terms. I have heard some gentlemen say, if you want to fat beasts give them Swedes ; and others say give them mangel. I was at March last year, when a gentleman told me that a mangel was no better than water, and recommended raw potatoes. (Laughter.) I should be glad to be a member of any association, having for its object the reducing of the crude theories of farming to prac- tical certainties. (Applause.) If I am told tliat it would interfere with institutions of this sort, which, as JMr. Onley eloquently said, have a great moral effect on tlie community, I would abstain from joining such a society as I have mentioned, but I think it would work out great practical good. The two might go hand in hand together ; we may meet here to-day to contribute our mite for the reward of tlie ploughman, the land-ditcher, and the servant, and yet, not forgetting ourselves, establish a society, which would work out great practical results, which we must go home and think upon. If some ten, twelve, or twenty individuals, would establish a Farmers' Club in this neighbourhood, I, for one, shall be happy to join it. (Applame.) Mr. W. F. Hobbs. — I quite agree witli Mr. Beadel, that these Farmers' Clubs would be bene- ficial to the county, and they have had it in contem- plation at Colchester to form one on the same plan ; but I cannot agree with him in opinion that fat beasts cannot be exhibited without great loss. I am of opinion with Lord Spencer, that if a person selects a proper bred animal, and fats it properly, it will pay for the trouble. (Hear, hear.) Some observa- tions have been made as to subsoil ploughing. I tried it on a very small scale, and as far as I have done so can state that I have had great benefit from it. I have tried it both on light and heavy land, but I think the benefit better on heavy land, after thoroughly underdraining. But there is a gentleman in the room who has tried it more extensively than ourselves, and no doubt he will enlighten you on the subject much more than I can, — the President of the Colchester Society. ]\Ir. White. — I fear that I can throw but little light upon the subject, being so young an agricul- turist. I tried subsoiling on between 2.5 and 30 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 417 acres, which produced corn last year. 1 tried it on 10^ acres of barley, and a field of 6 acres close by. The subsoil land missed plant with Swedes. I then drilled with white turnips, and had a good piece, which was fed off in the usual way. The other field was treated the same, only with beans. I have not yet thrashed them, but the produce on one was better thaa a load per acre more than on the other. The one never failed in the scorchin"^ weather, while the other suffered from drought. When the corn is thrashed I shall be able to judge better of the pro- duce, but the straw is considerably more in one than the other. The soil is a sort of shingly gravel, full of rocky stones. I subsoiled it more than two feet deep — (^Hear, hear) ; a friend had suggested that to me. I planted a thousand head of cabbages on a piece of subsoiled land ; they are now three feet high, and in another part of the field which I did not subsoil, the cabbage is very low and poor. (^Applanse.) Jlr. Bejidel said he considered subsoil ploughing one of the greatest improvements on most farms. Mr. White. — Mine is Smith's Scotch plough, and it goes with 12 horses. There is an improvement on it by Ransome, which requires less strength. Every acre of land I plough costs me two guineas, and I can do barely an acre a-day with 12 horses. Mr. W. F. HoBBs said ho had witnessed Smith's plough, and also the Norfolk Eack Heath plough, and he thought that in this neighbourhood the soil required a sort of plough between the' two : it did not require the power of tlie Scotch plough, and the strength of the Rack Heath plough was not suffieient. Therefore, Mr. Hayward had simplified the Rack Heath plough, and made it very beneficial for this neighbourhood, and it might be worked with six horses. Mr. Onley had seen the Rack Heath plough used in Norfolk, and he was so taken with it, that he ordered one to bo made on the spot ; and he believed it had been of signal service in spots where it had been used. He had not seen the full result of it at present, but on the upland pastures there was the most perceivable benefit. ]Mr. Beadel said that one advantage of subsoil ploughing was, that it would spoil all bad farmers. Unless they thoroughly underdrained and manured well, it was no use to subsoil. Bad farmers who had nothing but rain-watered dung had better not subsoil. Mr. White said he once met with a laud drain, and it completely flooded all the land. THE CAUCHA PLANT.— Some parts of these ruins present a most picturesque and unique appear- ance, which is occasioned by the twistings and twinings of the caucha trees about them, often forming around a broken pillar or arched entrance, a perfect casing of the most complicated network, the great force of which, as the roots gain thickness and shoot upwards, is suf- ficient to rend asunder the strongest masonry. I saw here a huge mass of such masonry, from, probably, eight or ten tons weight, completely separated from the main body, and raised a full foot from the founda- tion. The neighbourhood of this tree is much dreaded, for should the smallest tendon once gain insertion into some slight rent or crevice in the wall of a house, it will be sure to destroy it, unless prevented in time. They also climb up to the tops of other trees, and often crush the largest of them, and run sometimes along the surface of the ground to an almost incredible dis- tance, destroying every other plant in their course.'' — Stewart's Travels in Bogota. ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. TO THE EDITOR OX^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — After weighing somewhat attentively the different plans brought forward by writers in the " Farmer's Magazine," respecting the establishment of an Agricultural College, with its Professors, Sub- Professors, and other officials, and comparing it with my own more simple proposal of the En"-lish Agricultural Society's renting about twelve small farms (as expressed in your paper of the 23rd ult.) I cannot but still give a preference to the latter me- thod. Prudence and economy should always be the guides in any undertaking. By the adoption of either of the former plans it would immediately require a very considerable outlay. The purchase of an estate, (by the bye, to whom should it be con- veyed?) the erection of suitable buildings, large annual payments to the different masters, &c., &c., would at once, and every year, call for greater funds than the Society might be able to raise, and apply to that single purpose. To make such an Institution or property a Joint-stock corcern would not bo advisable. For an individual to do it is al- most out of the question, and he might become too independent of the society. They should be its di- rectors and correspondents, and the whole govern- ment should be in their hands. But the expenses »iust be kept within bounds. On mentioning my plan of " Experimental Farms " to the Committee, when at Oxford last July, I found that it had ob- tained their consideration, and that about £2000 were subscribed towards a fund intended for that purpose. Yet what is this sum, or even a double or treble amount, to accomplish what is proposed by the aforesaid writers 1 Besides, where ought this college to be placed ? And how distant must it un- avoidably be from by far the majority of British far- mers 1 They prefer seeing to bearing of a thing, whatever is new should as much as possible be brought home to them. It was under these and similar considerations, I have become an advocate for " Experimental Farms," on ahmall scale, dispers- ed throughout the country so that every one may- know and see them, and to be rented by lease, and not purchased of some landholder. This would be risking little or none of the Society's money, the managers of the farms themselves could find proba- bly enough to stock them, or at all events it could be borrowed on what would be then good security. It is calculated that about £1000 for each farm would be enough to purchase furniture, to pay for implements of husbandry, find stock, seed, &c., &c., in placing the manager comfortably on the farm, thus about 12 such farms would require £12,000, a sum easily to be raised for such a purpose. The money affairs being thus disposed of with facility, it may be urged by some opponents that such farms are not to be ob- tained, or in the s])Ots, or on the leading soils spoken of in my last letter. To this an answer may be given that over so ^reat a space of country as would present itself for choice, there is little probability but some land could be found to answer the purpose. No proprietor, it is to be presumed, would refuse to let a part of his estate for so good and national an undertaking, or object to repair his farm house, or even add to it, if requisite, for tlie convenience of the Society's agent. The rent also might be laid in proportion to these expenses. In any case under the best management, it might be fairly anticipated that a sufficient profit might be made to add to instead of diminish the funds of this laudable Institution. Tliis 418 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. is an important point, and might be proved in a vari- ety of ways. Again, it might be objected that 12 men could not be found able and willing- to become managers of these farms at such salaries as could be afforded. In the present spread of information it seems almost a libel upon our countrymen to sup- pose this would be the case. If any one, indeed, were not quite competent at first, he would by prac- tice, study, and scientific information, (if of fair education and abilities,) soon become so. By fre- quently communicating with tbe Board and t!je other agents, the habit of taking notes in a diary, consulting or representing anything peculiar to the professor of agriculture at Oxford and perhaps Cam- bridge, (for that kind of office is s^ w 2 rS. 3 O £> or 5 o o 3 c == S 1^1 A. n. p. 1 3 6 3 2 21 3 1 23 1 3 3 5 0 4 1 0 29 0 t-< PI COC000500 a ~ - - - ~a> p tn ^ ^ ST- Sept. 7 Aug-. 28 Sept. 10 " 7 Aug-. 28 Sept. 7 ■b. CO -^i — bS 05 S^ ^ 0 — 05 *^ c;i g^ C » n — ' c i(i. 05 J^ CO CO CO g. 0^® S3® 255^ ■Wh-hh+Im IX c- c Kl- to rfi. CO CO *- JJ 0 11 3 EJ. u p » 2 ^^ 2 ST- 3- 3->-<; 3-BQ fB fD <» ,_ re »^ © ? p a, fB O M © 5 £- a? P — ' o ^■ •-d LORD PENRHYN'S POULTRY -HOUSE.— The most mag-nificent poultry place perhaps that ever has been built, is at Lord Penrhyn's, at Winnington, in Cheshire. It consists of a handsome regular front, extend- ing- about 140 feet, at each extremity of which is a neat pavilion, with a larg-e arched window. These pavilions are united to the centre of the design by a colonnade of small cast-iron pillars, painted white, which support a cornice and a slate roof, covering: u paved walk, and a variety of different conveniences tor the poultry, for keeping- eg-g-s, corn, and the like. The doors into these are all of lattice work, also painted white, and the framing- green. In the middle of the front are four handsome stone columns and four pilasters supporting- likewise a cornice and a slate roof, under which and be- tween the columns is a beautiful mosaic iron-gate, on one side of this gate is an elegant little parlour, beauti- fully p-dpered and furnished, and at the other end of the colonnade a very neat kitchen, so excessively clean and in such high order, that it is delightful to view it. This front is the diameter or chord of a larg-e semicircular court behnid, round which there is also a colonnade, and a great variety of conveniences for the poultry. This court is neatly paved, and a circular pond and pump in the middle of it. The whole fronts towards a rich little field or paddock, called the poultry paddock, in which the poultry have the liberty to walk about between meals. At one o'clock a bell rings, and the beautiful g-ate in the centre is opened. The poulti-y being then mostly walking in the paddock, and knowing by the sound of the bell that their repast is ready for them, fly and run from all corners, and rush in at the gate, every one striving which can get the first share in the scramble: There are about 600 poultry of different kinds in the place, and although so large a number, the semicircular court is kept so very neat and clean, that not a speck of dung is to be seen. This poultry place is built of brick, except the pillars and cornices, and the lintels and jambs of the doors and the windows ; but the bricks are not seen, being all covered with a remarkably fine kind of slate, from his Lordship's estate in Wales. These slates are closely jointed and fastened with screw nails on small spars fitted in the brick ; they are afterwards painted, and fine white sand thrown on while the paint is wet, which give the whole the appearance of the mest beautiful free stone.— From the Pouitvy Yard, by Peter Bosuell, a very useful little ■publication. ON CROSSES IN SHEEP.— From the Mostyu farm being composed chiefiy of stiff clayey land (on the rise of the coal measures), and the fact of the South-downs and Leicesters never succeeding there or arriving at anything to equal weight in their native districts, it was deemed judicious to try what might be done by the introduction of across between the Cheviot ewes and a Leicester ram ; and it is gratifying to re- mark that the cross has succeeded on the Mostyu grounds. This change was commenced in 1833, and the produce killed in March and April, of 1836, then two years old, averaged from 60 to 70 lbs., or about 16 lbs. per qr.; the practice is still going on, and the six sheep exhibited here this day, are brought forward to show by actual demenstration the value of the cross introduced ; the weights of two of them are as follows : — 1st wether, weighed 205 lbs, two years old past; 2d ditto, ditto 201 ditto ditto.— In 1836 some ewes and a ram were had from the stock of J. Cotes, Esq., of Woodcote, in Shropshire, not, I believe, pure Leices- ters, and the best of the wethers of this stock was also weighed, and made only 181 lbs. which again exhibits the striking fact, that stock will not improve when the change takes place from good to bad land. Another of the lot brought here to-day is from a cross between a Merionyddshire ewe and a Cheviot ram ; it is now three years old, and weighs 1711bs, It should be here re- marked, that the sheep exhibited here to-day have had some advantage over their predecessors both in time and keep ; and which no doubt contributes much to their improved state. The principal advantage in their keep arises from their remaining on the best piece of land we have, all spring and summer, and having had oil cake given to them, in addition to oats and turnips during the Spring. The cost of the oil cake is, on the field about 12/. per ton, or very near 6 score (120 lbs.) for 13/.; six score is mentioned, because that quantity was given weekly to the flock, consisting of 60 or 70 head, and which is 2^d. each per week for oil cake. The above paper was also read by Mr. Whitley, at the in- stance of Lord Mostyu, at the Holywell Society last ■vveek — a brief report of which has already appeared in the ' Herald'— His Lordship strongly recommending both subjects to the notice of the Flintshire fanners.— Carnarvon Herald. 420 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CASES OF DEPRAVED APPETITE, FOOT-ROT, AND THE ATTACK OF THE FLY IN SHEEP. Bv Mn. Joseph Gutteridgk, Ross. (From tlie Veterinarian.) My dear Sir, — I hasten to give you an account of that singular and destructive depravation of appe- tite in a flock of sbeep in my neiulibourhood, resjiect- ing which you solicited inquiry. They were turned into a field of turnips ; but they had not been there more tlian a few days before the shepherd fancied tliat some of them were not doing well : they wore dull, and lagging behind the others, and altogether indis- posed to move. The appetite was gone, and there was considerable heaving of the flanks. He drew twenty-five of the worst of them, and put them by themselves. On tho following day three of them were dead. He gave an active purge to the rest, but, in the course of four days, six more of them had died. I was called in, and, of course, availed myself of the opportunity of examining some of tJie dead slieep. I found the rumen and abomasum, and nearly tho whole of the intestinal canal, loaded with sand and portions of indigested food of various kinds : there was also great inflammation in various parts of the intestinal canal. I ordered the remainder of the flock to be imme- diately brought into tlie ibld-yard. Several of them were purging very much. I, however, gave to every one of them a brisk dose of Epsom salts with ginger, and I kept tliem in the yard all night. I'henext morning I found that the salts had taken very good effect. On the third day a second dose was given to each of them, and^they were turned in- to another field. Only one died afterwards. In bim I found very little sand, but there was great inflammation of the intestinal canal, and which was the cause of death. Since my first letter was written, I have had sixty yearlings labouring under a similar disease. I gave to each an active purge of salts with gentian and chamomile, and, afterwards, a dose of stomachic medicine daily for ten days. Their food, while under treatment, consisted only of dry meat, as cut hay and a few oats. I saw the shepherd a few days ago, and he informed me that they were all going on well. I have, within the last fortnight, sent out medicine for more than two hundred sheep having the scour, all of which have done well. It is singular that these cases should happen in the sum- mer season, for, generally speaking, it is in the spring of the year that the scour most prevails. I have bad, this summer, two flocks in which the foot-rot has been very prevalent, and which I attri- bute to the unusual wetness of the season. My raodo of treatment differs but little from that which you have recommended, except in somejminutiffi, which, however, I have occasionally found of considerable consequence. I bring them into a dry fold-yard, or barn, wash the feet with soap and water, and then rub them dry. I particularly rub them well between the claws with a soft brush that I have for the pur- pose, and which is preferable to a cloth. I then re- move with a knife every horny excrescence that may be growing between the claws, and conclude with the application of the butyr of antimony. More than half the cure depends upon the thorough paring out of the foot. I am, at this time, attending a two- year-old tup that I was obliged to poultice, and to bleed, and to physic for a long time, but we are con- quering the disease. Sore heads have been very common this summer, especially in woody districts. The sheep strike their heads with their hind feet until a wound is produced, and, if no remedy is applied to this, it soon becomes not only troublesome but dangerous. I usually take equal parts of tar and sulphur, and apply it to the part warm, putting either a thin leathern cap or a lit- tle short wool upon the head. This mode of treat- ment seldom fails, but still I do not quite like it. Will you give me your opinion? [Accumulations of sand and gravel have been found in the stomachs of horses and cattle, and have occasionally destroyed tliese animals. The patients had been pastured in, or had frequent ac- cess to, meadows tlirough which very shallow streams of water flowed, and the horse, or the ox, was obliged to put his lips within a little distance of, or close to, the gravelly bottom every time he drank. A small portion of the sand would be drawn up with the water, and find its way into the stomach. There it would gradually accumulate, and produce a great deal of irritation, and sad in- flammation would ensue, and destroy the animal. Mr. Gutteridge's case, however, is a very dif- ferent one. Some sheep are turned into a field of turnips. Tliey have not been there more than a few days, before the flanks lieave, the api)etite is gone, and several of them die. On opening the carcasses tho rumen, and tlie abomasum, and the whole intestinal canal, ;'.re found loaded with sand. The irritation caused by the sand through th.e whole or a certain part of the intestinal canal, was, doubtless, the cause of death ; but how came the sand there? The sheep had eaten too plentifully of the turnips. There had been considerable ex- trication of acid gas, or the development of an acid principle, in the intestinal canal, and the earth they swallowed was taken by them, from their having experienced its effects in assuaging the pain produced in the stomach and bowels by this acid- ity. In their common feeding in the meadow they always swallowed a portion of absorbent earth. The want of teeth in the upper jaw rendered it impossible for them fairly to cut through the her- bage. It was partly cut, and partly torn up by the roots, and the animal swallowed a considerable quantity of earth. It prevented the evil which would result from the too rapid decomposition of the grassy food. Combining with the decomposing food, it acted as a gentle purgative, and an ad- mirable neutral salt was manufactured in the sto- mach. Here, however, was the acescent principle in excess — the turnip, and not the grass ; and the turnip had either been pulled or was eaten down to a level with the ground, and little or no earth was taken with the food. Then the animal set to work, and devoured it by mouthfuls : the absor- bent principle mingled with the developed acid, but the sandy portion of the soil remained — it rapidly increased in quantity, and it acted as a de- structive irritant on the membrane of the stomach and intestines. The mode of treatment adopted by Mr. Gutter- idge was that which good sense would suggest— mild but effectual aperients — those of an alkaline character, and either mingled or alternated with tonics. The lesson to the farmer is sufiiciently evident. As to the prevention of " Sore Heads" — this can only be accomplished by the early application either of coarse whale oil or spirit of tar. "The THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 421 fly" Las a strong dislike to botli of tbese substances, and will keep at a distance from the sbeep that is scented with them. AVhen the sheep has been " struck" by the fly, he cnnnot use a better application than that to which he has been accustomed to have recourse. -Y.] DRAINING WITH TURF. The subjoined remarks upon draining with turf were made by Mr. \^ ilsou France, at the late meeting of the Garstang Farming Society : — Mr. WiLsox France having' taken the vacant chair, returned thanks. He wished to say a few words on the subject of drainage, and he begged to call the attention of the meeting to the first number of the English Agri- cultural Society's Journal, containing a communication by Sir James Graham, entitled " On Drainage and the Subsoil Plough."* Sir James there gave the cost of 70 roods of draining, at 30 inches in depth, which \yas done at 4d. a rood. He agreed with Sir James in giving the depth of drain at 30 inches, and in laying the drains 10 yards apart, but as to the material to be used in draining they differed. Sir James recommended tile draining, the cost of which for draining and going through with the subsoil plough, was 6/. 18s. 4d. per statute acre. At the request of his friend, Mr. Lamb, he would, with the permission of the meeting, describe his way of draining to them. Instead of using tiles, he drained with turf, which cost him 2s. 9d. per thousand : — viz., 23. for cutdng, 3d. for whins to dry, and 6d. for stacking. The next question was how many turfs he should take to drain a rood. He cut them a foot long, and 28 turfs would drain a rood of 7 yards. If 1000 tarfs cost him 2s. 9d., 28 would cost him Id. He would now calculate the cost of draining an acre of land, or thereabout?, to avoid decimals. Suppose, he said, 70 yards, and he put the drains at 10 yards distance. Seven drains at 70 yards would give 490 yards of drainage, at 4d. per rood. But the material cost him Id. per rood only, and there was an importaHt feature m the expense, the cartage of turf, as compared to that of tiles, which he would allude to presently. At present let him re- commend to the farmer not to put back his clay into the drain, but to cart it to the next marl pit. There was then the expense of cutting the drain, &c. 4d., of the turf Id., and of carting the turf to the field, and the clay from the field Id. — making, 6d. a rood, and 70 sixpences gave 1/. 15s. He agreed with what had been said by Mr. Wilson, that something must be done by the land- lord, especially for such tenants as had short leases of seven or Hine years. In the drains whicli had been executed upon his property, he had joined with his teaant in tlie expense. (Cheers.) He (IMr. France) gave the material. Id.; his tenant did the cartage of the turf and the clay, and of the remaining fourpence he paid one-half and the tenant the other. (Cheers.) And he had the pleasure to state, that he had not met with a single tenant who had not seen the benefit to himself of such an arrangement. There was another point. He (Mr. VV. F.) liked to drain when labour was not only cheap, but vi-hen employment for the labourer was most wanted. He begun therefore in November and finished in April, and between November, 1838, and April, 1839, he had drained 4,340 roods, or rather more than sixty acres on his estate. ( Cheers. ) The expense was a mere trifle, amounting to nothing like 100/. If landlords would execute such a portion of work every year they might soon drain the whole of an estate of very respect- able extent. It had been recommended that landlords should execute the work and charge their tenants a per centage, and perhaps this plan was the best. Farmers however generally thought that " short reckonings made long friends," and they would rather in most cases like to have a single payment and have done with it. One striking instance of the fertility which had followed • This essay appeared in " the Farmer's Magazine" for July last. draining had come to his notice. He had drained a meadow belonging to one of his tenants, which gained the drainage prize at Preston, and the first year after the work was executed, although he had never obtained more than ten loads of hay, the very next year he got twenty-nine loads. (Cheers.) He did not mean to say that in the generality of cases such striking advantages would follow so soon, but that the tenant would obtain an adequate return in seven years he was fully persuaded. With respect to the formation of his drains, he might state that they were 11 inches in breadth at the top, and tapered off to the bottom to 2^ inches. The turf was 4 laches thick, and was cut to 6 inches, but it dried up a little. The drains were 30 inches deep, namely 6 inches of swallow, 4 inches depth of turf, and full 20 inches between the surface of the field, and the top of the draining turf He was anxious to carry out into prac- tice the subsoil plough, the result of which he would communicate to the society. Some persons adopted the shouldering in a turf drain, but he did not, and made it taper from 1 1 inches to 2^ inches, in a regular slope. The turf used was put in dry, and when the wet came the turf extended and squeezed itself into a firm position. Those who had not seen them could have no idea of the difficulty of disturbing them. A cart wheel would go over them without the slightest displacement. Sir H. Fleetwood and Col. Rawstorne recently examined some turf drains so executed, and on coming down to the turf with the spade, they found it impossible to open the drain without breaking the turf, so tightly did it adhere to the sides of the drain. Neither were any of the drains filled up, as had been supposed from the nar- rowness of the drains at the bottom. The fact was, 2§, inches was quite wide enough ; it compelled the water to run in a continuous stream, whereas if spread over a greater surface it would run in eddies, make deposits, snd choke up the drain. Compare the expense too of his material with that of Sir James Graham's. His turf for draining one statute acre cost him 5s. 6d., whereas Sir James Graham's 1500 tiles per acre, at 30s. per 1000, cost him 2/. 5s. Here was a difference in the ex- pense of material alone of 2/. an acre — a very serious affair. If he were asked " Is the turf drain as perma- nent as the tile ]" he should say it was and rather more. Some turf drains executed sixty years ago on the Ilaw- cliffe estate were just as perfect as if they had only been executed six days. (Cheers.) Then witii respect to the saving, in point of cartage, of turf over tiles. It was highly desirable in agricultural processes to perform them at the least possible cost. A double cart load of tiles would not contain more than 400, whereas two horses and a cart would carry 1000 turf. The turf drain, too, had its advantages over tile draining in the suppo- sition that each would be followed up by the subsoil plough. If, through any inequality of surface, you hit your draining tile while subsoil ploughing, you spoil your drain, whilst if, from the same cause of inequality of surface, you pored off an inch from your turf, you could spare it, for the turf would be three inches thick, which was sufficient to bear the pressure upon it. The benefit of subsoil ploughing was, that the substratum be- ing removed and broken, it became pervious to air and moisture, and tliey all knew that plants would not grow without beiny subjected to atmospheric influences. The subsoil having been stirred and rendered pervious to air and moisture, the superfluous water being removed, the character of the soil was entirely changed ; it became mellow and friable, and might, after a rotation of crops, ©r five years, be brought to the top by deep ploughing, and mixed with the surface soil to great advantage. (Cheers.) AVhy had he laid so much stress upon turf draining? Because, having the turf close at hand, we were only doing right in availing ourselves of these natural advantage.-. Sir James Graham himself said, " It has always appeared to me that skdl in agriculture does not so much consist in the discovery of principles of universal application, as in the adaptation of acknow- ledged principles to Local circumstances. (Hear.) The present was a case in point. He (Mr. Wilson France) did not speak without knowing something of tile drain- ing ; he had seen a good deal of it in Warwickshire, and he had seen m any a ti le broken down, and drain spoiled , 422 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SAFFRON WALDEN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. LIST OF PRIZES AAVARDED ON W'EUNKSDAY, OCT. 30. STOCK. Tlie Juilj^es were, for .S'/iecp— Messrs. Teverson, Tliurnell, Clarke, 11. Smith, Swan, and Nash. Neat Stock and Swme — Messrs. Shillito, W. Corn- well, W. I'arris, and H. Smith. Horses — Messrs. Garrett, Joiin Spicer, C. Hicks, Tredgett, J. Spencer, and W. F. Ilobbs. JIIEEP. — PREMIUMS OFFERED FOR ll'I'S. Tor the best tup of the short wool breed of any age, silver cup, valae 5^5*. — Mr. Jonas \Vebh. For the second best tup of the shart vvool breed of any age, a silver cup, value 31. 3s.— Mr. Jonas Webb. For the best tup of the long- wool breed of any age, a silver cup, value 5/. 5s. — Mr. J. Golborne. For the best short wool shearling tup, a silver medal, value 1/. 10s.— Mr. Jonas Webb. For the best long wool shearling tup, a silver medal, value 11. 10s.— Mr. W. F. Hobbs. Extra. Long wool shearling tup— Mr. W. F. Hobbs, silver medal, \l. 10s. Short wool tup of any age — Mr. S. Shillito, do., 1/. EWES. To the owner of the best six Sussex Down shearling ewes, a silver cup, value 3/. 3s. — ]\Ir. Jonas Webb. To the owner of the best six stock ewes, of the Sussex breed, a silver cup, value 3/. 3s. — Withheld. To the owner of the best six stock ewes, of the Hamp- shire breed, a silver cup, value 3/. 3s. — Mr. Wm. Clay- den. To the owner of the best six shearling ewes, ©f any other short wool breed, a silver cup, value 3/. 3s. — Lord Braybrooke. To the owner of the best six stock ewes, of any other short wool breed, a silver cup, value 3/. 3s. — Lord Braybrooke. To the owner of the best six shearling ewes, of the white-faced or long wool breed, a silver cup, value 31. 3s.— Mr. W. F. Hobbs. To the owner of the best six stock ewes of the white- faced or long wool breed, a silver cup, value 3/. 3s. — C.Nash, Esq. To tlie owner of the best six fat shearling wethers, of any breed, a silver cup, value 3/. 3s. — Mr. S. Jonas. To the 0wner of the second best shearling wethers, a silver medal, value 1/. 10s. — Mr. J. Clayden. NEAT STOCK. To the owner of the best bull of any breed, a silver cup, value 5/.. 5s. — Mr. W. F. Hobbs. This bull was bred by Mr. Fisher Hobbs. To the owner of the best bull of any breed, the ex- clusive property of a practical farmer, a silver cup, value 3/. 3s.— Mr. M. Winder. To the owner of the second best bull of any breed, the Society's silver medal, value 1/. 10s.— H. J. Adeane, Esq. For the best pair of two-year-old short-horned oxen, a silver cup, value 31. 3s. — none shown. To the owner of the best polled milch cow, the So- ciety's silver medal, value 1/. 10s. — Mr. Carter. _ To the owner of the best Alderney cow, the Society's silver medal, value U. 10s. — Mr, J. Clayden, jun. To the owner of the best cow, of the improved short- horned breed, the Society's silver medal, value IL 10s. —Mr. Jonas Webb. To the owner of the best 2-year-old heifer of any breed, the Society's silver medal, value IZ. lOs. — Mr. John Clark. To the owner of the best yearling heifer of any breed, the Society's silver medal, value ll. 10s.— Mr. Jonas Webb. To the owner of the best fat ox or heifer, of any breed or age, a ssilver cup value 3/. 3s.— C. Nash Esq. To the owner of the best fat ox or heifer, of any breed or age, the exclusive property of a practical far- mer, a silver cup value .U. 3s. — Mr. S. Jonas. Extra. — The best cow of the improved short-horn breed, a silver medal, value ll. 10s. — Lord Hard- wicke. HORSES. To the owner of the best entire horse of the cart breed, Twenty Guineas in money, or a silver cup value 211., given by A. Houblon— No horse of sufficient merit. The best entire horse of the cart breed not obtaining the 1st prize, Mr. Pryke, silver cup bl. 5s. To the owner of the best entire horse of the nag breed, kept within twenty miles of Saffron Walden, a silver cup, value 5/. 5s. — Mr. Skipper. 'Jo the owner of the best nag mare, having pro- duced a foal, a silver eup, value 3l. 3s. — Lord May- nard. To the owner of the best entire horse of the cart breed, not obtaining the first prize, a silver cup, value 5/. 5s.— Lord Braybrooke. To the owner of the best mare of the cart breed, havini^ produced a foal, a silver cup, value 3Z. 3s. — Lord Braybrooke. To the owner of the best brood mare of the cart breed, having produced a foal, exclasively the property of a practical farmer, a silver cup, value 3l. 3s. — Mr. G. Hay lock. To the owner of the best yearling colt or filly of the nag breed, the Society's stiver medal, value ll. 10s. — Mr. T. Teverson. To the owner of the best cart colt or filly, from two to three years old, the Society's silver medal, value ll. 10s.— C. Nash, Esq. To the owner of th^ best yearling colt or filly of the cart breed, the Socisty's silver medal, value ll. 10s. — Mr. W. Perry. To the owner of the best nag colt or filly, from two to three years old, the Society's silver medal, value ll. 10s.— Mr. T. Teverson. For the best pair of plough mares, the exclusive pro- perty of a practical farmer, a silver cup, value 5l. 3s. — Mr. W. Nix. SWINE. To the owner of the best boar, the Society's silver medal, value, 1/. 10s. — Mr. J. Clayden, jun. To the owner of the best breeding sow, the Society's silder medal, value ll. 10s. — C.Nash, Esq. The best fatted pig, the property of a labourer, 15s. — Mr. Joseph Butcher, The second best fatted pig, the property of a la- bourer, 10s. — None awarded. POULTRY. To the exhibitor of the three best young fowls of any breed, ll. — Lord Braybrooke. To the exhibitor of the second best ditto, 10s, — N. Catlin. N.B. The fowls shown alive. ROOTS. To the member who shall produce the six best roota of Mangle Wurzel, of his growth, 10s. — Mr. J. Clarke. To ditto for the six best Swedish Turnips, 10s.— Mr. H.Smith. To ditto for the six best of any other kind, 10s.— C. Nash, Esq. To ditto for the best peck of potatoes, 10s.— Mr. J. Clarke, N.B, The stock to be shown at this meeting for prizes, were bona fide the property of the members, and in their possession from the 1st of May, 1839. The foregoing Premiums were offered by the Saffron Walden Society, to encourage industry and skUl among labourers and servants, and for the improvement of the different breeds of sheep, horses, neat stock, swine. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 421; &c. ; and noblemen and gentlemen, wishing to en- courage particular classes and objects, liberally sub- scribed the following sums : — £ 5. d. The Eig-bt Honourable Lord Braybrooke, President, to encouragre farmers to employ the {greatest number of ploughboys 5 5 0 The Right Honourable Lord Jiraybrooke, for improving' the breed of sheep 3 3 0 ]\Ir. Jonas Webb, for ditto 3 3 0 J, A. Iloublon, Esq., to encourage the breed of cart horses 21 0 0 Mr. John Clayden, jun., to eacourag-e the fatting of oxen 3 3 0 H. J. Adeane, Esq., to encourage the breed of short-horned cattle '3 3 0 W. T. Capeland, Esq., M.P., to encourage industry and skill among labourers 5 0 0 Robert Gosling, Esq. ditto 10 10 0 G. W. Gent, Esq. ditto 2 2 0 John Hall, Esq. ditto 3 3 0 Mr. Jonas Webb ditto 5 5 0 R. B. Wolfe, Esq., to encourage subscribers to Provident Societies 3 3 0 The Right Han. Lord Rayleigh ditto 110 Mr. Ransome, to encourage ploughboys ... 1 0 0 Total £70 1 0 Mr. Jonas Webb said he would show seven shear- ling ewes against all the world for 100 guineas. Mr. Webb has since formally announced his challenge. ON THE MODE OF SELECTING THE JUDGES OF STOCK AT THE SMITHFIELD SHOW. Sir, — Having now been for a considerable num- ber of years a member of the Smithfield Club, and having also now for some time past regularly at- tended its annual exhibitions, it will not, I pre- sume, be doubted for a moment, that I feel a great interest in its present as well as future prosperity. It is well known that in all public institutions thathave been standing for any considerable length of time, abuses will naturally creep in, and that the existing rules and regulations, as a necessary consequence, will require frequent reconsidera- tion and revision, in order that they may be adapt- ed to present times and circumstances. What I more particularly allude to is, the pre- sent mode of choosing the Stewards and Judges : a steward when elected retains his situation for three years, one going out annually, the two remaining choose his successor, each steward naming a judge; upon these threegentlemen, then, (most likely on the most intimate terms of friend- ship) rests the whole responsibility of deciding the merits of the stock intended for exhibition. Now this system, in my humble opinion — and lam far from being singular in that opinion — is by far too close and confined in deciding questions of so much importance, not only to the breeder, the feeder, the agricultural interest generally, but to the community at large. The present mode of proceeding, both as respects stewards and judges, is not sufficiently open and unrestricted in its cha- racter. In an establishment of this nature what objection could there be to leave the choice to a limited number of the club, the committee for in- stance, either by ballot or some other mode pre- viously agreed upon .' Again, I think the time allowed at present for the judges much too limited on such an occasion ; and to remedy this, instead of increasing the time at present allowed, I would venture to suggest that instead of three judges, there should be nine, viz., three for the oxen, three for the long wool, and three for the short wool sheep and pigs, who, I need scarcely add, should be composed of men most intimately conversant and accustomed to each particular breed. I will venture to say, with regard to the sheep, that the most experienced breeder and feeder of the long wool sheep may be very easily led into error with the South Down, and vice versa. The removal of the place of holding the show from Goswell-street to the spacious premises of the Bazaar in King- street, I have observed with much pleasure, not merely as regards the personal comfort and ac- commodation of the public generall}^ and the animals themselves, but to the very great improve- ment which will arise as a place of business. 1 apprehend it will considerably increase the ntmi- ber of butchers, the want of sufficient room in Sadler's Yard, so loudly and so justly complained of, undoubtedly kept away many, and added to which the show closing on the Saturday before the Christmas market, will enable the salesmen to bring the unsold stock into Smithfield the follow- ing Monday; and as regards the interest of the respective owners of such stock, there cannot be but one opinion. I have thus ventured to throw out these few hints, sincerely hoping the subject may be taken into consideration at the proper time and place, so as to lead to some modification of the present system. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your very humble servant, A Northamptonshire Farmer. THRASHING MACHINES.— At the Essex Agri- cultural Dinner Sir John Tyrrell said — " He was aware that at this time there was much diflFerence of opinion on the subject of the use of manual labour or machi- nery. He would not give any decided opinion in favour of the employment of machinery, anxious as they must all be to employ the greatest number of hands. This, however, hecould tell them, that ia Scotland the factor gave Is. 6d. and 2s. a-quarter more for wheat thrashed by machinery than for corn which had been thrashed by the flail. In the neighbourhood in which they now were, some persons, some time since, had their farm produce burnt for using thrashing machinery ; in Scotland, on the contrary, they would be likely to have their ricks burnt for not using them. The Scotch were prover- bially a shrewd people, and Dr. Johnson said that he had never heard of but oni Jew who was able to get a living in Scotland, and he was a corn buyer and not a corn grower. Knowing how important it was for a farmer to be enabled sometimes to lay a few hundred pounds on his table, it was a subject to which they ought to give their attention, as he was quite sure that, without either thrashing machinery, or very quick la- bour, it was impossible for them to do so." UTILITY OF GEESE AND CUDDIES.— A flock of geese, particularly where there is water to keep their wings clean, are not only ornamental about a farm steading, but ssbserve certain usefal purposes which the great world of London, and the other crowded marts of commerce, wot litth of. The descendants of cacklers that saved the capitol of Imperial Rome may dirty the grass occasionally ; but unsightliness of this sort is of brief continuance, and there are compensating services which far outwtigh the other when tried in the 424 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. well-adjusted scales of utility. It has long been re- marked that cattle of all kinds are never unhealthy in a goose gang ; and the reason assigned is simply this, that geese consume with complete impunity certain noxious weeds and grasses which taint more or less, according to their abundance, the finest paddocks de- pastured by horses, bullocks, and sheep. Most farmers are aware of this, and in many cases where the beeves appear sickly, change is tried, and the soil which the cacklers tread converted for the time being into a sort of infirmary. A number of years ago the then tenant of Tinwald Mains found his stock affected with a dis- ease called Red- water, and though a farrier was called in, and the usual remedies tried, the cattle doctor's prescriptions failed in producing the slightest apparent beneficial effect. In this dilemma he was advised by some of the neighbours to place a couple of cuddies in the usual cow gang ; but Mr. H. in the first instance merely laughed " at such superstitious nonsense,'' and declined rather peremptorily to have anything to do with the long-eared chirurgeons. In the meantime the disease, in running its course, threatened to lead to the most disastrous consequences, and at length a brace of donkies was tried, much on the principle, as the farmer said himself, " of drowning men catching at straws." That the ass is fond of coarse herbage, down to champ- ing the thistle in the way side, is a well-known fact; and as the cattle shortly after recovered, the cuddies got their names up as the best farriers in ten parishes. — Inverness Courier. CORK AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. At the late meeting of this Society Dr. Barter made the follo\viiig statement of a farm managed upon the house-feeding and green-crop system by Mr. Henry Cross. His farm consisted of 58 acres — deducting the waste, it was about 50 acres. It was a stiff clayey soil, by no means favourable to the system. It was worked with difficulty in dry weather, and in wet weather went into a soft, putty-like mass ; yet still the system succeeded. This soil, previous to the system which Mr. Cross adopted, was reduced to a state of barrenness by the old system of cross-cropping. Finding that this did not pay, Mr. Cross altered his plan, and to qualify himself for the change he visited various improved farms through the country — he viewed them closely and attentively, and came to the de- termination of trying- the house-feeding and green- crop system as most likely to succeed. Mr. Cross was intimately acquainted with the detail of ma- nagement, and he (Dr. Barter) would now have the satisfaction of stating the results of his expe- rience. (The doctor then read the following statement, which will be read with interest :) — Produce of 58 acres of land under the House Feed- ing System, from January, 1838, to January, 1839, at a guinea an acre : — Rent, tithe, and cess £7118 0 Men's labour 48 10 0 Women and boys' labour 9 4 0 Smith 6 0 0 Wear and tear of carts and harness. . (J 0 0 Milk bought for labourers 717 0 Grains and wash for pigs 4 15 0 First cost of store pigs 10 0 0 Do. store cow 3 0 0 Turnips bought y 0 0 Seeds, lOL; and coals, 2/. 10s 12 10 0 Interest on I52Z, capital, at 6 per cent. 9 2 4 ^197 16 4 First cost of 15 dairy cows, at 8/. 10s. each £12C, 0 0 Bone dust 18 0 0 Straw for litter 8 0 0 £152 0 0 Fourteen dairy cows at 07 £84 0 0 Cow sold 8 0 0 Fat pigs sold 23 0 0 Potatoes sold, 53 barrels, at H. 4s... 63 17 0 Oats sold, 3(i barrels at 14s 25 1() 0 5^ tons hay, sold at 3i Ifi 10 0 Two acres of potato ground let U 0 0 £237 13 0 Deduct 197 16 4 £39 16 8 Produce of 58 acres of land, under the house feeding system, from January, 1830, to January, 1840, at a guinea an acre : — Rent, tithe, and cess £71 18 0 IMen's labour 48.10 0 Women and boys' labour 9 4 0 Smith 6 0 0 Wear and tear of carts and harness . . 6 0 0 Milk bought for labourers 7 17 0 Grains and wash for pigs 15 7 0 Store pigs 25 17 0 Four store cows 24 0 0 Turnips bought 12 10 0 Hay bought 24 1 0 Seeds 10 0 0 Coals 3 0 0 Milk for pigs from dairy man 8 15 0 Interest on 186/. principal, at 6 per cent 11 4 6 £284 3 6 First outlay, (see last year's account) £152 0 0 Five additional dairy cows 42 10 0 Straw for litter 22 0 0 Bone d ust and lime 9 10 0 £226 0 0 Deduct capital returned last year.,.. 39 16 8 £186 3 4 Twenty dairy cows, at 61. 13s. each., £133 0 0 Four fat cows sold 40 5 0 Twenty-seven pigs sold 79 4 0 Potatoes sold 61 7 0 Oats sold 25 16 0 Potato ground, 2f acres, at 9/. let 25 10 0 Grass of four heifers 5 15 0 Probable profit on pigs by 1st January, averaged at the sanie rate as above 24 0 6 ^^395 7 0 Deduct 284 3 6 £111 3 6 Having read the foregoing, Doctor Barter pro- ceeded :— from the acquired fertility of this farm, it was now worth double the rent it was two years ago, and the farmer who followed this system would in a short time be enabled to double his profits. (Hear, hear.) He hoped the gentlemen of the press, whom he saw present, would notice these statements. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 425 ON PLOUGHS. In the Farmer's Magazine of 1st current, I read a letter " On tl;e driiugbt of Plougbs," b)^ Mr. Stace, Berwick, Sussex, in wbich be stated bis opinions so liberally and candidly, as to induce me to make a few observations in reply. In my article of 1st September, noticed by Mr. Stace, I drew my conclusions from an extensive and varied experience, in different parts of the kingdom, on clays, fertile and barren, loams and sands, and latterly on tbe chalky and flinty soils of the southern counties. Mr. Handle)' 's prize essay and my letter arrived at diametrically opposite con- clusions ; but notwithstanding this seemingly irre- concileable discrepancy, tliere is no doubt that each writer saw good reason in his own mind for publish- ing his conviction, and I take this opportunity of expressing my readiness, as Mr. Handley has done, of being at all times open to the arguments and opi- nions of others who have arrived at different con- clusions. For my opinions of the utility of different ploughs I refer to Farmer's Magazine of 1st September, and I shall here only observe that I object to fllr. Hand- ley's wheel ploughs, and all similar ones, on the simple principle that another implement, "without any wheels," has been long ago found to perform thejwork equally well, " if not" better, and is ap- plicable to a much greater variety of purposes ; and that when this effect has been produced by less ma- chinery, any such an appendage as wheels on a plough, or dny similar clog on a machine or imple- ment, is wholly useless. We must not entertain for a moment the childish argument of wheels requiring less skill in tbe ploughman, for we must not prosti- tute mechanical skill and ingenuity in fostering laziness and negligence, and we must not reckon our- selves or our ploughmen incapable of doing what has been long done by other persons in similar circum- stances, and seemingly of no differentpowersof body and mind from ourselves. " A wheel is a stilt," says the judicious and cnndid Editor of this paper, for an inefficient ploughman." JMr. Handley makes so many exceptions where the wheels may be better laid aside, as to nearly reduce his wheel to a swing plough. To make a fair comparison, they should in all cases he attached, and make complete all imple- ments thus tried. No notice was taken of any ploughs except Mr. Ransom's, in the small corner of the adjoining country. Of all soils that have come within the circle of my knowledge, and tbe greater part of England and Scotland is included in it, the swing plough has a most decided preference as an implement of " gene- ral utility to tlie farmer, until we arrive among the waxy, chalky, and flinty clays of tbe southern coun- ties. I was disappointed in Mr. Handley not noticing these soils, lor it is on them, in my opinion, where the fair comparison between wheel and swing- ploughs must be made. Strictly speaking, Mr. Handley's plough is not a wheel plough ; it is a swing plough, with wheels" occasionally" attached; but a turnwrist plough is always used as con- structed, and it and similar ones constitute, in my opinion, the true wheel plougbs. A swing plough may be made of strength for three or four horses, as the stiffness of the soil may require, but on these waxy, flinty clays, the obstacle lies not in the power applied, but in the adaptation of the implement it- self to the circumstances and texture of tbe soil. On these soils, which are sometimes unmixed and often mixed with flints thickly and firmly im- bedded, sometimes on low grounds, and often oa the sides and tops of the chalky hills, I do not hesi- tate to give my testimony from experience, that any ])loughs I have seen in Britain are useless, and Mr. Handley's wheel ploughs more so than the swing, from tbe clogging and rising of tbe wheels over the cloddy surface. My conviction of this point arose wholly from experience, and the causes and reasons are detailed in the Paper of 1st September, and need not be mentioned here. At the same time I do not withold my censure of the custom of ploughing, with three or four horses and a lieavy implement, s.mds and loams, and the dry, crumbling, cjialky soils found on the sloping declivities of the hills edging into the vallies, all of which may be easily cultivated by light im- plements and proportionate power. But this may arise, as I before observed, from having on the farm the power required, and from an aversion to purchase and uphold a variety of implements. My objection to tlie turnwrist-plough lies in the rounded breast pushing and tearing, instead of cutting the soil : improvements have been made, and in our present knowledge of implements, none can take its place, or of one on some similar principle. I observed Mr. Milburn's "Notes'' in tbe August number. They generalize, as is usual with all inex- perienced travellers — " everything is right which we do at home," without considering that different circumstances present very different obstacles to be surmounted, and without knowing how we might act if placed under the circumstances that occasion the practices we so hastily condemn. We shall see very faulty practices in our own opinion, wherever we travel, and no doubt many such do exist in every county ; but 1 have not observed any greater in Sus- sex than elsewhere. The censurer might do worse himself when fairly tried ; for such is the force of conceit and prejudice, and such tbe impossibility of judging of circumstances we have never seen, and of obstacles we have never encountered, that it is impossible at tliis day to convince many Scotch writers and farmers and Northern cultivators in general, that there are soils that two-horse ploughs cannot cultivate. A hasty drive through, and a look at a country, cannot enable any judgment to be formed of such soils; a person must cultivate them at the different seasons of the year ; for such is the continuous variety of texture that a few hours of rain and a hot day will change them from the power of a swing to that of a turnwrist plough, and even adjoining fields at different periods of the year can be tilled with the two different implements. Mr. Milburn cannot know how he would act under such circumstances; hasty judgments are in all cases to be avoided ; at the same time the method of cultivating light soils with these heavy implements is preposterous and absurd. On tbe subject of yoUng the horses to a plough, I have the pleasure of differing from Mr. Stace : I say the pleasure, for I hope to have tbe pleasure of reading some further communications from him. I have always understood Mr. Finlayson's axiom to be correct — " to attach the horse as near as possible without confining the step," and have ever reckoned the damage tbougtit to arise from treading, to exist only in supposition. But if damage does arise, the Sussex method of three horses walking in a line on the unplougbed land, must be preferable to walking in the furrow ; for the furrow is reversed, and can hold no water, as the footmarks in tbe bottom may be supposed to do. Land, if possible, should not be ploughed when the horses' feet slip from wetness. I always yoke thiee horses in a plough, with two in the furrow, and one on the land, with a leyer- 2 F 426 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tree, and I never saw any damage from treading. It is curious to hear farmers object to three horses abreast treading the land, and at the same time drive tliree liorses in a line, treadinsT the furrow. Not any, even the smallest deviation from the straight line of traction can he made without losing power, and lionce a horse attached to the shaftsof a cart, or linked to the shoulder of the hind horse in a plough, loses power, as he draws not on the same parallel with the one behind him. Tliere is a bend in the line of draught where the power of the foremost horse is attached to the liind one, which seems to be unavoid- able. The two foremost Ijorses of four in a plough, drawing by a chain, exert their power on a different diverging line from the tvv'o behind ; tliey draw at an angle of less elevation. The general rule in making swing-ploughs is, " that a line drawn from the horse's shoulder to the ])oint in the coulter at half the depth of the furrow, passes through the bridle on the end of the beam; and this dolermines the height of the beam of the plough from the ground." But as no chain of draught extends to tlie point of tlie coulter, but terminates at, and is at- tached to the end of the beam, tlie moving power is exerted along the beam ; and the implement is so constructed, that while the horse's power is directed from the beam along the hypothcnuse of the triangle to the shoulder of the animal, the bottom of the plough moves along the base or level line. The gradations on the muzzle of the beam, and the eleva- tion and dip, and the landward direction of the share and coulter are cou-trived to assist the proper direction, which ought lo be as nearly as possible in a straight line. It has been found useful in giving a command of the plough, and to comparatively diminish the u])- lifting power, to bend the beam upwards, and to join it to the handles at a lower j)oint than that indicated from a straight line from the end, fis marked by the hypothenusal line of draught. The chains of draught in wheel-ploughs are attached nearer to the ground than in the swing-ploughs, and consetjuently must exert a greater uplifting power, and the chain pass- ing from the bolster and wheels in front round the heel of the plough, forms tlie line of draught, wliich is subjected to a very great bend in ascending from the point of attachment to the angle upwards to the horse's shoulder. In any way of yoking horses to a plough or cart, power would seem to be lost ; all we can do, is to choose the method by which the least is lost, and many theoretical deductions, mathemati- cally correct, are found not to answer in practice. It is true, as Mr. Stace observes, that any body lying in a scale suspended from a beam, is of the same weight, of whatever length the attaching lines may be ; but in my opinion, no fair comparison can exist, foi' the one body is lying at rest, the other is moveable, and exerting a power of motion, and only calculated or guessed to be equal to a certain weight. Besides, pulling an implement forwards, the moving power, by its propinquity, exerts a command over the forward direction, which a more distant attach- ment lessens and removes. On this point expe- rience is decisive. J. D. A NATIONAL ARBORETUM.— We learn with pleasure that a national arboretum in the New Forest is about to be planted by Mr. Page, of Southampton. It will be formed upon the national property, under the management of the Woods and Forests, two miles from Lyndhurst, where various soils, with high and low situa- tions, can be selected. We are kindly promised farther information on this arboretum by Mr. Page,— Gar. denen' Mag, LORD WESTERN'S DRILL SYSTEM.* The invitation which Lord Western last week gave to the agriculturists to witness his improved drill in operation, excited great interest not only in Esssex, but in Suffolk, Norfolk, and otiier counties. On INIonday, Nov. 4, a party ef about 60 practical agriculturists assembled at Felix Hall, where his Lordship, with his usual hospitality, had provided for them an excellent luncheon. Amongst tlio^^e present were General Ilebow, Mr. Hanbury, Rlr. Ducane, &c. His Lord- ship's health was drank with three times three, and the heartiness of tlie cheering evinced the high estimation in which his lordsliip stands with the English farmers. Tlie party then proceeded to view the working of the drill, which was attended to with evident interest, and all present expressed themselves extremely satisfied witii it. Of course tiie party could not leave the estate without viewing iiis lor(lship's Devon stock and Anglo- Merino sheei), which were greatly admired, and every one quitted highly gratified, and, we believe, likely to be benefitted by the information obtained. On Tuesday several gentlemen from a distance visited the field, and were shown the mode of working the drill. Thursday, Nov. 7, was the second day appointed in his lordship's invitation for meeting a party at Uivenhall Hail, but unfortunately the day proved very unfavour- able. This, liowever, did not damp the ardour of the farmers ; by one o'clock about 50 had assembled, in- cludingnot only gentlemen from the surrounding dis- trict, but Mr. Gedney and Mr. Paul, celebrated agri- cul'urijts in Norfolk, ported up to be present, and Mr. Allen Kansorac, of Ipswich, accompanied them. Mr. R. Ransome also came from London for the purpose. A substantial luncheon was served u]) at the Hall, accompanied with some of his lordship's choice wines, and after full justice [had been done at the hospitable board, JNJr. Gedney rose and proposed " the health of Lord Western." He said he had travelled 60 miles to be present, but though the day was so unpropitious that the drill could not be expected to be worked, he should go back satisfied, and he would willingly ride 60 miles again to see a machine that would improve agriculture — (Cheers) — for he was satisfied it was only by ma- chinery that it could be effectually improved. A very high price for wheat would not do in this country, and it was only by growing a large quantity that they could satisfy the wants of all. (Cheers.) His Lordship's health was drunk with cheers. The Rev. J. P. \N ood expressed his sorrow that the weather would not permit the drill to work as intended, but it would be brought up and a person would explain its operation to the company. A gentleman from Suffolk requested that the drill should not be tried under the disadvantageous circum- stances of the day. Mr. Wood said, Lord Western was their commander- in-chief, and when he came, he thought he would insist on showing it off under all the disadvantages. Mr. A. Raxsome said, he hoped his lordship would not feel bound to show the machine at work under these peculiar disadvantages, for they had come up to get as much information as they could, and this they might attain by examining the drill, and also on account of the interest excited. The party then proceeded to view Mr. Biddell's ?cariiier, which stood near the Hall, and Mr. Gedney, from his experience, explained the advantage of it. The farmers then proceeded to the farm-yard, and inspected his lordship's sheep, which drew forth high cnconiums, particularly a lot of lambs, a 'cross between the Cotswold and Merino. Those which were preparing for the Christmas shew at Smithfield were particularly admired. The field chosen for the drill exhibition was a bean etch, near the Hall, admu-ably suited for the purpose, * An Engraving and Description of this Drill will appear in the January number of this Magazine, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 427 except that bein^ a strong dry bottomed soil, it was on this occasion far too wet and sticky to sliovv the drill work to any advantag'e. The improved drill however, was sent over the whole land, without seed, and it showed itself in perfect obedience to tiie hand of the steersman ; it drew the rows as straight as if set out with a g-ardener's line. The agriculturists present expressed their warm approval of the improvements introduced in the ma- chine, and gentlemen from Norfolk expressed an earnest wish that it it could be introduced in their county, where they believed it would be of essential benefit. It may be necessary to state that the drill is worked with four liorses, two in each furrow ; the drill itself has four wheels, the two small ones in front being acted upon by a man who sits in front in a similar manner to steering a vessel, and by this means complete straightness is insured. There are various other improvements, but we have not time on the present occasion to give such a description of them as would convey a fair idea of their merits. His lordship, and the agriculturists assembled, after- wards retired to the Plall. Lord Western then said, he was much delighted, indeed, to find so full and repectable a meeting ; it was not merely gratifying- to him personally, but it evinced an anxious, improving spirit on the part of the farmers of the country. (Cheers.) This was evident from the circumstances under which they were assembled, for he knew that many had come from a distance ; and he would only say, that he felt gratified at finding they considered the exhibition of his drill system to-day was deservmg of their attention. It showed that it was some little improvement in machinery which he thought was really a great benefit. ( Cheers.) There might be those who said it signified little whether they drilled straight or creoked, but he was one of those who wished to see all the work performed in the best manner possi- ble. CCheers.) He was anxious that every part of the work, the ploughing especially, should evince attention on the part of the farmer, and skill and care on the part of the ploughmen : he thought it essential to the success of agriculture that every part of the work of the farmer should be performed in this way, for it then exalted the character of the employment in which they were all engaged. CCheers.J It was the pride of excelling in any particular occupation, which gave excellence ; and looking at agriculture he did not think there could be a more important or interesUng occupation : it was an occupation which eminent men, philosophers, and states- men, who wished to stand well in the public eye, had prided themselves in. {Cheers.) Such had been the case in all countries ; and he was happy to see that feel- ing now pervading in a peculiar manner the higher classes of this country. (Cheers.) In regard to the system of drilling, of course his wish was to communi- cate all the practical results, and he trusted that prac- tical men would judge for themselves. He did not claim any originality in the matter, for he learnt the system in Norfolk, amongst some of the best of farmers ; they recommended to him the increasing the quantity of the seed, and making the rows nine inches apart instead of six. One practical man in particular told him it was the best system — he had been a farmer 60 years, and he could recommend it to him ; if sufficient seed vi'as put into the ground he was satisfied they would grow so much that there would be no necessity for the importa- tion of foreign corn; but he added — "I know not the quality of your land — Idon't tell you it is necessary — judge of the land and act accordingly." The opinion of this gentleman, who was between 70 and 80 years of age, induced him (Lord W.) to adopt the system, and as he had kept his books with great regularity, he pledged himself to the accuracy of the results, as he had stated them in the public papers— and he invited an examination of his books because he prided himself on keeping them accurately. (Cheers.) He had intended to say something of his sheep, but he felt almost ex- hausted : they had seen them and knew how they liked them. He would only add his hope was that they would watch him, and see how he went on, for if they detected him in an error he should be the first to ac- knowledge it. (Loud cheers.) Mr. Ransome said, the gentlemen had come up from Norfolk with the opinion that his lordship's drill could only accomplish four acres a day, and now they had seen it he would ask them what they thought of it. Mr. Gedney said he was agreeably disappointed, for instead of four acres he was pertectly persuaded from examination that it would do sixteen. (Cheers.) His lordship had said how necessary it was that things should be kept in perfect order, and he was satisfied the farmer never found bis business go on so well as when every- thing- was in order. Everything ought to be done well — they ought to pass nothing over without close looking to, particularly the ploughing. Then as to stock, what was more essential to stock than good order, and they ought to be kept very clean. Nothing wasted so much hay as giving stock a good deal at a time ; the servants would not tell them where the hay had gone to— it got in the litter,— and was thrown out, and that was a rea- son why their stack-yards were so soon empty. (Hear.) People by these means lost the rent of their farms. (Hear, hear.) He had actually seen the rent of farms thrown away by bad management. (Hear.) It was not so in Essex, but in some counties if they found a good farmer it was quite a treat. ( Cheers and Laughter.) He nov/ addressed good farmers — they had got talent, industry, and great discrimination, and they knew their worth to the community— it was necessary that all should know their worth. (Cheers.) He perfectly agreed in what the noble lord had said, that every man should know his own land, and then he would know what to put upon it : it was necessary that every man should know his own business—they theirs in Essex and he his in Norfolk. (Cheers.) They were every one capable of doing one another good, and if they did that they should no doubt be richer than they were. (Cheers.) Mr. A. Ransome said, the noble lord had told them to watch him — they had strictly watched him for a series of years, and that was the cause of their attendance to- day. (Cheers) The great interest entertained in the noble lord's proceedings by all connected with agricul- ture had induced them to visit him. (Cheers.) Lord WEsrERN gave " success to agriculture." (Cheers.) ]\Ir. Wood proposed the healths of the gentlemen from Norfolk. Mr. Paul returned thanks, stating that he came there prejudiced against the drill system, but that prejudice had been done away by what he had witnessed with his own eyes. (Cheers.) He trusted the noble lord would use his endeavours to introduce it into the western part of Norfolk. (Cheers.) Mr. Ransome addressed the company, and expressed the pride he felt in being associated with such a noble- man as Lord Western as an inventor. Lord Western said he was proud of being thus placed in the class of inventors. (Cheers.) The health of Mr. Salter was drunk, and that gentle- man returned thanks. One or two other gentlemen briefly addressed the company, who then departed highlygratified by the interesting proceedings of the day. IMPROVEMENT IN THE APPLICATION OF WATER POWER.— We had recently an oppor- tunity of witnessing what, we have no doubt, will prove a valuable invention, in the application of water power. Some of our readers, no doubt, are acquainted with the machine called Dr. Barker's Mill. To such of them as are not, it may be sufficient, perhaps, to explain that it operates by the re-action of the water, and is of nearly the same construction as the rotatory steam-engine of which so much has been said lately. The common water-wheel is acted on either simply by the gravity or by the impulse of the stream— the weight of the water falling on flat-boards or its force rushing against them. Barker's mill is moved by the re-action of the impulse which the water has acquired at the bottom of a fall. It is exceedingly simple in its structure. The water is conveyed in a pipe from the highest elevation at which it can conveniently be collected to a horizontal pipe, of 2 F 2 428 THE rAllMER'S MAGAZINE. tlic proper Icnglli, made to move round a shaft. 1'lie liorizouliil pipe is pcrloraled at tlie two ends, on opposite .sides, and the rc-action of the water rushing out drives these arms rapidly round in a retrograde direction. The improvement on Barker's Mill, wliicli we have seitn lately, and for which a patent has been taken out by Mr. Stirrat, of Nelhercraig, near Paisley, consists (be- sides an ing'enious water-joint and the application of something' like the steam eu duties of the oflice. 3. He must not liave been a bankrupt, nor have taken the benefit of the insolvent act. 4. lie must be recommended to the Secretary of State by the magistrates in v\ horn the appointment is vested, as a person of general good character and conduct. If he has been previously employed in an)^ branch of public service, civil or militai-y, he must produce testimonials, from the proper authori- ties in such service, as to general conduct whilst so employed. SuPEltlNTENDEN'T. Qualifications of Supebintendent. — He must be qualified according to form A. In case of a vacancy in the office of superintendent, it should be filled up by the most deserving constable. Constables. Qualifications of Constables. — No person shall be eligible who does not produce a testimonial, according to form B. annexed hereto, duly filled up, and who is not possessed of the qualifications stated in the form A. The chief constable is to keep a daily account, according to form C, which is to be laid before the justices of the county at each quarter sessions of the peace, or any adjournment thereof, showing the actual state of the constabulary for the period since the last preceding quarter ses- sions of the peace for the count}'^. And once in every three months as soon as may be practicable after the termination of the quarter sessions of the peace in each county, the chiefconstable shall trans- mit a report in writing to one of her Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, that such daily account has been laid before the justices for the county in quarter sessions assembled ; together with a copy of any note or minute, which may have been made by any of the said justices upon the same, ex- pressing their opinion with regard to the effective state of the constabulary during the three months. Pay. The pay of the chief constable is to be not less than 250/. or more than 500/. a year. Of a superin- tendent not less than 751. or more than 150/ a year. Of a constable not less tlian Ids. or more than 1/. Is. a week. The above rates are intended to be ex- clusive of any allowance under the eighteenth section of the act. The constable is to he supplied in addition with the following articles of — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 431 Clotiiin'G.— 1st year — one g-reat coat, cape to ditto, badge to ditto, coat, badge to ditto, tw-o pair of trovvsers, one pair of boots, one pair of shoes, hat, slock. 2d year — one coat, badge to ditto, one pair of trovvsers, one pair of boots, one )iair of shoes, hat. The supply for tlie third year will be the same as for the first year, and for the fourth the same as the second ; and so on for successive periods. Accoutrements. A constable's staff is to be supplied to each con- stable, and a small cutlass may be supplied to any constable who is so situated that in the opinion of two justices of the county it is necessary for his personal protection in the performance of his duty. The cutlass is to be worn at night only, or at times when rioting er serious public disturbance has actually taken place or is apprehended, or upon any sudden emergency wiien orders have been given by the chief constable that one or more of the constables should be so armed ; and the chief constable shall on each occasion of giving any such order report the same, and the reasons for such order, to any two justices of the peace for the county as soon after- wards as is practicable, who shall immediately transmit the said report to the Secretary of State. Government. The chief constable is from time to time to frame such orders as he shall deem expedient relative to the particular service of the superintendent and the constables, their distribution, and the places of their residences, and all such other orders as he may deem expedient for preventing neglect or abuse, and for rendering such civil force efficient in the discharge of all its duties ; and he will Iceep in mind that the prevention of crime is to be made the great object of all the exertions of the constables. The chief constable must lay before the justices for the county assembled in the next quarter sessions, or an}' adjournment thereof, a statement of all orders is- sued by him ; and a copy of the same is to be <^rans- mitted by him to one of her Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, as soon after the issuing thereof as maybe practicable. Complaints. In case of a complaint against the chief constable, the party complaining should give immediate notice to a justice of the peace, who will proceed thereon according to law, if the offence be cognisable by him ; and if the subject of complaint do not constitute any oftience legally cognisable bv him, the said justice will lay a statement thereof before the justices of the county at the next quarter sessions of the peace, or any adjournment thereof, and the justices will inquire into the same, and leport the result of such inquiry and their opinion thereon as speedily as possible to one of her Jlajesty's principal Secretaries of State. Immediate attention is to be paid to any complaint of misconduct against the superintendent or any constable appointed under the said act. If the charge be for neglect or violation of dutv in his office as constable, it shall be laid before two justices with the least delay possible, for their proceeding thereon under the twelfth section of the said act; and in case of anv other offence committsd by such constable, notice thereof shall be immediately given to a justice of the peace, who will proceed thereon according to law. General Instructions. Parties in custody are to be taken before a magis- trate as soon as possible, and the nature of the offence with other particulars, entered in a charge sheet, form D. The charge sheet is to be laid before the magistrate by whom t!ie charge is to be heard, and when all the cases entered therein have been dis- posed of by the magistrate, the charge sheet is to be sent to the chief constable, or kept safely by one of the superintendents or constables as he shall direct ; and all such charge sheets are to be returned by the chief constable once in every three months to the clerk of the peace for the county, who is to keep them in his custody, until he shall have received the directions of the justices of the peace for the countv, assembled at any quarter session, as to the final dis- posal thereof. If a charge against a party be not taken by the constable, an entry is to be made by him in form E, and the particulars filled up under each head and transmitted to the chief constable, who will lay be- fore the justices of the peace for the county, assem- bled at the next quarter sessions of the peace, an ab- stract from the forms D and E, stating the entire number of persons charged with ofTences as appears thereby, the nature of the charges and results, with any other particulars that may tend to show the state of crime in the county. The chief constable will also make an immediate report to two justices of the peace of any serious dis- turbance of the public peace that has taken place or is apprehended, and of any crimes of an aggravated nature committed, and for which the parties charged or suspected have not been tpprehended ; and he will immediately transmit duplicates of such inform- ation to t!)e Secretary of State for the Home Depart- ment, so as to ensure the earliest communication to the proper authorities of any matter affecting the public peace, in order that further arrangements, if required, may be made without delay. THE OIL IN THE WOOL OF SHEEP. — A series of experiments has been made in France, to as- certain the real value of the oil in the wool of sheep, both as manure, and as a material available in the arts ; from which it appears that this oil or grease, which is now wholly lost, has a marketable value for the arts, of 5s. per lOOlbs. There is also reason to presume that 3,000 lbs., if dry, would be sufficient to manure 2j acres of land, with a saving of nine-tenths iii the expense of carriage. It might either be sprinkled over a plant like water, or placed round its roots ; con- sequently, it would be most useful in the cultivation of vegetables for large markets. It makes an excellent compost, either with seven-eighths of marl, clay, peat- ashes, lime, or sand ; and in this case admits of being spread by the hand. It is evident that agriculture would derive very great advantage from a manure so rich and serviceable in the cultivation of potatoes and vegetables of every kind, aud at the same time so well adapted for improving grass lands, and for increasing those valuable crops which require so many weedings, — such as fiax, hemp, tobacco, beet-root, aud all olea- ginous plants. What an important service would be rendered to agriculture if this manure could be made available, which is now lost, but which would average yearly 13-1,000 tons ! INTERESTING TO BEE KEEPERS.-A corres- pondent at Redruth writes to us as follows : — I beg to inform you that I have this week visited Mr. Hocking, of Gwinear church town, and have seen in his garden eighteen stocks of bees, tlie produce of four ; that is to say fourteen swarms from four old stocks. This re- maikable increase he attributes to his having placed in the same garden with the bees, a large quantity of the rurabago turnip plants, which having produced a great quantity of blossom, are supposed to have contributed very materially to their means of support. — IT'es^ Bri-' ton. 432 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. COTTAGE ALLOTMENTS. (Extracted from the report of tlie West Kent Labourers' Triend Society, as given in the Labourers' Friend Magazine.) In conclusion, your committee beg to state a [ox\r afviitifying facts arising out of tlio operations of tlie society. From Tonbridge, the most pleasing account of tlie good effects of the system has been received. Four more new societies are now in coarse of formation. In one instance, a notoriously bad character has been completely reclaimed by the system. Many families during the last winter were greatly assisted from their allotments. The land in every case where let under the society's rules, has been much improved. The objections to the system arc fast dying away. The ap|)robation of tlio system expressed at the Iladlow meeting was inujualified. Fifteen acres more land his been added to the Iladlow society, and there are upwards of seventy applications for allotments. There are now upwards of forty parishes in West Kent where the system is in operation. When the society's labours are completed in West Kent, it is calculated that the annual return to the labourers will amount to 100,000/. The produce from the various allotments during the past year has been most abundant and of very good c|ualitv. A be- nevolent gentleman has signified his intention of purchasing a considerable quantity of lund for the purpose of extending one of the local societies in West Kent. A gentleman who has long objected to the system has promised to give 'JO acres of suitable land for the purpose of promoting it in West Kent. One of the most gratifying proofs of the favourable change which has taken place in public opinion respecting the objects of the society is, the increase of subscribers to the West Kent Society. So anxious are the cottagers to partake of the benefits of allotments, that some are known to go a distance of four miles to secure them. The harmony which prevailed at the Plaxtol annual meeting, and the gratitude which was exjiressed by the tenants, evinced most clearly the liigli estimation in which they held the advantages thevderived from their allotments, and also the vast importance of these institutions in inculating feelings of order and contentment amongst the labouring class. Several testimonials have been received from different parts of Kent in favour of the system. The agent requests the committee to acknowledo-e the very kind reception he has met with from many gentlemen on whom he has had the pleasure of waiting on behalf of the society, and states that he is convinced that much more will be realized from the general adoption of the sj'stem than has ever been anticipated by those who have been the earliest and warmest friends of the society. Your committee cannot conclude their report without calling attention to a new and very in- teresting feature connected with the object w^hich the society has in view, in the establishment of an industrial school for boys by the Hadlow Labourers' Friend Society. The object of this school is to afford evening instruction to the children of cottagers residing in the parish of Iladlow, in reading, writing, and arithmetic, combined with practical gardening. The rules of the school are as follow : — 1. The school to be under the direction of the committee, who shall appoint four gratuitous super- intendents. 2. The scholars to be recommended by some member of the society, for appointment by the com- mittee. 3. Ten rods of land to be allotted to each scholar ; such land to be cultivated according to the instruc- tion of the superintendents, and the produce to belong to the scholars. ■1. 'J'he land to be charged with a moderate rent, and the scholars to keep a correct account of all matters connected with their allotments; such as the time of sowing and planting, and taking up their crops, and likewise the expense of so doing, and the amount of produce. .). The allotments to be inspected annually by the committee, and prizes awarded to the most deserving scholars. G. Any dispute that may arise amongst the scholars to be referred to the committee, and their decision to be binding. IIULES lOR THE SCirOt.ARS. 1. To attend at the school room whenever re- quested by the superintendents, and tliere behave in an orderly manner. 2. No scholar to work on his land on the Sabbath- day, l)utto attentl public worship. J. If any scholar is convicted of dishonesty, be will be expelled iVom the school, 4. The rent of the land to bo paid on the 29th of September. 5. 'i'he allotments will be inspected annually, and jirizes awarded by the committee. 6. No persons will be allowed to interfere with the scholars but the superintendents. THE DETECTION OF PREGNANCY IN THE MARE AND THE COW. BY WILLIAM YOUATT, ESQ. [From the Journal of the English Agricultural Sociely.) Among healthy animals, the impregnation of the female rarely fails to be the result of an inter- course between the sexes. The assurance, how- ever, of this having taken place is, occasionally, an affair of considerable interest, and of no little difficulty; and the value and the destiny of the female may very much depend on the decision of the question. A certain time having elapsed the thing will speak for itself; but are there any symptoms or circumstances that will warrant the veterinary surgeon, or the agriculturist, in giving a decided opinion on the case in an early period of supposed pregnancy ? It occasionally happens that the fifth or the sixth month arrives, and, even to the practised eye, there are few or no indications of conception having taken place. There are, also, but some- what unfrequently, diseases which very closely simulate this natural process- Can the vete- rinary surgeon or the breeder decide ? The an- swer is in the affirmative, and plainly and unequi- vocally. This is one of the boons which the vete- rinary art can now confer on the agriculturist. The altered character of the female is regarded, and very properly, as a circumstance of no little weight. She is comparatively calm and quiet — her appetite returns, and she regains her former condition and her former habits. Five or six weeks pass, and there is no outbreak of any kind. The owner concludes, and he is not often wrong, that she THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 433 !s iinpregnatef]- He, however, has had little to do with mares or with cows who has not witnessed the return of the most furious ffistrum, after a much longer period of time has elapsed. I have known more than three months pass in this delusive quietude, and then a salaciousness worse tiian at first has indicated that no actual impregnation had taken place. On the other hand, the restrum, hut not with all its former fury, lias returned, two, and three, and four months after the connexion ; and yet, as the result finally shows, impregnation had taken place at their first intercourse. Many circumstances may cause the owner to he anxious to know the truth of the matter. He may wish to sell her, or he may be unusually desirous to breed from her. Let the animal be examined per vaginam. Let the hand be slowly and cau- tiously passed up the vagina until it reaches the os uteri. Let there be no attempt to penetrate far- ther. No information can be gained from intro- ducing the fingers into the uterus. It is simply wished to ascertain the character of the os uteri. In its natural and unimpregnated state it will be closed ; but it will not be tightly or spasmodically so, and the contraction of the mouth of the womb will form a kind of cup, with the base towards that viscus. If she is impregnated the entrance to the uterus will be more firmly closed, and the protrusion will be towards the vagina. This is the only exploration per vaginam which I would allow, — it is easily made, and it will be satisfac- tory. If an exploration of this kind is attempted when half or more than half of the period of preg- nancy has passed, it is not at all unlikely that so much irritation of the parts will ensue as to cause the expulsion of the foetus. . I will suppose that two months have passed since the supposed impregnation. The foetus is still remaining in the pelvic cavity. The heart has begun to beat and the blood to circulate through its little veins. It will be situated immediately helow the rectum. I introduce my hand into that intestine. I have not occasion to pass it very far up. I feel the little substance — for it then is small in proportion to its after growth. I feel it under ray hand. I am certain that I am pressing upon the uterus and its contents. I cannot po'haps de- tect the pulsation of the embryo ; but if I had de- layed my examination until the foetus was thi'ee months old, I should have assurance that it was there by its now increased bulk, while the pulsa- tion of its heart would tell me that it was living. For two months from this period in the cow, and for three in the mare, I should have no other indication of the presence of the fcetus, nor of its life and growth, except from the gradual enlarge- ment of the abdomen of the mother ; and, by that time, the little one would have increased in size and strength, and would have begun to take occa- sional exercise in its first domicile, and then would become the more evident, but not more satisfac- tory proof of the life of the foetus— its motion strong enough to be seen through the integu- ment. I might, perhaps, wish to give this assurance of the life of the foetus to some curious spectator, or to some intended purchaser. I would not gallop the mare in order to effect this; I would not so far disturb her or the young animal that she bore within her. Much less would I give her cold water to drink, and which she usually would drink until she annoyed the foetus, and the unborn ani- mal told us how much we annoyed him by endea- vouring to shift his quarters and'get away from the action of the cold. I would not run the hazard of giving her the colic, and perhaps destroying him or her by this unscientific and somewhat cruel method of exploration; but I probably should give a tap or two on the outer wall of his dwel- ling, just sufficient to rouse him from his slumbers, and induce him to express his anger at the annoy- ance by a tolerably distinct plunge or kick. Most certainly, if it was a cow that 1 was ex- hibiting, I would not give, nor would I suffer any one else to give those terrible punches in the right flank, which I have no doubt are the cause of much unsuspected injury, and, occasionally at least, connected with, or the origin of, a difficult, or a fatal parturition. I may here observe that the foetus of the mare from the beginning occupies nearly the centre of the belly. In the early stage Mr. Mogford gene- rally found it " lying across tho pelvic cavity, the spine being immediately under — the head on the left side, and the tail on the right side." In the latter portion of its fostal state its motions are pretty equally distributed on either side, and the beating of the foetal heart is most plainly heard at the very base of the abdomen. The foetus of the cow is huddled up on the right side of the belly. There its motions are most seen, and the beatings of its heart best heard. The enormous paunch, lying principally on the left side, presses every other viscus, and the uterus among the rest, into the right flank. This also explains a circumstance familiar to every breeder. If the cow should happen to carry twins, they are crowded together in the left flank, and one seems absolutely to lie upon the other. Whenever the farmer notices the kicking of the foetus high up in the flank, he at once calculates on twins. To return from this digression. If half the pe- riod, or more, of utero-gestation had passed, and I could not get the little stranger to move, by my gentle tapping, and it was a cow with which we had to do, and a quiet one, I would have her care- fully held by the cowherd, while I stooped and applied my ear flat upon the flank, and then slowly and with gentle pressure, upwards and downwards, and forwards and backwards, over the flank, and the lower part of it, until I heard — and which I should do in a great majority of cases — the pulsa- tions of the foetal heart. I should recognise it by their quickness, the pulsations of the foetus being double or more than double those of the mother. If it was a mare, I would have a halter put on her, and an assistant should hold up one of her legs while some person interested reached under, or, perhaps knelt under the l)elly of the mare, and, passing one ear along an imaginary line from between the teats to tho chest, and deviating a little from one side to the other, he would there also recognise the quick pulsation of the foetvd heart. These observations are addressed to practi- cal men, and will be speedily put to the test by them. The object of the author is to get lid of the vulgar and inefficient metliods of detecting pregnancy which are now in general use, and to introduce others that arc founded on a surer and more scientific basis. This subject is more fully treated of in the second volume of the ' Proceedings of the Veteri- nary Medical Association,' p. 12(1, and in tho 12th volume of ' The Veterinarian,' p. 377. 434 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. TITHE ON HOPS. Return to an Order of tlie Hon, the House of Commons datedJuly 18, 13:39, for a return of the Parislies in England and Wales in which any aprreemcnts for Extraordinary Tithe on Hops shall have been trans- mitted to the Tithe Commissioners, stating the respective amounts of sueh extraordinary 'I'ithe ; specifyinpr the parishes in which such agreements have been approved by the Commissioners, and in whicii they may have been refused, and the grounds of such refusal ; staling also the Parishes from which such asfreements are still under consideration. Parishes from which agreements for the Commutation of Tithes have been received, wherein (according to the Excise Returns) Hop Grounds are said to be cultivated, and wherein the Apportionments are in pro- gress for confirmation. Berks, Clower. ConNWALL. Ruan Major. St. Anthony in Roseland. Devon. Frithelstock. Littleham. Landcross. Langtree. Wear Gitford. Farringdon. EssF.x. Rocking. Colne Engain. Colne Earls.' Einchinglield. Great Saling. Geslingthorpe. (Jreat Leighs. Halstead. Iledingham Sible. Maplestead, Little. Panfield. Roxwell. St. Botolph. Topi)esfield. Writtle. Wickham St. Paul. Rraxted. Vange. Ashen. Listen, Mount Bures, Ridgvvell. Rochford. ni-.RF.roan. Ashperton. Backton. Bridenbury. Bosbury. Birley. Coddington. Cradley. Canon Erome. Dewchurch. ]Jilwyn. St. Devereux. Eastnor. Hanley William. Kent Church. King's Pyon. little Marole. Llunsley. Mamble. Norton. Pencombe. Preston Wynne. Putley. Pixley. Stanton-on-Arrow. Sioke Edith. Stoke Bliss. Stanford Bishop. Seller's Hope. Stretford, Thruxton. Tarrington. Ullingswick. Weston Beggard. Weobley. AVorm bridge. Whitbourne. Wacton. 'Wolf.irlow. Winslow. Almeley. Eardi^ley. Moccas. Winforton. Herts. Kimton. Rickmansworth. Kent. Acrisc. Ash. Badlesmere. lienenden. Bethersden. Biddenden. I'ishopsbourne. Braborne. Bridge and Partrix- bourne Brook. Charing. Chart, Great. Crundale. Cranbrooke. Eastry. Ivistwell. Frittenden. Goodnestone. Harbledown. Hardres, Gt. or Upper Hardrcs, Lower. Heath. Hinxhill. Horsemonden. Hernhill. Kenardington. K ingsnorth. Womensvvold. Bobbing'. Birling. Boughton IMalherbe. Bredhurst. Bapchild. Chevening. Chiddingstone. Chelsfield. Crayford, Debtling. Fawkham. Hunton. Halstow, High. Harrietsham. Ifield. Ightham. Kingsdown. Leigh. Mailing, East. Nursted. Northfleet. IMongeham, Great. Martin, St. Nonington. Norton. Orlestone. Petham. Pluckley, Raekinge, Ringwould. Rolveudon. Sandhurst. Sellingp. Sevingtou. Stanford, Staplehurst. Stelling, Stone, St. Nicholas-a-Wade. St. Paul's-rray, St, Stephen's. Westbeer. Wickham, West. Wittersham. Woodchurch. Otham, Otterden. Penshurst. Ridley. Rainham. Stone. Sevenoaks. Southfleet. Stralesfield, Staplehurst. Tuns tall. Ulcombe. Wormsliill. Bidbornugh. Newenden. Speldhurst. Lincoln. Doddington. Walesby. Weston. Monmouth. Lauwern. Norfolk. Diss. Starston. Nottingham. Bilsthorpe. Eakring. Muskham, South. Fledborough. Normanton. Ordsall. Salop. Burford. Brampton Bryan. Eyton. Somerset. St. Cuthbert. Orchard Portman. Southampton. Farlington. Christ Church. Warmford. Farringdoa. Chawton. Dogmersfield. Eastrop, Fisherton de la Mere. Hartley Westpale. North Waltham. Warnborough, Soath. Straihfieldsay. Suffolk. Thorinpton. Bures St. Mary. Assington. Rattlesdon. Surrey. Frensham. Seal. Horsley, West. Kingston. Sussex. Bodiam. Ashburnham. Burwash. Beckley. Brightling. Bury. Chiddingley. Catsfield. Chailey. Chalvington. Ditchling. Etchingham. Framfield. Hertfmonceux. Hofstead. Horstead Keynes. Hastings. Harasey. Newick. Rotherfiekl, Storrington. Udimore. Wadhurst. WarbletoQ. Ripe or Eckington. Watlington. Wivelsfield. Wartling. WestGrinstead. Westham. Wilts. Tisbury, Trowbridge. Worcester, Kyre, Great. Knightwick. Astley. Witley, Great. Witley, Little. Hartlebury. Holt. Hagley. Ribbesford. Shrawley. Alfick, Broadwas. Doddenham. Doverdale. Leigh. Lulsley. Ombersley. Stanford, Suckley. Stoulton. Wichenford. Parishes in which the Apportionments have been Confirmed, and -wherein extraordinary Rent-charges on Hop Grounds have been fixed by the Tithe Commissioners ; — Tedstone Wafer, Hereford, 5s. 6d, per acre ; Thanington, Kent, 12s. 6d.do,j Tenge, Kent, 10s. Od. do, W. Blamire ; T. Buller. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 435 PLOUGHING MATCH of the GRAVES- END AND ROCHESTER AGRICUL- TURAL ASSOCIATION. We beg the attention of our readers to the subjoined extract from the report of the proceed- ings at the ploughing match of the Gravesend and Rochester Agricultural Association, as affording an instance of the difficulty in overcoming pre- judice, and of the effect of perseverance in attaining that desirable object. We trust that the example of Mr. Bentley in introducing and continuing the use of the two-hovse plough, will be followed in other places. The system of ploughing with three and four horses, when two would suffice, is not the only agricultural operation blindly and ob- stinately persevered in by farmers to their own prejudice. This interesting match took place on Friday last in a field on Hoo Farm, occupied by IMr, W. H. Nicholson. The soil was in very good condition, and the weather highly favourable. Nearly thirty ploughs contended for the prizes, and the fineness of the teams and g-eneral supeiiority of the work were the admiration of nearly all the most important agriculturists of the district who attended to witness the gratifying ceremony. One fea- ture of the animating scene drew particular attention, namely, the two-liorse plough of Rlr. Bentley, one of the vice-presidents of the society, who has exhibited this plough at every match of this association of late years, to show what Ransorae's wiieel-plough could do with two horses, and how unnecessary it is to use, on all soils, four horses and the very heavy Kentish ploughs. This perseverance on the part of Mr. Bentley has had the effect of exciting public attention to, and discussion on, the merits of the two-horse plough, and has this year shown its natural fruits, having induced Mr. Oakley, of Frindsbury, to exhibit another two-horse plough, on a differant construction, in fact, a complete Kentish plough of light make. In the opinion of all the practi- cal agriculturists these ploughs did their work excel- lently, and their comparative economy could not have been overlooked by the most prejudiced. The ploughing in general was done so well that the judges had greaf difficulty in coming to a dec'sion. T. Bentley, Esq., who was received with cheers, ac- knowledged the compliment, and stated that the ser- vices of the vice-presidents would always be most cheerfully at the disposal of the institution, in any mat- ter that might lead to promote its weliare and further its objects. (Cheers.) Having- performed tlie pleasing duty of acknowledging their compliment, he would take leave, whilst on his legs, to refer to another subject which had been several times discussed by the members of this society. From the commencement of this asso- ciation for the encouragement of labourers and servants, he had been anxious to render it also contributory to the improvement of agriculturists. With that view he had sent every year to the ploughing match of this associa- tion a two-horse plough, for the purpose of testing its merits with the four-horse plouglis in common use. He thought this a most important subject of inquiry, and that the members of that and similar associaUons would best perform their duty, by devising every means they could think of to increase the growth of corn at the low- est possible expense. It was with tiiis feeling also that, at their last anniversary meeting, he h?d ofFtred a chal- lenge to bet five pounds (for the benefit of the society) oa the two-horse plough against the four-horse plough, which challenge remained to this day unaccepted. He certainly felt much discouraged and mortified that he had met with no better succe^s. He had determined, when he found this ciiailenge not taken up, to withdraw his plough from further exhibition ; still, however, he continued to give his warmest support to the objects of tins institution, for no one felt more interest than himself in endeavouring to promote the happiness of the la- bourers and their improvement, bodily and mental. (Cheers.) He had heard lately, however, with much ple-isure that some interest had been excited on the comparative advantages of the two-horse plough , that the straw was bes'inning to move ; and, under the ex- pectation that other two horse ploughs were likely to be sent for exhibition, he had consented again to exhibit his own. He now began to i'eel the value of his previ- ous aghation of this subject, and was highly gratified when he saw another two-horse plough in the field, be- cause he had always felt convinced that the strength of two horses was amply suflficient to plough all the land of that neighbourhood. (Cheers, and cries of " No, no," " Yes, yes.") Mr. Oakley, in allusion to Mr. Beutley's observa- tions on two-horse ploughs, said that he had long been of opinion, with that gentleman, that a very large por- tion of their horse power had been thrown away in a large part of Kent. He was not a convert to Mr. Bentley's opinion, so far as to suppose that four-horse ploughs could be altogether dispensed with. There was a considerable quantity of land, respecting the opera- tion on which of the two-horse plough he could not give his opinion, as he had never seen a two-horse plough applied to such lands. He had his eye on Mr. Bentley's plough for some years, and he had noticed that it had Bot done the work in a way in which he considered most suitable to their present operations in agriculture. He had, therefore, turned his attention to producing a two-horse plough of a diflFeteut con- struction, which should produce a seam and furrow suitable to receiving the seed when thrown on it. In order to effect this object he had had a light plough made on the old Kentish construction, which, although rather heavy for two-horses, he believed was not more than they could manage. This plough would have a furrow arid a seam that was deep enough to receive the seed. From what he had seen of the furrow of Mr. Bentley's plough, he believed that twenty-four hours' rain would lay it flat. Still in every other respect he must admit that its work was excellent— as good as could possibly he effected by Ransome's two-horse wheel plough.' (Cheers.) He was a convert to Mr. Bentley's opinion, so far as to believe that a very large portion of their land might be worked by the two-hoise plough ; tor he agreed with that gentleman that the best farmer was the man who produced the largest quantity of corn at the smallest expense. Nothing cost the farmers so much as their horse labour. [Here a cry of " nonsense" caused considerable merriment.'] It was most desirable that they should reduce their cost of horse labour by every possible means, and in order to prove that this could be effected, he should set some of his men at work to try the experiment before the next ploughing match. He had last year ploughed all his land with two horses— the wheat was good, and the ploughing appeared to answer all its legitimate pur- poses. The work was hard for the horses, but he be- lieved that with the two-horse plough they could do the work with fewer horses than at present. He thought they were highly indebted to Mr. Bentley for having first made the experiment of trying whether they could not do the same work with fe>ver horses. (Cheers.) He had heard many gentlemen admire the work of Mr. Bentley, and had followed him in these interesting and important experiments, but he must still own that had it not been for the exhibition of Mr. Bentley's plough, he (Mr. Oakley) never should have had a two- horse plough at all. (Cheers.) He would therefore beg to propose Mr. Bentley's good health, and long life to him. [The toast iv&s drunk ivith great enthu- siasm.'] Mr. Bentley, after expressing his thanks for this mark cf their esteem, said, in reference to Mr. Oak- ley's candidand excellent address, and his entering into discussion, the only mode by which they could arrive at truth, that he (Mr. Bentley) had no objection to any gentleman thinking that his own plough was the best ; all he desired was to induce experiment and competi- tion. (Cheers.) When he had first advocated the adoption of the two-horse plough, a hundred objections 436 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. were urged against it, and amongst others that it could not plough the land. It had ploughed the land, and now nearly the whole of these numerous objections had been dissipated, and the only one that appeared to reman was that the seam was not quite deep enough. He (Mr. T5entley) could only say in reply to this ob- jection, that it was the same depth of seam that was used by all the best agriculturists of the kingdom. In Scotland it was the same almost universally. At Holk- ham, in Norfolk, and indeed in nearly every county but Kent, it was the system which prevailed with the best agriculturists. His challenge remained open, if any gentlemen chose to accept it, namely, that the two- horse plough should plough the land as well and as quickly as the four-horse plough. (Cheers.) Mr. H. EvKRisT here said, with some animation, that he would accept his challenge for one hundred guineas, and try it in his field to-morrow. (Great laughter.) As the acceptance seemed, however, more badinage than seriousness, no notice wus taken of it. Mr. James Eve iust offered to beta/, for the benefit of the association, that the half acre ploughed by Mr. Bentley's plouE;li on that day did not grow so much wheat and straw as the one which adjoined it, and which had been ploughed by four horses. {Cheers.) Mr. Bentlev said that he would put it to any prac- tical man, whether any experienced person by passing over a field, with an inquiring eye, might not be enabled to decide as to which was the best of work. Mr. A. Sponc; undertook, on behalf of Mr. Nichol- son, that the two pieces should be threshed separately, the corn measured, and the straw weighed. Mr. Bentley said that the reason why he objected to this mode of deciding the question was, that it was liable to so many accidents and uncertainties, over which they could have no control, which might ope- rate on the comparative produce, without any refer- rence to the comparative merits of the ploughing. He would take the judgment of their worthy chairman, or any other impartial person, who should walk over the two pieces, and decide as to which was the best. The Chairman begged to decline deciding on such an important jirinciple. Mr. Bentley said there could be no difficulty in de- ciding the bet, Hs would propose that any person nominated by Earl Spencer, the President of the English Agricultural Society, should decide, on view- ing the ground. Mr. Manclark said that he disliked to see a bet go otT when it was likely to do good to society. The only question seemed as to tlie best mode of deciding, he therefore proposed that all persons in favour of judging by the produce should hold up their hands. The speaker tlien put " the contrary," and the show of hands was in favour of judging by the produce. ON THE USE OF TWO AND FOUR HORSE PLOUGHS. Sir, — Amongst tlie leading articles of the Morning Chronicle, of the 31st of last month, is one which con- tains some remarks upon the ploughing match of the Rochester and Gravesend Agricuhural Association which has lately taken phice, and in which the Kentish clodpoles (so termed by the editor) are spoken of in no very moderate language for their pertinaceous obstinacy in resisting all improvements, and amongst others, the system of ploughing with two horses, whicli one gentle- man belonging to tlie above-named association lias been year after year endeavouring, both in theory and prac- tice, to convince his neighbours is n sine qua non v/ilh pyofUable farming. Now with all due deference to the Ions experience of that gentleman, who stands most de- servedly high as a farmer, two-horse ploughing never can, in my opinion, become a general practice on the majority of Kentish soils, so long as chemistry proves to us that the eartli which is commonly termed " dead earth," and whicli requires the strenglii of four hones to bring it to the surface, is, upon exposure to the air, immediately altered in its nature by the decomposition of those various though minute animal and vegetable particrles which it contains, and at ence affords many nutritious qualities which till then were lying dormant and useless. What will the editor of the Morning Chronicle think, when he hears that a gentleman in this neig'hbourhood is actually using a six-horse plough, and that this gentleman has